Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

The New Bill Cosby Show

2019-05-16T21:52:13Z

JimVC3: Adding award

{{italics}}
{{Infobox television
| show_name = The New Bill Cosby Show
| image = Bill Cosby Don Knotts New Bill Cosby Show 1973.JPG
| image_upright = 1.13
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| caption = Guest star [[Don Knotts]] sings while Cosby provides the music in a skit from the show in 1973.
| show_name_2 =
| native_name = 
| genre = Variety
| creator =
| based_on = 
| developer =
| writer =
| screenplay =
| story =
| director =
| creative_director =
| presenter = 
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Bill Cosby]]
* [[Lola Falana]]
* [[Susan Tolsky]]
* [[Foster Brooks]]
* [[Oscar DeGruy]]
* [[Pat McCormick (actor)|Pat McCormick]]
* [[Ronny Graham]]
* [[Ray Jessel]]
}}
| judges = 
| voices = 
| narrated =
| theme_music_composer =
| opentheme =
| endtheme =
| composer =
| country =
| language =
| num_seasons = 
| num_episodes = 
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer = [[George Schlatter]]
| news_editor = 
| location = 
| cinematography =
| editor = 
| camera = 
| runtime = 
| company = 
| distributor =
| budget =
| network =
| picture_format =
| audio_format =
| first_run = 
| released = 
| first_aired = {{Start date|1972|9|11}}
| last_aired = {{End date|1973|5|7}}
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
| related = 
| website = 
| production_website =
}}

'''''The New Bill Cosby Show''''' is an American variety [[television series]] aired in the [[United States]] by [[CBS]] as part of its [[1972–73 United States network television schedule|1972–73 lineup]].

==Overview==
''The New Bill Cosby Show'' was an attempt to exploit the widespread popularity of [[Bill Cosby]], who had previously starred in an [[The Bill Cosby Show|eponymous sitcom]] and the drama (with comedic undertones) ''[[I Spy (1965 TV series)|I Spy]]'' and who had been responsible for several of the best-selling comedy albums of the 1960s. Cosby's supporting cast was biracial, highlighted by [[Foster Brooks]] of "funny-drunk" routine fame and also included performer [[Lola Falana]], who additionally served as the show's announcer, and other persons previously best known as comedy [[writer]]s, including [[Ronny Graham]] and [[Pat McCormick (comic)|Pat McCormick]]. [[Quincy Jones]]' orchestra provided the music. Ongoing sketches included "The Wife of the Week" and the adventures of "The Dude", a man who was so impossibly cool that nothing whatever could faze him or cause him in any way to lose his composure or coolness.

The opening theme was "[[Chump Change (Quincy Jones song)|Chump Change]]" by [[Quincy Jones]].

==Reception==
The show was met with low ratings, due to competition from ABC's [[Monday Night Football]], and was cancelled after one season.

For his performance in the series, Cosby received a 1973 [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] nomination for [[Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedy#1970s|Best Actor in a Television Series - Musical or Comedy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.goldenglobes.com/tv-show/new-bill-cosby-show |title=The New Bill Cosby Show |author= |date= |website=goldenglobes.com |publisher= |access-date=May 16, 2019}}</ref>

==References==
* Brooks, Tim and Marsh, Earle, ''[[The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows]]''

==External links==
* {{imdb title|0068111}}

{{US-tv-prog-stub}}
{{Bill Cosby}}
{{TV-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:New Bill Cosby Show, The}}

[[Category:Bill Cosby]]
[[Category:1972 American television series debuts]]
[[Category:1973 American television series endings]]
[[Category:1970s American variety television series]]
[[Category:1970s American sketch comedy television series]]
[[Category:CBS network shows]]
[[Category:English-language television programs]]

The New Bill Cosby Show

2019-05-16T21:37:14Z

JimVC3: Adding infobox

{{italics}}
{{Infobox television
| show_name = The New Bill Cosby Show
| image = Bill Cosby Don Knotts New Bill Cosby Show 1973.JPG
| image_upright = 1.13
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| caption = Guest star [[Don Knotts]] sings while Cosby provides the music in a skit from the show in 1973.
| show_name_2 =
| native_name = 
| genre = Variety
| creator =
| based_on = 
| developer =
| writer =
| screenplay =
| story =
| director =
| creative_director =
| presenter = 
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Bill Cosby]]
* [[Lola Falana]]
* [[Susan Tolsky]]
* [[Foster Brooks]]
* [[Oscar DeGruy]]
* [[Pat McCormick (actor)|Pat McCormick]]
* [[Ronny Graham]]
* [[Ray Jessel]]
}}
| judges = 
| voices = 
| narrated =
| theme_music_composer =
| opentheme =
| endtheme =
| composer =
| country =
| language =
| num_seasons = 
| num_episodes = 
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer = [[George Schlatter]]
| news_editor = 
| location = 
| cinematography =
| editor = 
| camera = 
| runtime = 
| company = 
| distributor =
| budget =
| network =
| picture_format =
| audio_format =
| first_run = 
| released = 
| first_aired = {{Start date|1972|9|11}}
| last_aired = {{End date|1973|5|7}}
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
| related = 
| website = 
| production_website =
}}

'''''The New Bill Cosby Show''''' is an American variety [[television series]] aired in the [[United States]] by [[CBS]] as part of its [[1972–73 United States network television schedule|1972–73 lineup]].

==Overview==
''The New Bill Cosby Show'' was an attempt to exploit the widespread popularity of [[Bill Cosby]], who had previously starred in an [[The Bill Cosby Show|eponymous sitcom]] and the drama (with comedic undertones) ''[[I Spy (1965 TV series)|I Spy]]'' and who had been responsible for several of the best-selling comedy albums of the 1960s. Cosby's supporting cast was biracial, highlighted by [[Foster Brooks]] of "funny-drunk" routine fame and also included performer [[Lola Falana]], who additionally served as the show's announcer, and other persons previously best known as comedy [[writer]]s, including [[Ronny Graham]] and [[Pat McCormick (comic)|Pat McCormick]]. [[Quincy Jones]]' orchestra provided the music. Ongoing sketches included "The Wife of the Week" and the adventures of "The Dude", a man who was so impossibly cool that nothing whatever could faze him or cause him in any way to lose his composure or coolness.

The opening theme was "[[Chump Change (Quincy Jones song)|Chump Change]]" by [[Quincy Jones]].

==Reception==
The show was met with low ratings, due to competition from ABC's [[Monday Night Football]], and was cancelled after one season.

==References==
* Brooks, Tim and Marsh, Earle, ''[[The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows]]''

==External links==
* {{imdb title|0068111}}

{{US-tv-prog-stub}}
{{Bill Cosby}}
{{TV-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:New Bill Cosby Show, The}}

[[Category:Bill Cosby]]
[[Category:1972 American television series debuts]]
[[Category:1973 American television series endings]]
[[Category:1970s American variety television series]]
[[Category:1970s American sketch comedy television series]]
[[Category:CBS network shows]]
[[Category:English-language television programs]]

Casey Legler

2019-05-03T21:56:43Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 162.155.48.117 (talk) to last revision by 1.132.105.161 (TW)

{{Infobox person
| name = Casey Legler
| image =
| alt = 
| caption = Casey Legler photographed by Peter Lindbergh for Le Monde
| known_for = Olympic Swimmer, Model & Athlete| birth_name = 
| birth_date = Age 42 born 26 April 1977
| birth_place = [[Fréjus]], Var, in the South of [[France]]
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| nationality = French American
| other_names =
| education = Graduated [[cum laude]] from [[Smith College]]
| alma_mater = [[Phi Beta Kappa]]

| notable_works = GODSPEED: A MEMOIR
| spouse = Siri May
| website = https://www.caseylegler.com
}}

'''Casey Legler''' (born 26 April 1977) is a French-American writer, restaurateur, model, and former [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] swimmer.

== Early life ==
Legler was born in [[Fréjus]], Var, in the South of [[France]] to expatriate American parents.<ref name="sports-reference">{{cite web|url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/le/casey-legler-1.html|title=Casey Legler|publisher=www.sports-reference.com|accessdate=15 June 2014}}</ref> She attended school in both France and America, and began competitive swimming at the age of 13.

== Career ==
Casey competed in the [[1996 Summer Olympics]] at the age of 19, where after breaking the world record in practice day before, she came 29th in the [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Women's 50 metre freestyle|Women's 50 metres Freestyle event]] and 10th in the [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Women's 4 × 100 metre freestyle relay|Women's 4x100 metres Freestyle Relay event]]. She gave up swimming two years later and subsequently studied architecture, obtained a scholarship for law school, and began medical school. She is a member of [[Phi Beta Kappa]] and graduated cum laude from [[Smith College]] before moving to New York to focus on an artistic career.<ref name="sports-reference" />

In 2012 Casey became the first woman signed to [[Ford Models]] to exclusively model men's clothes through a connection made by her friend the photographer [[Cass Bird]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://style.time.com/2012/11/20/male-models-the-female-of-the-species/|title=Male Models: The Female of the Species|first=Valerie|last=Lapinski|publisher=|via=style.time.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-03-12/casey-legler-in-her-own-words/6309250|title=World's first female male model: In her own words|date=12 March 2015|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/meet-the-worlds-first-female-male-model/6292252|title=Meet Casey Legler - the world's first female male model|date=9 March 2015|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2013/mar/03/model-casey-legler-perfect-man | title=Model Casey Legler: is she the perfect man? | work=The Observer | date=March 3, 2013 | accessdate=March 6, 2013 | author=Wiseman, Eva}}</ref> While no longer full time, Casey continues to model men's clothes in her spare time and her work has been featured in [[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]], [[Le Monde]] and [[Time (magazine)|Time]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://models.com/work/le-monde-m-magazine-casey-legler|title=Casey Legler for Le Monde M Magazine}}</ref>

Casey's first book, ''Goodspeed: A Memoir'', was released July 10, 2018 and is published by [[Simon & Schuster]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amazon.com/Godspeed-Memoir-Casey-Legler/dp/1501135759|title=Godspeed: A Memoir|last=Legler|first=Casey|date=10 July 2018|publisher=Atria Books|via=Amazon}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simonandschusterpublishing.com/atria/|title=Home - Atria Books|website=www.simonandschusterpublishing.com}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Casey now dedicates her time to writing and pursuing her love of restaurants dividing her time between [[New York City|New York]] and [[Sydney]] with her wife, Siri May.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out-pride30/pride30-international-advocate-siri-may-protecting-lgbtq-rights-globally-n764281|title=#Pride30: Advocate Siri May is protecting LGBTQ rights globally|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vogue.com/article/model-ryan-mcginley-suit-balenciaga-city-hall-wedding|title=This Model Wore Ryan McGinley’s Suit to Her City Hall Wedding|publisher=}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Legler, Casey}}
[[Category:French female swimmers]]
[[Category:Female freestyle swimmers]]
[[Category:Olympic swimmers of France]]
[[Category:Swimmers at the 1996 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:French female models]]
[[Category:1977 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:French memoirists]]
[[Category:LGBT writers from France]]
[[Category:Queer writers]]
[[Category:French women writers]]
[[Category:French-language LGBT writers]]
[[Category:Women memoirists]]

{{France-swimming-bio-stub}}

Kunstraub von Boston

2019-02-12T20:12:22Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 205.121.83.250 (talk) to last revision by TarkusAB (TW)

{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{good article}}
[[File:Empty Frames at Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.jpg|thumb|right|The frame which once held ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]''|alt=An empty frame hanging on a wall, between several portraits]]

On March 18, 1990, 13 works of art valued at a combined total of $500 million were [[art theft|stolen]] from the [[Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum]] in [[Boston]]. In the early hours, guards admitted two men posing as police officers responding to a disturbance call. Once inside, the thieves tied up the guards and over the next hour committed the largest-value recorded theft of private property in history. Despite efforts by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) and multiple probes around the world, no arrests have been made and no works have been recovered. The museum initially offered a reward of $5 million for information leading to the art's recovery, but in 2017 this was temporarily doubled to $10 million, with an expiration date set to the end of the year. This was extended into 2018 following helpful tips from the public.

The stolen works had originally been purchased by art collector [[Isabella Stewart Gardner]] (1840–1924) and intended to be left on permanent display at the museum with the rest of her collection. Since the collection and its layout are permanent, empty frames remain hanging both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for their potential return. Experts are puzzled by the choice of paintings that were stolen, especially since more valuable artwork was left untouched. Among the stolen works was ''[[The Concert (Vermeer)|The Concert]]'', one of only 34 known works by [[Johannes Vermeer|Vermeer]] and thought to be the most valuable unrecovered painting, valued at over $200 million.{{when|At the time of the theft, or when since?|date=March 2018}} Also missing is ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'', [[Rembrandt]]'s only known [[seascape]]. Other works by Rembrandt, [[Edgar Degas|Degas]], [[Édouard Manet|Manet]], and [[Govaert Flinck|Flinck]] were also stolen.

According to the FBI, the stolen artwork was moved through the region and offered for sale in [[Philadelphia]] during the early 2000s. They believe the thieves were members of a [[Organized crime|criminal organization]] based in the [[Mid-Atlantic states|mid-Atlantic]] and [[New England]]. They also claim to have targeted two suspects, although they have not been publicly identified and are now deceased. Boston gangster [[Robert Donati|Bobby Donati]], murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars, has been cited as a possible collaborator in the heist. Significant evidence suggests that [[Hartford, Connecticut]] gangster Robert Gentile knows the location of the works, although he denies involvement.

==Robbery==
Around midnight on Sunday morning, March 18, 1990, a red [[Dodge Daytona]] pulled up near the side entrance of the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum along Palace Road.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /><ref name=searchcont /> Two men with fake police uniforms waited for at least an hour in the car, possibly trying to avoid being noticed by people leaving a [[Saint Patrick's Day]] party nearby.<ref name=abathstory>{{cite news|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/10/guard-who-opened-door-robbers-notorious-gardner-museum-heist-under-suspicion-years-later/1TUiDyi1GbcnBgQT64oISP/story.html |title=Decades after the Gardner heist, police focus on guard |first=Stephen |last=Kurkjian |work=Boston Globe |date=March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928031507/http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/10/guard-who-opened-door-robbers-notorious-gardner-museum-heist-under-suspicion-years-later/1TUiDyi1GbcnBgQT64oISP/story.html |archivedate=September 28, 2015 |df= }}</ref> Later at around 1{{nbsp}}a.m., security guard Richard Abath returned to the front desk after patrolling the museum to switch positions with a fellow guard, the only other person in the building. At this time, Abath opened and quickly shut the Palace Road door, claiming he was trained to do this to ensure the door was locked. He claimed security logs from other nights would show that he had done this many times previously. The FBI has seized the logs, but has not commented on the issue further.<ref name = abathstory />

[[File:ISGardnerMuseum.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum|Gardner Museum]] in 2008|alt=refer to caption]]

At 1:24{{nbsp}}a.m., one of the two men outside pushed the buzzer near the door and told Abath they were policemen who heard of a disturbance in the courtyard, and requested to be let inside. Abath knew he should not let uninvited guests inside, but he was unsure on whether the rule applied to police officers. He could see the men and believed them to be police officers based on their uniforms. With his partner on patrol, Abath decided to buzz in the men.<ref name = abathstory /> When the intruders arrived at the main security desk, one of them told Abath that he looked familiar and there was a default warrant out for his arrest. Abath stepped out from behind his desk, where the only alarm button to alert police could be accessed. He was quickly asked for his ID, ordered to face the wall, and then handcuffed. Abath believed the arrest was a misunderstanding, until he realized he hadn't been frisked before being cuffed, and one officer's mustache was made of wax.<ref name = abathstory /> The second security guard arrived minutes later and was also handcuffed, after which he asked the intruders why he was being arrested. The thieves explained that they were not being arrested, but rather this was a robbery, and proceeded to take the guards to the museum's basement. They handcuffed the guards to pipes and wrapped duct tape around their hands, feet, and heads.<ref name=insider>{{cite news|date=May 2009 |first=Milton |last=Esterow |title=Inside the Gardner Case |url=http://www.artnews.com/2009/05/01/inside-the-gardner-case/ |work=ArtNews |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225044341/http://www.artnews.com/2009/05/01/inside-the-gardner-case/ |archivedate=December 25, 2014 |df= }}</ref>

Since the museum was equipped with motion detectors, the thieves' movements throughout the museum were recorded. After tying up the guards, the thieves went upstairs to the Dutch Room. As one of them approached [[Rembrandt]]'s ''Self-Portrait'' (1629), a local alarm sounded, which they immediately smashed. They pulled the painting off the wall and attempted to take the wooden panel out of its heavy frame. Unsuccessful at the attempt, they left the painting on the floor. They cut Rembrandt's ''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'' out of the frame, as well as ''[[A Lady and Gentleman in Black]]''. They also removed [[Vermeer]]'s ''[[The Concert (Vermeer)|The Concert]]'' and [[Govaert Flinck]]'s ''[[Landscape with Obelisk]]'' from their frames. Additionally, they also took a Chinese bronze [[Gu (vessel)|gu]] from the [[Shang dynasty]].<ref name=insider />

Elsewhere in the museum, they stole five [[Degas]] drawings and an eagle [[finial]]. The finial sat at the top of a [[Napoleon]]ic flag, which they attempted to unscrew from the wall, but failed.<ref name=livescience /> [[Manet]]'s ''[[Chez Tortoni]]'' was also stolen from its location in the Blue Room. Motion detector records show that the only footsteps detected in the Blue Room that night were at 12:27{{nbsp}}a.m. and again at 12:53{{nbsp}}a.m. These times match to when Abath said he passed through on patrol. The frame for the painting was found on security chief Lyle W. Grindle's chair near the front desk.<ref name = abathstory /> The thieves made two trips to their car with artwork during the theft, which lasted 81 minutes. Before leaving, they visited the guards once more, telling them "You'll be hearing from us in about a year," although they were never heard from again.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The guards remained handcuffed until police arrived at 8:15{{nbsp}}a.m. later that morning.<ref name=insider />

==Stolen artwork==
Altogether, thirteen pieces were stolen at an estimated loss of $500 million, making the robbery the largest recorded private property theft in history.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://harvardmagazine.com/2012/03/hot-canvases |title=Hot Canvases: A new book shatters myths about art theft |first=David |last=Menconi |work=Harvard Magazine |date=March–April 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322000716/http://harvardmagazine.com/2012/03/hot-canvases |archivedate=March 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref> Empty frames remain hanging in the museum, both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for their potential return.<ref name=McShane>{{cite book |last= McShane |first= Thomas |title= Stolen Masterpiece Tracker |year= 2006 |publisher= Barricade Books |isbn=978-1-56980-314-1 |first2= Dary |last2= Matera |chapter= 18. No Boston Tea Party at Isabella's |lastauthoramp= yes}}</ref> One of the paintings, ''The Concert'', was Gardner's first major acquisition and one of only 34 known Vermeer works in the world.<ref name=fbigallery /> It is thought to be the most valuable unrecovered stolen painting, with a value estimated at over $200 million.<ref name="stolen">{{cite web|title=PBS – Stolen |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/stolen/index.html |website=PBS.org |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221032916/http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/stolen/index.html |archivedate=February 21, 2016 |df= }}</ref>{{when|At the time of the theft, or when since?|date=March 2018}} Another painting, ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee'', is Rembrandt's only known [[seascape]].<ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/ripped-from-the-walls-and-the-headlines-74998018/ |title=Ripped from the Walls (and the Headlines) |author=Robert M. Poole |work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20170605082748/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/ripped-from-the-walls-and-the-headlines-74998018/ |date=July 2005 |archivedate=June 5, 2017 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref> The bronze finial was taken from the top of a [[Napoleon]]ic flag, possibly appearing like gold to the thieves.<ref name=fbigallery /> The museum is offering a $100,000 reward for this piece alone.<ref name=theftnews>{{cite web|title=Official Gardner Museum Site – Theft News |url=http://www.gardnermuseum.org/news/theft |publisher=Isabella Stewart Garndner Museum |accessdate=October 8, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029051932/http://www.gardnermuseum.org/news/theft |archivedate=October 29, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

The following are the missing works of art:<ref name=livescience>{{cite web|title=Lost Art: Photos of the Paintings Stolen from Gardner Museum |url=http://www.livescience.com/51808-photos-paintings-stolen-from-gardner-museum.html |publisher=LiveScience |accessdate=October 8, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004065621/http://www.livescience.com/51808-photos-paintings-stolen-from-gardner-museum.html |archivedate=October 4, 2015 |df= }}</ref><ref name=fbigallery>{{cite web|title=FBI – Have You Seen These? |url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/march/reward-offered-for-return-of-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork/image/hi-res |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |accessdate=September 8, 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915152819/https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/march/reward-offered-for-return-of-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork/image/hi-res |archivedate=September 15, 2015 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft |url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |accessdate=February 27, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624024938/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ |archivedate=June 24, 2016 |df= }}</ref>
<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" classes="center">
File:Vermeer The concert.JPG|alt=refer to caption|[[The Concert (Vermeer)|''The Concert'']] by [[Vermeer]] ({{circa}} 1664–1666)
File:Rembrandt Christ in the Storm on the Lake of Galilee.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[The Storm on the Sea of Galilee]]'' by [[Rembrandt]] (1633)
File:A lady and gentleman in black, by Rembrandt.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[A Lady and Gentleman in Black]]'' by Rembrandt{{efn|name=fn1|The museum believes ''A Lady and Gentleman in Black'' to be a Rembrandt; however some scholars, including the Rembrandt Research Project in Amsterdam, say it is not.<ref name=insider />}} (1633)
File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 076.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[Landscape with an Obelisk]]'' by [[Govert Flinck]]{{efn|name=fn2|''Landscape with an Obelisk'' was formerly attributed to Rembrandt until being associated with his pupil, Flinck.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vigderman|first=Patricia|title=The Memory Palace of Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_0f2uIlN0C&pg=PA151|publisher=Hol Art Books|isbn=978-1-936102-24-2|page=151}}</ref>}} (1638)
File:Édouard Manet Chez Tortoni.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''[[Chez Tortoni]]'' by [[Édouard Manet]] ({{circa}} 1878–1880)
File:La Sortie de Pesage by E Degas.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''La Sortie de Pesage'' by [[Degas]] (date unknown)
File:Rembrandt - Self portrait etching - ISGM.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Self-Portrait''{{efn|name=fn3|This ''Self-Portrait'' is postage-stamp sized. Not to be confused with Rembrandt's ''Self-Portrait'' (1629) oil painting also at the museum, which the thieves attempted to steal but did not take.<ref name=insider />}} by Rembrandt ({{circa}} 1634)
File:Degas - Cortege aux Environs de Florence.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Cortege aux Environs de Florence'' by Degas ({{circa}} 1857–1860)
File:Degas - Program for an artistic soiree 1.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Program for an Artistic Soirée 1'' by Degas (1884)
File:Degas - Program for an artistic soiree 2.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Program for an Artistic Soirée 2'' by Degas (1884)
File:Degas Three Mounted Jockeys.jpg|alt=refer to caption|''Three Mounted Jockeys'' by Degas ({{circa}} 1885–1888)
File:Ku robbed from Isabella Stewart Gardner Musuem.gif|alt=refer to caption|An ancient Chinese [[Gu (vessel)|gu]] ({{circa}} 1200–1100 BC){{efn|name=fn4|The gu is dated during the [[Shang dynasty]]}}
File:Finial robbed from Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.jpg|alt=refer to caption|A [[French Imperial Eagle]] finial ({{circa}} 1813–1814)
</gallery>

;Notes
{{reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist}}

==Investigation==
The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) took control of the case on the grounds that the artwork would likely cross state lines.<ref name=nydn /> They have conducted hundreds of interviews with probes stretching across the world involving [[Scotland Yard]], [[Japan]]ese and [[France|French]] authorities, private investigators, museum directors, and art dealers.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The FBI believes the thieves were members of a [[Organized crime|criminal organization]] based in the [[Mid-Atlantic states|mid-Atlantic]] and [[New England]], and that the stolen paintings were moved through [[Connecticut]] and the [[Philadelphia]] area in the years following the theft. Some of the art may have been offered for sale in Philadelphia in the early 2000s, including ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee''; however, their knowledge of what happened to the works after the attempted sale is limited.<ref name=searchcont /><ref>{{cite news |title= FBI Says It Has Clues in '90 Boston Art Heist |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/19/us/fbi-says-it-has-clues-in-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=0 |work= The New York Times |accessdate= March 18, 2013}}</ref><ref name=fbipress1>{{cite press release|url=https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/boston/press-releases/2013/fbi-provides-new-information-regarding-the-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist |title=FBI Provides New Information Regarding the 1990 Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Art Heist: Information Sought from Those in Philadelphia and Connecticut Who May Have Knowledge of the Art's Location |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation, Boston Division |first=Greg |last=Comcowich |date=March 18, 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710143612/https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/boston/press-releases/2013/fbi-provides-new-information-regarding-the-1990-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-heist |archivedate=July 10, 2017 |deadurl=no}}</ref> The FBI stated it believed it knew the identity of the thieves in 2013, but in 2015 announced that they were now deceased. They have declined to identify the individuals.<ref>{{cite web|title=FBI says two suspects who stole $500m in art from Boston museum are dead |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/aug/07/fbi-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-theft-suspects-dead |website=The Guardian |accessdate=August 12, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814003900/http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/aug/07/fbi-isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-art-theft-suspects-dead |archivedate=August 14, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

[[File:Sketches of Suspects Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Theft.jpg|thumb|right|Sketches of the suspects|alt=refer to caption]]
No single motive or pattern has emerged through the thousands of pages of evidence gathered.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The selection of works puzzles the experts, specifically since more valuable artworks were available.<ref name=McShane /> The FBI's lead agent assigned to the case, Geoffrey J. Kelly, finds it difficult to understand why this assortment of items was stolen despite the thieves being in the museum for enough time to take whatever they wished. On their way to the finial, the thieves passed by two [[Raphael]]s and a [[Botticelli]] painting.<ref name=insider /> [[Titian]]'s ''[[The Rape of Europa (Titian)|The Rape of Europa]]'', which is one of the museum's most well-known and valuable pieces, was not stolen.<ref name=insider /> Due to the brutish ways the criminals handled the robbery, cutting the paintings from their frames and smashing frames for two Degas sketches, investigators believe the thieves were amateur criminals, not experts commissioned to steal particular works.<ref name = abathstory /> Some investigators believe the works were destroyed, explaining why they have not reappeared.<ref name="Smithsonian" /> Theories on the theft include that it was organized by the [[Irish Republican Army]] in order to raise money or bargain for the release of imprisoned comrades. Another theory states [[Whitey Bulger]] was the ringleader of the theft. At the time of the heist, he was Boston's top crime boss and an FBI informant.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

The museum first offered a [[Bounty (reward)|reward]] of $1 million, but that was later increased to $5 million in 1997.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> The reward is for "information that leads directly to the recovery of all of [their] items in good condition",<ref name=fbipress1 /> which remains on offer more than a quarter-century later.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> In May 2017, the bounty was doubled to $10 million, with an expiration date set for midnight on December 31 of that year.<ref name="10million">{{cite web|last1=Gardner Museum staff|title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum : Gardner Museum doubles reward to $10 million for return of stolen art|url=http://www.gardnermuseum.org/resources/theft/reward_doubled|website=www.gardnermuseum.org|accessdate=May 26, 2017|language=en|date=May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/arts/design/gardner-museum-doubles-reward-for-recovery-of-stolen-masterpieces.html |title=Gardner Museum Doubles Reward for Recovery of Stolen Masterpieces |last=Bowley |first=Graham |date=May 23, 2017 |work=The New York Times |access-date=May 24, 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170524073316/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/arts/design/gardner-museum-doubles-reward-for-recovery-of-stolen-masterpieces.html |archivedate=May 24, 2017 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Shelley |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/12/15/million-reward-for-stolen-gardner-museum-artwork-set-expire-end/3PD4IlwNU26FKpo4hLUCzK/story.html |title=$10m reward for stolen Gardner museum artwork set to expire at end of 2017 |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=December 15, 2017 |accessdate=December 16, 2017 }}</ref> This reward was extended into 2018 following an outpouring of tips from the public.<ref>{{cite web|title=$10M Reward Extended For Return Of Stolen Gardner Museum Art|url=http://boston.cbslocal.com/2018/01/11/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist-reward-extended/|website=CBS|accessdate=January 16, 2018|language=en|date=January 11, 2018}}</ref> Federal authorities have stated they will not charge anyone who voluntarily turns in the artwork, but anyone caught knowingly in possession of stolen items could be prosecuted.<ref name=searchcont /><ref name=suffolk_globe /> The thieves cannot face charges because the five-year statute of limitations has expired.<ref name=searchcont>{{cite web|last1=Murphy |first1=Shelley |title=Search for artworks from Gardner heist continues 25 years later |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/03/17/gardner-museum-art-heist-one-boston-most-enduring-mysteries-years-later/9U3tp1kJMa4Zn4uClI1cdM/story.html |work=The Boston Globe |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215221154/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/03/17/gardner-museum-art-heist-one-boston-most-enduring-mysteries-years-later/9U3tp1kJMa4Zn4uClI1cdM/story.html |archivedate=February 15, 2016 |df= }}</ref>

===Loss of DNA evidence===
In 2010, the FBI announced that some evidence from the original crime scene had been sent to the FBI's Laboratory in [[Quantico, Virginia]], for retesting with the hope of finding new [[DNA]] evidence to identify the culprits of the theft.

In June 2017, ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' reported that some of the crime scene evidence collected by the FBI was missing. Even after an exhaustive search, they were unable to locate [[handcuffs]] and [[duct tape]] used to immobilize the museum's two security guards that could have contained traces of the thieves' DNA material.<ref>{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Shelley |last2=Kurkjian |first2=Stephen |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/06/12/evidence-gardner-museum-thefts-that-might-bear-dna-missing/bQgapZNs1FKlTczoAijqnJ/story.html |title=Evidence in Gardner Museum thefts that might bear DNA is missing |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=June 12, 2017 |accessdate=June 12, 2017 }}</ref>

===Leads===
In 1994, the museum director Anne Hawley received a letter that promised the return of the pieces for $2.6 million. If interested, the museum had to get ''The Boston Globe'' to publish a coded message in a business story. The message was published, but nothing further was heard once law enforcement got involved.<ref name=nydn />

Late one night in 1997, ''[[Boston Herald]]'' reporter Tom Mashberg was driven to a warehouse in [[Red Hook, Brooklyn]] by William Youngworth, a career criminal and associate of New England art thief Myles Connor Jr.,<ref name=nydn /> to see what was purported to be ''The Storm on the Sea of Galilee''. Mashberg had been investigating the theft and was briefly allowed to view the painting with a flashlight. He was given a vial of paint chips for authenticity. These were later confirmed by experts to be fragments of Dutch 17th-century origin—but not from the stolen painting.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> It was never concretely determined to be real or fake, and the FBI quit dealing with Youngworth after not making any progress.<ref name=nydn /> The painting has since disappeared.<ref name ="Smithsonian" />

[[File:Suffolk Downs.jpg|thumb|right|[[Suffolk Downs]] was searched in December 2015 without result|alt=Suffolk Downs]]
On August 6, 2015, the FBI released a video from the night before the theft thought to possibly show a dry run of the robbery. Two men appear on the tape: one was initially unidentified, while the other has been confirmed as Richard Abath, a security guard on duty the night of the heist. The video appears to show Abath buzzing the man into the museum twice within a few minutes. The man stayed for about three minutes in the lobby, then returned to a car and drove off.<ref>{{cite web|title=New video shows possible dry run for Gardner Museum art Heist |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2015/08/06/new-video-shows-possible-dry-run-for-gardner-museum-art-heist/rxxqmXXfKI8ap180aT2BjL/story.html?p1=ClickedOnBreakingNewsBox |website=boston.com |accessdate=February 12, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125203802/http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2015/08/06/new-video-shows-possible-dry-run-for-gardner-museum-art-heist/rxxqmXXfKI8ap180aT2BjL/story.html?p1=ClickedOnBreakingNewsBox |archivedate=January 25, 2016 |df= }}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' points out that the recording draws new attention to Abath as a potential collaborator.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/07/arts/design/25-years-after-gardner-museum-heist-video-raises-questions.html|title=25 Years After Gardner Museum Heist, Video Raises Questions|last=Mashberg|first=Tom|date=2015-08-06|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-02-02|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> However, the guards had previously been interviewed and deemed too unimaginative to have pulled off the heist<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> – which is not to say they could not have been collaborators.

According to the [[WBUR]] podcast ''Last Seen'', this surveillance footage is a red herring: the person Abath let in this night was his boss, the Gardner Museum’s deputy director of security. Although this was apparently against security protocol (no one was to be admitted after hours), the other security guard present that night (only referred to as "Randy"), claimed they were never instructed to not to let anyone at all in after hours, which is the reason why he and Richard Abath opened the doors for the two men dressed as police officers the following evening.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wbur.org/lastseen/2018/09/24/inside-job|title=Episode 2: 'Inside Job?'|website=www.wbur.org|language=en|access-date=2019-02-02}}</ref>

In December 2015 FBI agents searched [[East Boston]]'s [[Suffolk Downs]] [[horse racing]] track, acting on a tip consistent with rumors among Suffolk Downs employees in the 1990s that the stolen art was there. Stables, parts of the grandstand closed since the early 1990s, and two safes (which had to be drilled open) were searched without result.<ref name=suffolk_globe>{{cite web|last1=Kurkjian |first1=Stephen |title=Search of Suffolk Downs for Gardner Museum masterpieces came up empty |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/12/27/search-suffolk-downs-for-gardner-museum-masterpieces-came-empty/H1iiRlZopLFfxOkM9Nm41J/story.html |work=The Boston Globe |accessdate=January 7, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231020612/http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/12/27/search-suffolk-downs-for-gardner-museum-masterpieces-came-empty/H1iiRlZopLFfxOkM9Nm41J/story.html |archivedate=December 31, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

=== Suspects ===
{{further|Robert Donati#Possible role in Gardner Museum theft}}

Boston [[gangster]] [[Bobby Donati]] may have been involved in the heist. New England art thief Myles J. Connor Jr., in prison at the time of the robbery, has stated that he and associate Bobby Donati eyed the museum in the 1980s and Donati oversaw the operation.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> Shortly before the robbery, Donati was seen at a nightclub with a sack of police uniforms.<ref name=nydn /> Donati worked under Boston crime boss [[Vincent M. Ferrara|Vincent Ferrara]], and visited him in prison in the early 1990s. When Ferrara asked about the robbery, Donati said he "buried the stuff" and would find a way to negotiate his release. Donati was murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars.<ref name=nydn />

[[Hartford, Connecticut]], gangster Robert "Bobby the Cook" Gentile has been suggested on multiple occasions as knowing the location of the Gardner works.<ref name=suffolk_globe /><ref name=courant /> In May 2012, FBI agents searched Gentile's home in [[Manchester, Connecticut|Manchester]], Connecticut. They did not find any stolen works, despite searching his preferred hiding spot beneath a false floor with the help of his son. However, in the basement, they found a sheet of paper listing what each stolen piece might draw on the [[black market]].<ref name=suffolk_globe /> In January 2016, the FBI contrived gun charges against Gentile to force him to reveal the location of the missing works. During a hearing, a federal prosecutor revealed significant evidence tying Gentile to the crime. The prosecutor stated that Gentile and mob partner Robert Guarente attempted to use the return of two stolen pieces to reduce a prison sentence for one of their associates. Guarente's wife told investigators in early 2015 that her husband once had possession of some of the art, and gave two paintings to Gentile before Guarente died of cancer in 2004. Also, while in federal prison during 2013–2014, Gentile told at least three people he had knowledge of the stolen art. In 2015, Gentile submitted to a [[polygraph|lie detector]] test, denying advanced knowledge of the heist or ever possessing any paintings. The result showed a 0.1% chance that he was truthful.<ref name=courant>{{cite web|last1=Mahoney |first1=Edmund H. |title=Prosecutors Reveal More Evidence They Say Ties Robert Gentile To Gardner Museum Robbery |url=http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-art-heist-0107-20160106-story.html |website=courant.com |publisher=Hartford Courant |accessdate=January 7, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082228/http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-art-heist-0107-20160106-story.html |archivedate=March 4, 2016 |df= }}</ref> According to Gentile's lawyer, federal agents are convinced that Gentile has the stolen works.<ref name=suffolk_globe /> Gentile's home was searched again by the FBI on May 2, 2016, even though his lawyer insists that if Gentile had the stolen artwork or knowledge of its whereabouts, he would have turned it in for the reward money a long time ago.<ref name="wcvb2may">{{Cite web|url=http://m.wcvb.com/news/fbi-returns-to-home-of-man-linked-to-500m-art-heist/39340372 |title=FBI searching mobster's home for stolen Gardner masterpieces |website=WCVB |access-date=May 2, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510215744/http://m.wcvb.com/news/fbi-returns-to-home-of-man-linked-to-500m-art-heist/39340372 |archivedate=May 10, 2016 |df= }}</ref> On September 5, 2017, Gentile was scheduled to be sentenced for a separate weapons charge in Connecticut.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-robert-gentile-gardner-museum-sentencing-20170905-story.html|title=Feds Say Gentile's Feigning Mental Issues, But Gangster's Sentencing Postponed|last=MAHONY|first=EDMUND H.|work=courant.com|access-date=September 5, 2017|language=en-US}}</ref>

When the museum raised its bounty in 1997, Myles J. Connor Jr. said he could locate the missing artwork in exchange for [[legal immunity]]. Authorities rejected his offer. Connor now believes that the Gardner works have passed into other, unknown hands. "I was probably told, but I don't remember," he said, blaming a heart attack that affected his memory.<ref name ="Smithsonian" /> Louis Royce, another Boston area gangster, claims he is still owed 15% for devising the plan for two fake policemen to request access to the museum at night.<ref name=nydn>{{cite web|last1=Connelly |first1=Sherryl |title=Possible leads in $500M Boston museum robbery in 1990 |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/leads-500m-boston-museum-robbery-1990-article-1.2115903 |work=New York Daily News |accessdate=January 8, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213151704/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/leads-500m-boston-museum-robbery-1990-article-1.2115903 |archivedate=December 13, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
The high profile Gardner Museum theft has been referenced and parodied in many different works. It was the subject of the 2005 documentary ''Stolen'', which first appeared in a slightly different version on [[Court TV]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.internationalfilmcircuit.com/stolen/pressbook_stolen.pdf |title=Stolen: Is it still a masterpiece if no one can find it? |first=Rebecca |last=Dreyfus |date=April 13, 2006 |work=Stolen pressbook |publisher=International Film Circuit |accessdate=June 24, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713045940/http://www.internationalfilmcircuit.com/stolen/pressbook_stolen.pdf |archivedate=July 13, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The more well-known paintings have been referenced in multiple TV shows, including ''[[The Blacklist (TV series)|The Blacklist]]'' episode "The Courier" (and an allusion to the Gardner Museum heist itself in the episode "Greyson Blaise"),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2013/10/starring_role_for_boston_on_new_hit_blacklist |title=Starring role for Boston on new hit Blacklist |first=Mark |last=Perigard |date=October 30, 2013 |publisher=Boston Herald |accessdate=December 9, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126132327/http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2013/10/starring_role_for_boston_on_new_hit_blacklist |archivedate=January 26, 2016 |df= }}</ref> ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode "[[American History X-cellent]]",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2010/04/%E2%80%98simpsons%E2%80%99_cracks_case_gardner_heist |title='Simpsons' crack case of Gardner heist |date=April 13, 2010 |publisher=Boston Herald |accessdate=December 9, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126120453/http://www.bostonherald.com/entertainment/television/television_news/2010/04/%E2%80%98simpsons%E2%80%99_cracks_case_gardner_heist |archivedate=January 26, 2016 |df= }}</ref> ''[[Drunk History]]'' episode "Boston",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cc.com/video-clips/uo66zq/drunk-history-art-heist---uncensored |title=Art Heist – Uncensored Drunk History Video Clip – Comedy Central |first=Mark |last=Perigard |date=July 30, 2013 |publisher=Comedy Central |accessdate=December 1, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222104921/http://www.cc.com/video-clips/uo66zq/drunk-history-art-heist---uncensored |archivedate=December 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref> and ''[[American Greed]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/id/100000093 |title=American Greed – Unsolved $300 Million Art Heist |date=October 14, 2012 |publisher=CNBC |accessdate=December 11, 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120206/http://www.cnbc.com/id/100000093 |archivedate=December 22, 2015 |df= }}</ref>

Several books were written by former investigators: ''Artful Deception'' (2012) by James J. McGovern; ''Priceless: How I Went Undercover to Rescue the World's Stolen Treasures'' (2010), by [[Robert King Wittman|Robert Wittman]] and John Shiffman; and ''Stolen Masterpiece Tracker'' (2006) by Thomas McShane.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://crimescenedb.com/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist/ |title=Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Heist {{!}} Crime Scene Database |last=Database |first=Crime Scene |website=crimescenedb.com |language=en-GB |access-date=April 15, 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517003130/http://crimescenedb.com/isabella-stewart-gardner-museum-heist/ |archivedate=May 17, 2017 |df= }}</ref><ref name="globe_mar2013">{{cite web|last1=Valencia |first1=Milton |title=Observers, investigators say now is time to find Gardner art before it is lost – The Boston Globe |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/24/observers-investigators-say-now-time-find-gardner-art-before-lost/Z4HQc74zz6ek7QWOcZvNsO/story.html |website=BostonGlobe.com |publisher=The Boston Globe |accessdate=January 8, 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125145212/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/03/24/observers-investigators-say-now-time-find-gardner-art-before-lost/Z4HQc74zz6ek7QWOcZvNsO/story.html |archivedate=January 25, 2016 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/arts/design/07wittman.html |title=F.B.I. Art Sleuth, Now Author of 'Priceless' |last=Kennedy |first=Randy |date=June 6, 2010 |work=The New York Times |access-date=April 15, 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517004838/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/arts/design/07wittman.html |archivedate=May 17, 2017 |df= }}</ref>

Stephen Kurkjian, a reporter for ''The Boston Globe'', has written a book about his experience titled ''Master Thieves: The Boston Gangsters Who Pulled Off the World's Greatest Art Heist'' (2015).<ref name="nydn" /> Journalist Ulrich Boser wrote a book called ''The Gardner Heist'' (2009), leaning heavily on the documented investigation of Harold Smith, an insurance underwriter who worked on art cases.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/feb/19/ulrich-boser-gardner-heist |title=Sketching in the details of the Gardner heist |last=Capps |first=Kriston |date=February 19, 2009 |work=The Guardian |access-date=April 14, 2017 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516215827/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/feb/19/ulrich-boser-gardner-heist |archivedate=May 16, 2017 |df= }}</ref>

The theft features in the novel ''The Art Forger'' (2012) by [[B.A. Shapiro]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Taylor|first1=Art|title=Book World: Drawing on reality|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/book-world-drawing-on-reality/2012/10/21/3771ac9e-0668-11e2-858a-5311df86ab04_story.html|website=The Washington Post|accessdate=March 26, 2017|date=October 21, 2012}}</ref>

In 2018, ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' and [[WBUR-FM]] launched a [[podcast]] exploring the theft, titled ''Last Seen''.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Seelye |first1=Katharine Q. |title=The Gardner Museum Heist, Still a Mystery, Now a Podcast |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/19/arts/the-gardner-museum-heist-still-a-mystery-now-a-podcast.html |accessdate=1 November 2018 |work=New York Times |date=July 19, 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|1990s|Boston|Criminal justice|Visual arts}}
*[[1990 in the United States]]
*[[Crime in Massachusetts]]
*[[List of stolen paintings]]
*[[300 million yen robbery]], 1968 theft of cash from armored car in Japan also carried out by a thief posing as a police officer, likewise still unsolved
*[[Great Brink's Robbery]], 1950 theft of $2.7 million in cash and financial instruments, also in Boston, at the time also the largest theft in American history
*[[John Tillmann]], along with his wife and mother-in-law stole over ten thousand pieces of art over decades in largest haul by a single art thief
*[[1972 Montreal Museum of Fine Arts robbery]], largest art theft and largest theft of private property in Canadian history.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum}}
*[http://www.gardnermuseum.org/ Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum website]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160624024938/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/vc_majorthefts/arttheft/isabella/ FBI theft page] and [https://www.fbi.gov/gardner/ Mar 2013 update]
*{{IMDb title|0453552|Stolen}}

[[Category:1990 crimes in the United States]]
[[Category:1990 in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:20th century in Boston]]
[[Category:Art crime]]
[[Category:Robberies in the United States]]
[[Category:Individual thefts]]
[[Category:Crime in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Unsolved crimes in the United States]]
[[Category:March 1990 events]]
[[Category:Museum crime]]

Marie Maynard Daly

2019-02-12T20:05:14Z

JimVC3: Reverted 3 edits by Lolo111342534536 (talk) to last revision by JimVC3 (TW)

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Marie Maynard Daly
| image = Marie Maynard Daly.jpg
| image_size =
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| caption =
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1921|04|16}}
| birth_place = [[Corona, Queens]], New York City
|death_date = {{Death date and age|2003|10|28|1921|04|16}}
| death_place = [[New York City]]
| resting_place =
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| other_names = Marie Maynard Daly Clark
| residence = [[New York City]]
| citizenship = American
| fields = [[Biochemistry]]
| workplaces = {{Plainlist|
*[[Howard University]]
*[[Rockefeller University|Rockefeller Institute]]
*[[Columbia University]]'s College of Physicians and Surgeons
*[[Albert Einstein College of Medicine]] }}
| alma_mater = {{Plainlist|
*[[Queens College]]
*[[New York University]]
*[[Columbia University]] }}
| thesis_title = A Study of the Products Formed by the Action of Pancreatic Amylase on Corn Starch<ref name="Brown"/>
| thesis_url = http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006098210
| thesis_year = 1947
| doctoral_advisor = Mary Letitia Caldwell
| academic_advisors =
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| notable_students =
| known_for =
| author_abbrev_bot =
| author_abbrev_zoo =
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| signature = 
| signature_alt =
| website = 
| footnotes =
| spouse = Vincent Clark<ref name="BlackPast">{{cite web |title=Clark, Marie Maynard Daly (1921-2003) |url=https://blackpast.org/aah/clark-marie-maynard-daly-1921-2003 |website=BlackPast.org |accessdate=7 November 2018}}</ref>
| children =
}}

'''Marie Maynard Daly''' (April 16, 1921 – October 28, 2003) was an American biochemist. She was the first Black American woman in the [[United States]] to earn a [[Ph.D.]] in [[chemistry]] (awarded by Columbia University in 1947).

Daly made important contributions in four areas of research: the chemistry of [[histones]], [[protein synthesis]], the relationships between [[cholesterol]] and [[hypertension]], and [[creatine]]'s uptake by muscle cells.<ref name="Lecture"/>

==Early life==
Daly's father, Ivan C. Daly, had immigrated from the [[British West Indies]], found work as a postal clerk, and eventually married Helen Page of [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref name="A&E">{{cite web|title=Marie M. Daly|url=https://www.biography.com/people/marie-m-daly-604034|website=Biography|publisher=A&E Television Networks|accessdate=21 March 2018}}</ref> They lived in [[New York City]], and Marie was born and raised in [[Corona, Queens]].<ref name="Kessler">{{cite book|last1=Kessler|first1=James|last2=Kidd|first2=J.S.|last3=Kidd|first3=Renee|last4=Morin|first4=Katherine A.|title=Distinguished African-American Scientists of the 20th Century|date=1996|publisher=Oryx Press|location=Phoenix, AZ|page=57|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ydHVdMUqdEC&pg=PA57|accessdate=21 March 2018|isbn=9780897749558}}</ref>
She often visited her maternal grandparents in Washington, where she was able to read about scientists and their achievements in her grandfather’s extensive library. She was especially impressed by [[Paul de Kruif]]’s ''The Microbe Hunters'', a work which partially influenced her decision to become a scientist.<ref name=CHFMMDaly/>

Daly’s interest in science was also influenced by her father, who had attended [[Cornell University]] with intentions of becoming a chemist, but had been unable to complete his education due to a lack of funds.<ref name="Grinstein, L. S. 1993">{{cite book |last1=Grinstein |first1=Louise S. |last2=Rose|first2= R. K.|last3= Rafailovich |first3=M. H.|title=Women in chemistry and physics: a biobibliographic sourcebook|date=1993 |publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=9780313273827|page=149|edition=1. publ.}}</ref> His daughter continued her father’s legacy by majoring in chemistry. Many years later, she started a Queens College scholarship fund in his honor to assist minority students majoring in chemistry or physics.<ref name=CHFMMDaly>{{cite web |title= Marie Maynard Daily |url= https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/marie-maynard-daly |website= Science History Institute |accessdate= 20 March 2018|date= June 2016 }}</ref>

==Education==
Daly attended [[Hunter College High School]], a laboratory high school for girls run by Hunter College faculty,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=African American women chemists|last=1934-|first=Brown, Jeannette E. (Jeannette Elizabeth)|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199742882|location=New York|oclc=761692608}}</ref>
where she was also encouraged to pursue chemistry.
She then enrolled in [[Queens College, City University of New York|Queens College]], a small, fairly new school in [[Flushing, Queens|Flushing]], New York. She lived at home to save money and graduated [[magna cum laude]] from Queens College with her bachelor's degree in chemistry in 1942.<ref name="Kessler"/><ref name=CHFMMDaly /><ref name="Collins"/> Upon graduation, she was named a Queens College Scholar,<ref name="Giants">{{cite web|title=Dr. Marie Maynard Daly: The First African-American PhD. in Chemistry|url=http://ontheshoulders1.com/2018/01/dr-marie-maynard-daly-first-african-american-phd-chemistry/|website=On the Shoulders of Giants|date=January 5, 2018|accessdate=21 March 2018}}</ref> an honor that is given to the top 2.5% of the graduating class.<ref name=":0"/>

Labor shortages and the need for scientists to support the war effort enabled Daly to garner fellowships to study at [[New York University]] and [[Columbia University]] for her master’s and Ph.D. degrees, respectively.<ref name=":0" />

Daly worked as a laboratory assistant at Queens College while studying at New York University for her master's degree in chemistry, which she completed in 1943. She then became a chemistry tutor at Queens College and enrolled in the doctoral program at [[Columbia University]], where she was supervised by Dr. [[Mary L. Caldwell]]. Caldwell, who had a doctorate in nutrition, helped Daly discover how chemicals produced in the body contribute to food digestion. Daly completed a thesis entitled ''A Study of the Products Formed By the Action of Pancreatic [[Amylase]] on Corn Starch'' to earn her Ph.D. in chemistry in 1947.<ref name="Grinstein, L. S. 1993" /><ref name="Brown">{{cite web|last1=Brown|first1=Mitchell C.|title=Marie Maynard Daly: Biochemist|url=https://webfiles.uci.edu/mcbrown/display/daly.html|website=The Faces of Science: African-Americans in the Sciences|date=1996}}</ref><ref name="CHFMMDaly" />

==Career==
Daly worked as a physical science instructor at [[Howard University]], from 1947 to 1948 while simultaneously conducting research under the direction of [[Herman Branson]]. After being awarded an [[American Cancer Society]] grant to support her postdoctoral research, she joined Dr. [[Alfred Mirsky|A. E. Mirsky]] at the [[Rockefeller University|Rockefeller Institute]], where they studied the [[cell nucleus]] and its constituents.<ref name="Grinstein, L. S. 1993"/>
At the time, the structure and function of DNA were not yet understood.<ref name="DeBakcsy">{{cite web |last1=DeBakcsy |first1=Dale |title=Marie Maynard Daly (1921-2003), America's First Black Woman Chemist |url=https://womenyoushouldknow.net/marie-maynard-daly-first-black-woman-chemist/ |website=Women You Should Know |accessdate=8 November 2018|date=February 28, 2018}}</ref>

Daly began working in the College of Physicians and Surgeons at [[Columbia University]] in 1955. In collaboration with Dr. [[Quentin B. Deming]], she studied arterial metabolism.<ref name="Grinstein, L. S. 1993"/><ref name="Kessler"/>
She continued this work as an assistant professor of biochemistry and of medicine at the [[Albert Einstein College of Medicine]] at [[Yeshiva University]], where she and Deming moved in 1960.<ref name="Grinstein, L. S. 1993"/>
From 1958-1963, Daly also served as an investigator for the [[American Heart Association]].<ref name="Spangenburg">{{cite book |last1=Spangenburg |first1=Ray |last2=Moser |first2=Kit |title=African Americans in science, math, and invention |date=2003 |publisher=Facts on File, Inc. |location=New York |pages=55–56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XSOZ8kF5ynEC |accessdate=8 November 2018|isbn=9781438107745 }}</ref>

Daly enjoyed teaching medical students and was dedicated to increasing the number of minority students enrolled in medical schools. In 1971 she was promoted to associate professor.<ref name="Grinstein, L. S. 1993"/>

In 1975, Daly was one of 30 minority women scientists to attend a conference examining the challenges facing minority women in STEM fields. The conference was held by the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]. This resulted in the publication of the report, ''The Double Bind: The Price of Being a Minority Woman in Science'' (1976). which made recommendations for recruiting and retaining minority women scientists.<ref name="Collins">{{cite web |last1=Collins |first1=Sibrina Nichelle |title=Unsung: Marie Maynard Daly |url=https://undark.org/article/unsung-marie-maynard-daly-women-stem/ |website=UnDark |accessdate=7 November 2018|date= August 7, 2017}}</ref><ref name="Malcom">{{cite book |last1=Malcom |first1=Shirley Mahaley |first2= Paula |last2= Quick Hall|first3= Janet Welsh |last3=Brown|title=The Double Bind: The Price of Being a Minority Woman in Science. Report of a Conference of Minority Women Scientists, Arlie House, Warrenton, Virginia |date=1976 |publisher=Arlie House |location=Warrenton, Virginia|page=63 |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED130851.pdf |accessdate=7 November 2018}}</ref>

Daly was a member of the prestigious board of governors of the [[New York Academy of Sciences]] for two years. Additional fellowships that Daly received throughout her career include the American Cancer Society, [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]], New York Academy of Sciences, and Council on Arteriosclerosis of the American Heart Association.<ref name="Grinstein, L. S. 1993"/>

Daly was designated as a career scientist by the Health Research Council of the City of New York. Daly retired in 1986 from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, and in 1988 established a scholarship for African American chemistry and physics majors at Queens College in memory of her father.<ref name="Grinstein, L. S. 1993"/> In 1999, she was recognized by the National Technical Association as one of the top 50 women in Science, Engineering and Technology.<ref name="Irwin">{{cite news|last1=Irwin|first1=Demetria|title=[UNSUNG SHEROES] Dr. Marie Maynard Daly, a Trailblazer in Medical Research|url=http://www.ebony.com/black-history/marie-maynard-daly-ebonywhm#axzz4MdFJbNYu|accessdate=21 March 2018|work=EBONY|date=March 7, 2016}}</ref>

Marie Maynard Daly Clark died on October 28, 2003.<ref name="DeBakcsy"/>

On February 26, 2016, the Founding Principal of the new elementary school P.S.360Q, Mr. R. Emmanuel-Cooke, announced that the school would be named "The Dr. Marie M. Daly Academy of Excellence" in honor of the Queens resident.<ref>{{cite web|title=PS 360Q PTA The Dr. Marie M. Daly Academy of Excellence|url=https://ps360qpta.ptboard.com/|website=PTBoard|accessdate=21 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bossing">{{cite web|last1=Bossing|first1=Jan|title=Marie M. Daly, first African-American woman to earn a Ph.D. in chemistry|url=https://medium.com/@JanBossing/amazing-women-d580cc590336|website=AMAZING WOMEN|accessdate=May 31, 2016}}</ref>

==Research==
===Histones===
Daly was particularly interested in nuclear proteins. She developed methods for the fractionation of nuclear material and the determination of its composition. It was essential to separate cellular material into all of its components, without destroying or losing any of them.<ref name="Brachet"/><ref name="Brusch"/><ref name="DALY1955"/><ref name="Histones"/><ref name="RIS"/>

She studied [[histones]], proteins found in cell nuclei, and was able to show the amino acid composition of various histone fractions. She suggested that histones were a mixture of basic components such as [[lysine]] and [[argenine]].<ref name="Brachet">{{cite book |last1=Brachet |first1=Jean |last2=Mirsky |first2=Alfred E. |title=The Cell: Biochemistry, Physiology, Morphology |date=1959 |publisher=Academic Press |location=New York |pages=196, 230, 257 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDmaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA196 |accessdate=8 November 2018|isbn=9781483216546 }}</ref><ref name="Brusch">{{cite book |last1=Brusch |first1=Harris |title=Histones and other nuclear proteins. |date=1965 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=9780123955937 |pages=13–15, 76–77 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7pD4kdtQiMIC&pg=PA13 |accessdate=8 November 2018}}</ref><ref name="DALY1955">{{cite journal |last1=DALY |first1=MM |last2=MIRSKY |first2=AE |title=Histones with high lysine content. |journal=The Journal of General Physiology |date=20 January 1955 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=405–13 |pmid=13221780 |pmc=2147486 }}</ref><ref name="Histones">{{cite journal |last1=DALY |first1=MM |last2=ALLFREY |first2=VG |last3=MIRSKY |first3=AE |title=Uptake of glycine-N15 by components of cell nuclei. |journal=The Journal of General Physiology |date=November 1952 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=173–9 |pmid=13011275 |pmc=2147362 }}</ref><ref name="RIS">{{cite journal |last1=DALY |first1=MM |last2=MIRSKY |first2=AE |last3=RIS |first3=H |title=The amino acid composition and some properties of histones. |journal=The Journal of General Physiology |date=20 March 1951 |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=439–50 |pmid=14824510 |pmc=2147226 }}</ref>
Histones have since been shown to be important in [[gene expression]].<ref name="DeBakcsy"/>
Daly's work on histones is now considered fundamental.<ref name="Lecture">{{cite web |title=Marie M. Daly PhD Memorial Lecture |url=https://einstein.yu.edu/education/phd/current-students/Marie-Daly-Lecture.aspx |website=Albert Einstein College of Medicine |accessdate=7 November 2018}}</ref>

===Proteins===
Daly developed methods for separating out the nuclei of tissues and measuring the base composition of [[purines]] and [[pyrimidines]] in desoxypentose nucleic acids.<ref name="DeBakcsy"/><ref name="Lecture"/> She concluded, among other things, that "no bases other than [[adenine]], [[guanine]], [[thymine]], and [[cytosine]] were present in appreciable amounts."<ref name="Purine">{{cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=M. M. |title=PURINE AND PYRIMIDINE CONTENTS OF SOME DESOXYPENTOSE NUCLEIC ACIDS |journal=The Journal of General Physiology |date=20 May 1950 |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=497–510 |doi=10.1085/jgp.33.5.497 |pmid=15422104 |pmc=2147206 |url=http://jgp.rupress.org/content/33/5/497 |accessdate=8 November 2018}}</ref>

She investigated protein synthesis,<ref name="DeBakcsy"/> including the role of cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein in protein synthesis.<ref name="ALLFREY"/><ref name="MIRSKY">{{cite journal |last1=ALLFREY |first1=VG |last2=DALY |first2=MM |last3=MIRSKY |first3=AE |title=Some observations on protein metabolism in chromosomes of non-dividing cells. |journal=The Journal of General Physiology |date=20 January 1955 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=415–24 |pmid=13221781 |pmc=2147482 }}</ref> Using radiolabeled amino acid glycine, she was able to measure how protein metabolism changed under feeding and fasting conditions in mice. This allowed her to monitor the activity of the cytoplasm as the radiolabeled glycine was taken up into the cell nucleus.<ref name="Grinstein, L. S. 1993"/>

In 1953, [[James D. Watson|Watson]] and [[Francis Crick|Crick]] described the structure of [[DNA]]. Accepting the [[Nobel Prize]] for this work in 1962, Watson cited one of Daly's papers on "The role of ribonucleoprotein in protein synthesis" as contributing to his work.<ref name="DeBakcsy"/><ref name="Watson">{{cite web |last1=Watson |first1=James |title=James Watson – Nobel Lecture |publisher=Nobel Media |website=NobelPrize.org |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1962/watson/lecture/ |accessdate=7 November 2018}}</ref><ref name="ALLFREY">{{cite journal |last1=ALLFREY |first1=V |last2=DALY |first2=MM |last3=MIRSKY |first3=AE |title=Synthesis of protein in the pancreas. II. The role of ribonucleoprotein in protein synthesis. |journal=The Journal of General Physiology |date=20 November 1953 |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=157–75 |pmid=13109153 |pmc=2147435 }}</ref> After 1953, the cell nucleus research field was flooded with funding opportunities.<ref name="Grinstein, L. S. 1993"/>

===Cholesterol and hypertension===
Daly and her colleagues did some of the earliest work relating diet to the health of the cardiac and circulatory systems. They investigated the impact of [[cholesterol]], [[sugar]], and other nutrients.
She was the first to establish that [[hypertension]] was a precursor to [[atherosclerosis]],<ref name="Spangenburg"/> and the first to identify a relationship between cholesterol and clogged arteries,<ref name="Lee">{{cite news |last1=Lee |first1=D. N. |title=You Should Know: Dr. Marie Daly |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/urban-scientist/you-should-know-dr-marie-daly/ |accessdate=8 November 2018 |work=Scientific American |date=July 6, 2014}}</ref>
an important discovery in understanding how [[heart attacks]] occur.<ref name="A&E"/><ref name="DeBakcsy"/>

She was especially interested in how hypertension affects the circulatory system. She showed that high cholesterol intake in diet led to clogged arteries, and that hypertension accelerated this effect. She studied the effects of diet on hypertension, and found that both cholesterol and sugar were related to hypertension.<ref name="A&E"/><ref name="DeBakcsy"/><ref name="FREIS">{{cite journal |last1=FREIS |first1=EDWARD D. |title=Hypertension and Atherosclerosis |url=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/access/XFBBGM.pdf |accessdate=8 November 2018 |journal=The American Journal of Medicine| volume=46|number=5| pages=735–740 |date=May 1969}}</ref><ref name="DEMING">{{cite journal |last1=DEMING |first1=QB |last2=MOSBACH |first2=EH |last3=BEVANS |first3=M |last4=DALY |first4=MM |last5=ABELL |first5=LL |last6=MARTIN |first6=E |last7=BRUN |first7=LM |last8=HALPERN |first8=E |last9=KAPLAN |first9=R |title=Blood pressure, cholesterol content of serum and tissues and atherogenesis in the rat. |journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine |date=1 April 1958 |volume=107 |issue=4 |pages=581–98 |pmid=13513919 |pmc=2136835 }}</ref><ref name="Brun">{{cite book |last1=Deming |first1=Q.B. |last2=Brun |first2=L.M. |last3=Kaplan |first3=R. |last4=Daly |first4=M.M. |last5=Bloom |first5=J. |last6=Schechter |first6=M. |editor-last1=Brest |editor-first1=A.N. |editor-last2=Moyer |editor-first2=J.H. |title=The Second Hahnemann Symposium on Hypertensive Disease|chapter=Hypertension, Recent Advances |date=1961 |publisher=Lea & Febiger |location=Philadelphia |pages=160–}}</ref><ref name="Deming">{{cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=M. M. |last2=Deming |first2=Q. B. |last3=Raeff |first3=V. M. |last4=Brun |first4=L. M. |title=CHOLESTEROL CONCENTRATION AND CHOLESTEROL SYNTHESIS IN AORTAS OF RATS WITH RENAL HYPERTENSION* |journal=Journal of Clinical Investigation |date=1 October 1963 |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=1606–1612 |doi=10.1172/JCI104845 |pmid=14074354 |pmc=289439 }}</ref>
Investigating [[aging]], she suggested that smooth muscle hypertrophy due to [[aging]] might have a causative role in hypertension and atherosclerosis.<ref name="Kritchevky">{{cite book |last1=Kritchevky |first1=David |title=Lipids, Lipoproteins, and Drugs |date=1975 |publisher=Plenum Press |location=New York and London |pages=295 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mPkICAAAQBAJ&pg=PA295|isbn=9781468432589 }}</ref>
Daly was also an early investigator into the effects of cigarette smoke on the lungs and on hypertension.<ref name="Valentina">{{cite web|title=Marie Maynard Daly, biochemist|url=https://valentinaproject.wordpress.com/2014/04/01/marie-maynard-daly-biochemist/|website=The Valentina Project|accessdate=21 March 2018|date=April 2014}}</ref><ref name="Park">{{cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Sung Suh |last2=Kikkawa |first2=Yutaka |last3=Goldring |first3=Irene P. |last4=Daly |first4=Marie M. |last5=Zelefsky |first5=Melvin |last6=Shim |first6=Chang |last7=Spierer |first7=Morris |last8=Morita |first8=Toyohiko |title=An Animal Model of Cigarette Smoking in Beagle Dogs Correlative Evaluation of Effects on Pulmonary Function, Defense, and Morphology |journal=American Review of Respiratory Disease |date=June 1, 1977 |volume=115 |issue=6 |pages=971–9 |doi=10.1164/arrd.1977.115.6.971 |pmid=262108 |url=https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1164/arrd.1977.115.6.971 |accessdate=8 November 2018|doi-broken-date=2018-11-28 }}</ref>

===Creatine===
In the 1970s Daly began studying the uptake of [[creatine]] by muscle cells, an important research topic in the energy recycling systems of muscle. Her "Uptake of Creatine by Cultured Cells" (1980) described the conditions under which muscle tissues best absorbed creatine.<ref name="DeBakcsy"/><ref name="Seifter">{{cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=Marie M. |last2=Seifter |first2=Sam |title=Uptake of creatine by cultured cells |journal=Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics |date=August 1980 |volume=203 |issue=1 |pages=317–324 |doi=10.1016/0003-9861(80)90182-4 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0003986180901824 |accessdate=8 November 2018}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Timeline of women in science]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Daly, Marie Maynard}}
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:2003 deaths]]
[[Category:African-American scientists]]
[[Category:African-American women]]
[[Category:American biochemists]]
[[Category:American women scientists]]
[[Category:Hunter College High School alumni]]
[[Category:People from Corona, Queens]]
[[Category:Women chemists]]
[[Category:20th-century women scientists]]
[[Category:Albert Einstein College of Medicine faculty]]
[[Category:20th-century American chemists]]
[[Category:Scientists from New York (state)]]

Marie Maynard Daly

2019-02-12T20:02:38Z

JimVC3: Reverted 3 edits by Lolo111342534536 (talk) to last revision by Agent00x (TW)

Paxton Lynch

2017-11-20T18:45:54Z

JimVC3: Fixing CS1 error

{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Infobox NFL player
| name = Paxton Lynch
| image = Paxton Lynch.JPG
| image_size = 250px
| alt =
| caption = Lynch with the Denver Broncos in 2016
| current_team = Denver Broncos
| number = 12
| position = [[Quarterback]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1994|2|12}}
| birth_place = [[San Antonio, Texas]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| height_ft = 6
| height_in = 7
| weight_lbs = 244
| high_school = [[Trinity Christian Academy (Deltona, Florida)|Deltona (FL) Trinity Christian]]
| college = [[Memphis Tigers football|Memphis]]
| draftyear = 2016
| draftround = 1
| draftpick = 26
| pastteams =
* [[Denver Broncos]] ({{NFL Year|2016}}–present)
| status = Active
|statweek=17
|statseason=2016
|statlabel1=Pass completions
|statvalue1=49
|statlabel2=Pass attempts
|statvalue2=83
|statlabel3=QB rating
|statvalue3=79.2
|statlabel4=TD–INT
|statvalue4=2–1
|statlabel5=Passing yards
|statvalue5=497
|statlabel6=Completion %
|statvalue6=59.0
|nflnew= paxtonlynch/2555316
}}

'''Paxton James Lynch'''<ref name="Memphis degree">{{cite web|url=http://saweb.memphis.edu/sa_commencement/PDFs/proofs/16Spring/2016%20May%20Commencement%20names%2001.pdf#page=67|title=Bachelor of science in education|page=67|work=Spring Convocation of the One-Hundred and Fourth Commencement|publisher=University of Memphis|date=May 7, 2016}}</ref> (born February 12, 1994) is an [[American football]] [[quarterback]] for the [[Denver Broncos]] of the [[National Football League]] (NFL). He played [[college football]] at [[Memphis Tigers football|Memphis]], and was drafted in the first round of the [[2016 NFL Draft]] by the Broncos.

==Early years==
Lynch attended [[Trinity Christian Academy (Deltona, Florida)|Trinity Christian Academy]] in [[Deltona, Florida]] and played football and basketball. During his [[high school football|high school]] career, he passed for 2,099 yards. Lynch was rated by [[Rivals.com]] as a three-star recruit.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sports.yahoo.com/ncaa/football/recruiting/player-Paxton-Lynch-125984|title=Paxton Lynch|publisher=}}</ref> He committed to the [[University of Memphis]] to play [[college football]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2012-02-01/sports/os-hs-collings-column-0202-20120201_1_memphis-paxton-lynch-colleges|title=Paxton Lynch's recruiting road had some detours before he got to Memphis|work=tribunedigital-orlandosentinel}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news-journalonline.com/article/20120130/ARTICLES/301309995?Title=Lynch-commits-to-Memphis|title=Lynch commits to Memphis|work=News-JournalOnline.com}}</ref>

==College career==
After redshirting for his freshman year at Memphis in 2012, Lynch was named the Tigers' starting quarterback prior to the 2013 season.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commercialappeal.com/news/memphis-freshman-paxton-lynch-qb-preps-for-role|title=Memphis freshman Paxton Lynch QB preps for starting role|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commercialappeal.com/news/memphis-tigers-coach-justin-fuente-names-paxton|title=Memphis Tigers coach Justin Fuente names Paxton Lynch starting QB|publisher=}}</ref> He started all 12 games, completing 203 of 349 passes for 2,056 yards, nine [[touchdowns]] and 10 [[interceptions]]. As a sophomore in 2014, Lynch started all 13 games. He completed 259 of 413 attempts for 3,031 yards, 22 touchdowns and nine interceptions. He also rushed for 321 yards and 13 touchdowns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news-journalonline.com/article/20150830/SPORTS/150839961|title=After big sophomore season, Memphis' Paxton Lynch looking to live up to hype|work=News-JournalOnline.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://oxfordcitizen.com/2015/08/14/tigers-continue-to-build-behind-qb-paxton-lynch/|title=Tigers continue to build behind QB Paxton Lynch|work=Oxford Citizen}}</ref> Lynch was named the MVP of the [[2014 Miami Beach Bowl]] after passing for 306 yards with four passing touchdowns and three rushing touchdowns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/sports/college-sports/headlines/sfl-miami-beach-bowl-ends-in-brawl-20141222-story.html|title=Miami Beach Bowl ends in brawl, overshadowing Memphis double overtime win against BYU – Sun Sentinel|author=South Florida Sun-Sentinel|date=December 22, 2014|work=Sun-Sentinel.com}}</ref> As a junior in 2015, Lynch again started all 13 games. He completed 296 of 443 passes (66.8%) for 3,778 yards, 28 touchdowns (all five school records)<ref name=mmg>{{cite web|title=Memphis Football Media Guide, 2016|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/sidearm.sites/gotigersgo.com/documents/2016/8/19/2016_Memphis_Football_Online.pdf|accessdate=15 February 2017}}</ref> and four interceptions. In Memphis' 63–0 victory over SMU, Lynch tied an FBS record with seven passing touchdowns in a half. He finished 9 of 14 for 222 yards, and completed his touchdown throws to seven different receivers.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap3000000589530/article/paxton-lynch-ties-fbs-record-with-seven-td-passes-in-a-half|title = Paxton Lynch ties FBS record with seven TD passes in a half|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> After the season, he decided to forgo his senior year and enter the [[2016 NFL Draft]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/nfl/draft2016/story/_/id/14473004/highly-rated-memphis-tigers-qb-paxton-lynch-declares-nfl-draft|title=Highly rated Memphis Tigers QB Paxton Lynch declares for NFL draft|work=ESPN.com}}</ref> Lynch graduated from Memphis in May 2016 with a [[Bachelor of Science in Education|B.S.E.]] in sport and leisure management.<ref name="Memphis degree"/>

Lynch's 35 touchdowns responsible for in 2014 and 30 in 2015 are first and second in Memphis history, and his 76 for his career is second all-time. He also ranks first and second for most total offense in a season (4,015 yards in 2015; 3,352 in 2014). He has four of the seven most passing yards in a game, including the school record 447 on October 23, 2015 at Tulsa.<ref>{{cite web|title=Memphis vs. Tulsa - Game Summary - October 23, 2015|url=http://www.espn.com/college-football/game?gameId=400764891|website=ESPN.com}}</ref> He ranks second all-time in career attempts, completions, completion percentage, passing yards, and passing touchdowns.<ref name=mmg />

===Statistics===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan=2 | Year !! rowspan=2 | Team !! colspan=8 | Passing !! colspan=4 | Rushing
|-
! {{tooltip|Cmp|Passes completed}} !! {{tooltip|Att|Passes attempted}} !! {{tooltip|Pct|Completion percentage}} !! {{tooltip|Yds|Passing yards}} !! {{tooltip|Y/A|Yards per passing attempt}} !! {{tooltip|TD|Passing touchdowns}} !! {{tooltip|Int|Interceptions}} !! {{tooltip|Rtg|Passer rating}} !! {{tooltip|Att|Rushing attempts}} !! {{tooltip|Yds|Rushing yards}} !! {{tooltip|Avg|Yards per rushing attempt}} !! {{tooltip|TD|Rushing touchdowns}}
|-
| [[2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season|2013]] || [[2013 Memphis Tigers football team|Memphis]] || 203 || 349 || 58.2 || 2,056 || 5.9 || 9 || 10 || 110.4 || 88 || 127 || 1.4 || 2
|-
| [[2014 NCAA Division I FBS football season|2014]] || [[2014 Memphis Tigers football team|Memphis]] || 259 || 413 || 62.7 || 3,031 || 7.3 || 22 || 9 || 137.6 || 113 || 321 || 2.8 || 13
|-
| [[2015 NCAA Division I FBS football season|2015]] || [[2015 Memphis Tigers football team|Memphis]] || 296 || 443 || 66.8 || 3,776 || 8.5 || 28 || 4 || 157.5 || 87 || 239 || 2.7 || 2
|- class="sortbottom" style="background:#eee;"
| colspan=2 | '''Career''' || 758 || 1,205 || 62.9 || 8,863 || 7.4 || 59 || 23 || 137.0 || 288 || 687 || 2.4 || 17
|}
''Source'':<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.sports-reference.com/cfb/players/paxton-lynch-1.html | title=Paxton Lynch | publisher=Sports Reference LLC | work=sports-reference.com | accessdate=October 3, 2016}}</ref>

==Professional career==
Lynch was predicted to be selected in the first round of the 2016 NFL Draft by draft analysts and in mock drafts prior to the draft. He was rated the third best quarterback in the 2016 draft by NFLDraftScout.com,<ref name="nflds">{{cite web |url=http://www.nfldraftscout.com/ratings/dsprofile.php?pyid=124111&draftyear=2016&genpos=QB |title=Paxton Lynch |publisher=nfldraftscout.com |accessdate=August 29, 2016}}</ref> and was the third of 15 quarterbacks taken behind [[Jared Goff]] and [[Carson Wentz]], the #1 and #2 overall picks.

{{nfl predraft
| height ft = 6
| height in = 7
| weight = 244
| dash = 4.86
| ten split = 1.69
| twenty split = 2.81
| shuttle = 4.26
| cone drill = 7.14
| vertical = 36
| broad ft = 9
| broad in = 10
| bench =
| wonderlic = 18
| arm span = 34¼
| hand span = 10¼
| note = All values from [[NFL Combine]]<ref name="nflds"/>
}}

The [[Denver Broncos]] selected Lynch in the first round (26th overall) of the [[2016 NFL Draft]] in a pick acquired from the [[Seattle Seahawks]] for their first and third round pick.<ref>{{cite web |last=Legwold |first=Jeff |title=Lynch drafted by Broncos in first round of 2016 NFL Draft. |url=http://espn.go.com/blog/nflnation/post/_/id/202842/broncos-pick-memphis-quarterback-paxton-lynch-in-first-round |publisher=ESPN |accessdate=April 28, 2016}}</ref> On June 9, 2016, the Broncos signed Lynch to a four-year, $9,476,296 contract with a $5,091,852 signing bonus.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wolfe |first=Cameron |title=Paxton Lynch signs a four-year deal with Denver Broncos. |url=http://www.spotrac.com/nfl/denver-broncos/paxton-lynch-18974/ |publisher=Denver Post|accessdate=October 28, 2016}}</ref>

On October 2, 2016, Lynch played in his first NFL regular season game against the [[2016 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season|Tampa Bay Buccaneers]], replacing the injured [[Trevor Siemian]]. He finished with 170 passing yards on 14-of-24 attempts and threw his first career touchdown pass to wide receiver [[Emmanuel Sanders]] in a 27–7 win. In Week 5, Lynch started his first NFL game, completing 23-of-35 passes for 223 yards, one touchdown, and one interception in the 23–16 loss to the [[2016 Atlanta Falcons season|Atlanta Falcons]]. He was sacked six times, a record for a Broncos rookie.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nfl/falcons/2016/10/09/denver-broncos-atlanta-falcons-devonta-freeman-tevin-coleman/91835124/ |title=Falcons rattle Paxton Lynch, gash Broncos for win |publisher=usatoday.com |date=October 9, 2016 |accessdate=October 10, 2016 |author=Klis, Mike}}</ref> In Week 13, Lynch again replaced the injured Siemian against [[Jacksonville Jaguars|Jacksonville]], posting 12 completions on 24 passing attempts for 104 yards in a 20–10 win.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pro-football-reference.com/boxscores/201612040jax.htm |title=Denver Broncos at Jacksonville Jaguars - December 4th, 2016 |website=Pro-Football-Reference.com |language=en |access-date=2017-11-16}}</ref>

Lynch suffered a shoulder injury during the team's third preseason game of the 2017 season.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.denverpost.com/2017/11/18/broncos-paxton-lynch-backup-quarterback-bengals/ | title=Paxton Lynch set to be Broncos’ backup QB vs. Bengals | publisher=denverpost.com | date=November 18, 2017 | accessdate=November 19, 2017 | author=Jhabvala, Nicki}}</ref> In Week 11, Lynch was active for the first time that season and was the backup to [[Brock Osweiler]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://sports.yahoo.com/ryan-fitzpatrick-start-qb-bucs-again-172740888--nfl.html | title=Broncos' Lynch will serve as Brock Osweiler's backup | publisher=sports.yahoo.com | date=November 19, 2017 | accessdate=November 19, 2017 | agency=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref>

===Statistics===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan=2 | Year !! rowspan=2 | Team !! rowspan=2 | {{tooltip|GP|Games played}} !! rowspan=2 | {{tooltip|GS|Games started}} !! colspan=8 | Passing !! colspan=4 | Rushing
|-
! {{tooltip|Cmp|Passes completed}} !! {{tooltip|Att|Passes attempted}} !! {{tooltip|Pct|Completion percentage}} !! {{tooltip|Yds|Passing yards}} !! {{tooltip|Y/A|Yards per passing attempt}} !! {{tooltip|TD|Passing touchdowns}} !! {{tooltip|Int|Interceptions}} !! {{tooltip|Rtg|Passer rating}} !! {{tooltip|Att|Rushing attempts}} !! {{tooltip|Yds|Rushing yards}} !! {{tooltip|Avg|Yards per rushing attempt}} !! {{tooltip|TD|Rushing touchdowns}}
|-
|[[2016 NFL season|2016]] || [[2016 Denver Broncos season|DEN]] || 3 || 2 || 49 || 83 || 59.0 || 497 || 6.0 || 2 || 1 || 79.2 || 11 || 25 || 2.3 || 0
|}
''Source'':<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/L/LyncPa00.htm | title=Paxton Lynch | publisher=Sports Reference LLC | work=pro-football-reference.com | accessdate=December 5, 2016}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.denverbroncos.com/team/roster/Paxton-Lynch/8916cae3-7aa2-43f1-b9f4-8f1b6212f35d Denver Broncos bio]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150905104137/http://www.gotigersgo.com/roster.aspx?rp_id=1623 Memphis Tigers bio]
{{Memphis Tigers quarterback navbox}}
{{2016 NFL Draft}}
{{Broncos2016DraftPicks}}
{{BroncosFirstPick}}
{{Denver Broncos starting quarterback navbox}}
{{Denver Broncos roster navbox}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lynch, Paxton}}
[[Category:1994 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from San Antonio]]
[[Category:Players of American football from Texas]]
[[Category:Players of American football from Florida]]
[[Category:American football quarterbacks]]
[[Category:Memphis Tigers football players]]
[[Category:Denver Broncos players]]

Hampton University

2016-10-20T22:25:26Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 137.198.202.52 (talk) to last revision by Broadmoor. (TW)

{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox university
|name = Hampton University
|native_name =
|image_name = [[File:Hampton University Seal.png|150px]]
|image_size =
|caption =
|latin_name =
|motto = "The Standard of Excellence, An Education for Life"
|mottoeng =
|established = {{Start date|1868|04|01}}
|closed =
|type = [[Private school|Private]], [[Historically black colleges and universities|HBCU]]
|affiliation =
|endowment = $263.2 million<ref>As of June 30, 2015. {{cite web |url=http://www.nacubo.org/Documents/EndowmentFiles/2015_NCSE_Endowment_Market_Values.pdf|title=U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year (FY) 2015 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY 2014 to FY 2015 |publisher=National Association of College and University Business Officers and Commonfund Institute |year=2015}}</ref>
|president = [[William R. Harvey]]
|faculty =
|staff =
|students = 5,000
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|other =
|city = [[Hampton, Virginia|Hampton]]
|state = [[Virginia]]
|country = [[United States of America|U.S.]]
|coor = {{coord|37.022|-76.336|type:edu_region:US-VA|display=inline,title}}
|campus = [[Suburban]], {{convert|314|acre|km2}}
|former_names = Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute Hampton Institute
|free_label =
|free =
|sports =
|colors = Reflex Blue & White {{color box|#00216E}} {{color box|white}}
|nickname = Pirates
|mascot =
|athletics = [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] [[Division I FCS]]
|affiliations = [[Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference|MEAC]] [[Middle Atlantic Intercollegiate Sailing Association|MAISA]]
|website = {{URL|http://www.hamptonu.edu/}}
|logo = [[File:Hampton University logo.png|175px|Hampton University Logo]]
|footnotes =
}}

'''Hampton University''' (also HU, or Home by the Sea) is a private [[Historically black colleges and universities|historically black university]] located in [[Hampton, Virginia]], [[United States]]. It was founded in 1868 by [[Black people|black]] and [[White people|white]] leaders of the [[American Missionary Association]] after the [[American Civil War]] to provide education to [[freedmen]]. In 1878 it established a program for teaching Native Americans, which lasted until 1923.

==History==
The campus looking south across the harbor of [[Hampton Roads]] was founded on the grounds of "Little Scotland", a former plantation in [[Elizabeth City County, Virginia|Elizabeth City County]] not far from [[Fortress Monroe]] and the [[Grand Contraband Camp]] that gathered nearby. These facilities represented freedom to former [[History of slavery in the United States|slaves]], who sought refuge with Union forces during the first year of the war.

The [[American Missionary Association]] (AMA) responded in 1861 to the former slaves' need for education by hiring its first [[mulatto]] teacher, [[Mary S. Peake|Mary Smith Peake]], who had secretly been teaching slaves and free blacks in the area despite the state's prohibition in law. She first taught for the AMA on September 17, 1861 and was said to gather her pupils under a large oak. After the tree was the site in 1863 of the first reading in the former [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] [[U.S. state|states]] of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]], it was called the [[Emancipation Oak]]. The tree, now a symbol of the university and of the city, is part of the [[National Historic Landmark District]] at Hampton University.

The Hampton Agricultural and Industrial School, later called the Hampton Institute, was founded in 1868 after the war by the biracial leadership of the AMA, who were chiefly [[Congregational]] and [[Presbyterian]] ministers. It was first led by former [[Union Army|Union]] General [[Samuel Chapman Armstrong]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ellinghaus|first=Katherine|title=Assimilation by Marriage: White Women and Native American Men at Hampton Institute, 1878–1923|journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography|year=2000|volume=108|issue=3|pages=279–303|publisher=Virginia Historical Society|jstor=4249851}}</ref> Among the school's famous alumni is [[Booker T. Washington|Dr. Booker T. Washington]], an educator who founded the [[Tuskegee Institute]], another college supported by the AMA.

===Civil War===
During the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865), Union-held [[Fortress Monroe]] in southeastern [[Virginia]] at the mouth of [[Hampton Roads]] became a gathering point and safe haven of sorts for [[fugitive slave]]s. The commander, General [[Benjamin Butler (politician)|Benjamin F. Butler]], determined they were [[contraband (American Civil War)|"contraband of war"]], to protect them from being returned to slaveholders, who clamored to reclaim them. As numerous individuals sought freedom behind [[Union Army|Union]] lines, the Army arranged for the construction of the [[Grand Contraband Camp]] nearby, from materials reclaimed from the ruins of [[Hampton, Virginia|Hampton]], which had been burned by the retreating [[Confederate Army]]. This area was later called "Slabtown."

Hampton University traces its roots to the work of [[Mary S. Peake]], which began in 1861 with outdoor classes which she taught under the landmark [[Emancipation Oak]] in the nearby area of [[Elizabeth City County, Virginia|Elizabeth City County]]. The newly issued [[Emancipation Proclamation]] was first read to a gathering under the historic tree there in 1863.

===After the War: teaching teachers===
[[File:Hampton Institute - geography.jpg|thumb|An 1899 class in mathematical geography]] After the War, a [[normal school]] ("normal" meaning to establish standards or ''norms'' while educating teachers) was formalized in 1868, with former [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] brevet Brigadier General [[Samuel Chapman Armstrong]] (1839–1893) as its first principal. The new school was established on the grounds of a former [[plantations in the American South|plantation]] named "Little Scotland", which had a view of Hampton Roads. The original school buildings fronted the Hampton River. Legally [[charter]]ed in 1870 as a [[land grant university|land grant school]],it was first known as "Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute."

Typical of [[historically black colleges]], Hampton received much of its financial support in the years following the Civil War from the [[American Missionary Association]] (whose black and white leaders represented the [[Congregational]] and [[Presbyterian]] churches), other church groups and former officers and soldiers of the Union Army. One of the many Civil War veterans who gave substantial sums to the school was General [[William Jackson Palmer]], a Union cavalry commander from [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]. He later built the [[Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad]], and founded [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]]. As the Civil War began in 1861, although his [[Quaker]] upbringing made Palmer abhor violence, his passion to see the [[slavery|slaves]] freed compelled him to enter the war. He was awarded the [[Medal of Honor]] for bravery in 1894. (The current Palmer Hall on the campus is named in his honor.)

[[File:Hampton Institute - bricklaying.jpg|thumb|Students in an 1899 bricklaying class]] Unlike the wealthy Palmer, Sam Armstrong was the son of a [[missionary]] to the [[Hawaiian Islands|Sandwich Islands]] (which later became the U.S. state of [[Hawaii]]). He also had dreams for the betterment of the freedmen. He patterned his new school after the model of his father, who had overseen the teaching of reading, writing and arithmetic to the Polynesians. He wanted to teach the skills necessary for blacks to be self-supporting in the impoverished South. Under his guidance, a Hampton-style education became well known as an education that combined cultural uplift with moral and manual training. Armstrong said it was an education that encompassed "the head, the heart, and the hands."

At the close of its first decade, the school reported a total admission in the ten years of 927 students, with 277 graduates, all but 17 of whom had become teachers. Many of them had bought land and established themselves in homes; many were farming as well as teaching; some had gone into business. Only a very small proportion failed to do well. By another 10 years, there had been over 600 graduates. In 1888, of the 537 still alive, three-fourths were teaching, and about half as many undergraduates were also teaching. It was estimated that 15,000 children in community schools were being taught by Hampton's students and alumni that year.<ref>[http://www.rootsweb.com/%7Eusgenweb/va/history/lamb/lamb5.html ''Our Twin Cities of the Nineteenth Century: Norfolk and Portsmouth, Their Past, Present, and Future''], Robert W. Lamb, Editor. Norfolk, VA: Barcroft, Publisher. 1887–8. Norfolk Landmark Steam Presses.</ref>

===Booker T. Washington: spreading the educational work===
{{details|Booker T. Washington}}Among Hampton's earliest students was [[Booker T. Washington]], who arrived from [[West Virginia]] in 1872 at the age of 16. He worked his way through Hampton, and then went on to attend [[Wayland Seminary]] in Washington D.C. After graduation, he returned to Hampton and became a teacher. Upon recommendation of Sam Armstrong to founder [[Lewis Adams]] and others, in 1881, Washington was sent to [[Alabama]] at age 25 to head another new normal school. This new Institution eventually became [[Tuskegee University]]. Embracing much of Armstrong's philosophy, Washington built Tuskegee into a substantial school and became nationally famous as an educator, orator, and fund-raiser as well. He collaborated with the [[philanthropist]] [[Julius Rosenwald]] in the early 20th century to create a model for rural black schools - Rosenwald established a fund that matched monies raised by communities to build more than 5,000 schools for rural black children, mostly in the South. Washington recruited his Hampton classmate (1875), Charles W. Greene<ref>"Wishing I Were There" Time Travel to Hampton Institute Graduation Exercises 1875</ref> to the work at Tuskegee in 1888 by founding the Agriculture department.

===Native Americans===
In 1878, Hampton established a formal education program for [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. In 1875 at the end of the [[American Indian Wars]], the United States Army sent seventy-two warriors from the Cheyenne, Kiowa, Comanche and Caddo Nations, to imprisonment and exile in St. Augustine, Florida. Essentially they were considered hostages to persuade their peoples in the West to keep peace. [[Richard Henry Pratt]] supervised them at [[Fort Marion]] and began to arrange for their education in the English language and American culture. Numerous visitors to St. Augustine from the North became interested in their cases and volunteered as teachers. They also provided them with art supplies, and some of the resulting works (including by [[David Pendleton Oakerhater]]) are held by the [[Smithsonian Institution]]. At the end of the warriors' incarceration, Pratt convinced seventeen to enroll at Hampton Institute for a fuller education.<ref>Landis, B. (n.d.). Carlisle Indian Industrial School History. Frontier Homepage Powered by Yahoo!. Retrieved November 6, 2010, from http://home.epix.net/~landis/histry.html</ref> (Later Pratt founded the [[Carlisle Indian Industrial School]] based on the same philosophy of education and assimilation). Altogether, seventy Native Americans, young men and women from various tribes, mostly from the Plains rather than the acculturated tribes that had occupied Virginia, joined that first class. Because Virginia's aristocrats sometimes boasted of their Native American heritage through [[Pocahontas]], it was hoped that the Native American students would help locals to accept the university's black students. The black students were also supposed to "civilize" the Native American students to current American society, and the Native Americans to "uplift the Negro[es]."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jubiloemancipationcentury.wordpress.com/2011/02/28/the-american-indian-at-hampton-institute-virginia/|title=The American Indian at Hampton Institute, Virginia|last=|first=|date=February 28, 2011|website=Jubilo! The Emancipation Century|publisher=|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref><ref name="xroads.virginia.edu">{{Cite web|url=http://xroads.virginia.edu/~cap/poca/poc_hamp.html|title=Hampton|website=xroads.virginia.edu|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref>

The program died in 1923, in the face of growing controversy over racial mingling. Native Americans stopped sending their boys to the school after some employers fired Native American men because they had been educated with blacks. The program's final director resigned because she could not prevent "amalgamation" between the Native American girls and black boys.<ref name="xroads.virginia.edu"/>

===Name changes, expansion, and community===
[[File:HamptonUniversityHarveyLibrary.JPG|thumb|Library entrance]]
Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute became simply Hampton Institute in 1930. In 1931 the [[Phenix High School|George P. Phenix School]] for all age groups was opened there under principal Ian Ross. A new nurses' training school was attached to the Dixie Hospital, with [[Nina Gage]] as director.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1532&dat=19310606&id=WX89AAAAIBAJ&sjid=XisMAAAAIBAJ&pg=771,28066165 'Hampton makes appointments of 2 whites'. ''The Afro-American'' , 6 June 1931]</ref> With the addition of departments and graduate programs, it was accredited as Hampton University in 1984.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} Originally located in [[Elizabeth City County, Virginia|Elizabeth City County]], it was long-located in the Town of [[Phoebus, Virginia|Phoebus]], incorporated in 1900. Phoebus and Elizabeth City County were consolidated with the neighboring [[Hampton, Virginia|City of Hampton]] to form a much larger [[independent city]] in 1952. The City of Hampton uses the Emancipation Oak on its official seal. From 1960 to 1970, noted [[diplomat]] and educator [[Jerome H. Holland]] was president of the Hampton Institute.

==Campus==
[[File:Hampton University aerial view.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of Hampton University]]

The campus contains several buildings that contribute to its [[National Historic Landmark]] district: Virginia-Cleveland Hall (freshman female dormitory, as well as former home to the school's two cafeterias), Wigwam building (home to administrative offices), Academy Building (administrative offices), Memorial Chapel (religious services) and the President's Mansion House.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hamptonu.edu/studentservices/admissions/tour/index.htm|title=Hampton University - Admissions|accessdate=May 3, 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070430004509/http://www.hamptonu.edu/studentservices/admissions/tour/index.htm  |archivedate = April 30, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/nhl/designations/Lists/VA01.pdf|format=PDF|title=National Historic Landmarks Survey: Listing of National Historic Landmarks by State:Virginia|accessdate=May 3, 2007}}</ref>

The original High School on the campus became Phenix Hall when [[Hampton City Public Schools]] opened a new Phenix High School in 1959. Phenix Hall was damaged in a minor fire on June 12, 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailypress.com/news/local/dp-now-hufire.jn12,0,3772406.story |title=Fire damages historic building on HU campus |publisher=Dailypress.com |date= |accessdate=September 29, 2012}}</ref>

The Hampton University Museum was founded in 1868 and is the nation's oldest African-American museum. The museum contains over 9,000 pieces, some of which are highly acclaimed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museum.hamptonu.edu/our_museum.cfm|title=Our Museum : Hampton University Museum|website=museum.hamptonu.edu|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref>

The Emancipation Oak was cited by the [[National Geographic Society]] as one of the 10 great trees in the world.

The waterfront campus is settled near the mouth of the [[Chesapeake Bay]].

===National Historic Landmark District===
{{Infobox NRHP
| name =Hampton Institute
| nrhp_type = nhld | nocat = yes
| designated_other1 = Virginia Landmarks Register
| designated_other1_date = September 9, 1969<ref name=register>{{cite web|title=Virginia Landmarks Register|url=http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/register_counties_cities.htm|publisher=Virginia Department of Historic Resources|accessdate=March 19, 2013}}</ref>
| designated_other1_number = 114-0006
| designated_other1_num_position = bottom
| image =
| caption =
| location= NW of jct. of U.S. 60 and the Hampton Roads Bridge Tunnel, [[Hampton, Virginia]]
| latitude = 37.0203
| longitude = -76.5945
| coord_parameters = region:US-VA_type:edu
| coord_format = dms
| coord_display = inline
| locmapin = Virginia#USA
| area = {{convert|314|acre}}
| built = {{Start date|1866}}
| architect= [[Richard Morris Hunt]]; Et al.
| architecture=
| designated_nrhp_type = May 30, 1974<ref name="nhlsum"/>
| added = November 12, 1969
| governing_body = Public
| refnum = 69000323<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}}</ref>
}}

A {{convert|15|acre|m2|sing=on}} portion of the campus along the Hampton River, including many of the older buildings, is a U.S. [[National Historic Landmark District]]. Buildings included are:
* ''Mansion House'', original plantation residence of Little Scotland
* ''Virginia Hall'' built in 1873
* ''Academic Hall''
* ''Wigwam''
* ''Marquand Memorial Chapel'', a [[Romanesque Revival]] red brick chapel with a {{convert|150|ft|m|sing=on}} tower
In addition, Cleveland Hall, Ogden, and the Administration building are also included in the district.<ref name="nrhpinv2"/>

The district was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1969,<ref name="nris"/> and declared a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1974.<ref name="nhlsum">{{cite web|url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=868&ResourceType=District
|title=Hampton Institute |accessdate=May 30, 2008|work=National Historic Landmark summary listing|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><ref name="nrhpinv2">{{Cite journal|url={{NHLS url|id=69000323}}|title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Hampton Institute / Hampton Normal and Industrial Institute|date=January 9, 1974 |author=Carol Ann Poh |publisher=National Park Service|postscript=}} and {{PDFlink|{{NHLS url|id=69000323|title=''Accompanying 17 photos, from 1973''|photos=y}}|5.84 MB}}</ref>

===Student demographics===
As reported by the university in 2015, nearly two-thirds of the student body is female, and the other third male. Approximately 90% of the population identifies as Black, and only 32% are Virginia residents.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Facts & Figures|url = http://www.hamptonu.edu/about/facts.cfm|website = www.hamptonu.edu|accessdate = December 17, 2015}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Subgroup
!
|-
|Total men
|34%
|-
|Total women
|66%
|-
|Black
|90.65%
|-
|White
|5.13%
|-
|Hispanic
|1.29%
|-
|Asian or Pacific Islander
|1.08%
|}

==Academics==
Hampton University has 11 accredited schools and colleges.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hamptonu.edu/global/accreditation.cfm|title=Accreditation|website=www.hamptonu.edu|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref>
{{div col|3}}
*School of Engineering and Technology
*School of Business
*School of Education and Human Development
*School of Pharmacy
*School of Journalism and Communication
*School of Nursing
*School of Liberal Arts
*School of Science
*University College
*College of Virginia Beach
*Graduate College
{{div col end}}

As of 2015, Hampton offers 48 [[Bachelor's degree|baccalaureate]] programs, 23 [[Master's degree|master's]] programs, 8 [[doctoral]] programs, 2 professional programs, and 8 [[associate degree|associate]]/certificate programs.<ref name="hamptonu.edu">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hamptonu.edu/about/facts.cfm|title=Facts & Figures|website=www.hamptonu.edu|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref>

Hampton's [[Student–teacher ratio|student to faculty ratio]] is 10 to 1, which is better than the national university average of 18 to 1.<ref name="hamptonu.edu"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.campusexplorer.com/college-advice-tips/0DC5BEE8/Student-to-Faculty-Ratio-What-Does-it-Mean/|title=Student-to-Faculty Ratio: What Does it Mean?|website=www.campusexplorer.com|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref> Hampton is the first and only HBCU to have 100% control of a [[NASA]] Mission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stateofhbcus.wordpress.com/tag/hampton-university/|title=Hampton University {{!}} State of HBCUs|website=stateofhbcus.wordpress.com|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref>

The Freddye T. Davy Honors College offers special learning opportunities and privileges to Hampton students who have completed at least 12 credit hours with at least a 3.25 cumulative GPA.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://honorscollege.hamptonu.edu/requirements.cfm|title=Freddye T. Davy Honors College : Requirements|website=honorscollege.hamptonu.edu|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref>

Hampton University consistently ranks among the top three HBCUs in the nation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dailypress.com/news/education/dp-nws-education-notebook-0721-20150720-story.html|title=Hampton University ranked No. 2 in College Choice's 2015 Rankings of Best Historically Black Colleges and Universities|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hbculifestyle.com/hbcu-rankings-2016-top-25/|title=HBCU Rankings 2017: Top 25 Black Colleges from US News|website=hbculifestyle.com|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bestcolleges.com/features/top-30-historically-black-colleges/|title=The 30 Best Historically Black Colleges in 2016|date=October 1, 2014|language=en-US|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref>

''The Alumni Factor'' named Hampton one of the seven best [[List of colleges and universities in Virginia|colleges in Virginia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alumnifactor.com/top-177-colleges|title=Top 227 Schools {{!}} The Alumni Factor|website=www.alumnifactor.com|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref>

Hampton University is a selective institution that has a 30 to 40 percent acceptance rate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/hbcu/data|title=The 10 Best Historically Black Colleges and Universities|website=colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref>

==Student activities==

===Campus events===
{{div col|2}}
* New Student Orientation (NSO) Week
* Labor Day Festival
* Parents' Weekend
* Miss Hampton University Pageant
* Pirates' Homecoming
* World Aids Day
* Hampton Founder's Day Celebration
* Black History Extravaganza
* Spring-Fest
* Battle of The States
* Student Leader Intake
* Student Leader Retreat
* Freshmen Week
* Elections
* Sophomore/Junior Week
* Senior Week
* Commencement
{{div col end}}

===Athletics===
{{Main article|Hampton Pirates}}
Hampton's colors are [[blue]] and [[white]], and their nickname is "The Pirates". Hampton sports teams participate in [[NCAA]] [[Division I (NCAA)|Division I]] ([[Football Championship Subdivision|FCS]] for [[College football|football]]) in the [[Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference]]. They joined this in 1995 upon leaving the [[Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association]], an NCAA [[Division II (NCAA)|Division II]] conference, of which they were a founding member. Since joining, Hampton has won MEAC titles in many sports, including football, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's track, and men's and women's tennis.

In 2016, Hampton became the first and only HBCU to field a Division I men's [[College lacrosse|lacrosse team]]. [[ESPN]] held a broadcast on campus preceding the inaugural game in [[Armstrong Stadium]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ncaa.com/news/lacrosse-men/article/2016-02-12/hampton-lacrosse-first-hbcu-di-team-gears-first-game|title=NCAA.com – The Official Website of NCAA Championships|website=NCAA.com|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hamptonpirates.com/news/2016/1/15/GEN_0115163819.aspx?path=gen|title=ESPN TO BROADCAST BEFORE FIRST HOME LACROSSE GAME|access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref>

Hampton is the only HBCU with a [[Sailing (sport)|competitive sailing]] team.

In 2001, the Hampton [[basketball]] team won its first [[NCAA Men's Basketball Division I Championship|NCAA Tournament]] game, when they beat [[Iowa State University|Iowa State]] 58–57, in one of the largest [[upset]]s of all time. They were only the fourth fifteen-seed to upset a two-seed in the tournament's history. They returned to the tournament a year later, as well as in 2006, 2011, 2015 and 2016, having won their conference basketball tournament. Their NCAA tournament record is 2-6, including the [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Opening Round game|play-in game]].

The "Lady Pirates" basketball team has seen great success as well, and made trips to the [[NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship|NCAA tournament]] in 2000, 2003, 2004, and from 2010-2014. In 1988, as a [[Division II (NCAA)|Division II]] school, the Lady Pirates won the [[NCAA Women's Division II Basketball Championship]], defeating [[West Texas State]]. In 2011, as a number-13 seed, the Lady Pirates nearly upset [[Kentucky Wildcats women's basketball|Kentucky]], but fell in overtime, 66-62. In 2015, the Lady Pirates played in the [[2015 Women's National Invitation Tournament|Women's NIT]], where they defeated Drexel 45-42 in the opening round. However, in the second round, the team lost to West Virginia 57-39.

The Pirates won their conference title in football in 1997, shared the title 1998 and 2004, and won it again outright in 2005 and 2006. From 2004 to 2006, the team won three MEAC Championships and three SBN-Black College National Championships, and was ranked in the Division I FCS top 25 poll each year. The Pirates also sent five players to the NFL Combine in 2007, the most out of any FCS subdivision school for that year. They have also been dominant in tennis winning the MEAC from 1996–1999, 2001-2003 and 2007 for the men, and 1998 and 2002-2004 for the women.

Major rivals include [[Norfolk State University]], located across [[Hampton Roads]] in downtown Norfolk, and [[Howard University]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]

Pirate athletics are supported by a plethora of groups, including "The Force" Marching Band. The marching band has appeared at several notable performances, including the Barack Obama Presidential Inauguration parade in Washington, DC. "The Force" was chosen out of a large pool of applicants to participate in the parade as the representative for the state of Virginia. "The Force" is complemented by the "Ebony Fire" dance team.

==Notable alumni==

===Business===
{{AlumniStart}}
{{Alum|name=[[Percy Creuzot]]|year=1949|nota=founder of [[Frenchy's Chicken]] in [[Houston]], [[Texas]]|ref=<ref name=Handbook>"[http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fcrab CREUZOT, PERCY PENNINGTON, JR. (FRENCHY)]." ''[[Handbook of Texas]]''. Retrieved on May 1, 2014.</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=George R. Lewis|year=|nota=former President and CEO of [[Altria Group|Phillip Morris]] Capital Corporation; listed among the "Top 50 Black Executives" by ''[[Ebony (magazine)|Ebony]]'' magazine|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Charles Phillips (businessman)|Charles Phillips]]|year=|nota=CEO of Infor; former President of [[Oracle Corporation]]|ref=}}
{{AlumniEnd}}

===Education===
{{AlumniStart}}
{{Alum|name=[[St. Clair Drake]]|year=1931|nota= sociologist and anthropologist; created one of the first African American Studies programs at a US college or university|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Martha Louise Morrow Foxx]]|year=|nota= blind educator|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Freeman A. Hrabowski III]]|year=1969|nota=President of the [[University of Maryland, Baltimore County]]|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=William C. Hunter|year=|nota=Dean of the [[Tippie College of Business]] at [[University of Iowa]]|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tippie.uiowa.edu/about/message.cfm |title=Dean's Message – Tippie College of Business – The University of Iowa |publisher=Tippie.uiowa.edu |date=August 21, 2012 |accessdate=September 29, 2012}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=Dr. Wilmer Leon|year=|nota=political scientist and associate professor in the Political Science Department at [[Howard University]]; talk show host on [[Urban View (XM)|Urban View]] Channel 110 on [[Sirius XM Radio]]|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wilmerleon.com/showbio.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718052717/http://www.wilmerleon.com/showbio.htm|archivedate=July 18, 2011|title=Inside the Issues With Wilmer Leon|publisher=wilmerleon.com|accessdate=January 22, 2011}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=Kimberly Oliver|year=|nota=2006 National Teacher of the Year|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccsso.org/projects/national_teacher_of_the_year/national_teachers/8144.cfm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616025647/http://www.ccsso.org/projects/national_teacher_of_the_year/national_teachers/8144.cfm |archivedate=June 16, 2010 |title=Kimberly Oliver |publisher=Ccsso.org |date=June 16, 2010 |accessdate=September 29, 2012}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Hugh R. Page]]|year=1977|nota=professor of [[theology]] and [[Africana Studies]] at the [[University of Notre Dame]]|ref=<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://africana.nd.edu/about/faculty-and-staff/bio-page-3/|title=Hugh Page|accessdate=March 5, 2016|publisher=University of Notre Dame}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Booker T. Washington]]|year=1875|nota=founded [[Tuskegee University]] in Alabama|ref=}}
{{AlumniEnd}}

===Entertainment and the arts===
{{AlumniStart}}
{{Alum|name=[[John T. Biggers]]|year=|nota=[[Harlem Renaissance]] muralist and founder of the Art Department at [[Texas Southern University]]|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Leslie Garland Bolling]]|year=1918|nota=early 20th-century wood carver|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Spencer Christian]]|year=|nota=former weatherman for ''[[Good Morning America]]'', 1986-1998|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[DJ Babey Drew]]|year=2003|nota=disc jockey|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[DJ Envy]]|year=1999|nota=disc jockey and host of the ''[[The Breakfast Club (radio show)|The Breakfast Club]]''|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Brandon Fobbs]]|year=2002|nota=actor; best known for his role in the film ''[[Pride (2007 film)|Pride]]''|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Kevin Frazier]]|year=|nota=sports anchor and entertainment news anchor|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Beverly Gooden]]|year=2005|nota=writer|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Biff Henderson]]|year=|nota=stage manager and personality on the ''[[Late Show with David Letterman]]''|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[DJ Tay James]]|year=2009|nota=disc jockey for [[Justin Bieber]]|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Dorothy Maynor]]|year=|nota=concert singer|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Orpheus McAdoo]]|year=1876|nota=minstrel show impresario; toured Britain, South Africa and Australia|ref=<ref>{{cite web|title=Orpheus M. and Mattie Allen McAdoo Papers|date=February 9, 2010|publisher=Yale University Beinecke Rare Books & Manuscript Library |url=http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/about/blogs/african-american-studies-beinecke-library/2010/02/09/orpheus-m-and-mattie-allen-mcadoo|accessdate=May 21, 2014}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[MC Ride]]|year=|nota=musician; best known for being the singer in [[Death Grips]]|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Wanda Sykes]]|year=1986|nota=comedian|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[A. S. "Doc" Young|A. S. (Doc) Young]]|year=1941|nota=sports journalist|ref=<ref name='Jet-30Sep1996'>{{cite journal |last= |first= |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor1-first=Sylvia P. |editor1-last=Flanagan |editor1-link= |date=September 30, 1996 |year= |month= |title=A.S. 'Doc' Young, Noted Journalist-Author, Dies |trans_title= |journal=Jet |volume=90 |series= |issue=20 |page=60 |pages= |at= |publisher=Johnson Publishing Company, Inc. |location=Chicago, Illinois|pmid= |pmc= |doi= |bibcode= |oclc= |id= |url= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |accessdate= |laysummary= |laysource= |laydate= |quote= |ref= |separator= |postscript=}}</ref>}}
{{AlumniEnd}}

===Politics and government===
{{AlumniStart}}
{{Alum|name=[[Allyson Kay Duncan]]|year=|nota=4th Circuit US Circuit Court Judge|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/981/000208357/|title = Allyson Kay Duncan| publisher=Notable Name Data Base |accessdate= January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Vanessa D. Gilmore]]|year=|nota=Federal Judge of the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas]]|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jtbf.org/index.php?src=directory&view=biographies&srctype=detail&refno=67|title =VANESSA D. GILMORE|publisher= Just The Beginning Foundation|accessdate =January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Theodore T. Jones|Theodore Theopolis Jones II]]|year=|nota=Associate Judge of the [[Court of Appeals]], [[New York (state)|New York]]|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.nycourts.gov/ctapps/jjones.htm|title =Honorable Theodore T. Jones |publisher= Court of Appeals State of New York|accessdate =January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=Gloria Gary Lawlah|year=1960|nota=Secretary of Aging for the State of [[Maryland]]|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msa.md.gov/msa/mdmanual/10da/html/msa12153.html |title=Gloria G. Lawlah, Maryland Secretary of Aging |publisher=Msa.md.gov |date= |accessdate=September 29, 2012}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Spencer Overton]]|year=1990|nota=election scholar, [[George Washington University Law School]]|ref=<ref>http://docs.law.gwu.edu/facweb/soverton/ {{dead link|date=September 2016}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Douglas Palmer]]|year=1973|nota=Mayor of [[Trenton, New Jersey]]|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Gregory M. Sleet]]|year=|nota=US District Court Judge for the [[United States District Court for the District of Delaware]]|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Charles Wesley Turnbull]]|year=|nota= former governor of the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]]|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[W. Carlton Weddington]]|year=|nota=member of [[Ohio House of Representatives]]|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Ivory Lee Young Jr.]]|year=1986|nota=City Councilmember with the Atlanta City Council District 3, Atlanta, Georgia 2002-2018|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url= http://law.widener.edu/Academics/Faculty/ProfilesDeAdj/SleetGregoryM.aspx|title =Gregory M. Sleet Adjunct Professor of Law |publisher= Widener Law|accessdate =January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=Stephanie Young|year=2006|nota=Director of African American Outreach, Associate Director of Communications, [[The White House]]|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/engage/office|title=About the Office of Public Engagement|publisher=[[The White House]]|accessdate=September 30, 2016}}</ref>}}
{{AlumniEnd}}

===Sociology and humanities===
{{AlumniStart}}
{{Alum|name=[[Alberta Williams King]]|year=1924|nota=mother of Martin Luther King Jr.|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Elizabeth Omilami]]|year=|nota=Chief Executive Officer of Hosea Feed the Hungry and Homeless|ref=}}
{{AlumniEnd}}

===Sports===
{{AlumniStart}}
{{Alum|name=[[Chris Baker (defensive lineman)|Chris Baker]]|year=2008|nota=current NFL defensive tackle|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nfl.com/player/chrisbaker/2507557//profile|title=Chris Baker|publisher=nfl.com|accessdate=September 30, 2016}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Darian Barnes]]|year=|nota=former NFL running back |ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Johnnie Barnes]]|year=|nota=former [[National Football League|NFL]] wide receiver |ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Jamal Brooks]]|year=1999|nota=former NFL linebacker|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nfl.com/player/jamalbrooks/2503922/profile|title=Jamal Brooks|publisher=nfl.com|accessdate=September 30, 2016}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[James Carter (athlete)|James Carter]]|year=|nota=award-winning [[Track and field|track]] athlete|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Marcus Dixon]]|year=|nota=current CFL defensive tackle; also played in the NFL for the [[Dallas Cowboys]] and the [[New York Jets]]|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/D/DixoMa00.htm|title =Marcus Dixon
|publisher= Pro-Football-Reference.Com|accessdate =January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Reggie Doss]]|year=|nota=former NFL defensive end|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Justin Durant]]|year=2007|nota=current NFL linebacker, Jacksonville Jaguars, Detroit Lions|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=[[Kenrick Ellis]]|year=|nota=current [[National Football League|NFL]] defensive tackle, New York Jets|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/E/ElliKe01.htm|title =Kenrick Ellis|publisher= Pro-Football-Reference.Com|accessdate =January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Devin Green]]|year=2005|nota=former [[NBA]] player|ref= <ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.basketball-reference.com/players/g/greende01.html|title=Devin Green|publisher= Basketball-Reference.Com |accessdate= January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Isaac Hilton]]|year=|nota=former NFL defensive end|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nfl.com/player/isaachilton/2516557/profile|title = Isaac Hilton | publisher=NFL Enterprises LLC |accessdate= January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Rick Mahorn]]|year=1980|nota=former [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player, [[Washington Bullets]], [[Detroit Pistons]], [[New Jersey Nets]]; WNBA Detroit Shock Head Coach|ref= <ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.basketball-reference.com/players/m/mahorri01.html|title=Derrick Allen Mahorn |publisher= Basketball-Reference.Com |accessdate= January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Jerome Mathis]]|year=|nota=former NFL wide receiver|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.databasefootball.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=MATHIJER01|title = Jerome Mathis|publisher=databaseFootball.com |accessdate= January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Nevin McCaskill]]|year=|nota= former [[National Football League|NFL]] offensive lineman|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.databasefootball.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=McCasNev01/|title = Nevin McCaskill| publisher=databaseFootball.com |accessdate= January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Francena McCorory]]|year=2010|nota= [[track and field]], [[NCAA]] 400m three-time champion|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaaf.org/athletes/biographies/country=USA/athcode=205239/index.html |title=Athletes - McCorory Francena Biography |publisher=iaaf.org |date= |accessdate=September 29, 2012}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Marquay McDaniel]]|year=2007|nota= [[Canadian Football League|CFL]] football player, [[Hamilton Tiger-Cats]]|ref=}}
{{Alum|name=Carl Painter|year=|nota=former NFL running back with the Detroit Lions|}}
{{Alum|name=Dick Price|year=1957|nota=former head football coach at [[Norfolk State University]], 1974-1983; former head coach of track team and athletic director at Norfolk State|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hamptonroads.com/2009/02/exnorfolk-state-football-coach-dick-price-dies-75|title=Ex-Norfolk State football coach Dick Price dies at 75|publisher=hamptonroads.com|accessdate=January 23, 2011}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Donovan Rose]]|year=1980|nota=former NFL defensive back and current head coach of the Hampton Pirate football team |ref=<ref name="Hampton Pros">{{cite web|title=NFL Players who attended Hampton University |publisher=databaseSports.com|url=http://www.databasefootball.com/players/bycollege.htm?sch=Hampton+University|accessdate=April 5, 2008}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Zuriel Smith]]|year=2002|nota=former NFL wide receiver and return specialist|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.databasefootball.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=SMITHZUR01|title = Zuriel Smith|publisher=databaseFootball.com |accessdate= January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Cordell Taylor]]|year=|nota=former NFL defensive back |ref=<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/T/TaylCo20.htm|title =Cordell Jerome Taylor|publisher= Pro-Football-Reference.Com|accessdate =January 1, 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Terrence Warren]]|year=|nota=former NFL wide receiver|ref=<ref name="Hampton Pros"/>}}
{{Alum|name=[[Kellie Wells (athlete)|Kellie Wells]]|year=|nota= track and field Olympic athlete; 100m hurdle bronze medalist, 2012|ref=}}
{{AlumniEnd}}

==See also==
* [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1865–95) ]]
*[[Emancipation Oak]], an historic tree on the campus
*[[Hampton University Proton Therapy Institute]]
*[[WHOV|WHOV 88.1 FM]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Anderson, James D. ''The education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935'' (1988) pp 33–78 [https://www.questia.com/library/7265518/the-education-of-blacks-in-the-south-1860-1935 online].
* Engs, Robert Francis (1999). ''[[Educating the Disfranchised and Disinherited: Samuel Chapman Armstrong and Hampton Institute, 1839–1893]].'' University of Tennessee Press.
* {{cite journal|last=Molin|first=Paulette Fairbanks|title='Training the Hand, the Head, and the Heart': Indian Education at Hampton Institute|journal=Minnesota History|date=Fall 1988|volume=51|issue=3|pages=82–98|jstor=20179107|publisher=Minnesota Historical Society Press}}
* {{cite journal|last=Maddox|first=Lucy|title=Politics, Performance and Indian Identity|journal=American Studies International|date=June 2002|volume=40|issue=2|pages=7–36|jstor=4127989|publisher=Mid-America American Studies Association}}
* Schall, Keith L., ed. (1977). ''Stony the Road: Chapters in the History of Hampton Institute.'' The University Press of Virginia.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.hamptonu.edu/ Official website]
* [http://www.hamptonpirates.com/ Official athletics website]
* [http://www.aaheritageva.org/search/sites.asp?MailingListID=19 Information on Hampton University from Virginia African Heritage Program]
* {{AFI film|126|Hampton Institute: Its Program of Education for Life}}

{{Hampton University}}
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[[Category:Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia]]
[[Category:University and college buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia]]
[[Category:Hampton University| ]]
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2016-10-18T21:59:06Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 82.11.162.24 (talk) to last revision by JimVC3. (TW)

[[File:Leitner system alternative.svg|230px|thumb|In the [[Leitner system]], correctly answered cards are advanced to the next, less frequent box, while incorrectly answered cards return to the first box for more aggressive review and repetition.]]

'''Spaced repetition''' is a [[learning]] technique that incorporates increasing intervals of time between subsequent review of previously learned material in order to exploit the psychological [[spacing effect]]. Alternative names include ''spaced rehearsal'', ''expanding rehearsal'', ''graduated intervals'', ''repetition spacing'', ''repetition scheduling'', ''[[spaced retrieval]]'' and ''expanded retrieval''.<ref>"Human Memory: Theory and Practice", Alan D. Baddeley, 1997</ref>

Although the principle is useful in many contexts, spaced repetition is commonly applied in contexts in which a learner must acquire a large number of items and retain them indefinitely in memory. It is, therefore, well suited for the problem of [[vocabulary]] acquisition in the course of second language learning, due to the size of the target language's inventory of [[Open class (linguistics)|open-class]] words.

==Research and applications==
[[File:spaced repetition.webm|thumb|upright=1.4|Video explanation]]
{{See also|Spacing effect}}

The notion that spaced repetition could be used for improving learning was first proposed in the book ''Psychology of Study'' by Prof. [[Cecil Alec Mace|C. A. Mace]] in 1932: "Perhaps the most important discoveries are those which relate to the appropriate distribution of the periods of study...Acts of revision should be spaced in gradually increasing intervals, roughly intervals of one day, two days, four days, eight days, and so on."{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

In 1939, H. F. Spitzer tested the effects of a type of spaced repetition on sixth-grade students in Iowa learning science facts.<ref>Spitzer, H. F. (1939). Studies in retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 30, 641–657.</ref> Spitzer tested over 3600 students in Iowa and showed that spaced repetition was effective. This early work went unnoticed, and the field was relatively quiet until the late 1960s when cognitive psychologists, including Melton<ref>Melton, A. W. (1970). The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 596–606.</ref> and Landauer & Bjork,<ref>Landauer, T. K., & Bjork, R. A. (1978). Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning. In M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory (pp. 625–632). London: Academic Press.</ref> explored manipulation of repetition timing as a means to improve recall. Around the same time, [[Pimsleur Language Programs|Pimsleur language courses]] pioneered the practical application of spaced repetition theory to language learning, and in 1973 [[Sebastian Leitner]] devised his "[[Leitner system]]", an all-purpose spaced repetition learning system based on [[flashcard]]s.

With the increase in access to personal computers in the 1980s, spaced repetition began to be implemented with [[computer-assisted language learning]] software-based solutions,<ref>See [[#Software]]</ref> enabling automated scheduling and statistic gathering, scaling to thousands of cards scheduled individually.{{POV-statement|1=E2.80.9CPrograms.E2.80.A6tailor_to_learner_performance.E2.80.9D_conveys_the_incorrrect_notion_that_flash_cards_do_not_do_this|date=April 2014}}{{citation needed|date=April 2014}} To enable the user to reach a target level of achievement (e.g. 90% of all material correctly recalled at any given time point), the software adjusts the repetition spacing interval. Material that is hard appears more often and material that is easy less often, with difficulty defined according to the ease with which the user is able to produce a correct response.

==Algorithms==

There are several families of algorithms for scheduling spaced repetition:
*[[Pythagorean Method of Memorization|PYMOM- Pythagorean Method of Memorization]]
*[[Neural network]]s based
*[[Leitner system]]: 5 stages and an arbitrary number of stages
*SM-family of algorithms ([[SuperMemo]]): SM-0 (a paper implementation) to SM-15 (in SuperMemo 15)

Some have theorized that the precise length of intervals does not have a great impact on algorithm effectiveness,<ref>Cull, W. L. (2000). Untangling the benefits of multiple study opportunities and repeated testing for cued recall. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 215–235.</ref> although it has been suggested by others that the interval ([[expanded interval|expanded]] vs. [[fixed interval]], etc.) is quite important. The experimental results regarding this point are mixed.<ref>[http://www.psych.wustl.edu/coglab/publications/Balota+et+al+roddy+chapter.pdf Chapter 6:Is Expanded Retrieval Practice a Superior Form of Spaced Retrieval?], A Critical Review of the Extant Literature, DAVID A. BALOTA, JANET M DUCHEK, and JESSICA M. LOGAN</ref>

==Pimsleur's graduated-interval recall==
Graduated-interval recall is a type of spaced repetition published by [[Paul Pimsleur]] in 1967.<ref>{{cite journal
|title=A Memory Schedule
|first=Paul
|last=Pimsleur
|periodical=The Modern Language Journal
|volume=51
|issue=2
|date=February 1967
|pages=73–75
|doi=10.2307/321812
|jstor=321812
|publisher=Blackwell Publishing
|postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> It is used in the [[Pimsleur Language Programs|Pimsleur language learning system]] and is particularly suited to programmed audio instruction due to the very short times (measured in seconds or minutes) between the first few repetitions, as compared to other forms of spaced repetition which may not require such precise timings.

The intervals published in Pimsleur's paper were: 5 seconds, 25 seconds, 2 minutes, 10 minutes, 1 hour, 5 hours, 1 day, 5 days, 25 days, 4 months, and 2 years.

By timing a Pimsleur language program with a stopwatch,{{Or|date=February 2011}} it is possible to verify that the intervals are not followed exactly but have upper and lower bounds. A similar principle (graduated intervals with upper and lower bounds) is used in at least one [[open source]] software project ([http://people.pwf.cam.ac.uk/ssb22/gradint/ Gradint]) to schedule audio-only lessons.

==Software==
{{seealso|List of flashcard software}}
[[File:Anki 2.0.22 KDE4.en.story-ru-en.smallwindow.png|thumbnail|Anki used for memorizing Russian vocabulary]]
Most spaced repetition software (SRS) programs are modeled after the manual style of learning with [[flashcard]]s: items to memorize are entered into the program as question-answer pairs. When a pair is due to be reviewed, the question is displayed on screen, and the user must attempt to answer. After answering, the user manually reveals the answer and then tells the program (subjectively) how difficult answering was. The program schedules pairs based on spaced repetition algorithms.
Without a program, the user has to schedule [[flashcard]]s; this is time-intensive and limits users to simple algorithms like the [[Leitner system]].<ref>[http://www.theguardian.com/education/2016/jan/23/spaced-repetition-a-hack-to-make-your-brain-store-information "Spaced repetition: a hack to make your brain store information", The Guardian, retrieved 2016-04-26]</ref>

Further refinements with regard to software:
* Questions and/or answers can be a sound-file to train recognition of spoken words.
* Automatic generation of pairs (e.g. for vocabulary, it is useful to generate three question-pairs: ''written foreign word'', its ''pronunciation'' and its ''meaning'', but data only has to be entered once.)
* Additional information retrieved automatically is available, such as example sentences containing a word.
* Opportunities to combine spaced repetition with online community functions, e.g. sharing courses.

Notable implementations include

[[Anki (software)|Anki]], [[Brainscape]], [[Cerego]], [[Course Hero]], [[Duolingo]], [[Lingvist]], [[Memrise]], [[Mnemosyne (software)|Mnemosyne]], [[Skritter]], [http://www.SpacedRepetition.com SpacedRepetition.com], [[SuperMemo]], [[Synap]] and [[WaniKani]].

==Further reading==
* Caple, C. (1996). "The Effects of Spaced Practice and Spaced Review on Recall and Retention Using Computer Assisted Instruction". Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Education, North Carolina State University.[http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED427772&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED427772]
* de Boer, V. (2003, August). "Optimal Learning and the Spacing Effect: Theory, Application and Experiments based on the Memory Chain Model". Artificial Intelligence Master's Thesis for Computational Psychology, University of Amsterdam.[http://www.few.vu.nl/~vbr240/publications/Scriptie.pdf]
* Dempster, F. N. (1988). "The Spacing Effect: A Case Study in the Failure to Apply the Results of Psychological Research". American Psychologist, 43(8), 627-634.
* Greene R. L. (2008). Repetition and spacing effects. In Roediger H. L. III (Ed.), Learning and memory: A comprehensive reference. Vol. 2: Cognitive psychology of memory (pp. 65–78). Oxford: Elsevier.
* The Guardian (2016). "Spaced Repetition: A hack to make your brain learn more information". [http://www.theguardian.com/education/2016/jan/23/spaced-repetition-a-hack-to-make-your-brain-store-information]
* Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2007). "Expanding Retrieval Practice Promotes Short-Term Retention, but Equally Spaced Retrieval Enhances Long-Term Retention". ''Journal of Experimental Psychology'': Learning, * Memory, and Cognition, 33(4), 704-719.[http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Karpicke_Roediger_2007_JEPLMC.pdf]
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.juro.2006.11.074 | last1 = Kerfoot | first1 = B. P. | last2 = Baker | first2 = H. E. | last3 = Koch | first3 = M. O. | last4 = Connelly | first4 = D. | last5 = Joseph | first5 = D. B. | last6 = Ritchey | first6 = M. L. | year = 2007 | title = Randomized, Controlled Trial of Spaced Education to Urology Residents in the United States and Canada | url = | journal = The Journal of Urology | volume = 177 | issue = 4| pages = 1481–1487 | pmid = 17382760 }}
* Pavlik, P. I. (2005). ''The Microeconomics of Learning: Optimizing Paired-Associate Memory''. PhD, [[Carnegie Mellon]].
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Pavlik | first1 = P. I. | last2 = Anderson | first2 = J. R. | year = 2008 | title = Using a model to compute the optimal schedule of practice | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18590367 | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 101–117 | pmid = 18590367 | doi = 10.1037/1076-898X.14.2.101 }}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.supermemo.com/articles/20rules.htm|title=Effective learning: Twenty rules of formulating knowledge|author=Dr Piotr Wozniak|date=Feb 1999}} — advice on making flashcards for spaced repetition.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Spaced repetition}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Spaced Repetition}}
[[Category:Memory]]
[[Category:Learning methods]]
[[Category:Learning psychology]]
[[Category:Spaced repetition software| ]]

Spaced Repetition

2016-10-18T21:57:19Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 82.11.162.24 (talk) to last revision by OsmoseIt. (TW)

Carter G. Woodson

2016-10-17T17:22:01Z

JimVC3: Reverted 2 edits by 2A02:C7D:E08A:300:5536:82E2:8C2E:A6AE (talk) to last revision by Quinton Feldberg. (TW)

{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Carter Godwin Woodson
|image = Carter G Woodson portrait.jpg
|alt =
|caption = Carter G. Woodson
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1875|12|19}}
|birth_place = [[New Canton, Virginia]]
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1950|4|3|1875|12|9}}
|death_place = Washington, DC
|other_names =
|known_for = Founded the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History (now called Association for the Study of African American Life and History). Established Negro History Week.
|occupation = Historian
|nationality =
|education = B.Litt, [[Berea College]] (1903) A.B.; M.A., [[University of Chicago]] (1908) PhD, [[Harvard University]] (1912)
}}

'''Carter Godwin Woodson''' (December 19, 1875{{spaced ndash}}April 3, 1950)<ref>{{cite book |title=The correspondence of W. E. B. Du Bois, Volume 3 |last=Du Bois |first=William Edward Burghardt |authorlink=W. E. B. Du Bois |publisher=[[University of Massachusetts Press]] |location= |isbn=1-55849-105-8 |page=282 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HrGNkNrkEVEC&source=gbs_navlinks_s |accessdate=May 30, 2011}}</ref> was an African-American historian, author, journalist and the founder of the [[Association for the Study of African American Life and History]]. Woodson was one of the first scholars to study [[African-American history]]. A founder of ''[[The Journal of Negro History]]'' in 1915, Woodson has been cited as the [[List of people known as the father or mother of something|father of black history]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.america.gov/st/diversity-english/2005/June/20080207153802liameruoy0.1187708.html |title=Carter G. Woodson, Father of Black History |first=Lerone |last=Bennett, Jr. |work=[[United States Department of State]] |year=2005 |accessdate=May 30, 2011}}</ref> In February 1926 he launched the celebration of "Negro History Week"; it was the precursor of [[Black History Month]].<ref>Daryl Michael Scott, [http://www.asalh.net/blackhistorymonthorigins.html/ "The History of Black History Month"], on ASALH website.</ref>

==Background==
{{African American topics sidebar|right}}
Carter G. Woodson was born in Buckingham County, Virginia<ref>"Virginian Started Negro History Week in 1926". ''Norfolk (VA) New Journal and Guide'', February 9, 1957, p. 11.</ref> on December 19, 1875, the son of former slaves, James and Eliza Riddle Woodson.<ref>Betty J. Edwards, "He Made World Respect Negroes". ''Chicago Defender'', February 8, 1965, p. 9.</ref> His father helped [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] soldiers during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] and moved his family to [[West Virginia]] when he heard that [[Huntington, West Virginia|Huntington]] was building a high school for blacks.

Coming from a large, poor family, Carter Woodson could not regularly attend school. Through self-instruction, Woodson mastered the fundamentals of common school subjects by age 17. Wanting more education, Carter went to [[Fayette County, West Virginia|Fayette County]] to earn a living as a miner in the coal fields. He was able to devote only a few months each year to his schooling.

In 1895, at the age of 20, Woodson entered [[Douglass Junior and Senior High School|Douglass High School]], where he received his diploma in less than two years.<ref>Maurice F. White, "Dr. Carter G. Woodson History Week Founder". ''Cleveland Call and Post'', February 16, 1963, p. 3C.</ref> From 1897 to 1900, Woodson taught at [[Winona, West Virginia|Winona]] in Fayette County. In 1900 he was selected as the principal of Douglass High School. He earned his Bachelor of Literature degree from [[Berea College]] in [[Kentucky]] in 1903 by taking classes part-time between 1901 and 1903.

==Career in education==
From 1903 to 1907, Woodson was a school supervisor in the [[Philippines]]. Later, he attended the [[University of Chicago]], where he was awarded an A.B. and A.M. in 1908. He was a member of the first black professional fraternity [[Sigma Pi Phi]] and a member of [[Omega Psi Phi]].<ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1077/is_11_59/ai_n6158341 1904–2004: the Boule at 100: Sigma Pi Phi Fraternity holds centennial celebration |''Ebony'' | Find Articles at BNET.com]</ref>
He completed his PhD in history at [[Harvard University]] in 1912, where he was the second African American (after [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]) to earn a doctorate.<ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/id/232818 "The End of Black History Month?"] ''Newsweek'', January 28, 2010.</ref> His doctoral dissertation, ''The Disruption of Virginia'', was based on research he did at the [[Library of Congress]] while teaching high school in Washington, D.C. After earning the doctoral degree, he continued teaching in public schools, later joining the faculty at [[Howard University]] as a professor, where he served as Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences.

Convinced that the role of African American history and the history of other cultures was being ignored or misrepresented among scholars, Woodson saw a need for research into the neglected past of African Americans. Along with [[Alexander L. Jackson]], Woodson published ''The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861'' in 1915.

Carter G. Woodson stayed at the Wabash Avenue YMCA during visits to Chicago. Dr. Woodson's experiences at the Y and in the surrounding Bronzeville neighborhood inspired him to create the [[Association for the Study of Negro Life and History]] in 1915. The Association for the Study of Negro Life and History (now the Association for the Study of African American Life and History), which ran conferences, published ''[[The Journal of Negro History]]'', and "particularly targeted those responsible for the education of black children".<ref name=Corbould>[http://wxy.seu.edu.cn/humanities/sociology/htmledit/uploadfile/system/20101027/20101027204148895.pdf Claire Corbould, ''Becoming African Americans: The Public Life of Harlem 1919–1939''], Cambridge, Massachusetts/London, England: Harvard University Press, 2009, p. 88.</ref> Another inspiration was [[John Wesley Cromwell]]'s 1914 book, ''The Negro in American History: Men and Women Eminent in the Evolution of the American of African Descent''.<ref>Karen Juanita Carrillo, ''African American History Day by Day: A Reference Guide to Events''. ABC-CLIO, August 22, 2012, pages 262–263.</ref>

Woodson believed that education and increasing social and professional contacts among blacks and whites could reduce racism and he promoted the organized study of African-American history partly for that purpose. Woodson would later promote the first Negro History Week in Washington, D.C., in 1926, forerunner of Black History Month.<ref>http://bmrcsurvey.uchicago.edu/collections/1410</ref> The Bronzeville neighborhood declined during the late 1960s and 1970s like many other [[inner city]] neighborhoods across the country, and the Wabash Avenue YMCA was forced to close during the 1970s, until being restored in 1992 by The Renaissance Collaborative.<ref>[http://www.trcwabash.org/history.html "History"], The Renaissance Collaborative.</ref>

He served as Academic Dean of the [[West Virginia Collegiate Institute]], now West Virginia State University, from 1920 to 1922.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wvstateu.edu/announcement/2015/01/29/West-Virginia-State-University-Celebrates-Black-Hi.aspx|title=West Virginia State University Celebrates Black History Month with Series of Events|date=January 29, 2015|last=Osborne|first=Kellie|publisher=West Virginia State University|accessdate=February 5, 2015}}</ref>

In addition to his first book, he wrote ''A Century of Negro Migration'', which continues to be published by the [[Association for the Study of African American Life and History]] (ASALH).
He studied many aspects of African-American history. For instance, in 1924, he published the first survey of free black slaveowners in the United States in 1930.<ref>Charles H. Wesley, "Carter G. Woodson as a Scholar", ''The Journal of Negro History'', Vol. 36, No. 1 (January 1951), pp. 12–24, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2715774 in JSTOR].</ref>

He once wrote:
“If you can control a man’s thinking, you don’t have to worry about his actions. If you can determine what a man thinks you do not have to worry about what he will do.
If you can make a man believe that he is inferior, you don’t have to compel him to seek an inferior status, he will do so without being told and if you can make a man believe that he is justly an outcast, you don’t have to order him to the back door, he will go to the back door on his own and if there is no back door, the very nature of the man will demand that you build one.”

==NAACP==
Woodson became affiliated with the Washington, D.C. branch of the [[NAACP]], and its chairman [[Archibald Grimké]]. On January 28, 1915, he wrote a letter to Grimké expressing his dissatisfaction with activities. Woodson made two proposals:
#That the branch secure an office for a center to which persons may report whatever concerns the black race may have, and from which the Association may extend its operations into every part of the city; and
#That a canvasser be appointed to enlist members and obtain subscriptions for ''[[The Crisis]]'', the NAACP magazine edited by [[W. E. B. Du Bois]].

W. E. B. Du Bois added the proposal to divert "patronage from business establishments which do not treat races alike," that is, boycott businesses. Woodson wrote that he would cooperate as one of the twenty-five effective canvassers, adding that he would pay the office rent for one month. Grimke did not welcome Woodson's ideas.{{Citation needed|date = February 2016}}

Responding to Grimke's comments about his proposals, on March 18, 1915, Woodson wrote:
:"I am not afraid of being sued by white businessmen. In fact, I should welcome such a law suit. It would do the cause much good. Let us banish fear. We have been in this mental state for three centuries. I am a radical. I am ready to act, if I can find brave men to help me."<ref>{{Cite book|title = On the Road to Freedom: A Guided Tour of the Civil Rights Trail|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=y7mblCN5CUIC|publisher = Algonquin Books|date = 2008-01-01|isbn = 9781565124394|language = en|first = Charles E.|last = Cobb, Jr.|page = 28}}</ref>

His difference of opinion with Grimké, who wanted a more conservative course, contributed to Woodson's ending his affiliation with the NAACP.{{Citation needed|date = February 2016}}


==Black History Month==
After leaving Howard University because of differences with its president,{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Woodson devoted the rest of his life to historical research. He worked to preserve the history of African Americans and accumulated a collection of thousands of artifacts and publications. He noted that African-American contributions "were overlooked, ignored, and even suppressed by the writers of history textbooks and the teachers who use them."<ref name=CurrentBio>''Current Biography 1944'', p. 742.</ref> Race prejudice, he concluded, "is merely the logical result of tradition, the inevitable outcome of thorough instruction to the effect that the Negro has never contributed anything to the progress of mankind."<ref name=CurrentBio />

In 1926, Woodson pioneered the celebration of "Negro History Week",<ref>Corbould (2009), p. 106.</ref> designated for the second week in February, to coincide with marking the birthdays of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and [[Frederick Douglass]].<ref>Delilah L. Beasley, "Activities Among Negroes, ''Oakland Tribune'', February 14, 1926, p. X–5.</ref> The week of recognition became accepted and has been extended as the full month of February, now known as [[Black History Month]].

==Colleagues==
Woodson believed in self-reliance and racial respect, values he shared with [[Marcus Garvey]], a [[Jamaican]] activist who worked in New York. Woodson became a regular columnist for Garvey's weekly ''Negro World''.

Woodson's political activism placed him at the center of a circle of many black intellectuals and activists from the 1920s to the 1940s. He corresponded with [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], [[John Edward Bruce|John E. Bruce]], [[Arturo Alfonso Schomburg]], [[Hubert Harrison|Hubert H. Harrison]], and [[Timothy Thomas Fortune|T. Thomas Fortune]] among others. Even with the extended duties of the Association, Woodson made time to write academic works such as ''The History of the Negro Church'' (1922), ''[[The Mis-Education of the Negro]]'' (1933), and others which continue to have wide readership.

Woodson did not shy away from controversial subjects, and used the pages of ''Black World'' to contribute to debates. One issue related to West Indian/African-American relations. Woodson summarized that "the West Indian Negro is free." He observed that West Indian societies had been more successful at properly dedicating the necessary amounts of time and resources needed to educate and genuinely emancipate people. Woodson approved of efforts by West Indians to include materials related to Black history and culture into their school curricula.

Woodson was ostracized by some of his contemporaries because of his insistence on defining a category of history related to ethnic culture and race. At the time, these educators felt that it was wrong to teach or understand African-American history as separate from more general American history. According to these educators, "Negroes" were simply Americans, darker skinned, but with no history apart from that of any other. Thus Woodson's efforts to get Black culture and history into the curricula of institutions, even historically Black colleges, were often unsuccessful. Today African-American studies have become specialized fields of study in history, music, culture, literature and other areas; in addition, there is more emphasis on African-American contributions to general American culture. The United States government celebrates Black History Month.

==Woodson's legacy==

Carter G. Woodson died suddenly from a heart attack in the office within his [[Carter G. Woodson Home National Historic Site|home]] in the Shaw neighborhood of Washington, DC on April 3, 1950, at the age of 74. He is buried at Lincoln Memorial Cemetery in [[Suitland, Maryland]].

That schools have set aside a time each year to focus on African-American history is Woodson's most visible legacy. His determination to further the recognition of the Negro in American and world history, however, inspired countless other scholars. Woodson remained focused on his work throughout his life. Many see him as a man of vision and understanding. Although Woodson was among the ranks of the educated few, he did not feel particularly sentimental about elite educational institutions.{{Citation needed|reason=April 2008|date=April 2008}} The Association and journal that he started in 1915 continue, and both have earned intellectual respect.

Woodson's other far-reaching activities included the founding in 1920 of the Associated Publishers, the oldest African-American publishing company in the United States. This enabled publication of books concerning blacks that might not have been supported in the rest of the market. He founded Negro History Week in 1926 (now known as Black History Month). He created the ''Negro History Bulletin'', developed for teachers in elementary and high school grades, and published continuously since 1937. Woodson also influenced the Association's direction and subsidizing of research in African-American history. He wrote numerous articles, monographs and books on Blacks. ''The Negro in Our History'' reached its eleventh edition in 1966, when it had sold more than 90,000 copies.

[[Dorothy Porter Wesley]] stated that "Woodson would wrap up his publications, take them to the post office and have dinner at the YMCA." He would teasingly decline her dinner invitations saying, "No, you are trying to marry me off. I am married to my work"{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}. Woodson's most cherished ambition, a six-volume ''Encyclopedia Africana'', lay incomplete at the time of his death.

==Honors and tributes==
* In 1926, Woodson received the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] [[Spingarn Medal]].
* The ''[[National Council for the Social Studies#Awards|Carter G. Woodson Book Award]]'' was established in 1974 "for the most distinguished social science books appropriate for young readers that depict ethnicity in the United States."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.socialstudies.org/awards/woodson/about |title=About the Carter G. Woodson Book Award |publisher=National Council for the Social Studies |accessdate=October 17, 2015 }}</ref>
* The U.S. Postal Service issued a 20 cent stamp honoring Woodson in 1984.<ref>{{cite web | title = Stamp Series | publisher = United States Postal Service | url = http://beyondtheperf.com/stamp-series | accessdate = September 2, 2013}}</ref>
* In 1992, the [[Library of Congress]] held an exhibition entitled "Moving Back Barriers: The Legacy of Carter G. Woodson". Woodson had donated his collection of 5,000 items from the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries to the Library.
* His Washington, D.C. home has been preserved and designated the [[Carter G. Woodson Home National Historic Site]].
* In 2002, scholar [[Molefi Kete Asante]] named Carter G. Woodson on his list of [[100 Greatest African Americans]].<ref>Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). ''100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia''. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8.</ref>

==Places named after Woodson==
[[File:CARTER G. WOODSON - TEACHER, HISTORIAN, PUBLISHER - NARA - 535622.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Carter Woodson biographical cartoon by [[Charles Alston]], 1943]]

===California===
* Carter G. Woodson Elementary School in [[Los Angeles]].
*Carter G. Woodson Public Charter School in [[Fresno, California|Fresno]].

===Florida===
* Carter G. Woodson Park, in [[Oakland Park, Florida|Oakland Park]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oaklandparkfl.org/index.asp?Type=B_EV&SEC={5BD110B8-7DD4-4AE1-A07C-043D46927297}&DE={4225AAD7-7EF2-4FD3-BF09-F068949400E4} |title=Dr. Carter G. Wilson Festival |publisher=The City of Oakland Park |accessdate=December 15, 2008}}</ref>
* Carter G. Woodson Elementary School was located in Oakland Park. It was closed in 1965 when the [[Broward County Public Schools]] system was desegregated.
* [[Dr. Carter G. Woodson African American Museum]] in [[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]].
* Carter G. Woodson Elementary School in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]].

===Georgia===
* Carter G. Woodson Elementary in [[Atlanta]].

===Illinois===
* [[Carter G. Woodson Regional Library]] in Chicago.
* Carter G. Woodson Middle School in Chicago.
* Carter G. Woodson Library of [[Malcolm X College]] in Chicago

===Indiana===
* Carter G. Woodson Library in [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]].

===Kentucky===
* Carter G. Woodson Academy in [[Lexington, Kentucky|Lexington]].
* Carter G. Woodson Center for Interracial Education, [[Berea College]], in [[Berea, Kentucky|Berea]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.berea.edu/cgwc/|title=Carter G. Woodson Center for Interracial Education|publisher=[[Berea College]]|accessdate=April 1, 2013}}</ref>

===Louisiana===
* Carter G. Woodson Middle School in [[New Orleans]].
* Carter G. Woodson Liberal Arts Building at [[Grambling State University]], built in 1915, in [[Grambling, Louisiana|Grambling]].

===Maryland===
* Carter G. Woodson Elementary in [[Crisfield, Maryland|Crisfield]]. [http://www.somerset.k12.md.us/WES/]
* Dr. Carter G. Woodson Elementary in [[Baltimore]]. [http://www.bcps.k12.md.us/]

===Minnesota===
* Woodson Institute for Student Excellence in [[Minneapolis]].

===New York===
* PS 23 Carter G. Woodson School in [[Brooklyn]]. [http://www.ps23woodson.org/home]

===North Carolina===
* Carter G. Woodson Charter School in [[Winston-Salem, North Carolina|Winston-Salem]].

===Texas===
* [[Woodson K-8 School]] in [[Houston]].
*Carter G. Woodson Park in [[Odessa, Texas|Odessa]]

===Virginia===
* The Carter G. Woodson Institute for African-American and African Studies at the [[University of Virginia]], [[Charlottesville, Virginia|Charlottesville]]. [http://artsandsciences.virginia.edu/woodson/]
* Carter G. Woodson Middle School in [[Hopewell, Virginia|Hopewell]].
* C.G. Woodson Road in his home town of [[New Canton, Virginia|New Canton]].
* Carter G. Woodson Education Complex in [[Buckingham County, Virginia|Buckingham County]], built in 2012.

===Washington, DC===
* Carter G. Woodson Junior High School was named for him. It currently hosts [[Friendship Collegiate Academy Public Charter School]].
* The Carter G. Woodson Memorial Park is between 9th Street, Q Street and Rhode Island Avenue, NW. The park contains a cast bronze sculpture of the historian by [[Raymond Kaskey]].
* The [[Carter G. Woodson Home National Historic Site|Carter G. Woodson Home]], a National Historic Site, is located at 538 9th St., NW, Washington, D.C.

===West Virginia===
* Carter G. Woodson Jr. High School (renamed McKinley Jr. High School after integration in 1954) in [[St. Albans, West Virginia|St. Albans]], built in 1932.
* Carter G. Woodson Avenue (also known as 9th Avenue) in Huntington. Notably, Woodson's alma mater, Douglass High School, is located between Carter G. Woodson Avenue and 10th Avenue in the 1500 block.

==Selected bibliography==

* ''A Century of Negro Migration'' (1918)
* ''The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861'' (1919)
* ''The History of the Negro Church'' (1921)
* ''The Negro in Our History'' (1922)
* ''Free Negro Owners of Slaves in the United States in 1830, Together With Absentee Ownership of Slaves in the United States in 1830'' (1924)
* ''Free Negro Heads of Families in the United States in 1830, Together With a Brief Treatment of the Free Negro'' (1925)
* ''Negro Orators and Their Orations'' (1925)
* ''The Mind of the Negro as Reflected in Letters Written During the Crisis, 1800–1860'' (1927)
* ''Negro Makers of History'' (1928)
* ''African Myths, Together With Proverbs'' (1928)
* ''The Rural Negro'' (1930)
* ''The Negro Wage Earner'' (1930)
* ''[[The Mis-Education of the Negro]]'' (1933)
* ''The Negro Professional Man and the Community, With Special Emphasis on the Physician and the Lawyer'' (1934)
* ''The Story of the Negro Retold'' (1935)
* ''The African Background Outlined: Or, Handbook for the Study of the Negro'' (1936)
* ''African Heroes and Heroines'' (1939)
* ''The Works of Francis J. Grimké'' (1942)
* ''Carter G. Woodson's Appeal: The Lost Manuscript Edition'' (2008)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Alridge, Derrick P. "Woodson, Carter G." in ''Encyclopedia of American Studies'', ed. Simon J. Bronner (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015), [http://eas-ref.press.jhu.edu/view?aid=336 online].
* Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo. ''The Early Black History Movement, Carter G. Woodson, and Lorenzo Johnston Greene'' (U of Illinois. Press 2007).
* Goggin, Jacqueline Anne. ''Carter G. Woodson: A Life in Black History'' (LSU Press 1997).
* Meier, August, and Elliott Rudwick. ''Black History and the Historical Profession, 1915–1980'' (Univ. of Illinois. Press 1986).
* Roche, A. "Carter G. Woodson and the Development of Transformative Scholarship", in James Banks ed., ''Multicultural Education, Transformative Knowledge, and Action: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives'' (Teachers College Press 1996).

==External links==
{{Portal|Biography|Children's literature}}
* [http://www.asalh.org/ The Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)]
* [http://www.themiseducationofthenegro.net/ Audiobook version of "The Mis-Education of the Negro"]
* [http://www.lostmanuscript.com/ Homepage for Carter G. Woodson's Appeal]
* Daryl Michael Scott, [http://www.asalh.net/blackhistorymonthorigins.html/ "The History of Black History Month"], on ASALH website
* [http://www.woodsonmuseum.org/ Dr. Carter G. Woodson African American History Museum]
* [http://stalbanshistory.com/School_Photos.html "Some St. Albans Schools over the years", St. Albans Historical Society.]
* [http://www.woodsonmuseum.org Dr. Carter G. Woodson African American Museum]

===Woodson's writings===
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Carter Godwin Woodson}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id=Woodson,+Carter+G. }}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Carter Godwin Woodson}}
* {{cite book|title=The History of the Negro Church |isbn=0-87498-000-3}}
* {{cite book|title=Mis-Education of the Negro |isbn=0-9768111-0-3}}

===Other information about Woodson===
* [http://www.unia-acl.org/archive/Dr.htm/ Dr. Carter G. Woodson]
* [http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/woodson.html/ "Dr. Carter Godwin Woodson & the Observance of African History"]
* [http://www.loc.gov/today/pr/1993/93-083.html/ Library of Congress Initiates Traveling Exhibits Program]
* [http://www.loc.gov/today/pr/1993/93-123.html/ Library of Congress Traveling Exhibit re Dr. C.G. Woodson]
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?faid/faid:@field(DOCID+ms000014) Carter G. Woodson Collection of Negro Papers and Related Documents]
* [http://www.ngbiwm.com/Exhibits/Carter%20GWoodson.htm/ Carter G. Woodson Wax Figure at the National Great Blacks in Wax Museum]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Woodson, Carter G.}}
[[Category:American male journalists]]
[[Category:Historians of the United States]]
[[Category:20th-century American historians]]
[[Category:African-American history]]
[[Category:African-American writers]]
[[Category:Negro World contributors]]
[[Category:People from Huntington, West Virginia]]
[[Category:People from Fayette County, West Virginia]]
[[Category:People from Buckingham County, Virginia]]
[[Category:Journalists from Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:Writers from West Virginia]]
[[Category:Journalists from West Virginia]]
[[Category:Spingarn Medal winners]]
[[Category:Berea College alumni]]
[[Category:University of Chicago alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:1875 births]]
[[Category:1950 deaths]]

Carter G. Woodson

2016-10-17T17:18:30Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 2A02:C7D:E08A:300:5536:82E2:8C2E:A6AE (talk) to last revision by Haploidavey. (TW)

Japanophilie

2016-05-13T15:20:00Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 2600:1004:B016:14C3:B915:8912:940:6F72 (talk) to last revision by Onel5969. (TW)

[[File:Lafcadio Hearn portrait.jpg|right|thumb|[[Lafcadio Hearn]], aka Koizumi Yakumo, a notable scholar and author well known for his strong interest in Japanese culture.]]

'''Japanophilia''' refers to the appreciation and love of Japanese culture, people or history.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Japanophile|encyclopedia=Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged|year=200|publisher= Merriam-Webster|quote= one who especially admires and likes Japan or Japanese ways|url=http://unabridged.merriam-webster.com|accessdate=2016-02-21}}</ref> In Japanese, the term for Japanophile is {{nihongo|"shinnichi"|親日}}, with "親" {{nihongo|"shin"|しん}} equivalent to the English prefix 'pro-', and "日" {{nihongo|"nichi"|にち}}, meaning "Japanese" (as in the word for Japan {{nihongo|"Nihon"|日本}}). The term was first used as early as the 18th century, switching in scope over time.

==History==
===Early usage===

The term "Japanophile" traces back to the late 18th and early 19th centuries before Japan became more open to foreign trade. [[Carl Peter Thunberg]] and [[Philipp Franz von Siebold]] helped introduce Japanese flora, artworks, and other objects to Europe which spiked interest.<ref>{{cite book|title=William and Henry Walters, the Reticent Collectors|author=William R. Johnston|year=1999|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=0-8018-6040-7|page=76}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Topsy-Turvy 1585|author=Robin D. Gill|year=2004|publisher=Paraverse Press|isbn=0-9742618-1-5|page=25}}</ref> [[Lafcadio Hearn]], an Irish-Greek author who made his home in Japan in the 19th century, was described as "a confirmed Japanophile" by [[Tuttle Publishing|Charles E. Tuttle Company]] in their forewords to several of his books.<ref>{{cite news|title=Lafcadio Hearn|first= Heather|last= Hale|newspaper=Japanfile, the Website of [[Kansai Time Out]] Magazine|date=September 1990|url= http://www.japanfile.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=139|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070730150728/http://www.japanfile.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=139|archivedate=2007-07-30}}</ref>

===20th century===

In the first decade of the 20th century,and several British writers lauded Japan. In 1904, for example, [[Beatrice Webb]] wrote that Japan was a "rising star of human self-control and enlightenment", praising the "innovating collectivism" of the Japanese, and the "uncanny" purposefulness and open-mindedness of its "enlightened professional elite." [[H. G. Wells]] similarly named the élite of his ''[[A Modern Utopia]]'' "samurai". In part this was a result of the decline of British industrial primacy, with Japan and Germany rising comparatively. Germany was seen as a threat close to hand, but Japan was seen as a potential ally. The British sought efficiency as the solution to issues of productivity, and after the publication of [[Alfred Stead]]'s 1906 book ''Great Japan: A Study of National Efficiency'', pundits in Britain looked to Japan for lessons. This interest however, ended with [[World War I]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Parallax Visions: Making Sense of American-East Asian Relations|author=Bruce Cumings
|chapter=Archaeology, Descent, Emergence: American Mythology and East Asian Reality|year=1999|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=0-8223-2924-7|page=25}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Japan}}
* [[Japanization]]
* [[Japanification]]: cultural assimilation into Japanese society
* [[Japonism]]
* [[Japanese studies]]
* [[Cool Japan]]
* [[Japan Expo]]
* [[Orientalism]]
* [[Sinophile]]
* [[Korean Wave]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Cultural appreciation}}

[[Category:Japanese culture]]
[[Category:Japan in non-Japanese culture]]
[[Category:Admiration of foreign cultures]]
[[Category:Japanese subcultures]]
[[Category:Asian culture]]
[[Category:Orientalism by type]]
[[Category:Japanese nationalism]]

Edit-a-thon

2016-03-10T23:08:38Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by Buzzgirl75 (talk) to last revision by JanetTom55. (TW)

{{For|details of Wikipedia editathons|Wikipedia:Editathon}}
[[File:Giants in the field of Women in the Arts 2.jpg|thumb|Attendees at the 2013 Women in the Arts Edit-a-thon in Washington, DC]]
[[File:Editathon das minas.jpg|thumb|An edit-a-thon in [[São Paulo]], [[Brazil]], aimed at creating and improving Wikipedia articles relating to [[feminism]], [[women's rights]] and notable women]]

In the [[online community|online communities]] of projects such as [[Wikipedia]], [[OpenStreetMap]], and [[LocalWiki]] an '''edit-a-thon''' (sometimes written '''editathon''') is an event where editors get together to edit and improve a specific topic or type of content, typically including basic editing training for new editors. The word is a [[portmanteau]] of "edit" and "[[marathon]]".

Wikipedia edit-a-thons have taken place at [[Wikimedia chapter]] headquarters or [[cultural institutions]] such as [[museums]] or [[archives]], and included topics such as cultural heritage sites, museum collections, women's history, art, feminism, narrowing [[Wikipedia#Demographics|Wikipedia's gender gap]], and other topics.<ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Michelle R.|title='Edit-A-Thon' Aims To Fix Gender Inequality On Wikipedia|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/16/wikipedia-gender-inequality_n_4109800.html|accessdate=5 February 2014|newspaper=[[Huffington Post]]|date=16 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Katzner|first=Ben|title=SCSU group participates in edit-a-thon for Wikipedia website|url=http://www.sctimes.com/article/20140201/NEWS01/302010024/SCSU-group-participates-edit-thon-Wikipedia-website|accessdate=5 February 2014|newspaper=[[St. Cloud Times]]|date=1 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Koh|first=Adeline|title=How to Organize Your Own Wikipedia Edit-a-Thon|url=http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/how-to-organize-your-own-wikipedia-edit-a-thon/49757|accessdate=5 February 2014|newspaper=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]|date=30 May 2013}}</ref> Women and African Americans and the LGBT community are using edit-a-thons as a way of bridging the gap in Wikipedia's sexual and racial makeup.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Reynosa|first1=Peter|title=Why Don't More Latinos Contribute to Wikipedia?|url=http://eltecolote.org/content/en/commentary/why-dont-more-latinos-contribute-to-wikipedia/|publisher=El Tecolote|accessdate=December 4, 2015}}</ref> Some have been organised by [[Wikipedian in residence|Wikipedians in residence]].

The OpenStreetMap community has also hosted a number of edit-a-thons.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mapbox.com/blog/spring-openstreetmap-editathon/ |title=OpenStreetMap #Editathon at MapBox |date=12 April 2013 |first=Ian |last=Villeda |accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://dusp.mit.edu/uis/event/fall-2013-openstreetmap-editathon |title=Fall 2013 OpenStreetMap Editathon |date=18 October 2013 |first=Mike |last=Foster |accessdate=7 April 2014}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Hackathon]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Wikimedia edit-a-thons}}
* [http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Mapathon OpenStreetMap 'Mapathons']

{{Wikipedia}}

[[Category:Wikipedia]]
[[Category:Activism by type]]
[[Category:OpenStreetMap]]

Byron Saxton

2015-12-10T00:17:47Z

JimVC3: rv leftover vandalism

{{Infobox professional wrestler
|name = Byron Saxton
|image = Byron Saxton.jpg
|caption=Saxton in 2008
|alt =
|birthname = Bryan Jesus Kelly
|names = Bryan Kelly<ref name="OWOW"/> '''Byron Saxton'''<ref name="WWEbio"/> Michael Cade<ref name="OWOW"/>
|height = {{height|ft=6|in=1}}<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|weight = {{convert|212|lb|kg|abbr=on}}<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1981|8|20}}<ref name="OWOW"/>
|birth_place = [[Burke, Virginia]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
|resides = [[Tampa, Florida]]
|billed = Burke, Virginia<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|trainer = [[Florida Championship Wrestling]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
|debut = 2003<ref name="OWOW"/>
}}
'''Bryan Jesus Kelly'''<ref name="OWOW">{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/b/byron-saxton.html|title=Byron Kelly Profile|accessdate=2008-03-04|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> (born August 20, 1981) is an [[United States|American]] semi-retired [[Professional wrestling]] [[Manager (professional wrestling)|manager]], [[color commentator]], [[ring announcer]] and former [[journalist]]. He is currently signed to [[WWE]], where he works as an announcer on ''[[WWE Raw]]'', ''[[WWE Main Event|Main Event]]'', ''[[WWE Superstars|Superstars]]'' and ''[[WWE NXT (TV series)|NXT]]''. He is working under the ring name '''Byron Saxton'''.<ref name="OWOW"/> He was a competitor in the [[WWE NXT#Season 4|fourth season]] of ''[[WWE NXT|NXT]]'' and was competing in the show's fifth season, ''[[WWE NXT#NXT Redemption|NXT Redemption]]'',<ref name="NXTbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/superstars/wwenxt/byronsaxton/|title=Byron Saxton Bio|accessdate=2010-12-04|publisher=[[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref name="NXT"/> until his elimination on May 31, 2011.

==Early life==
Kelly was born in [[Burke, Virginia|Burke]], [[Virginia]]. He was raised in Burke and [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]]. He studied at the [[University of Florida]], where he worked as a producer and a reporter for WRUF-AM, [[WUFT-FM]], and [[WUFT (TV)|WUFT-TV]].<ref name="WJXT">{{cite web|url=http://www.news4jax.com/station/4108384/detail.html|title=Bryan Kelly|accessdate=2008-03-04|publisher=news4jax.com}}</ref> He graduated in 2003.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2010/10/20/1883690/meet-wwe-superstar-sheamus-at.html|title=Meet WWE superstar Sheamus at FCW show; Interview with Batista|date=2010-10-20|accessdate=2010-10-23|work=[[The Miami Herald]]|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5thVx3K3V|archivedate=2010-10-23}}</ref> Kelly worked as an associate producer for [[WJXT]] Channel 4 News in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], and was then promoted to work on [[camera]] as a [[Traffic reporting|traffic reporter]]. It was revealed in ''[[The JBL and Cole Show]]'' that he was in the same kindergarten class with [[Alex Riley]].<ref name="WWEbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/shows/ecw/superstars/byronsaxton/|title=Byron Saxton Bio|accessdate=2009-10-31|publisher=[[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref name="WJXT"/>

==Professional wrestling career==

===World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE===

====Florida Championship Wrestling (2007–2010; 2012)====
Kelly signed a [[Farm team#Professional wrestling|developmental]] contract with [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] and was assigned to [[Florida Championship Wrestling]] (FCW). Kelly, at first using his real name, made his FCW debut on October 13, 2007, losing to Hade Vansen.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – October 13, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Jewish Community Center|date=2007-10-13|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> His next appearance was just over a week later on October 23, when he lost to [[Nick Cvjetkovich|"The Carnival Freak" Sinn Bowdee]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – October 23, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-10-23|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly competed sporadically in FCW over the next few months, winning a six-man tag team match against Vansen, [[Sheamus|Sheamus O'Shaunessy]] and Bowdee with [[Ezekiel Jackson|Rycklon Stephens]] and [[Chet Douglas]] as his partners, but losing a [[Professional wrestling match types#Variations of singles matches|singles match]] to [[Afa Anoaʻi Jr.|Afa Jr.]] a few weeks later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – November 6, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-11-06|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – December 4, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-12-04|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> He finished off 2007 with a win against Tommy Taylor on December 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – December 18, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-12-18|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref>

[[File:Curt Hawkins and Byron Saxson.jpg|thumb|Saxton (right) with [[Curt Hawkins]] commentating in FCW.]]
Kelly started off 2008 with a win, defeating [[Steven Lewington|Steve Lewington]] on FCW's first show of the year on January 8.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 8, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-08|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> His next match against Afa Jr., however, was ruled a [[Professional wrestling#No contest|no contest]] after [[TJ Wilson]] interfered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 15, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-15|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly then began teaming with Rycklon, losing to the teams of [[Nick Nemeth]] and [[Rob Terry|Big Rob]], [[Jack Swagger|Jake Hager]] and [[Shawn McGrath|Shawn Osborne]], and [[Heath Miller (wrestler)|Heath Miller]] and Steve Lewington.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 22, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-02|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 29, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-29|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – February 5, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-02-05|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Another match on April 15, when Kelly and Rycklon faced [[Johnny Curtis]] and [[Gabe Tuft]] ended in a [[Professional wrestling#Countout|double countout]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – April 15, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-04-15|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref>

On June 3, Kelly became a [[Manager (professional wrestling)|manager]], [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Promo|cutting a promo]] for [[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – June 3, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at Club Bourbon Street|date=2008-06-03|last=Westbrook|first=David|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly managed Black Pain regularly, accompanying him for matches, and also teaming occasionally with him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – August 26, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-08-26|last=Cooper|first=Tony|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – July 12, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Port Richey, Florida|date=2008-07-12|last=Cooper|first=Tony|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> On September 30, Kelly debuted a new [[ring name]], Byron Saxton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – September 30, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-09-30|last=Wellington|first=Richard|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> With Black Pain, and the rest of his [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Stable|faction]], known as the Saxton Conglomerate or simply the Conglomerate, composed of [[Stu Bennett|Stu Sanders]] (later Lawrence Knight) and [[Tyrone Evans|Tyson Tarver]], Saxton began a [[Feud (professional wrestling)|feud]] with [[Kafu]], having the members of the Conglomerate face off against him in matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 23, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida|date=2008-10-23|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 25, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-25|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 28, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-28|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> After this feud ended, the Conglomerate quickly began another one with [[Johnny Prime]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 30, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-30|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – November 6, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-11-06|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – November 13, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-11-13|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> In the course of this feud Kaleb O'Neal began teaming with Prime in order to help him out, however, O'Neal later [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Turn|turned]] on Prime and joined the Conglomerate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – December 18, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2008-12-18|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – January 22, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-01-22|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> In January 2009, Black Pain broke away from the Conglomerate and changed his ring name to Sweet Papi Sanchez, prompting a feud with the remaining Conglomerate members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – January 29, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-01-29|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – February 5, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-02-05|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – February 13, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the Florida State Fair|date=2009-02-13|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Following that, Saxton associated himself with [[Brian Jossie|Abraham Washington]]. When [[Josh Mathews]] left FCW to commentate on ''[[ECW (WWE)|ECW]]'' full-time, Saxton began working as a commentator alongside first [[Dusty Rhodes (wrestler)|Dusty Rhodes]] and then Abraham Washington. In November 2010 Saxton turned on Washington and began feuding with him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wadekellerdotcom/46080.shtml|title=Free sample day: Step on in for a taste of the new PWTorch newsletter|date=2010-12-15|last=Keller|first=Wade|authorlink=Wade Keller|accessdate=2011-01-19|work=Pro Wrestling Torch}}</ref>

Following his stints on ECW and NXT Redemption, Saxton returned to FCW as a commentator and wore an arm sling, claiming to be injured and unable to compete until the March 4th, 2012 episode when Saxton unexpectedly removed his sling and hit [[Kenneth Cameron (wrestler)|Kenneth Cameron]] with a Coin roll.<ref>Resulta of FCW 4th March</ref> A match was scheduled between Saxton and Cameron the following week, but Saxton once again claimed to be injured and unable to compete and was replaced in the match by [[Colin Cassady]]. Saxton then worked as an announcer for the remainder of FCW's tenure until the promotion was shut down in August 2012.<ref>Results of FCW 11th March</ref>

====ECW (2009–2010)====
In October 2009, the ''[[WWE SmackDown|SmackDown]]'' [[color commentator]], [[Jim Ross]], suffered a [[Bell's palsy]] attack, resulting in a shuffle of the other commentators. [[Matt Striker]] was moved from ''[[ECW (WWE)|ECW]]'' to ''SmackDown'', and Saxton was called up to ''ECW'' as a commentator, working alongside Josh Mathews.<ref name="ecw">{{cite web|url=http://www.wrestleview.com/news2009/1256705768.php?style=dark|title=Changes with WWE commentary|date=2009-10-28|last=Martin|first=Adam|accessdate=2009-10-28|publisher=WrestleView}}</ref> He debuted on the October 27 episode.<ref name="ecw"/> He continued commentating until February 2010, when [[Vince McMahon]] announced that ''ECW'' was to be replaced with ''[[WWE NXT|NXT]]''. Saxton then returned to FCW in March of that year.

====NXT (2010-2014)====
On the [[WWE NXT (TV series)#Season 3|third season]] finale of ''NXT'' on November 30 it was announced that Saxton would be competitor on [[WWE NXT#Season 4|season four]], with [[Chris Masters]] as his mentor.<ref name="NXT">{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/11/30/16381991.html|title=WWE NXT: Season 3 mercifully ends with new breakout diva crowned|date=2010-11-30|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-01|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/WWE_News_3/article_45683.shtml|title=WWE News: NXT Season 4 cast – full list of Pros & Rookies for the new season of NXT, plus noticeable absences|date=2010-11-30|last=Caldwell|first=James|accessdate=2010-12-01|publisher=Pro Wrestling Torch}}</ref> He made his in-ring debut on the December 14 episode of ''NXT'', teaming with Masters in a loss to [[Brodus Clay]] and his mentor, [[Ted DiBiase, Jr.|Ted DiBiase]]. Earlier that night, Saxton won the karaoke challenge, earning a point towards immunity from elimination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/12/14/16554521.html|title=WWE NXT: Decent matches, embarrassing challenges|date=2010-12-14|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-19|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> He earned his first win on the following episode when he teamed with Masters and [[WWE Diva]] [[Natalya (wrestler)|Natalya]] to defeat Clay, DiBiase, and [[Maryse Ouellet|Maryse]] in a [[Professional wrestling tag team match types#Multiple man teamed matches|six-person]] [[Professional wrestling tag team match types#Mixed tag team match|mixed tag team match]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/12/22/16639541.html|title=WWE NXT: More fodder for the blooper reel|date=2010-12-22|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-23|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> On January 4, 2011 episode of ''NXT'', [[Dolph Ziggler]] became Saxton's new Pro, after Ziggler won a [[Battle royal (professional wrestling)|Battle royal]] to earn the right to choose a new rookie and he chose Saxton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/01/05/16764121.html|title=WWE NXT: First rookie sent packing|date=2011-01-05|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-01-05|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> On the February 8 episode of ''NXT'', Saxton was eliminated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/02/09/17206116.html|title=WWE NXT: Another one bites the dust|date=2011-02-09|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-02-13|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref>

In March 2011, Saxton was selected as one of the six former ''NXT'' contestants to return to the show in its fifth season, ''[[WWE NXT#NXT Redemption|NXT Redemption]]''. During this season, Saxton was mentored by [[Naofumi Yamamoto|Yoshi Tatsu]]. On the April 26 Edition of NXT, Saxton attacked Tatsu after he cost him the match against [[Lucky Cannon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/03/09/17546731.html|title=WWE NXT: Redemption beings for 6 former rookies|date=2011-03-09|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-03-09|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> Going into late May 2011, he began referring to himself as "Big League" Byron Saxton, believing that he is bigger than the NXT Rookies and/ or the WWE Pros, turning [[Heel (professional wrestling)|heel]]. On the following week (the last day of May), Saxton was voted off of NXT Redemption.

Byron Saxton made his return as the [[play-by-play]] commentator for the relaunched [[WWE NXT|NXT]] on the May 17, 2012 taping at [[Full Sail University]]. Later on he would become the NXT [[ring announcer]] in addition to having some creative responsibilities for the company.

====Main roster (2014-present)====
On January 27, 2014, Saxton made his main roster debut on the WWE App during ''[[Monday Night Raw|Raw]]''. Three days later on January 30 he appeared alongside Tom Phillips as a commentator on ''[[WWE Superstars]]''. On the February 10, 2014 edition of ''Raw'' Saxton conducted a backstage interview with [[Sheamus]] and was announced as the newest member of the WWE announce team by [[Michael Cole (wrestling)|Michael Cole]]. On the May 13, 2014 episode of ''Main Event'', Saxton was attacked by [[Alicia Fox]] after she lost the match to [[Emma (wrestler)|Emma]]. On January 8, 2015, it was announced that Saxton would join the announce team on ''[[WWE SmackDown]]'' and by [[WWE Fastlane]] he was called "the voice" of the show.

On the March 30, 2015 edition of ''Raw'' the night after [[WrestleMania 31]], Saxton and Jerry Lawler filled in for Michael Cole, JBL, and Booker T after they were brutally assaulted by [[Brock Lesnar]]. From the June 8 episode of ''Raw'', Saxton filled in on commentary for Booker T, who would be one of the coaches on the [[WWE Tough Enough#Season 6|sixth season]] of [[WWE Tough Enough]], with [[The Usos|Jimmy Uso]] filling in for Saxton on ''SmackDown''. In July, Saxton would become the new host of the [[WWE Network]] show, ''Tough Talk'', replacing former host [[The Miz]], who would become the new judge on Tough Enough after the [[Hulk Hogan#Scandal and departure|Hulk Hogan scandal]]. After Tough Enough ended Saxton was kept on as Raw announcer permanently and Booker T switched to the SmackDown announce team.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrestlinginc.com/wi/news/2015/0829/600082/update-on-the-wwe-raw-and-smackdown-announce-teams/|title=Change To WWE RAW And SmackDown Announce Teams|first=Marc|last=Middleton|accessdate=September 23, 2015|date=August 29, 2015|work=Wresting Inc.}}</ref>

==In wrestling==
*'''Finishing moves
**''Saxtonation'' ([[Professional wrestling throws#Half nelson legsweep|Twisting half nelson legsweep]])
*'''Signature moves
**[[Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Flying clothesline|Diving lariat takedown]]
**[[Professional wrestling holds#Wrist lock|Wrist lock]] [[Professional wrestling throws#One-handed bulldog|one-handed bulldog]]
*'''Wrestlers [[Manager (professional wrestling)|managed]]'''
**[[Wade Barrett]]
**[[Michael Tarver]]
**[[Naomi (wrestler)|Naomi Knight]]
**[[Cameron (wrestler)|Cameron Lynn]]
**[[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]]
**[[Mason Ryan]]
*'''[[Manager (professional wrestling)|Managers]]'''
**[[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]]
**[[Cameron (wrestler)|Cameron Lynn]]
**[[Chris Masters]]
**[[Dolph Ziggler]]
**[[Vickie Guerrero]]
**[[Yoshi Tatsu]]
*'''[[Nickname]]s'''
**"Big League"
**"The Voice of Smackdown"<ref>[[Renee Young]] calls him this during [[WWE Fastlane]] after [[Bray Wyatt]] finished</ref>

==Championships and accomplishments==
*'''Southern Championship Wrestling'''
**SCW Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with [[Chris Nelson (wrestler)|Chris Nelson]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
*'''[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]'''
**PWI ranked him #'''223''' of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the [[Pro Wrestling Illustrated#PWI 500|PWI 500]] in 2011<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prowrestlingillustrated.blogspot.com/2011/08/pwi-500-201-300.html|title="PWI 500": 201–300|date=2011-08-05|accessdate=2011-08-05|work=[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]}}</ref>
*'''United States Championship Wrestling'''
**USCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)<ref name="OWOW"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Professional wrestling}}
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.wwe.com/superstars/wwenxt/byronsaxton/ WWE NXT profile]
* [http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/b/bryan-kelly.html Online World of Wrestling profile]
*{{IMDb name|id=3818114|name=Bryan J. Kelly}}
*[http://byron-saxton.com Official Website]

{{World Wrestling Entertainment employees}}
{{NXT Rookies}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Saxton, Byron
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Kelly, Bryan; Kelly, Bryan J.
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = professional wrestling announcer
| DATE OF BIRTH = August 20, 1981
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Burke, Virginia]]

}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Saxton, Byron}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:African-American journalists]]
[[Category:African-American professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:American male journalists]]
[[Category:American male professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:American color commentators]]
[[Category:Professional wrestling announcers]]
[[Category:Professional wrestling managers and valets]]
[[Category:Professional wrestlers from Virginia]]

Byron Saxton

2015-12-10T00:16:12Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 198.255.207.41 (talk) to last revision by JimVC3. (TW)

{{Infobox professional wrestler
|name = Byron Saxton
|image = Byron Saxton.jpg
|caption=Saxton in 2008
|alt =
|birthname = Bryan Jesus Kelly
|names = Bryan Kelly<ref name="OWOW"/> '''Byron Saxton'''<ref name="WWEbio"/> Michael Cade<ref name="OWOW"/>
|height = {{height|ft=6|in=1}}<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|weight = {{convert|212|lb|kg|abbr=on}}<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1981|8|20}}<ref name="OWOW"/>
|birth_place = [[Burke, Virginia]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
|resides = [[Tampa, Florida]]
|billed = Burke, Virginia<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|trainer = [[Florida Championship Wrestling]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
|debut = 2003<ref name="OWOW"/>
}}
'''Bryan Jesus Kelly'''<ref name="OWOW">{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/b/byron-saxton.html|title=Byron Kelly Profile|accessdate=2008-03-04|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> (born August 20, 1981) is an [[United States|American]] semi-retired [[Professional wrestling|cuckold and all around gaylord]], [[Manager (professional wrestling)|manager]], [[color commentator]], [[ring announcer]] and former [[journalist]]. He is currently signed to [[WWE]], where he works as an announcer on ''[[WWE Raw]]'', ''[[WWE Main Event|Main Event]]'', ''[[WWE Superstars|Superstars]]'' and ''[[WWE NXT (TV series)|NXT]]''. He is working under the ring name '''Byron Saxton'''.<ref name="OWOW"/> He was a competitor in the [[WWE NXT#Season 4|fourth season]] of ''[[WWE NXT|NXT]]'' and was competing in the show's fifth season, ''[[WWE NXT#NXT Redemption|NXT Redemption]]'',<ref name="NXTbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/superstars/wwenxt/byronsaxton/|title=Byron Saxton Bio|accessdate=2010-12-04|publisher=[[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref name="NXT"/> until his elimination on May 31, 2011.

==Early life==
Kelly was born in [[Burke, Virginia|Burke]], [[Virginia]]. He was raised in Burke and [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]]. He studied at the [[University of Florida]], where he worked as a producer and a reporter for WRUF-AM, [[WUFT-FM]], and [[WUFT (TV)|WUFT-TV]].<ref name="WJXT">{{cite web|url=http://www.news4jax.com/station/4108384/detail.html|title=Bryan Kelly|accessdate=2008-03-04|publisher=news4jax.com}}</ref> He graduated in 2003.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2010/10/20/1883690/meet-wwe-superstar-sheamus-at.html|title=Meet WWE superstar Sheamus at FCW show; Interview with Batista|date=2010-10-20|accessdate=2010-10-23|work=[[The Miami Herald]]|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5thVx3K3V|archivedate=2010-10-23}}</ref> Kelly worked as an associate producer for [[WJXT]] Channel 4 News in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], and was then promoted to work on [[camera]] as a [[Traffic reporting|traffic reporter]]. It was revealed in ''[[The JBL and Cole Show]]'' that he was in the same kindergarten class with [[Alex Riley]].<ref name="WWEbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/shows/ecw/superstars/byronsaxton/|title=Byron Saxton Bio|accessdate=2009-10-31|publisher=[[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref name="WJXT"/>

==Professional wrestling career==

===World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE===

====Florida Championship Wrestling (2007–2010; 2012)====
Kelly signed a [[Farm team#Professional wrestling|developmental]] contract with [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] and was assigned to [[Florida Championship Wrestling]] (FCW). Kelly, at first using his real name, made his FCW debut on October 13, 2007, losing to Hade Vansen.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – October 13, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Jewish Community Center|date=2007-10-13|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> His next appearance was just over a week later on October 23, when he lost to [[Nick Cvjetkovich|"The Carnival Freak" Sinn Bowdee]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – October 23, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-10-23|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly competed sporadically in FCW over the next few months, winning a six-man tag team match against Vansen, [[Sheamus|Sheamus O'Shaunessy]] and Bowdee with [[Ezekiel Jackson|Rycklon Stephens]] and [[Chet Douglas]] as his partners, but losing a [[Professional wrestling match types#Variations of singles matches|singles match]] to [[Afa Anoaʻi Jr.|Afa Jr.]] a few weeks later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – November 6, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-11-06|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – December 4, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-12-04|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> He finished off 2007 with a win against Tommy Taylor on December 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – December 18, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-12-18|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref>

[[File:Curt Hawkins and Byron Saxson.jpg|thumb|Saxton (right) with [[Curt Hawkins]] commentating in FCW.]]
Kelly started off 2008 with a win, defeating [[Steven Lewington|Steve Lewington]] on FCW's first show of the year on January 8.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 8, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-08|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> His next match against Afa Jr., however, was ruled a [[Professional wrestling#No contest|no contest]] after [[TJ Wilson]] interfered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 15, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-15|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly then began teaming with Rycklon, losing to the teams of [[Nick Nemeth]] and [[Rob Terry|Big Rob]], [[Jack Swagger|Jake Hager]] and [[Shawn McGrath|Shawn Osborne]], and [[Heath Miller (wrestler)|Heath Miller]] and Steve Lewington.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 22, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-02|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 29, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-29|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – February 5, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-02-05|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Another match on April 15, when Kelly and Rycklon faced [[Johnny Curtis]] and [[Gabe Tuft]] ended in a [[Professional wrestling#Countout|double countout]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – April 15, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-04-15|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref>

On June 3, Kelly became a [[Manager (professional wrestling)|manager]], [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Promo|cutting a promo]] for [[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – June 3, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at Club Bourbon Street|date=2008-06-03|last=Westbrook|first=David|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly managed Black Pain regularly, accompanying him for matches, and also teaming occasionally with him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – August 26, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-08-26|last=Cooper|first=Tony|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – July 12, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Port Richey, Florida|date=2008-07-12|last=Cooper|first=Tony|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> On September 30, Kelly debuted a new [[ring name]], Byron Saxton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – September 30, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-09-30|last=Wellington|first=Richard|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> With Black Pain, and the rest of his [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Stable|faction]], known as the Saxton Conglomerate or simply the Conglomerate, composed of [[Stu Bennett|Stu Sanders]] (later Lawrence Knight) and [[Tyrone Evans|Tyson Tarver]], Saxton began a [[Feud (professional wrestling)|feud]] with [[Kafu]], having the members of the Conglomerate face off against him in matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 23, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida|date=2008-10-23|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 25, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-25|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 28, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-28|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> After this feud ended, the Conglomerate quickly began another one with [[Johnny Prime]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 30, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-30|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – November 6, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-11-06|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – November 13, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-11-13|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> In the course of this feud Kaleb O'Neal began teaming with Prime in order to help him out, however, O'Neal later [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Turn|turned]] on Prime and joined the Conglomerate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – December 18, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2008-12-18|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – January 22, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-01-22|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> In January 2009, Black Pain broke away from the Conglomerate and changed his ring name to Sweet Papi Sanchez, prompting a feud with the remaining Conglomerate members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – January 29, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-01-29|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – February 5, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-02-05|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – February 13, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the Florida State Fair|date=2009-02-13|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Following that, Saxton associated himself with [[Brian Jossie|Abraham Washington]]. When [[Josh Mathews]] left FCW to commentate on ''[[ECW (WWE)|ECW]]'' full-time, Saxton began working as a commentator alongside first [[Dusty Rhodes (wrestler)|Dusty Rhodes]] and then Abraham Washington. In November 2010 Saxton turned on Washington and began feuding with him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wadekellerdotcom/46080.shtml|title=Free sample day: Step on in for a taste of the new PWTorch newsletter|date=2010-12-15|last=Keller|first=Wade|authorlink=Wade Keller|accessdate=2011-01-19|work=Pro Wrestling Torch}}</ref>

Following his stints on ECW and NXT Redemption, Saxton returned to FCW as a commentator and wore an arm sling, claiming to be injured and unable to compete until the March 4th, 2012 episode when Saxton unexpectedly removed his sling and hit [[Kenneth Cameron (wrestler)|Kenneth Cameron]] with a Coin roll.<ref>Resulta of FCW 4th March</ref> A match was scheduled between Saxton and Cameron the following week, but Saxton once again claimed to be injured and unable to compete and was replaced in the match by [[Colin Cassady]]. Saxton then worked as an announcer for the remainder of FCW's tenure until the promotion was shut down in August 2012.<ref>Results of FCW 11th March</ref>

====ECW (2009–2010)====
In October 2009, the ''[[WWE SmackDown|SmackDown]]'' [[color commentator]], [[Jim Ross]], suffered a [[Bell's palsy]] attack, resulting in a shuffle of the other commentators. [[Matt Striker]] was moved from ''[[ECW (WWE)|ECW]]'' to ''SmackDown'', and Saxton was called up to ''ECW'' as a commentator, working alongside Josh Mathews.<ref name="ecw">{{cite web|url=http://www.wrestleview.com/news2009/1256705768.php?style=dark|title=Changes with WWE commentary|date=2009-10-28|last=Martin|first=Adam|accessdate=2009-10-28|publisher=WrestleView}}</ref> He debuted on the October 27 episode.<ref name="ecw"/> He continued commentating until February 2010, when [[Vince McMahon]] announced that ''ECW'' was to be replaced with ''[[WWE NXT|NXT]]''. Saxton then returned to FCW in March of that year.

====NXT (2010-2014)====
On the [[WWE NXT (TV series)#Season 3|third season]] finale of ''NXT'' on November 30 it was announced that Saxton would be competitor on [[WWE NXT#Season 4|season four]], with [[Chris Masters]] as his mentor.<ref name="NXT">{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/11/30/16381991.html|title=WWE NXT: Season 3 mercifully ends with new breakout diva crowned|date=2010-11-30|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-01|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/WWE_News_3/article_45683.shtml|title=WWE News: NXT Season 4 cast – full list of Pros & Rookies for the new season of NXT, plus noticeable absences|date=2010-11-30|last=Caldwell|first=James|accessdate=2010-12-01|publisher=Pro Wrestling Torch}}</ref> He made his in-ring debut on the December 14 episode of ''NXT'', teaming with Masters in a loss to [[Brodus Clay]] and his mentor, [[Ted DiBiase, Jr.|Ted DiBiase]]. Earlier that night, Saxton won the karaoke challenge, earning a point towards immunity from elimination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/12/14/16554521.html|title=WWE NXT: Decent matches, embarrassing challenges|date=2010-12-14|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-19|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> He earned his first win on the following episode when he teamed with Masters and [[WWE Diva]] [[Natalya (wrestler)|Natalya]] to defeat Clay, DiBiase, and [[Maryse Ouellet|Maryse]] in a [[Professional wrestling tag team match types#Multiple man teamed matches|six-person]] [[Professional wrestling tag team match types#Mixed tag team match|mixed tag team match]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/12/22/16639541.html|title=WWE NXT: More fodder for the blooper reel|date=2010-12-22|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-23|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> On January 4, 2011 episode of ''NXT'', [[Dolph Ziggler]] became Saxton's new Pro, after Ziggler won a [[Battle royal (professional wrestling)|Battle royal]] to earn the right to choose a new rookie and he chose Saxton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/01/05/16764121.html|title=WWE NXT: First rookie sent packing|date=2011-01-05|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-01-05|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> On the February 8 episode of ''NXT'', Saxton was eliminated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/02/09/17206116.html|title=WWE NXT: Another one bites the dust|date=2011-02-09|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-02-13|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref>

In March 2011, Saxton was selected as one of the six former ''NXT'' contestants to return to the show in its fifth season, ''[[WWE NXT#NXT Redemption|NXT Redemption]]''. During this season, Saxton was mentored by [[Naofumi Yamamoto|Yoshi Tatsu]]. On the April 26 Edition of NXT, Saxton attacked Tatsu after he cost him the match against [[Lucky Cannon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/03/09/17546731.html|title=WWE NXT: Redemption beings for 6 former rookies|date=2011-03-09|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-03-09|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> Going into late May 2011, he began referring to himself as "Big League" Byron Saxton, believing that he is bigger than the NXT Rookies and/ or the WWE Pros, turning [[Heel (professional wrestling)|heel]]. On the following week (the last day of May), Saxton was voted off of NXT Redemption.

Byron Saxton made his return as the [[play-by-play]] commentator for the relaunched [[WWE NXT|NXT]] on the May 17, 2012 taping at [[Full Sail University]]. Later on he would become the NXT [[ring announcer]] in addition to having some creative responsibilities for the company.

====Main roster (2014-present)====
On January 27, 2014, Saxton made his main roster debut on the WWE App during ''[[Monday Night Raw|Raw]]''. Three days later on January 30 he appeared alongside Tom Phillips as a commentator on ''[[WWE Superstars]]''. On the February 10, 2014 edition of ''Raw'' Saxton conducted a backstage interview with [[Sheamus]] and was announced as the newest member of the WWE announce team by [[Michael Cole (wrestling)|Michael Cole]]. On the May 13, 2014 episode of ''Main Event'', Saxton was attacked by [[Alicia Fox]] after she lost the match to [[Emma (wrestler)|Emma]]. On January 8, 2015, it was announced that Saxton would join the announce team on ''[[WWE SmackDown]]'' and by [[WWE Fastlane]] he was called "the voice" of the show.

On the March 30, 2015 edition of ''Raw'' the night after [[WrestleMania 31]], Saxton and Jerry Lawler filled in for Michael Cole, JBL, and Booker T after they were brutally assaulted by [[Brock Lesnar]]. From the June 8 episode of ''Raw'', Saxton filled in on commentary for Booker T, who would be one of the coaches on the [[WWE Tough Enough#Season 6|sixth season]] of [[WWE Tough Enough]], with [[The Usos|Jimmy Uso]] filling in for Saxton on ''SmackDown''. In July, Saxton would become the new host of the [[WWE Network]] show, ''Tough Talk'', replacing former host [[The Miz]], who would become the new judge on Tough Enough after the [[Hulk Hogan#Scandal and departure|Hulk Hogan scandal]]. After Tough Enough ended Saxton was kept on as Raw announcer permanently and Booker T switched to the SmackDown announce team.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrestlinginc.com/wi/news/2015/0829/600082/update-on-the-wwe-raw-and-smackdown-announce-teams/|title=Change To WWE RAW And SmackDown Announce Teams|first=Marc|last=Middleton|accessdate=September 23, 2015|date=August 29, 2015|work=Wresting Inc.}}</ref>

==In wrestling==
*'''Finishing moves
**''Saxtonation'' ([[Professional wrestling throws#Half nelson legsweep|Twisting half nelson legsweep]])
*'''Signature moves
**[[Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Flying clothesline|Diving lariat takedown]]
**[[Professional wrestling holds#Wrist lock|Wrist lock]] [[Professional wrestling throws#One-handed bulldog|one-handed bulldog]]
*'''Wrestlers [[Manager (professional wrestling)|managed]]'''
**[[Wade Barrett]]
**[[Michael Tarver]]
**[[Naomi (wrestler)|Naomi Knight]]
**[[Cameron (wrestler)|Cameron Lynn]]
**[[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]]
**[[Mason Ryan]]
*'''[[Manager (professional wrestling)|Managers]]'''
**[[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]]
**[[Cameron (wrestler)|Cameron Lynn]]
**[[Chris Masters]]
**[[Dolph Ziggler]]
**[[Vickie Guerrero]]
**[[Yoshi Tatsu]]
*'''[[Nickname]]s'''
**"Big League"
**"The Voice of Smackdown"<ref>[[Renee Young]] calls him this during [[WWE Fastlane]] after [[Bray Wyatt]] finished</ref>

==Championships and accomplishments==
*'''Southern Championship Wrestling'''
**SCW Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with [[Chris Nelson (wrestler)|Chris Nelson]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
*'''[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]'''
**PWI ranked him #'''223''' of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the [[Pro Wrestling Illustrated#PWI 500|PWI 500]] in 2011<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prowrestlingillustrated.blogspot.com/2011/08/pwi-500-201-300.html|title="PWI 500": 201–300|date=2011-08-05|accessdate=2011-08-05|work=[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]}}</ref>
*'''United States Championship Wrestling'''
**USCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)<ref name="OWOW"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Professional wrestling}}
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.wwe.com/superstars/wwenxt/byronsaxton/ WWE NXT profile]
* [http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/b/bryan-kelly.html Online World of Wrestling profile]
*{{IMDb name|id=3818114|name=Bryan J. Kelly}}
*[http://byron-saxton.com Official Website]

{{World Wrestling Entertainment employees}}
{{NXT Rookies}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Saxton, Byron
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Kelly, Bryan; Kelly, Bryan J.
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = professional wrestling announcer
| DATE OF BIRTH = August 20, 1981
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Burke, Virginia]]

}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Saxton, Byron}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:African-American journalists]]
[[Category:African-American professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:American male journalists]]
[[Category:American male professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:American color commentators]]
[[Category:Professional wrestling announcers]]
[[Category:Professional wrestling managers and valets]]
[[Category:Professional wrestlers from Virginia]]

Byron Saxton

2015-12-10T00:15:20Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 198.255.207.41 (talk) to last revision by Donner60. (TW)

{{Infobox professional wrestler
|name = Byron Saxton
|image = Byron Saxton.jpg
|caption=Saxton in 2008
|alt =
|birthname = Bryan Jesus Kelly
|names = Bryan Kelly<ref name="OWOW"/> '''Byron Saxton'''<ref name="WWEbio"/> Michael Cade<ref name="OWOW"/>
|height = {{height|ft=6|in=1}}<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|weight = {{convert|212|lb|kg|abbr=on}}<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1981|8|20}}<ref name="OWOW"/>
|birth_place = [[Burke, Virginia]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
|resides = [[Tampa, Florida]]
|billed = Burke, Virginia<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|trainer = [[Florida Championship Wrestling]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
|debut = 2003<ref name="OWOW"/>
}}
'''Bryan Jesus Kelly'''<ref name="OWOW">{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/b/byron-saxton.html|title=Byron Kelly Profile|accessdate=2008-03-04|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> (born August 20, 1981) is an [[United States|American]] semi-retired [[Professional wrestling|cuckold and all around gaylord]], [[Manager (professional wrestling)|manager]], [[color commentator]], [[ring announcer]] and former [[journalist]]. He is currently signed to [[WWE]], where he works as an announcer on ''[[WWE Raw]]'', ''[[WWE Main Event|Main Event]]'', ''[[WWE Superstars|Superstars]]'' and ''[[WWE NXT (TV series)|NXT]]''. He is working under the ring name '''Byron Saxton'''.<ref name="OWOW"/> He was a competitor in the [[WWE NXT#Season 4|fourth season]] of ''[[WWE NXT|NXT]]'' and was competing in the show's fifth season, ''[[WWE NXT#NXT Redemption|NXT Redemption]]'',<ref name="NXTbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/superstars/wwenxt/byronsaxton/|title=Byron Saxton Bio|accessdate=2010-12-04|publisher=[[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref name="NXT"/> until his elimination on May 31, 2011.

==Early life==
Kelly was born in [[Burke, Virginia|Burke]], [[Virginia]]. He was raised in Burke and [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]]. He studied at the [[University of Florida]], where he worked as a producer and a reporter for WRUF-AM, [[WUFT-FM]], and [[WUFT (TV)|WUFT-TV]].<ref name="WJXT">{{cite web|url=http://www.news4jax.com/station/4108384/detail.html|title=Bryan Kelly|accessdate=2008-03-04|publisher=news4jax.com}}</ref> He graduated in 2003.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2010/10/20/1883690/meet-wwe-superstar-sheamus-at.html|title=Meet WWE superstar Sheamus at FCW show; Interview with Batista|date=2010-10-20|accessdate=2010-10-23|work=[[The Miami Herald]]|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5thVx3K3V|archivedate=2010-10-23}}</ref> Kelly worked as an associate producer for [[WJXT]] Channel 4 News in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], and was then promoted to work on [[camera]] as a [[Traffic reporting|traffic reporter]]. It was revealed in ''[[The JBL and Cole Show]]'' that he was in the same kindergarten class with [[Alex Riley]].<ref name="WWEbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/shows/ecw/superstars/byronsaxton/|title=Byron Saxton Bio|accessdate=2009-10-31|publisher=[[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref name="WJXT"/>

==Professional wrestling career==

===World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE===

====Florida Championship Wrestling (2007–2010; 2012)====
Kelly signed a [[Farm team#Professional wrestling|developmental]] contract with [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] and was assigned to [[Florida Championship Wrestling]] (FCW). Kelly, at first using his real name, made his FCW debut on October 13, 2007, losing to Hade Vansen.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – October 13, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Jewish Community Center|date=2007-10-13|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> His next appearance was just over a week later on October 23, when he lost to [[Nick Cvjetkovich|"The Carnival Freak" Sinn Bowdee]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – October 23, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-10-23|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly competed sporadically in FCW over the next few months, winning a six-man tag team match against Vansen, [[Sheamus|Sheamus O'Shaunessy]] and Bowdee with [[Ezekiel Jackson|Rycklon Stephens]] and [[Chet Douglas]] as his partners, but losing a [[Professional wrestling match types#Variations of singles matches|singles match]] to [[Afa Anoaʻi Jr.|Afa Jr.]] a few weeks later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – November 6, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-11-06|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – December 4, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-12-04|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> He finished off 2007 with a win against Tommy Taylor on December 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – December 18, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-12-18|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref>

[[File:Curt Hawkins and Byron Saxson.jpg|thumb|Saxton (right) with [[Curt Hawkins]] commentating in FCW.]]
Kelly started off 2008 with a win, defeating [[Steven Lewington|Steve Lewington]] on FCW's first show of the year on January 8.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 8, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-08|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> His next match against Afa Jr., however, was ruled a [[Professional wrestling#No contest|no contest]] after [[TJ Wilson]] interfered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 15, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-15|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly then began teaming with Rycklon, losing to the teams of [[Nick Nemeth]] and [[Rob Terry|Big Rob]], [[Jack Swagger|Jake Hager]] and [[Shawn McGrath|Shawn Osborne]], and [[Heath Miller (wrestler)|Heath Miller]] and Steve Lewington.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 22, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-02|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 29, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-29|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – February 5, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-02-05|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Another match on April 15, when Kelly and Rycklon faced [[Johnny Curtis]] and [[Gabe Tuft]] ended in a [[Professional wrestling#Countout|double countout]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – April 15, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-04-15|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref>

On June 3, Kelly became a [[Manager (professional wrestling)|manager]], [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Promo|cutting a promo]] for [[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – June 3, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at Club Bourbon Street|date=2008-06-03|last=Westbrook|first=David|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly managed Black Pain regularly, accompanying him for matches, and also teaming occasionally with him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – August 26, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-08-26|last=Cooper|first=Tony|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – July 12, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Port Richey, Florida|date=2008-07-12|last=Cooper|first=Tony|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> On September 30, Kelly debuted a new [[ring name]], Byron Saxton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – September 30, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-09-30|last=Wellington|first=Richard|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> With Black Pain, and the rest of his [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Stable|faction]], known as the Saxton Conglomerate or simply the Conglomerate, composed of [[Stu Bennett|Stu Sanders]] (later Lawrence Knight) and [[Tyrone Evans|Tyson Tarver]], Saxton began a [[Feud (professional wrestling)|feud]] with [[Kafu]], having the members of the Conglomerate face off against him in matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 23, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida|date=2008-10-23|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 25, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-25|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 28, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-28|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> After this feud ended, the Conglomerate quickly began another one with [[Johnny Prime]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 30, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-30|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – November 6, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-11-06|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – November 13, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-11-13|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> In the course of this feud Kaleb O'Neal began teaming with Prime in order to help him out, however, O'Neal later [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Turn|turned]] on Prime and joined the Conglomerate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – December 18, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2008-12-18|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – January 22, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-01-22|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> In January 2009, Black Pain broke away from the Conglomerate and changed his ring name to Sweet Papi Sanchez, prompting a feud with the remaining Conglomerate members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – January 29, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-01-29|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – February 5, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-02-05|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – February 13, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the Florida State Fair|date=2009-02-13|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Following that, Saxton associated himself with [[Brian Jossie|Abraham Washington]]. When [[Josh Mathews]] left FCW to commentate on ''[[ECW (WWE)|ECW]]'' full-time, Saxton began working as a commentator alongside first [[Dusty Rhodes (wrestler)|Dusty Rhodes]] and then Abraham Washington. In November 2010 Saxton turned on Washington and began feuding with him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wadekellerdotcom/46080.shtml|title=Free sample day: Step on in for a taste of the new PWTorch newsletter|date=2010-12-15|last=Keller|first=Wade|authorlink=Wade Keller|accessdate=2011-01-19|work=Pro Wrestling Torch}}</ref>

Following his stints on ECW and NXT Redemption, Saxton returned to FCW as a commentator and wore an arm sling, claiming to be injured and unable to compete until the March 4th, 2012 episode when Saxton unexpectedly removed his sling and hit [[Kenneth Cameron (wrestler)|Kenneth Cameron]] with a Coin roll.<ref>Resulta of FCW 4th March</ref> A match was scheduled between Saxton and Cameron the following week, but Saxton once again claimed to be injured and unable to compete and was replaced in the match by [[Colin Cassady]]. Saxton then worked as an announcer for the remainder of FCW's tenure until the promotion was shut down in August 2012.<ref>Results of FCW 11th March</ref>

====ECW (2009–2010)====
In October 2009, the ''[[WWE SmackDown|SmackDown]]'' [[color commentator]], [[Jim Ross]], suffered a [[Bell's palsy]] attack, resulting in a shuffle of the other commentators. [[Matt Striker]] was moved from ''[[ECW (WWE)|ECW]]'' to ''SmackDown'', and Saxton was called up to ''ECW'' as a commentator, working alongside Josh Mathews.<ref name="ecw">{{cite web|url=http://www.wrestleview.com/news2009/1256705768.php?style=dark|title=Changes with WWE commentary|date=2009-10-28|last=Martin|first=Adam|accessdate=2009-10-28|publisher=WrestleView}}</ref> He debuted on the October 27 episode.<ref name="ecw"/> He continued commentating until February 2010, when [[Vince McMahon]] announced that ''ECW'' was to be replaced with ''[[WWE NXT|NXT]]''. Saxton then returned to FCW in March of that year.

====NXT (2010-2014)====
On the [[WWE NXT (TV series)#Season 3|third season]] finale of ''NXT'' on November 30 it was announced that Saxton would be competitor on [[WWE NXT#Season 4|season four]], with [[Chris Masters]] as his mentor.<ref name="NXT">{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/11/30/16381991.html|title=WWE NXT: Season 3 mercifully ends with new breakout diva crowned|date=2010-11-30|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-01|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/WWE_News_3/article_45683.shtml|title=WWE News: NXT Season 4 cast – full list of Pros & Rookies for the new season of NXT, plus noticeable absences|date=2010-11-30|last=Caldwell|first=James|accessdate=2010-12-01|publisher=Pro Wrestling Torch}}</ref> He made his in-ring debut on the December 14 episode of ''NXT'', teaming with Masters in a loss to [[Brodus Clay]] and his mentor, [[Ted DiBiase, Jr.|Ted DiBiase]]. Earlier that night, Saxton won the karaoke challenge, earning a point towards immunity from elimination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/12/14/16554521.html|title=WWE NXT: Decent matches, embarrassing challenges|date=2010-12-14|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-19|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> He earned his first win on the following episode when he teamed with Masters and [[WWE Diva]] [[Natalya (wrestler)|Natalya]] to defeat Clay, DiBiase, and [[Maryse Ouellet|Maryse]] in a [[Professional wrestling tag team match types#Multiple man teamed matches|six-person]] [[Professional wrestling tag team match types#Mixed tag team match|mixed tag team match]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/12/22/16639541.html|title=WWE NXT: More fodder for the blooper reel|date=2010-12-22|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-23|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> On January 4, 2011 episode of ''NXT'', [[Dolph Ziggler]] became Saxton's new Pro, after Ziggler won a [[Battle royal (professional wrestling)|Battle royal]] to earn the right to choose a new rookie and he chose Saxton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/01/05/16764121.html|title=WWE NXT: First rookie sent packing|date=2011-01-05|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-01-05|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> On the February 8 episode of ''NXT'', Saxton was eliminated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/02/09/17206116.html|title=WWE NXT: Another one bites the dust|date=2011-02-09|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-02-13|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref>

In March 2011, Saxton was selected as one of the six former ''NXT'' contestants to return to the show in its fifth season, ''[[WWE NXT#NXT Redemption|NXT Redemption]]''. During this season, Saxton was mentored by [[Naofumi Yamamoto|Yoshi Tatsu]]. On the April 26 Edition of NXT, Saxton attacked Tatsu after he cost him the match against [[Lucky Cannon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/03/09/17546731.html|title=WWE NXT: Redemption beings for 6 former rookies|date=2011-03-09|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-03-09|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> Going into late May 2011, he began referring to himself as "Big League" Byron Saxton, believing that he is bigger than the NXT Rookies and/ or the WWE Pros, turning [[Heel (professional wrestling)|heel]]. On the following week (the last day of May), Saxton was voted off of NXT Redemption.

Byron Saxton made his return as the [[play-by-play]] commentator for the relaunched [[WWE NXT|NXT]] on the May 17, 2012 taping at [[Full Sail University]]. Later on he would become the NXT [[ring announcer]] in addition to having some creative responsibilities for the company.

====Main roster (2014-present)====
On January 27, 2014, Saxton made his main roster debut on the WWE App during ''[[Monday Night Raw|Raw]]''. Three days later on January 30 he appeared alongside Tom Phillips as a commentator on ''[[WWE Superstars]]''. On the February 10, 2014 edition of ''Raw'' Saxton conducted a backstage interview with [[Sheamus]] and was announced as the newest member of the WWE announce team by [[Michael Cole (wrestling)|Michael Cole]]. On the May 13, 2014 episode of ''Main Event'', Saxton was attacked by [[Alicia Fox]] after she lost the match to [[Emma (wrestler)|Emma]]. On January 8, 2015, it was announced that Saxton would join the announce team on ''[[WWE SmackDown]]'' and by [[WWE Fastlane]] he was called "the voice" of the show.

On the March 30, 2015 edition of ''Raw'' the night after [[WrestleMania 31]], Saxton and Jerry Lawler filled in for Michael Cole, JBL, and Booker T after they were brutally assaulted by [[Brock Lesnar]]. From the June 8 episode of ''Raw'', Saxton filled in on commentary for Booker T, who would be one of the coaches on the [[WWE Tough Enough#Season 6|sixth season]] of [[WWE Tough Enough]], with [[The Usos|Jimmy Uso]] filling in for Saxton on ''SmackDown''. In July, Saxton would become the new host of the [[WWE Network]] show, ''Tough Talk'', replacing former host [[The Miz]], who would become the new judge on Tough Enough after the [[Hulk Hogan#Scandal and departure|Hulk Hogan scandal]]. After Tough Enough ended Saxton was kept on as Raw announcer permanently and Booker T switched to the SmackDown announce team.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrestlinginc.com/wi/news/2015/0829/600082/update-on-the-wwe-raw-and-smackdown-announce-teams/|title=Change To WWE RAW And SmackDown Announce Teams|first=Marc|last=Middleton|accessdate=September 23, 2015|date=August 29, 2015|work=Wresting Inc.}}</ref>

==In wrestling==
*'''Finishing moves
**''Saxtonation'' ([[Professional wrestling throws#Half nelson legsweep|Twisting half nelson legsweep]])
*'''Signature moves
**[[Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Flying clothesline|Diving lariat takedown]]
**[[Professional wrestling holds#Wrist lock|Wrist lock]] [[Professional wrestling throws#One-handed bulldog|one-handed bulldog]]
*'''Wrestlers [[Manager (professional wrestling)|managed]]'''
**[[Wade Barrett]]
**[[Michael Tarver]]
**[[Naomi (wrestler)|Naomi Knight]]
**[[Cameron (wrestler)|Cameron Lynn]]
**[[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]]
**[[Mason Ryan]]
*'''[[Manager (professional wrestling)|Managers]]'''
**[[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]]
**[[Cameron (wrestler)|Cameron Lynn]]
**[[Chris Masters]]
**[[Dolph Ziggler]]
**[[Vickie Guerrero]]
**[[Yoshi Tatsu]]
*'''[[Nickname]]s'''
**"Big League"
**"The Voice of Smackdown"<ref>[[Renee Young]] calls him this during [[WWE Fastlane]] after [[Bray Wyatt]] finished</ref>

==Championships and accomplishments==
*'''Southern Championship Wrestling'''
**SCW Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with [[Chris Nelson (wrestler)|Chris Nelson]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
*'''[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]'''
**PWI ranked him #'''223''' of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the [[Pro Wrestling Illustrated#PWI 500|PWI 500]] in 2011<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prowrestlingillustrated.blogspot.com/2011/08/pwi-500-201-300.html|title="PWI 500": 201–300|date=2011-08-05|accessdate=2011-08-05|work=[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]}}</ref>
*'''United States Championship Wrestling'''
**USCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)<ref name="OWOW"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Professional wrestling}}
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.wwe.com/superstars/wwenxt/byronsaxton/ WWE NXT profile]
* [http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/b/bryan-kelly.html Online World of Wrestling profile]
*{{IMDb name|id=3818114|name=Bryan J. Kelly}}
*[http://byron-saxton.com Official Website]

{{World Wrestling Entertainment employees}}
{{NXT Rookies}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Saxton, Byron
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Kelly, Bryan; Kelly, Bryan J.
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = professional wrestling announcer
| DATE OF BIRTH = August 20, 1981
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Burke, Virginia]]

}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Saxton, Byron}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:African-American journalists]]
[[Category:African-American professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:American male journalists]]
[[Category:American male professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:American color commentators]]
[[Category:Professional wrestling announcers]]
[[Category:Professional wrestling managers and valets]]
[[Category:Professional wrestlers from Virginia]]

Byron Saxton

2015-12-10T00:05:58Z

JimVC3: Undid revision 694552782 by 81.110.133.201 (talk)

{{Infobox professional wrestler
|name = Byron Saxton
|image = Byron Saxton.jpg
|caption=Saxton in 2008
|alt =
|birthname = Bryan Jesus Kelly
|names = Bryan Kelly<ref name="OWOW"/> '''Byron Saxton'''<ref name="WWEbio"/> Michael Cade<ref name="OWOW"/>
|height = {{height|ft=6|in=1}}<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|weight = {{convert|212|lb|kg|abbr=on}}<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1981|8|20}}<ref name="OWOW"/>
|birth_place = [[Burke, Virginia]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
|resides = [[Tampa, Florida]]
|billed = Burke, Virginia<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|trainer = [[Florida Championship Wrestling]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
|debut = 2003<ref name="OWOW"/>
}}
'''Bryan Jesus Kelly'''<ref name="OWOW">{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/b/byron-saxton.html|title=Byron Kelly Profile|accessdate=2008-03-04|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> (born August 20, 1981) is an [[United States|American]] semi-retired [[Professional wrestling|professional wrestler]], [[Manager (professional wrestling)|manager]], [[color commentator]], [[ring announcer]] and former [[journalist]]. He is currently signed to [[WWE]], where he works as an announcer on ''[[WWE Raw]]'', ''[[WWE Main Event|Main Event]]'', ''[[WWE Superstars|Superstars]]'' and ''[[WWE NXT (TV series)|NXT]]''. He is working under the ring name '''Byron Saxton'''.<ref name="OWOW"/> He was a competitor in the [[WWE NXT#Season 4|fourth season]] of ''[[WWE NXT|NXT]]'' and was competing in the show's fifth season, ''[[WWE NXT#NXT Redemption|NXT Redemption]]'',<ref name="NXTbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/superstars/wwenxt/byronsaxton/|title=Byron Saxton Bio|accessdate=2010-12-04|publisher=[[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref name="NXT"/> until his elimination on May 31, 2011.

==Early life==
Kelly was born in [[Burke, Virginia|Burke]], [[Virginia]]. He was raised in Burke and [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]]. He studied at the [[University of Florida]], where he worked as a producer and a reporter for WRUF-AM, [[WUFT-FM]], and [[WUFT (TV)|WUFT-TV]].<ref name="WJXT">{{cite web|url=http://www.news4jax.com/station/4108384/detail.html|title=Bryan Kelly|accessdate=2008-03-04|publisher=news4jax.com}}</ref> He graduated in 2003.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2010/10/20/1883690/meet-wwe-superstar-sheamus-at.html|title=Meet WWE superstar Sheamus at FCW show; Interview with Batista|date=2010-10-20|accessdate=2010-10-23|work=[[The Miami Herald]]|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5thVx3K3V|archivedate=2010-10-23}}</ref> Kelly worked as an associate producer for [[WJXT]] Channel 4 News in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], and was then promoted to work on [[camera]] as a [[Traffic reporting|traffic reporter]]. It was revealed in ''[[The JBL and Cole Show]]'' that he was in the same kindergarten class with [[Alex Riley]].<ref name="WWEbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/shows/ecw/superstars/byronsaxton/|title=Byron Saxton Bio|accessdate=2009-10-31|publisher=[[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref name="WJXT"/>

==Professional wrestling career==

===World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE===

====Florida Championship Wrestling (2007–2010; 2012)====
Kelly signed a [[Farm team#Professional wrestling|developmental]] contract with [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] and was assigned to [[Florida Championship Wrestling]] (FCW). Kelly, at first using his real name, made his FCW debut on October 13, 2007, losing to Hade Vansen.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – October 13, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Jewish Community Center|date=2007-10-13|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> His next appearance was just over a week later on October 23, when he lost to [[Nick Cvjetkovich|"The Carnival Freak" Sinn Bowdee]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – October 23, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-10-23|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly competed sporadically in FCW over the next few months, winning a six-man tag team match against Vansen, [[Sheamus|Sheamus O'Shaunessy]] and Bowdee with [[Ezekiel Jackson|Rycklon Stephens]] and [[Chet Douglas]] as his partners, but losing a [[Professional wrestling match types#Variations of singles matches|singles match]] to [[Afa Anoaʻi Jr.|Afa Jr.]] a few weeks later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – November 6, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-11-06|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – December 4, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-12-04|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> He finished off 2007 with a win against Tommy Taylor on December 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – December 18, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-12-18|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref>

[[File:Curt Hawkins and Byron Saxson.jpg|thumb|Saxton (right) with [[Curt Hawkins]] commentating in FCW.]]
Kelly started off 2008 with a win, defeating [[Steven Lewington|Steve Lewington]] on FCW's first show of the year on January 8.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 8, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-08|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> His next match against Afa Jr., however, was ruled a [[Professional wrestling#No contest|no contest]] after [[TJ Wilson]] interfered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 15, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-15|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly then began teaming with Rycklon, losing to the teams of [[Nick Nemeth]] and [[Rob Terry|Big Rob]], [[Jack Swagger|Jake Hager]] and [[Shawn McGrath|Shawn Osborne]], and [[Heath Miller (wrestler)|Heath Miller]] and Steve Lewington.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 22, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-02|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 29, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-29|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – February 5, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-02-05|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Another match on April 15, when Kelly and Rycklon faced [[Johnny Curtis]] and [[Gabe Tuft]] ended in a [[Professional wrestling#Countout|double countout]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – April 15, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-04-15|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref>

On June 3, Kelly became a [[Manager (professional wrestling)|manager]], [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Promo|cutting a promo]] for [[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – June 3, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at Club Bourbon Street|date=2008-06-03|last=Westbrook|first=David|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly managed Black Pain regularly, accompanying him for matches, and also teaming occasionally with him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – August 26, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-08-26|last=Cooper|first=Tony|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – July 12, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Port Richey, Florida|date=2008-07-12|last=Cooper|first=Tony|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> On September 30, Kelly debuted a new [[ring name]], Byron Saxton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – September 30, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-09-30|last=Wellington|first=Richard|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> With Black Pain, and the rest of his [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Stable|faction]], known as the Saxton Conglomerate or simply the Conglomerate, composed of [[Stu Bennett|Stu Sanders]] (later Lawrence Knight) and [[Tyrone Evans|Tyson Tarver]], Saxton began a [[Feud (professional wrestling)|feud]] with [[Kafu]], having the members of the Conglomerate face off against him in matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 23, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida|date=2008-10-23|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 25, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-25|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 28, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-28|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> After this feud ended, the Conglomerate quickly began another one with [[Johnny Prime]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 30, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-30|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – November 6, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-11-06|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – November 13, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-11-13|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> In the course of this feud Kaleb O'Neal began teaming with Prime in order to help him out, however, O'Neal later [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Turn|turned]] on Prime and joined the Conglomerate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – December 18, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2008-12-18|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – January 22, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-01-22|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> In January 2009, Black Pain broke away from the Conglomerate and changed his ring name to Sweet Papi Sanchez, prompting a feud with the remaining Conglomerate members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – January 29, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-01-29|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – February 5, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-02-05|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – February 13, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the Florida State Fair|date=2009-02-13|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Following that, Saxton associated himself with [[Brian Jossie|Abraham Washington]]. When [[Josh Mathews]] left FCW to commentate on ''[[ECW (WWE)|ECW]]'' full-time, Saxton began working as a commentator alongside first [[Dusty Rhodes (wrestler)|Dusty Rhodes]] and then Abraham Washington. In November 2010 Saxton turned on Washington and began feuding with him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wadekellerdotcom/46080.shtml|title=Free sample day: Step on in for a taste of the new PWTorch newsletter|date=2010-12-15|last=Keller|first=Wade|authorlink=Wade Keller|accessdate=2011-01-19|work=Pro Wrestling Torch}}</ref>

Following his stints on ECW and NXT Redemption, Saxton returned to FCW as a commentator and wore an arm sling, claiming to be injured and unable to compete until the March 4th, 2012 episode when Saxton unexpectedly removed his sling and hit [[Kenneth Cameron (wrestler)|Kenneth Cameron]] with a Coin roll.<ref>Resulta of FCW 4th March</ref> A match was scheduled between Saxton and Cameron the following week, but Saxton once again claimed to be injured and unable to compete and was replaced in the match by [[Colin Cassady]]. Saxton then worked as an announcer for the remainder of FCW's tenure until the promotion was shut down in August 2012.<ref>Results of FCW 11th March</ref>

====ECW (2009–2010)====
In October 2009, the ''[[WWE SmackDown|SmackDown]]'' [[color commentator]], [[Jim Ross]], suffered a [[Bell's palsy]] attack, resulting in a shuffle of the other commentators. [[Matt Striker]] was moved from ''[[ECW (WWE)|ECW]]'' to ''SmackDown'', and Saxton was called up to ''ECW'' as a commentator, working alongside Josh Mathews.<ref name="ecw">{{cite web|url=http://www.wrestleview.com/news2009/1256705768.php?style=dark|title=Changes with WWE commentary|date=2009-10-28|last=Martin|first=Adam|accessdate=2009-10-28|publisher=WrestleView}}</ref> He debuted on the October 27 episode.<ref name="ecw"/> He continued commentating until February 2010, when [[Vince McMahon]] announced that ''ECW'' was to be replaced with ''[[WWE NXT|NXT]]''. Saxton then returned to FCW in March of that year.

====NXT (2010-2014)====
On the [[WWE NXT (TV series)#Season 3|third season]] finale of ''NXT'' on November 30 it was announced that Saxton would be competitor on [[WWE NXT#Season 4|season four]], with [[Chris Masters]] as his mentor.<ref name="NXT">{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/11/30/16381991.html|title=WWE NXT: Season 3 mercifully ends with new breakout diva crowned|date=2010-11-30|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-01|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/WWE_News_3/article_45683.shtml|title=WWE News: NXT Season 4 cast – full list of Pros & Rookies for the new season of NXT, plus noticeable absences|date=2010-11-30|last=Caldwell|first=James|accessdate=2010-12-01|publisher=Pro Wrestling Torch}}</ref> He made his in-ring debut on the December 14 episode of ''NXT'', teaming with Masters in a loss to [[Brodus Clay]] and his mentor, [[Ted DiBiase, Jr.|Ted DiBiase]]. Earlier that night, Saxton won the karaoke challenge, earning a point towards immunity from elimination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/12/14/16554521.html|title=WWE NXT: Decent matches, embarrassing challenges|date=2010-12-14|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-19|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> He earned his first win on the following episode when he teamed with Masters and [[WWE Diva]] [[Natalya (wrestler)|Natalya]] to defeat Clay, DiBiase, and [[Maryse Ouellet|Maryse]] in a [[Professional wrestling tag team match types#Multiple man teamed matches|six-person]] [[Professional wrestling tag team match types#Mixed tag team match|mixed tag team match]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/12/22/16639541.html|title=WWE NXT: More fodder for the blooper reel|date=2010-12-22|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-23|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> On January 4, 2011 episode of ''NXT'', [[Dolph Ziggler]] became Saxton's new Pro, after Ziggler won a [[Battle royal (professional wrestling)|Battle royal]] to earn the right to choose a new rookie and he chose Saxton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/01/05/16764121.html|title=WWE NXT: First rookie sent packing|date=2011-01-05|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-01-05|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> On the February 8 episode of ''NXT'', Saxton was eliminated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/02/09/17206116.html|title=WWE NXT: Another one bites the dust|date=2011-02-09|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-02-13|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref>

In March 2011, Saxton was selected as one of the six former ''NXT'' contestants to return to the show in its fifth season, ''[[WWE NXT#NXT Redemption|NXT Redemption]]''. During this season, Saxton was mentored by [[Naofumi Yamamoto|Yoshi Tatsu]]. On the April 26 Edition of NXT, Saxton attacked Tatsu after he cost him the match against [[Lucky Cannon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/03/09/17546731.html|title=WWE NXT: Redemption beings for 6 former rookies|date=2011-03-09|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-03-09|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> Going into late May 2011, he began referring to himself as "Big League" Byron Saxton, believing that he is bigger than the NXT Rookies and/ or the WWE Pros, turning [[Heel (professional wrestling)|heel]]. On the following week (the last day of May), Saxton was voted off of NXT Redemption.

Byron Saxton made his return as the [[play-by-play]] commentator for the relaunched [[WWE NXT|NXT]] on the May 17, 2012 taping at [[Full Sail University]]. Later on he would become the NXT [[ring announcer]] in addition to having some creative responsibilities for the company.

====Main roster (2014-present)====
On January 27, 2014, Saxton made his main roster debut on the WWE App during ''[[Monday Night Raw|Raw]]''. Three days later on January 30 he appeared alongside Tom Phillips as a commentator on ''[[WWE Superstars]]''. On the February 10, 2014 edition of ''Raw'' Saxton conducted a backstage interview with [[Sheamus]] and was announced as the newest member of the WWE announce team by [[Michael Cole (wrestling)|Michael Cole]]. On the May 13, 2014 episode of ''Main Event'', Saxton was attacked by [[Alicia Fox]] after she lost the match to [[Emma (wrestler)|Emma]]. On January 8, 2015, it was announced that Saxton would join the announce team on ''[[WWE SmackDown]]'' and by [[WWE Fastlane]] he was called "the voice" of the show.

On the March 30, 2015 edition of ''Raw'' the night after [[WrestleMania 31]], Saxton and Jerry Lawler filled in for Michael Cole, JBL, and Booker T after they were brutally assaulted by [[Brock Lesnar]]. From the June 8 episode of ''Raw'', Saxton filled in on commentary for Booker T, who would be one of the coaches on the [[WWE Tough Enough#Season 6|sixth season]] of [[WWE Tough Enough]], with [[The Usos|Jimmy Uso]] filling in for Saxton on ''SmackDown''. In July, Saxton would become the new host of the [[WWE Network]] show, ''Tough Talk'', replacing former host [[The Miz]], who would become the new judge on Tough Enough after the [[Hulk Hogan#Scandal and departure|Hulk Hogan scandal]]. After Tough Enough ended Saxton was kept on as Raw announcer permanently and Booker T switched to the SmackDown announce team.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrestlinginc.com/wi/news/2015/0829/600082/update-on-the-wwe-raw-and-smackdown-announce-teams/|title=Change To WWE RAW And SmackDown Announce Teams|first=Marc|last=Middleton|accessdate=September 23, 2015|date=August 29, 2015|work=Wresting Inc.}}</ref>

==In wrestling==
*'''Finishing moves
**''Saxtonation'' ([[Professional wrestling throws#Half nelson legsweep|Twisting half nelson legsweep]])
*'''Signature moves
**[[Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Flying clothesline|Diving lariat takedown]]
**[[Professional wrestling holds#Wrist lock|Wrist lock]] [[Professional wrestling throws#One-handed bulldog|one-handed bulldog]]
*'''Wrestlers [[Manager (professional wrestling)|managed]]'''
**[[Wade Barrett]]
**[[Michael Tarver]]
**[[Naomi (wrestler)|Naomi Knight]]
**[[Cameron (wrestler)|Cameron Lynn]]
**[[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]]
**[[Mason Ryan]]
*'''[[Manager (professional wrestling)|Managers]]'''
**[[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]]
**[[Cameron (wrestler)|Cameron Lynn]]
**[[Chris Masters]]
**[[Dolph Ziggler]]
**[[Vickie Guerrero]]
**[[Yoshi Tatsu]]
*'''[[Nickname]]s'''
**"Big League"
**"The Voice of Smackdown"<ref>[[Renee Young]] calls him this during [[WWE Fastlane]] after [[Bray Wyatt]] finished</ref>

==Championships and accomplishments==
*'''Southern Championship Wrestling'''
**SCW Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with [[Chris Nelson (wrestler)|Chris Nelson]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
*'''[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]'''
**PWI ranked him #'''223''' of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the [[Pro Wrestling Illustrated#PWI 500|PWI 500]] in 2011<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prowrestlingillustrated.blogspot.com/2011/08/pwi-500-201-300.html|title="PWI 500": 201–300|date=2011-08-05|accessdate=2011-08-05|work=[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]}}</ref>
*'''United States Championship Wrestling'''
**USCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)<ref name="OWOW"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Professional wrestling}}
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.wwe.com/superstars/wwenxt/byronsaxton/ WWE NXT profile]
* [http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/b/bryan-kelly.html Online World of Wrestling profile]
*{{IMDb name|id=3818114|name=Bryan J. Kelly}}
*[http://byron-saxton.com Official Website]

{{World Wrestling Entertainment employees}}
{{NXT Rookies}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Saxton, Byron
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Kelly, Bryan; Kelly, Bryan J.
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = professional wrestling announcer
| DATE OF BIRTH = August 20, 1981
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Burke, Virginia]]

}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Saxton, Byron}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:African-American journalists]]
[[Category:African-American professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:American male journalists]]
[[Category:American male professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:American color commentators]]
[[Category:Professional wrestling announcers]]
[[Category:Professional wrestling managers and valets]]
[[Category:Professional wrestlers from Virginia]]

Byron Saxton

2015-12-09T23:55:15Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 86.144.204.141 (talk) to last revision by Oshwah. (TW)

{{Infobox professional wrestler
|name = Byron Saxton
|image = Byron Saxton.jpg
|caption=Saxton in 2008
|alt =
|birthname = Bryan Jesus Kelly
|names = Bryan Kelly<ref name="OWOW"/> '''Byron Saxton'''<ref name="WWEbio"/> Michael Cade<ref name="OWOW"/>
|height = {{height|ft=6|in=1}}<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|weight = {{convert|212|lb|kg|abbr=on}}<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1981|8|20}}<ref name="OWOW"/>
|birth_place = [[Burke, Virginia]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
|resides = [[Tampa, Florida]]
|billed = Burke, Virginia<ref name="NXTbio"/>
|trainer = [[Florida Championship Wrestling]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
|debut = 2003<ref name="OWOW"/>
}}
'''Bryan Jesus Kelly'''<ref name="OWOW">{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/b/byron-saxton.html|title=Byron Kelly Profile|accessdate=2008-03-04|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> (born August 20, 1981) is an [[United States|American]] semi-retired [[Professional wrestling|professional wrestler]], [[Manager (professional wrestling)|manager]], [[color commentator]], [[ring announcer]] and former [[journalist]]. He is currently signed to [[WWE]], where he works as an announcer on ''[[WWE Raw]]'', ''[[WWE Main Event|Main Event]]'', ''[[WWE Superstars|Superstars]]'' and ''[[WWE NXT (TV series)|NXT]]''. He is working under the ring name '''Byron Saxton'''.<ref name="OWOW"/> He was a competitor in the [[WWE NXT#Season 4|fourth season]] of ''[[WWE NXT|NXT]]'' and was competing in the show's fifth season, ''[[WWE NXT#NXT Redemption|NXT Redemption]]'',<ref name="NXTbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/superstars/wwenxt/byronsaxton/|title=Byron Saxton Bio|accessdate=2010-12-04|publisher=[[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref name="NXT"/> until his elimination on May 31, 2011.

==Early life==
Kelly was born in [[Burke, Virginia|Burke]], [[Virginia]]. He was raised in Burke and [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]]. He studied at the [[University of Florida]], where he worked as a producer and a reporter for WRUF-AM, [[WUFT-FM]], and [[WUFT (TV)|WUFT-TV]].<ref name="WJXT">{{cite web|url=http://www.news4jax.com/station/4108384/detail.html|title=Bryan Kelly|accessdate=2008-03-04|publisher=news4jax.com}}</ref> He graduated in 2003.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2010/10/20/1883690/meet-wwe-superstar-sheamus-at.html|title=Meet WWE superstar Sheamus at FCW show; Interview with Batista|date=2010-10-20|accessdate=2010-10-23|work=[[The Miami Herald]]|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5thVx3K3V|archivedate=2010-10-23}}</ref> Kelly worked as an associate producer for [[WJXT]] Channel 4 News in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], and was then promoted to work on [[camera]] as a [[Traffic reporting|traffic reporter]]. It was revealed in ''[[The JBL and Cole Show]]'' that he was in the same kindergarten class with [[Alex Riley]].<ref name="WWEbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/shows/ecw/superstars/byronsaxton/|title=Byron Saxton Bio|accessdate=2009-10-31|publisher=[[World Wrestling Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref name="WJXT"/>

==Professional wrestling career==

===World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE===

====Florida Championship Wrestling (2007–2010; 2012)====
Kelly signed a [[Farm team#Professional wrestling|developmental]] contract with [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] and was assigned to [[Florida Championship Wrestling]] (FCW). Kelly, at first using his real name, made his FCW debut on October 13, 2007, losing to Hade Vansen.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – October 13, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Jewish Community Center|date=2007-10-13|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> His next appearance was just over a week later on October 23, when he lost to [[Nick Cvjetkovich|"The Carnival Freak" Sinn Bowdee]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – October 23, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-10-23|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly competed sporadically in FCW over the next few months, winning a six-man tag team match against Vansen, [[Sheamus|Sheamus O'Shaunessy]] and Bowdee with [[Ezekiel Jackson|Rycklon Stephens]] and [[Chet Douglas]] as his partners, but losing a [[Professional wrestling match types#Variations of singles matches|singles match]] to [[Afa Anoaʻi Jr.|Afa Jr.]] a few weeks later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – November 6, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-11-06|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – December 4, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-12-04|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> He finished off 2007 with a win against Tommy Taylor on December 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2007/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2007) – December 18, 2007–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2007-12-18|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref>

[[File:Curt Hawkins and Byron Saxson.jpg|thumb|Saxton (right) with [[Curt Hawkins]] commentating in FCW.]]
Kelly started off 2008 with a win, defeating [[Steven Lewington|Steve Lewington]] on FCW's first show of the year on January 8.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 8, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-08|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> His next match against Afa Jr., however, was ruled a [[Professional wrestling#No contest|no contest]] after [[TJ Wilson]] interfered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 15, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-15|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly then began teaming with Rycklon, losing to the teams of [[Nick Nemeth]] and [[Rob Terry|Big Rob]], [[Jack Swagger|Jake Hager]] and [[Shawn McGrath|Shawn Osborne]], and [[Heath Miller (wrestler)|Heath Miller]] and Steve Lewington.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 22, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-02|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – January 29, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-01-29|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – February 5, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-02-05|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Another match on April 15, when Kelly and Rycklon faced [[Johnny Curtis]] and [[Gabe Tuft]] ended in a [[Professional wrestling#Countout|double countout]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – April 15, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-04-15|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref>

On June 3, Kelly became a [[Manager (professional wrestling)|manager]], [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Promo|cutting a promo]] for [[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – June 3, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at Club Bourbon Street|date=2008-06-03|last=Westbrook|first=David|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Kelly managed Black Pain regularly, accompanying him for matches, and also teaming occasionally with him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – August 26, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in New Port Richey, Florida at the Bourbon Street Night Club|date=2008-08-26|last=Cooper|first=Tony|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – July 12, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Port Richey, Florida|date=2008-07-12|last=Cooper|first=Tony|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> On September 30, Kelly debuted a new [[ring name]], Byron Saxton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – September 30, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-09-30|last=Wellington|first=Richard|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> With Black Pain, and the rest of his [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Stable|faction]], known as the Saxton Conglomerate or simply the Conglomerate, composed of [[Stu Bennett|Stu Sanders]] (later Lawrence Knight) and [[Tyrone Evans|Tyson Tarver]], Saxton began a [[Feud (professional wrestling)|feud]] with [[Kafu]], having the members of the Conglomerate face off against him in matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 23, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida|date=2008-10-23|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 25, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-25|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 28, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-28|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> After this feud ended, the Conglomerate quickly began another one with [[Johnny Prime]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – October 30, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-10-30|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – November 6, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-11-06|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – November 13, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Florida|date=2008-11-13|last=Pritchard|first=Andrew|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> In the course of this feud Kaleb O'Neal began teaming with Prime in order to help him out, however, O'Neal later [[Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Turn|turned]] on Prime and joined the Conglomerate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2008/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2008) – December 18, 2008–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2008-12-18|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – January 22, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-01-22|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> In January 2009, Black Pain broke away from the Conglomerate and changed his ring name to Sweet Papi Sanchez, prompting a feud with the remaining Conglomerate members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – January 29, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-01-29|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – February 5, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the FCW Arena|date=2009-02-05|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fcw/_2009/|title=Florida Championship Wrestling (2009) – February 13, 2009–Florida Championship Wrestling in Tampa, Florida at the Florida State Fair|date=2009-02-13|accessdate=2009-04-21|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref> Following that, Saxton associated himself with [[Brian Jossie|Abraham Washington]]. When [[Josh Mathews]] left FCW to commentate on ''[[ECW (WWE)|ECW]]'' full-time, Saxton began working as a commentator alongside first [[Dusty Rhodes (wrestler)|Dusty Rhodes]] and then Abraham Washington. In November 2010 Saxton turned on Washington and began feuding with him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/wadekellerdotcom/46080.shtml|title=Free sample day: Step on in for a taste of the new PWTorch newsletter|date=2010-12-15|last=Keller|first=Wade|authorlink=Wade Keller|accessdate=2011-01-19|work=Pro Wrestling Torch}}</ref>

Following his stints on ECW and NXT Redemption, Saxton returned to FCW as a commentator and wore an arm sling, claiming to be injured and unable to compete until the March 4th, 2012 episode when Saxton unexpectedly removed his sling and hit [[Kenneth Cameron (wrestler)|Kenneth Cameron]] with a Coin roll.<ref>Resulta of FCW 4th March</ref> A match was scheduled between Saxton and Cameron the following week, but Saxton once again claimed to be injured and unable to compete and was replaced in the match by [[Colin Cassady]]. Saxton then worked as an announcer for the remainder of FCW's tenure until the promotion was shut down in August 2012.<ref>Results of FCW 11th March</ref>

====ECW (2009–2010)====
In October 2009, the ''[[WWE SmackDown|SmackDown]]'' [[color commentator]], [[Jim Ross]], suffered a [[Bell's palsy]] attack, resulting in a shuffle of the other commentators. [[Matt Striker]] was moved from ''[[ECW (WWE)|ECW]]'' to ''SmackDown'', and Saxton was called up to ''ECW'' as a commentator, working alongside Josh Mathews.<ref name="ecw">{{cite web|url=http://www.wrestleview.com/news2009/1256705768.php?style=dark|title=Changes with WWE commentary|date=2009-10-28|last=Martin|first=Adam|accessdate=2009-10-28|publisher=WrestleView}}</ref> He debuted on the October 27 episode.<ref name="ecw"/> He continued commentating until February 2010, when [[Vince McMahon]] announced that ''ECW'' was to be replaced with ''[[WWE NXT|NXT]]''. Saxton then returned to FCW in March of that year.

====NXT (2010-2014)====
On the [[WWE NXT (TV series)#Season 3|third season]] finale of ''NXT'' on November 30 it was announced that Saxton would be competitor on [[WWE NXT#Season 4|season four]], with [[Chris Masters]] as his mentor.<ref name="NXT">{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/11/30/16381991.html|title=WWE NXT: Season 3 mercifully ends with new breakout diva crowned|date=2010-11-30|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-01|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/WWE_News_3/article_45683.shtml|title=WWE News: NXT Season 4 cast – full list of Pros & Rookies for the new season of NXT, plus noticeable absences|date=2010-11-30|last=Caldwell|first=James|accessdate=2010-12-01|publisher=Pro Wrestling Torch}}</ref> He made his in-ring debut on the December 14 episode of ''NXT'', teaming with Masters in a loss to [[Brodus Clay]] and his mentor, [[Ted DiBiase, Jr.|Ted DiBiase]]. Earlier that night, Saxton won the karaoke challenge, earning a point towards immunity from elimination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/12/14/16554521.html|title=WWE NXT: Decent matches, embarrassing challenges|date=2010-12-14|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-19|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> He earned his first win on the following episode when he teamed with Masters and [[WWE Diva]] [[Natalya (wrestler)|Natalya]] to defeat Clay, DiBiase, and [[Maryse Ouellet|Maryse]] in a [[Professional wrestling tag team match types#Multiple man teamed matches|six-person]] [[Professional wrestling tag team match types#Mixed tag team match|mixed tag team match]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2010/12/22/16639541.html|title=WWE NXT: More fodder for the blooper reel|date=2010-12-22|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2010-12-23|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> On January 4, 2011 episode of ''NXT'', [[Dolph Ziggler]] became Saxton's new Pro, after Ziggler won a [[Battle royal (professional wrestling)|Battle royal]] to earn the right to choose a new rookie and he chose Saxton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/01/05/16764121.html|title=WWE NXT: First rookie sent packing|date=2011-01-05|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-01-05|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> On the February 8 episode of ''NXT'', Saxton was eliminated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/02/09/17206116.html|title=WWE NXT: Another one bites the dust|date=2011-02-09|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-02-13|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref>

In March 2011, Saxton was selected as one of the six former ''NXT'' contestants to return to the show in its fifth season, ''[[WWE NXT#NXT Redemption|NXT Redemption]]''. During this season, Saxton was mentored by [[Naofumi Yamamoto|Yoshi Tatsu]]. On the April 26 Edition of NXT, Saxton attacked Tatsu after he cost him the match against [[Lucky Cannon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2011/03/09/17546731.html|title=WWE NXT: Redemption beings for 6 former rookies|date=2011-03-09|last=Bishop|first=Matt|accessdate=2011-03-09|work=Slam! Sports|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]}}</ref> Going into late May 2011, he began referring to himself as "Big League" Byron Saxton, believing that he is bigger than the NXT Rookies and/ or the WWE Pros, turning [[Heel (professional wrestling)|heel]]. On the following week (the last day of May), Saxton was voted off of NXT Redemption.

Byron Saxton made his return as the [[play-by-play]] commentator for the relaunched [[WWE NXT|NXT]] on the May 17, 2012 taping at [[Full Sail University]]. Later on he would become the NXT [[ring announcer]] in addition to having some creative responsibilities for the company.

====Main roster (2014-present)====
On January 27, 2014, Saxton made his main roster debut on the WWE App during ''[[Monday Night Raw|Raw]]''. Three days later on January 30 he appeared alongside Tom Phillips as a commentator on ''[[WWE Superstars]]''. On the February 10, 2014 edition of ''Raw'' Saxton conducted a backstage interview with [[Sheamus]] and was announced as the newest member of the WWE announce team by [[Michael Cole (wrestling)|Michael Cole]]. On the May 13, 2014 episode of ''Main Event'', Saxton was attacked by [[Alicia Fox]] after she lost the match to [[Emma (wrestler)|Emma]]. On January 8, 2015, it was announced that Saxton would join the announce team on ''[[WWE SmackDown]]'' and by [[WWE Fastlane]] he was called "the voice" of the show.

On the March 30, 2015 edition of ''Raw'' the night after [[WrestleMania 31]], Saxton and Jerry Lawler filled in for Michael Cole, JBL, and Booker T after they were brutally assaulted by [[Brock Lesnar]]. From the June 8 episode of ''Raw'', Saxton filled in on commentary for Booker T, who would be one of the coaches on the [[WWE Tough Enough#Season 6|sixth season]] of [[WWE Tough Enough]], with [[The Usos|Jimmy Uso]] filling in for Saxton on ''SmackDown''. In July, Saxton would become the new host of the [[WWE Network]] show, ''Tough Talk'', replacing former host [[The Miz]], who would become the new judge on Tough Enough after the [[Hulk Hogan#Scandal and departure|Hulk Hogan scandal]]. After Tough Enough ended Saxton was kept on as Raw announcer permanently and Booker T switched to the SmackDown announce team.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrestlinginc.com/wi/news/2015/0829/600082/update-on-the-wwe-raw-and-smackdown-announce-teams/|title=Change To WWE RAW And SmackDown Announce Teams|first=Marc|last=Middleton|accessdate=September 23, 2015|date=August 29, 2015|work=Wresting Inc.}}</ref>

==In wrestling==
*'''Finishing moves
**''Saxtonation'' ([[Professional wrestling throws#Half nelson legsweep|Twisting half nelson legsweep]])
*'''Signature moves
**[[Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Flying clothesline|Diving lariat takedown]]
**[[Professional wrestling holds#Wrist lock|Wrist lock]] [[Professional wrestling throws#One-handed bulldog|one-handed bulldog]]
*'''Wrestlers [[Manager (professional wrestling)|managed]]'''
**[[Wade Barrett]]
**[[Michael Tarver]]
**[[Naomi (wrestler)|Naomi Knight]]
**[[Cameron (wrestler)|Cameron Lynn]]
**[[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]]
**[[Mason Ryan]]
*'''[[Manager (professional wrestling)|Managers]]'''
**[[José Torres (wrestler)|Black Pain]]
**[[Cameron (wrestler)|Cameron Lynn]]
**[[Chris Masters]]
**[[Dolph Ziggler]]
**[[Vickie Guerrero]]
**[[Yoshi Tatsu]]
*'''[[Nickname]]s'''
**"Big League"
**"The Voice of Smackdown"<ref>[[Renee Young]] calls him this during [[WWE Fastlane]] after [[Bray Wyatt]] finished</ref>

==Championships and accomplishments==
*'''Southern Championship Wrestling'''
**SCW Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with [[Chris Nelson (wrestler)|Chris Nelson]]<ref name="OWOW"/>
*'''[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]'''
**PWI ranked him #'''223''' of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the [[Pro Wrestling Illustrated#PWI 500|PWI 500]] in 2011<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prowrestlingillustrated.blogspot.com/2011/08/pwi-500-201-300.html|title="PWI 500": 201–300|date=2011-08-05|accessdate=2011-08-05|work=[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]}}</ref>
*'''United States Championship Wrestling'''
**USCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)<ref name="OWOW"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Professional wrestling}}
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.wwe.com/superstars/wwenxt/byronsaxton/ WWE NXT profile]
* [http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/b/bryan-kelly.html Online World of Wrestling profile]
*{{IMDb name|id=3818114|name=Bryan J. Kelly}}
*[http://byron-saxton.com Official Website]

{{World Wrestling Entertainment employees}}
{{NXT Rookies}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Saxton, Byron
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Kelly, Bryan; Kelly, Bryan J.
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = professional wrestling announcer
| DATE OF BIRTH = August 20, 1981
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Burke, Virginia]]

}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Saxton, Byron}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:African-American journalists]]
[[Category:African-American professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:American male journalists]]
[[Category:American male professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:American color commentators]]
[[Category:Professional wrestling announcers]]
[[Category:Professional wrestling managers and valets]]
[[Category:Professional wrestlers from Virginia]]

Babbel

2015-10-23T03:10:01Z

JimVC3: sp eachother > each other

{{About|Software|German football player and coach|Markus Babbel}}

{{Infobox company
| name = Lesson Nine GmbH
| logo = Babbel Logo.jpg
| type = [[Privately held company|Privately Held Corporation]]
| foundation = 2007
| location = [[Berlin]], [[Germany]]
| key_people = Markus Witte ([[Chief Executive Officer|CEO]]), Thomas Holl ([[Chief Technical Officer|CTO]]), Lorenz Heine ([[Chief of Innovation Officer|CInO]])
| industry = [[E-Learning]]
| num_employees = 110 permanent employees, approx. 150 freelancers <ref>http://www.dasauge.de/-babbel/#profil</ref>
| homepage = [http://www.babbel.com www.babbel.com]
}}

'''Babbel''' is an [[Computer-assisted language learning|online language learning software]] and [[e-learning]] platform available in various languages since January 2008. Thirteen languages are currently offered: [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. According to babbel.com, it has over 20,000,000 users from more than 190 countries.<ref>http://www.babbel.com/home/about</ref>

== Concept ==
{{advert|section|date=May 2013}}

Interactive courses offered on the babbel.com web page can be completed online without installation. There are beginner and grammar courses, vocabulary lessons, as well as courses with [[tongue-twister]]s, sayings and songs. Users wanting to learn English online can also find Business English on Babbel, with themed lessons such as “Marketing”, “Human Resources” and “PR”, in addition to English for journalists and rail employees. Those wishing to learn Spanish online can also find extensive vocabulary lessons with exercises elaborating upon differences among Spanish speaking countries.
Babbel courses can also be studied on mobile devices. [[Application software|Apps]] for all major mobile platforms are available: [[iPhone]] and [[iPad]] are available in the [[App Store]],<ref>https://itunes.apple.com/de/app/englisch-lernen-babbel.com/id362079760?mt=8</ref> Babbel Android Apps are available in [[Google Play]] store,<ref>http://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.babbel.mobile.android.en</ref> [[Windows Phone]] Apps are available through the Windows Phone store,<ref>http://www.windowsphone.com/en-US/store/publishers?publisherId=Lesson%2BNine%2BGmbH</ref> while [[Windows 8]] and [[Windows RT]] Apps are available through the Windows App Store.<ref>http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/search#q=lesson%20nine%20gmbh&s=Store</ref>
Babbel relies on current technology and teaching methods that aim to make language learning simple. Multimedia reading and writing exercises, listening comprehension and pronunciation training—including a personalized review manager make a multi-sensory, comprehensive learning experience possible.
Training the correct pronunciation is special focus for Babbel.com. With real-time speech recognition technology, users get immediate feedback on their level of success.
Babbel also offers the possibility to contact other learners from around the world. There are individual profile pages, a “board” and an internal messaging system.

== Recognitions and Awards ==
2013 Babbel has received the "digita 2013" award and the "Innovative 4 Society" on the [[CeBIT]].
In 2011 Babbel was awarded the „Comenius EduMedia Seal“ and the „Erasmus EuroMedia Seal of Approval“<ref>http://www.euromediaawards.eu/</ref> for „Babbel for Companies“,<ref>http://www.babbel.com/home/b2b</ref> courses targeted at the business sector. Among others, Babbel counts hotel.de-AG as one of their business clients. Babbel also received the “European Award for Technology Supported Learning (eureleA)” for best technical implementation.
The language learning platform was one of the finalists for "Best Web Application or Service (EMEA)" in [[TechCrunch|TechCrunch’s]] Europe Awards 2009.

== Development ==
Babbel is operated by Lesson Nine GmbH in Berlin, Germany. The company was founded in August 2007. In January 2008, the language learning platform went online with community features as a free beta version. By the first year, Babbel already had 180,000 members from 200 countries. In 2008, Kizoo Technology Ventures and IBB Beteiligungsgesellschaft mbh became Babbel.com’s first investors. Then in 2009, Babbel.com was granted about one million Euros by the ERDF European Structural Fund. The new product version Babbel 2.0 went online in November, 2009. At that time Lesson Nine founders decided against an advertising and mixed-finance (Freemium) model and opted for paid content. Babbel has around 90 full-time employees and freelancers. The company is located in the [[Berlin]] neighbourhood of Kreuzberg.

In March 2013 Babbel acquired San Francisco startup PlaySay Inc. to strategically position themselves to expand into the U.S. market.<ref name="Wall Street Journal">{{cite web|last=Leach|first=Anna|title=Berlin E-Learning Startup Babbel Buys Out San Francisco Rival|url=http://blogs.wsj.com/tech-europe/2013/03/22/berlin-e-learning-startup-babbel-buys-out-san-francisco-rival/?mod=google_news_blog|publisher=Wall Street Journal|date=March 22, 2013}}</ref> PlaySay was a 2011 TechCrunch Disrupt Finalist that had a #1 ranked language learning iOS application<ref name=PlaySay>{{cite web|last=Meinzer|first=Ryan|title=PlaySay is #1|url=http://blog.playsay.com/playsay-is-1-61637|publisher=PlaySay|date=May 13, 2012}}</ref> and premium content deals with McGraw Hill Professional and HarperCollins.<ref name=techcrunch>{{cite web|last=Lunden|first=Ingrid|title=German Language Learning Startup Babbel Buys Disrupt Finalist PlaySay To Target The U.S. Market|url=http://techcrunch.com/2013/03/21/german-language-learning-startup-babbel-buys-disrupt-finalist-playsay-to-target-the-us-market/|publisher=TechCrunch|date=March 21, 2013}}</ref> As part of the acquisition, PlaySay Founder and CEO Ryan Meinzer joined Babbel as a strategic advisor for its US operations. “With an affordable price point and focus on mobile, Babbel.com is poised to usurp giants like Rosetta Stone who have neglected the majority of the users in the USA market that spend up to $100 each year on self-study language learning products,” he says. “The winner of the race in language-learning software will be the one that does mobile the best and Babbel.com will be well positioned in the principle USA market armed with the acquisition of PlaySay.”<ref name="The Next Web">{{cite web|last=Sawers|first=Paul|title=Money talks: Language-learning startup Babbel acquires & shutters PlaySay as it eyes US and mobile growth|url=http://thenextweb.com/insider/2013/03/21/money-talks-language-learning-startup-babbel-acquires-shutters-playsay-as-it-eyes-us-and-mobile-growth/|publisher=The Next Web|date=March 21, 2013}}</ref>

In March 2013 Babbel secured $10 million in [[Venture funding|Series B funding]] led by Reed Elsevier Ventures.<ref name=techcrunch>{{cite web|last=Butcher|first=Mike|title=Language Startup Babbel Closes $10M Series B Funding To Expand Globally, Build Team|url=http://techcrunch.com/2013/03/26/babbel-closes-10m-series-b/|publisher=TechCrunch|date=March 26, 2013}}</ref>

==The name==
The name of "Babbel" is probably{{?}} inspired by the [[Tower of Babel]]. In the Old Testament, the Tower of Babel was a gigantic building which was supposed to "touch the sky". But right before the end of constructions, God made the workers speak various languages so they can't communicate to each other and would be pushed to discover other cultures rather than their own.

''Babbel'' is also the [[imperative mood]] of {{link language|de}} ''{{lang|de|babbeln}}'', speak!<ref>{{wiktionary}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Language education]]

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
* [http://www.babbel.com/ Babbel.com]
* [http://www.crunchbase.com/company/babbel Crunchbase-Profil]

[[Category:Social networking language education websites]]
[[Category:Wikis]]

Habits (Stay High)

2015-10-10T19:08:53Z

JimVC3: Fixing CS1 errors

{{Infobox single
| Name = Habits
| Cover = Tove Lo Habits original cover.png
| Artist = [[Tove Lo]]
| Album = [[Truth Serum (EP)|Truth Serum]] {{noitalic|and}} [[Queen of the Clouds]]
| Released = {{Start date|2013|3|25|df=y}}
| Format = [[Music download|Digital download]]
| Recorded = 2013
| Genre = {{flatlist|
* [[Pop music|Pop]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/6266594/tove-lo-gimme-five-habits|title=Tove Lo's Five Real-Life Habits: The 'Habits (Stay High)' Singer Opens Up |first=Jason| last= Lipshutz |date=29 September 2014|work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|accessdate=30 October 2014}}</ref>
* [[electropop]]<ref>{{cite web|last=McCormick|first=Neil|date=2 May 2015|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/cdreviews/11573579/Tove-Lo-Queen-of-the-Clouds-review-glossy-modern-pop.html|title=Tove Lo, Queen of the Clouds, review: 'glossy modern pop'|work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|accessdate=14 May 2015}}</ref>
}}
| Length = {{duration|m=3|s=16}}
| Label = {{flatlist|
* [[Island Records|Island]]
* [[Republic Records|Republic]]
}}
| Writer = {{flatlist|
* [[Tove Lo|Tove Nilsson]]
* Ludvig Söderberg
* Jakob Jerlström
* Daniel Ledinsky
}}
| Producer = The Struts
| Last single = "Out of Mind" (2012)
| This single = "'''Habits (Stay High)'''" (2013)
| Next single = "[[Talking Body]]" (2015)
{{External music video|{{YouTube|oh2LWWORoiM|"Habbits (Stay High)"}}}}
{{Extra album cover
| Upper caption = Re-release cover
| Cover = Tove Lo Habits.png
| Lower caption =
| Type = Single
| Border = yes
}}
{{Extra album cover
| Upper caption = Remix version
| Cover = Tove_Lo_Hippie_Sabotage_Stay_High_cover.jpg
| Lower caption = Remix version featuring Hippie Sabotage
| Type = Single
| Border = yes
}}}}

"'''Habits'''" is a song by Swedish recording artist [[Tove Lo]] featured on her debut [[extended play]], ''[[Truth Serum (EP)|Truth Serum]]'', as well as her debut album, ''[[Queen of the Clouds]]''. The song was released on 25 March 2013 as Tove Lo's second single, and later re-released on 6 December 2013 under the title "'''Habits (Stay High)'''". The song was released in the United States on 14 April 2014 as the lead single for ''Truth Serum'' and for ''Queen of the Clouds''. Musically, "Habits" is a pop song that details the protagonist's attempts to forget about her previous significant other through drinking and other [[hedonism|hedonistic]] pleasures.

"Habits" became a [[sleeper hit]], reaching number three on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] in the United States, becoming her first hit single on that chart. Tove Lo is the highest-charting Swedish artist on that chart since "[[The Sign (song)|The Sign]]" by [[Ace of Base]] peaked at number one in 1994.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tove Lo trea på USA-listan|url=http://www.svd.se/kultur/tove-lo-trea-pa-usa-listan_4055933.svd|publisher=''[[Svenska Dagbladet]]''|accessdate=31 October 2014|date=30 October 2014}}</ref> The song found more success worldwide as a remix by [[Habits (Tove Lo song)#Hippie Sabotage Remix|Hippie Sabotage]], where it reached the top ten in Australia and the United Kingdom and other countries in Europe.

==Background==
Lyrically, the song is a graphic depiction of Tove Lo's [[Hedonism|hedonistic]] attempts to get over her [[Ex (relationship)|ex]]. It was written in the immediate aftermath of her breakup. The account of staying high with [[Recreational drug use|recreational drugs]] in an attempt to keep her mind off her ex is all true.<ref name="Habits Stay High by Tove Lo">[http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=32997 Habits (Stay High) by Tove Lo] - [www.songfacts.com Song Facts] (accessed September 25, 2014)</ref> Nilsson explains the further meaning of this song, "I can't lie. What I'm singing about is my life. It's the truth. I've had moments where that [drug-taking] has been a bigger part than it should be. It's hard to admit to, and I could filter it or find another metaphor for it - but it doesn't feel right to me."<ref name="Habits Stay High by Tove Lo"/> The song was produced by The Struts and recorded at Warner/Chappel Studios in Stockholm. "Habits" was mixed by Lars Norgren at Ramtitam Studios in Stockholm, Sweden.

==Remix versions==
A remix of "Habits" by record production duo Hippie Sabotage, alternatively titled "Stay High", was released on 3 March 2014 as the third single from ''Truth Serum''. "Stay High" peaked at number 13 on the [[Swedish Singles Chart]] and performed even more successfully elsewhere, peaking within the top 10 of the charts in Norway, the Netherlands, France, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Australia.

==Critical reception==
Michael Cragg from ''[[The Guardian]]'' stated "Tove Lo's new single Habits is so good there are now two versions of it with three separate videos".{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

==Chart performance==
The song peaked at number three on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100. It was kept from number one by Meghan Trainor's "All About That Bass" and Taylor Swift's "Shake It Off", which locked up the top two spots on the Hot 100 as "Habits" reached number three. The song stayed in the top ten for ten weeks. As of February 2015, the song has sold 3 million copies in the United States.<ref name=us_sales>{{cite web |url=http://www.hitsdailydouble.com/news/newsPage.cgi?news10228m01 |title=The Big 9 in 2014: Republic |work=HITS Daily Double |publisher=HITS Digital Ventures |date=12 December 2014 |accessdate=12 December 2014}}</ref>
It also peaked at number three on the Canadian Hot 100 chart and has sold 160.000 copies in the country.
The single peaked at number three on the Australian charts and has sold 140.000 copies in the country.
It also peaked at number six on the UK charts and has sold 400.00 in the country.
The song peaked in the top 10 of more countries like Hungary, Austria, Slovakia, Switzerland, Belgium, Scotland, Norway, France, New Zealand, Denmark, Czech Republic and hit the top spot in Netherlands, Poland and Latvia.

==Music videos==
A music video to accompany the release of "Habits" was first released onto YouTube in March 2013. The video begins with what looks like her memories from a hangover, as images of [[whiskey]], a shoe in a chandelier, and her making out with a man flash on the screen. We then see what happened the night before. She walks into a bar to get a bottle of whiskey, and drinks with a man. She is then seen in a tea party with four other women. They drink champagne amongst an array of cakes and cupcakes. As the video flashes white, you see a glimpse of the other women's memories, seen mostly making out. Near the middle of the video, she becomes drunk and makes a mess at the tea party with everyone else, taking her shirt off, smearing cake on her face, and pouring champagne on herself. She is then seen making out with the man she was drinking with. In the end of the video, she is seen at home, vomiting into a sink. Interspersed throughout the video are scenes from the single cover, with mascara dripping from her eyes; while doing activities such as blowing bubble gum, eating melting ice cream, and smoking a cigarette. The video was removed from her original YouTube account since the second version was released.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fG-EIvEiSHs Tove Lo - Habits - Original video]</ref>

A song's second music video was directed by Motellet and produced by Martin Roeck Hansen, with make-up done by Julia Conrah and styling by Möllard Möllard. The video shows Tove Lo waking up at a someone else's house after a night of partying and returning home. There she recovers from her hangover and prepares for another night of partying, trying on numerous outfits. She meets with some girlfriends and goes to a series of bars and clubs, drunkenly making out with both men and women as she goes. However privately she goes to the bathroom numerous times and sobs in the stall. After a night of drunken kissing and dancing she returns home and collapses into her bed.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oh2LWWORoiM Tove Lo - Habits (Stay High) -] [[YouTube]]</ref>

==Cover versions==
In May 2015, [[Kygo]] performed a piano version with vocals by [[Parson James]] on [[BBC Radio 1]]'s [[Live Lounge]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Medved|first1=Matt|title=Kygo Covers Tove Lo's 'Habits (Stay High)': Video and Exclusive Q&A|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/dance/6554006/kygo-tove-lo-habits-stay-high-exclusive-qa|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|accessdate=September 26, 2015|date=May 5, 2015}}</ref> Canadian rock band [[Theory of a Deadman]] released an acoustic cover version in April 2015,<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qX4tS_GeTyU</ref> and German "modern metal" band Samsara Circle released a cover version with a reinterpretation of the music video in July 2015.<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pNM6xqIc7ZA/</ref> [[Kelly Clarkson]] covered the song as part of her "Fan Requests" during her [[Piece by Piece Tour]] on 26 July 2015.

==Track listing==
{{tracklist
| headline = Digital download
| title1 = Habits
| length1 = 3:28
}}

{{tracklist
| headline = Remix version
| title1 = Stay High
| note1 = featuring Hippie Sabotage) (Habits Remix
| length1 = 4:17
}}

==Charts==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

===Weekly charts===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
! Chart (2014–15)
! Peak position
|-
{{singlechart|Australia|3|song=Stay High|artist=Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage|rowheader=true|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Austria|3|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits|rowheader=true|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Flanders|3|song=Stay High|artist=Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage|rowheader=true|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=July 31, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Wallonia|3|song=Stay High|artist=Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage|rowheader=true|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardcanadianhot100|3|artist=Tove Lo|artistid=5870483|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardcanadaac|46|artist=Tove Lo|artistid=5870483|rowheader=true|accessdate=February 3, 2015}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardcanadachrtop40|1|artist=Tove Lo|artistid=5870483|rowheader=true|accessdate=February 3, 2015}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardcanadahotac|9|artist=Tove Lo|artistid=5870483|rowheader=true|accessdate=February 3, 2015}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardcanadarock|42|artist=Tove Lo|artistid=5870483|rowheader=true|accessdate=February 3, 2015}}
|-
{{singlechart|Czech Republic|12|year=2014|week=47|accessdate=November 2, 2014|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{singlechart|Czechdigital|3|year=2014|week=46|accessdate=November 2, 2014|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{singlechart|Denmark|10|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits|rowheader=true|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|France|2|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits|rowheader=true|accessdate=June 2, 2014}}
|-
! scope="row"|France Streaming Songs ([[Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique|SNEP]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chartsinfrance.net/charts/1441/titres-streaming.php|publisher =''Charts in France''|accessdate=18 February 2014|title=Titres les plus écoutés en streaming en France du 6 au 12 octobre 2014}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|1
|-
{{singlechart|Germany2|14|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits|rowheader=true|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Hungarytop10|9|year=2014|week=50|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits|rowheader=true|accessdate=December 18, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Irish|49|year=2014|week=23|rowheader=true|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-

{{singlechart|Dutch40|1|song=Stay High|artist=Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage|rowheader=true|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Dutch100|2|song=Stay High|artist=Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage|rowheader=true|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|New Zealand|3|song=Stay High|artist=Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage|rowheader=true|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Norway|7|song=Stay High|artist=Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage|rowheader=true|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Poland|1|year=2014|chartid=1476|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=December 1, 2014|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{singlechart|Scotland|8|date=2014-05-10|rowheader=true|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Slovakia|8|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits|year=2015|week=06|rowheader=true|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Slovakdigital|5|year=2014|week=45|accessdate=November 2, 2014|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{singlechart|Spain|13|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits|rowheader=true|accessdate=November 2, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Sweden|13|song=Stay High|artist=Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage|rowheader=true|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Switzerland|3|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits|rowheader=true|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|UK|6|date=2014-04-26|rowheader=true|note=Hippie Sabotage Remix|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardhot100|3|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits (Stay High)|rowheader=true|accessdate=October 1, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardrocksongs|1|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits (Stay High)|rowheader=true|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardrockairplay|16|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits (Stay High)|rowheader=true|accessdate=October 2, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardadultpopsongs|2|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits (Stay High)|rowheader=true|accessdate=October 2, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboarddanceclubplay|30|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits (Stay High)|rowheader=true|accessdate=January 4, 2015}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardlatinairplay|41|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits (Stay High)|rowheader=true|accessdate=January 24, 2015}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardlatinpopsongs|34|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits (Stay High)|rowheader=true|accessdate=January 24, 2015}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardpopsongs|1|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits (Stay High)|rowheader=true|accessdate=October 2, 2014}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardrhythmic|8|artist=Tove Lo|song=Habits (Stay High)|rowheader=true|accessdate=July 10, 2014}}
|}
{{col-2}}

===Year-end charts===
{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!Chart (2014)
!Position
|-
! scope="row"| Australia (ARIA)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aria.com.au/pages/aria-charts-end-of-year-charts-top-100-singles-2014.htm|title=ARIA Charts – End Of Year Charts – Top 100 Singles 2014|publisher=[[Australian Recording Industry Association]]|accessdate=5 February 2015}}</ref>
| 38
|-
! scope="row"| Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://austriancharts.at/year.asp?cat=s&id=2014|title=Jahreshitparade Singles 2014|work={{noitalic|[[Ö3 Austria Top 40]]}}|accessdate=23 September 2015}}</ref>
| 62
|-
! scope="row"|Canada (Canadian Hot 100)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/charts/year-end/2014/canadian-hot-100|title=Canadian Hot 100 - Year End 2014|publisher=Billboard.com|accessdate=9 December 2014}}</ref>
| 41
|-
! scope="row"|France (SNEP)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chartsinfrance.net/actualite/news-95369.html|title=Les meilleures ventes de singles de l'année 2014 en France|publisher=Charts in France|language=French}}</ref>
| 13
|-
! scope="row"| Germany ([[GfK Entertainment|Official German Charts]])<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.offiziellecharts.de/charts/single-jahr/for-date-2014 |title=Top 100 Single-Jahrescharts|language=German |work=''[[GfK Entertainment]]'' |publisher=offiziellecharts.de |accessdate=10 August 2015}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| 66
|-
! scope="row"| New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nztop40.co.nz/chart/?chart=2629|title=Top Selling Singles of 2014|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|access-date=1 January 2015}}</ref>
| 29
|-
! scope="row"| Sweden (Sverigetopplistan) (Hippie Sabotage Remix)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hitlistan.se/netdata/ghl002.mbr/lista?liid=43&dfom=20140001 |title=Årslista Singlar – År 2014 |language=Swedish |publisher=[[Sverigetopplistan]]. [[Swedish Recording Industry Association]] |accessdate=11 February 2015}}</ref>
| 11
|-
! scope="row"| UK Singles (Official Charts Company)<ref>http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/end-of-year-singles-chart</ref>
| 50
|-
! scope="row"|US ''Billboard'' Hot 100<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/charts/year-end/2014/hot-100-songs|title=Hot 100 Songs – Year End 2014|publisher=Billboard.com|accessdate=9 December 2014}}</ref>
| 32
|-
! scope="row"|US Alternative Songs (''Billboard'')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.billboard.com/charts/year-end/2014/alternative-songs |title=Alternative Songs: Year End 2014 |work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |accessdate=21 December 2014}}</ref>
| 46
|}
{{col-end}}

==Certifications==
{{Certification Table Top}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=single|region=Australia|artist=Tove Lo|title=Stay High (Habits Remix)|award=Platinum|number=2|relyear=2014|certyear=2014|autocat=yes|accessdate=3 September 2014}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=single|region=Austria|artist=Tove Lo|title=Habits|award=Gold|relyear=2014|certyear=2015|autocat=yes|accessdate=17 March 2015|digital=true}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=single|region=Belgium|artist=Tove Lo|title=Habits (Stay High)|award=Gold|relyear=2014|certyear=2014|autocat=yes|accessdate=18 October 2014}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=single|region=Canada|artist=Tove Lo|title=Habits|award=Platinum|number=2|relyear=2014|certyear=2014|autocat=yes|accessdate=5 December 2014|digital=true}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Denmark|certyear=2014|relyear=2014|artist=Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage|title=Habits|award=Platinum|certref=<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=29 October 2014 |title= Certificeringer – Tove Lo – Habits |url= http://www.ifpi.dk/?q=content/tove-lo-habits-0 |publisher= [[IFPI Denmark]]|language=Danish}}</ref>|type=single|autocat=true|certmonth=10|salesamount=2,600,000}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Denmark|certyear=2014|relyear=2014|artist=Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage|title=Stay High|award=Gold|certref=<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=29 October 2014 |title= Certificeringer – Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage – Stay High |url= http://www.ifpi.dk/?q=content/tove-lo-feat-hippie-sabotage-stay-high |publisher= IFPI Denmark|language=Danish}}</ref>|type=single|autocat=true|certmonth=8|salesamount=1,300,000| note=(remix version)}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=single|region=Germany|artist=Tove Lo|title=Habits|award=Platinum|relyear=2014|certyear=2015|autocat=yes|accessdate=3 September 2015|digital=true|salesamount=400,000}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=single|region=Italy|artist=Tove Lo|title=Habits|award=Gold|relyear=2014|certyear=2014|autocat=yes|accessdate=19 December 2014|digital=true}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=single|region=New Zealand|artist=Tove Lo feat. Hippie Sabotage|title=Habits (Stay High)|award=Platinum|relyear=2014|certyear=2014|id=2570|autocat=yes|recent=website|accessdate=19 September 2014}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=single|region=Sweden|artist=Tove Lo|title=Habits|award=Platinum|number=3|relyear=2014|certyear=2014|autocat=yes|accessdate=16 April 2015|digital=true}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=single|region=Switzerland|artist=Tove Lo|title=Habits|award=Gold|relyear=2014|certyear=2014|autocat=yes|accessdate=8 January 2015}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=single|region=United Kingdom|artist=Tove Lo|title=Stay High|award=Gold|relyear=2014|certyear=2014|autocat=yes|accessdate=12 December 2014}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=single|region=United States|digital=true|artist=Tove Lo|title=Habits (Stay High)|award=Platinum|number=3|salesamount=3,000,000|salesref=<ref name=us_sales/>|relyear=2014|certyear=2014|autocat=yes|accessdate=12 November 2014}}
{{Certification Table Bottom}}

==Release history==
{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
! scope="col"| Region
! scope="col"| Date
! scope="col"| Version
! scope="col"| Format
! scope="col"| Distributor
! scope="col" class="unsortable"| {{abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"| Sweden
| {{dts|2013|12|6|format=dmy}}
| Original
| rowspan="2"| [[Music download|Digital download]]
| rowspan="2"| [[Universal Music Group|Universal Music]]
| align="center"| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://itunes.apple.com/se/album/habits-single/id773139498?l=en |title=Habits (Stay High) – Single by Tove Lo |work={{noitalic|[[iTunes Store]]}} |location=Sweden |publisher=[[Apple Inc.|Apple]] |accessdate=16 August 2014}}{{dead link|date=May 2015}}</ref>
|-
|-
| {{dts|2014|3|3|format=dmy}}
| Hippie Sabotage remix
| {{citation needed|date=May 2015}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="4"| United States
| {{dts|2014|4|14|format=dmy}}
| rowspan="4"| Original version
| [[Adult album alternative]]
| [[Island Records|Island]]
| align="center"| <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allaccess.com/triple-a/future-releases |title=Triple A > Future Releases |publisher=All Access Music Group |archiveurl=http://webcitation.org/6OWw8ynOZ |archivedate=2 April 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|2014|5|13|format=dmy}}
| [[Modern rock]]
| rowspan="3"| {{flatlist|
* Island
* [[Republic Records|Republic]]
}}
| align="center"| <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allaccess.com/alternative/future-releases |title=Alternative > Future Releases |publisher=All Access Music Group |archiveurl=http://webcitation.org/6PVv4Oqaw |archivedate=12 May 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|2014|6|17|format=dmy}}
| [[Contemporary hit radio]]
| align="center"| <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fmqb.com/Article.asp?id=69239 |title=CHR Airplay Archive |work=[[FMQB]] |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20140714070452/http://www.fmqb.com/Article.asp?id=69239 |archivedate=14 July 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|2014|9|15|format=dmy}}
| [[Hot adult contemporary]]
| align="center"| <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.republicplaybook.com/track/tove-lo-habits-3/ |title=Tove Lo 'Habits' |publisher=[[Republic Records]] |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6RrSlgUPD |archivedate=15 August 2014}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{MetroLyrics song|tove-lo|habits}}
* {{MetroLyrics song|tove-lo|stay-high}}
* {{YouTube|oh2LWWORoiM|"Habits (Stay High)"}}
* {{YouTube|SYM-RJwSGQ8|"Habits (Stay High) (Hippie Sabotage Remix)"}}
* {{YouTube|JKSeVyww1gw|"Habits (Stay High) (First Version)"}}

{{Tove Lo}}

[[Category:2013 singles]]
[[Category:2013 songs]]
[[Category:2014 singles]]
[[Category:Tove Lo songs]]
[[Category:Universal Records singles]]
[[Category:Songs about alcohol]]
[[Category:Songs about cannabis]]
[[Category:Songs about loneliness]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Poland]]
[[Category:Billboard Rock Songs number-one singles]]
[[Category:Billboard Pop Songs number-one singles]]
[[Category:Songs written by Tove Lo]]

Schwarze im Mormonentum

2015-07-23T19:49:54Z

JimVC3: Fixing CS1 error

{{About|black people and the LDS Church|black people in the early Mormon movement|Black people and early Mormonism}}
{{multiple issues|
{{religious text primary|date=December 2013}}
{{Primary sources|article|date=October 2012}}
{{third-party|date=June 2014}}
}}

[[File:Gladys Knight.jpg|thumb|Since her baptism in 1997, [[Gladys Knight]] has sought to raise awareness of black people in the LDS Church.]]
From the mid-1800s until 1978, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) had a policy which prevented most men of [[black people|black]] African descent from being ordained to the church's [[Laity|lay]] [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]]. This resulted in these members being unable to participate in some [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]]. Though the church had an open membership policy for all races, relatively few black people who joined the church retained active membership,<ref>{{cite news |work= Washington Post |date= February 17, 2012 |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/mindful-of-history-mormon-church-reaches-out-to-minorities/2012/02/13/gIQAZKJrKR_story.html |first= Hamil R. |last= Harris |title= Mindful of history, Mormon Church reaches out to minorities |quote= a period of more than 120 years during which black men were essentially barred from the priesthood and few Americans of color were active in the faith. |accessdate= February 29, 2012 }}</ref> despite reassurance that the ban would one day be lifted when "all the other descendants of Adam have received the promises and enjoyed the blessings of the priesthood and the keys thereof".<ref name=ostling>{{cite book |last= Ostling |first= Richard, and Joan K. Ostling |title= Mormon America: The Power and the Promise |year= 2007 |publisher= HarperCollins |location= New York |isbn= 978-0061432958 |page= 102 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=5h6paNzoIOIC&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102 }}</ref>

Historically, Mormon attitudes about race were generally close to those of other Americans.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Mauss|2003|pp=219–227}} (comparing 1960s survey responses of Mormons versus non-Mormons) "On the whole, Mormons were not very different from other Americans in holding rather conservative views on civil rights for blacks. On internal church questions, not all of the Saints were happy about the priesthood restriction, an d many had serious doubts about other traditional teachings relating to black people. However, when pressure mounted from the outside, Mormons tended to defend their church out of loyalty, whatever their doubts."</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last= Bringhurst |editor1-first= Newell G. |editor2-last= Smith |editor2-first= Darron T. |title= Black and Mormon |year= 2004 |publisher= University of Illinois Press |location= Urbana and Chicago |isbn= 0-252-02947-X |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=lSvRnQgJAx8C&printsec=frontcover |page= }}{{page needed|date=April 2014}}</ref> Accordingly, before the [[civil rights movement]], the LDS Church's policy went largely unnoticed and unchallenged.<ref name="The LDS Church and the Race Issue">{{cite web |last= Mauss |first= Armand |authorlink= Armand Mauss |year= 2003 |title= The LDS Church and the Race Issue: A Study in Misplaced Apologetics |url= http://www.fairlds.org/fair-conferences/2003-fair-conference/2003-the-lds-church-and-the-race-issue-a-study-in-misplaced-apologetics |publisher= [[Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research|FAIR]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Richard Bushman |title= Mormonism: a very short introduction |year= 2008 |page= 111 |publisher= Oxford University Press }}</ref> Beginning in the 1960s, however, the church was criticized by civil rights advocates and religious groups, and in 1969 several church leaders voted to rescind the policy, but the vote was not unanimous among the members of the [[First Presidency (LDS Church)|First Presidency]] and [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], so the policy stood. In 1978, the First Presidency and the Twelve, led by [[Spencer W. Kimball]], declared they had received [[1978 Revelation on Priesthood|a revelation]] instructing them to reverse the racial restriction policy. The change seems to have been prompted at least in part by problems facing mixed race converts in Brazil.{{cn|date=May 2015}} Today, the church opposes [[racism]] in any form and has no racial policy.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Hinckley |first= Gordon B. |authorlink= Gordon B. Hinckley |date= May 2006 |title= The Need for Greater Kindness |url= http://www.lds.org/ensign/2006/05/the-need-for-greater-kindness?lang=eng |journal= [[Ensign (LDS magazine)|Ensign]] }}</ref>

In 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the LDS Church, accounting for about five percent of the total membership; most black members live in Africa, Brazil, and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, Utah (1998); p. 119. "A rough estimate would place the number of Church members with African roots at year-end 1997 at half a million, with about 100,000 each in Africa and the Caribbean, and another 300,000 in Brazil."</ref>

==Before 1847==
{{Main|Black people and early Mormonism}}
[[File:Jane Elizabeth Manning James.jpg|thumb|[[Jane Elizabeth Manning James|Jane Manning]] was an early [[African American]] member who was a servant<ref>"Saints, Slaves, and Blacks" by Bringhurst. Table 8 on p.223</ref> in [[Joseph Smith]]'s household in [[Nauvoo, Illinois|Nauvoo]] and later followed [[Brigham Young]] to the Utah Territory. She petitioned church leadership to allow her to obtain the [[Endowment (Latter Day Saints)|endowment]], but was repeatedly denied because of the ban.<ref name="Coleman 2008">{{cite book |last= Coleman |first= Ronald G. |chapter= 'Is There No Blessing For Me?': Jane Elizabeth Manning James, a Mormon African American Woman |title= African American Women Confront the West, 1600-2000 |editor1-first= Quintard |editor1-last= Taylor |editor2-first= Shirley Ann Wilson |editor2-last= Moore |year= 2008 |publisher= University of Oklahoma Press |location= Norman, Oklahoma |isbn= 978-0806139791 |pages= 144–162 |chapter-url= http://books.google.com/books?id=uwKuLlDDT-wC&pg=PA144&lpg=PA144 |quote= Jane Elizabeth James never understood the continued denial of her church entitlements. Her autobiography reveals a stubborn adherence to her church even when it ignored her pleas.}}</ref>{{rp|p.154}}]]
[[File:US SlaveFree1858.gif|right|thumb|300px|[[Slave and free states]] in 1858.]]

During the early years of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], black people were admitted to the church, and there was no record of a racial policy on denying priesthood, since at least two black men became [[priest (Latter Day Saints)|priests]], [[Elijah Abel]] and [[Walker Lewis]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Mauss|2003|p=213}}</ref> When the Latter Day Saints migrated to [[Missouri]], they encountered the pro-slavery sentiments of their neighbors. [[Joseph Smith]] upheld the laws regarding slaves and slaveholders, but remained [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist]] in his actions and doctrines.<ref name="Bush 1973">{{citation |url= https://www.dialoguejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/sbi/articles/Dialogue_V08N01_13.pdf |title= Mormonism's Negro Doctrine: An Historical Overview |journal= [[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]] |volume= 8 |issue= 1 |date= Spring 1973 |last= Bush |first= Lester E., Jr. |pages= 18–19}}</ref>

Beginning in 1842, after he had moved to free-state Illinois, Smith made known his increasingly strong anti-slavery position. In 1842, he began studying some abolitionist literature, and stated, "It makes my blood boil within me to reflect upon the injustice, cruelty, and oppression of the rulers of the people. When will these things cease to be, and the Constitution and the laws again bear rule?"<ref>''[[History of the Church (Joseph Smith)|History of the Church]]'', '''4''':544.</ref> In 1844, Smith wrote his views as a candidate for President of the United States. The anti-slavery plank of his platform called for a gradual end to slavery by the year 1850. His plan called for the government to buy the freedom of slaves using money from the sale of public lands.<ref name="Bush 1973"/>

==Racial policy under Brigham Young==
After Smith's death in 1844, [[Brigham Young]] became president of the main body of the church and led the [[Mormon pioneers]] to what would become the [[Utah Territory]]. Like many Americans at the time, Young (who was also the territorial governor) promoted discriminatory views about black people.<ref name="The LDS Church and the Race Issue"/> On January 16, 1852, Young made a pronouncement to the [[Utah Territorial Legislature]], stating that "any man having one drop of the seed of [Cain] ... in him cannot hold the priesthood and if no other Prophet ever spake it before I will say it now in the name of Jesus Christ I know it is true and others know it."<ref name="Neither White nor Black chapter 3">{{cite book |author=Bush, Lester E. |author2=Mauss, Armand L. |year=1984 |title=Neither White nor Black |url=http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=445 |chapter=3}}</ref>

A similar statement by Young was recorded on February 13, 1849. The statement—which refers to the [[Curse of Cain]]—was given in response to a question asking about the African's chances for redemption. Young responded, "The Lord had cursed Cain's seed with blackness and prohibited them the Priesthood."<ref name="Neither White nor Black chapter 3"/>

===William McCary===
{{Main|William McCary}}
Some researchers have suggested that the actions of [[William McCary]] in [[Winter Quarters, Nebraska]] led to Brigham Young's decision to adopt the priesthood ban in the LDS Church. McCary was a half–African American convert who, after his baptism and ordination to the priesthood, began to claim to be a [[prophet]] and the possessor of other supernatural gifts.<ref name="Murphy">Larry G. Murphy, [[J. Gordon Melton]], and Gary L. Ward (1993). ''Encyclopedia of African American Religions'' (New York: Garland Publishing) pp. 471–472.</ref> He was excommunicated for apostasy in March 1847 and expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name="Bringhurst">Newell G. Bringhurst (1981). ''Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People within Mormonism'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press).</ref> After his excommunication, McCary began attracting Latter Day Saint followers and instituted [[plural marriage]] among his group, and he had himself sealed to several [[White people|white]] wives.<ref name="Murphy"/><ref name="Bringhurst"/>

McCary's behavior angered many of the Latter Day Saints in Winter Quarters. Researchers have stated that his marriages to his white wives "played an important role in pushing the Mormon leadership into an anti-Black position"<ref name = Murphy/> and may have prompted Young to institute the priesthood and temple ban on black people.<ref name="Murphy"/><ref name="Bringhurst"/><ref>Connell O'Donovan, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html#_ftn107 "The Mormon Priesthood Ban & Elder Q. Walker Lewis: 'An example for his more whiter brethren to follow'], ''John Whitmer Historical Association Journal'', 2006.</ref> A statement from Young to McCary in March 1847 suggested that race had nothing to do with priesthood eligibility,<ref>"Its nothing to do with the blood for [from] one blood has God made all flesh, we have to repent [to] regain what we have lost—we have one of the best Elders, an African in Lowell [referring to Walker Lewis].": Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref> but the earliest known statement about the priesthood restriction from any Mormon leader (including the implication that skin color might be relevant) was made by [[apostle (Latter Day Saints)|apostle]] [[Parley P. Pratt]] a month after McCary was expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name="Bringhurst"/> Speaking of McCary, Pratt stated that he "was a black man with the blood of Ham in him which lineage was cursed as regards the priesthood".<ref>General Minutes, April 25, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref>

===Young's views===

While Brigham Young opposed slavery, he was at least willing to tolerate it temporarily.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Mauss|2003|p=215}}</ref> Young subscribed to what was a common American view at the time: that black people were naturally inferior.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Mauss|2003|pp=213-15}} ("Both Smith and Young, like their contemporary Abraham Lincoln, would be considered "racists" by today's norms because they all believed in the natural and inherent inferiority of Africans")</ref> Young attributed this to [[Curse_and_mark_of_Cain|a divine curse]] placed on the lineage of Cain, and interpreted it to mean that Africans and their descendents could not be ordained to the priesthood. However, he rejected the teachings of contemporary Mormons including Orson Pratt, that Africans were cursed because they had been less valiant in a pre-mortal life.<ref>{{cite book| title=The Mormon People |Author=Matthew Bowman |year=2012 |publisher=Random House |page=176}}</ref> Young also stated that curse would one day be lifted and that black people would be able to receive the priesthood post-mortally.<ref>{{cite book|last=Collier|first=Fred C., ed.|title=The Teachings of President Brigham Young. Vol 3. 1852-1854|year=1987|publisher=Collier's Publishing Co.|location=Salt Lake City, UT|isbn=978-0934964012|page=43}}</ref>

==Slavery==

===In Mormon scripture===
{{See also|Christian views on slavery}}
{{Section OR|date=October 2012}}
It was a commonly held belief in the South that the Bible permitted slavery. For instance, the [[Old Testament]] has stories of slavery, and gives rules and regulations on how to treat slaves, while the [[New Testament]] tells slaves not to revolt against their masters. However, the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] condemns slavery, teaching "it is not right that any man should be in bondage one to another." ({{lds|D&C|dc|101|79}}) The [[Book of Mormon]] heralds righteous kings who did not allow slavery, ({{lds|Mosiah|mosiah|29|40}}) and righteous men who fought against slavery ({{lds|Alma|alma|48|11}}). The Book of Mormon also describes an ideal society that lived around AD 34–200, in which it teaches the people "had all things common among them; therefore there were not rich and poor, bond and free, but they were all made free, and partakers of the heavenly gift" ({{lds|4 Nephi|4_ne|4|3}}), and says that all people are children of God and "he denieth none that come unto him, black and white, bond and free, male and female" ({{lds|2 Nephi|2_ne|26:33}}). The [[Book of Moses]] describes a similar society, in which "they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness; and there was no poor among them" ({{lds|Moses|moses|7|18}}). Mormons believed they too, were commanded by the Lord to "be one; and if ye are not one ye are not mine" ({{lds|D&C|dc|38|27}}). For a short time, Mormons lived in a society with no divisions under the [[United Order]].

===Statements from church leaders===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Young said, "If the Government of the United States, in Congress assembled, had the right to pass an anti-polygamy bill, they had also the right to pass a law that slaves should not be abused as they have been; they had also a right to make a law that negroes should be used like human beings, and not worse than dumb brutes. For their abuse of that race, the whites will be cursed, unless they repent."<ref name="Journal of Discourses 10">''Journal of Discourses'' '''10''':104–11.</ref>

In 1851, apostle [[Orson Hyde]] said:

{{blockquote|We feel it to be our duty to define our position in relation to the subject of slavery. There are several in the Valley of the Salt Lake from the Southern States, who have their slaves with them. There is no law in Utah to authorize slavery, neither any to prohibit it. If the slave is disposed to leave his master, no power exists there, either legal or moral, that will prevent him. But if the slave chooses to remain with his master, none are allowed to interfere between the master and the slave. All the slaves that are there appear to be perfectly contented and satisfied.

When a man in the Southern states embraces our faith, the Church says to him, if your slaves wish to remain with you, and to go with you, put them not away; but if they choose to leave you, or are not satisfied to remain with you, it is for you to sell them, or let them go free, as your own conscience may direct you. The Church, on this point, assumes not the responsibility to direct. The laws of the land recognize slavery, we do not wish to oppose the laws of the country. If there is sin in selling a slave, let the individual who sells him bear that sin, and not the Church.<ref>''[[Millennial Star]]'', February 15, 1851. Quoted in [http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/quotes.html#smith43 BlackLDS.org]</ref>}}

===In Utah Territory===
[[File:Utah Territory, vector image - 2011.svg|thumb|Utah Territory (1850)]]
The Great [[Compromise of 1850]] allowed [[California]] into the Union as a [[slave and free states|free state]] while permitting Utah and [[New Mexico Territory|New Mexico]] territories the option of deciding the issue by "popular sovereignty". In 1852, the Utah Territorial Legislature officially sanctioned slavery in Utah Territory. At that time, Brigham Young was governor, and the [[1st Utah Territorial Legislature|Utah Territorial Legislature]] was dominated by church leaders.<ref>{{cite book |title= Forgotten Kingdom: The Mormon Theocracy in the American West, 1847-1896 |last= Bigler |first= David L. |year= 1998 |isbn= 0-87062-282-X |publisher= Arthur H. Clark Company }}</ref> The Utah slavery law stipulated that slaves would be freed if their masters had sexual relations with them; attempted to take them from the territory against their will; or neglected to feed, clothe, or provide shelter to them. In addition, the law stipulated that slaves must receive schooling.

Utah was the only western state or territory that had slaves in 1850,<ref>''Negro Slaves in Utah'' by Jack Beller, Utah Historical Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1929, pp. 124-126</ref> but slavery was never important economically in Utah, and there were fewer than 100 slaves in the territory.<ref name="The LDS Church and the Race Issue"/> In 1860, the census showed that 29 of the 59 black people in Utah Territory were slaves.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} When the [[American Civil War]] broke out in 1861, Utah sided with the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], and slavery ended in 1862 when the [[United States Congress]] abolished slavery in the Utah Territory.

==Racial restriction policy==
Under the racial restrictions that lasted from the presidency of Brigham Young until 1978, persons with any black African ancestry could not hold the priesthood in the LDS Church and could not participate in most temple ordinances, including the [[endowment (Mormonism)|endowment]] and [[celestial marriage]]. Black people were permitted to be members of the church, and to participate in some temple ordinances, such as [[baptism for the dead]].<ref>In her autobiography, [[Jane Elizabeth Manning James]] says she "had the privilege of going into the temple and being baptized for some of my dead." http://www.blacklds.org/manning Life History of Jane Elizabeth Manning James as transcribed by Elizabeth J.D. Round</ref>

The racial restriction policy was applied to black Africans, persons of black African descent, and any one with mixed race that included any black African ancestry. The policy was not applied to [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], [[Hispanic people|Hispanics]], [[Melanesians]], or [[Polynesian people|Polynesians]].

===Priesthood===
The priesthood restriction was particularly limiting, because the LDS Church has a [[Laity|lay]] priesthood and all worthy male members may receive the priesthood. Young men are generally admitted to the [[Aaronic priesthood (LDS Church)|Aaronic priesthood]] at age 12, and it is a significant [[rite of passage]]. Virtually all white adult male members of the church held the priesthood. Holders of the priesthood officiate at church meetings, perform blessings of healing, and manage church affairs. Excluding black people from the priesthood meant that they could not hold significant church [[Calling (LDS Church)|leadership roles]] or participate in certain spiritual events.

Don Harwell, a black LDS Church member, said, "I remember being in a Sacrament meeting, pre-1978, and the sacrament was being passed and there was special care taken by this person that not only did I not officiate, but I didn't touch the sacrament tray. They made sure that I could take the sacrament, but that I did not touch the tray and it was passed around me. That was awfully hard, considering that often those who were officiating were young men in their early teens, and they had that priesthood. I valued that priesthood, but it wasn't available."<ref>Rosemary Winters, [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/archivenews/interview.html "Black Mormons Struggle for Acceptance in the Church"], ''[[Salt Lake Tribune]]'', November 4, 2004.</ref>

===Temple ordinances===
Between 1844 and 1977, most black people were not permitted to participate in ordinances performed in the LDS Church [[temple (LDS Church)|temples]], such as the [[Endowment (Mormonism)|endowment ritual]], [[celestial marriage]]s, and [[Sealing (Mormonism)|family sealings]]. These ordinances are considered essential to enter the highest degree of heaven, so this meant that they could not enjoy the full privileges enjoyed by other Latter-day Saints during the restriction.

Latter-day Saints believe that marriages that are sealed in a celestial marriage would bind the family together forever, whereas those that are not sealed were terminated upon death. Church president [[David O. McKay]] taught that black people "need not worry, as those who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."<ref>''Mormonism and the Negro'', p. 23.</ref>

Brigham Young taught that "When the ordinances are carried out in the temples that will be erected, [children] will be sealed to their [parents], and those who have slept, clear up to Father Adam. This will have to be done ... until we shall form a perfect chain from Father Adam down to the closing up scene."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/manual/teachings-brigham-young/chapter-41 Chapter 41: Temple Ordinances], ''[[Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Brigham Young]]'' (Salt Lake City, Utah: LDS Church, 1997) p. 299.</ref>
Once black people were allowed to participate in temple ordinances, they could also perform the ordinances for their ancestors.

===Entrance to the highest heaven===
{{Section OR|date=October 2013}}
A celestial marriage is considered unnecessary to gain access into the [[celestial kingdom]], but it is required to obtain a [[Degrees of glory|fullness of glory]] or [[Exaltation (Latter Day Saints)|exaltation]] within the celestial kingdom.<ref>Church leader [[Bruce McConkie]] wrote, "Baptism is the gate to the celestial kingdom; celestial marriage is the gate to an exaltation in the highest heaven within the celestial world." (''[[Mormon Doctrine (book)|Mormon Doctrine]]'', 1966, p. 118).</ref> The Doctrine and Covenants reads, "In the celestial glory there are three heavens or degrees; And in order to obtain the highest, a man must enter into this order of the priesthood [meaning the new and everlasting covenant of marriage]; And if he does not, he cannot obtain it."({{lds|D&C|dc|131|1-3}}) The righteous who do not have a celestial marriage would still make it into heaven, and live eternally with God, but they would be "appointed [[angel]]s in heaven, which angels are ministering servants."({{lds|D&C|dc|132|16}})

Some interpreted this to mean black people would be treated as unmarried whites, being confined to only ever live in God's presence as a ministering servant. In 1954, apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] told [[Brigham Young University]] students: "If that Negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the celestial kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get a celestial resurrection."<ref>Address at Convention of Teachers of Religion, BYU, Utah, August 27, 1954.</ref> Apostle [[George F. Richards]], in a talk at a [[General Conference (LDS Church)|General Conference]], similarly taught: "The Negro is an unfortunate man. He has been given a black skin. But that is as nothing compared with that greater handicap that he is not permitted to receive the Priesthood and the ordinances of the temple, necessary to prepare men and women to enter into and enjoy a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom."<ref>George F. Richards, ''Conference Report'', April 1939, p. 58.</ref>

Several leaders, including Joseph Smith,<ref>In regards to black people, Joseph Smith taught that "They have souls, and are subjects of salvation." ''[[Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith (book)|Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith]]'', selected by [[Joseph Fielding Smith]], (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1976) p. 269. ISBN 0-87579-243-X</ref> Brigham Young,<ref>Brigham Young said "when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the Priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we are now entitled to." quoted by the First Presidency, August 17, 1949.</ref> [[Wilford Woodruff]],<ref>Wilford Woodruff said "The day will come when all that race will be redeemed and possess all the blessings which we now have" quoted by the [http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=457 First Presidency on August 17, 1949].</ref> [[George Albert Smith]],<ref>George Albert Smith reiterated what was said by both Brigham Young and Wilford Woodruff in a statement by the [http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=457 First Presidency on August 17, 1949]</ref> [[David O. McKay]],<ref>David McKay taught "Sometime in God's eternal plan, the Negro will be given the right to hold the Priesthood. In the meantime, those of that race who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."(Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23)</ref> [[Joseph Fielding Smith]],<ref>In reference to black people, Apostle Joseph Fielding Smith taught: "Every soul coming into this world came here with the promise that through obedience he would receive the blessings of salvation. No person was foreordained or appointed to sin or to perform a mission of evil. No person is ever predestined to salvation or damnation. Every person has free agency." (Joseph Fielding Smith Jr., ''Doctrines of Salvation'', Vol.1, p. 61)</ref> and [[Harold B. Lee]]<ref>In 1972, Harold B. Lee said, "It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we're just waiting for that time." (Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.)</ref> and taught that black people would eventually be able to receive a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom.

When the priesthood ban was discussed in 1978, apostle [[Bruce R. McConkie]] argued for its change using [[Standard Works|Mormon scriptures]] and the [[Articles of Faith (Latter Day Saints)|Articles of Faith]]. The Third Article states that "all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel" ({{lds|Articles of Faith|a_of_f|1|3}}). From the Book of Mormon he quoted, "And even unto the great and last day, when all people, and all kindreds, and all nations and tongues shall stand before God, to be judged of their works, whether they be good or whether they be evil—If they be good, to the resurrection of everlasting life; and if they be evil, to the resurrection of damnation" ({{lds|3 Nephi|3_ne|26|4-5}})' The [[Book of Abraham]] in the [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]] states that through [[Abraham]]'s seed "shall all the families of the earth be blessed, even with the blessings of the Gospel, which are the blessings of salvation, even of life eternal" ({{lds|Abraham|abr|2|11}}), According to McConkie's son, [[Joseph Fielding McConkie]], the highlighting of these scriptures played a role in changing the policy.<ref>[http://www.meridianmagazine.com/articles/030606hallelujahprint.html Hallelujah! The 25th Anniversary of the Revelation of Priesthood]</ref>

===Speculation on rationale for racial restrictions===
Author [[Joseph Smith and the Origins of the Book of Mormon|David Persuitte]] has pointed out that it was commonplace in the 19th century for theologians, including Joseph Smith, to believe that the curse of [[Cain and Abel|Cain]] was exhibited by a black skin, and that this genetic trait had descended through [[Noah]]'s son [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]], who was understood to have married a black wife.<ref name=persuitte>{{cite book |last= Persuitte |first= David |title= Joseph Smith and the Origins of the Book of Mormon |year= 2000 |publisher= McFarland |location= Jefferson, North Carolina |isbn= 978-0786408269 |page= 237 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=5Zx9qOay304C&pg=PA237&lpg=PA237 }}</ref> Mormon historian [[Claudia Bushman]] also identifies doctrinal explanations for the exclusion of blacks, with one justification originating in papyrus rolls translated by Joseph Smith as the [[Book of Abraham]], a passage of which links ancient Egyptian government to the cursed Ham through [[Pharaoh (Book of Abraham)|Pharaoh]], Ham's grandson, who was "of that lineage by which he could not have the right of Priesthood".<ref name="Bushman">{{cite book |last= Bushman |first= Claudia |authorlink= Claudia Lauper Bushman |title= Contemporary Mormonism: Latter-day Saints in Modern America |year= 2006 |publisher= [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger Publishers]] |location= Westport, Connecticut |isbn= 0-275-98933-X |oclc= 61178156 |url= http://www.abc-clio.com/product.aspx?isbn=9780275989330 }}</ref>{{rp|p.93}}

Another speculated reason for racial restriction has been called by [[Colin Kidd]] "Mormon karma", where skin color is perceived as evidence of righteousness (or its lack thereof) in a pre-mortal existence.<ref name=kidd>{{cite book |last= Kidd |first= Colin |title= The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600–2000 |year= 2006 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location= Cambridge |isbn= 9780521793247 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=aNT3q1HjY_MC&pg=PA236&lpg=PA236 }}</ref>{{rp|p.236}} The doctrine of premortal existence is described in the [[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] in this way: "to Latter-day Saints premortal life is characterized by individuality, agency, intelligence, and opportunity for eternal progression. It is a central doctrine of the theology of the Church and provides understanding to the age-old question "Whence cometh man?"<ref>{{cite book |last= Brown |first= Gayle Oblad |contribution= Premortal Life |contribution-url= http://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Premortal_Life |page= 1125 |editor-last= Ludlow |editor-first= Daniel H |editor-link= Daniel H. Ludlow |year= 1992 |title= [[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] |location= New York |publisher= [[Macmillan Publishing]] |isbn= 0-02-879602-0 |oclc= 24502140 }}</ref> This idea is based on the opinions of several prominent church leaders, including apostle [[Joseph Fielding Smith]], who held the view that the pre-mortal life had been a kind of testing ground for the assignment of God's spiritual children to favored or disfavored mortal lineages.<ref name=kidd />{{rp|pp.236–237}} Bushman has also noted Smith's long-time teachings that in a pre-mortal war in heaven, blacks were considered to have been those spirits who did not fight as valiantly against [[Satan]] and who, as a result, received a lesser earthly stature, with such restrictions as being disqualified from holding the priesthood.<ref name="Bushman"/>{{rp|p.93}} According to religious historian Craig Prentiss,<ref name=prentiss>{{cite book |last= Prentiss |first= Craig |title= Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction |year= 2003 |publisher= NYU Press |location= New York |isbn= 978-0814767016 |page= 135 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=ap8wa_YmT2QC&pg=PA135&lpg=PA135 }}</ref> the appeal to pre-mortal existence was confirmed as doctrine through statements of the LDS First Presidency in 1949<ref>{{cite web|last=Bush, Jr.|first=Lester, and Armand L. Mauss, eds.|title=Neither White nor Black|url=http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=457|work=The Signature Books Library|publisher=Signature Books|accessdate=22 October 2012|quote=The position of the Church regarding the Negro may be understood when another doctrine of the Church is kept in mind, namely, that the conduct of spirits in the premortal existence has some determining effect upon the conditions and circumstances under which these spirits take on mortality and that while the details of this principle have not been made known, the mortality is a privilege that is given to those who maintain their first estate; and that the worth of the privilege is so great that spirits are willing to come to earth and take on bodies no matter what the handicap may be as to the kind of bodies they are to secure; and that among the handicaps, failure of the right to enjoy in mortality the blessings of the priesthood is a handicap which spirits are willing to assume in order that they might come to earth. Under this principle there is no injustice whatsoever involved in this deprivation as to the holding of the priesthood by the Negroes.-- Excerpt from statement from First Presidency signed by President [[George Albert Smith]], 17 August 1949}}</ref> and 1969.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bush, Jr.|first=Lester, and Armand L. Mauss, eds.|title=Neither White nor Black|url=http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=457|work=The Signature Books Library|publisher=Signature Books|accessdate=22 October 2012|quote=Our living prophet, President David O. McKay, has said, 'The seeming discrimination by the Church toward the Negro is not something which originated with man; but goes back into the beginning with God...Revelation assures us that this plan antedates man's mortal existence, extending back to man's pre-existent state.'-- excerpt from statement by First Presidency, 12 December 1969, signed by [[Hugh B. Brown]] and [[Nathan Eldon Tanner|N. Eldon Tanner]]}}</ref>

Church leadership officially cited various reasons<ref>{{citation |url= http://en.fairmormon.org/Mormonism_and_racial_issues/Blacks_and_the_priesthood/Statements |title=It is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord, on which is founded the doctrine |date= August 17, 1949 |author= [[Statement of the First Presidency of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |accessdate= 2015-05-12 }}</ref> for the doctrinal ban, but later leaders have since repudiated them.<ref>{{citation |url= http://www.abc4.com/content/news/top_stories/story/BYU-Professor-makes-controversial-statements/viRppZCGfEyX4U9RI5aYXw.cspx |title= BYU Professor makes controversial statements about Blacks & LDS Church |first= Kimberly |last= Nelson |date= February 28, 2012 |publisher= [[KTVX]] |accessdate= 2013-03-08 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.beliefnet.com/Faiths/Christianity/Latter-Day-Saints/2003/02/Mormon-Black-History-Month.aspx?p=2 Mormon Black History Month - Beliefnet.com]</ref> <ref>{{citation |author=Dallin H. Oaks |title=Interview with Associated Press |publisher=[[Daily Herald (Utah)]]| date=5 June 1988}}</ref><ref>{{citation |author=Jeffrey R. Holland |url=http://www.pbs.org/mormons/interviews/holland.html |title=The Mormons |publisher=[[PBS]] |date=March 4, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{citation |author=Gordon B. Hinckley |title=The Need for Greater Kindness |work=Ensign |date=May 2006 |pages=58–61}}</ref><ref name="mcKay">Sterling M. McMurrin affidavit, March 6, 1979. See ''[[David O. McKay and the Rise of Modern Mormonism]]'' by [[Greg Prince]] and [[William Robert Wright]]. Quoted by [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/howtoreach.html Genesis Group]</ref> In 2014, the LDS Church issued an official statement about past racist practices and theories: "Today, the Church disavows the theories advanced in the past that black skin is a sign of divine disfavor or curse, or that it reflects actions in a premortal life; that mixed-race marriages are a sin; or that blacks or people of any other race or ethnicity are inferior in any way to anyone else. Church leaders today unequivocally condemn all racism, past and present, in any form."<ref>{{citation |url= http://www.lds.org/topics/race-and-the-priesthood |title= Gospel Topics: Race and the Priesthood |work= LDS.org |publisher= LDS Church }}</ref>

===Other racial discrimination===
{{further2|[[Racism in the United States]]}}
Like most Americans between the 19th and mid-20th centuries, some Mormons held racist views, and exclusion from priesthood was not the only discrimination practiced toward black people. In the late 1800s, blacks living in [[Cache Valley]] were forcibly relocated to [[Ogden, Utah|Ogden]] and [[Salt Lake City]]. In the 1950s, the San Francisco mission office took legal action to prevent black families from moving into the church neighborhood.<ref name="Davidson">Glen W. Davidson, "Mormon Missionaries and the Race Question," The Christian Century, 29 Sept. 1965, pp. 1183-86.</ref> In 1965, a black man living in Salt Lake City, Daily Oliver, described how —as a boy—he was excluded from an LDS-led boy scout troop because they did not want blacks in their building.<ref>Utah Chronicle, May 28, 1965</ref> LDS Church apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] describes a black family that tried to join the LDS Church: "[some white church members] went to the Branch President, and said that either the [black] family must leave, or they would all leave. The Branch President ruled that [the black family] could not come to church meetings. It broke their hearts."<ref>"Race Problems As They Affect The Church", presentation by Mark E. Petersen to the Convention of Teachers of Religion", 27 August 1954, p. 16.</ref> Until the 1970s hospitals with connections to the LDS Church, including [[LDS Hospital]], [[Primary Children's Hospital|Primary Children's]] and [[Intermountain Healthcare#Former hospitals|Cottonwood Hospitals]] in Salt Lake City, [[McKay-Dee Hospital Center|McKay-Dee Hospital]] in Ogden, and [[Utah Valley Regional Medical Center|Utah Valley Hospital]] in Provo, kept separate the blood donated by blacks and whites, and even after the church's ''volte face'' in 1978 patients who expressed concern about receiving blood from black donors were given reassurance from hospital authorities that this would not happen.<ref>{{cite book |last= Lederer |first= Susan E. |title= Flesh and Blood: Organ Transplantation and Blood Transfusion in 20th Century America |year= 2008 |publisher= Oxford University Press |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-19-516150-2 |page= 197 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=JaZn25Uv6XwC&pg=PA197&lpg=PA197 }}</ref>

==1880–1950==
Under [[John Taylor (Mormon)|John Taylor's]] presidency (1880–87), there was confusion in the church regarding the origin of the racial policy. [[Elijah Abel]] was living proof that an African American was ordained to the priesthood in the days of Joseph Smith. His son, Enoch Abel, had also received the priesthood.<ref>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/abel.html Elijah Abel | Blacklds.org]</ref> Apostle [[Joseph F. Smith]] argued that Abel's priesthood had been declared null and void by Joseph Smith, though this seems to conflict with Joseph F. Smith's teachings that the priesthood could not be removed from any man without removing that man from the church.<ref name="Mauss-76">[http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=457 Bush & Mauss 1984: 76-86]</ref> From this point on, many statements on the priesthood restriction were attributed to Joseph Smith; all such statements had actually been made by Brigham Young.<ref name="Mauss-76"/>

Several black men received the priesthood after the racial restriction policy was put in place, including Elijah Abel's son Enoch Abel, who was ordained an [[Elder (Latter Day Saints)|elder]] on November 10, 1900. Enoch's son and Elijah Abel's grandson—who was also named Elijah Abel—received the Aaronic priesthood and was ordained to the office of [[priest (Latter Day Saints)|priest]] on July 5, 1934. The younger Elijah Abel also received the [[Melchizedek priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Melchizedek priesthood]] and was ordained to the office of elder on September 29, 1935.<ref name="Missouri Thesis Revisited">{{cite book |first= Newell G. |last= Bringhurst |chapter= The 'Missouri Thesis' Revisited: Early Mormonism, Slavery, and the Status of Black People |editor1-last= Bringhurst |editor1-first= Newell G. |editor2-last= Smith |editor2-first= Darron T. |title= Black and Mormon |year= 2004 |publisher= University of Illinois Press |location= Urbana and Chicago |isbn= 0-252-02947-X |pages= 13–33 }}</ref>{{rp|p.30}} One commentator has pointed out that these incidents illustrate the "ambiguities, contradictions, and paradoxes" of the issue during the twentieth century.<ref name="Missouri Thesis Revisited"/>

{{Anchor|The "Negro Question" Declaration}}
In 1949, the [[First Presidency (LDS Church)|First Presidency]], under the direction of [[George Albert Smith]], made a declaration which included the statement that the priesthood restriction was divinely commanded and not a matter of church policy.<ref>{{cite book |title= Mormon America |pages= 101–102 |year= 1999 |first= Richard and Joan |last= Ostling}}</ref> It stated:

<blockquote>
"The attitude of the Church with reference to the Negroes remains as it has always stood. It is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord, on which is founded the doctrine of the Church from the days of its organization, to the effect that Negroes may become members of the Church but that they are not entitled to the Priesthood at the present time. The prophets of the Lord have made several statements as to the operation of the principle. President Brigham Young said: "Why are so many of the inhabitants of the earth cursed with a skin of blackness? It comes in consequence of their fathers rejecting the power of the holy priesthood, and the law of God. They will go down to death. And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the holy priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to."

"President Wilford Woodruff made the following statement: 'The day will come when all that race will be redeemed and possess all the blessings which we now have.'

"The position of the Church regarding the Negro may be understood when another doctrine of the Church is kept in mind, namely, that the conduct of spirits in the premortal existence has some determining effect upon the conditions and circumstances under which these spirits take on mortality and that while the details of this principle have not been made known, the mortality is a privilege that is given to those who maintain their first estate; and that the worth of the privilege is so great that spirits are willing to come to earth and take on bodies no matter what the handicap may be as to the kind of bodies they are to secure; and that among the handicaps, failure of the right to enjoy in mortality the blessings of the priesthood is a handicap which spirits are willing to assume in order that they might come to earth. Under this principle there is no injustice whatsoever involved in this deprivation as to the holding of the priesthood by the Negroes."

<div style="text-align:right">—[http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=457 Letter of the First Presidency, August 17, 1949]</div>
</blockquote>

==1951–77==
In 1954, church president [[David O. McKay]] taught: "There is not now, and there never has been a doctrine in this church that the negroes are under a divine curse. There is no doctrine in the church of any kind pertaining to the negro. ''We believe'' that we have a scriptural precedent for withholding the priesthood from the negro. It is a practice, not a doctrine, and the practice someday will be changed. And that's all there is to it."<ref name="mcKay" />

Apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] addressed the issue of race and priesthood in his address to a 1954 Convention of Teachers of Religion at the College Level at Brigham Young University. He said:

<blockquote>"The reason that one would lose his blessings by marrying a negro is due to the restriction placed upon them. 'No person having the least particle of negro blood can hold the priesthood' (Brigham Young). It does not matter if they are one-sixth negro or one-hundred and sixth, the curse of no Priesthood is the same. If an individual who is entitled to the priesthood marries a negro, the Lord has decreed that only spirits who are not eligible for the priesthood will come to that marriage as children. To intermarry with a negro is to forfeit a 'nation of priesthood holders'.<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds_race.htm Racism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)]</ref></blockquote>

Petersen held that male descendants of a mixed-marriage could not become a Mormon priesthood holder, even if they had a lone ancestor with African blood dating back many generations.<ref name = "Mormon-racism">Peterson, Mark E. "[http://www.utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_appendix_b.htm Race Problems -- As They Affect The Church]", 27 August 1954</ref>

In 1969, church apostle [[Harold B. Lee]] blocked the LDS Church from rescinding the racial restriction policy.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14">Quinn, Michael D. ''The Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power'' Salt Lake City: 1994 Signature Books Page 14</ref> Church leaders voted to rescind the policy at a meeting in 1969. Lee was absent from the meeting due to travels. When Lee returned he called for a re-vote, arguing that the policy could not be changed without a revelation.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14"/>

In her book, ''Contemporary Mormonism'', Claudia Bushman has described the pain caused by the racial policy of the church, both to black worshipers, who sometimes found themselves segregated and ostracized, and to white members who were embarrassed by the exclusionary practices and who occasionally apostatized over the issue.<ref name="Bushman"/>{{rp|pp.94–95}}

In 1971, three African-American Mormon men petitioned then–church president [[Joseph Fielding Smith]] to consider ways to keep black families involved in the church and also re-activate the descendants of black pioneers.<ref name="Mormonism: A Historical Encyclopedia">{{cite book |editor1-last= Reeve |editor1-first= W. Paul |editor2-first= Ardis E. |editor2-last= Parshall |title= Mormonism: A Historical Encyclopedia |year= 2010 |publisher= ABC-CLIO |location= Santa Barbara CA |isbn= 978-1-59884-107-7 |pages= 277–278 |first1= Margaret Blair |last1= Young |first2= Darius Aidan |last2= Gray |chapter= Mormonism and Blacks |chapter-url= http://books.google.com/books?id=BI7dNT5NdmIC&pg=PA277&lpg=PA278 }}</ref> As a result, Smith directed three apostles to meet with the men on a weekly basis until, on October 19, 1971, an organization called the [[Genesis Group]] was established as an auxiliary unit of LDS Church to meet the needs of black Mormons.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of Genesis|url=http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/history.htm|work=The Genesis Group|publisher=The Genesis Group|accessdate=4 November 2012}}</ref> The first president of the Genesis Group was Ruffin Bridgeforth, who also became the first black Latter-day Saint to be ordained a [[High priest (Latter Day Saints)|high priest]] after the priesthood ban was lifted later in the decade.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lloyd|first=R. Scott|title=Ruffin Bridgeforth, first black high priest, eulogized as a pioneer|url=http://www.ldschurchnews.com/articles/29637/Ruffin-Bridgeforth-first-black-high-priest-eulogized-as-a-pioneer.html|accessdate=4 November 2012|newspaper=Church News|date=5 April 1997}}</ref>

Harold B. Lee, president of the church, stated in 1972: "For those who don't believe in modern revelation there is no adequate explanation. Those who do understand revelation stand by and wait until the Lord speaks .... It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we're just waiting for that time."<ref>Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.</ref>

===Civil rights movement===
In 1958, Joseph Fielding Smith published ''Answers to Gospel Questions'', which stated that "no church or other organization is more insistent than The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, that the negroes should receive all the rights and privileges that can possibly be given to any other in the true sense of equality as declared in the Declaration of Independence." He went on to say that negroes should not be barred from any type of employment or education, and should be free "to make their lives as happy as it is possible without interference from white men, labor unions or from any other source."<ref name=history>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html LDS Black History Timeline]</ref> In the 1963 General Conference, apostle [[Hugh B. Brown]] stated: "it is a moral evil for any person or group of persons to deny any human being the rights to gainful employment, to full educational opportunity, and to every privilege of citizenship". He continued: "We call upon all men everywhere, both within and outside the church, to commit themselves to the establishment of full civil equality for all of God's children. Anything less than this defeats our high ideal of the brotherhood of man."<ref name=history />

The [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP) attempted to convince the LDS Church to support civil rights legislation and to reverse its discriminating practices during the [[Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights era]] in the 1960s. In 1963, NAACP leadership attempted to arrange meetings with church leadership, but the church refused to meet with them.<ref name="Davidson"/> In 1965, the church leadership did meet with the NAACP, and agreed to publish an editorial in church-owned newspaper the ''[[Deseret News]]'', which would support civil rights legislation pending in the Utah legislature. The church failed to follow-through on the commitment, and church apostle [[N. Eldon Tanner]] explained, "We have decided to remain silent".<ref name="Davidson"/> In March 1965, the NAACP led an anti-discrimination march in Salt Lake City, protesting church policies.<ref name="Davidson"/> In 1966, the NAACP issued a statement criticizing the church, saying the church "has maintained a rigid and continuous segregation stand" and that "the church has made "no effort to conteract the widespread discriminatory practices in education, in housing, in employment, and other areas of life"<ref>''[[Deseret News]]'', May 3, 1966.</ref> However, in a study covering 1972 to 1996, church membership has been shown to have lower rates of approval of segregation than the national norm, as well as a faster decline in approval over the periods covered, both with statistical significance.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last= Bringhurst |editor1-first= Newell G. |editor2-last= Smith |editor2-first= Darron T. |title= Black and Mormon |year= 2004 |publisher= University of Illinois Press |location= Urbana and Chicago |isbn= 0-252-02947-X |pages= 82–115 |first= Armand L. |last= Mauss |chapter= Casting off the 'Curse of Cain': The Extent and Limits of Progress since 1978 |chapter-url= http://books.google.com/books?id=lSvRnQgJAx8C&pg=PA94&lpg=PA97 }}</ref>{{rp|p.94–97}}

During the 1960s and 1970s, Mormons in the West were close to the national averages in racial attitudes.<ref name="The LDS Church and the Race Issue"/> In 1966, [[Armand Mauss]] surveyed Mormons on racial attitudes and discriminatory practices. He found that "Mormons resembled the rather 'moderate' denominations (such as Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopalian), rather than the 'fundamentalists' or the sects."<ref name="Mormonism and Secular Attitudes toward Negroes">Armand L. Mauss, "Mormonism and Secular Attitudes toward Negroes", Pacific Sociological Review 9 (Fall 1966)</ref> Negative racial attitudes within Mormonism varied inversely with education, occupation, community size of origin, and youth, reflecting the national trend. Urban Mormons with a more orthodox view of Mormonism tended to be more tolerant.<ref name="Mormonism and Secular Attitudes toward Negroes"/>

African-American athletes protested against LDS Church policies by boycotting several sporting events with [[Brigham Young University]]. In 1968, after the assassination of [[Martin Luther King]], black members of the [[UTEP]] track team approached their coach and expressed their desire not to compete against BYU in an upcoming meet. When the coach disregarded the athletes' complaint, the athletes boycotted the meet.<ref name="ADR">{{cite journal|last=Fried|first=Gil|author2=Michael Hiller|year=1997|title=ADR in youth and intercollegiate athletics|journal=Brigham Young University Law Review|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_199701/ai_n8735454/pg_1}}, p. 1, p. 10</ref> In 1969, 14 members of the [[University of Wyoming]] football team were removed from the team for planning to protest the policies of the LDS church.<ref name="ADR"/> In November 1969, Stanford University President Kenneth Pitzer suspended athletic relations with BYU.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=EfYLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=i1cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3753,2673063&dq=kenneth-pitzer+brigham-young |work=Evening Independent |date=December 11, 1969 |author=James J. Kilpatrick |title=A Sturdy Discipline Serves Mormons Well}}</ref>

Since the early part of the 20th century, each [[ward (LDS Church)|ward]] of the LDS Church in the United States has organized its own [[Boy Scout]]ing troop. Some LDS Church-sponsored troops permitted black youths to join, but a church policy required that the troop leader to be the [[deacon (Latter Day Saints)|deacons]] [[quorum (Latter Day Saints)|quorum]] president, which had the result of excluding black children from that role. The NAACP filed a federal lawsuit in 1974 challenging this practice, and soon thereafter the LDS Church reversed its policy.<ref>[http://www.bsa-discrimination.org/html/lds-top.html Exclusionary Practices & Policies of the Boy Scouts of America]</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage |first=Armand L. |last=Mauss |page=218 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-252-02803-1}}</ref>

In the early 1970s, apostle [[Spencer W. Kimball]] began preaching against racism. In 1972, he said: "Intolerance by Church members is despicable. A special problem exists with respect to black people because they may not now receive the priesthood. Some members of the Church would justify their own un-Christian discrimination against black people because of that rule with respect to the priesthood, but while this restriction has been imposed by the Lord, it is not for us to add burdens upon the shoulders of our black brethren. They who have received Christ in faith through authoritative baptism are heirs to the celestial kingdom along with men of all other races. And those who remain faithful to the end may expect that God may finally grant them all blessings they have merited through their righteousness. Such matters are in the Lord's hands. It is for us to extend our love to all."<ref>''The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball'', p.237, emphasis in original</ref>

There were some LDS Church members who protested against the church's discriminatory practices. Two members, Douglas A. Wallace and Byron Merchant, were excommunicated by the LDS Church in 1976 and 1977 respectively, after criticizing the church's discriminatory practices.<ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 13, 1976.{{full|date=August 2014}}</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', October 4, 1976.{{full|date=August 2014}}</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 3, 1978.{{full|date=August 2014}}</ref><ref>''[[Dallas Morning News]]'', October 20, 1977.{{full|date=August 2014}}</ref> Church member Grant Syphers objected to the church's racial policies and, as a consequence, his [[stake president]] refused to give Sypher a [[temple recommend]]. The president said, "Anyone who could not accept the Church's stand on Negroes ... could not go to the temple".<ref>''[[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]]'', Winter 1967, p. 6.</ref>

==Racial policy ends in 1978==
{{Main|1978 Revelation on Priesthood}}
In the 1970s, LDS Church president [[Spencer W. Kimball]] took [[General Conference (LDS Church)|general conference]] on the road, holding [[area (LDS Church)|area]] and regional conferences all over the world. He also announced many new temples to be built both in the United States and abroad, including one [[São Paulo Brazil Temple|temple in São Paulo, Brazil]]. The problem of determining priesthood eligibility in Brazil was thought to be nearly impossible due to the mixing of the races in that country. When the temple was announced, church leaders realized the difficulty of restricting persons with African descent from attending the temple in Brazil.<ref>[[Mark L. Grover]], "The Mormon Priesthood Revelation and the São Paulo Brazil Temple", ''[[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]]'' '''23''':39–53 (Spring 1990).</ref>

On June 8, 1978, the [[First Presidency (LDS Church)|First Presidency]] released to the press an official declaration, now a part of [[Doctrine and Covenants]], which contained the following statement:

<blockquote>
He has heard our prayers, and by revelation has confirmed that the long-promised day has come when every faithful, worthy man in the church may receive the Holy Priesthood, with power to exercise its divine authority, and enjoy with his loved ones every blessing that follows there from, including the blessings of the temple. Accordingly, all worthy male members of the church may be ordained to the priesthood without regard for race or color. Priesthood leaders are instructed to follow the policy of carefully interviewing all candidates for ordination to either the Aaronic or the Melchizedek Priesthood to insure that they meet the established standards for worthiness.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/od/2 Official Declaration 2].</ref></blockquote>

According to first-person accounts, after much discussion among the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles on this matter, they engaged the Lord in prayer. According to the writing of one of those present, "It was during this prayer that the revelation came. The Spirit of the Lord rested upon us all; we felt something akin to what happened on the day of [[Pentecost]] and at the [[Kirtland Temple]]. From the midst of eternity, the voice of God, conveyed by the power of the Spirit, spoke to his prophet. The message was that the time had now come to offer the fullness of the everlasting gospel, including celestial marriage, and the priesthood, and the blessings of the temple, to all men, without reference to race or color, solely on the basis of personal worthiness. And we all heard the same voice, received the same message, and became personal witnesses that the word received was the mind and will and voice of the Lord."<ref>''Priesthood'', pp. 127-128, Deseret Book Co., 1981.</ref> Immediately after the receipt of this new revelation, an official announcement of the revelation was prepared, and sent out to all of the various leaders of the Church. It was then read to, approved by and accepted as the word and will of the Lord, by a General Conference of the Church in October 1978. Succeeding editions of the Doctrine and Covenants were printed with this announcement canonized and entitled "[[Official Declaration 2]]".

Apostle [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] (a participant in the meetings to reverse the ban), in a churchwide fireside said, "Not one of us who was present on that occasion was ever quite the same after that. Nor has the Church been quite the same. All of us knew that the time had come for a change and that the decision had come from the heavens. The answer was clear. There was perfect unity among us in our experience and in our understanding."<ref>Gordon B. Hinckley, [http://www.lds.org/ensign/1988/10/priesthood-restoration "Priesthood Restoration"], ''[[Ensign (LDS magazine)|Ensign]]'', October 1988.</ref>

Later in 1978, McConkie said:<ref>Bruce R. McConkie, 1978. All Are Alike Unto God, A SYMPOSIUM ON THE BOOK OF MORMON, The Second Annual Church Educational System Religious Educator's Symposium, August 17–19, 1978.</ref>
<blockquote>
There are statements in our literature by the early brethren which we have interpreted to mean that the Negroes would not receive the priesthood in mortality. I have said the same things, and people write me letters and say, "You said such and such, and how is it now that we do such and such?" And all I can say to that is that it is time disbelieving people repented and got in line and believed in a living, modern prophet. Forget everything that I have said, or what President Brigham Young or President George Q. Cannon or whomsoever has said in days past that is contrary to the present revelation. We spoke with a limited understanding and without the light and knowledge that now has come into the world.... We get our truth and our light line upon line and precept upon precept. We have now had added a new flood of intelligence and light on this particular subject, and it erases all the darkness and all the views and all the thoughts of the past. They don't matter any more .... It doesn't make a particle of difference what anybody ever said about the Negro matter before the first day of June of this year.
</blockquote>

On June 11, 1978, three days after the announcement of the revelation, [[Joseph Freeman (Mormon)|Joseph Freeman]], a member of the church since 1973, became the first black man to be ordained to the office of elder in the Melchizedek priesthood since the ban was lifted, while several others were ordained into the Aaronic priesthood that same day.<ref>{{cite book|last=Freeman|first=Joseph, Jr.|title=In the Lord's Due Time|year=1979|publisher=Bookcraft|location=Salt Lake City, Utah|isbn=978-0-88494-382-2|page=108}}</ref>

Critics of the LDS Church state that the church's 1978 reversal of the racial restriction policy was not divinely inspired as the church claimed, but simply a matter of political convenience,<ref>
{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0-8024-1234-3 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979|
pages=319–328
}}</ref> as the reversal of policy occurred as the church began to expand outside the United States into countries such as Brazil that have ethnically mixed populations, and that the policy reversal was announced just a few months before the church opened its new temple in São Paulo, Brazil.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|year=1999|
page=95|
publisher=Harper Collins
}}
</ref>

==Interracial marriages==
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, church president [[Brigham Young]] said "If the white man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain, the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so."<ref name="Journal of Discourses 10"/> The seed of Cain generally referred to those with dark skin of African descent.

Church apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] said in 1954: "I think I have read enough to give you an idea of what the Negro is after. He is not just seeking the opportunity of sitting down in a cafe where white people eat. He isn't just trying to ride on the same streetcar or the same Pullman car with white people. It isn't that he just desires to go to the same theater as the white people. From this, and other interviews I have read, it appears that the Negro seeks absorption with the white race. He will not be satisfied until he achieves it by intermarriage. That is his objective and we must face it."<ref>Race Problems - As They Affect The Church, Convention of Teachers of Religion on the College Level, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, August 27, 1954</ref>

In a 1965 address to BYU students, apostle [[Spencer W. Kimball]] told BYU students: "Now, the brethren feel that it is not the wisest thing to cross racial lines in dating and marrying. There is no condemnation. We have had some of our fine young people who have crossed the lines. We hope they will be very happy, but experience of the brethren through a hundred years has proved to us that marriage is a very difficult thing under any circumstances and the difficulty increases in interrace marriages."<ref name="Interracial Marriage Discouraged">[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&dat=19780617&id=_RxVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=YIADAAAAIBAJ&pg=5866,5012493 "Interracial Marriage Discouraged"], ''[[Church News]]'', June 17, 1978, p. 2.</ref>

The official newspaper of the LDS Church,<ref>{{Cite journal | author=Paul T. Roberts| title=A History of the Development and Objectives of the LDS Church News Section of the Deseret News | series=[Master's Thesis] | publisher=Provo, Utah: [[Brigham Young University]], Department of Communications | date=August 1983 |page=7 | url=http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/MTNZ,31729 | format=[[PDF]] | accessdate=2014-10-29}}</ref> the ''[[Church News]]'', printed an article entitled "Interracial marriage discouraged". This article was printed on June 17, 1978, in the same issue that announced the policy reversal for blacks and the priesthood.

There was no written church policy on interracial marriages, which had been permitted since before the 1978 reversal.<ref name="Interracial Marriage Discouraged"/> In 1978, church spokesman Don LeFevre said "So there is no ban on interracial marriage. If a black partner contemplating marriage is worthy of going to the Temple, nobody's going to stop him .... if he's ready to go to the Temple, obviously he may go with the blessings of the church."<ref>Don LeFevre, ''Salt Lake Tribune'', 14 June 1978.</ref>

Speaking on behalf of the church, [[Robert Millet]] wrote in 2003: "[T]he Church Handbook of Instructions ... is the guide for all Church leaders on doctrine and practice. There is, in fact, no mention whatsoever in this handbook concerning interracial marriages. In addition, having served as a Church leader for almost 30 years, I can also certify that I have never received official verbal instructions condemning marriages between black and white members."<ref>Robert L. Millet, [http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/church-response-to-jon-krakauers-under-the-banner-of-heaven "Church Response to Jon Krakauer's Under the Banner of Heaven"], 27 June 2003.</ref>

A church lesson manual for adolescent boys, published in 1995 and in use until 2013, contains a 1976 quote from Spencer W. Kimball that says "We recommend that people marry those who are of the same racial background generally, and of somewhat the same economic and social and educational background (some of those are not an absolute necessity, but preferred), and above all, the same religious background, without question".<ref>{{Harvnb|Embry|1994|p=169}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Lesson 31: Choosing an Eternal Companion |url=http://www.lds.org/manual/aaronic-priesthood-manual-3/lesson-31-choosing-an-eternal-companion |work=Aaronic Priesthood Manual 3 |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |year=1995 |pages=127–129}}</ref>

==1978 to present==
[[Image:MormonAdFamilyPhoto.jpg|right|thumb|[[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church]]
Since the Revelation on the Priesthood in 1978, the church has made no distinctions in policy for black people, but it remains an issue for many black members of the church. Alvin Jackson, a black [[bishop (Latter Day Saints)|bishop]] in the LDS Church, puts his focus on "moving forward rather than looking back."<ref>Page Johnson [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/jackson.html Alvin B. Jackson, Jr—The Bishop is Always In] Meridian Magazine</ref> In an interview with ''Mormon Century'', Jason Smith expresses his viewpoint that the membership of the church was not ready for black people to have the priesthood in the early years of the church, because of prejudice and slavery. He draws analogies to the Bible where only the Israelites have the gospel.<ref>Ken Kuykendall, [http://www.mormoncentury.org/www/ContentPages/HearContent.aspx?PID=1000022 Past racial issues and the Church today]{{Dead link|date=October 2010}} Mormon Century</ref>

Today, the church actively opposes racism among its membership. It is currently working to reach out to black people, and has several predominantly black wards inside the United States.<ref>Wilcox, Lauren, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/09/AR2007050901770.html "The Saints Go Marching In"], ''Washington Post'', May 13, 2007.</ref> It teaches that all are welcome to come unto Christ and speak against those who harbor ill feelings towards another race. In 2006, church president [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] stated:
{{quote|I remind you that no man who makes disparaging remarks concerning those of another race can consider himself a true disciple of Christ. Nor can he consider himself to be in harmony with the teachings of the Church of Christ. Let us all recognize that each of us is a son or daughter of our Father in Heaven, who loves all of His children."<ref name="Hinckley 2006">[http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html The Need for Greater Kindness]</ref>}}

In the July 1992 edition of the ''[[New Era (magazine)|New Era]]'', the church published a [[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church. The photo contained several youth of a variety of ethic backgrounds with the words "Family Photo" in large print. Underneath the picture are the words "God created the races—but not racism. We are all children of the same Father. Violence and hatred have no place in His family. (See Acts 10:34.)"<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://www.lds.org/new-era/1992/07/mormonad |journal= [[New Era (magazine)|New Era]] |title= Family Photo |date= July 1992 |last= Diamond |first= Craig }}</ref>

As recently as December of 2013, the LDS Church published an essay on lds.org in an effort to explain the history of the Church's stance on race and the priesthood as well as disavowing some of the theories advanced stating that black skin is a sign of divine disfavor.<ref>[https://www.lds.org/topics/race-and-the-priesthood?lang=eng Race and the Priesthood]. lds.org (6 Dec. 2013)</ref>

===Instances of discrimination after 1978 revelation===
LDS historian Wayne J. Embry interviewed several black LDS Church members in 1987 and reported "All of the interviewees reported incidents of aloofness on the part of white members, a reluctance or a refusal to shake hands with them or sit by them, and racist comments made to them." Embry further reported that one black church member "was amazingly persistent in attending Mormon services for three years when, by her report, no one would speak to her." Embry reports that "she [the same black church member] had to write directly to the president of the LDS Church to find out how to be baptized" because none of her fellow church members would tell her.<ref>{{cite book |title= Black and Mormon |editor1-last= Bringhurst |editor1-first= Newell G. |editor2-last= Smith |editor2-first= Darron T. |publisher= University of Illinois Press |year= 2004 |isbn= 0-252-02947-X |pages= 60–81 |last= Embry |first= Jessie L. |chapter= Spanning the Priesthood Revelation (1978): Two Multigenerational Case Studies }}</ref>{{rp|p.75–77}}

Black LDS Church member Darron Smith wrote in 2003: "Even though the priesthood ban was repealed in 1978, the discourse that constructs what blackness means is still very much intact today. Under the direction of President Spencer W. Kimball, the First Presidency and the Twelve removed the policy that denied black people the priesthood but did very little to disrupt the multiple discourses that had fostered the policy in the first place. Hence there are Church members today who continue to summon and teach at every level of Church education the racial discourse that black people are descendants of Cain, that they merited lesser earthly privilege because they were "fence-sitters" in the War in Heaven, and that, science and climatic factors aside, there is a link between skin color and righteousness".<ref>{{Cite journal |last= Smith |first= Darron |title= The Persistence of Racialized Discourse in Mormonism |journal= Sunstone |date= March 2003 }}</ref>

In 2007, journalist and church member, [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]], wrote "Today, many black Mormons report subtle differences in the way they are treated, as if they are not full members but a separate group. A few even have been called 'the n-word' at church and in the hallowed halls of the temple. They look in vain at photos of Mormon general authorities, hoping to see their own faces reflected there.<ref>[[Peggy Fletcher Stack]], "New film and revived group help many feel at home in their church", ''Salt Lake Tribune'', July 6, 2007.</ref>

White church member [[Eugene England]], a professor at [[Brigham Young University]], wrote in 1998: <blockquote>
This is a good time to remind ourselves that most Mormons are still in denial about the ban, unwilling to talk in Church settings about it, and that some Mormons still believe that Blacks were cursed by descent from Cain through Ham. Even more believe that Blacks, as well as other non-white people, come color-coded into the world, their lineage and even their class a direct indication of failures in a previous life.... I check occasionally in classes at BYU and find that still, twenty years after the revelation, a majority of bright, well-educated Mormon students say they believe that Blacks are descendants of Cain and Ham and thereby cursed and that skin color is an indication of righteousness in the pre-mortal life. They tell me these ideas came from their parents or Seminary and Sunday School teachers, and they have never questioned them. They seem largely untroubled by the implicit contradiction to basic gospel teachings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last= England |first= Eugene |journal= Sunstone |pages= 54–58 |date= June 1998 |title = }}</ref> </blockquote>

In an interview for the [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] documentary ''[[The Mormons (documentary)|The Mormons]]'', [[Jeffrey R. Holland]], a member of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], specifically denounced the perpetuation of [[Mormon folklore|folklore]] suggesting that race was in any way an indication of how faithful a person had been in the [[pre-existence]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/interviews/holland.html trnascript of interview with Holland for the PBS documentary]</ref>

===Church asked to repudiate past declarations===
In 1995, black church member A. David Jackson asked church leaders to issue a declaration repudiating past doctrines that denied various privileges to black people. In particular, Jackson asked the church to disavow the 1949 "Negro Question" declaration from the church Presidency which stated "The attitude of the church with reference to negroes ... is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord ... to the effect that negroes ... are not entitled to the priesthood".<ref name = "Ostling-103">{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0-06-066371-5|
pages=103–104|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

The church leadership did not issue a repudiation, and so in 1997 Jackson, aided by other church members including Armand Mauss, sent a second request to church leaders, which stated that white Mormons felt that the 1978 revelation resolved everything, but that [[black Mormons]] react differently when they learn the details. He said that many black Mormons become discouraged and leave the church or become inactive. "When they find out about this, they exit... You end up with the passive African Americans in the church".<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0-06-066371-5|
page=105|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

Other black church members think giving an apology would be a "detriment" to church work and a catalyst to further racial misunderstanding. African-American church member Bryan E. Powell says "There is no pleasure in old news, and this news is old." Gladys Newkirk agrees, stating "I've never experienced any problems in this church. I don't need an apology. . . . We're the result of an apology."<ref>{{cite news
|first=Bill
|last=Broadway
|publisher=Washington Post
|date=1998-05-30
|url=http://www.ldshistory.net/1990/mhablack.htm
|title=Black Mormons Resist Apology Talk}}</ref> The large majority of black Mormons say they are willing to look beyond the previous teachings and remain with the church in part because of its powerful, detailed teachings on life after death.<ref name=Ramirez2005>{{cite news
|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-blackmormons,1,708682.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true
|title=Mormon past steeped in racism: Some black members want church to denounce racist doctrines
|first=Margaret
|last=Ramirez
|date=2005-07-26
|publisher=Chicago Tribune}}</ref>

Church president Hinckley told the ''Los Angeles Times'': "The 1978 declaration speaks for itself ... I don't see anything further that we need to do". Church leadership did not issue a repudiation.<ref name = "Ostling-103"/> Apostle [[Dallin H. Oaks]] said: "It's not the pattern of the Lord to give reasons. We can put reasons to commandments. When we do we're on our own. Some people put reasons to [the ban] and they turned out to be spectacularly wrong. There is a lesson in that .... The lesson I've drawn from that, I decided a long time ago that I had faith in the command and I had no faith in the reasons that had been suggested for it .... I'm referring to reasons given by general authorities and reasons elaborated upon [those reasons] by others. The whole set of reasons seemed to me to be unnecessary risk taking .... Let's [not] make the mistake that's been made in the past, here and in other areas, trying to put reasons to revelation. The reasons turn out to be man-made to a great extent. The revelations are what we sustain as the will of the Lord and that's where safety lies."<ref>Dallin H. Oaks, Interview with Associated Press, in ''[[Daily Herald (Utah)|Daily Herald]]'', Provo, Utah, 5 June 1988.</ref>

===Humanitarian aid in Africa===
The church has been involved in several humanitarian aid projects in Africa. On January 27, 1985, members across the world joined together in a fast for "the victims of famine and other causes resulting in hunger and privation among people of Africa." They also donated the money that would have been used for food during the fast to help those victims, regardless of church membership.<ref>Kimball, Spencer, Romney, Marion, Hinckley, Gordon, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,4383 ''Letters of the First Presidency''] January 11, 1985</ref> Together with other organizations such as UNICEF and the American Red Cross, the church is working towards eradicating measles. Since 1999, there has been a 60 percent drop in deaths from measles in Africa.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=9ca9775baf050110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Church Works to Eradicate Measles in Africa]</ref> Due to their efforts, the [[American Red Cross]] bestowed the First Presidency with the organization's highest financial support honor, the American Red Cross Circle of Humanitarians award.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=df346287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD American Red Cross Recognizes Church for Support of Measles Initiative in Africa]</ref> The church has also been involved in humanitarian aid in Africa by sending food boxes,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=894b6287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Food Boxes Rushed to Ease Starvation in Africa]</ref> digging wells to provide clean water,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=4b12b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Clean Water Projects]</ref> distributing wheelchairs,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=66f4b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Wheelchair Distribution]</ref> fighting AIDS,{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} providing Neonatal Resuscitation Training,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a6f37a520251110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD church Works to Save Infants Through Neonatal Resuscitation Training]</ref> and setting up employment resources service centers.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a658bd9eeb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Employment Resource Service Centers]</ref>

==Black membership==
{{main|Black Mormons}}
[[File:Ghana Mission 247.jpg|right|thumb|[[Accra Ghana Temple]], the second in Africa.]]

The church has never kept official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. Black people have been members of Mormon congregations since its foundation, but in 1964 its black membership was small, with about 300 to 400 black members worldwide.<ref name="artist">[http://mormonartist.net/issue-1/margaret-young-darius-gray/ Margaret Blair Young and Darius Gray | Mormon Artist]</ref> In 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the church (about 5% of the total membership), mostly in Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119.</ref> Since then, black membership has grown, especially in [[West Africa]], where two temples have been built,<ref name = "LDS-Africa">[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/africagrowth.html The Church Continues to Grow in Africa]</ref> doubling to about 1 million black members worldwide.<ref name="artist" />

Regarding the LDS Church in Africa, professor [[Philip Jenkins]] noted that LDS growth has been slower than that of other churches,<ref name="philip jenkins">{{cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Philip|title=Letting Go: Understanding Mormon Growth in Africa|journal=Journal of Mormon History|date=Spring 2009|volume=35|issue=2|url=http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1058&context=mormonhistory|accessdate=16 December 2012}}</ref>{{rp|pp.2,12}} citing a variety of factors, including the fact that some European churches benefited from a long-standing colonial presence in Africa;<ref name="philip jenkins" />{{rp|p.19}} the hesitance of the LDS church to expand missionary efforts into black Africa during the priesthood ban, resulting in "missions with white faces";<ref name="philip jenkins">{{cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Philip|title=Letting Go: Understanding Mormon Growth in Africa|journal=Journal of Mormon History|date=Spring 2009|volume=35|issue=2|url=http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1058&context=mormonhistory|accessdate=16 December 2012|quote=For one thing, the relatively late start of LDS expansion—from the late 1970s onwards—meant that the missions still have white faces, decades after other traditions have become thoroughly Africanized}}</ref>{{rp|pp.19–20}} the observation that the other churches largely made their original converts from native non-Christian populations, whereas Mormons often draw their converts from existing Christian communities;<ref name="philip jenkins" />{{rp|pp.20–21}} and special difficulties accommodating African cultural practices and worship styles, particularly [[polygamy]], which has been renounced categorically by the LDS Church,<ref name="philip jenkins" />{{rp|p.21}} but is still widely practiced in Africa.<ref>{{cite news|last=Vallely|first=Paul|title=The Big Question: What's the history of polygamy, and how serious a problem is it in Africa?|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/the-big-question-whats-the-history-of-polygamy-and-how-serious-a-problem-is-it-in-africa-1858858.html|accessdate=16 December 2012|newspaper=The Independent|date=6 January 2010}}</ref> Commenting that other denominations have largely abandoned trying to regulate the conduct of worship services in black African churches, Jenkins wrote that the LDS Church "is one of the very last churches of Western origin that still enforces Euro-American norms so strictly and that refuses to make any accommodation to local customs."<ref name="philip jenkins" />{{rp|p.23}}

In the United States, researchers Newell G. Bringhurst and Darron T. Smith, in their book ''Black and Mormon'', wrote that since the 1980s: "the number of African American Latter-day Saints does not appear to have grown significantly. Worse still, among those blacks who have joined, the average attrition rate appears to be extremely high." They cite a survey showing that the attrition rate among African American Mormons in two towns is estimated to be between 60 and 90%.<ref name="black and mormon2">{{cite book |editor1-last= Bringhurst |editor1-first= Newell G. |editor2-last= Smith |editor2-first= Darron T. |title= Black and Mormon |year= 2004 |publisher= University of Illinois Press |location= Urbana and Chicago |isbn= 0-252-02947-X |pages= 1–12 |chapter= Introduction |chapter-url= http://books.google.com/books?id=lSvRnQgJAx8C&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7 }}</ref>{{rp|p.7}} There are about 180,000 self-identified black members in the U.S., or 3% of the overall U.S. membership,<ref>[http://thegrio.com/2012/07/10/for-black-mormons-presidential-race-brings-new-attention/#s:black-mormon-woman For black Mormons, presidential race brings new attention | theGrio]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf |title=RLS report 2-22.indd |format=PDF |accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref> with 9% of LDS converts in the US being black, while almost no lifelong Mormons are black.<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Mormon/A-Portrait-of-Mormons-in-the-US.aspx A Portrait of Mormons in the U.S. - Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life]</ref>

==Mormon fundamentalism==
Some [[Mormon fundamentalism|Mormon fundamentalist]] sects that split from the LDS Church in the early 1900s continue to teach that the priesthood should be withheld from black people because of their cursed state, and that the LDS Church's reversal is a sign of its apostasy. In the [[Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]] (FLDS Church), the largest of the fundamentalist Mormon denominations, church president [[Warren Jeffs]], has been quoted as making the following declarations on the issue:<ref>[[Southern Poverty Law Center]], [http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?sid=342 "The Prophet Speaks"], ''Intelligence Report'', Spring 2005.</ref>
*"The black race is the people through which the devil has always been able to bring evil unto the earth."
*"[Cain was] cursed with a black skin and he is the father of the Negro people. He has great power, can appear and disappear. He is used by the devil, as a mortal man, to do great evils."
*"Today you can see a black man with a white woman, et cetera. A great evil has happened on this land because the devil knows that if all the people have Negro blood, there will be nobody worthy to have the priesthood."
*"If you marry a person who has connections with a Negro, you would become cursed."
*""I was watching a documentary one day and on came these people talking about a certain black man. ... And then it showed the modern rock group, the Beatles. ... And so the manager of the group called in this Negro, homosexual, on drugs, and the Negro taught them how to do it. And what happened then, it went world wide... . So when you enjoy the [rock] beat ... you are enjoying the spirit of the black race and that's what I emphasize to the students. And it is to rock the soul and lead the person to immorality, corruption, to forget their prayers, to forget God. And thus the whole world has partaken of the spirit of the Negro race, accepting their ways."

These and other statements have resulted in the FLDS Church being labelled a [[hate group]] by the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Latter-day Saints|Book of Mormon}}
*[[Black people in Mormon doctrine]]
*[[Mormonism and Pacific Islanders]]
*[[Act in Relation to Service]]

==References==

===Footnotes===
{{citations broken|date=December 2012}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Primary sources===
{{ref begin|60em}}
*{{citation
| last = Cherry
| first = Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| year = 1985
| title = Oral History Interview with Mary Lucille Bankhead
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
}}
*{{citation
| last = Cherry
| first = Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| year = 1986
| title = Oral History Interview with Gilmore H. Chapel
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
}}
*{{citation
| last = Cherry
| first = Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| year = 1988
| title = Oral History Interview with Cleolivia Lyons
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Cherry
| first = Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| year = 1970
| title = It's You and Me, Lord!
| location = Provo, Utah
| publisher = Trilogy Arts Publications
| oclc = 5039616
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Martin
| first = Wynetta Willis
| year = 1972
| title = Black Mormon Tells Her Story
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| publisher = Hawks Publications
| oclc = 6470756
}}
*{{cite book
| last1 = Martins
| first1 = Helvecio
| author1-link = Helvicio Martins
| last2 = Grover
| first2 = Mark
| authorlink2 = Mark Grover
| year = 1994
| title = The Autobiography of Elder Helvecio Martins
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| publisher = Aspen Books
| isbn = 1562362186
| oclc = 31288732
}}
*{{cite journal
| last = Phelps
| first = Willian W.
| authorlink = W. W. Phelps (Mormon)
| date = July 1833
| title = Free People of Color
| journal = [[Evening and Morning Star]]
| volume = 2
| issue = 14
| page = 109
| publisher = W. W. Phelps & Co.
| url = http://www.centerplace.org/history/ems/v2n14.htm
| accessdate = 2006-07-15
}}
*{{citation
| last = Young
| first = Brigham
| authorlink = Brigham Young
| date = February 5, 1852
| title = Speech by Gov. Young in Joint Session of the Legeslature [sic]
| location = Brigham Young Addresses, Ms d 1234, Box 48, folder 3, LDS Church Historical Department, Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery%2C_Blacks%2C_and_the_priesthood&oldid=253414
}}.
{{ref end}}

===Secondary sources===
{{ref begin|60em}}
*{{cite book
| last = Abanes
| first = Richard
| authorlink = Richard Abanes
| year = 2002
| title = One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church
| place = New York
| publisher = [[Four Walls Eight Windows]]
| isbn = 1-56858-219-6
| oclc = 47643086
}}
*{{Cite journal
| last = Allen
| first = James B.
| author-link = James B. Allen (historian)
| year = 1991
| title = Would-Be Saints: West Africa before the 1978 Priesthood Revelation
| journal = [[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume = 17
| issue = 1
| pages = 207–247
| url = http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/mormonhistory/vol17/iss1/1/
| jstor = 23286431
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bringhurst
| first = Newell G.
| year = 1981
| title = Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People Within Mormonism
| series = Contributions to the Study of Religion, No. 4
| location = Westport, Connecticut
| publisher = Greenwood Press
| isbn = 0-313-22752-7
| oclc = 7283058
}}
*{{Cite journal
| last = Bringhurst
| first = Newell G.
| year = 1981
| title = Charles B. Thompson and The Issues of Slavery and Race
| journal = [[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume = 8
| issue = 1
| pages = 37–47
| url = http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/mormonhistory/vol8/iss1/1/
| jstor = 23285871
}}.
*{{cite book
| editor1-last = Bush
| editor1-first = Lester E., Jr
| editor2-last = Mauss
| editor2-first = Armand
| editor2-link = Armand Mauss
| year = 1984
| title = Neither White Nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
| isbn = 0-941214-22-2
| oclc = 11103077
| url = http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=438
}}
*{{citation
| last = Embry
| first = Jessie L.
| title = Black Saints in a White Church: Contemporary African American Mormons
| year = 1994
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| isbn = 1-56085-044-2
| oclc = 30156888
| url = http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=11013
}}
*{{citation
| last = Hawkins
| first = Chester L.
| year = 1985
| title = Report on Elijah Abel and his Priesthood
| type = unpublished manuscript
| place = Provo, Utah
| publisher = Special Collections, Brigham Young University
}}
*{{citation
| last = Mauss
| first = Armand
| year = 2003
| title = All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage
| place = Urbana, Illinois
| publisher = University of Illinois Press
| isbn = 0252028031
| oclc = 50079929
}}
*{{cite journal
| last = O'Donovan
| first = Connell
| year = 2006
| title = The Mormon Priesthood Ban and Elder Q. Walker Lewis
| journal = [[John Whitmer Historical Association Journal]]
| volume = 26
| issue =
| place = Independence, Missouri
| publisher =
| pages = 47–99
| url = http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html
}}
*{{citation
| last = Evenson
| first = Darrick T.
| year = 2002
| title = Black Mormons & the Priesthood Ban: Also Includes The Black Mormon Homepage, Testimonies of Black Latter-day Saints
| place = Salt Lake City
| publisher = Mormon Answers Online
| isbn =
| oclc = 51830235
| id = SKU 4935190
}}
*{{citation
| last = Martins
| first = Marcus Helvécio T. A.
| authorlink = Marcus Helvécio T. A. Martins
| year = 2007
| title = Blacks and the Mormon Priesthood
| series = Setting the Record Straight
| place = Orem, Utah
| publisher = Millennial Press
| isbn = 1932597417
| oclc = 166241051
| id = SKU 4995993
}}
*{{cite book
| editor1-last = Bringhurst
| editor1-first = Newell G.
| editor2-last = Smith
| editor2-first = Darron
| year = 2004
| title = Black and Mormon
| publisher = [[University of Illinois Press]]
| isbn = 0-252-02947-X
| oclc = 0252090608
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Tanner
| first = Jerald and Sandra
| authorlink = Jerald and Sandra Tanner
| year = 1979
| title = The Changing World of Mormonism
| place = Chicago
| publisher = [[Moody Press]]
| isbn = 0-8024-1234-3
| oclc = 5239408
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Tanner
| first = Jerald and Sandra
| authorlink = Jerald and Sandra Tanner
| year = 2004
| title = The Curse of Cain?: Racism in the Mormon Church
| place = Salt Lake City
| publisher = [[Utah Lighthouse Ministry]]
| isbn =
| oclc = 58482851
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Ostling
| first = Richard and Joan
| authorlink = Richard and Joan Ostling
| year = 1999
| title = Mormon America: The Power and the Promise
| place = San Francisco
| publisher = [[Harper Collins]]
| isbn = 0060663715
| oclc = 41380398
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Stewart
| first = John J.
| year = 1960
| title = Mormonism and the Negro
| place = Salt Lake City, Utah
| publisher = Bookmark
| oclc = 731385
}}. [http://web.archive.org/web/20100409063442/http://www.celestial-orb.org/library/mormon_negro.html Complete text]
{{ref end}}

==Further reading==
*{{citation |publisher= LDS Church |url= http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/race-church |title= The Church and Race: All Are Alike Unto God |type= Official Statement |work= MormonNewsroom.org |date= February 29, 2012 }}
*{{citation |url= http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/racial-remarks-in-washington-post-article |title= Church Statement Regarding 'Washington Post' Article on Race and the Church |date= February 29, 2012 |type= Response |work= MormonNewsroom.org |publisher= LDS Church}}
*[http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETD/id/1130 A Peculiar Place for the Peculiar Institution: Slavery and Sovereignty in Early Territorial Utah], Ricks, Nathaniel R., Master Thesis, ''Brigham Young University'', 2007.
*[[Lester E. Bush, Jr.]] and [[Armand Mauss|Armand L. Mauss]], eds., [http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=438 ''Neither White nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church,''] [[Signature Books]], 1984
*{{citation |publisher= [[University of Chicago]] Divinity School |date = May 31, 2012 |title= The Wrong Side of White |first= W. Paul |last= Reeve |url= http://divinity.uchicago.edu/martycenter/publications/sightings/archive_2012/0531.shtml }}
*{{citation |last= Bush |first= Lester E., Jr. |date=Spring 1973 |title= Mormonism's Negro Doctrine: An Historical Overview |journal= [[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]] |volume= 8 |issue= 1 |url= https://www.dialoguejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/sbi/articles/Dialogue_V08N01_13.pdf |accessdate= 2012-11-01 }}
*{{citation |last= Coleman |first= Ronald G. |chapter= Blacks in Utah History |editor-last= Papanikolas |editor-first= Helen |year= 1976 |title= The Peoples of Utah |place= Salt Lake City, Utah |publisher= Utah State Historical Society |isbn= 0913738263 |oclc= 2523229 |pages= 115–140 }}. [http://historytogo.utah.gov/people/ethnic_cultures/the_peoples_of_utah/blacksinutahhistory.html Reprint], with permision, at historytogo.utah.gov

==External links==
*[http://www.blacklds.org/ blacklds.org] an independent (not owned or operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) site maintained by some black and some white Latter-day Saints.
*[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/index.html The Genesis Group], a dependent branch of the Church whose mission is to serve the needs of African-American Latter-day Saints.
*[http://rationalfaiths.com/blacks-and-the-priesthood-revisted/ Blacks and the Priesthood Revisited], an independent (not owned or operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) site maintained by members of the LDS Church
*[https://www.lds.org/topics/race-and-the-priesthood?lang=eng Race and the Priesthood]; a 2014 statement issued by the LDS Church to renounce previous claims of racism and clarify the Church's current stance on the issue.
{{Latter-day Saints|hide|show}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Black People And The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-Day Saints}}
[[Category:The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Africa]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
[[Category:Mormonism and race]]
[[Category:Brigham Young]]
[[Category:Criticism of Mormonism]]

Nerang-Nationalpark

2012-05-04T02:37:07Z

JimVC3: sp managment > management

{{Infobox protected area of Australia | name = Nerang National Park
| iucn_category = II
| image = Australia_Locator_Map.svg
| caption =
| locator_x = 272
| locator_y = 125
| nearest_town_or_city = [[Nerang, Queensland|Nerang]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|27|58|20|S|153|18|12|E|type:landmark_region:AU}}
| area = 1700 ha
| established =
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| managing_authorities = Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service
| official_site = [http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/parks/nerang Nerang National Park]
}}
'''Nerang National Park''' (commonly referred to as '''Nerang State Forest''') is a national park in [[Queensland]], [[Australia]] situated on the [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]]. The protected area is located 12 km from [[Surfers Paradise, Queensland|Surfers Paradise]] on Nerang’s north-west outskirts.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nerang National Park|url=http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/parks/nerang/|publisher=Environment and Resource Management|accessdate=22 May 2011|year=2010}}</ref>

Nerang National Park is known for its variety of birds, trails, and views. Making it a popular place for mountain bike riders, bushwalkers and bird watchers.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bonzle|title=Nerang State Forest|url=http://maps.bonzle.com/c/a?a=p&p=56852&cmd=sp|publisher=Digital Atlas Pty Limited|year=2011}}</ref>

==Environment==
Nerang National Park is a open forest environment providing a habitat for lot of native and non-native animals. The land of the Nerang National Park is around 100 m above sea level and located 8 km from the Pacific Ocean. The Nerang National Park is mostly small-large hills. Both the Coombabah and [[Saltwater Creek|Saltwater]] creek run through the Nerang National Park. The soil in the park is mostly clay and limestone though near rivers and in fertile areas the soil is more loamy and aerated.

==Recreation==
The Nerang National Park is used for all sorts of sports such as horse riding and downhill mountain biking. In 2009, the World Nationals for downhill mountain bikers under 15's were held there. The park consist of many [[fire trail]]s and tracks making it very popular for bike riding, horse riding and walking. <ref>{{cite web|title=Nerang National Park (DERM)|url=http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/parks/nerang/about.html|publisher=Environment and Resource Management|accessdate=5 December 2011|year=2010}}</ref>

===Walking===
A network of multi-use recreational trails are shared by cyclists, walkers and horseriders (unless otherwise signed). When using these trails, walkers must give way to horseriders and cyclists must give way to both hosreriders and walkers.

===Horseriding===
Horses may be ridden on all multi-use recreational trails in Nerang National Park and Nerang State Forest. To protect the environment of the forest horse riders have to follow certain rules such as:
Horses are only allowed to cross natural watercourses at designated crossing points on the trail for the protection of watercourses in the area. To minimise damage to vegetation. Do not allow horses to graze on any vegetation while in the area.
Tether horses at hitching posts or resting areas only for short periods to minimise soil erosion and compaction.
Avoid spreading weeds—ensure horses’ coats, hooves and equipment are free of seeds before park visits.

===Mountain-bike riding===
Mountain-bike riders have access to all multi-use recreational trails in the national park and State forest, as well as two designated mountain-bike tracks in Nerang National Park. Horseriders and bushwalkers are not permitted on these designated mountain-bike tracks. The two main mountain biking traks are:

'''Casuarina grove circuit—2.7 km circuit (plus optional 800 m loop)'''
As the name suggests, this circuit leads you through a grove of casuarina trees—the favoured food tree of the vulnerable glossy black-cockatoo. To extend your ride there is the option of diverging to an additional loop which adds another 800 m (8 mins riding time) to your trip.

'''Three hills track—2 km (one way)'''
Starting from the track entrance on Centre Road, the Three hills track winds through open forest of grey gum and tallowwood, habitat for the regionally-vulnerable koala, before joining the Casuarina grove circuit. This track includes steep hilly sections; a moderate level of fitness is recommended.

==See also==
{{Portal|Queensland}}
*[[Protected areas of Queensland]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/parks/nerang/pdf/nerang-trail-map.pdf Map of Nerang National Park]

{{NationalParksofQueensland}}

[[Category:Gold Coast, Queensland]]
[[Category:National parks of Queensland]]

Sean Berdy

2012-04-24T23:12:03Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 99.227.120.170 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by ZéroBot. (TW)

{{Infobox person
| name = Sean Berdy
| image = P2217g622.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_name = Sean Lance Berdy
| othername =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1993|06|03}}
| birth_place = [[Boca Raton, Florida|Boca Raton]], [[Florida]], U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Actor-Entertainer-Comedian
| years_active = 2005–present
| spouse =
}}
'''Sean Berdy''' (born June 3, 1993){{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} is a deaf American actor and comedian. He has appeared in the film sequel ''[[The Sandlot 2]]'' and currently stars in ''[[Switched at Birth (TV series)|Switched at Birth]]'', playing the role of [[List of Switched at Birth characters#Emmett Bledsoe|Emmett Bledsoe]]. He is one of the two main deaf characters in the show. He was nominated for [[TV]] Breakout Star for the ''[[Teen Choice Awards]]'' 2011.

==Personal life==
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gallaudet.edu/clerc_center/2010_deaf_teen_america_pageant_.html|title=2010 Deaf Teen America Pageant (2010)|accessdate=2011-07-25}}</ref> He also performed with ISD's show choir, Vibrations.

==Career==
[[ABC Family]] television series ''[[Switched at Birth (TV series)|Switched at Birth]]''.
He also was nominated for the 2011 ''[[Teen Choice Awards]]'' under the [[TV]] category for breakout star.

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Note
|-
| 2005 || ''[[The Sandlot 2]]'' || Sammy ||
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Bondage]]'' || Young Trey ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2008 || ''[[The Legend of the Mountain Man]]'' || Nick ||
|-
| ''The Deaf Family'' || Wesley ||
|-
| 2011–present || ''[[Switched at Birth (TV series)|Switched at Birth]]'' || [[List of Switched at Birth characters#Emmett Bledsoe|Emmett Bledsoe]] || Main role
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|1678587}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Berdy, Sean
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Deaf Actor in "Switched at Birth"
| DATE OF BIRTH = June 3, 1993
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Boca Raton, FL
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Berdy, Sean}}
[[Category:1993 births]]
[[Category:Actors from Florida]]
[[Category:American child actors]]
[[Category:American deaf actors]]
[[Category:American film actors]]
[[Category:American television actors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Boca Raton, Florida]]

{{US-screen-actor-1990s-stub}}

[[es:Sean Berdy]]
[[fr:Sean Berdy]]

Inode-Zeigerstruktur

2012-04-24T04:26:34Z

JimVC3: Adding sections; removing tag

{{lowercase|inode pointer structure}}
{{no footnotes|date = February 2012}}
[[Image:Ext2-inode.gif|right]]
The '''inode pointer structure''' is a structure adopted by the [[inode]] of a file in the [[Unix File System]] (UFS) or other related file systems to list the addresses of a file's [[file system|data blocks]].

==Structure==
In the past, the structure may have consisted of eleven or thirteen pointers, but most modern file systems use fifteen pointers. These pointers consist of (assuming 15 pointers in the inode):

* Twelve pointers that directly point to blocks of the file's data (direct pointers)
* One singly indirect pointer (a pointer that points to a block of pointers that then point to blocks of the file's data)
* One doubly indirect pointer (a pointer that points to a block of pointers that point to other blocks of pointers that then point to blocks of the file's data)
* One triply indirect pointer (a pointer that points to a block of pointers that point to other blocks of pointers that point to other blocks of pointers that then point to blocks of the file's data)

==Key features==
===Fixed logical block size===
The structure is partially illustrated in the diagram accompanying this article. The structure allows for inodes to describe very large files in a file systems with a fixed logical block size. Central to the mechanism is that blocks of addresses (also called ''indirect blocks'') are only allocated as needed. For example, a 12-block file would be described using just the inode because its blocks fit in to the number of direct pointers available. However, a 13-block file needs an indirect block to contain the thirteenth address.

===Ease of data location===
The inode pointer structure not only allows for files to easily be allocated to non-contiguous blocks, it also allows the data at a particular location inside a file to be easily located. This is possible because the logical block size is fixed. For example, if each block is 8 kB, file data at 120 to 128 kB would be pointed to by the third pointer of the first indirect block (assuming twelve direct pointers in the inode pointer structure).

===Indirect blocks===
Unlike the inodes, which are fixed in number and allocated in a special part of the file system, the indirect blocks may be of any number and are allocated in the same part of the file system as data blocks. The number of pointers in the indirect blocks are dependent on the block size and size of block pointers. Example: with a 512 byte block size, and 4 byte block pointers, each indirect block can consist of 128 (512 / 4) pointers. The [[ext3]] file system, popular with Linux users, is an example of one of the many UFS-based file systems to adopt the inode pointer structure.

== References ==
* [http://lwn.net/Articles/187321/ Ext3 for large file systems], LWN.net, June 12, 2006.
* [http://www.apl.jhu.edu/Misc/Unix-info/workshop/fstour.html A Basic UNIX Tutorial], Idaho State University, January 9, 1996.
* {{cite paper | author=[[Marshall Kirk McKusick]] | coauthors= [[Bill Joy|William N. Joy]]; [[Samuel J Leffler]] and Robert S. Fabry | title=A Fast File System for UNIX | date=February 18, 1984 | doi= | url=http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~brewer/cs262/FFS.pdf }}

[[Category:Computer file systems]]

Gaahl

2012-04-12T03:39:10Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 65.190.66.32 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by RussBot. (TW)

{{cleanup-link rot|date=January 2012}}
{{Infobox musical artist 
| name = Gaahl
| image = Gaahl Gorgoroth.jpg
| caption = Gaahl performing live in 2007.
| image_size =
| background = solo_singer
| birth_name = Kristian Eivind Espedal<ref>[http://home.c2i.net/famhegg/BLACKMET.htm Norsk Black / Ekstrem Metal]</ref>
| alias =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1975|8|7}}
|birth_place =[[Sunnfjord]], [[Norway]]
| death_date =
| origin =
| instrument = [[Singing|Vocals]]
| genre = [[Black metal]], [[ambient music|ambient]]
| occupation = [[Musician]]
| years_active = 1993–present
| label =
| associated_acts = [[Gaahlskagg]], [[God Seed]], [[Gorgoroth]], Trelldom, Sigfader, [[Wardruna]]
| website =
}}

'''Kristian Eivind Espedal''' (born August 7, 1975), better known by his stage name '''Gaahl''', is a Norwegian vocalist, best known as the former frontman of Norwegian [[black metal]] band [[Gorgoroth]]. He is also the founder and frontman of [[Trelldom]] and [[Gaahlskagg]]. As of 2008, he has been involved in other projects such as [[Wardruna]].

==Early life==
Gaahl was born in 1975 in [[Sunnfjord]], a district in the county of [[Sogn og Fjordane]], [[Norway]]. He spent his youth living in a sparsely populated valley called [[Espedal]], in the municipality of [[Fjaler]]. Gaahl and his family still retain residences in the valley, although he now spends much of his time in [[Bergen]].<ref name='True'>{{cite news | first=Peter | last=Beste | coauthors= | title=[[True Norwegian Black Metal (documentary)|True Norwegian Black Metal]] | date=2007-04-27 | publisher=[[YouTube]] | url =http://youtube.com/watch?v=i4U33U_UyzQ | work =VBS.tv | pages = | accessdate = 2008-02-10 | language = }}</ref>

==Career==
===Early career (1993–1998)===
Gaahl became involved with black metal in 1993, when he co-formed the band Trelldom with guitarist "Tyrant" and bassist "Taakeheim". They released a demo in March 1994, with "Goat Pervertor" on drums. Gaahl and Tyrant recorded and released Trelldom's first album ''Til Evighet'' in early 1995, with help from drummer "Ole Nic". In 1998 they released the album ''Til et Annet'' with drummer "Mutt". That year, Gaahl become involved with the bands Sigfader and Gaahlskagg. The former included Stian Lægreid ("Skagg"), Tarjei Øvrebotten ("Goatboy"), Jan Atle Lægreid ("Thurzr"), Einar Selvik ("Kvitrafn") and Mutt. The latter included Skagg, Thurzr and Mutt. Sigfader and Gaahlskagg each released an EP in 1999.

===Gorgoroth (1998–2007)===
Gaahl joined Gorgoroth in 1998, and was first heard on their fourth album ''[[Destroyer (Gorgoroth album)|Destroyer]]''; although he only sang on the title track. He made his live debut in May that year, when Gorgoroth played five dates in Germany alongside Cradle of Filth.<ref name="gorgorothtours1">[http://www.gorgoroth.info/live.htm Gorgoroth - Live]</ref> Ten years later in the January 2009 issue of ''[[Terrorizer Magazine]]'', Gaahl and Cradle of Filth frontman [[Dani Filth]] wrongly claimed to have played thirty gigs together on this tour.<ref name="gorgorothtours1" />

The first Gorgoroth album to feature Gaahl as main vocalist was ''[[Incipit Satan]]''. The album was recorded during July–October 1999, and was mainly written by Infernus. The music was entirely written by Infernus and Tormentor, while the lyrics were written by Infernus and Gaahl; the latter having written the lyrics for the title song as well as "Ein Eim av Blod og Helvetesild". This was also the first Gorgoroth album to feature elements of [[Industrial music|industrial]], [[dark ambient]], and [[noise music]].

In the period February–December 2002, Gaahl was imprisoned for assaulting a man, and was forced to pay the victim 158,000 NOK (26,963 US$).<ref name='gaahl-hist'>{{cite news | first=Chris | last=Campion | coauthors= | title=In the face of death | date=2005-02-20 | publisher=Guardian Unlimited | url =http://arts.guardian.co.uk/print/0,,5127659-110428,00.html | work =[[The Observer]] | pages = | accessdate = 2008-02-10 | language = }}</ref> Gorgoroth began recording their album ''[[Twilight of the Idols (album)|Twilight of the Idols]]'' in May that year. Gaahl's imprisonment meant that he was unable to record his vocals until January 2003.<ref name="vds1">[http://www.voicesfromthedarkside.de/interviews/gorgoroth.htm GORGOROTH (Voices from the Dark Side interview)]</ref> The album was released in July that year.

In February 2004, Gorgoroth staged a concert in [[Kraków]], [[Poland]] which featured impaled sheep heads, satanic symbols, and a mock-[[crucifixion]] performed by naked models doused in blood. A police investigation took place with allegations of religious offense (which is prosecutable under Polish law) and cruelty to animals.<ref>[http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article723414.ece Norwegian black metal band shocks Poland - Aftenposten.no]</ref> Though these charges were considered, the band was not charged . The controversy led to the band being dropped from the Nuclear Blast Tour and the footage of the concert being confiscated by the police.<ref>[http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=33681 BLABBERMOUTH.NET - GORGOROTH: 'Black Mass In Krakow' DVD May Get Released After All]</ref> Following this, Gorgoroth ended their contract with the label.

In January 2005, Gorgoroth began work on their next album. The instrumental parts were recorded between January and May 2005, and Gaahl arranged and recorded the vocals in March 2006. ''[[Ad Majorem Sathanas Gloriam]]'' was released shortly thereafter. Although the title was conceived by Infernus, the lyrics and music of this album were written entirely by Gaahl and bassist [[King ov Hell]]. From April–December 2006, Gaahl spent another nine months (of a fourteen-month sentence) in prison.<ref>[http://www.metalhammer.co.uk/news/article/?id=45971 Metal Hammer - News Article]</ref> He was accused of assaulting and torturing a man for six hours while collecting his blood into a cup and threatening to make him drink it.<ref name='True'/> The victim received a total of 190,000 NOK (32,424 US$) from the assault that Gaahl committed.<ref name='gaahl-hist'/> Gaahl claims that he was acting in self-defense, stating that: "I was the one who was attacked, but they think I punished him too hard. As I always say, when people cross my line ... then I will be the one to decide what their punishment will be."<ref name = "shaman1" />

In January 2007, Gaahl was the focus of a documentary called ''[[True Norwegian Black Metal (documentary)|True Norwegian Black Metal]]''. It was shown in five parts on ''vbs.tv'', the broadcast network of ''[[Vice Magazine]]'', in April. In it, Gaahl offered the film-makers a tour of his residence in Espedal and the surrounding countryside. The documentary was produced by photographer Peter Beste, who also starred in it.

In May 2007, he appeared on the third Trelldom album, ''Til Minne''. Gaahl was the band's only founding member to appear on the album, which featured guitarist "Valgard", bassist "Stian", drummer "Are" and [[hardingfele]] player Egil Furenes.

In October 2007, Gaahl and King ov Hell tried to remove founding member [[Infernus]] from Gorgoroth. This began the [[Gorgoroth name dispute]].

===Post-Gorgoroth (2008 onward)===
[[File:God Seed Hellfest 2009 12.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Gaahl at [[Hellfest (French music festival)|Hellfest]] in June 2009]]
In July 2008, Gaahl revealed in an online interview that he was involved in the creation of ''Wynjo'', an upcoming fashion collection for women, together with Norwegian modeling agent Dan De Vero and designer Sonja Wu.<ref name = 'devero1'>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |author= |coauthors= |title= GORGOROTH Frontman Had 'Close Relationship' With Norwegian Modeling Agent DAN DEVERO |url= http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=101511 |work= |publisher= |location= |id= |pages= |page= |date= July 24, 2008 |accessdate=2008-07-28 |language= |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref><ref name = 'devero2'>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |author= Hansen, Birthe Steen |coauthors= |title= - Jeg var gal etter Dan |url= http://www.nettavisen.no/innenriks/ibergen/article2086056.ece |work= |publisher= ''[[Nettavisen]]'' |location= |id= |pages= |page= |date= ''undated'' |accessdate=2008-07-28 |language= Norwegian |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref> At the same time, it was also revealed that he and De Vero had a "close relationship" since 2006.<ref name = 'devero1'/><ref name = 'devero2'/> It was stated that they were no longer a couple but remained as good friends. In an interview for the November 2008 issue of ''[[Rock Hard (magazine)|Rock Hard]]'', Gaahl confirmed his [[homosexuality]].<ref name="rockhard2">{{cite web|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=107859 |title=BLABBERMOUTH.NET - GORGOROTH Frontman Opens Up About His Sexual Orientation: 'I've Never Made Any Secret About It' |publisher=Roadrunnerrecords.com |date= |accessdate=2012-02-10}}</ref>

Shortly thereafter, De Vero stated that he had received threats from various black metal fans, both at his door and by phone and email.<ref name = 'devero3'>{{cite news |author= Røyseland, Halstein |title= - Truet av black metal-miljøet etter homo-nyhet |url= http://www.vg.no/musikk/artikkel.php?artid=533466 |work= [[Verdens Gang]] |publisher= |location= Oslo, Norway |date= November 2, 2008 |accessdate=2008-11-07 |language= Norwegian }}</ref> It was also alleged that a fight had erupted backstage at [[Wacken Open Air#2008|Wacken Open Air]], triggered by [[homophobia|homophobic]] remarks. Allegedly, the person who made the remarks had to be [[hospital]]ised.<ref name="rockhard2"/> However, Gaahl denied that anyone had ever "said anything derogatory" to him in person.<ref name="rockhard2"/> When asked by the webzine ''FaceCulture'' if he thinks people will see him and his music differently now that he has publicly acknowledged his homosexuality, Gaahl replied: <blockquote>Mankind is known to be narrow-minded, so... maybe some [will have a negative reaction]. But I guess it will even out the score in a way. I think it will be positive for some and negative for some. It's always good to have some negative as well. Otherwise you would end up with equality and equality is the worst thing in the world. Equality is stagnation. It doesn't let anything grow. It holds back.</blockquote>

In March 2009 the name dispute ended when Oslo City District Court ruled that Infernus was the rightful owner of the Gorgoroth name. It also found that by trying to oust Infernus, Gaahl and King had instead excluded ''themselves'' from the band.<ref>[http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=115817 BLABBERMOUTH.NET]</ref> That month, Gaahl and King assumed the name [[God Seed]].

In early 2009, Gaahl spent two months in [[Spain]].<ref>[http://www.terrorizer.com/content/gaahl-speaks ]{{dead link|date=February 2012}}</ref> King stated in an interview that Gaahl had been spending time in Spain working on lyrics and vocal arrangements for the debut God Seed album.<ref name="gaahlspain2">[http://www.imhotep.no/?did=9088770 Imhotep - Interviews/Articles - GOD SEED – NEW ENERGY]</ref> However, in another interview in April 2009, King stated that:

<blockquote>We have recorded everything in the studio and are just waiting for Gaahl to put vocals on it. So we have only vocals and the final mix to go before it's all done. It's sometimes a nightmare to work with him in the studio because of the pride he puts into the smallest details. If he's not in the right mood or doesn't find the correct words we get nothing done. At times I've spent days in the studio counting seconds with nothing happening. It's the same way now, but I know in the end the result will be unique and powerful.<ref name="gaahlreturnspain">[http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid=44120&comments=1 Metal News - King Ov Hell Discusses New Band God Seed (Metal Underground.com )]</ref></blockquote>

In summer 2009, God Seed performed at [[Hellfest Summer Open Air]] in June and [[With Full Force]] in July. In August, Gaahl revealed that he had quit the band.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bloodchamber.de/news/2009-08/10307/ |title=GOD SEED schon wieder Geschichte? @ |publisher=Bloodchamber.de |date= |accessdate=2012-02-10}}</ref> His bandmate King later clarified that Gaahl had in fact chosen to retire from metal music for the time being. King put the band 'on hold' as a result.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://metalstorm.ee/events/news_comments.php?news_id=9265 |title=God Seed - Gaahl Retires From Metal - Metal Storm |publisher=Metalstorm.ee |date= |accessdate=2012-02-10}}</ref> Shortly after, vocalist [[Shagrath]] took Gaahl's place and the band was renamed [[Ov Hell]].

In January 2010, Gaahl was hired by [[Den Nationale Scene]] in [[Bergen]] to play a role in ''Svartediket'', a performance for the 2010 [[Bergen International Festival]]. This caused controversy due to Gaahl's anti-Christian standpoint and support for church burnings. The [[Diocese of Bjørgvin|Bishop of Bjørgvin]] spoke against Gaahl's involvement.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bt.no/nyheter/lokalt/Legger-hardt-press-paa-teatersjefen-1003377.html|title= Legger hardt press på teatersjefen |last=Tønder|first=Finn Bjørn|date=14 January 2010|publisher=[[Bergens Tidende]]|language=Norwegian|accessdate=15 January 2010}}</ref>

==Personal life==
During the trial{{clarify|date=January 2012|reason=No 'trial' is mentioned in the article}} in 2004, it was claimed that Gaahl is a [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]].<ref>{{cite news | first=Jonathan | last=Tisdall | coauthors= | title=Black metal vocalist faces prison | date=2004-04-28 | publisher=Aftenposten | url =http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article783522.ece | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2008-02-10 | language = Norwegian? }}</ref>{{Dead link|January 2012|date=January 2012}} In December 2005, he discussed this in an interview.<ref>[Gaahlskagg Myspace Blog]</ref> However some sources have claimed otherwise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.revolvermag.com/content/gorgoroth |title=Revolver Magazine » Paul Bostaph |publisher=Revolvermag.com |date=2011-12-01 |accessdate=2012-02-10}}</ref>

In 2008 he confirmed being homosexual.<ref name="rockhard2"/> On 27 January 2010, Gaahl won the award "gay person of the year" in Bergen at the event "Bergen Gay Galla". He was present and accepted the award.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=134544 |title=BLABBERMOUTH.NET - Former GORGOROTH Frontman Named 'Homosexual Of The Year' |publisher=Roadrunnerrecords.com |date= |accessdate=2012-02-10}}</ref>

== Beliefs ==
Gaahl is a [[Germanic neopaganism|practitioner of Norse Shamanism]] and can often be seen wearing a [[Mjölnir]] pendant.<ref name="shaman1">[http://www.tartareandesire.com/interviews/gorgoroth.html Gorgoroth interview @ Tartareandesire.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.imhotep.fi/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2151&Itemid=135&lang=en Imhotep]</ref>

===Christianity and Satanism===
Gaahl is strongly [[anti-Christian sentiment|opposed to Christianity]]. He has often been mistaken as a [[Satanism|Satanist]], but objects to being labelled as such. In an early interview he stated that "I am my own God as I am my own Satan. So I'm not a Satanist judging by those terms". He jokingly added, "Maybe you could call it Gaahlism".<ref name="hitler1" /> He repeated this belief in the documentary ''[[True Norwegian Black Metal (documentary)|True Norwegian Black Metal]]'' when he said "the god within yourself is the only true god".<ref name='True'/> In an interview for the documentary ''[[Metal: A Headbanger's Journey]]'' —at which time he was Gorgoroth's vocalist— Gaahl was asked what inspired the band's music, to which his sole reply was "Satan". When asked what Satan represented, he again answered with a single word: "Freedom".<ref name="headbanger">Dunn, Sam (2005). [http://imdb.com/title/tt0478209/ ''Metal: A Headbanger's Journey'']</ref>

Gaahl explained his use of Satanic themes thus: <blockquote>We live in a Christian world and we have to speak their language ... When I use the word 'Satan' it means the natural order, the will of a man, the will to grow, the will to become the superman and not to be oppressed by any law such as the church, which is only a way to control the masses.<ref name = "shaman1" /></blockquote>

When asked if he was influenced by [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] in his beliefs and his use of the "[[Übermensch|superman]]" terminology, Gaahl replied: "for me he doesn't mean anything and I haven't a lot of things in common with him. Personally, I focus on myself, on my own thoughts".<ref name="gaahlnonietzsche">[http://www.metal1.info/interviews/interview-en.php?interview_id=147 Gorgoroth Interview bei Metal1.info]</ref>

Gaahl has expressed opposition to the [[Church of Satan]], describing it as a group of "weak people flocking like rats, afraid of standing alone" and adding "[[Anton LaVey]] and his followers are incredibly ridiculous. It's all so childish. I will not waste my breath on discussing them".<ref name="hitler1" />

===Black metal===
Regarding black metal, Gaahl sees individuality as the most important aspect of the genre.<ref name = "shaman1" /> He has described black metal as "the depiction of honesty without compromise"<ref name="rockhard2" /> and "a war for those who hear the whisper".<ref name = "shaman1" /> When asked in the documentary ''Metal: A Headbanger's Journey'' (2005) for his thoughts on the [[church burnings]] associated with the [[early Norwegian black metal scene]], Gaahl replied:
<blockquote>Church burnings are, of course, a thing that I support one hundred percent. It should have been done much more, and will be done much more in the future. We have to remove every trace from what Christianity, and the semitic roots, have to offer this world.<ref name="headbanger"/></blockquote>

However, in a controversial interview from 1995 he also stated:
<blockquote>Well, personally I don't mind it at all, but I fear that it might cause among people fear of nihilism and anti-Christian views that black metal represents, and in that way lead neutral people to succumbing to Christendom because that is what they accept and don't want to lose. I think it's the wrong way to proceed.<ref name="hitler1">
[http://i355.photobucket.com/albums/r455/WD37/76ec8a07.jpg Interview with Gaahl from Polish Holocaust Magazine, 1995]</ref><ref name="hitler2">
[http://i355.photobucket.com/albums/r455/WD37/755fc749.jpg Interview with Gaahl from Polish Holocaust Magazine, 1995]</ref></blockquote>

===Politics===
Gaahl maintains that he has no clear set of political beliefs, and that his circle of friends includes both [[Right-wing politics|right-wingers]] and [[Left-wing politics|left-wingers]].<ref name="rockhard2" /> However, in a controversial 1995 interview he stated his support for [[Varg Vikernes]], [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperors [[Julius Caesar]], [[Augustus]], [[Caligula]] and [[Nero]]. He also described people such as "[[niggers]]", "[[mulattoes]]" and [[Muslim]]s as "subhuman".<ref name="hitler1" /><ref name="hitler2" /> In 2008 when asked about such controversial stances in ''Rock Hard'' magazine. Gaahl explained:

<blockquote>In the early '90s, there were all these different youth gangs in Norway and one thing led to another. I was involved in gang fights and had false friends ... There was no political disposition – not with me nor any of my friends. But you had to profess allegiance to a certain group if you wanted to defend yourself and not get your ass kicked.<ref name="rockhard2" /></blockquote>

Presumably during the 1990s, the stances Gaahl supposedly maintained prompted the [[Anti-Defamation League]] to list Trelldom on its Hate Music Groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adl.org/extremism/bands/bands_country.asp |title=Hate Rock Online: A New Tool for Racists and Anti-Semites |publisher=Adl.org |date= |accessdate=2012-02-10}}</ref>

==Discography==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Title
!Band
|-
|1994||''Disappearing of the Burning Moon'' (demo)||Trelldom
|-
|1995||''Til Evighet''||Trelldom
|-
|1998||''Til et Annet''||Trelldom
|-
|1998||''[[Destroyer (Gorgoroth album)|Destroyer]]''||Gorgoroth
|-
|1999||''Sigfaders hevner'' (demo)||Sigfader
|-
|1999||''Split With Stormfront''||Gaahlskagg
|-
|2000||''Erotic Funeral''||Gaahlskagg
|-
|2000||''[[Incipit Satan]]''||Gorgoroth
|-
|2003||''[[Twilight of the Idols (album)|Twilight of the Idols]]''||Gorgoroth
|-
|2006||''[[Ad Majorem Sathanas Gloriam]]''||Gorgoroth
|-
|2006||''True Narcotic Black Metal''<ref>[http://www.heavymetal.no/show.article.asp?menuid=&artid=6226 Heavymetal.no - Interview with Dirge Rep]</ref>||Secht
|-
|2007||''Til Minne''||Trelldom
|-
|2008||''[[Black Mass Krakow 2004]]''||Gorgoroth
|-
|2008||''[[True Norwegian Black Metal - Live in Grieghallen]]''||Gorgoroth
|-
|2009||''Runaljóð - gap var Ginnunga''<ref>[http://www.wardruna.com/news/index.html ''[[Wardruna]]'' Official website - News]</ref><ref>[http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=107772 Blabbermouth.net - WARDRUNA Signs With INDIE RECORDINGS - Oct. 27, 2008]</ref>||Wardruna
|-
|2009||''Skandinavisk misantropi''<ref>[http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=117517 - Blabbermouth.net - MANIAC's SKITLIV Signs With SEASON OF MIST - Apr. 4, 2009]</ref>||Skitliv
|}

'''Other appearances:'''
*2005: ''[[Metal: A Headbanger's Journey]]'' (documentary)
*2007: ''[[True Norwegian Black Metal (documentary)|True Norwegian Black Metal]]'' (documentary)

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:God Seed Hellfest 2009 10.jpg|Gaahl with God Seed (2009)
File:God Seed Hellfest 2009 12.jpg|Gaahl with God Seed (2009)
File:God Seed Hellfest 2009 13.jpg|Gaahl with God Seed (2009)
File:God Seed Hellfest 2009 14.jpg|Gaahl and Teloch with God Seed (2009)
File:God Seed Hellfest 2009 15.jpg|Gaahl with God Seed (2009)
File:Gaahl and King.jpg|Gaahl (left) with King, both without their corpse paint
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.gorgoroth.info/misc/interviews/2003-terrorizer.jpg Interview with Infernus and Gaahl by Terrorizer Magazine]

{{Gorgoroth}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Gaahl
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =1975-08-07
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Sunnfjord]], [[Norway]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaahl}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Adherents of Germanic neopaganism]]
[[Category:Black metal singers]]
[[Category:LGBT musicians from Norway]]
[[Category:Norwegian black metal musicians]]
[[Category:Norwegian criminals]]
[[Category:Norwegian male singers]]
[[Category:Norwegian prisoners and detainees]]
[[Category:Norwegian rock singers]]
[[Category:Norwegian vegetarians]]
[[Category:People convicted of assault]]
[[Category:Musicians from Sogn og Fjordane]]

[[da:Gaahl]]
[[es:Gaahl]]
[[fr:Gaahl]]
[[it:Gaahl]]
[[nl:Gaahl]]
[[no:Kristian Eivind Espedal]]
[[pl:Gaahl]]
[[pt:Kristian Eivind "Gaahl" Espedal]]
[[ro:Gaahl]]
[[ru:Гаал (певец)]]
[[sh:Gaahl]]
[[fi:Gaahl]]
[[sv:Kristian Eivind Espedal]]
[[tr:Gaahl]]

Midget-Car

2012-03-19T22:48:06Z

JimVC3: sp United Kingdon > United Kingdom

{{dablink|This article is about full-size midget race cars. For the smaller version youth racer, see [[Quarter-midget]]. For the brand name automobile, see [[King Midget]]. For the British sports car with its own race series see [[MG Midget]].}}
[[Image:Tony Stewar @ The Chili Bowl in Tulsa,Ok.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tony Stewart]] at the [[Chili Bowl (race)|Chili Bowl]]|right]]
[[Image:MidgetCar.jpg|thumb|right]]
[[Image:MidgetCarsRacingAngellParkMay2010.jpg|thumb|right|Midget cars racing at [[Angell Park Speedway]]]]
'''Midget cars''', also '''Speedcars''' in Australia, are very small [[race cars]] with a very high [[power-to-weight ratio]] and typically use [[Inline-four engine|four-cylinder engines]].

==Cars==
Typically, these cars have 300 to 400 horsepower and weigh {{convert|1000|lb}}.<ref name="Miller">{{cite web|url=http://www.thespec.com/sports/article/181296--chili-bowl-flavour-catches-hold-even-down-under|title=Chili Bowl flavour catches hold, even Down Under|last=Miller|first=Tim|date=2008-01-10|publisher=[[Hamilton Spectator]]|accessdate=2008-10-16}} {{Dead link|date=November 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The high power and small size of the cars combine to make midget racing quite dangerous; for this reason, modern midget cars are fully equipped with [[roll cage]]s and other safety features. They are intended to be driven for races of relatively short distances, usually 2.5 to 25 miles (4 to 40 km). Some events are staged inside arenas, most notably the [[Chili Bowl (race)|Chili Bowl]] held in early January at the [[Expo Square Pavilion]] in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]].

==History==
Midget car racing was officially born on August 10, 1933 at the Loyola High School Stadium in Los Angeles as a regular weekly program under the control of the first official governing body, the Midget Auto Racing Association (MARA).<ref> [http://books.google.com/books?id=wygDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA26&dq=Popular+Science+1931+plane&hl=en&ei=cIEUTfeLIcienAf0wdWFDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCIQ6AEwADge#v=onepage&q=Popular%20Science%201931%20plane&f=true "Racing Midget Autos"] Popular Science, May 1934</ref> After spreading right across the country, the sport traveled around the world; first to Australia in 1934 at Melbourne's Olympic Park on December 15 <ref>{{Cite web
| last = Speedway Australia
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = A brief, chronological history of Speedway Racing in Australia.
| work =
| publisher = Speedway Australia
| date =
| url = http://www.nasr.com.au/index.php/about-nasr/history/
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 09 August 2011}}</ref>, and to New Zealand in 1937. Early midget races were held on [[Board track racing|board track]]s previously used for [[bicycle racing]].<ref>''Circle Track'' Magazine, 9/84, p.77.</ref> When the purpose built speedway at Gilmore Stadium was completed, racing ended at the school stadium, and hundreds of tracks began to spring up across the United States. Other major tracks in the United States operating in the first half of the twentieth century include [[Angell Park Speedway]] in [[Sun Prairie, Wisconsin]] (near [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]]), and [[Ascot Park (speedway)|Ascot Park]] near Los Angeles.

==Stepping stone to high profile divisions==
Many [[IndyCar Series|IndyCar]] and [[NASCAR]] drivers used midget car racing as an intermediate stepping stone on their way to more high profile divisions, including [[Tony Stewart]], [[Sarah Fisher]], [[Jeff Gordon]], [[Kasey Kahne]], [[Ryan Newman]] and others. The events are sometimes held on weeknights so that popular and famous drivers from other, higher-profiled types of [[motor racing]] will be available to compete, and so that it does not conflict with drivers' home tracks.

==Notable midget car races==
In 1959 [[Lime Rock Park]] held a famous [[Formula Libre]] race, where [[Rodger Ward]] shocked the expensive and exotic [[sports car]]s by beating them on the [[road racing|road course]] in an [[Offenhauser]] powered [[midget car]], usually used on oval tracks. Ward used an advantageous power-to-weight ratio and dirt-track cornering abilities to steal the win.

===Notable annual midget car racing events===
*[[Astro Grand Prix]] (1969-defunct) - the [[Astrodome]]
*[[Belleville Midget Nationals]] - [[Belleville, Kansas]], USA
*[[Chili Bowl (race)|Chili Bowl]] - [[Tulsa Expo Center]]
*[[Fireman Nationals]] - [[Angell Park Speedway]]
*[[Four Crown Nationals]] - [[Eldora Speedway]]
*[[Hut Hundred]] - [[Terre Haute Action Track]]
*[[Night before the 500]] - [[O'Reilly Raceway Park]]
*[[The Rumble in Fort Wayne]] - [[Allen County War Memorial Coliseum|Allen County War Memorial Coliseum Expo Center]]
*[[Turkey Night Grand Prix]] - [[Irwindale Speedway]]
*[[Australian Speedcar Championship]] - Rotates between tracks throughout Australia
*[[Australian Speedcar Grand Prix]] - Rotates between tracks throughout Australia

==Sanctioning bodies==
[[File:Matt SmithMidgetRacing2010.jpg|thumb|right|Australian speedcar racer Matt Smith racing his midget car in the United States]]
===Australia===
*[http://www.SpeedcarWorld.com.au/ Speedcars Australia (Midgets are also referred to as Speedcars in Australia)]
*[http://www.SpeedcarSuperSeries.com/ Speedcar Super Series - Australia's National Midget Racing Series]
*[http://www.NSWspeedcars.com/ NSWspeedcars.com - Official website of the Speedcar Association of NSW (Sydney Club)]
*[http://www.wasda.com.au/ wasda.com.au - Official website of Speedcar Racing in Western Australia (Western Australian Speedcar Drivers Association Perth Club)]
*[http://www.speedcarworld.com.au/ V.S.D.A - Victorian Speedcar Drivers Association Inc]
*[http://www.queenslandspeedcars.com.au QSRA - Queensland Speedcar Racing Assos. Official Website.

===New Zealand===
*[http://www.speedway.co.nz Speedway New Zealand]
*[http://www.speedwaysaloon.co.nz/links.htm New Zealand Speedway Directory] Links to New Zealand Speedway Websites

===United Kingdom===
*[http://www.gpmidgets.co.uk/ Grand Prix Midget Club]

===United States===
*AMRA - Arizona Midget Racing Association
*[[American Racing Drivers Club|ARDC]] - American Racing Drivers Club
*[http://www.bcraracing.com/ BCRA] - Bay Cities Racing Association
*[http://www.bmara.com/ BMARA] - Badger Midget Auto Racing Association (the oldest sanctioning body)
*[http://www.nemaracing.com/ NEMA] - NorthEastern Midget Association
*[http://www.atqmra.org American Three Quarter Midget Racing Association]
*[http://stars-racing.com/ STARS]- Short Track Auto Racing Series
*[[United States Automobile Club|USAC]] - The United States Automobile Club
*[http://www.powri.com/ POWRi] - O'Reilly POWRi National Midget Series
*[http://www.rmmra.com/ RMMRA] - Rocky Mountain Midget Racing Association
*[http://www.smrsmidgets.com SMRS] - Southern Midget Racing Series
*[http://www.illiniracingseries.com/ IRS] - Illini Racing Series
*USSA- United States Speed Association
WMRA- Washington Midget Racing Association

==See also==
*[[National Midget Auto Racing Hall of Fame]]
*[[Chili Bowl (race)|Chili Bowl]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=xd8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA558&dq=%22Popular+Mechanics%22+Jan+1935+floating&hl=en&ei=Wtc4TsGsDeSusAKXtpka&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&sqi=2&ved=0CFUQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=true "Midgets of the Roaring Road" ''Popular Mechanics'', October 1934]
*[http://www.highbanks-museum.org/ Highbanks Hall of Fame & National Midget Auto Racing Museum]
*[http://www.worthyofhonor.com National Midget Auto Racing Hall of Fame]

[[Category:Auto racing by type]]
[[Category:Open wheel racing]]

Joseph Massino

2012-03-14T22:54:04Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 206.41.90.34 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by ClueBot NG. (TW)

{{Infobox person
|name=Joseph Massino
|image=Joseph Massino.jpg
|caption=FBI mugshot
|birth_date={{Birth date and age|1943|1|10|mf=y}}
|birth_place=[[New Haven, Connecticut]], [[United States|U.S.]]
|ethnicity=[[Italian-American]]
}}

'''Joseph Charles Massino''' (born January 10, 1943 <ref name="exlist">{{cite web |url= http://www.nj.gov/oag/ge/exclusion/massino_joseph.htm|title= Joseph Massino|work= Division of Gaming Enforcement Exclusion List|publisher= State of New Jersey|accessdate=July 8, 2011}}</ref>), also known as "Big Joey" or "The Ear", was the boss of the [[Bonanno crime family]] before he became a government witness in 2004. The media nicknamed him the "The Last Don" or "The [[Horatio Alger]] of the Mob". He was convicted in July 2004 of [[racketeering]], seven murders, arson, [[extortion]], [[loansharking]], illegal gambling, [[Conspiracy (crime)|conspiracy]] and [[money laundering]].

To avoid the [[death penalty]] Massino agreed to [[turn state's evidence]] and testify against his former associates. He was sentenced to life imprisonment in 2005. He was referred to as the "Last Don" by the media because at the time, he was the only official head of the [[Five Families]] not in prison.<ref name="time magazine">Corliss, Richard. Crittle, Simon. "[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993685,00.html "The Last Don]", ''[[Time Magazine]]'', March 29, 2004. Accessed June 21, 2008.</ref> His leadership had been recognized in 2000 at a meeting of the bosses of four of the five families.<ref name="time magazine"/>

==Biography==
===Early years===
Massino first met his future wife Josephine in 1956, and married her in 1960. He had a [[lunch wagon]] business and served factory workers in [[Maspeth, Queens]] and sold Christmas trees during the winter season. When his daughter Adelaide was born he had to take loans from relatives to pay for the hospital. In 1966 he bought his first home in Maspeth to be close to his parents. He was a close friend of Carmine Rastelli and Martin Rastelli, brothers of [[Phillip Rastelli]] who ran a depot for lunch wagon supplies.

Massino is the father of three daughters named Joanne, Adeline and Linda. He stands at 5'10" with brown hair and brown eyes and weighs 300 pounds. His grandchildren referred to him by the pet name Poppy. As he grew older he enjoyed entertaining house guests by [[bellyflop]]ping and swimming with neighborhood children that he would invite over into his backyard pool. He was a one time neighbor of [[John Gotti]], [[Gene Gotti]], [[Peter Gotti]] and [[Alphonse Indelicato]].

Massino owned and operated the CasaBlanca Restaurant in [[Maspeth, Queens]], an Italian restaurant and catering firm, as well as Cafe Via Vento, also in Maspeth, and other New York and Florida properties.<ref name="time magazine"/> He once convened a meeting of four of the [[Five Families]] at CasaBlanca, and he allegedly ran his operations from the restaurant, setting it as the family's main headquarters.<ref name="time magazine"/> At CasaBella, Massino personally made the [[pasta sauce]]s and [[ravioli]] and claimed that CasaBlanca had the best [[New York-style pizza|pizza]] in the city.

===Rise to power===
[[File:Nicholasmarangello1.JPG|200px|thumb|right|FBI surveillance photograph of Joseph Massino (left) and [[Nicholas Marangello]] (right) on February 23, 1977 at the Toyland Social Club.]]

Massino was a protege of Phillip Rastelli and his brothers in the 1960s. Massino's mob association began with him running a lunch wagon in [[Maspeth, New York]], selling pastries and coffee to dock workers, while giving a kickback to Rastelli to insure he would have no competition.<ref name="king 58-59">DeStefano, pp. 58-59</ref> He would later become involved in [[truck hijacking]], with the assistance of his brother-in-law [[Salvatore Vitale]] and carjacker Duane Leisenheimer, while [[Fence (criminal)|fencing]] the stolen goods and running [[Numbers game|numbers]] using the lunch wagon as a front.<ref>DeStefano, pp. 63-64, 68</ref> In 1975 Massino participated in the murder of Vito Borelli, who he claimed was primarily executed by [[John Gotti]], at the behest of [[Paul Castellano]] of the [[Gambino crime family]].<ref>{{cite news |title= Nomerta! Mafia boss a squealer|author= Mitchel Maddux|author2= Jeremy Olshan|url= http://www.nypost.com/p/news/local/manhattan/nomerta_mafia_boss_squealer_cxVn2NPO0V7oN9poESI90J/0|newspaper= New York Post|date= 2011-04-13|accessdate=April 15, 2011}}</ref> The Borelli hit put Massino close to becoming a [[made man]] in the Bonanno family.<ref>DeStefano, p. 74</ref>

In March 1975 Massino was arrested at the scene of the arrest of one of his hijackers, [[Raymond Wean]], and charged with conspiracy to receive stolen goods.<ref>DeStefano, pp. 79-82</ref> Massino was scheduled to go on trial in 1977, but the charges were dropped after he successfully argued that he had not been properly [[Miranda warning|mirandized]], disqualifying statements Massino gave to police from being used in trial.<ref>DeStefano, pp. 84-86</ref>

On June 14, 1977, Massino was inducted into the Bonanno Family along with [[Anthony Spero]], Joseph Chilli Jr. and a group of other men in a ceremony conducted by [[Carmine Galante]], then acting boss of the Bonanno family.<ref>http://tonydestefano.com/id3.html</ref> He was placed in [[Philip Giaccone]]'s crew.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} Massino nevertheless remained loyal to Rastelli, then vying to oust Galante despite his own imprisonment. Fearing Galante wanted him dead for insubordination, Massino delivered a request to the Commission on Rastelli's behalf to have Galante killed. The hit was approved and executed on July 12, 1979; Rastelli subsequently took full control of the family and rewarded Massino's loyalty by promoting him to [[caporegime]].<ref>Raab, pp. 607-608</ref>

On June 1, 1976, close to Massino's social club and deli in Maspeth, the body of Joseph Pastore was found in a dumpster with two shots in the head. Pastore was a truck hijacker who had supplied Massino with stolen goods to fence. Massino and Richard Dormer (Pastore's half brother) were taken to the morgue to identify the body. Prior to the murder, Massino had his brother-in-law [[Salvatore Vitale]] borrow $9,000 from Pastore on behalf of Massino.

===The three capos murder===
[[File:Bonannosurveillance3.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[FBI]] surveillance photograph of Massino and [[Gerlando Sciascia]] in the morning after the murder of the three rival capos in Whitestone, Queens.]]
In 1981, Massino got word from his informants that Bonanno capos [[Alphonse Indelicato|Alphonse "Sonny Red" Indelicato]], [[Dominick Trinchera|Dominick "Big Trin" Trincera]] and [[Phillip Giaccone|Philip "Phil Lucky" Giaccone]] were stocking up on [[automatic weapons]]. Their plan was to kill the Rastelli loyalists within the Bonanno family and take complete control. Massino turned to [[Colombo crime family]] boss [[Carmine Persico|Carmine "Junior" Persico]] and Gambino boss [[Paul Castellano]] for advice; they told him to act immediately. Massino and fellow capo [[Dominic Napolitano]] went to the [[The Commission (mafia)|Commission]] for approval to kill the three plotters. The Commission gave Massino their blessing and said they would accept Rastelli as the continuing Bonanno leader.

Massino and Napolitano lured the three renegades to a sit-down regarding the future family leadership of the Bonanno family. When the three capos arrived with [[Frank Lino]], the assailants [[Sal Vitale]], [[Vito Rizzuto]] and Napolitano burst out of a closet holding shotguns and pistols. Trinchera, Giaccone and Indelicato tried to escape but were shot to death. Lino escaped unscathed by running out the door. Indelicato's son [[Anthony "Bruno" Indelicato]] was meant to be killed as well, but missed the meeting when the capos decided to take Frank Lino instead. Bruno fled New York, but when he re-surfaced, Massino and Napolitano turned to soldier [[Benjamin Ruggiero|Benjamin "Lefty" Ruggiero]] and associate [[Joseph Pistone|Donnie Brasco]] and gave them the '[[Contract killing|contract]]' so Brasco could become a made man in the Bonanno family.

===Operation Donnie Brasco===
Massino later came into conflict with Napolitano over Napolitano's proposal to admit mobster [[Donnie Brasco]] to the family before Massino's loyal associate [[Salvatore Vitale]]. Vitale had been a loyal soldier as well as a participant in several killings, including the three capo slayings, while Brasco had only been known for a few years and hadn't taken part in any sanctioned mob hits. Although Brasco accepted the contract, he disappeared and the [[FBI]] soon revealed that "Donnie Brasco" was really Joseph Pistone, an undercover agent for the [[organized crime]] division in the FBI. In the book ''Donnie Brasco: Unfinished Business'', Pistone wrote that years earlier, he had actually arrested Massino as part of a truck hijacking bust. However, when introduced to Massino as Donnie Brasco, Massino did not recognize him.

In August 1981, the Bonanno family blamed Napolitano for bringing an undercover agent into their midst, as well as almost making him a member. In order to send a message, Massino was ordered by [[Philip Rastelli|Philip "Rusty" Rastelli]] behind bars to kill Napolitano. Their former renegade [[Frank Lino]] and Steven Cannone drove Napolitano to the house of Ronald Filocomo, a Bonanno family associate. Napolitano was greeted by captain [[Frank Coppa]]. Knowing that he was finished, Napolitano simply asked the men to kill him quickly. The two hitmen threw Napolitano down the stairs and shot him to death in the basement. Whilst Napolitano's body was prepared for disposal, Lino went outside to a nearby van and told the occupants that Napolitano was dead. One of the men in the car was Massino.

===John Gotti===
By now Massino was a close friend of Gambino crime family capo and eventual boss, [[John Gotti]], his neighbor in [[Howard Beach, Queens]].<ref>Raab, Selwyn. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E0DA1739F93AA15757C0A9669C8B63 "A Mafia Family's Second Wind; Authorities Say Bonannos, All but Written Off, Are Back"], ''[[The New York Times]]'', April 29, 2000.</ref> Massino owned a cut in the house of a high stakes dice game operated by Gotti on Mott Street in [[Manhattan]]. Massino discovered a wire tap in his social club, J&S Cake Social Club in Maspeth, Queens. Massino handed over the wire to the FBI who came to pick it up. Although a friend of Gotti, Massino later became upset with Gotti's flamboyance and openness to media attention. He also later found out that Gotti was bad-mouthing him, calling him "a punk" and "a hungry whale swallowing anything he can get", and informants testified that he remarked, "John set this [[cosa nostra|thing of ours]] back a hundred years."

===Mirra and Bonventre murders===
On November 23, 1981, six men were indicted on racketeering charges. They were Napolitano, Benjamin Ruggiero, [[Nicholas Santora]], John Cersani, [[James Episcopia]] and [[Antonio Tomasulo]]. At the time of the indictment, the government did not know that Napolitano had been murdered in August. On February 18, 1982, [[Anthony Mirra]] was shot in the head by his nephew [[Joseph D'Amico]]. D'Amico had been sent to kill him by [[Richard Cantarella]], who got the order from [[Albert Embarrato]] after consultation with Massino.

Mirra had recently been released from prison, but had previously befriended Brasco and was responsible for initially bringing him into the family. Like Napolitano, Mirra died for bringing Brasco into the family. Soon after the Mirra murder, Massino went into hiding with Duane "Goldie" Leisenheimer. On March 5, 1982, Massino and other family members were charged with conspiracy to murder Indelicato, Giaccone and Trinchera. While in hiding, Massino was visited by many fellow mobsters, including Gotti. Massino received cash from his associates in [[New York City]].

On August 12, 1982, Napolitano's body was discovered with his hands cut off. This was supposedly to warn anyone else from letting an undercover agent shake hands with a made man. In 1984, Rastelli was released from prison and Massino ordered the murder of Bonanno soldier [[Cesare Bonventre]]. Still a fugitive, Massino summoned Vitale, [[Louis Attanasio]] and James Tartaglione to his hideout. Despite the fact that Rastelli was the family head, Massino was considered by most mobsters to be the real power in the family.

Bonventre was called to a meeting with Rastelli in [[Queens]]. He was picked up by Vitale and Attanasio and driven to a garage. Once inside, Attanasio then shot Bonventre twice in the head. After Bonventre staggered out of the car, Attanasio killed him with two more shots. The task of disposing of Bonventre's corpse was handed to Gabriel Infanti. Infanti promised Vitale that Bonventre's remains would disappear forever. However, after a tipoff, the remains were discovered on April 16, 1984, in a warehouse in [[Garfield, New Jersey]], stuffed into two 55-gallon glue drums. Bonventre was killed because he was considered to be a threat to the family.

===1987 trials===
[[File:Bonannosurveillance2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|FBI surveillance photograph of Joseph Massino, [[Salvatore Vitale]] and [[Frank Lino]]. The three men are headed to the wake of former [[Gambino crime family]] underboss [[Frank DeCicco]], in April 1986.]]

Massino soon decided to turn himself over to police custody to face charges. In 1985, Massino was indicted for labor racketeering along with Rastelli, Carmine Rastelli, [[Nicholas Marangello]] and 13 other defendants. In October 1986, Massino was found guilty of violations of [[Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act]] (one count), the [[Hobbs Act]] (one count) and the [[Taft-Hartley Act]] (nine counts). In January 1987, he was [[sentence (law)|sentenced]] to a ten-year prison term.

On April 18, 1987, Massino went on trial for truck hijacking and conspiracy to commit the triple murder. Raymond Wean and Joseph Pistone testified against Massino, who was acquitted of conspiracy to commit triple homicide, the conspiracies to murder Pistone and [[Anthony Indelicato|Anthony "Bruno" Indelicato]] and the hijacking charges. During one of the courtroom breaks, Massino asked Pistone who was to play him in the Donnie Brasco movie, to which Pistone replied that they could not find anyone fat enough to play him.<ref>Pistone, Joseph D.; & Brandt, Charles (2007). ''Donnie Brasco: Unfinished Business'', Running Press. ISBN 0-7624-2707-8.
</ref>

===The family regroups===
The Bonanno family had fallen into disfavor after the Donnie Brasco operation and the [[Five Families]] kicked the family off the [[The Commission (mafia)|Mafia Commission]]. Until Massino's capos turned state's evidence against him, no made member of the Bonannos had turned informant, which gave the family an advantage over the other four of the Five Families and helped them become, in the 1990s, the most powerful crime family on the streets in New York.<ref name="time magazine"/> Massino is credited with bringing the family back to power.<ref name="time magazine"/>

Massino ordered his men to touch their ears when referring to him and never say his name out loud due to FBI surveillance. Massino gained the nickname "The Ear" because of this. Massino took a great number of precautions in regards to security and the possibility of anything incriminating being picked up on a wiretap. He closed the long-standing social clubs of the Bonanno family and often conducted family meetings in foreign countries or remote locations within the United States.

The infiltration of Donnie Brasco became somewhat of a blessing in disguise for the Bonanno family. When the [[Mafia Commission Trial]] indicted the New York crime families, the Bonnanos escaped conviction due to the fact that the family had been kicked out of the [[The Commission (mafia)|Mafia Commission]]. By dodging this bullet, the Bonnanos kept its leadership intact and were able to consolidate its power once again. Pistone called Massino "the last of the old-time gangsters." <ref name="time magazine"/> Massino was later charged with ordering the murders of Napolitano and Mirra. Massino was scheduled to go on trial for the second time for a separate murder trial, which he was also expected to lose. If convicted, he faced the death penalty.

===Informant===
Disillusioned by the turning of so many made men, and concerned over a possible [[Capital punishment in the United States|death penalty]] if found guilty of the murder of [[Gerlando Sciascia]] in an upcoming trial, Massino made his first offer to cooperate with the government on July 30, 2004.<ref>DeStefano, pp 314-315</ref> In October 2004, the FBI began digging up bodies at an infamous mob graveyard in Queens known as "The Hole". They were looking for the bodies of the three capos killed in the Bonanno civil war in the 1970s. They also hoped to find the body of [[John Favara]], who accidentally killed Gotti's son, the body of [[Tommy DeSimone]], murdered in 1979 for killing [[William Devino]] and [[Ronald Jerothe]]. The FBI said only that this operation was based on "credible information" from an informant.

On February 4, 2005, the FBI revealed that Massino was the source for the graveyard. Hoping to save his life and his assets, Massino had begun to cooperate sometime in late September 2004 by recording conversations with his acting boss, Vincent Basciano. Massino had been so angered at family namesake [[Joe Bonanno]]'s tell-all book, ''A Man of Honor,'' with its numerous revelations of Mafia secrets, that he suggested renaming the family the "Massino" family.<ref>DeStefano, p 17</ref> Bonanno members [[Sal Vitale]], [[Frank Lino]], [[Frank Coppa]], [[Richard Cantarella]], [[Joseph D'Amico]] and Duane Leisenheimer testified against Massino. On June 23, 2005, Massino was sentenced to [[life in prison]]. Massino suffers from [[diabetes]] and [[high blood pressure]].

In April 2011, Massino testified in [[Vincent Basciano]]'s trial,<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/13/nyregion/13mob.html A Mafia Boss Breaks a Code in Telling All] by William K. Rashbaum (April 12, 2011) New York Times</ref> noting that he hoped, as a result of his cooperation, "One day maybe I'll see a little light at the end of the tunnel."<ref>{{cite news|last=Swaine|first=Jon|title=Donnie Brasco mafia boss breaks 'omerta' to testify|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/8448428/Donnie-Brasco-mafia-boss-breaks-omerta-to-testify.html|accessdate=2011-10-25|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=2011-04-13}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Crittle, Simon, ''The Last Godfather: The Rise and Fall of Joey Massino'' Berkley (March 7, 2006) ISBN 0425209393
*DeStefano, Anthony. ''King of the Godfathers: Joseph Massino and the Fall of the Bonanno Crime Family''. New York: Pinnacle Books, 2006. ISBN 0-7860-1893-3
*Pistone, Joseph D.; & Woodley, Richard (1999) ''[[Donnie Brasco: My Undercover Life in the Mafia]]'', Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-66637-4.
*Pistone, Joseph D.; & Brandt, Charles (2007). ''Donnie Brasco: Unfinished Business'', Running Press. ISBN 0-7624-2707-8.
*Raab, Selwyn, ''Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empires'' Thomas Dunne books, 2006. ISBN 0-312-36181-5

==External links==
*[http://www.wjla.com/headlines/0504/145546.html Reputed Crime Boss Goes On Trial in New York], May 9, 2004, [[Associated Press]]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/23/nyregion/23mob.html?pagewanted=print&position= An Archetypal Mob Trial: It's Just Like in the Movies], [[New York Times]], May 23, 2004
*[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/02/02/national/main539032.shtml New York's 'Last Don' Convicted], CBSNews.com, July 30, 2004
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/10/13/nyregion/13mob.html Skeletal Remains Are Believed to Be Those of Mob Captains], [[New York Times]], October 13, 2004

{{S-start}}
{{s-bus}}
{{S-bef|before=Salvatore "Sal" Catalano}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Bonanno crime family]] Underboss|years=1981-1988}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Salvatore Vitale|Salvatore "Handsome Sal" Vitale]]}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Phillip Rastelli]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Bonanno crime family]] Boss|years=1991-2004}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Vincent Basciano]]|as=acting boss}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Vincent Gigante]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Capo di tutti capi]] Boss of bosses|years=2000-2004}}
{{S-aft|after=None}}
{{end}}

{{Bonanno crime family}} {{American Mafia}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Massino, Joseph
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = January 10, 1943
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[New Haven]], [[Connecticut]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Massino, Joseph}}
[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:American mobsters of Italian descent]]
[[Category:Acting bosses of the Five Families]]
[[Category:Bonanno crime family]]
[[Category:Bosses of the Bonanno crime family]]
[[Category:American people convicted of murder]]
[[Category:People convicted of racketeering]]
[[Category:People convicted of murder by the United States federal government]]
[[Category:American mob bosses]]
[[Category:Mobsters sentenced to life imprisonment]]
[[Category:American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment]]
[[Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by the United States federal government]]
[[Category:Capi di tutti capi]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from New Haven, Connecticut]]
[[Category:People from Queens]]
[[Category:American arsonists]]
[[Category:American money launderers]]

[[bg:Джо Масино]]
[[lt:Joseph Massino]]
[[nl:Joseph Massino]]
[[ro:Joseph Massino]]

Rai Radio 2

2012-03-08T04:01:51Z

JimVC3: Adding sections; removing tag

{{confusing|date=March 2012}}
{{Infobox Radio Station
| name = Rai Radio 2
| image =Radio 02.jpg
| area = {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Italy]] - National [[FM broadcasting|FM]], [[Digital Audio Broadcasting|DAB]] & [[DVB-T]] and [[Satellite]]
| airdate = October 6, 1924
| airdate = Disputed, between 1933 and 1934
| frequency = [[FM broadcasting|FM]] several frequencies, change from geographical side to side [[SKY Italia]] Channel 762 [[Alice Home TV]] Channel 771|
| format = talk, contemporary music
| owner = [[RAI]]
| sister_stations = ''[[Rai Radio 1]]'', ''[[Rai Radio 3]]''
| webcast = [http://www.radio.rai.it/live/radio2.ram Real Media]
| website = http://www.radio2.rai.it/
}}

:''This article is about the Italian radio station Radio 2. For other radio stations of that name, see [[Radio 2 (disambiguation)]].''

'''Rai Radio 2''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[radio station]] operated by public broadcasting company [[RAI]], specialising in [[talk radio|talk programs]] and popular music. It is likely to have started its operations in late 1933, when the [[Turin]] local airing station was activated.

==Popularity==
It is among the Italian radio stations with highest audience share; its main show in terms of success, ''[[Viva Radio 2(radio program)|Viva Radio2]]'', is hosted by popular comedian and TV/radio personality [[Rosario Fiorello|Fiorello]] together with [[Marco Baldini]]. Other popular shows are ''Il ruggito del coniglio'', ''Caterpillar'' and ''Condor''; the radio station, in common with other RAI stations, also includes its own ''Giornale Radio'' (radio news program), ''GR2''.

==Logos==
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" style="border:1px solid #aaa"
|- align=center
! style="height:150px; background:#f9f9f9;"| [[Image:Rai radio2.png|200px]]
! style="height:150px; background:#f9f9f9;"| [[Image:Radio 02.jpg.jpg|200px]]
|-
! style="width:150px; background:#ccc;"| 2000–2010
! style="width:150px; background:#ccc;"| '''2010–present'''
|}

==External links==
* [http://www.radio.rai.it/radio2/ Rai Radio 2] at [[RAI|rai.it]] {{it icon}}
* [http://www.radio.rai.it/live/radio2.ram Rai Radio 2] at [[RAI|rai.tv]] {{it icon}}

{{RAI}}

{{coord missing|Italy}}

[[Category:Free-to-air]]
[[Category:Cable radio]]
[[Category:Radio stations in Italy]]
[[Category:RAI radio stations]]

{{Europe-radio-station-stub}}
{{italy-stub}}

[[es:Rai Radio 2]]
[[fr:Rai Radio 2]]
[[it:Rai Radio 2]]
[[pl:Rai Radio Due]]
[[ru:Rai Radio 2]]

Christopher Mayhew

2012-02-10T04:10:09Z

JimVC3: Adding sections; removing tag

{{refimprove|date=April 2008}}
'''Christopher Paget Mayhew, Baron Mayhew''' (12 June 1915 – 7 January 1997)<ref>{{rayment-hc|n|2}}</ref> was a [[United Kingdom|British]] politician who was a [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] [[Member of Parliament]] (MP) from 1945 to 1950 and from 1951 to 1974, when he left the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] to become a [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]]. In 1981, Mayhew received a [[life peerage]] and was raised to the [[House of Lords]] as Baron Mayhew.

==Early Life==
Mayhew attended [[Haileybury and Imperial Service College|Haileybury]] and [[Christ Church, Oxford]] as an exhibitioner. In 1934 he holidayed in Moscow.<ref>His autobiography</ref> While at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], he became President of the [[Oxford Union]]. Mayhew was commissioned into the [[Intelligence Corps (United Kingdom)|Intelligence Corps]] in 1940, rising to the rank of [[Major]].

==Political Career==
Mayhew was elected to Parliament for the constituency of [[South Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)|South Norfolk]] in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|1945 election]].<ref name="craig1918-1949">{{cite book
|last=Craig
|first=F. W. S.
|authorlink= F. W. S. Craig
|title=British parliamentary election results 1918–1949
|origyear=1969
|edition=3rd
|year=1983
|publisher= Parliamentary Research Services
|location=Chichester
|id= ISBN 0-900178-06-X
|page=434
}}</ref>

===Foreign Office===
He became Under-Secretary of State at the Foreign Office where he served under [[Ernest Bevin]] and acquired the strong pro-Arab views that would make him a distinctive figure in British politics. {{Citation needed|date=March 2007}} Although Mayhew lost his seat in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1950|1950 election]], he soon returned to [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] upon the death of Bevin when he won the [[Woolwich East by-election, 1951|by-election in 1951]] for Bevin's seat of [[Woolwich East (UK Parliament constituency)|Woolwich East]].

During Labour's 13 years in opposition, Mayhew played an important role in presenting the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] on television, both as a commentator on the [[BBC]] and as a presenter on Labour Party Political Broadcasts. He introduced the first Labour broadcast during the [[United Kingdom general election, 1951|1951 election]] in which he talked with Sir [[Hartley Shawcross]]. Mayhew also became known as one of the fiercest opponents of unilateral [[nuclear disarmament]] in the Labour Party. Mayhew also served as Shadow War Secretary from 1960–1961 and as an Opposition Foreign Affairs Spokesman from 1961-1964.

When Labour took office in 1964, Mayhew became [[Parliamentary Undersecretary of State]] for Defence - a post more often referred to as "Minister for the Navy". After the [[Harold Wilson|Wilson]] government decided to shift British airpower from carrier-based planes to land-based planes and cancel the [[CVA-01]] aircraft carrier programme, in 1966, Mayhew, along with the [[First Sea Lord]], Sir [[David Luce]], resigned.

===Nasser and the High Court===
In 1973 he offered £5,000 to anyone who could produce evidence that Nasser had stated that he sought to "drive the Jews into the sea". Mayhew repeated the offer later in the House of Commons (Hansard, 18 October 1973) and broadened it to include genocidal statements by other Arab leaders (Manchester Guardian, 9 September 1974), whilst reserving for himself the right to be the arbiter of the authenticity of any purported statements as well as their meaning. Mayhew received several letters from claimants, each one producing one quotation or another from an Arab leader, which Mayhew deemed to be fabricated. One claimant, Warren Bergson, took Mayhew to court. The case came before the High Court in February 1976. Bergson was unable to offer evidence of Nasser's alleged statement. Bergson acknowledged that, after thorough research, he had been unable to find any statement by a responsible Arab leader which could be described as genocidal.

===Move to Liberal Party===
Mayhew had been feeling increasingly uneasy with Labour policies under [[Harold Wilson]] and in 1974, he defected to the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberals]], being the first [[Member of Parliament]] to cross the floor to the Liberals in several decades. In the [[United Kingdom general election, October 1974|October 1974 election]], Mayhew contested [[Bath (UK Parliament constituency)|Bath]], instead of Woolwich East in order not to split his constituency party in Woolwich East. Mayhew lost Bath, which he also unsuccessfully contested in [[United Kingdom general election, 1979|1979]]. In 1981, Mayhew became a [[life peer]] with the title '''Baron Mayhew''', of Wimbledon in [[Greater London]] and became the Liberal Spokesman on Defence in the [[House of Lords]].

==Other activities==
Mayhew also was active as an advocate for the mentally ill and served as Chairman of MIND ([[National Association for Mental Health]]) from 1992-1997. Mayhew wrote several books, including his autobiography, ''Time To Explain'', in 1987. They also include ''Publish It Not: The Middle East Cover-Up'' (written with [[Michael Adams (journalist)|Michael Adams]] in 1975) which was an account of the Middle East conflict from the [[Palestinian territories|Palestinian]] perspective, unusual for an important British public figure at the time it was published.

Although Christopher Mayhew's career never lived it up to its early promise, he did serve an important role in British political history. Mayhew's defection to the Liberals was to serve, along with [[Dick Taverne]]'s decision to leave Labour, as the forewarning of the split within the Labour Party that would occur in 1981 with the rise of the [[Social Democratic Party (UK)|Social Democratic Party]]. Mayhew's defection was an early sign of the large rift growing between the Left and Right in the Labour Party and began the process by which the Liberal party and its political heirs, the [[SDP-Liberal Alliance]] and the [[Liberal Democrats]] became a major force in British politics.

==Panorama Experiment==
In 1955, Mayhew took part in an experiment that was intended to form a ''[[Panorama (TV series)|Panorama]]'' special for BBC TV that was never broadcast. In this, under the guidance of his friend, Dr [[Humphry Osmond]], Mayhew ingested 400 mg of [[Mescaline|mescaline hydrochloride]] and allowed himself to be filmed for the duration of the trip. A full transcript of the rushes from the filming is available [http://www.sotcaa.net/hiddenarchive/mayhew01.html here]. Samples of the audio were used in the psychedelic dance tracks "Mayhew Speaks Out" and "Christopher Mayhew Says" by British band [[The Shamen]]. Part of this footage was included in the 1986 BBC documentary [[LSD - The beyond within]].

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Hansard-contribs | mr-christopher-mayhew | Christopher Mayhew }}
* [http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1904955193 Amazon entry] for ''Publish It Not: The Middle East Cover Up''

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[South Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)|South Norfolk]]
| years = [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|1945]]–[[United Kingdom general election, 1950|1950]]
| before = [[James Archibald Christie|James Christie]]
| after = [[Peter Baker (UK politician)|Peter Baker]]
}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Woolwich East (UK Parliament constituency)|Woolwich East]]
| years = [[Woolwich East by-election, 1951|1951]]–[[United Kingdom general election, October 1974|October 1974]]
| before = [[Ernest Bevin]]
| after = [[John Cartwright (UK politician)|John Cartwright]]
}}
{{s-end}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Mayhew, Christopher
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 12 June 1915
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 7 January 1997
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mayhew, Christopher}}
[[Category:1915 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:Intelligence Corps officers]]
[[Category:Liberal Party (UK) life peers]]
[[Category:Labour Party (UK) MPs]]
[[Category:Liberal Party (UK) politicians]]
[[Category:Liberal Democrat life peers]]
[[Category:Liberal Democrat (UK) politicians]]
[[Category:Old Haileyburians]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1945–1950]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1950–1951]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1951–1955]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1955–1959]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1959–1964]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1964–1966]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1966–1970]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1970–1974]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1974]]
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]

Liste ungewöhnlicher Todesfälle

2012-02-02T04:07:15Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 207.6.50.74 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by 50.83.57.135. (TW)

{{Dynamic list}}

This is a list of unusual deaths. This list contains unique or extremely rare circumstances of death recorded throughout history. This list also includes less rare, though still unusual, deaths of prominent people.

{{TOC limit|2}}

== Antiquity ==

{{dablink|'''Note:''' Many of these stories are likely to be [[wikt:apocryphal|apocryphal]].}}

*2nd Century of the Fourth Era: '''Generic Adventurer #42''' While being an average adventurer in Skyrim, a projectile fired from a bow entered the area just above his shins and below his knee caps. He spent his remaining days as a guard in various Holds in the area.

*[[Circa|c.]] 620 BC: '''[[Draco (lawgiver)|Draco]]''', Athenian law-maker, was smothered to death by gifts of cloaks showered upon him by appreciative citizens at a theatre on [[Aegina]].<ref>Suidas. "[http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?login=guest&enlogin=guest&db=REAL&field=adlerhw_gr&searchstr=delta,1495&filter=CD-Unicode {{polytonic|Δράκων}}]", ''Suda On Line'', Adler number delta, 1495.</ref>

*6th century BC: Legend says [[Greek wrestling|Greek wrestler]] '''[[Milo of Croton]]''' came upon a tree-trunk split with wedges. Testing his strength, he tried to rend it with his bare hands. The wedges fell, trapping his hands in the tree and making him unable to defend himself from attacking [[wolves]], which devoured him.<ref>{{cite book |last=Spivey |first=Nigel Jonathan |title=The Ancient Olympics |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford and New York |year=2004 |pages=65–66, 100–101 |isbn=0-19-280433-2 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=_kcwp0RYS7sC&pg=PA100&dq=Milo+of+Kroton+Croton |accessdate=2009-03-01}}</ref>


*401 BC: '''[[Mithridates (soldier)|Mithridates]]''', a soldier condemned for the murder of [[Cyrus the Younger]], was executed by [[scaphism]], surviving the insect torture for 17 days.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bostonleadershipbuilders.com/plutarch/artaxerxes.htm |title=Plutarch's Life of Artaxerxes |publisher=Bostonleadershipbuilders.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

*272 BC: According to [[Plutarch]], '''[[Pyrrhus of Epirus]]''', conqueror and the source of the term ''[[pyrrhic victory]]'', died while fighting an urban battle in [[Argos]] when an old woman threw a roof tile at him, stunning him and allowing an Argive soldier to kill him.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Thornton, W.|year=1968|title=Allusions in Ulysses|publisher= University of North Carolina Press Chapel Hill|isbn=0807840890|oclc=185879476 27859245|page=29|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dof6ABIIfwkC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=Pyrrhus+roof+tile+-wikipedia}}</ref>

*270 BC: '''[[Philitas of Cos]]''', Greek intellectual, is said by [[Athenaeus]] to have studied arguments and erroneous word usage so intensely that he wasted away and starved to death.<ref>[[Athenaeus]], ''[[Deipnosophistae]]'', [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature.AthV2.p0115 9.401e].</ref> [[Alan Cameron (classical scholar)|Alan Cameron]] speculates that Philitas died from a [[wasting]] disease which his contemporaries joked was caused by his [[pedantry]].<ref>{{cite journal |journal= The Classical Quarterly |volume=41 |issue=2 |year=1991 |pages=534–8 |author=Alan Cameron |title= How thin was Philitas? |doi= 10.1017/S0009838800004717}}</ref>

*207 BC: '''[[Chrysippus]]''', a Greek [[Stoicism|stoic philosopher]], is believed to have [[died of laughter]] after giving his donkey wine then seeing it attempt to eat [[common fig|figs]].<ref>Donaldson, John William and Müller, Karl Otfried. ''A History of the Literature of Ancient Greece''. London: John W. Parker and Son, 1858, p. 27.</ref>

*162 BC: '''[[Eleazar Avaran|Eleazar Maccabeus]]''' was crushed to death at the [[Battle of Beth-zechariah]] by a [[war elephant]] that he believed to be carrying [[Seleucid]] King [[Antiochus V]]. Charging into battle, Eleazar rushed underneath the elephant and thrust a spear into its belly, whereupon it fell dead on top of him.<ref>Scullard, H.H ''The Elephant in the Greek and Roman World'' Thames and Hudson. 1974 pg 186</ref>

*4 BC: '''[[Herod the Great]]''' reportedly suffered from fever, intense rashes, colon pains, [[foot drop]], inflammation of the abdomen, a [[putrefaction]] of his genitals that produced worms, convulsions, and difficulty breathing before he finally expired.<ref>Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Book 17, Chapter 6</ref> However, gruesome deaths have often been attributed by various authors who disliked rulers, including several Roman emperors (for example, [[Galerius]]).

*64 – 67: '''[[Saint Peter]]''' was executed by the Romans. According to tradition, he asked not to be [[crucifixion|crucified]] in the normal way, but was instead executed on [[Cross of St. Peter|an inverted cross]].<ref>"Peter, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> According to [[Origen]] of [[Alexandria]], he said he was not worthy to be crucified in the same way as [[Jesus]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Catholic Encyclopedia on St. Peter|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11744a.htm}}</ref>

*c. 98: '''[[Saint Antipas]]''', Bishop of Pergamum, was roasted to death in a [[brazen bull]] during the persecutions of Emperor [[Domitian]]. [[Saint Eustace]], his wife and children supposedly suffered a similar fate under [[Hadrian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.iprimus.com.au/xenos/antipas.html |title=Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, WA |publisher=Home.iprimus.com.au |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*c. 1st or 2nd century: '''[[Rabbi Akiva]]''', a [[Tannaim|Tanna]], a founder of [[Rabbinic Judaism]], and a supporter of [[Simon bar Kokhba|Bar Kokhba]], was put to death by the Romans by having his skin [[Flaying|flayed]] with iron combs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/151040/jewish/The-Seventh-Day-of-Pesach-The-Splitting-of-the-Sea.htm |title=The Seventh Day of Pesach: The Splitting of the Sea - Pesach |publisher=Chabad.org |date= |accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.e-daf.com/index.asp?ID=120&size=1 |title=Berachos 61B |publisher=E-daf.com |date= |accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dafyomi.co.il/sanhedrin/insites/sn-dt-068.htm |title=INSIGHTS TO THE DAF - SANHEDRIN 68 |publisher=Dafyomi.co.il |date= |accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref>

*212: '''[[Lucius Fabius Cilo]]''', a [[Roman senator]] of the 2nd century, "...choked...by a single hair in a draught of milk".<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], {{cite web|title=Nat. History, vii ''7''|url= http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/7*.html}}</ref>

*258: According to tradition, '''[[Saint]] [[Lawrence of Rome]]''' was roasted alive on a giant [[Barbecue grill|grill]], during the persecution of [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]].{{citation needed|date=April 2011}}

*336: '''[[Arius]]''', [[presbyter]] of [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]], [[Arius#Exile, return, and death|is said]] to have died of sudden [[diarrhea]] followed by copious [[hemorrhage|hemorrhaging]] and anal expulsion of the [[intestine]]s. He may have been poisoned.<ref>[[Gregory of Tours]], ''History of the Franks'' 2.23.</ref>

*415: '''[[Hypatia of Alexandria]]''', Greek mathematician, philosopher, and last librarian of the [[Library of Alexandria]], was murdered by a [[Christianity|Christian]] mob which ripped off her skin with sharp sea-shells. Various types of shells have been named, including clams, oysters and abalones. Other sources claim tiles or pottery [[sherd|shard]]s were used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Hypatia.html |title=Hypatia biography |publisher=History.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*599: '''[[Kazuo Hirai]]''', President of [[Sony Computer Entertainment]], died during a press conference announcing the [[PlayStation 3]].

== Middle Ages ==
*9th century: The legendary '''[[Popiel|Prince Popiel]]''', leader of the proto-Polish Goplans and Polans, and his wife, were allegedly eaten alive by mice in a tower in [[Kruszwica]]. This curse arose as a result of not obeying burial traditions. A similar tale is the [[Mouse Tower]] of Archbishop Hatto II of Mainz.

*892: '''[[Sigurd Eysteinsson|Sigurd the Mighty]]''' of [[Orkney]] strapped the head of his defeated foe, [[Máel Brigte of Moray|Máel Brigte]], to his horse's saddle. The teeth of the head grazed against his leg as he rode, causing a fatal infection.<ref>Translations of the ''Orkneyinga saga'' (chapters 4 and 5), which relates the story, can be read online at [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/ice/is3/is302.htm Sacred texts] and [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/orkney/001.php Northvegr].</ref>
*1000 '''Crag Bungahunga''', 21, while closing down his RockStop, several dinosaurs deposited their waste at the entrance, protesting RockStop's support of On-Rock DLC. Crag died of suffication within minutes.
*1063: '''[[Béla I of Hungary]]''' died when his throne's canopy collapsed upon him.{{citation needed|date=April 2011}}
*1135: '''[[Henry I of England]]''', according to legend, died of [[Foodborne illness|food poisoning]], caused by consuming "a surfeit of [[lamprey]]s," of which he was excessively fond. This unusual death was remarked upon by [[Thomas Moore]] and [[David Hume]].<ref>[http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=XjpHAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=%22regicide+lampreys%22+moore&source=bl&ots=541kvVqu7X&sig=-NqmErYpgrJoJDPiDmGOHVXdJlk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ZLAkT8i8E66YiAfSmIWFBQ&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false Works of Thomas Moore]</ref>
*1327: '''[[Edward II of England]]''', after being deposed and imprisoned by his [[Queen consort]] [[Isabella of France|Isabella]] and her lover [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]], was rumored to have been murdered by having a red-hot iron inserted into his [[Human anus|anus]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Schama |first=Simon |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A History of Great Britain: 3000BC-AD1603|year=2000 |publisher=BBC Worldwide |location= London|id= }} p.220</ref>

*1410: '''[[Martin of Aragon]]''' died from a lethal combination of indigestion and [[Death from laughter|uncontrollable laughing]].<ref>[http://www.cc.jyu.fi/mirator/pdf/Morris.pdf "Patronage and Piety – Montserrat and the Royal House of Medieval Catalonia-Aragon"]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}, Paul N. Morris, ''Mirator Lokakuu'', October, 2000</ref>

*1478: '''[[George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence|George Plantagenet]]''', [[Duke of Clarence]], was executed by drowning in a barrel of [[Malvasia|Malmsey wine]] at his own request.<ref>Thompson, C. J. S. ''Mysteries of History with Accounts of Some Remarkable Characters and Charlatans'', pp. 31 ''ff.'' Kila, Montana: Kessinger Publishing, 2004.</ref>

== Renaissance ==

*1514: '''[[György Dózsa]]''', [[Székely]] man-at-arms and peasants' revolt leader in [[Hungary]], was condemned to sit on a red-hot iron throne with a red-hot iron crown on his head and a red-hot sceptre in his hand (mocking his ambition to be king), by Hungarian [[landed nobility]] in Transylvania. While Dózsa was still alive, he was set upon and his partially roasted body was eaten by six of his fellow rebels, who had been starved for a week beforehand.<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Győrgy_Dozsa György Dózsa], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 1911</ref>

*1601: '''[[Tycho Brahe]]''', [[Danish people|Danish]] astronomer, according to legend, died of complications resulting from a strained bladder at a banquet. As it was considered extremely bad etiquette to leave the table before the meal was finished, he stayed until he became fatally ill. This version of events has since been brought into question as other causes of death (murder by [[Johannes Kepler]], [[suicide]], and [[mercury poisoning]] among others) have come to the fore.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Brahe.html |title=Brahe, Tycho (1546–1601) – from Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography |publisher=Scienceworld.wolfram.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1649: '''[[Arthur Aston (English Army officer)|Sir Arthur Aston]]''', [[Cavalier|Royalist]] commander of the garrison during the [[Siege of Drogheda]], was beaten to death with his own wooden leg, which the [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] soldiers thought concealed golden coins.<ref>{{cite web|author=David Plant |url=http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/aston.htm |title=British Civil War site |publisher=British-civil-wars.co.uk |date=2008-06-11 |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1660: '''[[Thomas Urquhart]]''', [[scottish people|Scottish]] aristocrat, [[polymath]] and first translator of [[François Rabelais|Rabelais]] into English, is said to have died laughing upon hearing that [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] had taken the throne.<ref>{{cite book | title = Rabelais in English Literature | last = Brown | first = Huntington | isbn = 0-714-620-513 | publisher = Routledge | page = 126 | year = 1968}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = The History of Scottish Poetry | publisher = Edmonston & Douglas | year = 1861 | page = 539}}</ref>

*1667: '''James Betts''' died from asphyxiation after being accidentally sealed in a cupboard by Elizabeth Spencer, at [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]] in an attempt to hide him from her father, [[John Spencer (Master of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge)|John Spencer]].<ref name=Rackham>{{cite book| last = Rackham | first = Oliver | title= Treasures of Silver at Corpus Christi College | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2002 | isbn = 052181880X}}</ref><ref name="Corpus Christi College">{{cite web|url=http://www.corpus.cam.ac.uk/about-corpus/maps-and-tours/take-a-virtual-tour/225|title=Corpus Christi Website -Corpus Ghost|publisher=Corpus Christi College}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Guiley| first = Rosemary Ellen | title= The Encyclopedia of Ghosts and Spirits | publisher = Checkmark books| edition = 2nd | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0816040865}}</ref>

*1673: '''[[Molière#Death|Molière]]''', the French actor and playwright, died after being seized by a violent coughing fit, while playing the title role in his play ''[[Le Malade imaginaire]]'' (The Hypochondriac).<ref>[http://litmed.med.nyu.edu/Annotation?action=view&annid=1420 "Moliere,: The Imaginary Invalid"], ''NYU Literature, Arts, and Medicine Database'', 23 October 2003</ref>

*1687: '''[[Jean-Baptiste Lully]]''', the French composer, died of a [[gangrene|gangrenous]] [[abscess]] after piercing his foot with a staff while he was vigorously conducting a ''[[Te Deum]]''. It was customary at that time to conduct by banging a staff on the floor.<ref>[http://www.vanderbilt.edu/htdocs/Blair/Courses/MUSL243/lullbio.htm Biography of Jean-Baptiste Lully]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}, ''Vanderbilt University''</ref>

== 18th century ==

*1751: '''[[Julien Offray de La Mettrie]]''', a major materialist and sensualist philosopher and author of ''L'Homme machine'', died of overeating at a feast given in his honor.<ref>[http://www.bookrags.com/biography/julien-offray-de-la-mettrie/ Julien Offray de La Mettrie Biography] ''Encyclopedia of World Biography''</ref>

*1753: Professor '''[[Georg Wilhelm Richmann]]''', of [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]], became the first recorded person to be killed while performing electrical experiments when he was struck and killed by a globe of [[ball lightning]] that hit him on his head.<ref>[http://scitation.aip.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_59/iss_1/42_1.shtml Benjamin Franklin and Lightning Rods] ''Physics Today'', January 2006</ref>

*1755: '''[[Henry Hall (lighthouse keeper)|Henry Hall]]''' died from injuries he sustained after molten lead fell into his throat while looking up at [[Eddystone Lighthouse|a burning lighthouse]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mOgRAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA38#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Universal magazine |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-07}}</ref>

*1762: '''[[Crown Prince Sado]]''', then heir to [[Emperor]] [[Yeongjo of Joseon]], was ordered to be sealed alive in a rice chest after his father decided he was unfit to succeed him. He survived inside for 8 days.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2009/11/142_56275.html | title=Book Reconstitutes Secret of Prince Sado's Death | work=The Korea Times | date=November 27, 2009 | accessdate=May 30, 2011 | author=Ah-young Chung}}</ref>

*1771: '''[[Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden]]''', died of digestion problems on 12 February 1771 after having consumed a meal of lobster, caviar, sauerkraut, smoked herring and champagne, topped off with 14 servings of his favourite dessert: [[semla|hetvägg]] served in a bowl of hot milk.<ref>[http://www.thelocal.se/6470/20070220/ The lowdown on Sweden's best buns] ''The Local'', February 2007</ref> He is thus remembered by Swedish schoolchildren as "the king who ate himself to death."<ref>[http://www.messengernews.net/page/content.detail/id/503630.html?nav=5007 Semlor are Swedish treat for Lent] Sandy Mickelson, ''The Messenger'', 27 February 2008</ref>

*1794: '''[[John Kendrick (American sea captain)|John Kendrick]]''', an American sea captain and explorer, was killed in the [[Hawaii|Hawaiian Islands]] when a British ship mistakenly used a loaded cannon to fire a salute to Kendrick's vessel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=1983 |title=Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online |publisher=Biographi.ca |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

== 19th century ==

*1814: '''[[London Beer Flood]]''', 9 people were killed (some drowned, some died from injuries, and one succumbed to alcohol poisoning) when 323,000 imperial gallons (1,468,000L) of beer in the Meux and Company Brewery burst out of their vats and gushed into the streets.<ref name="BBC London Beer Flood">[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A42129876 The London Beer Flood of 1814], BBC</ref>

*1816: '''[[Gouverneur Morris]]''', an American statesman, died after sticking a piece of whale bone through his urinary tract to relieve a blockage.<ref>{{cite book|last=Adams|first=William Howard|title=Gouverneur Morris: an independent life|year=2003|publisher=Yale University Press|url=http://books.google.com/?id=GYxgEf7VbMcC&pg=PA323&dq=Gouverneur+Morris++whalebone#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0300099800}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kirschke|first=James J.|title=Gouverneur Morris: author, statesman, and man of the world|year=2005|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=031224195X|url=http://books.google.com/?id=MkqBV79cVMkC&pg=PA265&lpg=PA265&dq=Gouverneur+Morris++whalebone#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>

*1830: '''[[William Huskisson]]''', statesman and financier, was crushed to death by a locomotive ([[Stephenson's Rocket]]), at the public opening of the world's first mechanically powered passenger railway.<ref>[http://www.lmu.livjm.ac.uk/lhol/content.aspx?itemid=329 "Huskisson, William"], ''International Centre for Digital Content'', 17 January 2003</ref> 

*1834: '''[[David Douglas]]''', Scottish [[botanist]], fell into a pit trap accompanied by a bull. He was gored and possibly crushed.<ref>[http://www.life.umd.edu/emeritus/reveal/PBIO/LnC/douglas.html University of Maryland]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}: The source is uncertain if the bull fell in before or after him.</ref>

*1862: '''[[Jim Creighton]]''', a very early [[baseball]] player, died when he swung a bat too hard and injured himself, possibly by rupturing his [[Urinary bladder|bladder]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=3296 |title=Jim Creighton (1841–1862) - Find A Grave Memorial |publisher=Findagrave.com |date= |accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref>

*1868: '''[[Matthew Vassar]]''', brewer and founder of [[Vassar College]], died in mid-speech while delivering his farewell address to the college board of trustees.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B0CE5DA1230EE34BC4C51DFB0668383679FDE "VASSAR COLLEGE.; Sudden Death of Matthew Vassar, Founder of the Institution, While Reading the Annual Address."], ''The New York Times'', 24 June 1868</ref>

*1871: '''[[Clement Vallandigham]]''', U.S. Congressman, died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound while defending a murder suspect in court. Vallandigham was arguing to the court that the victim could have accidentally shot himself while drawing his gun. As Vallandigham was demonstrating with his own gun, which he had believed to be unloaded, it accidentally discharged, killing him.<ref>''QI'', episode broadcast 23 Sep 2011 on [[BBC2]]</ref>

*1884: '''[[Allan Pinkerton]]''', detective, spy, and founder of the [[Pinkerton National Detective Agency]], allegedly died when he contracted [[gangrene]] after slipping and biting his tongue; however, conflicting reports indicate that he died of a stroke instead.<ref>{{Find a Grave|817}}</ref>

== 20th century ==

=== 1910s ===

*1912: '''[[Franz Reichelt]]''', tailor, fell to his death off the first deck of the [[Eiffel Tower]] while testing his invention, the overcoat parachute. It was his first ever attempt with the parachute.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bellows |first=Alan |url=http://www.damninteresting.com/?p=321 |title=The Intrepid, Ill-Fated Parachutist |publisher=Damn Interesting |date=2006-01-04 |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1916: '''[[Grigori Rasputin]]''', Russian [[Mysticism|mystic]], was reportedly poisoned, shot in the head, shot three more times, bludgeoned, and then thrown into a frozen river after being castrated. When his body washed ashore, an autopsy showed the cause of death to be [[hypothermia]]; however, some now doubt the credibility of this account. Another account said that he was poisoned, shot, and stabbed, at which time he got up and ran off – and was later found to have [[drowned]] in a frozen river.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history1900s.about.com/od/famouscrimesscandals/a/rasputin.htm |title=Murder of Rasputin |publisher=History1900s.about.com |date=2010-12-07 |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1918: '''[[Gustav Kobbé]]''', writer and musicologist, was killed when the [[sailboat]] he was on was struck by a landing seaplane off [[Long Island]], [[New York]].<ref name="Obit">[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B02E0D8143EE433A2575BC2A9619C946996D6CF "Hydroplane Kills Kobbe in his Boat; Naval Pilot Unaware He Had Struck Art Critic's Craft."] ''[[New York Times]]''. 28 July 1918. p. 1. Retrieved 30 January 2008.</ref>

*1919: In the '''[[Boston Molasses Disaster]]''', 21 people were killed and 150 were injured when a tank containing as much as 2,300,000 US gal (8,700,000 L) of molasses exploded, sending a wave travelling at approximately 35 mph (56 km/h) through part of [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], United States.<ref name="[[Boston Molasses Disaster]]">{{cite book | last=Puleo | first=Stephen | title=Dark Tide: The Great Boston Molasses Flood of 1919 | publisher= [[Beacon Press]]| location=Boston, Massachusetts | year = 2004|isbn=0-8070-5021-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/molasses.asp |title=The Great Molasses Flood |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

=== 1920s ===

*1920: '''[[Ray Chapman|Ray "Chappie" Chapman]]''', shortstop for the Cleveland Indians baseball team, was killed when a [[submarine ball]] thrown by [[Carl Mays]] hit him in the [[temple (anatomy)|temple]]. He took two steps after being awarded first base, collapsed, and died the next day.{{citation needed|date=April 2011}}

*1920: '''[[Dan Andersson]]''', a Swedish author, died of cyanide poisoning while staying at Hotel Hellman in [[Stockholm]]. The hotel staff had failed to clear the room after using hydrogen cyanide against [[bed bug]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://litteraturbanken.se/#!forfattare/AnderssonD/presentation |title=Dan Andersson (1888–1920)}}</ref>

*1920, 25 October: '''[[Alexander of Greece|Alexander I]]''', King of the Hellenes, was taking a walk in the [[National Gardens of Athens|Royal Gardens]], when his dog was attacked by a monkey. The King attempted to defend his dog, receiving bites from both the monkey and its mate.<ref>[[John Van der Kiste]], ''Kings of the Hellenes'' (Alan Sutton Publishing, Stroud, Gloucestershire, England, 1994) ISBN 0-7509-0525-5 p. 119</ref> The diseased animals' bites caused [[sepsis]] and Alexander died three weeks later.

*1923: '''[[Frank Hayes (jockey)|Frank Hayes]]''', a [[jockey]] at [[Belmont Park]], [[New York]], died of a heart attack during the course of his first race. His mount finished first with his body still attached to the saddle, and he was only discovered to be dead when the horse's owner went to congratulate him.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60B13F83C5416738DDDAC0894DE405B838EF1D3&scp=1&sq=jockey+hayes&st=p|title=Jockey Dies as He Wins His First Race; Hayes Collapses Passing the Winning Post |work=The New York Times |date=June 5, 1923 |accessdate=Feb 20, 2011}}</ref>

*1923: '''[[George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon]]''', died allegedly because of the so-called [[Curse of the pharaohs|King Tut's Curse]] after a mosquito bite on his face, which he cut while shaving, became seriously infected with [[erysipelas]], leading to blood poisoning and eventually pneumonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/carnarvon.htm |title=The Life of Lord Carnarvon |publisher=Touregypt.net |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Carnarvon Is Dead Of An Insect's Bite At Pharaoh's Tomb. Blood Poisoning and Ensuing Pneumonia Conquer Tut-ankh-Amen Discoverer in Egypt. |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20C11F7355416738DDDAC0894DC405B838EF1D3 |quote=The Earl of Carnarvon died peacefully at 2 o'clock this morning. He was conscious almost to the end. |work=[[New York Times]] |date=April 5, 1923 |accessdate=2008-08-12 }}</ref>

*1923: '''[[Martha Mansfield]]''', an American film actress, died after sustaining severe burns on the set of the film ''The Warrens of Virginia'' after a smoker's match, tossed by a cast member, ignited her Civil War costume of hoopskirts and ruffles.<ref>{{IMDb name|0543806|Martha Mansfield}}</ref>

*1925: '''[[Zishe Breitbart|Zishe (Siegmund) Breitbart]]''', a circus strongman and Jewish folklore hero, died after demonstrating he could drive a spike through five one-inch (2.54 cm) thick oak boards using only his bare hands. He accidentally pierced his knee and the rusted spike caused an infection which led to fatal blood poisoning.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sandowplus.co.uk/Competition/Breitbart/breitbart-index.htm |title=Siegmund Breitbart |publisher=Sandowplus.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1926: '''Phillip McClean''', 16, from [[Queensland]], Australia became the only person documented to have been killed by a [[cassowary]]. After encountering the bird on their family property, McClean and his brother decided to kill it with clubs. When McClean struck the bird it knocked him down, then kicked him in the neck, opening a 1.25 cm long cut in one of his main blood vessels. Though the boy managed to get back on his feet and run away, he collapsed a short while later and died from the hemorrhage.<ref>Kofron, Christopher P., Chapman, Angela. (2006) "Causes of mortality to the endangered Southern Cassowary Casuarius casuariusjohnsonii in Queensland, Australia." Pacific Conservation Biology vol. 12: 175–179</ref>

*1926: '''[[Harry Houdini]]''', the famous American escape artist, was punched in the stomach by an amateur boxer. Though this had been done with Houdini's permission, complications from this injury caused him to die days later, on October 31, 1926. It was later determined that Houdini died of a ruptured appendix.<ref>{{cite web|title=Harry Houdini – Biography|url=http://www.apl.org/history/houdini/biography.html|publisher=Appleton History|accessdate=August 4, 2009}}</ref>

*1927: '''[[J. G. Parry-Thomas]]''', a [[Welsh people|Welsh]] racing driver, was decapitated when his car's drive chain snapped and whipped into the cockpit.<ref>Reynolds, Barbara. ''Dorothy L. Sayers: her life and soul'', p. 162. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997.</ref>

*1927: '''[[Isadora Duncan]]''', dancer, died of a broken neck when her long scarf caught on the wheel of a car in which she was a passenger.<ref>{{cite web|last=Setzer |first=Dawn |url=http://www.newsroom.ucla.edu/page.asp?RelNum=6970 |title=UCLA newsroom |publisher=Newsroom.ucla.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1928: '''[[Alexander Bogdanov]]''', a Russian physician, died following one of his experiments, in which the blood of L. I. Koldomasov, a student suffering from [[malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]], was given to him in a transfusion.<ref>Bogdanov, Alexander (tr. & ed. Douglas W. Huestis). ''The Struggle for Viability: Collectivism Through Blood Exchange'', p. 7. Tinicum, Pennsylvania: Xlibris Corporation, 2002.</ref>

=== 1930s ===

*1930: '''William Kogut''', an inmate on death row at [[San Quentin]], committed suicide with a pipe bomb created from several packs of playing cards and the hollow leg from his cot. At the time, the red ink in playing cards contained flammable [[nitrocellulose]], which when wet can create an explosive mixture. Kogut used the heater in his cell to activate the bomb.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/kogut.asp |title=Death by Playing Cards – Solitaire |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Frank the SciencePunk |url=http://www.sciencepunk.com/2007/09/the-ingenious-suicide-of-william-vogut/ |title=The ingenious suicide of William Kogut |publisher=Sciencepunk.com |date=2007-09-10 |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

*1932: '''[[Eben Byers]]''', an American industrialist and socialite, died of [[radiation poisoning]] after having consumed large quantities of [[Radithor]], a popular [[patent medicine]] containing [[radium]] and [[thorium]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clpgh.org/exhibit/neighborhoods/northside/nor_n106.html |title=North Side: People: Eben M. Byers |publisher=Clpgh.org |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1933: '''[[Michael Malloy]]''', a homeless man, was murdered by five men in a plot to collect on [[life insurance]] policies they had purchased. After surviving multiple poisonings, intentional exposure, and being struck by a car, Malloy succumbed to gassing.<ref>{{cite book |last=Read |first=Simon |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Bizarre Killing of Michael Malloy |year=2005 |publisher=Penguin Book Group |location= |id= |isbn=0425206785 }}</ref>

*1935: Baseball player '''[[Len Koenecke]]''' was bludgeoned to death with a fire extinguisher by the crew of an aircraft he had chartered, after provoking a fight with the pilot while the plane was in the air.<ref>[http://www.thedeadballera.com/Obits/Koenecke.Len.Obit.html TheDeadballEra.com :: LEN KOENECKE'S OBIT]{{dead link|date=December 2010}}</ref>

*1939: Finnish actress '''[[Sirkka Sari]]''' died when she fell down a [[chimney]] into a heating boiler. She had mistaken the chimney for a [[balcony]].<ref>http://koti.mbnet.fi/basil/nest/allmovies.txt</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OsU_7bTkpNw |title=YouTube – Sirkka Sarin kuolema |publisher=Youtube.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

=== 1940s ===

*1940: '''[[Marcus Garvey]]''' died as a result of two strokes after reading a negative [[premature obituary]] of himself.<ref name=Garvey>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/garvey/filmmore/pt.html ''Marcus Garvey: Look for Me in the Whirlwind''], [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] documentary (transcript). Last accessed on May 1, 2011.</ref>

*1941: '''[[Sherwood Anderson]]''', writer, died of [[peritonitis]] after swallowing a toothpick at a party.<ref>[http://athena.english.vt.edu/~appalach/writersA/anderson.html Virginia Tech article]</ref>

*1942: '''32 men''' died when the British cruiser [[HMS Trinidad (46)|HMS ''Trinidad'']] accidentally [[torpedo]]ed itself.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uboat.net/allies/warships/ship/4030.html|title=HMS Trinidad (46) – Light cruiser of the Fiji class}}</ref>

*1943: Critic '''[[Alexander Woollcott]]''' suffered a fatal heart attack during an on-air discussion about [[Adolf Hitler]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/alabaster/A662230 |title=BBC – h2g2 – Alexander Woollcott – The Man Who Came to Dinner – A662230 |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref>

*1944: '''74 men''' died when the US Submarine {{USS|Tang|SS-306|3}} accidentally torpedoed itself during a combat patrol off the coast of Taiwan.<ref>Richard O'Kane, Clear the Bridge, 1989, Presidio Press, p. 443.</ref>

*1944: Inventor and chemist '''[[Thomas Midgley, Jr.]]''' accidentally strangled himself with the cord of a [[pulley]]-operated mechanical bed of his own design.<ref>[[Bill Bryson|Bryson, Bill]]. ''[[A Short History of Nearly Everything]]''. (2003) Broadway Books, USA. ISBN 0-385-66004-9</ref>

*1945: Scientist '''[[Harry K. Daghlian, Jr.]]''' accidentally dropped a brick of [[tungsten carbide]] onto a sphere of [[plutonium]] (known as the [[Demon core]]) while working on the [[Manhattan Project]]. This caused the plutonium to come to criticality; Daghlian died of radiation poisoning, becoming the first person to die in a [[criticality accident]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mphpa.org/classic/FH/LA/Harry_Daghlian.htm |title=Harry K. Daghlian – 1 of 1 |publisher=Mphpa.org |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1946: '''[[Louis Slotin]]''', chemist and physicist, died of radiation poisoning after being exposed to lethal amounts of ionizing radiation from the [[Demon core|same core]] that killed [[Harry K. Daghlian, Jr.]] The core went critical after a screwdriver he was using to separate the halves of the spherical beryllium reflector slipped.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hhs55.com/slotin.html |title=hhs55.com |publisher=hhs55.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1947: '''[[Collyer brothers|The Collyer Brothers]]''', extreme cases of [[compulsive hoarding|compulsive hoarders]], were found dead in their home in New York. The younger brother, Langley, was crushed to death when he accidentally triggered one of his own booby traps that had consisted of a large pile of objects, books, and newspapers. His blind and paralyzed brother Homer, who had depended on Langley for care, died of starvation some days later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivia-library.com/c/biography-of-hermits-of-harlem-homer-and-langley-collyer.htm |title=Biography of Hermits of Harlem Homer and Langley Collyer – |publisher=Trivia-library.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

=== 1950s ===

*1951: '''Professor Malcolm H. Soule''', scientist, killed himself with an [[injection (medicine)|injection]] of [[snake venom]] and [[morphine]] after being fired from heading the department of [[bacteriology]] at the [[University of Michigan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=uUxHAAAAIBAJ&sjid=fDEDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5448,2242117&dq=suicide+snake&hl=en |title=Accused Scientist Commits Suicide With Snake Venom |work=Rome News-Tribune |date=1951-05-08 |accessdate=2011-07-10}}</ref>

*1955: '''[[Margo Jones]]''', theater director, was killed by exposure to [[carbon tetrachloride]] fumes from her newly cleaned carpet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sweettornado.org/aboutMargo/timeline.lasso |title=Sweet Tornado: Margo Jones and the American Theater |publisher=Margojones.org |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1958: '''[[Gareth Jones (actor)|Gareth Jones]]''', actor, collapsed and died between scenes of a live television play, ''Underground'', at the studios of [[Associated British Corporation]] in [[Manchester]]. Director [[Ted Kotcheff]] continued the play to its conclusion, improvising around Jones' absence.<ref>{{IMDb name|0428099|Gareth Jones}}</ref>

*1959: In the '''[[Dyatlov Pass incident]]''', nine ski hikers in the Ural Mountains abandoned their camp in the middle of the night, some clad only in their underwear despite sub-zero weather. Six died of hypothermia and three by unexplained injuries. The corpses showed no signs of struggle, but one had a fatal skull fracture, two had major chest fractures, and one was missing her tongue. Soviet investigators determined only that "a compelling unknown force" had caused the deaths.<ref>[http://www.sptimes.ru/story/25093 Mysterious Deaths of 9 Skiers Still Unresolved] Svetlana Osadchuk (February 19, 2008). St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 2010-02-09.</ref>

=== 1960s ===
*1960: In the '''[[Nedelin catastrophe]]''', more than 100 Soviet rocket technicians and officials died when a switch was accidentally turned on, causing the second stage engines of a rocket to ignite, directly above the fully fueled first stage. The casualties included Red Army Marshal Nedelin, who was sitting just 40 meters away overseeing launch preparations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/r16_disaster.html |title=Nedelin disaster |publisher=Russianspaceweb.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1960: '''[[Inejiro Asanuma]]''', 61, the head of the [[Japanese Socialist Party]], was stabbed to death with a [[wakizashi]] sword by extreme rightist [[Otoya Yamaguchi]] during a televised political rally.<ref>{{cite news|author= |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,711952,00.html |title=Assassin's Apologies |publisher=Time.com |date=1960-11-14 |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

*1960: '''[[Alan Stacey]]''', [[Formula One]] race driver, died in a crash during the [[1960 Belgian Grand Prix|Belgian Grand Prix]] when a bird flew into his face, causing him to lose control.{{citation needed|date=April 2011}}

*1961: U.S. Army Specialists '''John A. Byrnes''' and '''Richard Leroy McKinley''', and Navy Electrician's Mate '''Richard C. Legg''' were killed by a [[water hammer]] explosion during maintenance on the [[SL-1]] nuclear reactor in Idaho.<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/gov.ntis.A13886VNB1 SL-1 The Accident: Phases I and II] U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Idaho Operations Office video ([http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gIBQMkd96CA Youtube 1]) ([http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVr6bD-z9hM Youtube 2])</ref><ref>[http://www.inl.gov/proving-the-principle/chapter_15.pdf Chapter 15 "The SL-1 Reactor" (page 142)] 9.5 MB PDF</ref><ref name="Tucker">{{cite book |last=Tucker |first=Todd |title=Atomic America: How a Deadly Explosion and a Feared Admiral Changed the Course of Nuclear History|isbn=978-1416544333 |year=2009 |publisher=Free Press |location=New York}} See summary: [http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0904/2008013842-s.html]</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=McKeown |first=William |title=Idaho Falls: The Untold Story of America's First Nuclear Accident |isbn=978-1550225624 |year=2003 |publisher=ECW Press |location=Toronto}}</ref>

*1961: '''[[Valentin Bondarenko]]''', a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[cosmonaut]] trainee, died after suffering [[third-degree burn]]s from a flash fire in the pure oxygen environment of a training simulator.<ref>Oberg, James, ''Uncovering Soviet Disasters'', [http://www.jamesoberg.com/usd10.html Chapter 10: Dead Cosmonauts], pp 156–176, Random house, New York, 1988. Retrieved 8 January 2008.</ref>

*1963: '''[[Thích Quảng Đức]]''', a Vietnamese Buddhist monk, sat down in the middle of a busy intersection in [[Saigon]], covered himself in gasoline, and lit himself on fire, [[Self-immolation|burning himself to death]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://everything2.com/title/Thich%2520Quang%2520Duc |title=Thich Quang Duc@Everything2.com |publisher=Everything2.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1966: '''Worth Bingham''', son of [[Barry Bingham, Sr.]], died when a surfboard, lying atop the back of his convertible, hit a parked car, swung around, and broke his neck.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/04/business/media/04bingham.html?pagewanted=2&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/People/M/McFadden,%20Robert%20D.%20Jr.
|title=Barry Bingham Jr., Louisville Publisher, Is Dead at 72
|author=
|work=The New York Times
|date=4 April 2006
| first=Robert D.
| last=McFadden
| accessdate=2010-05-11
}}</ref>

* 1966: Skydiver '''[[Nick Piantanida]]''' died from the effects of [[uncontrolled decompression]] four months after an attempt to break the world record for the highest parachute jump. During his third attempt, his face mask came loose (or he possibly opened it by mistake), causing loss of air pressure and irreversible brain damage.<ref>{{cite book |title=Magnificent Failure: Free Fall from the Edge of Space |last1=Ryan |first1=Craig |publisher=Smithsonian Air and Space Museum Press |year=2003| isbn=9781588341419 |oclc=51059086 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/article687679.ece Dive Hard], [[The Globe and Mail]], May 25, 2008</ref>

*1967: '''[[Gus Grissom]]''', '''[[Edward Higgins White|Ed White]]''', and '''[[Roger B. Chaffee]]''', NASA astronauts, died when a flash fire began in their pure oxygen environment during a training exercise inside the [[Apollo 1]] spacecraft. The spacecraft's escape hatch could not be opened because it was designed to seal shut under pressure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/grissom-vi.html |title=Astronaut Bio: Virgil I. Grissom |publisher=Jsc.nasa.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1967: Cosmonaut '''[[Vladimir Mikhaylovich Komarov|Vladimir Komarov]]''' became the first person to die during a space mission after the parachute of [[Soyuz 1|his capsule]] failed to deploy following re-entry.<ref>{{cite web|author=Tony Long |url=http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2007/04/dayintech_0424 |title=24 April 1967: Last Day in the Life of Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov |publisher=Wired.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

=== 1970s ===

*1972: '''[[Leslie Harvey]]''', guitarist of [[Stone the Crows]], was electrocuted on stage by a live microphone.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gordon Polatnick |url=http://elvispelvis.com/electrocuted.htm |title=Electrocuted Page in Fuller Up, Dead Musician Directory |publisher=Elvispelvis.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1974: '''Basil Brown''', a 48-year-old health food advocate from [[Croydon]], drank himself to death with [[carrot juice]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yLQsAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jAoEAAAAIBAJ&dq=unusual-death&pg=6515%2C4463628 | work=Star-News | location=Wilmington, North Carolina |title=Unusual death | date=1974-02-20 | accessdate=2010-06-12| page=28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Staub |first=Jack E.|title=Alluring Lettuces: And Other Seductive Vegetables for Your Garden |year=2005 |publisher=Gibbs Smith|location=Layton, Utah |isbn=1-42360-829-1|oclc=435711200 |page=230 |chapter=74. Yellowstone Carrot: Daucus carota savicus|chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=qbMz7YrTBMEC&lpg=PA230&ots=zu1Pef9qdF&dq=bl&pg=PA230#v=onepage&q=%22Basil%20Brown%22&f=false}}</ref>

*1974: '''[[Christine Chubbuck]]''', an American television news reporter, committed suicide during a live broadcast on July 15. Eight minutes into her talk show on WXLT-TV in [[Sarasota, Florida]], she shot herself in the head with a [[revolver]].<ref name="dietz">Dietz, Jon. "On-Air Shot Kills TV Personality", ''Sarasota Herald-Tribune'', 16 July 1974.</ref>

*1974: '''Deborah Gail Stone''', 18, an employee at [[Disneyland]] in [[Anaheim, California]], was crushed to death between a moving wall and a stationary wall inside of the revolving [[America Sings]] attraction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mouseplanet.com/david/dk040708.htm |title=Why we'll never forget the tragedy of 30 years ago today |accessdate=2007-07-24 |last=Koenig |first=David |work=MousePlanet }}</ref>

*1975: '''[[Bandō Mitsugorō VIII]]''', a Japanese [[kabuki]] actor, died of severe poisoning when he ate four [[fugu]] (puffer-fish) livers. Mitsugorō claimed to be immune to the poison and the fugu chef felt he could not refuse him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kabuki21.com/mitsugoro8.php |title=Bandô Mitsugorô Viii |publisher=Kabuki21.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1975: '''Alex Mitchell''', a 50-year-old from [[Norfolk]], England, died laughing while watching ''[[The Goodies (TV series)|The Goodies]]''. A particular scene had caused Mitchell to laugh nonstop for twenty-five minutes before dying of [[heart failure]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/laughing.asp |title=Death By Laughing |publisher=snopes.com |date= |accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref>

*1976: '''[[Keith Relf]]''', former singer for British [[rhythm and blues]] band [[The Yardbirds]], died while practicing his electric guitar. He was electrocuted by an improperly grounded amplifier.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gordon Polatnick |url=http://www.elvispelvis.com/electrocuted.htm |title=Electrocuted Page in Fuller Up, Dead Musician Directory |publisher=Elvispelvis.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1977: '''[[Tom Pryce]]''', a [[Formula One]] driver at the [[1977 South African Grand Prix]], was killed when he was struck in the face by a track marshal's fire extinguisher. The marshal, '''Frederik Jansen van Vuuren''', was running across the track to attend to Pryce's team-mate's burning car when he was struck, and killed, by Pryce's car.<ref name="Tom Pryce death">{{cite book |last=Tremayne |first= David|authorlink=David Tremayne |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=The Lost Generation |origdate= |origyear= 2006|url= |accessdate=2007-01-05 |edition= |date= |year= 2006 |month=August|publisher= Haynes Publishing|location= |isbn=1-84425-205-1 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter=Chapter 19 – A Moment Of Desperate Sadness|chapterurl= |quote=}}</ref>

*1978: '''[[Georgi Markov]]''', a [[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] dissident, was assassinated in London with a specially [[Bulgarian umbrella|modified umbrella]] that fired a metal pellet with a small cavity full of [[ricin]] into his calf.<ref name=casereopenedinduk>{{Citation| last=Brown| first=Jonathan | title=Poison umbrella murder case is reopened| newspaper=The Independent| location=UK| date=20 June 2008| url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/poison-umbrella-murder-case-is-reopened-851022.html | accessdate=16 May 2011}}</ref>

*1978: '''[[Janet Parker]]''', a British medical photographer, died of [[smallpox]] in 1978, ten months after the disease was eradicated in the wild, when a researcher at the laboratory where Parker worked accidentally released some virus into the air of the building. Parker is the last known smallpox fatality.<ref>[http://www.qmul.ac.uk/news/newsrelease.php?news_id=18 Twenty five years on: Smallpox revisited Queen Mary, University of London]{{dead link|date=December 2010}}</ref>

*1978: '''[[Kurt Gödel]]''', the Austrian/American logician and mathematician, died of starvation when his wife was hospitalized. Gödel suffered from extreme paranoia and refused to eat food prepared by anyone else.<ref>Toates, Frederick; Olga Coschug Toates (2002). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Practical Tried-and-Tested Strategies to Overcome OCD. Class Publishing, 221. ISBN 978-1859590690.</ref>

*1979: '''[[Robert Williams (robot fatality)|Robert Williams]]''', a worker at a Ford Motor Co. plant, was the first known human to be killed by a robot,<ref name="rlid">Robot firm liable in death, Tim Kiska, ''The Oregonian'', 11 August 1983.</ref> after the arm of a one-ton factory robot hit him in the head.<ref name="a">{{cite news|last=Kiska|first=Tim|title=Death on the job: Jury awards $10 million to heirs of man killed by robot at auto plant |pages=A10|publisher=[[Philadelphia Inquirer]] |date=1983-08-11|url=http://docs.newsbank.com/g/GooglePM/PI/lib00187,0EB295F7D995F801.html |accessdate=2007-09-11}}</ref>

*1979: '''John Bowen''', a 20-year-old of [[Nashua, New Hampshire]], was attending a halftime show at a [[New York Jets]] football game at [[Shea Stadium]] on December 9, 1979. During an event featuring custom-made remote control flying machines, a 40-pound model plane shaped like a lawnmower accidentally dove into the stands, striking Bowen and another spectator, causing severe head injuries. Bowen died in the hospital four days later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/lawnmower.asp |title=Flying Lawnmower Death – Grim Reaper (contains additional references) |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref><ref>[http://www.courant.com/ny-spsmain28112329894sep28,0,3404154.story It was a grand stage for excitement]{{dead link|date=March 2011}} by Joe Gergen, Hartford Courant, September 28, 2008.</ref>

=== 1980s ===

*1980: '''Monica Myers''', the 70-year-old mayor of [[Betterton, Maryland]], died when she slipped into a 25-foot tank of raw sewage and drowned in human waste. <ref>{{cite web|title=Mayor Takes Fatal Slip Into Sewage|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1346&dat=19800321&id=4DYwAAAAIBAJ&sjid=JfsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4105,2197169|work=Lakeland Ledger|accessdate=7 December 2011}}</ref>

*1981: '''David Allen Kirwan''' a 24-year-old, died from third-degree burns after attempting to rescue a friend's dog from the 200°F (93°C) water in Celestine Pool, a hot spring at [[Yellowstone National Park]] on July 20, 1981.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/hotspring.asp Hot Springs Death – Help Springs Eternal] at Snopes.com</ref><ref>Lee Whittlesey, ''Death in Yellowstone: Accidents and Foolhardiness in the First National Park''. Boulder, Colo. : Roberts Rinehart Publishers, ©1995.</ref>

*1981: '''[[Boris Sagal]]''', a film director, died while shooting the TV miniseries ''[[World War III (TV miniseries)|World War III]]'' when he walked into the tail rotor blade of a [[helicopter]] and was [[decapitated]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40911FE3E5C0C778EDDAC0894D9484D81 | work=The New York Times | title=Boris Sagal, 58, Movie Director, Dies After A Helicopter Accident | date=1981-05-24 | accessdate=2010-05-11 | first=Shawn G. | last=Kennedy}}</ref>

*1981: '''[[Kenji Urada]]''', a Japanese factory worker, was killed by a malfunctioning robot he was working on at a [[Kawasaki Heavy Industries Consumer Products and Machinery Company|Kawasaki]] plant in Japan. The robot's arm pushed him into a grinding machine, killing him.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/7001829?story_id=7001829 |title=Trust me, I'm a robot |publisher=Economist.com |date=2006-06-08 |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

*1981: '''Paul Gauci''', a 41-year-old Maltese man, died after welding a [[butterfly bomb]] to a metal pipe and using it as a mallet, thinking it was a harmless can.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20091029/local/boy-finds-lethal-wwii-bomb-in-qormi-valley |title=Boy finds lethal WWII bomb in Qormi valley |publisher=Timesofmalta.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

*1982: '''[[Vic Morrow]]''', actor, was [[decapitation|decapitated]] by a helicopter blade during filming of ''[[Twilight Zone: The Movie]]''. Two child actors were also killed; '''Myca Dinh Le''', who was decapitated, and '''Renee Shin-Yi Chen''', who was crushed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/notorious_murders/not_guilty/twilight_zone/1.html |title=The Twilight Zone Tragedy – Crime Library on truTV.com |publisher=Crimelibrary.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1982: '''David Grundman''' was killed near [[Lake Pleasant Regional Park|Lake Pleasant]], [[Arizona]] while shooting at cacti with his shotgun. After he fired several shots at a 26 ft (8 m) tall [[Saguaro Cactus]] from extremely close range, a 4 ft limb of the cactus detached and fell on him, crushing him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/saguaro.asp |title=Cactus Courageous – Death by Saguaro |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/content/printVersion/160293 |title=When Cactus and Civilization collide – Trifling with Saguaros can be Hazardous to one's Health |publisher=Phoenixnewtimes.com |date=1993-03-03 |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

*1982: '''Navy Lieutenant George M. Prior''', 30, died in [[Arlington, Virginia]] from a severe allergic reaction to [[Daconil]], a fungicide used on a golf course he attended. He had unwittingly ingested the substance through his habit of carrying the [[tee]] in his mouth when playing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/poison/golftee.asp |title=Fatal-A-Tee |publisher=snopes.com |date=2006-09-02 |accessdate=2011-03-06}}</ref>

*1983: '''Four divers and a tender''' were killed on the [[Byford Dolphin]] semi-submersible, when a decompression chamber [[Explosive decompression|explosively decompressed]] from 9 [[Atmosphere (unit)|atm]] to 1 atm in a fraction of a second. The diver nearest the chamber opening literally exploded just before his remains were ejected through a 24 inch (60 cm) opening. The other divers' remains showed signs of boiled blood, unusually strong [[rigor mortis]], large amounts of gas in the blood vessels, and scattered hemorrhages in the soft tissues.<ref>Giertsen, J.C. et al., "An Explosive Decompression Accident", The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 9(2):91–101, 1988.</ref>

*1983: '''[[Sergei Chalibashvili]]''', a professional diver, died as a result of a diving accident during the [[1983 Summer Universiade]] in [[Edmonton, Alberta]]. When he attempted a three-and-a-half reverse somersault in the tuck position from the ten meter platform, he struck his head on the platform and was knocked unconscious. He died after being in a coma for a week.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,954031,00.html?promoid=googlep | work=Time | title=Milestones: Jul. 25, 1983 | date=1983-07-25 | accessdate=2010-05-11}}</ref>

*1983: American author '''[[Tennessee Williams]]''' died when he choked on an eyedrop bottle-cap in his room at the Hotel Elysee in New York. He would routinely place the cap in his mouth, lean back, and place his eyedrops in each eye.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=MH&s_site=miami&p_multi=MH&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB35B891D6D7E0F&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM | title=Search Results}}</ref>

*1983: '''[[Jimmy Lee Gray]]''', during his execution in a Mississippi [[gas chamber]], died bashing his head against a metal pole behind the chair he was strapped into. The poisonous gas had failed to kill him but left him in agony and gasping for eight minutes.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/news/reportsfromabroad/macdonald/20071107.html "Might we make executions more civilized, please?"] from [[CBC News]]</ref>

*1983: '''[[Dick Wertheim]]''' was an American [[tennis]] linesman who died from blunt cranial trauma at a match at the [[1983 US Open (tennis)|1983 US Open]]. [[Stefan Edberg]] sent an errant serve directly into his [[groin]], causing him to fall and hit his head on the pavement.<ref>{{cite news |title=Odd mishap fells tennis official |curly=y |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=fwIMAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jFkDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7153,2693520 |work=Evening Independent |location=St. Petersburg, Florida |page=3-C |date=12 September 1983 |accessdate=20 November 2008}}</ref>

*1984: '''[[Tommy Cooper]]''', British comedian, died of a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] while performing during a live TV broadcast at [[Her Majesty's Theatre]] in London. Initially the audience, thinking it was part of the act, continued to laugh as he lay collapsed on the stage. He was then pulled from sight as attempts were made to revive him off stage.<ref>{{cite web|author=|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fHELTET6m84 |title=The death Tommy Cooper |publisher=Youtube.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1984: '''[[Jon-Erik Hexum]]''', an American television actor, died after he shot himself in the head with a prop gun loaded with a single blank cartridge. Hexum was playing [[Russian Roulette]] during a break in filming.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/18/us/wounding-of-actor-on-coast-is-laid-to-russian-roulette.html | work=The New York Times | title=Wounding Of Actor On Coast Is Laid To Russian Roulette | date=1984-10-18}}</ref>

*1986: '''Hrand Arakelian''', a [[The Brink's Company|Brink]]'s [[armored truck]] guard, was crushed by several 25-pound boxes of quarters when the driver braked suddenly in [[Los Angeles, California]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1986-02-04/local/me-4114_1_armored-truck-guard|title=4 February: 1986: Boxes of Coins Crush Brink's Guard to Death|work=Los Angeles Times|author=Roxana Kopetman |accessdate=Feb 06, 2011| date=1986-02-04}}</ref>

*1986: More than 1,700 were killed after a '''[[limnic eruption]]''' from [[Lake Nyos]] in [[Cameroon]], released approximately 100 million cubic meters of [[carbon dioxide]] that quickly descended on the lake and killed oxygen-dependent life within a 15-mile (25 kilometer) radius, including three villages. The same phenomenon is also blamed for the deaths of 37 near [[Lake Monoun]] in 1984.<ref name=BBC>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/21/newsid_3380000/3380803.stm|title=21 August: 1986: Hundreds gassed in Cameroon lake disaster|publisher=BBC|author=BBC contributors|accessdate=May 20, 2009 | date=1986-08-21}}</ref>

*1987: '''[[R. Budd Dwyer|Budd Dwyer]]''', the State Treasurer of Pennsylvania, committed suicide during a televised press conference in [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania]]. Facing a potential 55-year jail sentence for alleged involvement in a [[Conspiracy (crime)|conspiracy]], Dwyer shot himself in the head with a revolver.<ref name="nytimes.1987">{{cite news |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFDF1638F930A15752C0A961948260 | title=OFFICIAL CALLS IN PRESS AND KILLS HIMSELF | last=Stevens | first=William K. | date=January 23, 1987 | work=The New York Times | accessdate=2008-09-11}}</ref>

*1987: '''Franco Brun''', a 22-year-old prisoner at [[Toronto East Detention Centre]], in Toronto, Ontario, choked to death after attempting to swallow a [[Gideon's Bible]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aintnowaytogo.com/bibleEat.htm |title=Food for thought |publisher=Aint No Way To Go |date=1987-09-01 |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1988: '''Clarabelle Lansing''', an [[Aloha Airlines Flight 243]] flight attendant, was sucked out of a Boeing 737 when a large section of its fuselage tore off in mid flight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/GenPDF.asp?id=DCA88MA054&rpt=fa |title=NTSB Factual Report (PDF) |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}{{dead link|date=August 2011}}</ref>

=== 1990s ===

*1991: '''Maximo Rene Menendez''', a 25-year-old man from Miami, fell into a coma and eventually died after drinking a Colombian soft drink that had been laced with cocaine in an apparent smuggling scheme.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1990-08-21/news/mn-978_1_life-support |title=Life Support Ended; Cocaine Victim Dies |publisher=Articles.latimes.com |date=1990-08-21 |accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref>

*1991: '''Edward Juchniewicz''', a 76-year-old man from [[Canonsburg, Pennsylvania]], was killed when the unattended ambulance stretcher he was strapped to rolled down a grade and overturned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/medical/emergent/gurney.asp |title=The Runaway Gurney |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Stretcher Accident Kills Man |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1991/05/04/us/stretcher-accident-kills-man.html?scp=1&sq=Stretcher%20Accident%20Kills%20Man&st=cse |agency=[[(AP)]] |newspaper= [[The New York Times]] |issn=0362-4331 |oclc=1645522 |date=May 4, 1991 |page=8 |accessdate=March 19, 2011}}</ref>

*1991: '''Carl Hulsey''', 77, of [[Cherokee County, Georgia]], was butted to death by a pet [[goat]] he had been training to act as a "guard dog".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/animals/snowball.asp |title=Snowball In Hell |publisher=snopes.com |date= |accessdate=February 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1991-05-24/news/9102160450_1_carl-hulsey-norman-sosebee-snowball | work=Chicago Tribune | title=`Killer` Goat Wins A Reprieve After Ending Abuse His Way | date=May 24, 1991 | accessdate= February 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.ajc.com/hotjobs/content/printedition/2009/03/02/whatever0302.html | work=Atlanta Journal-Constitution | title=WHAT EVER HAPPENED TO ... SNOWBALL THE KILLER GOAT: Ruminant was rescued | date=March 2, 2002 | accessdate= February 3, 2011}}</ref>

*1993: Actor '''[[Brandon Lee]]''', son of [[Bruce Lee]], was shot and killed by a prop gun during the making of the movie ''[[The Crow (film)|The Crow]]''. The accident happened after a mistake in prop handling procedures: In a prior scene a revolver was fired using a cartridge with only a primer and a bullet, but the primer provided enough force to push the round out of the cartridge into the barrel of the revolver, where it stuck. The gun was then reused to shoot the death scene of Lee's character. This time it was reloaded with a blank cartridge that contained propellant and a primer. When actor [[Michael Massee]] fired the gun, the bullet was propelled into Lee.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/movies/actors/brandonlee.asp |title=Brandon Lee's Death in 'The Crow' |publisher=snopes.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1993: '''[[Garry Hoy]]''', a 38-year-old lawyer in [[Toronto, Ontario]], fell to his death on July 9, 1993, after he threw himself against a window on the 24th floor of the [[Toronto-Dominion Centre]] in an attempt to prove to a group of visitors that the glass was "unbreakable." The glass did not break, but popped out of the window frame.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/window.asp Window Test Death – Through a Glass, Quickly] at Snopes.com</ref><ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20070315.RGOODMAN15/TPStory/? Goodman and Carr falls prey to rivals] by Jacquie McNish, The Globe and Mail, March 15, 2007.</ref>

*1993: '''Michael A. Shingledecker Jr.''' was killed when he and a friend were struck by a pickup truck while lying flat on the yellow dividing line of a two-lane highway in [[Polk, Pennsylvania]]. They were copying a daredevil stunt from the movie ''[[The Program]]''. Marco Birkhimer died of a similar accident while performing the same stunt in Route 206 of [[Bordentown, New Jersey]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CEED7123AF93AA25753C1A965958260&sec=&spon=&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink | work=The New York Times | title=Not Like the Movie: A Dare Leads to Death | date=1993-10-19 | accessdate=2010-05-11}}</ref>

*1994: '''[[Gloria Ramirez]]''' was admitted to [[Riverside County Regional Medical Center|Riverside General Hospital]], in [[Riverside, California]], for complications of advanced cervical cancer. Before she died, her caregivers claimed that Ramirez's body mysteriously emitted toxic fumes that made several emergency room workers very ill.<ref>{{cite web|last=Stone |first=Richard |url=http://discovermagazine.com/1995/apr/analysisofatoxic493 |title=Analysis of a Toxic Death | Cancer |publisher=DISCOVER Magazine |date=1995-04-01 |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1994: '''Jeremy Brenno''', a 16 year-old [[golf]]er from [[Gloversville, New York]], was killed when he threw his club against a bench in a fit of rage, breaking the shaft. Part of the shaft bounced back and pierced his heart.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/11/nyregion/youth-killed-as-club-s-shaft-pierces-heart.html | work=The New York Times | title=Youth Killed as Club's Shaft Pierces Heart | date=1994-07-11 | accessdate=2011-02-27}}</ref>

*1995: A '''39-year-old man''' committed suicide in Canberra, Australia by shooting himself [[Multiple gunshot suicide|three times]] with a pump action shotgun. The first shot passed through his chest, but missed all of the vital organs. He reloaded and shot away his throat and part of his jaw. Breathing through the throat wound, he again reloaded, held the gun against his chest with his hands and operated the trigger with his toes. This shot entered the thoracic cavity and demolished the heart, killing him.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Herdson PB |title=Shotgun suicide with a difference |journal=Med J Aust. |volume=173 |issue=11–12 |pages=604–5 |year=2000 |pmid=11379504 |url=http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/173_11_041200/herdson/herdson.html}}</ref>

*1996: '''[[Sharon Lopatka]]''', from [[Maryland]], was killed by Robert Glass who claimed that she had solicited him to torture and kill her for the purpose of sexual gratification.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/notorious_murders/classics/sharon_lopatka/1.html?sect=13 |title=Internet Assisted Suicide: The Story of Sharon Lopatka at CrimeLibrary.com |publisher=Trutv.com |date= |accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref>

*1997: '''[[Karen Wetterhahn]]''', a professor of chemistry at [[Dartmouth College]], died of mercury poisoning ten months after a few drops of [[dimethylmercury]] landed on her protective gloves. Although Wetterhahn had been following the required procedures for handling the chemical, it still permeated her gloves and skin within seconds. As a result of her death, regulations were altered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/dimethylmercury/dmmh.htm |title=Dimethylmercury and Mercury Poisoning |publisher=Chm.bris.ac.uk |date= |accessdate=2011-11-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaomt.org/testfoundation/dimethylmercury.htm |title=The Trembling Edge of Science |publisher=Iaomt.org |date= |accessdate=2011-11-16}}</ref>

*1998: '''[[Tom and Eileen Lonergan]]''' were presumed dead after being stranded after scuba diving with a group of divers off Australia's [[Great Barrier Reef]]. The group's boat accidentally [[abandon]]ed them after an incorrect head count taken by the dive boat crew. Their bodies were never recovered.<ref>[http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/08/04/1091557908320.html "A mystery resurfaces"], ''The Age'', 7 August 2004</ref>

*1998 October: The entire [[association football]] team of '''Bena Tshadi''' playing against Basanga was killed by [[lightning]] during a match in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. Everyone on Basanga, the home team, survived.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/203137.stm | work=BBC News | title=Lightning kills football team | date=1998-10-28 | accessdate=2010-05-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/football/2006/mar/15/theknowledge.sport | work=Guardian News | title=Did lightning kill an entire team? | date=2006-03-15 | accessdate=2011-09-02 | location=London | first=James | last=Dart}}</ref>

*1999: '''Dominguez Garcia''' was killed February 25, 1999, by an airborne cow in [[Vacaville, California]]. The animal had strayed onto the highway and was struck by another vehicle, launching it into his lane where it crashed through his windshield.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.sfgate.com/1999-02-26/news/17679047_1_heifer-freak-accident-unidentified-driver |title=Motorist Kills Cow, Flying Carcass Kills Other Driver |publisher=sfgate.com |date=1999-02-26 |accessdate=2011-09-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.sfgate.com/1999-03-03/news/17683208_1_heifer-freak-accident-truck-s-cab |title=Freak Accident Victim Was Vacaville Man |publisher=sfgate.com |date=1999-03-03 |accessdate=2011-09-15}}</ref>

*1999: '''[[Owen Hart]]''', a Canadian-born professional wrestler for [[World Wrestling Entertainment|WWF]], died while performing a stunt where he was to be lowered into the ring from the rafters of the [[Kemper Arena]] on a safety harness. The safety latch was accidentally released early and Owen dropped 78 feet (24 m) and landed chest-first on the top rope, severing his [[aorta]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biography.com/search/article.do?id=9542223 |title=Owen Hart Biography – |publisher=Biography.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

*1999: Professional golfer '''[[Payne Stewart]]''' and five others died when the [[1999 South Dakota Learjet crash|airplane they were on lost cabin pressure in-flight]], causing fatal [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]]. The aircraft continued on auto-pilot for several hours before running out of fuel and crashing in South Dakota.<ref>{{cite web|author=AirSafe.com, LLC |url=http://www.airsafe.com/stewart.htm |title=Payne Stewart Plane Crash Information |publisher=Airsafe.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

== 21st century ==
=== 2000s ===

* 2001: '''Bernd-Jürgen Brandes''', from Germany, was voluntarily stabbed repeatedly and then partly eaten by [[Armin Meiwes]] (who was later called the Cannibal of Rotenburg). Brandes had answered an internet advertisement by Meiwes looking for someone for this purpose. Brandes explicitly stated in his will that he wished to be killed and eaten.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4752797.stm "German cannibal guilty of murder"], ''BBC News'', 9 May 2006</ref>

* 2001: '''Gregory Biggs''', a homeless American man in [[Fort Worth, Texas]], was struck by a car being driven by [[Chante Jawan Mallard]] and became lodged in her windshield with severe but not immediately fatal injuries. Mallard drove home and left the car in her garage with Biggs still lodged in her car's windshield. Biggs died of his injuries several hours later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.courttv.com/trials/mallard/background.html |title=Woman faced murder trial after leaving accident victim in her car |publisher=Courttv.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

* 2001: '''Michael Colombini''', a 6-year-old American boy from [[Croton-on-Hudson]], New York, was struck and killed, at Westchester Regional Medical Center, by an [[oxygen tank]] when it was pulled into the [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) machine while he underwent a test. He had begun to experience breathing difficulties while in the MRI and when an anesthesiologist brought a portable oxygen canister into the magnetic field, it was pulled from his hands and struck the boy in the head.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/22/nyregion/hospital-details-failures-leading-to-mri-fatality.html |title=Hospital Details Failures Leading To MRI Fatality |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2001-08-22 |accessdate=2010-12-11 |first=Randal C. |last=Archibold}}</ref><ref>[http://www.mri-planning.com/articles/2005_newsletter/0508_four_years_after.html MRI Newsletter: Four Years After The Tragedy]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}.</ref>

* 2002: '''[[Death of Brittanie Cecil|Brittanie Cecil]]''', a 13-year-old American, was struck in the head by a [[hockey puck]] shot by [[Espen Knutsen]] at an NHL hockey game in [[Columbus, Ohio]]. She died two days later in the hospital.<ref>[http://static.espn.go.com/nhl/news/2002/0319/1354060.html "Girl dies after getting hit by puck at NHL game"], ''ESPN.com'', 20 May 2002</ref>

* 2002: '''Richard Sumner''', a British artist suffering from schizophrenia, went into a remote section of [[Clocaenog Forest]] in [[Denbighshire]], [[Wales]], handcuffed himself to a tree and threw the keys out of his reach. His skeleton was discovered three years later. There were signs that he may have later changed his mind.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/4264282.stm "Artist Died Handcuffed to Tree"], ''BBC News'', September 20, 2005</ref>

* 2003: '''[[Brian Douglas Wells]]''', an American [[pizza delivery]] man in [[Erie, Pennsylvania]], was killed when a [[time bomb]] fastened around his neck exploded. At the time of his death he had been apprehended by the police for robbing a bank. Wells told police that three people had locked the bomb around his neck and would not release it had he refused to commit the robbery.<ref>{{cite news| title=Pizza Deliveryman Who Robbed Bank Had Neck Measured for Bomb Collar| agency=Associated Press| date=2007-07-19| url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,289860,00.html| accessdate=2108-09-30 | work=Fox News}}</ref>

* 2003: '''Dr. Hitoshi Christopher Nikaidoh''', a surgeon, was decapitated as he stepped onto an [[elevator]] at Christus St. Joseph Hospital in [[Houston]], Texas, USA on August 16, 2003.<ref>Click2Houston.'' [http://www.click2houston.com/news/2412223/detail.html Doctor Decapitated In Elevator Accident] 18 August 2003</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/elevator.asp |title=Elevator Decapitation – Lift and Separate |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Wendy Grossman |url=http://www.houstonpress.com/2003-10-09/news/catching-elevators/ |title=Catching Elevators |publisher=Houstonpress.com |date=2003-10-09 |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref><ref>[http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id=2003_3680854 Doctor decapitated by malfunctioning elevator at hospital] by Peggy O'Hare, Jo Ann Zuniga, Stephanie Weintraub, Houston Chronicle, Section A, Page 1, 4 STAR Edition, August 17, 2003.</ref>

* 2004: '''Phillip Quinn''', a 24-year-old from [[Kent, Washington]], was killed while heating up a [[lava lamp]] on his kitchen stove. The lamp exploded and a shard pierced his heart.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/lavalamp.asp |title=Lava Lamp Death |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

* 2004: '''Ronald McClagish''', from [[Murrow, Cambridgeshire]] in England, died after being trapped inside a cupboard for a week. A wardrobe outside had fallen over, trapping him.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/cambridgeshire/4483137.stm Call For New Cupboard Death Probe] from BBC News</ref>

* 2004: An '''unidentified [[Taiwan]]ese woman''' died of alcohol intoxication after immersion for twelve hours in a bathtub filled with 40% ethanol. Her [[blood alcohol content]] was 1.35%. It was believed that she had immersed herself as a response to the [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] epidemic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fsijournal.org/article/S0379-0738%2804%2900389-5/abstract |title=Elsevier |publisher=Fsijournal.org |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

* 2004: '''Tracy J. Kraling''', 31 was killed at Regions Hospital in [[Minnesota]] after entering a walk-in [[autoclave]]. The door closed while she was inside, and the machine automatically started, scalding her with 180°F water.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antiscald.com/prevention/scaldnews/fined.php |title=Antiscald Inc |publisher=Antiscald.com |date=2004-11-04 |accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref>

* 2004: '''Francis "Franky" Brohm''', 23, of [[Marietta, Georgia]] was leaning out of a car window and decapitated by a telephone pole support wire. The car's intoxicated driver, John Hutcherson, 21, drove nearly 12 miles to his home with the headless body in the passenger seat, parked the car in his driveway, then went to bed. A neighbor saw the bloody corpse still in the car and notified police. Brohm's head was later discovered at the accident scene. <ref>{{cite web|last=Johnston |first=Lori |url=http://www.ajc.com/news/q-a-on-the-1198589.html |title='''AJC'', 11 Oct 2011 |publisher=Ajc.com |date=2011-10-11 |accessdate=2011-11-16}}</ref>

* 2005: '''[[Enumclaw horse sex case|Kenneth Pinyan]]''' from [[Seattle, Washington]], died of acute [[peritonitis]] after receiving anal intercourse from a stallion. The case led to the criminalization of [[zoophilia|bestiality]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington state]].<ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002569751_horsesex19m.html "Trespassing charged in horse-sex case"] ''The Seattle Times''</ref>

* 2005: '''[[Lee Seung Seop]]''', a 28-year-old [[South Korean]], collapsed of fatigue and died after playing the videogame ''[[StarCraft]]'' online for almost 50 consecutive hours.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/4137782.stm "Korean drops dead after 50-hour gaming marathon"], ''Times Online'', 10 August 2005</ref>

* 2006: '''Erika Tomanu''', a seven-year-old girl in [[Saitama, Saitama|Saitama]], Japan, died when she was sucked 10 metres down the intake pipe of a current pool at a water park.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://weekly.japantimes.co.jp/news/nn2006/girl-sucked-into-intake-at-city-run-pool |title=Girl sucked into intake at city-run pool |publisher=Japantimes.co.jp |date=2006-08-05 |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

* 2006: '''[[Steve Irwin]]''', an Australian television personality and naturalist known as [[the Crocodile Hunter]], died when his heart was impaled by a [[short-tail stingray]] barb while filming a documentary in [[Queensland]]'s [[Great Barrier Reef]].<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/09/04/australia.irwin/index.html CNN Reports: 'Crocodile Hunter' dead], September 4, 2006</ref>

* 2006: '''[[Alexander Litvinenko]]''', a former officer of the [[Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation|Russian State security service]], and later a Russian dissident and writer, died after being poisoned with [[Polonium|polonium-210]] causing [[radiation poisoning|acute radiation syndrome]].<ref>{{cite news

| title = Alexander V. Litvinenko
| work =
| publisher = The New York Times
| date = 31 May 2007
| url = http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/l/alexander_v_litvinenko/index.html
| accessdate = 27 April 2011
| first1=Alan
| last1=Cowell
| first2=Clifford J.
| last2=Levy
| first3=Scott
| last3=Shane}}</ref>

* 2007: '''[[Water intoxication#Notable cases|Jennifer Strange]]''', a 28-year-old woman from [[Sacramento, California]], died of [[water intoxication]] while trying to win a [[Nintendo]] [[Wii]] console in a [[KDND]] 107.9 "The End" radio station's "[[Hold Your Wee for a Wii]]" contest, which involved drinking large quantities of water without urinating.<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/california/la-me-water14jan14,1,1368543.story?coll=la-headlines-pe-california "Woman dies after being in water-drinking contest"]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}, ''The Los Angeles Times'', 14 January 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.knbc.com/news/10761800/detail.html "Woman's Death After Water-Drinking Contest Investigated"]{{dead link|date=March 2011}} ''KNBC.com'', 16 January 2007</ref>

* 2007: '''Humberto Hernandez''', a 24-year-old [[Oakland, California]] resident, was killed after being struck in the face by an airborne fire hydrant while walking. A passing car had struck the fire hydrant and the water pressure shot the hydrant at Hernandez with enough force to kill him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/hydrant.asp |title=Fire Hydrant Death – Fire Plugged |publisher=Snopes.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref><ref>[http://cbs5.com/local/Humberto.Hernandez.fire.2.456707.html Oakland Man Killed By Airborne Fire Hydrant]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}, CBS5.com, June 22, 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/offbeat/2007-06-23-fire-hydrant_N.htm |title=Flying fire hydrant kills Calif. man |publisher=Usatoday.com |date=2007-06-23 |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

* 2007: '''[[Kevin Whitrick]]''', a 42-year-old British man, committed suicide by hanging himself live in front of a webcam during an Internet chat session.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/article1560877.ece |title=Get on with it, said net audience as man hanged himself on webcam |accessdate=2007-05-27 |last=Bale |first=Joanna |date=2007-03-24 |work=Times Online |publisher=Times Newspapers Ltd | location=London}}{{dead link|date=March 2011}}</ref>

* 2007: '''[[Mike Coolbaugh]]''', a 35-year-old former Major League Baseball player, was killed when he was struck in the head by a line drive while standing in the first base coach's box during a minor league game between the [[Tulsa Drillers]] and the [[Arkansas Travelers]].<ref>{{web|author=|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/minorlbb/news/story?id=2945798 |title=Coolbaugh, 35, dies after being struck by ball |publisher=ESPN.com |date=2007-07-24 |accessdate=2011-10-19}}</ref>

* 2007: '''[[Surinder Singh Bajwa]]''', the Deputy Mayor of [[Delhi]], India, died after falling from his building's terrace while trying to fight off attacking [[Rhesus Macaque]] monkeys.<ref>{{cite web|author=|url=http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Bajwa-succumbs-to-injuries/230828/ |title=Bajwa succumbs to injuries |publisher=Expressindia.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

* 2008: '''[[Death of Abigail Taylor|Abigail Taylor]]''', a 6-year-old from [[Edina, Minnesota]], died nine months after several of her internal organs were partially sucked out of her lower body while she sat on an excessively powerful swimming pool drain. Surgeons had replaced her intestines and pancreas with donor organs, but she later succumbed to a rare transplant-related cancer.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-03-21-3982361687_x.htm Girl, 6, Dies From Swimming Pool Injury] ''USA Today'', 21 March 2008</ref>

* 2008: '''Gerald Mellin''', a U.K. businessman, committed suicide by tying one end of a rope around his neck and the other to a tree. He then got into his [[Aston Martin DB7]] and drove down a main road in [[Swansea]] until the rope [[decapitated]] him.<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1042676/Businessman-uses-Aston-Martin-decapitate-horrific-suicide-revenge-ex-wife.html Businessman uses Aston Martin to decapitate himself] ''Mail Online'', 8 August 2008</ref>

* 2008: '''David Phyall''', 50, the last resident in a block of flats due to be demolished in [[Bishopstoke]], near [[Southampton]], [[Hampshire]], England, [[decapitated|cut off his own head]] with a [[chainsaw]] to highlight the injustice of being forced to move out.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/death-was-carefully-thought-through-suicide-1025503.html|title= Chainsaw death was 'carefully thought through suicide'|last=Halfpenny|first=Martin|date=19 November 2008|publisher=The Independent|accessdate=2008-11-22 | location=London}}</ref><ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/hampshire/7737721.stm</ref>

* 2008: '''James Mason''', 73, of [[Middlefield, Ohio]], died of heart failure after his wife exercised him to death in a public [[swimming pool]]. Christine Newton-John, 41, pulled Mason around the pool and prevented him from getting out of the water 43 times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news-herald.com/articles/2008/10/13/news/doc48f3650c8776d713499114.txt |title=Wife under arrest for reckless homicide |publisher=news-herald.com |date=2008-10-13 |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

* 2008: '''Isaiah Otieno''', 23, a Kenyan student living in [[Cranbrook, British Columbia]], was killed when a [[Bell 206]] helicopter crashed on top of him as he walked along a residential street.<ref>[http://www.thewesternstar.com/World/2008-05-14/article-1463859/Helicopter-crash-in-Cranbrook-BC-kills-four-including-pedestrian/1 Helicopter crash in Cranbrook, B.C. kills four including pedestrian], [[The Western Star (Corner Brook)|The Western Star]], May 14, 2008</ref>

* 2008: '''Nordin Montong''', 32, a janitor at the Singapore Zoo, committed suicide by entering an enclosure containing white tigers and provoking them with brooms and a pail until they mauled him to death.<ref>[http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/389571/1/.html Malaysian worker dies after being attacked by white tigers at zoo], Channel NewsAsia, 13 November 2008</ref>

* 2009: '''Jonathan Campos''', an American sailor charged with murder, killed himself in his Camp Pendleton, San Diego, California, cell by stuffing toilet paper into his mouth until he asphyxiated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/32253584/ns/us_news-military/ |title=Sailor charged with murder commits suicide |publisher=MSNBC |date=2009-01-08 |accessdate=2010-12-11}}</ref>

* 2009: '''Sergey Tuganov''', a 28-year-old Russian, bet two women that he could continuously have sex with them both for twelve hours. Several minutes after winning the $4,300 bet, he suffered a fatal heart attack, apparently due to having ingested an entire bottle of [[Viagra]] just after accepting the bet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mosnews.com/weird/2009/03/10/marathone/ |title=Man dies after winning 12-hour sex marathon bet / |publisher=Mosnews.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-08}}</ref>

* 2009: '''[[Taylor Mitchell]]''', a Canadian [[Folk music|folk]] singer, was attacked and killed by two [[coyote]]s.<ref name="CBC">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/nova-scotia/story/2009/10/28/ns-coyote-attack-died.html|title=Coyotes kill Toronto singer in Cape Breton|publisher=[[CBC.ca]]|date=2009-10-28|accessdate=2009-10-29}}</ref><ref>''A History of Urban Coyote Problems'', Robert M. Tim & Rex O. Baker, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, 2007</ref>

* 2009: '''Vladimir Likhonos''', a Ukrainian student, died after accidentally dipping a piece of homemade chewing gum into explosives he was using on another project. He mistook the jar of explosive for citric acid, which was also on his desk. The gum exploded, blowing off his jaw and most of the lower part of his face.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/exploding-bubble-gum-kills-student-1837673.html|title=Exploding bubble gum kills student|date=2009-12-10|publisher=The Independent|accessdate=22 March 2010 | location=London}}</ref>

=== 2010s ===

* 2010: '''Jenny Mitchell''', a 19-year-old English [[hairdresser]], was killed when her car exploded after fumes, caused by chemicals mixing with [[hydrogen peroxide]] leaking from a bottle of hair bleach, ignited as she lit a cigarette.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2010/mar/25/peroxide-leak-hairdresser-car-death | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=Peroxide leak suspected in hairdresser's car blast death | first=Steven | last=Morris | date=2010-03-25 | accessdate=2010-05-11}}</ref>

* 2010: '''Amy Rose Coxall''', a 15-year-old British schoolgirl studying in Hong Kong, died of strangulation shortly after her scarf got caught in the wheel of a go-kart she was driving on a karting course.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/hongkong/7264633/British-schoolgirl-killed-in-freak-go-kart-accident-in-Hong-Kong.html British schoolgirl killed in 'freak' go-kart accident in Hong Kong], The Telegraph, U.K., February 18, 2010</ref>

* 2010: '''Vladimir Ladyzhensky''', a competitor from Russia, died in the [[World Sauna Championships]] in [[Finland]], after he had spent six minutes in a sauna that had been heated up to 110 °C (230 °F).<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/08/08/2976637.htm Finalist dies in World Sauna Championships], ABC News, Australia, August 8, 2010</ref>

* 2010: '''[[Mike Edwards (musician)|Mike Edwards]]''', 62, a musician and a founding member of rock group [[Electric Light Orchestra]], was killed when a {{convert|600|kg|lb|abbr=on}} bale of hay rolled down a hill and landed on his passing van in [[Devon, England]].<ref>[http://celebrity.uk.msn.com/news/articles.aspx?cp-documentid=154591437 Rock star crushed by haybale], MSN News, United States, September 3, 2010</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/mar/15/elo-cellist-new-safety-rules | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Steven | last=Morris | title=Family of ELO's Mike Edwards calls for new safety rules after hay bale death | date=2011-03-15}}</ref>

* 2010: '''[[Jimi Heselden]]''', owner of the [[Segway Inc.|Segway]] motorized scooter company, was killed when he accidentally drove off a cliff on a Segway at his estate.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/2010/09/27/2010-09-27_segway_company_owner_jimi_heselden_dies_in_england_after_riding_a_segway_off_cli.html | location=New York | work=Daily News | first1=Michael | last1=Sheridan | first2=Corky | last2=Siemaszko | title=Segway company owner James 'Jimi' Heselden dies in England after riding a Segway off cliff | date=2010-09-27}}</ref>

* 2010: '''Robert Boardman''', 63, was gored to death by a [[mountain goat]] at [[Olympic National Park]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/2010/10/17/2010-10-17_hiker_gored_to_death_by_angry_mountain_goat_robert_boardman_63_was_attacked_whil.html | location=New York | work=Daily News | first=Meena | last=Hartenstein | title=Hiker gored to death by angry mountain goat: Robert Boardman, 63, was attacked while eating lunch | date=2010-10-17}}</ref>

* 2010: '''Robert Gary Jones''', 38, was killed while jogging on a beach in [[Hilton Head Island, South Carolina]] when he was hit from behind by a small plane making an emergency landing.<ref>{{cite news |title=Plane kills Carolina beach jogger |url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2010/03/16/south-carolina-plane-kills-beach-jogger.html#ixzz13bXzU7vy |agency=[[(AP)]] |newspaper=[[CBC News]] |date=March 16, 2010 |accessdate=March 19, 2011}}</ref>

* 2010: '''A 71-year-old man from Annerstad, [[Sweden]]''' died after a hunter fired a single shot that passed through an elk before hitting and killing him<ref>{{cite news|author=|url=http://www.thelocal.se/37610/20111128/# |title=Hunter faces court for shooting elk, killing skier |publisher=thelocal.se |date=2011-11-28 |accessdate=2011-11-28}}</ref>

* 2011: '''Jose Luis Ochoa''', 35, died after being stabbed in the leg at a [[cockfight]] in [[Tulare County]], [[California]], by one of the birds that had a knife attached to its limb.<ref>{{cite news |title=Man stabbed to death by cockfighting bird |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-12393125 |newspaper=[[BBC News]] |date=8 February 2011 |accessdate=March 19, 2011}}</ref>

* 2011: '''Arthur Sexton''', 80, drowned after falling off a step ladder and landing upside down in a [[Rainwater tank|water butt]] containing only a couple of feet of water.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1378827/Gardener-drowns-falling-ladder-landing-head-water-butt.html | location=London | work=Daily Mail | title=Gardener drowns after falling off ladder and landing head-first in water bucket | first=Andrew | last=Levy | date=2011-04-21}}</ref>

* 2011: '''Acton Beale''', 20, died after falling from a balcony in [[Brisbane, Australia]], the only person known to have died while participating in a fad known as '[[planking (fad)|planking]]'.<ref>{{cite news|last=Shears|first=Richard|title=Bizarre internet craze 'planking' claims its first victim after man plunges from balcony to his death|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1387272/Planking-claims-victim-Acton-Beale-falls-balcony-death.html|accessdate=10 June 2011|location=London|newspaper=Mail Online|date=16 May 2011}}</ref>

* 2011: '''A 25-year-old woman from [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]] and Steven Leon, 40, of [[Gatineau]], [[Quebec]]''', died after an airborne [[American black bear]] smashed through the windshield of their SUV near Luskville, Quebec. The bear had been hit by another vehicle, launching it into the oncoming lane where it landed on the SUV.<ref>{{cite news|author=|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/story/2011/06/07/ottawa-bear-collision-luskville.html |title=2 killed in freak crash with bear - Ottawa - CBC News |publisher=Cbc.ca |date=2011-06-07 |accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref>

* 2011: '''Sheila Decoster''', 62, died from asphyxiation after falling head first into a recycling bin at her home in [[Toledo, Ohio]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-14469123 |title=BBC News - Sheila Decoster dies in freak bin accident in Ohio |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date= 2011-08-09|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref>

* 2011: '''Brian Depledge''', 38, died from asphyxiation at his home in [[Bradford, England]], after tripping and falling into a plastic clothes airer and trapping his neck in the rungs. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2035614/Father-dies-bizarre-clothes-horse-accident-likely-hit-meteorite.html |title=Bizarre death of man who suffocated when he became tangled up in a clothes horse |newspaper=Mail Online |date= 10th September 2011 |location=London |first=Paul |last=Sims}}</ref>

* 2011: '''Ally McCrae''', 23, died from a heart attack after being crushed by a cow carcass at an abattoir in [[Paisley, Scotland]]. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/3946003/Dead-cow-kills-Dinky-Ninja.html}}</ref>

* 2011: '''Jennifer Hepler''' died after leaving an action figure coated in lead based paints inside her vaginal canal for an extended period of time.

* 2012: '''PlayStation Vita''', 0, died at shortly after launch after it was revealed to have no games

* 2012: '''Gabe Newell''', 600 tonnes, died once the floor of Valve Headquarters could no longer withstand his weight. There was a 5.0 earthquake localized within the region he fell.

* 2012: '''Star Wars: The Old Republic''', died in a shipwreck at the hands of Captain Stanley Woo. This disaster was called "Titanic 2" by many.

* 2012: '''George Costanza''', died after a pizza delivery man asked him for a tip.

* 2012: '''Shazbot''', died after not going fast enough.

* 2022: '''Patrick Bateman''', died from a severe overdose of doubles.

-----------
<center>^ END OF RINE ^</center>

== See also ==

{{div col}}
* ''[[1000 Ways to Die]]''
* [[Darwin Awards]]
* [[Death from laughter]]
* [[List of entertainers who died during a performance]]
* [[List of association footballers who died while playing]]
* [[List of inventors killed by their own inventions]]
* [[List of professional cyclists who died during a race]]
* [[Multiple gunshot suicide]]
* [[Spontaneous human combustion]]
* [[Stunt#Stunts that have gone wrong|Stunts that have gone wrong]]
* [[Toilet-related injuries and deaths]]
* [[Final Destination (series)]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{death}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:unusual deaths}}
[[Category:Death-related lists]]
[[Category:Lists of people by cause of death]]
[[Category:Lists of things considered unusual|Deaths]]

[[bg:Списък на необичайни смъртни случаи]]
[[fr:Liste de morts insolites]]
[[pt:Anexo:Lista de mortes incomuns]]

Hämoproteine

2012-01-21T03:35:47Z

JimVC3: sp althought > although

[[Image:Haem-B-3D-vdW.png|thumb|right|200px|A [[space-filling model|model]] of [[Heme B]] cofactor.]]

A '''hemeprotein''' (or '''haemprotein'''; also '''hemoprotein''' or '''haemoprotein'''), or [[heme]] [[protein]], is a [[metalloprotein]] containing a heme [[prosthetic group]]- an organic compound that allows a protein to carry out a function that it cannot do alone.<ref name="answer">[http://www.answers.com/topic/prosthetic-group]</ref> Heme remains bound to the protein permanently, either [[Covalent bond|covalently]] or noncovalently [[chemical bond|bound]] or both.<ref name="knovel">[http://www.knovel.com/web/portal/knovel_content?p_p_id=EXT_KNOVEL_CONTENT&p_p_action=1&p_p_state=normal&p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=column-1&p_p_col_count=1&_EXT_KNOVEL_CONTENT_struts_action=/ext/knovel_content/view&_EXT_KNOVEL_CONTENT_contentType=2&_EXT_KNOVEL_CONTENT_SpaceID=0&_EXT_KNOVEL_CONTENT_VerticalID=0&_EXT_KNOVEL_CONTENT_SetID=14862709&_EXT_KNOVEL_CONTENT_BookID=4159&_EXT_KNOVEL_CONTENT_NodeID=5510132&_EXT_KNOVEL_CONTENT_Associated=true&_EXT_KNOVEL_CONTENT_SearchMode=false&sistring=&ststring=]</ref>

The heme contains a reduced iron atom, Fe2+ in the center of a highly hydrophobic, planar, '''porphyrin ring'''. The iron has six possible coordination bonds. The '''porphyrin ring''' has 4 nitrogen atoms that bind to the iron, leaving two other coordination positions of the iron available for bonding to the histidine of the protein and a divalent atom.<ref name="knovel" />

Hemeproteins probably evolved to incorporate the iron (Fe) atom contained within the protoporphyrin IX ring of heme into proteins. As it makes hemeproteins responsive to molecules that can bind divalent iron (Fe), this strategy has been maintained throughout evolution as it plays crucial physiological functions. Oxygen (O2) nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) binds to the iron atom in heme proteins. Once bound to the prosthetic heme groups, these molecules can modulate the activity/function of those hemeproteins, affording signal transduction. Therefore, when produced in biologic systems (cells), these gaseous molecules are referred to as gasotransmitters.

Because of their diverse range of biological functions, the structural and functional characterizations of hemeproteins are the most studied classes of biomolecules. This has led to many reported literature. Therefore, for the purpose of global analysis, the data of heme protein stucture-function relationship has been united in a web-based resource, The Heme protein Database (HPD): http://heme.chem.colubmia.edu/heme.php<ref name="info">[http://hemeprotein.info/PUBS/PDF/70.pdf]</ref> located at a new site http://hemeprotein.info/heme.php<ref name="database">[http://hemeprotein.info/heme.php]</ref>

==Roles==
Hemeproteins have diverse biological functions including:

* [[Oxygen transport]]
** [[hemoglobin]]
** [[myoglobin]]
** [[neuroglobin]]
** [[cytoglobin]]
** [[leghemoglobin]]
* [[Catalysis]]
** [[peroxidase]]s
** [[cytochrome c oxidase]]
** [[ligninase]]s
* [[Active transport|Active membrane transport]]
** [[cytochrome]]s
* [[Electron transfer]]
** [[cytochrome c]]
* [[Sensory]]
** [[FixL (Oxygen sensor)]]
** [[sGC (Nitric Oxide sensor)]]
** [[CooA (CO sensor)]]
*[[Biological defense|Defense]]
**[[catalase]]

==Hemoglobin and Myoglobin==
Hemoglobin and Myoglobin are examples of hemeprotein that are essential in the storing and transports of oxygen in mammals.<ref name="knovel" /> Hemoglobin is a quaternary protein that occurs in the red blood cell, whereas, myoglobin is a tertiary protein found the muscle cells of mammals. Although they might differ in location and size, their function are similar. Being hemeproteins, they both contain a prosthetic group.<ref name="knovel" />

His-F8 of the myoglobin, also known as the '''proximal histadine''' is covalently bonded to the 5th coordination position of the iron. And as an Oxygen binds to the 6th coordination position of the iron, a '''distal histidine'''(a histidine that doesn't bond directly with the Iron), His-E7 of the myoglobin binds to the Oxygen that is now covalently bonded to the iron. The same occurs for the hemoglobin, however, being a protein with 4 subunits, the hemoglobin contains 4 heme, therefore, allowing 4 Oxygen atoms to bind to the heme.<ref name="knovel" />

==External links==
* {{MeshName|Hemeproteins}}

{{Globins}}

==References==
<references />

--

[[Category:Hemoproteins|*]]

[[es:Hemoproteína]]
[[fr:Hémoprotéine]]
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Jenna Marbles

2012-01-20T02:57:20Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 24.245.255.236 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by ClueBot NG. (TW)

{{lead too short|date=January 2012}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jenna Marbles
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Jenna Mourey
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1986|09|15}}
| birth_place = [[Rochester, New York]], U.S.A.
| education =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = [[YouTube]] comedian, [[blog]]ger, go-go dancer
| years_active = 2010–present
| employer =
| organization =
| agent =
| known_for = [[Comedy]], [[vlogging]]
| notable_works =
| spouse =
| website = {{URL|http://jennamarblesblog.com/}}
| box_width =
}}

'''Jenna Mourey''', (born September 15, 1986) widely known as '''Jenna Marbles''', is an [[People of the United States|American]] [[YouTube]] personality.

==Biography==
Born in Rochester, New York, Mourey's mother teaches social media.
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.necn.com/07/16/10/Jenna-Mourey-I-have-no-fear-no-shame/landing.html?blockID=272403&feedID=4215 |title=Jenna Mourey: 'I have no fear, no shame' |publisher=Necn.com |date=2010-07-16 |accessdate=2011-10-04}}</ref>

Jenna attended Brighton High School in Rochester, NY.<ref>[http://www.suffolk.edu/15480.html Suffolk Athletics]</ref><ref name=blog>{{cite web|url=http://jennamarblesblog.com/about.html |title=About Me |publisher=Jenna Marbles Blog |date= |accessdate=2011-10-04}}</ref> She then moved to [[Boston]] to attend college at [[Suffolk University]], obtaining a B.S. in [[Psychology]], and [[Boston University]] where she received a Masters in [[Sport psychology]] and Counseling.<ref name="nytimes1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/14/fashion/with-grinding-an-unwanted-advance-at-the-dance.html |title=Rendering Grinders Toothless |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2011-08-12 |accessdate=2011-10-04}}</ref>

Jenna currently lives in [[Antarctica]].

== YouTube videos ==
Jenna Marbles came to prominence with her video "How To Trick People Into Thinking You're Good Looking", which had over 5.3 million views in its first week (33,639,993 views as of January 11th, 2012).<ref>{{cite web|author=Jenna Marbles |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OYpwAtnywTk&feature=relmfu |title=How to Trick People into Thinking You're Really Good Looking |publisher=YouTube |date=2011-02-15 |accessdate=2011-11-02}}</ref> The video was well-received by the female demographic. Her video "How To Avoid Talking To People You Don't Want To Talk To" was featured in an August article in the ''[[New York Times]]''<ref name="nytimes1"/> and [[ABC News]],<ref name=abcnews>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/US/jenna-marbles-anti-dirty-dance-teens-grinding/story?id=14314828 |title="Jenna Marbles'" Anti-Dirty Dance: Teens Say No to Grinding - ABC News |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |date=2011-08-16 |accessdate=2011-10-04}}</ref> in which Mourey said, "I'm sick and tired of guys thinking that just because I showed up at a club or a dance or a bar, that I want to have their genitalia touching my back side." The video has over 16,880,000 views as of January 2012.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jenna Marbles |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8wRXa971Xw0 |title=How To Avoid Talking To People You Don't Want To Talk To |publisher=YouTube |date=2011-02-15 |accessdate=2011-10-04}}</ref>

{{As of|January 2012}}, Jenna Marbles's channel has over two million subscribers. On 21 December 2011, Jenna released "Bounce that Dick", a rap song featuring Supricky06.

==See also==
*[[List of YouTube personalities]]
*[[Social impact of YouTube]]
{{Portal bar|Biography|Comedy|Internet}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.youtube.com/user/JennaMarbles JennaMarbles], Jenna Marble's YouTube channel
* [http://www.youtube.com/user/JennaMarblesVlog JennaMarblesVlog], Jenna Marble's 2nd YouTube channel

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Jenna Mourey
| Alias = Jenna Marbles
| Alias Origination = Jenna (Jenna Mourey) + Marbles (Jenna's Chihuahua)
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Internet Celebrity, Blogger
| DATE OF BIRTH = September 27, 1982
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [N/A]
| DATE OF DEATH = [N/A]
| PLACE OF DEATH = [N/A]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Marbles, Jenna}}
[[Category:American Internet personalities]]
[[Category:People from Rochester, New York]]
[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Suffolk University alumni]]
[[Category:Boston University alumni]]
[[Category:People from Santa Monica, California]]

Haymarket Books

2012-01-14T04:40:53Z

JimVC3: Adding sections; removing tag

{{unreferenced|date=December 2010}}
{{Infobox publisher
| image =
| parent = Center for Economic Research and Social Change
| status =
| founded = 2001
| founder =
| successor =
| country = [[United States]]
| headquarters = [[Chicago]]
| distribution =
| keypeople =
| publications = [[Book]]s
| topics =
| genre =
| imprints =
| revenue =
| numemployees =
| nasdaq =
| url = {{URL|http://www.haymarketbooks.org}}
}}

'''Haymarket Books''' is a [[non-profit]] [[left-wing politics|left-wing]] book publisher and distributor. It is published by the Center for Economic Research and Social Change.

==Background==
Haymarket Books was founded in 2001, and named in memory of the "Haymarket Martyrs" - five [[Anarchism|anarchist]] labor activists given the [[death penalty]] after the [[Haymarket Riot]] and now generally believed to have been innocent.

Haymarket publishes [[nonfiction]] from a left-wing or [[socialism|socialist]] perspective, with subjects focusing primarily on history and politics. It publishes both original work and out-of-print "classics." In addition to books, it publishes a magazine, [[International Socialist Review]], audio tapes, and political buttons.

==Original works==
Original works on Marxism and socialism include pamphlets and books by [[Karl Marx]], [[Friedrich Engels]], [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Vladimir Lenin]], and [[Rosa Luxemburg]] such as Marx's ''[[Das Kapital]]'', the ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'', Engel's ''Socialism Utopian and Scientific'', and Trotsky's ''Literature and Revolution''. Books on socialism, Marxism, and Leninism by contemporary socialists are also included. Haymarket also publishes accounts of various revolutions such as [[Alexander Rabinowitch]]'s ''[[The Bolsheviks Come to Power]]'', ''Building the Party'' and ''All Power to the Soviets'' by [[Tony Cliff]] about the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], along with books about the [[Spanish Revolution]] and the [[German Revolution]].

==Topics of books published==
Haymarket Books publishes a range of titles, including books about contemporary politics, such as [[Noam Chomsky]]'s Hopes and Prospects, [[Arundhati Roy]]'s Field Notes on Democracy, and [[Amy Goodman]]'s Breaking the Sound Barrier.

Books sold are separated into topics:
* Culture & Media,
* Economics,
* En Español,
* Environment & Science,
* Globalization & Imperialism,
* Labor Movement,
* Latin America,
* Literature & Fiction,
* Marxism & Socialism,
* Middle East,
* Racism & Civil Rights,
* U.S. History & Politics,
* Women's Rights,
* World History.

==External links==
* [http://www.haymarketbooks.org/ Haymarket Books]

[[Category:Publishing companies established in 2001]]
[[Category:Book publishing companies based in Illinois]]
[[Category:Companies based in Chicago, Illinois]]
[[Category:Small press publishers]]
[[Category:Socialism]]
[[Category:Political book publishing companies]]

{{US-publish-company-stub}}

Bank Hall

2011-12-31T03:35:39Z

JimVC3: sp visable > visible

{{About|The Jacobean mansion in Bretherton, Lancashire|[[James Gibbs]]' Cheshire mansion, originally called "Bank Hall"|Warrington Town Hall}}

{{Infobox building
|image = Bank_Hall_Daffodils.jpeg
|caption = The daffodils on the tower lawn at Bank Hall
|alt= Daffodils on the Tower Lawn at Bank Hall with a view of the south elevation of the hall
|map_type = Lancashire
|latitude = 53.67552
|longitude = -2.8152
|location_town=[[Bretherton]], [[Lancashire]]
|location_country=England
|architect= [[George Webster (architect)|George Webster]] 1832 [Renovation]
|client= [[George Anthony Legh Keck]]
|engineer=
|start_date=1608
|completion_date=1833
|date_demolished=
|cost=
|structural_system=[[Brick]]
|style=[[Jacobean architecture|Jacobean]]
}}
'''Bank Hall''' is a [[Jacobean architecture|Jacobean]] [[mansion]] south of the village of [[Bretherton]] in [[Lancashire]], England. It is a Grade II* [[Listed building#England and Wales|Listed Building]]. The hall was built on the site of a previous building in 1608 during the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] by the Banastre family who were [[Lords of the Manor]]. It was extended during the 18th and 19th centuries by descendants of the Banastres. Extensions were built for [[George Anthony Legh Keck]], in 1832–1833 to the design of architect [[George Webster (architect)|George Webster]], (1797–1864).

Legh Keck died in 1860 leaving no heir and the estates passed to the [[Baron Lilford|third Lord Lilford]]. The contents were auctioned in 1861 and the hall used as a holiday home until it was leased to tenants. During the [[Second World War]] the [[Royal Engineers]] used the building as a control centre. After the war the estate was returned to the Lilfords whose estate offices moved to the east wing of the house until 1972 when the house was vacated. The building was used as a filming location for the 1969 film ''[[The Haunted House of Horror]]''.

The house was vandalised causing rapid deterioration. In 1995 the [[Bank Hall Action Group]] was formed to raise public awareness of the property, collect funds, host events, and clear the overgrown grounds. In 2003 Bank Hall was the first property to feature in the BBC's [[Restoration (TV series)|Restoration]] television series and was second in the voting. Since 2006 the action group and [[Urban Splash]] have planned to restore the house as apartments retaining the gardens, entrance hall and clock tower for public access and the [[Heritage Trust for the North West]] (HTNW) plan to renovate the potting sheds and walled gardens.

==History==
For centuries Bank Hall was the manorial home of a branch of the Banastres, the lords of the manor descended from the [[Norman people|Norman]] Roger de Banastre, who built a [[motte and bailey]] castle at [[Prestatyn Castle|Prestatyn]] in Wales in about 1164. In 1167 the Banastres were evicted when [[Owain Gwynedd]], Prince of North Wales destroyed the castle and the family fled to Cheshire and Lancashire.<ref>Lopez, N (2009) "Robert Banastre", http://cybergata.com/roots/3619.htm</ref><ref>Medieval Mosaic Ltd "The Battle Abbey Roll. With some account of the Norman lineages. Vol I, Banastre"
http://www.1066.co.nz/library/battle_abbey_roll1/subchap56.htm 2007</ref><ref>Jeffrey L. Thomas, "Prestatyn Castle" http://www.castlewales.com/prestyn.html 2009</ref><ref>CastleUK.Net, "Prestatyn Castle", http://www.castleuk.net/castle_lists_wales/116/prestatyncastle.htm 2009</ref>

A structure from the time of [[Elizabeth I]] is recorded on [[Christopher Saxton]]'s map from 1579.<ref>{{Citation |title=Christopher Saxton's 1579 map |url=http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~genmaps/genfiles/COU_files/ENG/LAN/saxton_lancs_1579.htm |accessdate=2009-09-16 |unused_data=freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com }}</ref> In 1608 the Banastres built the first phase of the present hall and demolished the old timber building. The new house was constructed to a Jacobean style. The hall was rectangular with two rooms to the east, a room and staircase to the west and a grand hall in the centre containing a screen and fireplace. It is possible that there may have been a timber structure where the east wing stands and other wooden wings that were replaced as the house was extended. Recorded in the 1666 [[Hearth tax]], of the 99 hearths in Bretherton, Bank Hall had twelve.<ref>Farrer, William; Brownbill, J, eds. (1911), "Bretherton", A History of the County of Lancaster: Volume 6 (British History Online): pp. 102–108, http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=53080, retrieved 2010-11-15</ref>

The last of the Banastres, Christopher, who was [[High Sheriff of Lancashire]] in 1670, died in 1690 leaving two daughters. The property was inherited by the eldest, Anne who married Thomas Fleetwood. He planned to drain the surrounding marsh lands<ref>Lofthouse, J. (1972) "Lancashire's Old Families", Fleetwoods and Heskeths, Pg 121</ref> and in 1692, made the first attempt to drain [[Martin Mere]], with no success. In 1714 the first canal was improved and floodgates kept back the high tides.<ref>Rev. W. T. Bulpit, "Notes on
Southport and District" http://www.heskethbank.com/history/bulpit/bulpittltn.html 1908</ref> Their daughter, Henrietta Maria, married Thomas Legh of [[Lyme Park]] and ownership of the estate passed to the [[Leghs of Lyme|Leghs]].
[[File:Bank Hall Coat of Arms April 2009.jpg|thumb|alt=The Legh Keck coat of arms from above the front porch at Bank Hall|left|Legh Keck coat of arms above the front porch at Bank Hall]]
George Anthony Legh Keck moved from [[Stoughton, Leicestershire]] on inheriting the estate. He was the last resident owner and commissioned [[Kendal]] architect, George Webster, to extend the hall in 1832–1833.<ref>Bank Hall Action Group, "Bank Hall Record Book" http://www.bankhall.org.uk/documents/BHAG.pdf 2010</ref> Legh Keck was known for his collections of [[Taxidermy|stuffed]] animals and birds, which included sets of horns from many animal species from all over the world. He owned a collection of classical style statuettes and casts of figures by the sculptor [[Antonio Canova]].

In April 1861, a year after Legh Keck's death, the hall's contents were sold at auction. The catalogue survives and lists the items by room.<ref name="ReferenceA">Bank Hall Action Group, "Bank Hall Auction Catalogue −1861", 2005</ref> The house and estate passed to Legh Keck's brother-in-law, Thomas Littleton Powys, fourth [[Baron Lilford]],<ref>'Townships: Atherton', A History of the County of Lancaster: Volume 3 (1907), pp. 435–439. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=41363&strquery=Bank hall Date accessed: 07 August 2010.</ref> whose family seat was [[Lilford Hall]] in [[Northamptonshire]].<ref>Lilford Hall, "Biography of 3rd Baron Lilford" http://www.lilfordhall.com/3rd-Baron-Lilford.asp 2010</ref> Bank Hall was used as a holiday home by the Lilfords until 1899. The estate remains part of Lilford Estates and is managed by a land agent, Acland Bracewell & Co.<ref name="bankhallbretherton.webs.com"/>

===Tenants===
Local businessman [[Edward Frederick Crippin|Edward Crippen]], was resident in 1891 until his death in February 1892. [[Sir Harcourt Everard Clare]], clerk to [[Lancashire County Council]]<ref>Stockport Directory, (1907) "Public Officers of the County Palatine of Lancaster" http://interactive.stockport.gov.uk/Heritage/Directories/1907/page021.PDF</ref><ref>The London Gazette, Page 4693, "The London Gazette, 18 August 1896" http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/26769/pages/4693 August 18, 1896</ref> moved to the hall with his family who hosted garden parties in the grounds. The cricketer [[K. S. Ranjitsinhji|Ranjit Singh]] visited him during the 1920s. King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]] whilst visiting Lancashire in 1913 stopped at the lodge to greet the Clares and their staff.<ref>Sir Harcourt Clare (1913) "Waiting for the Royal Visit, Bank Hall, Bretherton", http://lanternimages.lancashire.gov.uk/index.php?a=subjects&s=item&key=SYToyOntpOjA7aToxNTEwO2k6MTtzOjEwOiJCcmV0aGVydG9uIjt9&pg=11</ref>
Cotton mill owner, Sir Norman Seddon-Brown and his family lived at the hall from the late 1920s until 1938, when they moved to [[Escowbeck]].<ref>Tarleton Parish Church, "RECTOR'S WEEKLY NEWS
14 March 1946" http://www.tarletonvillage.com/history/rectorsweekly/460314.html 1946</ref> The [[Aga Khan III]] is thought to have visited the hall during this time.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}

During the [[Second World War]] the [[Royal Engineers]] were billetted at Bank Hall. The north east wing, a service wing, housed a boiler-house, shed, laundry, dairy and cheese rooms, mangle room, brew house and wash house around a central courtyard.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Bank Hall Action Group, "Archive Maps" http://62.173.124.60/AnitePublicDocs/00062876.pdf 2010</ref> The buildings can be seen on the 1928 Ordnance Survey map which shows two greenhouses and three buildings in the walled garden. A pond was constructed on the site of the courtyard and a concrete drive installed. The army also constructed numerous [[Nissen hut]]s in the gardens and parkland, the remains of some of which are still visible. A number of wartime artifacts have also been unearthed including bullets, light bulbs and date stamps.

After the war the estates were returned to Lilford Estates, who had an estate office in the east wing until 1972.<ref>Paul Dillon and Geoff Coxhead, "Bank Hall, Bretherton, Lancashire", 2004</ref>

The exterior was used as a location for [[The Haunted House of Horror (1969 film)|''The Haunted House of Horror'' (1969)]].<ref>EOFFTV, "The Haunted House of Horror (1969)" http://www.eofftv.com/h/hau/haunted_house_of_horror_main.htm 2009</ref>

==Architecture==
[[File:Diaper Flushwork (1608) at Bank Hall, Bretheton.JPG|thumb|right|alt=A view of the [[Diapering|diaper]] (lozenge) [[flushwork]] on the north elevation of Bank Hall|[[Diapering|Diaper]] [[flushwork]] on a 1608 front elevation]]
Bank Hall, built in the Jacobean style in 1608, is a [[brick]] built mansion of three storeys with [[Dutch gables]] and a square central tower on the south front. Some of the original brickwork in a [[Diapering|diaper]] (lozenge) [[flushwork]] pattern is visible on one gable. The house was restored and enlarged by architect George Webster in 1832–3. He added a wing to the west elevations, built a porch on the north side, remodelled the 1608 north elevation windows, covered the roofs with blue [[Cumbrian]] [[slate]]s and finished the walls with stone details. Webster carried out the alterations sympathetically, in a style corresponding to the 17th century building, but the difference is marked by the colour of the brickwork and sharpness of the detail. Most windows were renewed during the restoration and two Italian style [[bay windows]] added to the south front, altering its appearance.<ref name=vch>{{citation |coauthors=William Farrer and J Brownbill (editors) |title=Bretherton|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=53080 |work=A History of the County of Lancaster: Volume6 |publisher=British History Online |pages=102–108 |year=1911 |accessdate=2010-07-10}}</ref>

The clock tower which rises to a height of {{convert|60|ft|m}}, was built between 1660 and 1665 and remodelled in 1832–33.<ref>Bank Hall Action Group (2004) Bank Hall, Bretherton, Lancashire, Written by Paul Dillon and Geoff Coxhead</ref><ref>Chorley Guardian, "Fears for tower at historic hall" http://www.chorley-guardian.co.uk/chorley/Fears-for-tower-at-historic.159641.jp 26 September 2001</ref> The tower, which contains an original oak [[cantilever]]ed staircase, is the chief architectural feature of the building on the south side.<ref name=vch/> The brick built tower has stone [[quoins]] at the corners and the staircase has eight original stone cross-windows with [[mullions]], [[transom (architectural)|transom]]s and hoodmoulds irregularly spaced at different levels.<ref name="LBO">{{Citation |title=Bank Hall Bretherton|url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-184269-bank-hall-bretherton
|publisher=Listed Buildings Online|accessdate=2010-07-25 }}</ref> The tower has a south facing 19th century clock in the top storey, (the north facing clock fell when the north east elevation of the tower collapsed during the 1980s) the cogs and wheels were manufactured by [[John Alker]] and the tower terminates in [[battlement]]s with angle and intermediate ornaments from the 19th century restoration.<ref name=vch/>

Decorative features include lavish stonework design and [[finials]] on the west wing bay window and false windows on the kitchen chimney stack wall creating a decorative feature on a plain wall. Other features from the 1832 renovation include Legh Keck's initials "G.A.L.K" and "1833" inscribed above the Italian bay windows. There were once four [[cast iron]] ram's heads holding [[Laurel family|laurel]] sprigs<ref>MyFamilySilver.com, "The Legh family crest" http://www.myfamilysilver.com/crestFinder/crestDetails.aspx?id=156711&searchName=Legh 2010</ref> and maiden's heads<ref>MyFamilySilver.com "The Keck family crest" http://www.myfamilysilver.com/crestFinder/crestDetails.aspx?id=155017&searchName=Keck 2010</ref> on the building and a [[coat of arms]] on the front porch. The lead rain hoppers have the initials "LK", and the porch has two carved [[Green Man|green men]] on either side of the doors. There are stone statues on the tower battlements. Another architectural feature are the chimney stacks, the oldest having a diamond shaped chimney, while others are square. The chimneys on the west wing are notable for their octagonal shape. The clocks on the tower featured a [[Fleur-de-lis]] at each corner of the clock faces thought to be from the Bannastre family coat of arms.<ref>MyFamilySilver.com, "Powys-Keck Family Crest" http://www.myfamilysilver.com/crestFinder/crestDetails.aspx?id=155018&searchName=Keck 2010</ref>

The Legh Keck coat of arms comprises a ram's head (from the Legh family, which can be seen at [[Lyme Park]]), a maiden's head and three [[Eurasian Sparrowhawk|sparrowhawk]]s (from the Atherton coat of arms).<ref>St. Thomas C.E. Primary School, "Coat of Arms - Athertons", http://www.leighsaintthomas.wigan.sch.uk/coat_of_arms.htm#Athertons, 2010</ref> and a [[rampant lion]] (from the Legh coat of arms, and which features twice).<ref>House of Names, "Family Crest and Coat of Arms - Legh", http://www.houseofnames.com/fc.asp?sId=5BBEB2CE-BDDD-4CE4-B85E-5340846EDA96&s=Legh 2010</ref> The Legh Keck motto is, "EN DIEU EST MA FOY" which translates to 'In God is my faith'.<ref>Armorial Gold Heraldry Services, "Family Mottoes - Legh Keck, EN DIEU EST MA FOY", http://www.heraldryclipart.com/l.html, 2010</ref>

Architectural features in the gardens once included a pair of stone lion statues at the front porch, a pair of {{convert|12|ft|m}} concrete statues (thought to be of a gothic floral design) near the front porch with the Legh Keck crest symbols, and a [[sundial]], which have all now disappeared.

==Interiors==
Little is known about the interior before the renovations of 1832–1833, which saw the great hall split into an entrance hall with a marble floor and a dining room with a grand fireplace. A ground floor room in the north wing was panelled with oak from [[Carr House]], also on the estate. There was a 17th-century fireplace with a peacock carved on the chimney-piece in one of the upstairs bedrooms<ref name=vch/> matching a peacock design on the [[Delftware|Delft tiles]] of the fireplace. Other delft tiles were found in the rubble inside the house.
Legh Keck collected sculptures and antiques; the floors furnished with [[Turkish carpets]], horns and animal heads from around the world, family portraits dating back to 17th century and oak and mahogany carved furniture from the 17th and 18th centuries. Numerous [[Wedgwood]] items were among the contents sold at auction in 1861 after the death of Legh Keck.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==Current condition==
[[File:The Clock Tower.jpeg|thumb|right|alt=A view of the clock tower covered in scaffolding|A view of the clock tower in 2008]]
The building has been subject to vandalism and deterioration, caused by the theft of [[lead]] from the roof. In the early 1980s, the Lilford Trust applied unsuccessfully for planning permission to turn the house and grounds into a country club and golf course. A large mural, subject unknown, painted on the wall of the drawing room was destroyed when the west wing roof collapsed in the 1980s.

In 1952 Bank Hall was listed as a Grade II* Listed Building.<ref>English Heritage, (1999) "Images of England - Bank Hall, Bretherton", http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/Details/Default.aspx?id=184269&mode=quick</ref> In 2002 it was identified as one of 22% of buildings in the UK that are deemed to be at immediate risk of further rapid deterioration or loss of fabric.<ref>BBC News (2002), "Cash crisis threatens heritage sites", http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2119588.stm</ref> It is currently on the [[Buildings at Risk Register]].<ref>http://risk.english-heritage.org.uk/2010.aspx?id=1175&rt=0&pn=1&st=a&ctype=all&crit=bank+hall</ref>
It is on the [[English Heritage]] "Heritage at risk register 2009", described as in very bad condition and priority B for restoration and conservation.<ref>Lancashire Evening Post (2003) "Historic Buildings key to regeneration", http://www.lep.co.uk/news/historic_buildings_key_to_regeneration_1_138115</ref> As of 2010, the house remains in a ruinous state.<ref>Lancashire County Council, (2010) "The State of Lancashire Report", http://www.lancashire.gov.uk/office_of_the_chief_executive/lancashireprofile/misc/swot5.asp</ref> The west wing roof and north-east corner of the clock tower collapsed in the early 1980s and has continued to deteriorate, losing a clock face and ¾ of the statues from the battlements.<ref>English Heritage (1985) "Building Survey - Bank Hall, Liverpool Road, Bretherton", http://91.194.152.202/AnitePublicDocs/00062678.pdf</ref> In 2001 listed building consent was granted to carry out structural work to the tower,<ref>Chroley Borough Council (2001) "Listed Building Consent", http://91.194.152.202/AnitePublicDocs/00002551.pdf</ref> Three of the corner decorative pinnacles remain but the west elevation has a crack held together by scaffolding installed in 2002 during emergency repairs funded by the action group and English Heritage.<ref>English Heritage, "Bank Hall, Liverpool Road, Bretherton, Chorley, Lancashire" http://risk.english-heritage.org.uk/default.aspx?id=525&rt=1&pn=96&st=a&ctype=all&crit= 2009</ref> At that time, what was left of the clock mechanism was removed from the tower and the fallen statues and clock face parts put into storage awaiting restoration.
In 2006 a water tank in the attic crashed through the floors in the Jacobean part of the building, causing major damage to the roof, a front gable and the rooms below. On the 26 July 2007 [[BBC Breakfast News]] featured the building, as one of sixteen buildings across the UK on the updated Buildings at Risk Register and which require emergency work. A [[cantilever]]ed oak staircase remains in the tower where, in 2008, part of the staircase from the south elevation collapsed, but caused no damage to the balustrade.<ref name="bankhallbretherton.webs.com">John Howard, "The Bank Hall Timeline" http://bankhallbretherton.webs.com/bankhalltimeline.htm 2007</ref>

In 2008 most of the slates were removed due to the fear of more gables collapsing because of pressure on the walls.<ref name="bankhallbretherton.webs.com"/> Three [[magnolia]] trees are growing out of the foundations of the east wing and cover the exterior, which has lost two gables. The east wing contains a ground floor room with no windows, a concrete ceiling and a steel door which remains unopened since the estate offices closed in 1972.<ref name="bankhallbretherton.webs.com"/> In September 2010, a collapse in the west wing occurred causing further damage to the 1832 stairwell. The rooms above the parlour where destroyed as the roof and wall collapsed and the back wall of the drawing room partially collapsed caused by an unsteady stone window. English Heritage assessed the damage as urgent and structural work was needed to prevent further collapse.<ref>Bank Hall Action Group (2010) "Winter News Letter - December 2010",</ref> In November 2011 contractors for the HTNW dismantled the north wing porch as the gable was at risk of collapse.

==Restoration==
[[Bank Hall Action Group]] was formed in 1995 to raise awareness of the need to restore the hall. The Heritage Trust for the North West plans to have a visitor entrance and heritage garden separate from the house restoration project when the building is restored.<ref>Bank Hall Action Group, "Organisations which support the work and aims of the Bank Hall Action Group" www.bankhall.org.uk 2002</ref>

Bank Hall's plight was highlighted when it [[List of Restoration candidates|featured]] in the first series of [[Restoration (TV series)|BBC's Restoration]] programme, on 8 August 2003.<ref>Chorley Guardian, "'VIPs' back Bank Hall bid" http://www.chorley-guardian.co.uk/chorley/39VIPs39-back-Bank-Hall-bid.567388.jp 30 July 2003</ref> It was described as a "beautiful and impressive Jacobean country house" coming second in the voting.<ref>BBC, "Restoration, Series 1 – Bank Hall" http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/restoration/2003/#bankhall 2003</ref>

In 2003 the cost of restoring the shell of the building was estimated at £3 million.<ref>Spatial Planning Environmental Department in Lancashire, "8.1 Built Environment Sites of Heritage Value" http://www.lancashire.gov.uk/environment/documents/SpatialPlanning/Environment.pdf 2007</ref> [[Urban Splash]] was engaged in 2006, with the aid of a [[Heritage Lottery Fund]] grant, to develop a business plan.<ref>Lancashire Evening Post, "Historic hall may be turned into flats" http://www.lep.co.uk/news/Historic-hall-may-be-turned.1630871.jp 2006</ref> It envisaged creating 12 housing units within the hall, 23 houses in two courtyards in the former orchard<ref>Building Design, "Riches Hawley Mikhail Architects" http://www.bdonline.co.uk/story.asp?storycode=3096943 2007</ref> with the action group retaining the entrance hall, clock tower and upper rooms for public access.<ref>Urban Splash, "NPA Historic Landscape Report", http://91.194.152.202/AniteIM.WebSearch/Results.aspx?grdResultsP=2 09 December 2010</ref> The project is worth £6 million with proceeds from the sale of the houses and a £1.5m grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund funding the restoration of the building.<ref>Southport Visiter, "Restoration Plan to save Bank Hall in Bretherton" http://www.southportvisiter.co.uk/southport-news/southport-southport-news/2010/04/14/restoration-plan-to-save-bank-hall-in-bretherton-101022-26232554/ 14 April 2010</ref>

A structural report carried out in 2009 by Urban Splash enabled a plan of the building's interior to be developed.<ref>Urban Splash, "Structural Engineers Report" http://91.194.152.202/AniteIM.WebSearch/Results.aspx?grdResultsP=3 December 18, 2009</ref> It was hoped that work would commence in 2010.<ref>Nick Moreton – Southport Visiter, "Bank Hall car show brings in the crowds" http://www.southportvisiter.co.uk/southport-news/southport-southport-news/2009/07/31/bank-hall-car-show-brings-in-the-crowds-101022-24277443/ 31 July 2009</ref> After delays, planning permission was granted in February 2011.

==Estate==
[[File:Bank Bridge and Warehouse.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Bank Bridge, the warehouse, which carries the A59 road over the River Douglas|Bank Bridge and the warehouse in 2010]]
The [[Bank Hall Estate|estate]] is crossed by the [[River Douglas]] and its embankment provides flood protection for the low lying area. The [[Leeds and Liverpool Canal]] crosses close to the river and Grade II listed Bank Bridge carries the [[A59 road]] over river and canal. A Grade II listed warehouse is close to the bridge.

Bank Lodge, situated at a disused access road, is owned by the estate, and can be seen on the 1928 Ordnance Survey Map.<ref>Lancashire County Council – Lancashire Lantern, "The Lodge, Bank Hall, Bretherton" [http://lanternimages.lancashire.gov.uk/index.php?a=wordsearch&s=item&key=WczoxNToiQmFuayBIYWxsIExvZGdlIjs=&pg=1 Bank Hall Lodge in 1910] 2005</ref>
[[File:Bank Hall Farm December 16th 2006 2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A view of the Bank Hall farm house|Bank Hall farm house in 2006]]
Bank Hall Farm, the home farm whose [[Elizabethan]] long barn built in the early 17th century, is Grade II listed. It was extended in the early 19th century and converted into residences in 2004.<ref>Findaproperty.com, "Lilac Cottage – 4 bedroom cottage for sale in Bretherton, Lancashire" http://www.findaproperty.com/displayprop.aspx?edid=00&salerent=0&pid=4103615 2010</ref>
Between the fields and the barns was a timber yard. The estate offices, blacksmith's forge and coach house were housed on the farm. The action group use the coach house and offices as a temporary visitor centre.<ref name="bankhallbretherton.webs.com"/>

Along a carriage drive, lined with [[lime tree]]s, connecting the hall to Bretherton are 'Crossford Lodge', a modern single-story building and Bretherton Lodge (The New Lodge).

Bank Hall Windmill built in 1741, is a Grade II listed building <ref>Mouseprice.com, "The Windmill, Liverpool Road, PR26 9AX" http://www.mouseprice.com/property-information/ref-19309299 12 August 2004</ref> situated between Bank Bridge and Plocks Farm.
[[Carr House]], built by the Stone family in 1613 was the home of [[Jeremiah Horrocks]], the first person to predict and observe the [[Transit of Venus]], in 1639.

==Gardens==
{{main|Bank Hall Gardens}}
[[File:Bank Hall Snowdrops Feb 2009.JPG|thumb|left|alt=A view of some of the snowdrops in a carpet that can be found at Bank Hall in late winter/ early spring.|Bank Hall snowdrop carpet, February 2009]]
Bank Hall is surrounded by {{convert|18|acre|ha}} of gardens, parkland and an [[arboretum]] created by George Anthony Legh Keck.<ref>Urban Splash, "NPA Historic Landscape Report" http://91.194.152.202/AniteIM.WebSearch/Results.aspx?grdResultsP=2 09 February 2010</ref> [[Bank Hall Gardens]] were neglected from 1980-1995 though some plants survived. [[Snowdrop]] carpets which cover much of the gardens in February were uncovered in 2001 when a small area was cleared.<ref>Lancashire Evening Post (2004) "Spectacular snowdrops attract the crowds", http://www.lep.co.uk/news/spectacular_snowdrops_attract_the_crowds_1_138985</ref> There are several varieties of [[daffodil]]s, [[Common Bluebell|bluebells]] and [[primula vulgaris|primroses]].

The oldest tree, a 550 year old [[English Yew|yew]], predates the hall, and the tallest, a [[Sequoiadendron|wellingtonia]], towers over the woodland. There are numerous [[Sequoia sempervirens|coast redwoods]]<ref>Redwood World, "Giant Redwoods in the UK – Bretherton – Bank Hall (Lancashire)" http://www.redwoodworld.co.uk/picturepages/bretherton.htm November, 2009</ref> and specimens of [[Metasequoia|dawn redwood]], [[Lebanon cedar]], [[atlas cedar]], [[Taxodium|swamp cypress]], [[Lime tree|lime]] and magnolia.

A conservatory was built for Elizabeth Legh Keck in the 1830s. The walled garden, constructed in 1835, has a greenhouse and potting sheds on its north wall and a heated outdoor wall. The Heritage Trust for the North West aims to restore this area into a heritage garden. A cricket field and tennis lawns were situated beyond a [[ha-ha]] and accessed via a yew tunnel.

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|2}}

===Bibliography===
* {{Cite book
| last = Bank Hall
| first = Action Group
| title = Bank Hall Auction Catalogue −1861
| publisher=Bank Hall Action Group
| year = 2005
| isbn = }}
* {{Cite book
| last = Action Group
| first = Bank Hall
| title = Bank Hall Record Book
| publisher=Bank Hall Action Group
| year = 2009
| isbn = }}
* {{Cite book
| last = Coxhead, Geoff
| first = Dillon, Paul
| title = Bank Hall, Bretherton, Lancashire
| publisher=
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-9530081-0-X }}
* {{Cite book
| last = Esstlemont
| first = Mary
| title = My Times at Bank Hall
| publisher=Bank Hall Action Group
| year = 2005
| isbn = }}
* {{Cite book
| last = Lane
| first = Charles H.
| title = Dog Shows And Doggy People
| publisher=Hutchinson & Co.
| year = 1902
| isbn = }}
* {{Cite book
| last = Wilkinson
| first = Phillip
| title = Restoration – Discovering Britain's hidden architectural treasures
| publisher=Headline Book Publishing
| year = 2003
| isbn = 0-7553-1251-1 }}
* {{Cite book
| last = Wilkinson
| first = Phillip
| title = Restoration – the story continues ...
| publisher=English Heritage
| year = 2004
| isbn = 1-85074-914-0 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.bankhall.org.uk The Bank Hall Website]
* [http://www.htnw.co.uk/ Heritage Trust for the North West]
* [http://bankhallbretherton.webs.com/bankhalltimeline.htm Full Bank Hall Timeline]
{{Commons category|Bank Hall}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2010}}
{{Coord|53.675|N|2.815|W|region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

[[Category:Bank Hall|*]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Chorley]]
[[Category:Grade II* listed buildings in Lancashire]]
[[Category:Grade II* listed houses]]
[[Category:Country houses in Lancashire]]
[[Category:Unused buildings in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1832]]
[[Category:Buildings on the Buildings at Risk Register]]
[[Category:Manor houses in England]]

Joe Napolitano

2011-12-24T03:43:26Z

JimVC3: sp televison > television

{{notability|1=Bio|date=November 2011}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Joe Napolitano
| image = Joe Napolitano Quantum Leap.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Napolitano directing an episode of ''Quantum Leap'' in 1991
| birth_name = Joseph Ralph Napolitano
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1948|03|04}}
| birth_place = [[Udine]], [[Italy]]
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| citizenship = [[United States|American]]
| nationality =
| other_names = J. R. Napolitano
| known_for =
| occupation = [[Film director]] [[Television director]]
| years_active = 1974–present
}}

'''Joseph Ralph Napolitano''' (born March 3, 1948) in [[Udine]], [[Italy]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[film director|film]] and [[television director]] who has worked in the in the film and television industries since the mid-1970s directing both [[Made for TV|TV films]] and multiple [[television series|episodic series]].

==Career==
Napolitano's television credits include directing 12 episodes of ''[[Quantum Leap (TV series)|Quantum Leap]]'', 2 episodes of ''[[The X-Files]]'', 2 episodes of ''[[Picket Fences]]'', 3 episodes of ''[[The Pretenders]]'', 2 episodes of ''[[L.A. Doctors]]'', 2 episodes of ''[[Dawson's Creek]]'', 4 episodes of ''[[Boston Public]]'', and 14 episodes of ''[[Strong Medicine]]'', as well as the 1991 film ''[[Earth Angel (TV film)|Earth Angel]]'', and the 1997 film ''[[Virus (film)|Contagious]]{{dn|date=December 2011}}''.<ref>{{cite book | title=Encyclopedia of Television Film Directors, Volume 1 | publisher=Scarecrow Press | author=Jerry Roberts | year=2009 | chapter=Joe Napolitano | page=411 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YB6tyFdq5TcC&lpg=PA354-IA3&pg=PA411#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn=0810861380}}</ref><ref name="NYT">{{cite news | url=http://movies.nytimes.com/person/104043/Joe-Napolitano/filmography | title=Joe Napolitano filmography | work=[[The New York Times]] | accessdate=November 07, 2011 | author=[[InBaseline]]}}</ref><ref name="Yahoo! TV">{{cite web|url=http://tv.yahoo.com/contributor/762565/credits;_ylt=AtMT8ezDKF0BT7v2u77sSUW.o9EF |title=Joe Napolitano credits |publisher=Yahoo! TV |accessdate=November 3, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Yahoo! Movies">{{cite web|url=http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1808794896 |title=Joe Napolitano (II) |publisher=Yahoo! Movies |accessdate=November 3, 2011}}</ref> The film ''Contagious'' earned an [[ALMA Award|American Latino Media Arts Award]] for actress [[Elizabeth Peña]] for 'Outstanding Actress in a Made-for-Television Movie or Mini-Series'.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://popcorn.oneindia.in/artist-awards/5222/2/elizabeth-pena.html | title=Elizabeth Pena: 1998 - ALMA Award - Outstanding Actress in a Made-for-Television Movie or Mini-Series for Contagious | publisher=OneIndia | accessdate=November 06, 2011}}</ref>

In the 1980s, Napolitano's work included acting as [[assistant director]] on [[feature film]] projects, working on films with directors [[Brian G. Hutton|Brian Hutton]], [[Danny DeVito]], [[Stuart Rosenberg]], [[Donald Bellisario]], [[Ron Howard]], [[Howard Zieff]], [[Terry Gilliam]], [[Antoine Fuqua]], and on multiple projects directed by [[Brian De Palma]].<ref name="NYT"/>

== Filmography ==
;As director<ref name="Yahoo! TV"/>
===Television===
* ''[[The Big Blue Marble]]'' (1974)
*''[[Earth Angel (TV film)|Earth Angel]]'' (1991) (film)
*''[[Reasonable Doubts]]'' (1 episode, 1991)
*''[[I'll Fly Away (TV series)|I'll Fly Away]]'' (1 episode, 1992)
*''[[Quantum Leap (TV series)|Quantum Leap]]'' (12 episodes, 1990-1992)
* ''[[Covington Cross]]'' (1 episode, 1992)
* ''[[Going to Extremes]]'' (1 episode, 1992)
* ''[[Northern Exposure]]'' (1 episode, 1993)
* ''[[Class of '96]]'' (1 episode, 1993)
* ''[[SeaQuest 2032]]'' (1 episode, 1993)
* ''[[The Adventures of Brisco County Jr.]]'' (1 episode, 1993)
* ''[[The X-Files]]'' (2 episodes, 1993-1994)
* ''[[M.A.N.T.I.S.]]'' (1 episode, 1994)
* ''Medicine Ball'' (1995)
* ''[[Earth 2 (TV series)|Earth 2]]'' (3 episodes, 1994-1995)
* ''[[Chicago Hope]]'' (1 episode, 1995)
* ''[[Picket Fences]]'' (2 episodes, 1995-1996)
* ''[[Murder One (TV series)|Murder One]]'' (1 episode, 1996)
* ''[[Viper (TV series)|Viper]]'' (1 episode, 1996)
* ''[[Virus (film)|Contagious]]{{dn|date=December 2011}}'' (1997) (film)
* ''[[The Practice]]'' (1 episode, 1997)
* ''[[JAG (TV series)|JAG]]'' (4 episodes, 1995-1997)
* ''[[Ally McBeal]]'' (1 episode, 1997)
* ''Hotel del Sol'' (1998)
* ''[[The Pretender (TV series)|The Pretender]]'' (3 episodes, 1997-1998)
* ''[[Mercy Point]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Wasteland (TV series)|Wasteland]]'' (1 episode, 1999)
* ''[[L.A. Doctors]]'' (2 episodes, 1999)
* ''[[Cold Feet (U.S. TV series)|Cold Feet]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Martial Law (TV series)|Martial Law]]'' (1 episode, 1999)
* ''[[Snoops (1999 TV series)|Snoops]]'' (1 episode, 1999)
* ''[[Dawson's Creek]]'' (2 episodes, 1998-2000)
* ''[[The Huntress (TV series)|The Huntress]]'' (2000)
* ''[[FreakyLinks]]'' (1 episode, 2001)
* ''[[Kate Brasher]]'' (2001)
* ''[[For the People]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Birds of Prey (TV series)|Birds of Prey]]'' (1 episode, 2003)
* ''[[Boston Public]]'' (4 episodes, 2001-2003)
* ''[[The District]]'' (1 episode, 2003)
* ''[[Strong Medicine]]'' (14 episodes, 2000-2006)
* ''[[Bones (TV series)|Bones]]'' (1 episode, 2006)
* ''[[Runaway (2006 TV series)|Runaway]]'' (1 episode, 2006)
* ''[[Cashmere Mafia]]'' (1 episode, 2008)

===Video games===
* ''[[Zork: Nemesis]]'' (1996)

;As first assistant director<ref name="Yahoo! Movies"/>
===Film===
*''[[The First Deadly Sin]]'' (1980) - Director: [[Brian G. Hutton|Brian Hutton]]
*''[[Blow Out]]'' (1981) Director: - [[Brian De Palma]]
*''[[Scarface (1983 film)|Scarface]]'' (1983) - Director: Brian De Palma
*''[[The Pope of Greenwich Village]]'' (1984) - Director: [[Stuart Rosenberg]]
*''[[Body Double]]'' (1984) - Director: Brian De Palma
*''[[Wise Guys (film)|Wise Guys]]'' (1986) - Director: Brian De Palma
*''[[The Untouchables (1987 film)|The Untouchables]]'' (1987) - Director: Brian De Palma
* ''[[Throw Momma from the Train]]'' (1987) - Director: [[Danny DeVito]]
*''[[Last Rites (film)|Last Rites]]'' (1988) Also as a second unit director - Director: [[Donald Bellisario]]
*''[[Parenthood (1989 film)|Parenthood]]'' (1989) - Director: [[Ron Howard]]
*''[[The Dream Team (film)|The Dream Team]]'' (1989) - Director: [[Howard Zieff]]
*''[[The Fisher King (film)|The Fisher King]]'' (1991) - Director: [[Terry Gilliam]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/77235/The-Fisher-King/details|title=Movies:The Fisher King (1991)|publisher=''[[The New York Times]]''|accessdate=September 24, 2011}}</ref>
*''[[Brooklyn's Finest]]'' (2008) Also as Co Producer - Director: [[Antoine Fuqua]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0621137/ Joe Napolitano] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
* {{AllRovi person|104043}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Napolitano, Joe
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = March 3, 1948
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Udine]], [[Italy]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Napolitano, Joe}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:American film directors]]
[[Category:American television directors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]

Casco Viejo (Panama)

2011-12-20T23:53:53Z

JimVC3: sp San Franciso > San Francisco

{{Expand Spanish|date=December 2011|Casco Antiguo de Panamá|fa=yes}}
{{Infobox World Heritage Site
|WHS = Historic District of Panamá
|Image = [[File:Calle Casco Viejo.jpg|220px|Casco viejo Street]]
|State Party = [[Panama]]
|Type = Touristic, Cultural and Global
|Criteria = II, IV, VI
|ID=790
|Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in the Americas|Latin America and The Caribbean]]
|Year=1997
|Session = 21st
|Extension = 2003
|Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/790
}}

'''Casco Viejo''' (Spanish for ''Old Town''), also known as '''Casco Antiguo''' or '''San Felipe''', is the historic district of [[Panama City]]. Completed and settled in 1673, it was built following the near-total destruction of the original Panamá city, [[Panamá Viejo]] in 1671, when the latter was attacked by pirates. It was designated a World Heritage Site in 1997.<ref name="World Heritage" />

==History==
Panama city was founded on August 15 of 1519 and it lasted one hundred and fifty-two years. On January of 1671, the Governor Juan Perez de Guzman had it set on fire, before the attack and looting by the pirate Henry Morgan. In 1672, Antonio Fernández de Córdoba initiated the construction of a new city, which was then founded on January 21, 1673. This city was built on a peninsula completely isolated by the sea and a defensive system of walls.<ref name=CASTILLERO>{{cite book|last1=Castillero|first1=Alfredo|title=UNESCO Guides: Panamá la Vieja and Casco Viejo|accessdate=2011-4-26|year=2004|publisher=UNESCO Publishing|isbn=92-3-103923-7}}</ref> Today this place preserves the first institutions and buildings of the modern city of Panama. It is known as ''Casco Viejo'' (Spanish for Old Town).

==Main sights==
*''La Catedral Metropolitana'' is the main catholic temple in Panama city.
*''[[Palacio de las Garzas|El Palacio de las Garzas]]'', is the governmental office and residence of the [[List of Heads of State of Panama|President of Panama]].
*Church and Convent of [[Saint Francis of Assisi]].
*Church of San José
*Church of La Merced
*Church and Convent of Santo Domingo: The Flat Arch
*Church and convent of the Society of Jesus.
*''Palacio Municipal'' , which dates from the beginning of the XX century.
*''Palacio Nacional''
*National Theater
*[[Panama Canal Museum]]
*Palacio Bolívar
*Góngora House
*''Plaza Bolívar''
*''Plaza Herrera''
*''Plaza de Francia''
*''Plaza de la Independencia''

==Gallery==
<center>
<gallery>
File: Museo del Canal.jpg|[[Panama Canal Museum]].
File: Plazadelaindependenciapanama.JPG|Plaza de la Independencia.
File: Casco viejo de panama1.jpg|San Francisco Church
File: Teatro Nacional Panamá.jpg|National Theater
File:Compañia de jesus.jpg|Society of Jesus
File:Altar de oro de San Jose.jpg|San José Church
File:Casco viejo panama.jpg| Typical houses
</gallery>
</center>

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="World Heritage">{{cite web
| url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/790
| title=Archaeological Site of Panamá Viejo and Historic District of Panamá
| work=whc.unesco.org
| publisher=[[UNESCO]] World Heritage Centre
| accessdate=27 May 2011
}}</ref>

}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|www.cascoantiguo.gob.pa}} {{es icon}}

{{coord|8|57|09|N|79|32|06|W|type:landmark_source:kolossus-frwiki|display=title}}

[[Category:History of Panama]]
[[Category:Panama City]]
[[Category:Populated places in Panama]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Panama]]

[[es:Casco Antiguo de Panamá]]
[[fr:Centre historique de Panamá]]

Muhajir (Volk)

2011-12-16T03:05:10Z

JimVC3: sp palying > playing

{{Use British English|date=October 2011}}
{{Other uses|Muhajir (disambiguation){{!}}Muhajir}}
{{ethnic group
|group= Muhajir people مہاجر
|image = [[File:Liaquat Ali Khan.jpg|75px]][[File:A.Q.Khan.jpg|75px]][[File:Pervez Musharraf 2004.jpg|75px]] [[File:Abdul Sattar Edhi.jpg|75px]][[File:Shahryarkhan-forsec.jpg|75px]][[File:Shaukat Aziz.jpg|75px]] [[File:Chundrigar1957.jpg|75px]][[File:Shoaib Mansoor's potrait.jpg|75px]][[File:sajjadalisnap.jpg|75px]][[File:ARKhan.jpg|75px]]
|caption=1st row: [[Liaqat Ali Khan]]{{·}}[[Abdul Qadeer Khan]]{{·}}[[Pervez Musharraf]] 
2nd row: [[Abdul Sattar Edhi]]{{·}}[[Shahryar Khan|Nawabzada Shahryar Khan]]{{·}}[[Shaukat Aziz]] 3rd row: [[Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar|I.I Chundrigar]]{{·}}[[Shoaib Mansoor]]{{·}}[[Sajjad Ali]]4th row: [[Syed Mohammad Ahsan|S.M. Ahsan]] 
|poptime=22–27 million<ref>Taken from [[The World Factbook]] figures based upon the 1998 census of Pakistan.</ref>
|popplace={{Flag icon|Pakistan}} [[Pakistan]]
|rels=[[Sunni]] and [[Shia]] Islam
|langs=[[Urdu]]
}}
{{Contains Urdu text}}
'''Muhajir''' (also known as '''[[Urdu]]-speaking people''') (Urdu: مہاجر) [literally – migrants] is a term commonly used especially by Pakistanis to describe the Muslim immigrants, and especially their descendents, who chose to settle in Pakistan and shifted their domicile after [[Partition of India|partition]] of [[British India]] to [[Pakistan]]. Some had participated in the movement for creation of Pakistan in 1947. They shifted from the Muslim minority provinces to Muslim majority provinces within of British India. Their principal language is Urdu. <ref> Life after partition : migration, community and strife in Sindh, 1947-1962 / Sarah Ansari.Karachi ; Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2005.</ref> The Muhajir now form the fourth largest [[ethnic group]] in [[Pakistan]], adter the [[Punjabi people|Punjabis]], [[Pashtoon]]s and [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]].<ref>Pakistan A Hard Country by Anatol Lieven</ref>

==Etymology==
The Urdu term ''muhajir'' ({{lang-ur|مہاجر}}) comes from the Arabic ''muhājir'' ({{lang-ar|مهاجر}}), meaning a "migrant", and the term is associated in early [[Islamic]] history to the migration of [[Muslim]]s from [[Makkah]] to [[Madinah]]. As a result of the [[partition of India]], a significant number of Muslims emigrated or were expelled from territory that became [[India]]. <ref> The long Partition and the making of modern South Asia : refugees, boundaries, histories / Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali Zamindar New York : Columbia University Press, 2007.</ref>A large portion of these migrants came from [[East Punjab]], and settled in [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Pakistani Punjab]], where sharing a common culture, and where many had tribal linkages, assimilated within a generation. However, the majority of the Muslim migrants who moved to [[Sindh]] hailed from what then the British Indian provinces of Bombay, Bihar, Central Provinces and Berar, Delhi, and the United Provinces as well as the [[princely states]] of [[Hyderabad]], [[Baroda]], [[Kutch]] and the [[Rajputana Agency]]. Most of these refugees settled in the towns and cities of Sindh, such as Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur and Mirpurkhas. Many spoke [[Urdu]], or dialects of the language such as [[Dakhani]], [[Khari boli]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Mewati language|Mewati]] and [[Marwari language|Marwari]]. Over a period of a few decades, these disparate groups sharing the common experience of partition, and political opposition to the military regime of [[Ayoub Khan]] and his civilian successor [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] evolved into a distinct ethnic grouping.<ref>A people of migrants : ethnicity, state, and religion in Karachi / Oskar Verkaaik Amsterdam : VU University Press, 1994</ref>

==Reasons for immigration==

The reasons for immigration of Urdu speaking people toward Pakistan needs to be put in context with the occurrences of the time. While for many Muhajirs, particularly the noble and aristocratic class, settling in Pakistan was strongly associated with the independence movement based on the [[Two-Nation Theory]]. For the vast majority however, fleeing to Pakistan was the only choice they had after suffering from communal riots in various parts of South Asia where the Muslim populations were small minorities and at the mercy of the majority community. Many had lost their properties and homes and arrived in Pakistan on foot especially from East Punjab after the Punjab was partitioned into two, and in result of the out-break of riots in Eastern part of that province. That resulted in harrowing tales of violence and atrocities that Punjab's muslims had to undergo. The movement to constitute a separate state comprising the Muslim majority provinces of South Asia, [[Pakistan movement]] was pioneered by the Muslim elite of the region and many notables of the [[Aligarh Movement]]. It was initiated in 19th century when Sir [[Syed Ahmed Khan]] expounded the [[Two-Nation Theory]] in Aligarh. Many Muslim nobles, Nawabs (aristocrats and landed gentry) supported the idea. As the idea spread it gained great support amongst the Muslim population of South Asia and in particular the rising middle and upper classes. The Muslims had launched the movement under the banner of the [[All India Muslim League]] and [[Delhi]] was its main centre where the headquarters of [[All India Muslim League]] (the founding party of Pakistan) based since its creation in 1906 and remained there up to August 1947. The participation in the movement on ideological grounds and supporting its Muslim cause with approximately half of the entire mandate in 1945–46 elections.<ref>The History of the Pakistan movement, Author Prof. M. Azam Chaudhary p. 368. published by Abdullah Brothers, Urdu Bazar Lahore.</ref>

==Origin and ancestral roots==

Muhajirs are a heterogeneous, multi-ethnic group of people which can be sub-divided into smaller more specific groups but who are bound by the Urdu language. For example, there are still important and distinct sub-groups such as the [[Hyderabadi Muslims]] still keep many of their unique cultural traditions, such as the unique Hyderabadi cuisine. <ref>Locating home: India's Hyderabadis abroad By Karen Isaksen Leonard</ref> Muslims from what is now the states of [[Delhi]], [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] were themselves of heterogeneous origin, and were roughly divided into two groupings, the '''Ashrafiya''', roughly ten percent of the population, and the '''Nau-Muslim''', literally new Muslims, on account of the fact that they were converts too [[Islam]] from [[Hinduism]]. The ashrafiya were further divided into four groupings, the [[Sayyid]] and [[Shaikh of Uttar Pradesh|Shaikh]], who claimed Arab ancestry, and the Pathan who were [[Pashtun]] and the [[Mughal (tribe)|Mughal]] who claimed to be [[Central Asia]]n. While the so-called Nau-Muslim were further divided into the castes such as the [[Muslim Rajput|Rajput]], [[Muley Jat|Jat]], [[Muslim Tyagi|Tyagi]], [[Kamboh]] and [[Dogar]], who were traditionally landowners and cultivators, and the so called occupational castes such as the [[Manihar]], [[Saifi]] and [[Momin Ansari|Ansari]], who were associated with crafts and trades.<ref>The caste system of northern India by Sir, Edward Arthur Henry Blunt</ref>People of Pashtun origin, according to 1931 [[Census of India]] made just over 6% of the UP Muslim population. <ref>Census of India 1931. Vol. 18, Pt. 2, United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Imperial and provincial tables.</ref>However, these two divisions are of historic importance only, as 6 decades of intermarriage between the two groupings has erased the distinction. What defines a Muhajir now is education, urbanism and the Urdu language. This seen by the fact that many Urdu speakers settled in rural Punjab such as the [[Ranghar]] and [[Meo]] are no longer considered Muhajir. While [[Gujarati people|Gujratis]], [[Burmese people|Burmese]], [[Bengalis]], [[Rajasthan|Rajastani people]] and [[Malwari]]s were and are also counted as Muhajirs in Pakistan due to the fact that they migrated to Pakistan after or during independence, despite the fact that they speak their own native languages and have their own distinct cultures, on account of their urban lifestyle.

==Demographics and distribution within Pakistan==
<ref>1998 census report of Pakistan.Islamabad : Population Census Organization, Statistics Division, Government of Pakistan, 2001.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Census History of Urdu Speakers in Pakistan'''
 
|-
! '''Year''' || '''Population of Pakistan''' || '''Percentage''' || '''Urdu Speakers'''
|-
| 1951 || 33,740,167 || 7.05% || 2,378,681
|-
| 1961 || 42,880,378 || 7.56% || 3,246,044
|-
| 1972 || 65,309,340 || 7.60% || 4,963,509
|-
| 1981 || 84,253,644 || 7.51% || 6,369,575
|-
| 1998 || 132,352,279 || 7.57% || 9,939,656
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Provinces of Pakistan by Urdu speakers (1998)'''
 
|-
! Rank || Division || Urdu speakers || Percentage
|-
| – || '''Pakistan''' || '''9,939,656''' || '''7.57%'''
|-
| 1 || [[Sindh]] || 6,407,596 || 21.05%
|-
| 2 || [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] || 3,320,320 || 4.51%
|-
| 3 || [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] || 138,400 || 0.78%
|-
| 4 || [[Islamabad Capital Territory]] || 81,409 || 10.11%
|-
| 5 || [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] || 63,032 || 0.96%
|-
| 6 || [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas]] || 5,717 || 0.18%
|}

==Muhajir diaspora==

In addition to those in Pakistan, a significant number of Muhajirs have left Pakistan and settled outside.

Regions with significant populations:
*{{flagcountry|United States}} 150,000
*{{flagcountry|Saudi Arabia}} 120,000
*{{flagcountry|Canada}} 80,000
*{{flagcountry|United Arab Emirates}} 50,000
*{{flagcountry|United Kingdom}} 25,000

In recent years a large numbers of muhajir businessman have migrated to malaysia,uae,qatar and canada mostly involved in shipping,textile,garment and real estate industry

Note: These figures are likely to include 2nd and 3rd generations who have been born overseas and are considered residents of their respective countries.

==Culture and lifestyle==

After independence, when the Muslims arrived in Pakistan, the values the migrants brought with them varied from region to region, depending on their origin. The rich heritage brought by migrants from the urban centres of India, such as Lucknow, Delhi, and Madras and Hyderabad which had been seats of Islamic culture and learning for centuries, were to have a major influence on the cities of Pakistan, especially Karachi. The notable 20th century Islamic scholar/author [[Muhammad Hamidullah]] who was involved in formulating the first constitution of Pakistan, left because he did not find the life and values in Pakistanis conducive to his background from [[Hyderabad Deccan]], settling in Paris as a refugee.
{{CN|date=November 2011}}

==Politics==

Upon arrival in Pakistan, the Muhajirs did not assert themselves as a separate ethnic identity but were at the forefront of trying to a construct an Islamic Pakistani identity, Muhajirs were a key vote-bank for the anti-hardline elements. Muhajirs dominated the bureaucracy of the early Pakistani state, largely due to their higher levels of educational attainment, gradually as education became more widespread, Panjabi's and Pashtuns as well as other native Pakistani's started to take their fair share of the pool and all groups are more balanced as per their national percentage. However, the critical early years was facilitated by the experience many Muhajir had both in politics and in higher education and was appreciated by all Pakistani's especially during the tenious early years after independence.

As previously mentioned, this situation changed by the 1970s when other ethnic groups began to assert themselves more strongly and demand more rights fuelled by the widespread introduction of education and rising literacy rates particularly amongst the countries two largest ethnic groups, the Panjabi and the Pashtuns. This included the right to use local languages rather than Urdu (leading to language riots in Sindh), and [[quotas in Pakistan]] for underprivileged ethnic groups in government and educational institutions. Seeing their privileged status threatened, the Muhajirs also began to assert themselves as a separate ethnic group and began to organise themselves politically. The most notable manifestations of this were the creations of the [[All Pakistan Muhajir Student Organization]] and the [[Muttahida Qaumi Movement]] (formerly the Muhajir National Movement) as a [[Secularity|secular]] [[Progressivism|progressive]] ethnic movement. Since then, the MQM has dominated politics in the Muhajir areas of Karachi, Hyderabad, and other urban centres in Sindh. In saying this, it should be mentioned that not all Muhajir's support the MQM. Even though the MQM has sought to convert itself from an ethnic movement to a nationwide political movement, its political stronghold is still largely restricted to its Muhajir base.

==Language==
[[Image:Zaban urdu mualla.png|left|thumb|The phrase ''Zaban-e Urdu-e Mualla'' ("The language of the exalted") written in [[Nastaʿlīq script]].]]
The original language of the Mughals had been [[Chagatai language|Turkish]], but after their arrival in South Asia, they came to adopt [[Persian language|Persian]] and later Urdu. Urdu is a [[Indo-European language]], and in the [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] subdivision. The word ''Urdu'' is believed to be derived from the Turkish word 'Ordu', which means ''camp''. It was initially called ''Zaban-e-Ordu'' or ''language of the army'' and later just ''Urdu''. The word 'Ordu' was later [[Anglicisation|Anglicised]] as 'Horde'. Urdu, though of South Asian origin, came to be heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic and somewhat by Turkish however, its grammatical structure is based on old Parakrit or Sanskrit. Urdu speakers have
[[File:Autograph of His Majesty Bahadur Shah of Delhi 29th April 1844.jpg|right|400px||thumb|Autograph and a couplet of Last [[Mughal Empire|Mughal Emperor]], [[Bahadur Shah II]], dated 29 April 1844]]

adopted this language as their mother tongue for several centuries having lost their own native tongues from the respective regions they originated from. Urdu has been the medium of the literature, history and journalism of South Asian Muslims during the last 200 years. Most of the work was complemented by ancestors of native Urdu speakers in South Asia. The Persian language, which was the official language during and after the [[Mughal emperors|reign of the Mughals]], was then slowly starting to lose ground to Urdu during the reign of Aali Gohar Shah Alam II. Subsequently, Urdu developed rapidly as the medium of literature, history and journalism of South Asian Muslims. Most of the literatory and poetic work was complemented by various historic poets of mughal and subsequent era among which [[Mir Taqi Mir]], [[Khwaja Mir Dard]], [[Mir Amman]] Dehalvi, [[Mirza Ghalib]], [[Bahadur Shah II]] Sir Syed Khan and [[Maulana Hali]] are the most notable ones. The Persian language which had its roots during the time of Moguls was then replaced later by Urdu to which Mogul kings like Shah Jahan rendered patronage as well as support. Many poets in Pakistan such as Zafar Iqbal, Sir Mohammed Iqbal, Faiz Ahmad Faraz, Munir Niazi and Saifuddin Saif contributed their efforts for the Urdu language.

==Contribution in literature==
[[Image:Ghalib poem in Nastaliq.jpg|thumb|left|400px|[[Ghalib]] poem in [[Nastaliq]]]]

===Poetry===

Muhajirs brought their rich poetic culture along with them which they held in their original states centuries ago prior to independence. Some of the most notable ones historic poets are Mirza Ghalib, Mir Taqi Mir, Mir Aman Dehalwi, Khawaja Mir Dard, Bahadur Shah Zafar, Jigar Muradabad etc. Subsequent to independence, many notable Urdu poets migrated to Pakistan, besides a large number of less famous poets, authors, linguists and amateurs. Consequently, Mushaira and Bait Bazi became a part of the national culture in Pakistan.
Josh Malihabadi, Jigar Moradabadi, Akhtar Sheerani, Tabish Dehlvi, and Nasir Kazmi are a few of the noteworthy poets. Later, Jon Elia, Parveen Shakir, Mustafa Zaidi, Dilawar Figar, Iftikhar Arif, Rafi Uddin Raaz and [[Raees Warsi]] became noted for their distinction.

===Prose===
{{See also|Urdu literature}}
With the emergence of Muhajirs in urban areas of Pakistan, Urdu virtually became the [[lingua franca]]. The country's first Urdu Conference took place in Karachi in April 1951, under the auspices of the [[Anjuman Taraqqi-i-Urdu]]. The Anjuman, headed by [[Maulvi Abdul Haq]] not only published the scattered works of classical and modern writers, but also provided a platform for linguists, researchers and authors. Among them [[Shan-ul-Haq Haqqee]], [[Shahid Ahmed Dehlvi]], Josh Malihabadi, [[Qudrat Naqvi]], [[Mahir-ul-Qadri]], [[Hasan Askari]], [[Jameel Jalibi]] and [[Intizar Hussain]] are significant names. Whereas [[Akhtar Hussain Raipuri]], [[Sibte Hassan]] and [[Sajjad Zaheer]] were more inclined to produce left-winged literature. Among women writers, [[Qurratulain Hyder]], [[Khadija Mastoor]], [[Altaf Fatima]] and [[Fatima Surayya Bajia]] became the pioneer female writers on feminist issues.

==Contribution in science and technology==
Muhajirs have played an extremely important and influential role in science and technology in Pakistan. Scientists such as [[Ziauddin Ahmed]], [[Raziuddin Siddiqui]] and [[Salimuzzaman Siddiqui]], gave birth to [[Science in Pakistan|Pakistan Science]] and later built the [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|integrated weapons program]], on request of [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]]. Muhahir later forwarded to developed the [[Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission|Pakistan's space program]] and other scientific and strategic programs of Pakistan. Many prominent scientists come from the Muhajir class including Dr. [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]], Dr. [[Ishfaq Ahmad]], [[Ghulam Murtaza]], [[Raziuddin Siddiqui]], Dr. [[Pervez Hoodbhoy]], Dr. [[Salimuzzaman Siddiqui]], and [[Atta ur Rahman]] to name a few.

==Contribution in art and music==
The Muhajir community brings a rich culture with it. Muhajirs have and continue to play an essential role in defining and enriching [[Culture of Pakistan|Pakistani culture]] and more significantly, music. Some famous Muhajir Pakistani musicians include: [[Nazia Hassan]], [[Mehdi Hassan]], [[Munni Begum]], and [[Ahmed Jahanzeb]]. Muhajirs contribution has not been limited to pop but has spanned various [[music genre]]s, from traditional [[Ghazal]] singing to rock. Muhajirs in Pakistan are also famous for their contribution towards the art of painting.

==Contribution in business and industry==
The intial business elites of pakistan were muhajirs. Some of the prominent ones are Habib Bank Limited, Hyesons, Isphani group, Schon group etc. Nationalization proved to be catastrphpic for muhajir business and final blow to it was given by the dictatorship of zia ul haq. But in recent years many muhajirs have established there business in pakistan contributing in textile, garment, leather, food prodcts, cosmetics and personal goods industry. Few of pakistan's biggest financial institution were founded or headed by muhajirs State bank of pakistan, EOBI, PIDC, United Bank Of Pakistan, First Women Bank etc, were established by muhajir bankers.

==Contribution in sports==
muhajir are active in sports in pakistan many muhajir are playing in pakistani cricket team with legend like javed miandad, saeed anwar,mohsin khan,sikhander bakht and moin khan and now with younger players like asad shafiq,fawad alam,khurram manzoor playing for the international side
other than cricket muhajirs are playing hockey,tennis,squash,badminton
new craze for bodybuilding and weightlifting is paicking up amongst the youthfull members of muhajir coomunity

==Cuisine==
{{Main|Muhajir cuisine}}
<gallery>
File:Nihari.JPG|[[Nihari]], the national dish of [[Pakistan]] was brought to Pakistan by the Muhajir people from [[Delhi]]<ref>http://www.angelfire.com/country/fauziaspakistan/nihari.html</ref>
Image:Boti Kabab.jpg| Boti Kebab
Image:Vegetarian Curry.jpeg|Thali with [[naan]], [[dal|sultani dal]], [[raita]], and [[shahi paneer]]{{dubious|date=December 2011}}
Image:Kebab.jpg|[[Kebab]]s are an important part of the ancient Muslim cuisine.
Image:Faluda.JPG|[[Faluda]], an ancient Hyderabadi dessert.
Image:Paan Making.jpg|[[Paan]] Shop
Image:Hyderabadihaleem.JPG|[[Haleem]]
Image:Samosa 1.jpg|The [[samosa]]
Image:India food.jpg|Traditional cuisine originated from the [[Lucknow#Culture|Old Lukhnow Nawab dynasties]].
Image:Chickenbiryani.JPG|[[Biryani#Hyderabadi_Biryani|Old Hyderabadi Biryani]].
Image:Navratan Korma.jpg|[[Korma]], a traditional cuisine originated from ancient Lukhnow royals.
Image:Bihari Kabab.JPG|Bihari Kabab, a traditional cuisine originated from [[bihar]].
Image:Mirchi ka salan and Dahi chutney.jpg|Chilli Sauce and Yougurt chutney – Biryani Accompaniments
</gallery>
Muhajirs clung to their old established habits and tastes, including a numerous desserts, savoury dishes and beverages. The [[Mughlai cuisine|Mughal]] and [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] heritage played an influential role in the making of their cuisine. In comparison to other native [[Pakistani cuisine|Pakistani dishes]], Muhajir cuisine tends to use traditional royal cuisine specific to the old royal dynasties of now defunct states of ancient India. Most of a ''[[Dastarkhān|dastarkhawan]]'' dining table include [[Chapati|chapatti]], rice, [[dal]], vegetable and meat [[curry]]. Special dishes include [[biryani]], [[Korma|qorma]], [[kofta]], [[Kebab|seekh kabab]], [[Nihari]] and [[Haleem]], [[Kofta|Nargisi Koftay]], Roghani Naan, [[Naan]], [[Sheer korma|sheer-qurma]] (sweet), qourma, [[chai]] (sweet, milky tea), [[paan]] and [[Hyderabadi cuisine]], and other delicacies associated with Muhajir culture.

==Intermarriages==
Since Pakistan's independence in 1947, there has been a steady rise in intermarriages that have taken place between [[Punjabi people|Punjabis]], [[Kashmiri people|Kashmiris]], [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]], [[Baloch people|Balochs]], [[Seraiki people|Seraikis]], [[Brahui people|Brahuis]] and Muhajirs. However majority of Muhajirs still prefer marriage within their communities.

==See also==
* [[List of Muhajirs in Pakistan]]
* [[Bangladeshis in Pakistan]]
* [[Burmese people in Pakistan]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* [http://ca.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761560851/Pakistan.html Pakistan] ([http://www.webcitation.org/5kx5Ej06X Archived] 2009-11-01) at [[Encarta]]
* [http://www.conflict-prevention.net/page.php?id=40&formid=73&action=show&surveyid=15/ Pakistan: The Sindhi-Muhajir confliict]
* [http://www.scribd.com/doc/24567580/Muhajir-diaspora Muhajir diaspora]

==External links==
* [http://www.yespakistan.com/education/edu_quotas.asp Quotas and Karachi]{{clarify|date=October 2010}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2011}}
{{Muhajir communities}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muhajir People}}
[[Category:Muhajir people]]
[[Category:Muhajir communities]]
[[Category:Social groups of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan peoples]]

[[bg:Мухаджири]]
[[es:Muhajir]]
[[id:Muhajir (Pakistan)]]
[[sh:Urdu Muhadžiri]]

Puget-Sound-Verwerfungen

2011-12-03T04:53:26Z

JimVC3: sp lattitude > latitude

{{anchor|PLmap}}[[File:Puget Sound faults.png|right|frame|The principal [[Puget Sound]] faults (approximate location of known extents) and other selected peripheral and minor faults. Southern tip of Vancouver Island and San Juan Islands at top left (faults not shown), Olympic Mountains at center left, Mount Rainer at lower right (near WRZ). Faults north to south: [[#DMF|Devils Mountain]], [[#SPF|Strawberry Point]], [[#UPF|Utsalady Point]], [[#LRF|Little River]], [[#SQF|Sequim]], [[#SWIF|Southern Whidbey Island Fault]], [[#CCFZ|Cherry Creek]], [[#RMFZ|Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone]], [[#LF|Lofall]], [[#CR|Canyon River]], [[#FC|Frigid Creek]], [[#SMF|Saddle Mountain faults]], [[#HCF|Hood Canal]], [[#SF|Seattle Fault Zone]], [[#Tahuya Fault|Tahuya Fault]], [[#TFZ|Tacoma Fault Zone]], [[#EPZ|East Passage]], [[#WRF|White River]] (extends east), [[#OS|Olympia Structure]], [[#ScCF|Scammon Creek]], [[#DF|Doty]] (extends west), [[#WRZ|Western Rainier Zone]], [[#SHZ|Saint Helens Zone]] (extends south). Also shown: part of the [[Olympic-Wallowa Lineament]].]]
{{bots|deny=Citation bot}}

The '''Puget Sound faults''' under the heavily populated Puget Sound region (Puget Lowland) of Washington state form a regional complex of interrelated seismogenic (earthquake-causing) geologic faults. These include (from north to south, see map) the:

* [[#DMF|Devils Mountain Fault]]
* [[#UPF|Strawberry Point and Utsalady Point faults]]
* [[#SWIF|Southern Whidbey Island Fault]] (SWIF)
* [[#SF|Seattle Fault]]
* [[#TF|Tacoma Fault]]
* [[#HCF|Hood Canal Fault]]
* [[#SMF|Saddle Mountain Faults]]
* [[#OS|Olympia structure]] (suspected fault)
* [[#DF|Doty Fault]]
* [[#SHZ|Saint Helens Zone and Western Rainier Zone]]

==General background==
=== Earthquake sources and hazard ===
The [[Puget Sound region]] (Puget Lowland<ref>"The Puget Lowland is a north-south-trending structural basin that is flanked by Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks of the Cascade Range on the east and by Eocene rocks of the Olympic Mountains on the west." {{Harvnb|Barnett|others|2010}}, p. 2, and see Figure 1. The [[Georgia Basin]] to the north is structurally related, but topographically demarcated by the [[Chuckanut Mountains]] near [[Bellingham, Washington|Bellingham]].</ref>) of western [[Washington (State)|Washington]] contains the bulk of the population and economic assets of the state, and carries seven percent of the international trade of the United States.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ballantyne|others|2002}}, p.2.</ref> All this is at risk of earthquakes from three sources:<ref>{{Harvnb|Bucknam|others|1992}}, p.1611; {{Harvnb|Fisher|others|2005}}, p.8; {{Harvnb|Karlin|Abella|1996}}, p. 6138.</ref>

* A great subduction earthquake, such as the [[Richter magnitude scale|magnitude]] M 9 [[1700 Cascadia earthquake]], caused by slippage of the entire [[Cascadia subduction zone]], from approximately [[Cape Mendocino]] in northern California to [[Vancouver Island]] in British Columbia.

* Intraslab ([[Benioff zone]]) earthquakes, such as the M 6.7 [[2001 Nisqually earthquake]], caused by slippage or fracturing on a small part of the subducting plate at a depth of around 50 km.

* Relatively shallow crustal earthquakes, generally less than 25 km (about 15 miles) deep, caused by stresses and faulting in the near-surface crustal structures. The energy released depends on the length of the fault; the faults here are believed capable of generating earthquakes as great as M 6 or 7.

[[File:OFR 99-311 fig48.gif|thumbnail|400px|Concentration of mid-crustal (10—20 km deep) seismicity in the Puget Lowland. ([http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1999/ofr-99-0311/seismaps.htm Fig. 48] from [[#{{Harvid|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}}|USGS OFR 99-311]])]]
While the great subduction events are large and release much energy (around magnitude 9), that energy is spread over a large area, and largely centered near the coast. The energy of the somewhat smaller Benioff earthquakes is likewise diluted over a relatively large area. The largest intra-crustal earthquakes have about the same total energy (which is about one-hundredth of a subduction event), but in being closer to the surface will have more powerful shaking, and therefore more damage.

One study of seismic vulnerability of bridges in the Seattle – Tacoma area<ref>{{Harvnb|Ballantyne|others|2002}}, p.11.</ref> estimated that an M 7 earthquake on the Seattle or Tacoma faults would cause nearly as much damage as a M 9 subduction earthquake. Because the Seattle and Tacoma faults run directly under the biggest concentration of population and development in the region, more damage would be expected, but all of the faults reviewed here may be capable of causing severe damage locally, and disrupting the regional transportation infrastructure, including highways, railways, and pipelines. (Links with more information on various hazards can be found at [[Seattle Fault#External links|Seattle Fault]].)

The Puget Sound region is not just potentially seismic, it is actively seismic. Mapping from the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network shows that the bulk of the earthquakes in western Washington are concentrated in four places: in two narrow zones under Mt. Saint Helens and Mt. Rainier, along the DDMFZ, and under Puget Sound between Olympia and approximately the Southern Whidbey Island Fault.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}}, figures 46—50. [http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1999/ofr-99-0311/seismaps.htm See the maps].</ref> The southern limit nearly matches the southern limit of the glaciation; possibly the seismicity reflects rebound of the upper crust after being stressed by the weight of the glacial ice.

===Discovery===
Thick glacial and other deposits, heavy vegetation, urban development, and a topography of sharp relief and rapid erosion obscures the surface expression of faults in this region, and has hindered their discovery.<ref>{{Harvnb|Harding|Berghoff|2000}}, p. 2.</ref> The first definite indications of most of these faults came from gravitational mapping in 1965,<ref>{{Harvnb|Daneš|others|1965}}.</ref> and their likely existence noted on mapping in 1980 and 1985.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gower|1980}}; {{Harvnb|Gower|others|1985}}.</ref> As of 1985 only the Saddle Mountain Faults had been shown to have [[Holocene]] activity (since the last ice age, about 12,000 years ago).<ref>{{Harvnb|Barnett|others|2010}}, p. 1</ref> Not until 1992 was the first of the lowland faults, the [[Seattle Fault]], confirmed to be an actual fault with Holocene activity, and the barest minimum of its history established.<ref>{{Harvnb|Adams|1992}}.</ref>

Discovery of faults has been greatly facilitated with the development of [[LIDAR]], a technique that can generally penetrate forest canopy and vegetation to image the actual ground surface with an unprecedented accuracy of approximately one foot (30 cm). An informal [http://pugetsoundlidar.ess.washington.edu/ consortium] of regional agencies has coordinated LIDAR mapping of much of the central Puget Lowland, which has led to discovery of numerous fault scarps which are then investigated by trenching ([[paleoseismology]]).<ref>{{Harvnb|Haugerud|others|2003}}; {{Harvnb|Harding|Berghoff|2000}}; {{Harvnb|Nelson|others|2003}}, p.1369; {{Harvnb|Sherrod|others|2004}}; {{Harvnb|Johnson|Nelson|others|2004}}, p. 2299.</ref> Marine [[seismic reflection]] surveys on Puget Sound where it cuts across the various faults have provided cross-sectional views of the structure of some of these faults, and an intense, wide-area combined on-shore/off-shore study in 1998 (Seismic Hazards Investigation in Puget Sound, or SHIPS)<ref>{{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}.</ref> resulted in a three-dimensional model of much of the subsurface geometry. Aeromagnetic surveys,<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|Wells|Weaver1999}}; {{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2002}}.</ref> seismic tomography,<ref>{{Harvnb|Calvert|Fisher|2001}}.</ref> and other studies have also contributed to locating and understanding these faults.

===Geological setting===
[[File:Tectonic forces in Cascadia.png|480px|thumb|Simplified view of tectonic forces affecting Washington. The Olympic Mountains (the lobe of grey "accretionary complex" rock sliding past the south end of Vancouver Island), having failed to subduct, are being pressed against the basement rock ("fixed block") of the North Cascades, which has been accreted on to the North American craton. This is blocking a stream of [[terranes]] that have been flowing northward in the trough above the subduction zone. As a result Washington is crumpling in a series of folds (dotted lines show [[syncline]]s and [[anticline]]s) and faults, and Oregon is rotating in a manner similar to a jack-knifing trailer. Folding has exposed patches of Crescent Formation (Siletz) basalt ("mafic crust", black). (USGS<ref>{{Harvnb|Parsons|others|1999}}, figure 5a.</ref>)]]

The ultimate driver of the stresses that cause earthquakes are the motions of the [[plate tectonics|tectonic plates]]: material from the Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] rises at [[Mid-ocean ridge|spreading centers]], and moves out as plates of [[oceanic crust]] which eventually are subducted under the more buoyant plates of [[continental crust]]. Western Washington lies over the [[Cascadia subduction zone]], where the [[Juan de Fuca Plate]] is subducting towards the east (see diagram, right). This is being obliquely overridden by the [[North American plate]] coming out of the northeast, which has formed a bend in the subducting plate and in the [[forearc]] basin above it. This bend has distorted the subducting slab into an arch that has lifted the [[Olympic Mountains]] and prevented them from subducting.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brandon|Calderwood|1990}}.</ref> For the past 50 million years or so (since the early [[Eocene]] epoch) these have been thrust by subduction up against the [[North Cascades]] ("fixed block" in the diagram), which sit on the North American Plate. This forms a pocket or trough – what one local geologist calls the "big hole between the mountains"<ref>Troost, [http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/jparsons/OCEAN310/Troost_origin_of_Puget_Sound.pdf '''The Origin of Puget Sound'''].</ref> – between the [[Cascades]] on the east and the [[Olympic Mountains]] and [[Willapa Hills]] on the west. This pocket is catching a stream of [[terranes]] (crustal blocks about 20 to 30 km thick<ref>{{Harvnb|Pratt|others|1997}}, p. 27,471.</ref>) which the [[Pacific plate]] is pushing up the western edge of North America, and in the process imparting a bit of clockwise rotation to southwestern Washington and most of Oregon; the result has been characterized as a train wreck.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}}, p. 43.</ref> These terranes were covered by the [[basalts]] of the Crescent Formation (part of the [[Siletz River Volcanics]]). Folding and faulting has exposed these basalts in some places (black areas in diagram); the intervening basins have been filled by various sedimentary formations, some of which have been subsequently uplifted. Glacially deposited and shaped fill covers most of the lower elevations of [[Puget Sound]]. This is the Puget Lowland. The principal effects of this complex interplay of forces on the near-surface crust underlying the Puget Lowland are:

* The [[basement]] rock of the Crescent Formation is being forced up on the southern, eastern, and northern flanks of the Olympic Mountains, and at various folds (wrinkles).
* Some of the upper-crustal formations (such as the Western and Eastern Melange Belts, see [[#SCFmap|map]]) have been pushed onto the older (pre-[[Tertiary]]) basement of the North Cascades.
* There is a general north or northeast directed compression within the Lowland causing folds, which eventually break to become [[dip-slip faults|dip-slip]] (vertical movement) [[thrust fault|thrust]] or [[reverse fault|reverse]] faults.
* Some [[strike-slip]] (horizontal) movement is expected along the peripheral faults (such as Southern Whidbey Island and Saddle Mountain faults).
Further complicating this is a feature of unknown structure and origin, the [[Olympic-Wallowa Lineament]] (OWL). This is a seemingly accidental alignment of topographic features that runs roughly east-southeast from the north side of the Olympic Peninsula to the [[Wallowa Mountains]] in northeastern Oregon. It aligns with the West Coast fault and Queen Charlotte Fault system of [[strike-slip]] fault zones (similar to the [[San Andreas Fault]] in California) on the west side of [[Vancouver Island]], but does not itself show any significant or through-going strike-slip movement. It is of interest here because the various strands of the Seattle Fault change orientation where they appear to cross the OWL,<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2002}}</ref> and various other features, such as the [[#TF|Rosedale monocline]] and Olympia structure, and a great many local topographical features, have parallel alignments. It may also be the original location of the Darrington—Devils Mountain Fault (the bowed fault seen [[#DMF|here]]).<ref>{{Harvnb|Tabor|1994}}, pp. 217, 230.</ref> The OWL appears to be a deep-seated structure over which the shallower crust of the Puget Lowland is being pushed, but this remains speculative.

===Uplift and basin pattern {{anchor|pattern}}===
[[File:Puget Lowland basins and faults.png|right|frame|[[gravity anomaly|Bouguer gravity anomaly]] map of the Puget Sound region showing basins and uplifts, and principal faults and folds, over outline of Puget Sound, Hood Canal, and east end of Strait of Juan de Fuca. Blue and green generally indicate basins (with lower density sedimentary rock), red is generally uplifted basalt of the Crescent Formation. Unlabeled lines northwest of Everet Basin = Strawberry Point & Utsalady Point faults; E-F = Seattle Fault zone; C-D = Tacoma Fault zone; A = Olympia Fault; Doty Fault is east-west dashed line just north of Chehalis Basin; curved dashed line = Hood Canal Fault; Saddle Mountain Faults are due west of "D"; Tahuya Fault between D & C. (Modified from {{Harvnb|Pratt|others|1997}}, plate 1.)]]
Most of these "faults" are actually zones of complex faulting at the boundaries between sedimentary basins and crustal uplifts. There is a general pattern where most of these faults partition a series of basins and uplifts, each about 20 km wide. From the north these are (see the map at right):

* '''Devils Mountain Fault zone''' (including Strawberry Point and Utsalady Point faults)
** Everett Basin
* '''Southern Whidbey Island Fault''' (SWIF)
** "Uplift of unknown origin" (Port Ludlow)
* '''Kingston arch''' (Lofall Fault<ref>Because of the geometry of the SWIF and the Kingston arch, the "uplift of unknown origin" between them is smaller, and the fault separating the uplift from the arch (the Lofall Fault, discovered relatively recently by {{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001|p=13,557}}) is shorter; it is not notably seismogenic.</ref>)
** Seattle Basin
* '''Seattle Fault zone''' (line E)
** Seattle Uplift
* '''Tacoma Fault Zone''' (line D)
** Tacoma Basin
* '''Olympia fault''' (line A)
** Black Hills Uplift
* '''Doty Fault / Scammon Creek Fault''' (dashed lines)<ref>Strictly speaking the southern edge of the Black Hills Uplift would be the southeast striking Scammon Creek Fault that converges with the east striking Doty Fault at Chehalis. In the angle between these is located the minor Lincoln Creek uplift, the Doty Hills, and, further west, an impressive chunk of Crescent basalt. If the pattern is continued to the southwest, along cross-section A-A' in Pratt's figure 11 (and missing the mapped trace of the Doty Fault), then the next basin is at Grays Harbor (not shown here). The Doty Fault/Chehalis Basin sequence follows the cross-section X-X' shown on the [[#PLmap|map]].</ref>
** Chehalis Basin

The Hood Canal Fault (and its possible extensions) and Saddle Mountain faults to the west are believed to form the western boundary to all this. On the east, the Devils Mountain Fault connects with the south striking Darrington Fault (not shown) which runs to the OWL, and the Southern Whidbey Island Fault extends via the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone (dashed line) to the OWL. South of the OWL a definite eastern boundary has not been found, with some indications it is indefinite. (E.g., the Olympia Fault is aligned with and appears to be the northernmost member of a set of faults between Olympia and Chehalis that may extend to the Columbia River, and there has been a suggestion that the Tacoma Fault may connect with the White River—Naches River fault on the east side of the Cascades.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2009b}}.</ref>)

The uplift and basin pattern is continued to the west and southwest by the Grays Harbor Basin, Willapa Hills Uplift, and Astoria Basin,<ref>See {{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1996}}, figure 2.</ref> but it is not
known if these are bounded by faults in the same manner as in the Puget Sound region.

===Structural models===
==== Thrust sheet hypothesis ====
It is believed that all of these faults, folds, basins, and uplifts are related. According to the preeminent model, the "Puget Lowland thrust sheet hypothesis",<ref>{{Harvnb|Pratt|others|1997}}.</ref> these faults, etc., occur within a sheet of crust about 14 to 20 km deep that has separated from and is being thrust over deeper crustal blocks. Most of this thrust sheet consists of the Crescent Formation (corresponding to the Siletz River volcanics in Oregon and Metchosin Formation on Vancouver Island), a vast outpouring of volcanic [[basalt]] from the [[Eocene]] epoch (about 50 million years ago), with an origin variously attributed to a seamount chain, or continental margin rifting.<ref>{{Harvnb|Babcock|others|1992}}, p. 6799.</ref> This "basement" rock is covered with sedimentary deposits similar to the [[Chuckanut Formation]], and more recent (typically [[Miocene]]) volcanic deposits. The Seattle uplift, and possibly the Black Hills uplift, consist of Crescent Formation basalt that was exposed when it was forced up a ramp of some kind. This ramp could be either in the lower crustal blocks, or where the thrust sheet has split and one part is being forced over the next.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pratt|others|1997}}, see figure 2; {{Harvnb|Johnson|Blakely|others|2004}}, see figure 17.</ref> Faults and folds may develop where the thrust sheet is being bent, or where the leading edge is thrust over softer, weaker sedimentary deposits, and breaks off and slumps.

If, as this model suggests, the various faults are interconnected within the thrust sheet, there is a possibility that one earthquake could trigger others.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pratt|others|1997}}, p. 27,486.</ref> This prospect is especially intriguing as a possible explanation of a cluster of seismic events around 1100 years ago.<ref>{{Harvnb|Logan|others|1998}}.</ref>

====Seismotectonic modeling====
The previous model studied seismicity, surface geology, and geophysical data to examine the fault structuring of the upper crust. Another model (of {{Harvnb|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}}, USGS Open-File Report 99-0311) – not so much in competition with the first as complementing it – used seismic and other data to create a 3-D tectonic model of the whole crust; this was then analyzed using [[finite element]] methods to determine regional geodynamic characteristics.

A principal finding is that "[c]rustal seismicity in the southern Puget Sound region appears to be controlled by a key block of Crescent Formation occurring just south of the Seattle fault."<ref>{{Harvnb|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}}, p. 46, and see figure 64.</ref> More particularly, the concentration of seismicity under Puget Sound south of the Seattle Fault is attributed to that area riding on single block (terrane), bounded approximately by the Seattle Fault, the Olympia structure (fault?), Hood Canal (Saddle Mountain Faults?), and vaguely east of Seattle/Tacoma. And it is suggested that the [[Seattle Fault#Notable earthquake|Great Seattle Quake]] of approximately 1100 years ago, and other coseismic events in southern Puget Sound around that time, were a single event that affected this entire block, with a magnitude of around 8, possibly triggered by an earthquake deeper in the crust.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}}, pp. 45, 46.</ref>

Very little is known about the structure of the deep crust (below about 30 km), though this and other seismic tomography studies (such as {{Harvnb|Ramachandran|2001}}) provide tantalizing glimpses.

----
For the following reviews the primary source of information is the U.S. Geological Survey's [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/Sites/qfault/index.cfm Quaternary fault and fold database (QFFDB)], which includes details of discovery, a technical description, and bibliography for each fault; a specific link is provided (where available) at the end of each section.

==Devils Mountain Fault {{anchor|DMF}} ==
{{anchor|SCFmap}}
[[File:Straight Creek Fault.gif|right|frame| Puget Lowland and other areas divided from the "North Cascade Crystalline Core" by the Straight Creek Fault. The green colored area on the left has been pushed north, the purple area ("HH Melange") on the Darrington—Devils Mountain Fault originally being at or southwest of the Olympic Wallowa Lineament. (Fig. 1 from [[#{{Harvid|Tabor|others|2000}}| USGS I-2538]], modified.)]]

The Devils Mountain Fault (DMF) runs about 125 km (75 miles) from the town of [[Darrington, Washington|Darrington]] in the Cascade foothills due west to the northern tip of [[Whidbey Island]], and on towards [[Victoria, British Columbia]], where the DMF is believed to join the Leech River fault system at the southern end of [[Vancouver Island]]. At Darrington it is seen to connect with the Darrington Fault, which runs nearly south 110 km to converge with the [[Straight Creek Fault]] (SCF), and then to turn near [[Easton, Washington|Easton]] to align with the [[Olympic-Wallowa Lineament]]; together these are known as the Darrington—Devils Mountain Fault Zone (DDMFZ).

The Devils Mountain Fault separates two similar but distinctive ensembles of [[Mesozoic]] (pre-[[Tertiary]], before the dinosaurs died) or older rock. On the north is the Helena—Haystack mélange (HH mélange, purple in the diagram at right), on the south the Western and Eastern mélange belts (WEMB, blue). There are some interesting relationships here. E.g., HH mélange rock has been found in Manastash Ridge, 110 km to the south (look for the small sliver of purple near the bottom of the diagram). Also, the sedimentary [[Chuckanut Formation]] (part of the NWCS, green) north of the DMF correlates to the Suak and Roslyn Formations just north of Manastash Ridge. All this is explained by right-lateral [[strike-slip]] motion on the [[Straight Creek Fault]], which initiated about 50 to 48 [[Mya (unit)|Ma]] (millions of years ago). This is just after the terrane carrying the Olympic Mountains came into contact with the North American continent. These mélanges may have been off-shore islands or seamounts that were caught between the Olympic terrane and the North American continent, and were pushed up ([[obduction|obducted]]) onto the latter. Other similar rock has been found at the Rimrock Lake Inlier (bottom of diagram), in the San Juan Islands, and in the Pacific Coast Complex along the West Coast Fault on the west side of Vancouver Island. It appears the entire DDMFZ and Leech River fault system was pushed onto the early continental margin from an original alignment along the OWL. This is an important observation because the Strawberry Point, Utsalady Point, Southern Whidbey Island, and various other unnamed faults lying between the DDMFZ and the OWL – all of which converge at the western end of the DDMFZ – seem to be intermediate versions of the DDMFZ.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tabor|1994}}.</ref>

Movement on the southern segment of the DDMFZ that converges with the SCF – the Darrington Fault – was, as on the SCF itself, right-lateral. And like the SCF, strike-slip motion died out between 44 and 41 MA (due to plutonic intrusions). But the western segment – the Devils Mountain Fault – has ''left''-lateral movement. This is because the Olympic terrane is moving (relative to North America) northeast; its continued clockwise rotation is akin to a giant wheel rolling up the western side of the North Cascade crystalline core. The geology also suggests that the DMF is moving obliquely up a ramp that rises to the east,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hayward|others|2006}} possibly an ancient coastal shore.</ref>

The Devils Mountain Fault is seismically active, and there is evidence of [[Holocene]] offsets. If the entire 125 km length ruptured in a single event the resulting earthquake could be as large as magnitude 7.5. However, there are indications that the fault is segmented, which might limit rupturing and earthquake magnitude.<ref>Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-61}} (McMurray).</ref>
* [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=1344&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=C USGS QFFDB Fault #574, Devils Mountain Fault]

==Strawberry Point and Utsalady Point faults {{anchor|UPF}}{{anchor|SPF}}==
Strands of the east-striking Devils Mountain Fault cross the northern tip of [[Whidbey Island]] at Dughalla Bay and north side of Ault Field (Whidbey Island Naval Air Station). Just four miles (6 km) south the city of [[Oak Harbor, Washington|Oak Harbor]] straddles several stands of the Utsalady Point Fault (UPF) as they head roughly east-southeast towards Utsalady Point at the north end of Camano Island. And in between these two the Strawberry Point Fault (SPF) skirts the south side of Ault Field, splits into various strands that bracket Strawberry Point, and then disappear (possibly ending) under the delta of the Skagit River. Both the SPF and UPF are said to be oblique-slip transpressional; that is, the faults show both horizontal and vertical slip as the crustal blocks are pressed together. These faults also form the north and south boundaries of uplifted pre-[[Tertiary]] rock, suggesting that the faults come together at a lower level, much like one model of the Seattle and Tacoma faults, but at a smaller scale. Marine seismic reflection surveys on either side of Whidbey Island extend the known length of these faults to at least 26 and 28 km (about 15 miles). The true length of the UPF is likely twice as long, as it forms the southern margin of an aeromagnetic high that extends another 25 km to the southeast.<ref>{{Harvnb|QFFDB Fault 573}}.</ref> Trenching on the UPF (at a scarp identified by LIDAR) shows at least one and probably two Holocene earthquakes of magnitude 6.7 or more, the most recent one between AD 1550 to 1850, and possibly triggered by the [[1700 Cascadia earthquake]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|Nelson|others|2004}}, p.2313.</ref> These earthquakes probably caused tsunamis, and several nearby locations have evidence of tsunamis not correlated with other known quakes.

While there is a bit of uplifted pre-Tertiary rock between the SPF and UPF, this does not truly fit the [[#pattern|uplift and basin pattern]] described above because of the small scale (2 km wide rather than around 20), and because the uplift here is entirely like a wedge being popped out between two nearly vertical faults, rather than being forced over a ramp such as is involved with the Seattle and Tacoma faults. Nor does this uplift delineate any significant basin between it and the Devils Mountain Fault.<ref>Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-59}} (Oak Harbor and Crescent Harbor).</ref> On the basis of marine seismic reflection surveying in the Strait of Juan de Fuca it has been suggested that the DMF, SPF, and UPF are structurally connected (at least in the segment crossing Whidbey Island).<ref>{{Harvnb|Hayward|others|2006}}, p.444.</ref>
* [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=1341&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=C USGS QFFDB Fault #571, Strawberry Point Fault]
* [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=1343&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=C USGS QFFDB Fault #573, Utsalady Point Fault]

==Southern Whidbey Island Fault {{anchor|SWIF}}==
[[File:Southern Whidbey Island fault-1.png|right|frame|Location and known extent (prior to 2004) of Southern Whidbey Island Fault (SWIF). Also shown: Devils Mountain, Strawbery Point, and Utsalady Point faults (crossing northern Whidbey Island), Seattle Fault zone, southern part of Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone, Tokul Creek Fault (striking NNE from RMFZ). This map is approximately one-quarter the scale of the map below. (USGS<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|Sherrod|2006}}.</ref>)]]
[[File:Snoqualmie Valley faults.png|right|frame|Simplified geologic map of the Snoqualmie Valley (east of Seattle) from North Bend to Duvall, showing various strands of the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault (RMF), and the Snoqualmie Valley (SVF), Griffin Creek (GCF), and Tokul Creek (TCF) faults. The stream NNE of Carnation lies in the Cherry Creek Fault Zone. Southeastern limit of Southern Whidbey Island Fault at Duvall ('''3'''), other faults south of I-90 not shown. Tiger Mountain is the uplifted "Evc" formations southeast of Issaquah, between I-90 and Hwy. 18. (Figure 2 from DGER Geological Map {{Harvnb|GM-73}})]]

East of [[Victoria, British Columbia]], the Southern Whidbey Island Fault (SWIF) diverges from the Devils Mountain Fault (reviewed above) to strike southeast through Admiralty Inlet (past [[Port Townsend, Washington|Port Townsend]]) and across the southern part of [[Whidbey Island]], with several strands crossing to the mainland between [[Mukilteo, Washington|Mukilteo]] and [[Edmonds, Washington|Edmonds]]. This much was known from aeromagnetic, gravitational, and marine seismic reflection data dating from 1980, and the SWIF was mapped with a length of 65 km (40 miles).<ref>{{Harvnb|QFFDB Fault 572}}.</ref> Prominent aeromagnetic anomalies strongly suggested that the fault zone continued, perhaps as far as [[Duvall, Washington|Duvall]], but this was uncertain as the SWIF is largely concealed, and the faint surface traces generally obliterated by urban development. Subsequent analysis of LIDAR and high-resolution aeromagnetic data identified possible scarps near [[Woodinville, Washington|Woodinville]] which trenching has confirmed to be tectonically derived and geologically recent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2004}} (USGS OFR 04-1204); {{Harvnb|Sherrod|others|2005}} (USGS OFR 05-1136); {{Harvnb|Sherrod|others|2008}}.</ref> By this and other work<ref>{{Harvnb|Liberty|Pape|2008}}.</ref> the SWIF is now believed to extend about 150 km (90 miles) from Victoria to near [[Fall City, Washington|Fall City]] (about 20 miles east of Seattle), then merging with the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sherrod|others|2008}}, paragraphs 75, 78, 84; Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-67}} (Fall City). Although, as discussed below, these faults may be distinct, and join near Duvall.</ref>

{{anchor|SVfmap}}{{anchor|RMFZ}}
Just west of [[North Bend, Washington|North Bend]] is Rattlesnake Mountain, a prominent ridge of uplifted rock that runs south-southeast from near Fall City to the inferred trace of the [[Olympic-Wallowa Lineament]]. Rattlesnake Mountain is the location (and possibly a result) of the ''Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone'' (RMFZ; shown as a pair of dotted lines in the upper image at right, and in more detail in the map excerpt at right),<ref>Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-75}} (Snoqualmie Quadrangle).</ref> a band of at least eleven faults that have been mapped to Fall City and beyond, forming the eastern edge of the Seattle Uplift and truncating the Seattle Fault. The RMFZ is generally believed to be the southerly extension of the SWIF, both fault zones being in near alignment and showing similarities of geology and right-lateral strike-slip motion. Yet the change in direction near Duvall (where the SWIF intercepts the Kingston arch, see [[#pattern|map]]) from southeast to south-southeast suggests a junction of two distinct fault systems, reflecting slightly different stress regimes. The possibility of the SWIF continuing more easterly (diverging from the RMFZ) to cross the Cascades before merging with the OWL has been suggested,<ref>{{Harvnb|Sherrod|others|2008}}, paragraph 78.</ref> but detailed mapping north of Carnation has not shown that.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dragovich|others|2010}}.</ref>

Continuation of the RMFZ south of the OWL has not been observed, and the authors of the latest (2009) mapping suspect it turns east and merges with the OWL <ref>{{Harvnb|GM-73}} (North Bend), p. 30.</ref> This raises a bit of an issue, as the SWIF and RMFZ appear to constitute "a significant terrane boundary between basement blocks underlain by Eocene marine basalts of the Coast Range province [Crescent Formation] to the southwest and pre-Tertiary metamorphic rocks of the Cascades province to the northeast."<ref>{{Harvnb|QFFDB Fault 572}}.</ref>
That is, they appear to be the contact of the Crescent Formation basalts that form the underlying basement rock west of Puget Sound with the pre-Tertiary rock of the Cascades to the east, and thus would form the structural boundary between these distinct terranes. This contact is the basis for inferring the ''Coast Range Boundary Fault'' (CRBF), which is now generally identified as the SWIF and its extension along the RMFZ.<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|others|1996}}, pp. 334, 340-341, 348, 349, 352.</ref> If the RMFZ turns and merges with the OWL, there is a significant question of how Crescent/Cascadia contact – the CRBF – extends to the south; this point has received scant attention.<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|others|1996}} suggest that dextral movement "has stepped eastward onto a network of faults" (p. 347, and see Figure 1, p. 335).</ref> The general view (as indicated on incidental maps) is to align this contact with the Western Rainier Fault zone (discussed [[#WRZ|below]]). However, the WRZ is offset considerably to the west, which raises additional issues. It has also been suggested, on the basis of seismic tomography and seismological and gravity data, that Crescent/Cascadia basement contact runs beneath Seattle, and that this argues against the SWIF being that contact.<ref>{{Harvnb|Snelson|others|2007}}, p. 1442.</ref>

The SWIF is seismically notable in that "most seismicity in the northern Puget Sound occurs along and southwest of the southern Whidbey Island fault at typical depths of 15–27 km within the lower part of the Crescent Formation."<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|others|1996}}, p. 351.</ref> Also notable is that in the first 38 years of instrumental recording there have been essentially no shallow (less than 12 km deep) earthquakes in the Everett Basin or on the section of the SWIF adjoining it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sherrod|others|2008}}, paragraph 11.</ref>

Paleoseismological studies of the SWIF are scant. One study compared the relative elevation of two marshes on opposite sides of Whidbey Island, and determined that approximately 3,000 years ago an earthquake of M 6.5—7.0 caused 1 to 2 meters of uplift.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kelsey|Sherrod|2001}}, p. 2.</ref> Another study<ref>{{Harvnb|Sherrod|others|2005}}, pp. 15, 2.</ref> identified an unusually broad band of scarps passing between [[Bothell, Washington|Bothell]] and [[Snohomish, Washington|Snohomish]], with several scarps in the vicinity of projected sewage treatment plant showing at least four and possibly nine events on the SWIF in the last 16,400 years.

In addition to all the usual general seismic hazards, the prospect of a M 6.5+ earthquake on the SWIF is of interest in a particular regard: King County's controversial "Brightwater Treatment Facility" (a regional ''sewage'' treatment facility) is tucked between two active strands of the SWIF, with influent and effluent pipelines crossing multiple zones of disturbed ground. For the County's interpretation of the geological hazard, what they have done in mitigation and why they think it is adequate, and the anticipated impacts of a major earthquake, see the [http://your.kingcounty.gov/dnrp/library/wastewater/wtd/construction/brightwater/SEIS/ Brightwater environmental impact statements].
* [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=1342&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=C USGS QFFDB Fault #572, Southern Whidbey Island Fault]
{{s|3}}(Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone not included in QFFDB.)

==Seattle Fault {{anchor|SF}}==
{{Main|Seattle Fault}}

The Seattle Fault is a zone of complex [[thrust fault|thrust]] and [[reverse fault|reverse]] faults – between lines E and F on the [[#pattern|map]] – up to 7 km wide and over 70 km long that delineates the north edge of the Seattle Uplift. It stands out in regard of its east-west orientation, depth to bedrock, and hazard to an urban population center.<ref>{{Harvnb|Liberty|2009}}, p.3.</ref> It is the most studied fault in the region; it will be treated in somewhat greater detail.

[[File:Seattle Fault location.png|right|frame|Approximate location of the Seattle Fault, showing eastern junction with SWIF and RMFZ. Western extension uncertain past Blue Hills uplift (marked "OP"). (Excerpt from DGER Geological Map {{Harvnb|GM-52}}.)]]
The Seattle Fault was first identified in 1965<ref>{{Harvnb|Daneš|others|1965}}, pp. 5576—5577, and figure 5.</ref> but not documented as an active fault until 1992 with a set of five articles establishing that about 1100 years ago (AD 900—930) an earthquake of magnitude 7+ uplifted Restoration Point and Alki Point, dropped West Point (the three white triangles in the Seattle Basin on the [[#pattern|map]]), caused rockslides in the Olympics, landslides into Lake Washington, and a tsunami on Puget Sound.<ref>See {{Harvnb|Adams|1992}}, and additional references at [[Seattle Fault]].</ref> It extends as far east as (and probably terminates at) the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone (RMFZ; the southern extension of the SWIF) near [[Fall City, Washington|Fall City]]. This seems geologically reasonable, as both the SWIF and RMFZ appear to be the contact between [[Tertiary]] Crescent Formation basement of Puget Sound on the west and the older [[Mesozoic]] (pre-Tertiary) mélange belt basement rocks under the Cascades on the east.<ref>Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-67}} (Fall City), p. 11; Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-73}} (North Bend), pp. 9, 12.</ref>

===Question of western termination===
Determination of the western terminus of the Seattle Fault has been problematical, and has implications for the entire west side of the Puget Lowland. Initially it was not specified, and rather vaguely indicated to be west of Restoration Point (i.e., west of Puget Sound).<ref>{{Harvnb|Bucknam|others|1992}}, see figure 1.</ref> In 1994 it was stated (without support) that "the Seattle Fault "appears to be truncated by the Hood Canal fault ... and does not extend into the Olympic Mountains".<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|Potter|Armentrout|1994}}, p74.</ref> This seems reasonable enough, as Hood Canal is a prominent physiographic boundary between the Olympic Mountains and Puget Lowlands, and believed to be the location of a major fault.<ref>{{Harvnb|Daneš|others|1965}}, pp. 5577—5579.</ref> Subsequent authors were confident enough to trace the fault west of Bremerton to just north of Green Mountain (the northwestern corner of the Blue Hills uplift – see "E" on the [[#pattern|map]] – a topographically prominent exposure of uplifted basalt) and just short of Hood Canal;<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|others|1999}}, figure 6; {{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}, figure 1; {{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2002}}, figures 1, 2, and 3. Curiously, {{Harvtxt|Johnson|others|1999}}, having failed to find any definite indications of a fault zone in seismic-reflection profiles in Hood Canal, claimed (p. 1048) that "the Seattle fault does ''not'' extend west as far as Hood Canal" (emphasis added).</ref> but reluctant to map the fault further west as the distinctive aeromagnetic lineament used to locate the Seattle Fault dies out just west of Bremerton.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2002}}, figures 2 and 3; {{Harvnb|Liberty|2009}}, p. 6.</ref>

An extension of some 10 km west of Hood Canal into the Olympic Mountains has been suggested on evidence that the Saddle Mountain Fault (discussed [[#SMF|below]]), to the ''west'' of Hood Canal, might extend as far north as the Seattle Fault, and might be even be kinematically linked.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2009a}}, p.15.</ref> Geologic mapping<ref>{{Harvnb|Haeussler|Clark|2000}} (Wildcat Lake map).</ref> and a recent seismic reflection study<ref>{{Harvnb|Liberty|2009}}, p. 2, see Figures 3 and 10.</ref> shows the Seattle Fault wrapping around Green Mountain to strike southwest towards Hood Canal, and possibly joining with the Saddle Mountain Fault.

{{anchor|Tahuya Fault}}Another complication is an unusually strong north-south striking geophysical anomaly (appearing in gravitational, aeromagnetic, and seismic tomography data) that bounds the west side of the Seattle uplift (vertical black line below "D" on the [[#PLmap|map]]), separating it from the Dewatto Basin to the west.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}, sec 5.4, p. 13,553, and various plates. Also observed by {{Harvnb|Daneš|others|1965}}, {{Harvnb|Pratt|others|1997}} (from which the [[#PLmap|map]] above is taken), and others.</ref> This appears to be a deep fault, possibly with significant vertical and horizontal offsets, which has recently (2009) been named the ''Tahuya Fault''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lamb|others|2009}}. Although it has been suggested {{Harv|Polenz|others|2010b|p=17}} that there is no fault.</ref> To the south it appears to terminate at the Tacoma Fault; the nature of its junction with the Seattle Fault is undetermined. It is suggestively aligned with Dabob Bay, where the Hood Canal Fault is believed to strike north, but any possible connection is as yet pure speculation.

===Structure===
[[File:Seattle uplift 17D.png|right|frame|Cross-section of one model of the Seattle uplift. Models differ on the nature of the ramp and details of the faults. (From {{Harvnb|Johnson|Blakely|others|2004}}, figure 17D.)]]
The Seattle Fault is the most studied of the regional faults, which has led to several models of its structure, which may also be relevant to other faults. In the ''wedge'' model of {{Harvtxt|Pratt|others|1997}} a slab of rock – mainly basalts of the Crescent Formation – about 20 km thick is being pushed up a "master ramp" of deeper material; this forms the Seattle Uplift. The Seattle fault zone is where the forward edge of the slab, coming to the top of the ramp, breaks and slips into the Seattle Basin. In this model the Tacoma fault zone is primarily the result of local adjustments as the slab bends upward at the bottom of the ramp.

The ''passive roof duplex'' model of {{Harvtxt|Brocher|others|2001}},<ref>And further amplified by {{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2004}} and {{Harvnb|Johnson|Blakely|others|2004}}.</ref> relying on seismic tomography data from the "Seismic Hazards Investigation in Puget Sound" (SHIPS) experiment, retains the thrusting slab and master ramp concepts, but interprets the Tacoma fault as a reverse fault (or back thrust) that dips north towards the south dipping Seattle fault (see diagram); as a result the Seattle Uplift is being popped up like a [[horst]].

While these models vary in some details, both indicate that the Seattle Fault itself is capable of a magnitude 7.5 earthquake.<ref>{{Harvnb|ten Brink|others|2006}}, p.588.</ref> But if the Seattle Fault should break in conjunction with other faults (discussed [[#Seismotectonic modeling|above]]), considerably more energy would be released, on the order of ~M 8.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}}, p. 46.</ref>
* [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=1340&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=C USGS QFFDB Fault #570, Seattle Fault]

==Tacoma Fault Zone {{anchor|TF}}{{anchor|TFZ}}{{anchor|Tacoma Fault}}==
[[File:Tacoma fault zone.png|right|frame|Tacoma fault zone, with multiple southeast-striking strands, and part of the Olympia fault.(USGS<ref>{{Harvnb|Nelson|others|2008}} (SIM 3060)</ref>)]]
{{Main|Tacoma Fault}}

The Tacoma Fault (at right, and also between lines C and D on the [[#pattern|Uplift and basin map, above]]) just north of the city of [[Tacoma, Washington]] has been described as "one of the most striking geophysical anomalies in the Puget Lowland".<ref>{{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}, p. sec, 6.1.</ref> The western part is an active east–west striking north dipping reverse fault that separates the Seattle Uplift and the Tacoma Basin, with approximately 30 miles (50 km) of identified surface rupture. It is believed capable of generating earthquakes of at least magnitude 7, and there is evidence of such a quake approximately 1,000 years ago, possibly the same earthquake documented on the [[#SF|Seattle Fault]] 24 miles (38 km) to the north.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sherrod|others|2004}}, p. 11.</ref> This is likely not coincidental, as it appears that the Tacoma and Seattle faults converge at depth (see [[#Structure|diagram]] above) in a way that north-south compression tends to force the Seattle Uplift up, resulting in [[dip-slip fault|dip-slip]] movement on both fault zones.<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|Blakely|others|2004}}, §5 and figure 17.</ref>

The Tacoma Fault was first identified by {{Harvtxt|Gower|others|1985}} as a gravitational anomaly ("structure K") running east across the northern tip of Case and Carr Inlets, then southeast under Commencement Bay and towards the town of [[Puyallup, Washington|Puyallup]]. Not until 2001 was it identified as a fault zone,<ref>{{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}.</ref> and only in 2004 did trenching reveal [[Holocene]] activity.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sherrod|others|2004}}. See also {{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}, sec. 6.1 (p. 13,558).</ref>

{{anchor|EPZ}}
Interpretation of the eastern part of the Tacoma Fault is not entirely settled.<ref>The QFFDB, citing lack of consensus, ignores the eastern part.</ref> Most authors align it with the strong gravitational anomaly (which typically reflects where faulting has juxtaposed rock of different density) and topographical lineament down Commencement Bay. This follows the front of the Rosedale monocline, a gently southwest-tilting formation that forms the bluffs on which Tacoma is built.

{{anchor|EPZ}}On the other hand, the contrasting character of the east-striking and southeast-striking segments is unsettling, and the change of direction somewhat difficult to reconcile with the observed fault traces. Especially as seismic reflection data<ref>{{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}; {{Harvnb|Johnson|Blakely|others|2004}}, see figure 4, and compare the differences in cross-sections A-A' (west) and B-B' (east) in figure 17.</ref> shows some faulting continuing east across Vashon Island and the East Passage of Puget Sound (the ''East Passage Zone'', EPZ) towards [[Federal Way, Washington|Federal Way]] and an east-striking anticline. Whether the faulting continues eastward is not yet determined. The EPZ is active, being the locale of the 1995 M 5 Point Robinson earthquake.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}, sec. 6.3.</ref>

There is evidence that the Tacoma Fault connects with the ''White River River Fault'' (WRF) via the EPZ and [[Federal Way, Washington|Federal Way]], under the Muckleshoot Basin (see [[#PLmap|map]]),<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2009b}} (abstract); {{Harvnb|Carley|Liberty|Pratt|2007}} (abstract); {{Harvnb|Liberty|2007}}, figure 3.</ref> and thence to the ''Naches River Fault''. If so, this would be a major fault system (over 120 km long), connecting the Puget Lowland with the Yakima Fold Belt on the other side of the Cascades, with possible implications for both the Olympic—Wallowa Lineament (which it parallels) and geological structure south of the OWL.

The western end of the Tacoma Fault is curious, as near the small town of Allyn (near the extreme tip of Hood Canal) it appears to make a sharp turn to the north, and follows a strong geophysical lineament<ref>{{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}, sec. 5.4.</ref> which has recently (2009) been named the [[#Tahuya Fault|Tahuya Fault]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lamb|others|2009}}.</ref> This appears to be the western termination of the Seattle Uplift. The gap between this and Hood Canal is the Dewatto Basin, which thus forms an appendage to the northwestern corner of the Tacoma Basin. One hypothesis as to how this formed is based on the regional compressive force coming not from the south, but southwest (normal to the Rosedale monocline); this raises the prospect of left-lateral strike-slip motion on the east-west oriented parts of the Tacoma and Seattle faults.<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|Blakely|others|2004}}, figure 18.</ref>
* [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=1352&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=C USGS QFFDB Fault #581, Tacoma Fault]

==Hood Canal Fault {{anchor|HCF}}==
[[Hood Canal]] marks an abrupt change in physiography between the Puget Lowland and the [[Olympic Mountains]] to the west. Gravitational anomalies and seismic reflection data suggest that there is a major fault zone from the south end of Hood Canal to Dabob Bay,<ref>{{Harvnb|Daneš|others|1965}}, p. 5579.</ref> and continuing north on land. It is inferred that if this fault is a terrane boundary between the Olympics and the Puget Lowland (but read about the Saddle Mountain Faults, below), then it must connect with various faults in the [[Strait of Juan de Fuca]]. But whether this is via the Discovery Bay Fault, or further east (passing close to Port Townsend) remains speculative due to lack of definite scarps and paleoseismological investigation.

This fault is "largely inferred"<ref>{{Harvnb|QFFDB Fault 552}}.</ref> due to a paucity of evidence. Possible Holocene movement is likewise inferred from a possible connection with the Seattle Fault, but even that connection is doubted (discussed [[#Question of western termination|above]]). Evidence is accumulating that the Saddle Mountain Faults (discussed next), which show recent activity, are the structural boundary of the Puget Lowland. Recent (2010) mapping "found no convincing evidence for the existence of this fault";<ref>{{Harvnb|Contreras|others|2010}} (OFR 2010-4, Lilliwaup), p. 4.</ref> it is possible that there is no fault under Hood Canal.
* [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=2522&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=C USGS QFFDB Fault #552, Hood Canal Fault]

==Saddle Mountain Faults {{anchor|SMF}}{{anchor|FC}}{{anchor|CR}}==
[[File:Saddle Mountain faults.png|left|thumb|300px|In red: Saddle Mountain faults (west and east) extension to the southwest inferred from aeromagnetic and LIDAR evidence, Dow Mountain fault (offset by SM east), and Frigid Creek fault.]]
The Saddle Mountain Fault'''s''' ("East" and "West", and not to be confused with a different Saddle Mountain'''s''' Fault in Adams county, eastern Washington<ref>See QFFDB [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=1327&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=B Fault 562a] and [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=1328&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=B Fault 562b]</ref>), are a set of northeast trending reverse faults on the south-east flank of the Olympic Mountains near Lake Cushman first described in 1973 and 1975.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carson|1973}}; {{Harvnb|Carson|Wilson|1974}}.</ref> Vertical movement on these faults has created prominent scarps that have dammed Price Lake and (just north of Saddle Mountain) Lilliwaup Swamp. The mapped surface traces are only 5 km long, but LIDAR-derived imagery shows longer lineaments, with the traces cutting Holocene alluvial traces. A recent (2009) analysis of aeromagnetic data<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2009a}}, p. 1.</ref> suggests that it extends at least 35 km, from the latitude of the Seattle Fault (the Hamma Hamma River) to about 6 km south of Lake Cushman. Other faults to the south and southeast – the ''Frigid Creek Fault'' and (to the west) ''Canyon River Fault'' – suggest an extended zone of faulting at least 45 km long. Although the southwest striking Canyon River Fault is not seen to directly connect with the Saddle Mountain faults, they are in general alignment, and both occur in a similar context of Miocene faulting (where Crescent Formation strata has been uplifted by the Olympics) and a linear aeromagnetic anomaly.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2009a}}, pp. 13—15, and figure 4.</ref> The Canyon River Fault is a major fault in itself, associated with a 40 km long lineament and distinct late Holocene scarps of up to 3 meters.<ref>{{Harvnb|Walsh|Logan|2007}} (OFR 2007-1).</ref>

Although these faults are west of the Hood Canal Fault (previously presumed to be the western boundary of the Puget Lowland), they appear to be kinematically related to the Seattle Fault: trench studies indicate major earthquakes (in the range of M 6. to 7.8) on the Saddle Mountain faults <ref>{{Harvnb|Witter|Givler|2005}}, p. 16; {{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2009a}}, pp. 1, 15.</ref> at nearly the same time (give or take a century) as the great quake on the [[#SF|Seattle Fault]] about 1100 years ago (900—930 AD).<ref>[http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1999/ofr-99-0311/radiocarbon.htm Figure 64] of {{Harvnb|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}} (USGS OFR 99-0311) shows additional dates of various co-seismic events. See also {{Harvnb|Logan|others|1998}}.</ref> Such quakes pose a serious threat to the City of Tacoma's dams at Lake Cushman,<ref>See [[Cushman Dam No. 1]] and [[Cushman Dam No. 2]].</ref> located in the fault zone,<ref>{{Harvnb|Witter|Givler|2005}}, p. 1, and see Figure 2.</ref> and to everyone downstream on the [[Skokomish River]]. The Canyon River Fault is believed to have caused a similar-sized earthquake less than 2,000 years ago;<ref>{{Harvnb|Walsh|Logan|2007}}.</ref> this is a particular hazard to the [[Wynoochee Dam]] (to the west). The history and capabilities of the Frigid Creek Fault are not known.
* [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=1345&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=C USGS QFFDB Fault #575, Saddle Mountain Faults]

==Olympia Structure {{anchor|OS}}==
The Olympia structure – also known as the ''Legislature fault''<ref>{{Harvnb|Sherrod|1998}}, pp. 99, 131, and figure 4-19.</ref> – is an 80 km long gravitational and aeromagnetic anomaly that separates the sedimentary deposits of the Tacoma Basin from the basalt of the Black Hills Uplift (between lines A and B on the [[#pattern|map]]). It is not known to be seismic – indeed, there is very little seismicity south of the Tacoma Basin as far as Chehalis<ref>{{Harvnb|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}} (OFR 99-311), figures 46—50. See [http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1999/ofr-99-0311/seismaps.htm seismic maps].</ref> – and not even conclusively established to be a fault.

This structure is shown in the gravitational mapping of 1965, but without comment.<ref>{{Harvnb|Daneš|others|1965}}, figures 3 and 4.</ref> {{Harvtxt|Gower|others|1985}}, labelling it "structure L", mapped it from [[Shelton, Washington|Shelton]] (near the Olympic foothills) southeast to [[Olympia, Washington|Olympia]] (pretty nearly right under the state Legislature), directly under the town of [[Rainier, Washington|Rainier]], to a point due east of the [[#DF|Doty Fault]], and apparently marking the northeastern limit of a band of southeast striking faults in the Centralia-Chehalis area. They interpreted it as "simple folds in Eocene bedrock", though {{Harvtxt|Sherrod|1998}} saw sufficient similarity with the Seattle Fault to speculate that this is a thrust fault. {{Harvtxt|Pratt|others|1997}}, while observing the "remarkable straight boundaries that we interpret as evidence of structural control",<ref>{{Harvnb|Pratt|others|1997}}, p.27,472.</ref> refrained from calling this structure a fault. (Their model of the Black Hills Uplift is analogous with their "wedge" model of the Seattle Uplift, discussed [[#Structure|above]], but in the opposite direction. If entirely analogous, then "roof duplex" might also apply, and the Olympia Fault would be a reverse fault similar to the Tacoma Fault.)

Aeromagnetic mapping in 1999 showed a very prominent anomaly<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|Wells|Weaver|1999}} (OFR 99-514). [http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1999/of99-514/maps/shelton.pdf.gz Download the map] and see the aeromagnetic anomaly. Additional aeromagnetic and gravitational imagery of the Olympia and other structures available on the [http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_ofr2004-10_geol_map_summitlake_24k.pdf Summit Lake geological map].</ref> (such as typically indicates a contrast of rock type); that, along with paleoseismological evidence of a major Holocene earthquake, has led to a suggestion that this structure "may be associated with faulting".<ref>{{Harvnb|Sherrod|2001}}, p. 1308.</ref> One reason for caution is that a detailed gravity survey was unable to resolve whether the Olympia structure is, or is not, a fault.<ref>{{Harvnb|Magsino|others|2003}}.</ref> Although no surface traces of faulting have been found in either the Holocene glacial sediments or the basalts of the Black Hills,<ref>E.g., {{Harvnb|Logan|Walsh|2004}} (Summit Lake map). More recently it has been suspected that a natural berm across the delta of the [[Skokomish River]] may be due to faulting, which could implicate the OS as an active fault. But the researchers are not yet ready to assert that. {{Harvnb|Polenz|others|2010a}}; {{Harvnb|Polenz|others|2010b}}</ref> on the basis of well-drilling logs a fault has been mapped striking southeast from Offut Lake (just west of Rainier); it appears to be in line with the easternmost fault mapped in the Centralia—Chehalis area.<ref>Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-56}} (East Olympia).</ref>

A marine seismic reflection study<ref>{{Harvnb|Clement|2004}}; {{Harvnb|Clement|others|2010}}.</ref> found evidence of faulting at the mouth of Budd Inlet, just north of the Olympia structure, and aligning with faint lineaments seen in the lidar imagery. These faults are not quite aligned with the Olympia structure, striking N75W (285°) rather than N45W (315°). It is uncertain how these faults relate to the structure, and whether they are deep-seated faults, or fractures due to bending of the shallow crust.

It has been speculated that the OS might connect with the seismically active Saint Helens Zone (discussed [[#SHZ|below]]), which would imply that the OS is both locked and being stressed, raising the possibility of a major earthquake.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weaver|Smith|1983}}, pp. 10,376, 10,380.</ref> Alternately, the OS appears to coincide with a gravitational boundary in the upper crust that has been mapped striking southeast to [[The Dalles]] on the Columbia River,<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|Jachens|1990}}, plate 2.</ref> where there is a swarm of similarly striking faults.<ref>See QFFDB 580, "[http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=1351&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=C Faults near The Dalles]".</ref>

That Olympia and the south Sound are at risk of major earthquakes is shown by evidence of subsidence at several locations in southern Puget Sound some 1100 years ago.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sherrod|1998}}; {{Harvnb|Sherrod|2001}}, p. 1308 and generally.</ref> What is unknown is whether this was due to a great subduction earthquake, to the noted earthquake on the [[Seattle Fault]] about that time, or to an earthquake on a local fault (e.g., the Olympia structure); there is some evidence that there were two earthquakes over a short time period. Subsidence dated to between AD 1445 and 1655 has been reported in Mud Bay (just east of Olympia).<ref>{{Harvnb|Logan|Walsh|2004}} (Summit Lake map).</ref>

{{s|3}}(Not included in QFFDB.)

==Doty Fault {{anchor|DF}}==
[[File:Centralia-Chehalis District faults GM-34.jpg|thumb|400px|Excerpt from Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-34}}, showing faults in the Centralia—Chehalis Coal District, Lewis County, Washington. Doty—Salzer Creek Fault runs east-west between Centralia and Chehalis (black squares). Map available [http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_gm34_geol_map_sw_wa_250k.pdf on-line]. Click on image for enlargement.]]

The Doty Fault – the southernmost of the uplift-and-basin dividing faults reviewed here, and located just north of the Chehalis Basin – is one of nearly a dozen faults mapped in the Centralia—Chehalis coal district in 1958.<ref>{{Harvnb|Snavely|others|1958}}.</ref> While the towns of [[Centralia, Washington|Centralia]] and [[Chehalis, Washington|Chehalis]] in rural Lewis County may seem distant (about 25 miles) from Puget Sound, this is still part of the Puget Lowland, and these faults, the local geology, and the underlying tectonic basement seem to be connected with that immediately adjacent to Puget Sound. And though the faults in this area are not notably seismogenic, the southeast striking faults seem to be en echelon with the Olympia structure (fault?), and headed for the definitely active Saint Helens Zone; this appears to be a large scale structure. The Doty fault particularly seems to have gained prominence with geologists since it was associated with an aeromagnetic anomaly,<ref>{{Harvnb|Finn|Stanley|1997}}, p. 4; {{Harvnb|Finn|1999}}, p. 330.</ref> and a report in 2000 credited it capable of a magnitude 6.7 to 7.2 earthquake.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wong|others|2000}}, Table 1, p. 7.</ref> The prospect of a major earthquake on the Doty Fault poses a serious hazard to the entire Puget Sound region as it threatens vital economic lifelines: At Chehalis there is but a single freeway (Interstate 5) and a single rail line connecting the Puget Sound region with the rest of the west coast; the only alternate routes are very lengthy.<ref>See [http://wadot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/77F51020-4607-44D2-A4F2-B1866B183B25/0/WSDOT_I5_90ClosuresFinalReport.pdf report] from the Washington State Department of Transportation for the economic costs when flooding closed the freeeway for just several days.</ref>

The Doty fault has been mapped from the north side of the Chehalis airport due west to the old logging town of [[Doty, Washington|Doty]] (due north of Pe Ell), paralleled most of that distance by its twin, the ''Salzer Creek Fault'', about half a mile to the north. Both of these are [[dip-slip fault|dip-slip]] (vertical) faults; the block between them has been popped up by compressive forces. The Doty Fault appears to terminate against, or possibly merge with, the Salzer Creek Fault at Chehalis; the Salzer Creek Fault is traced another seven miles east of Chehalis. The length of the Doty Fault is problematical: the report in 2000 gave it as 65 km (40 miles), but without comment or citation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wong|others|2000}}, Table 1, p. 7. 40 miles would include the combined Doty—Salzer Creek fault plus a 15 mile extension west to [[South Bend, Washington|South Bend]], on Willapa Bay. {{Harvtxt|Finn|1990}}, without identifying it, associated the Doty Fault with notable gravity and aeromagnetic anomalies (Plates 1 and 2) that extend towards Willapa Bay.</ref> Such a length would be comparable to the length of the Seattle or Tacoma faults, and capable of an earthquake of M 6.7. But it does not appear that there have been studies of the deeper structure of these faults, or whether there has been any recent activity.

{{anchor|ScCF}}
The Doty—Salzar Creek Fault does not fully fit the regional pattern of basins and uplifts bounded by faults described [[#pattern|above]]. It does bound the north side of the Chehalis basin, but the south boundary of the Black Hills Uplift is more properly the southeast striking ''Scammon Creek Fault'' that converges with the Doty—Salzar Creek Fault just north of Chehalis.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pratt|others|1997}}, Plate 1.</ref> In the acute angle between these is located the minor Lincoln Creek uplift, the Doty Hills, and an impressive chunk of uplifted Crescent basalt (reddish area at west edge of the map). The SE striking Scammon Creek Fault seems to be terminated by the Salzer Creek Fault (the exact relationship is not clear), with the latter continuing east for another seven miles. Yet the former is only the first of at least six more parallel southeast striking faults, which do cross the Salzer Creek Fault. These faults are: the ''Kopiah Fault'' (note the curious curve), ''Newaukum Fault'', ''Coal Creek Fault'', and three other unnamed faults. Just past them is the parallel Olympia Structure, which as a geophysical lineament has been traced to a point due east of Chehalis;<ref>{{Harvnb|Gower|others|1985}} (Map I-1613).</ref> these would seem to be related somehow, but the nature of that relationship is not yet known.

Though these faults have been traced for only a little ways, the southeast striking [[anticline]]s they are associated with continue as far as Riffe Lake, near [[Mossy Rock, Washington|Mossy Rock]]. They are also on-strike with a swarm of faults on the Columbia River, bracketing [[The Dalles]]. As all of these are [[thrust fault|thrust]] and [[reverse fault|reverse]] faults, they probably result from northeast directed regional compression.<ref>Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-34}} (Southwest Quadrant).</ref> These faults also cross the Saint Helens Zone (SHZ), a deep, north-northwest trending zone of seismicity that appears to be the contact between different crustal blocks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weaver|others|1987}}.</ref> How they might be connected is unknown.

What makes the Doty—Salzer Fault (and the short ''Chehalis Fault'' striking due east from Chehalis)
stand out from the many other faults south of Tacoma is its east-west strike; the significance of this is not known.

{{s|3}}(Not included in QFFDB. See {{Harvnb|Snavely|others|1958}} and Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-34}} for details.)

==Saint Helens Zone, Western Rainier Zone{{anchor|SHZ}}{{anchor|WRZ}}==
[[File:OFR 99-311 fig48.gif|thumbnail|400px|Mid-crustal (10–20 km deep) seismicity in western Washington.
(Fig. 48 from [[#{{Harvid|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}}|USGS OFR 99-311]]) ]]
The most striking concentrations of mid-crustal seismicity in western Washington outside of Puget Sound are the ''Saint Helens Zone'' (SHZ) and ''Western Rainier Zone'' (WRZ) at the southern edge of the Puget Lowland (see seismicity map, right).<ref>{{Harvnb|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}}, figures 46—49; {{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1996}}, p. 5.</ref> Indeed, it is mainly by their seismicity that these faults are known and have been located, neither showing any surface faulting.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weaver|Smith|1983}}; {{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1987}}, p. 10,179; {{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1996}}, pp. 6—7.</ref> The SHZ and WRZ lie just outside the topographical basin that constitutes the Puget Lowland (see [[#PLmap|image]]), do not participate in the [[#pattern|uplift and basin pattern]], and unlike the rest of the faults in the Puget Lowland (which are reverse or thrust faults reflecting mostly compressive forces) they appear to be [[strike-slip]] faults; they reflect a geological context distinctly different from the rest of the Puget Lowland. In particular, to the southeast of Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier they reflect a regional pattern of NNW oriented faulting, including the Entiat Fault in the North Cascades and the Portland Hills and related faults around [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] (see QFFDB [http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/qfaults/or/van.html fault map]). Yet the SHZ and WRZ may be integral to the regional geology of Puget Sound, possibly revealing some deep and significant facets, and may also present significant seismic hazard.

[[File:Southern Washington Cascades conductor.png|300px|thumbnail|The Southern Washington Cascades Conductor (SWCC, yellow) located at depth approximately between [[Mount St. Helens]] (MSH), [[Mount Adams]] (MA), [[Goat Rocks]] (GR), [[Mount Rainier]] (MR), and Riffe Lake, with a lobe extending towards Tiger Mountain (TM). Also shown: Entiat Fault, [[Straight Creek Fault]] (inactive, southern continuation unknown), Southern Whidbey Island Fault, Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone, [[Olympic-Wallowa Lineament]], White River/Naches River fault, Rimrock Lake Inlier (outlined in green), surface outcrops of the Crescent Formation (outlined in brown), Olympia Structure, Portland Hills fault zone.]]
The WRZ and SHZ are associated with the ''southern Washington Cascades conductor'' (SWCC), a formation of enhanced electrical conductivity<ref>Several possible explanations of the enhanced conductivity have been considered; Eocene marine sediments containing brine are most likely {{Harv|Stanley|others|1987|pp=10,183—10,186}}. {{Harvtxt|Egbert|Booker|1993}} discuss evidence that the conductivity anomaly may be broader than shown here, and suggest it is a remnant of an "early Cenozoic subduction zone which is analogous to the present-day Olympic Peninsula." (p. 15,967)</ref> lying roughly between Riffe Lake and Mounts St. Helens, Adams, and Rainier, with a lobe extending north (outlined in yellow, right). This formation, up to 15 km thick, is largely buried (from one to ten kilometers deep), and known mainly by [[magnetotellurics]] and other geophysical methods.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1987}}; {{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1996}}, pp. 6—7.</ref> The southwestern boundary of the SWCC, where it is believed to be in near vertical contact with the Eocene basalts of the Crescent Formation, forms a good part of the 90 km (56 mile) long SHZ. On the eastern side, where the SWCC is believed to be in contact with pre-Tertiary terranes accreted to the North American [[craton]], matters are different. While there is a short zone (not shown) of fainter seismicity near [[Goat Rocks]] (an old [[Pliocene]] volcano<ref>{{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1996}}, p. 6.</ref>) that may be associated with the contact, the substantially stronger seismicity of the WRZ is associated with the major Carbon River—Skate Mountain anticline.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1996}}, p. 4</ref> This [[anticline]], or uplifted fold, and the narrower width of the northern part of the SWCC, reflects an episode of compression of this formation. Of great interest here is that both the northern lobe of the SWCC and the Carbon River anticline are aligned towards [[Tiger Mountain]] (an uplifted block of the Puget Group of sedimentary and volcanic deposits typical of the Puget Lowland) and the adjacent Raging River anticline (see [[#RMFZ|map]]). The lowest exposed strata of Tiger Mountain, the mid-Eocene marine sediments of the Raging River formation, may be correlative with the SWCC.<ref>{{Harvnb|Vine|1962|pp=7–8}}; {{Harvnb|Stanley|Johnson|1993}}, p. 3; {{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1996}}, figure 13, pp. 15—16. If the Carbon River and Raging River anticlines are related, and the SWCC and Raging River formations correlative, the [[#RMFZ|RMFZ]] would be the eastern edge of the SWCC. That the fault strands of the RMFZ turn easterly, and seismicity jumps from a fault contact to an anticline, suggests there is more to learn about the OWL/WR-NR zone.</ref>

Does the SHZ extend north? Though the [[#OS|Olympia Structure]] (a suspected fault) runs towards the SHZ, and delineates the northern edge of an exposed section of the Crescent Formation, it appears to be an ''upper'' crustal fold, part of a pattern of folding that extends southeast to cross the Columbia River near [[The Dalles]], and unrelated to the mid and lower crustal SHZ.<ref>Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-53}}, (Washington State).</ref> It has been speculated that the SHZ might extend under the Kitsap Peninsula (central Puget Sound), possibly involved with a section of the subducting Juan de Fuca plate that is suspected of being stuck. The implications of this are not only "the possibility of a moderate to large crustal earthquake along the SHZ", but that the tectonics under Puget Sound are more complicated than yet understood, and may involve differences in the regional stress patterns not reflected in current earthquake hazard assessments.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weaver|Smith|1983}}, pp. 10,383, and 10,371. See also p. 10,376, and figure 8.</ref>

==Deeper structure==
Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier are located where their associated fault zones make a bend (see map, above).<ref>{{Harvnb|Weaver|others|1987}}, pp. 10,170, 10,176; {{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1996}}, p. 16.</ref>(Mt. Rainier is offset because the faults are deep and the conduits do not rise quite vertically.) These bends are located where they intercept a "subtle geological structure"<ref>{{Harvnb|Weaver|others|1987}}, p. 10,175.</ref> of "possible fundamental importance",<ref>{{Harvnb|Evarts|others|1987}}, p. 10,166.</ref> a NNE striking zone (line "A" on the map) of various faults (including the Tokul Creek Fault NNE of Snoqualmie) and early-Miocene (about 24 Ma) volcanic vents and intrusive bodies ([[pluton]]s and [[batholith]]s) extending from [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] to [[Glacier Peak]];<ref>{{Harvtxt|Tabor|Crowder|1969|loc=p. 60, and see figure 60}} (possibly relying on an earliar writer) reported a "zone of basaltic dikes and cinder cones that trends north-northeast" (NNE), including Mount Rainier and Mount St. Helens "to the southwest". {{Harvtxt|Evarts|others|1987|p=10,166}} state that "Mount Rainier and Glacier Peak are aligned along the projection of this trend," described as NNE, or "roughly N25E". While MR does bear nearly N25E from MSH, [http://www.movable-type.co.uk/scripts/latlong.html calculation] from latitude and longitude shows the MSH—GP bearing to be more accurately N21E; lining up all three volcanoes would require a slight bowing of the lineament. However, features near MSH (such as Yale Lake and Spirit Lake) bear N20E, not aligned with MR. It is more likely that MR, in rising to the surface, has "drifted" off of the underlying lineament. This NNE striking lineament should not be confused with other lineaments striking N50°E. See {{Harvnb|Evarts|others|1987}}, p. 10,166, {{Harvnb|Weaver|others|1987}}, p. 10,175, and {{Harvnb|Hughes|others|1980}}, figure 1.</ref> it also marks the change in regional fault orientation noted above. This MSH-MR-GP lineament is believed to reflect a "long-lived deep-seated lithospheric flaw that has exerted major control on transfer of magma to the upper crust of southern Washington for approximately the last 25 [million years]";<ref>{{Harvnb|Evarts|others|1987}}, p.10,166.</ref> it has been attributed to the geometry of the subducting [[Juan de Fuca plate]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hughes|others|1980|p=16}}; {{Harvnb|Guffanti|Weaver|1988|p=6523}}.</ref>

A parallel line ("B") about 15 miles (25 kilometers) to the west corresponds to the ''western'' limit of a zone of seismicity stretching from the WRZ to southwest of Portland. Curiously, the extension of line "B" north of the OWL is approximately the ''eastern'' limit of Puget Sound seismicity, the rest of southwestern Washington and the North Cascades being relatively aseismic (see the seismicity map, above).<ref>{{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1996}}, p. 5; {{Harvnb|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999}}, "Seismicity Patterns", and figures 46—49. The location and orientation of line "B" as shown here is approximate.</ref> This line may also mark the northwestern boundary of the SWCC.<ref>The apparent gap north of Riffe Lake is possibly due to obscuration by volcanic deposits of the Northcraft Formation. {{Harvnb|Stanley|others|1996}}, p. 4 and figure 3.</ref> North of the RMFZ it follows a topographical lineament that can be traced to Rockport (on Hwy. 20);<ref>Along part of the [[Sultan River]] and the west end of Blue Mountain, the east sides of [[Mount Pilchuck]], Three Fingers, and Whitehorse Mountain, and (north of [[Darrington, Washington|Darrington]] and the DDMF) the west side of North Mountain and part of the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River. North of Hwy 20 it is paralleled by [[Lake Shannon]].</ref> it includes the Cherry Creek Fault Zone NNE of Carnation, location of the 1965 Duvall earthquake.<ref>However, according to {{Harvtxt|Stanley|Villaseñor|Benz|1999|p=34}} the Duvall earthquake was on a fault striking 350°. This suggests the quake was actually on the cross-cutting Cherry Valley fault, the northern most member of the RMFZ, and possibly an extension of the Griffin Creek fault. {{Harvnb|Dragovich|others|2010|p=2}}.</ref> Between the Cherry Creek and parallel Tokul Creek faults is a contact between formations of the Western Melange Belt.<ref>Geological map {{Harvnb|GM-52}} (Tectonic elements).</ref> The zone between these two lines, reflecting changes in regional structure, seismicity, fault orientation, and possibly the underlying lithospheric structure, appears to be a major structural boundary in the Puget Lowland.

Also intersecting at Mount St. Helens is a NE (045°) trending line (red) of [[Pleistocene]] (about 4 Ma) plug domes and a topographic lineament (followed in part by Highway 12).<ref>{{Harvnb|Evarts|others|1987}}, p. 10,166.</ref> This line is the southern-most of a band of NE trending faults and topographical lineaments that extend from the Oregon coast into the North Cascades. A similar line aligns with the termination of the WRZ, SHZ, and [http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/qfaults/or/van.html Gales Creek Fault Zone] (northwest of Portland), with faulting along the upper [[Nehalem River]] on the Oregon coast,<ref>{{Harvnb|Olbinski|1983}}, pp. 149—151.</ref> and a topographical contrast at the coast (between [[Neahkahnie Mountain]] and the lower Nehalem River valley) distinct enough to be seen on the seismicity map above (due west of Portland). Other similar lineaments (such as from [[Astoria, Oregon|Astoria]] to Glacier Peak) align with various topographical features and changes in fault orientation. These lineaments have been associated with possible zones of faulting in the crust and subducting plate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hughes|others|1980}}, p. 15.</ref>

These features suggest that the southern Puget Lowland is influenced by the deep crust and even the subducting Juan de Fuca plate, but the details and implications are not yet known.

==Other faults==
=== Actual ===
Each of the faults reviewed here is more typically a zone of related faults, or strands. There are numerous other seismogenic faults (or fault zones) in the Puget Lowland, sketchily studied and largely unnamed. These are usually fairly short, and not believed to be significantly seismogenic, though the ''Snoqualmie Valley Fault'', ''Griffin Creek Fault'', and ''Tokul Creek Fault'' (see [[#SVfmap|map]]) are in an area of active seismicity.<ref>Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-75}} (Snoqualmie).</ref> {{anchor|CCFZ}} The newly discovered (2010) ''Cherry Creek Fault Zone''<ref>{{Harvnb|Dragovich|others|2010}}.</ref> north of [[Carnation, Washington|Carnation]] (north end of the RMFZ, [[#SVfmap|map]]) may be the source of a 1996 M 5.3 earthquake just east of Duvall. It follows a NNE trending topographical feature extending to [[Rockport, Washington|Rockport]] on Highway 20; it may coincide with a tectonic contact of formations of the Western Melange Belt.<ref>Geological Map {{Harvnb|GM-52}}.</ref>

The ''San Juan Island'' and ''Leach River'' faults crossing the southern end of [[Vancouver Island]] are significant and undoubtably connected with the Darrington—Devils Mountain and Southern Whidbey Island faults, and certainly of particular interest to the residents of [[Victoria, B.C.]]. But their significance to the Puget Sound area is unknown.

{{anchor|LRF}}{{anchor|SQF}}
The ''Little River Fault'' (see the [http://gldims.cr.usgs.gov/webapps/cfusion/sites/qfault/qf_web_disp.cfm?qfault_or=1315&ims_cf_cd=cf&disp_cd=C QFFDB, Fault 556]) is representative of an extensive zone of faults along the north side of the Olympic Peninsula and in the Strait of Juan de Fuca (likely connected with the fault systems at the south end of Vancouver Island, see [http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/qfaults/wa/vic.html fault database map]), but these lie west of the crustal blocks that underlie the Puget Lowland, and again their possible impact on the Puget Sound region is unknown. One of these faults, the ''Sequim Fault Zone'' (striking east from the town of [[Sequim, Washington|Sequim]]), crosses Discovery Bay (and various possible extensions of the [[#HCF|Hood Canal Fault]]) and bounds the Port Ludlow Uplift ("uplift of unknown origin" on the [[#pattern|map]]); it appears to extend to the Southern Whidbey Island Fault.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}, p. 13,557.</ref>

An ''Everett Fault'', running east-northeast along the bluffs between [[Mukilteo, Washington|Mukilteo]] and [[Everett, Washington|Everett]] – that is, east of the SWIF and at the southern edge of the Everett Basin – has been claimed, but this does not appear to have been corroborated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Molinari|Burk|2003}} (abstract).</ref>

{{anchor|LF}}A ''Lofall Fault'' has been reported on the basis of marine seismic reflection surveying,<ref>{{Harvnb|Brocher|others|2001}}, p. 13,557.</ref> but has not been confirmed by trenching. This fault seems to be associated with the Kingston arch anticline, and part of the [[#pattern|uplift and basin pattern]], but shortened because of the geometry of the SWIF. It is not notably seismogenic.

{{anchor|WRF}}Although the largely unstudied ''White River Fault'' (WRF) appears to lie just outside of the Puget Lowland, it may actually connect under the Muckleshoot Basin to the East Passage Zone and the [[#TF|Tacoma Fault]] ([[#PLmap|map]]).<ref>{{Harvnb|Blakely|others|2009b}} (abstract); {{Harvnb|Carley|Liberty|Pratt|2007}} (abstract).</ref> This would pose significantly greater seismic hazard than currently recognized, especially as the White River Fault is believed to connect with the ''Naches River Fault'' that extends along Highway 410 on the east side of the Cascades towards Yakima.

The [[Straight Creek Fault]] is a major structure in the [[North Cascades]], but has not been active for over 30 million years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Vance|Miller|1994}}.</ref> Various other faults in the North Cascades are older (being offset by the Straight Creek Fault) and are unrelated to the faults in Puget Sound.

===Conjectured===
A ''Puget Sound Fault'' running down the center of Puget Sound (and [[Vashon Island]]) was once proposed,<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|1984}}; {{Harvnb|Johnson|others|1999}}.</ref> but seems to have not been accepted by the geological community. A ''Coast Range Boundary Fault'' (CRBF) was inferred on the basis of differences in the basement rock to the west and east of Puget Sound (the Crescent Formation—Cascadia core contact), and arbitrarily mapped at various locations including Lake Washington; this is now generally identified, north of the OWL, with the Southern Whidbey Island Fault and its extension through the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone.<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|others|1996}}, pp. 336, 341, 348; Geologic Map {{Harvnb|GM-67}} (Fall City).</ref> Whether the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone extends south of the OWL is not yet known. Some authors still infer a CRBF fault south of the OWL, usually offset to the west from the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone to align it with the St. Helens Zone or Western Rainier Zone (see [[#SHZ|maps and discussion]]).<ref>E.g., [[#{{Harvid|GM-52}}|Brown & Dragovich (2003)]] (Geological Map GM-52); {{Harvnb|Sherrod|others|2008}}, Figure 1, p. 114;</ref> An argument has been made on the basis of seismic tomography and seismological data that the Crescent/Cascadia basement contact runs beneath Seattle<ref>{{Harvnb|Snelson|others|2007}}, p. 1442.</ref> but this is still conjectural.

Each of the principal Puget Lowland faults discussed here is notable largely for demonstrated or suspected seismic activity, usually a geologically recent ([[Holocene]]) major earthquake. However, significant movements on these faults (such as the Great Seattle Quake of ~930 AD) are rare, and most seismic activity is not associated with any known fault.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Rogers|2002|p=145}}: "... there is little evidence of fault planes aligning with spatial trends of epicentres. Instead, most crustal seismicity seems to be occurring on random faults, all responding to the same regional stress."</ref> Seismicity sometimes occurs in zones,
such as has been observed under Mercer Island, or from downtown Seattle towards Kirkland<ref>{{Harvnb|Yelin|1982}}. See also [http://www.pnsn.org/USGS_GOTER_MAP/goter.gif Map view of quakes in western Washington] at PNSN.</ref> but whether particular zones reflect undiscovered faults, or might be the source of damaging earthquakes, is generally unknown.

==See also==
*[[Seattle Fault]]
*[[Tacoma Fault]]
*[[Geology of the Pacific Northwest]]

==External links==
*[http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1149/ Preliminary Atlas of Active Shallow Tectonic Deformation in the Puget Lowland, Washington (USGS Open-File Report 2010-1149)] Maps of the region's faults, with an overview.
*[http://earthquakes.usgs.gov/regional/qfaults USGS Quaternary fault and fold database] Technical descriptions and bibliographies.
*[http://www.pnsn.org/ The Pacific Northwest Seismic Network] All about earthquakes and geologic hazards of the Pacific Northwest.
*[http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/jparsons/OCEAN310/Troost_origin_of_Puget_Sound.pdf The Origin of Puget Sound] Short, but good.
*[http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1999/ofr-99-0311/seismaps.htm Earthquake locations.]
*[http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_gm50_geol_map_nw_wa_250k.pdf Geologic map of northwestern Washington (GM-50).]
*[http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_gm34_geol_map_sw_wa_250k.pdf Geologic map of southwestern Washington (GM-34).]
*[http://www.dnr.wa.gov/ResearchScience/Pages/PubMaps.aspx Various maps from Washington DGER.]
*[http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1999/of99-514/maps Aeromagnetic anomaly maps (USGS OFR 99-514).]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Puget Sound Faults}}
[[Category:Geology of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Seismic faults of the United States]]

Jenna Marbles

2011-12-02T04:49:21Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 173.24.125.38 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by 71.229.229.120. (TW)

{{Infobox person
| name = Jenna Marbles
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Jenna Mourey
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1986|09|15}}
| birth_place = [[Rochester, New York]], U.S.A.
| education =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = [[YouTube]] comedian, [[blogger]], go-go dancer
| years_active = 2010–present
| employer =
| organization =
| agent =
| known_for = [[Comedy]], [[vlogging]]
| notable_works =
| spouse =
| website = {{URL|http://jennamarblesblog.com/}}
| box_width =
}}

'''Jenna Mourey''', (born September 15, 1986) widely known as '''Jenna Marbles''', is an [[People of the United States|American]] [[YouTube]] personality.

== Early life ==
Marbles is from Rochester, New York and attended [[Brighton High School (Rochester, New York)|Brighton High School]].<ref>[http://www.suffolk.edu/15480.html Suffolk Athletics]</ref><ref name=blog>{{cite web|url=http://jennamarblesblog.com/about.html |title=About Me |publisher=Jenna Marbles Blog |date= |accessdate=2011-10-04}}</ref> She moved to [[Boston]] to attend college at [[Suffolk University]]. She obtained a B.S. in [[Psychology]] and attended [[Boston University]] for graduate school, where she received a Masters in [[Sport psychology]] and Counseling.<ref name="nytimes1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/14/fashion/with-grinding-an-unwanted-advance-at-the-dance.html |title=Rendering Grinders Toothless |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2011-08-12 |accessdate=2011-10-04}}</ref> She is now a comedian. She currently lives in [[Santa Monica]]. She is a [[Go-go dancing|go-go dancer]] for Barstool Sports. <ref name="barstoolsports1">{{cite web|author=By elpresidente posted July 16th, 2010 at 10:32 AM |url=http://boston.barstoolsports.com/random-thoughts/jenna-marbles-on-necn-this-morning/ |title=» Jenna Marbles On NECN This Morning Barstool Sports: Boston |publisher=Boston.barstoolsports.com |date=2010-07-16 |accessdate=2011-10-04}}</ref> Her mother also teaches social media.
And she enjoys to have anal. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.necn.com/07/16/10/Jenna-Mourey-I-have-no-fear-no-shame/landing.html?blockID=272403&feedID=4215 |title=Jenna Mourey: 'I have no fear, no shame' |publisher=Necn.com |date=2010-07-16 |accessdate=2011-10-04}}</ref>

== YouTube videos ==
Marbles came to prominence with her video "How To Trick People Into Thinking You're Good Looking", which had over 5.3 million views in its first week (30,111,632 as of November 27th, 2011).<ref>{{cite web|author=Jenna Marbles |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OYpwAtnywTk&feature=relmfu |title=How to Trick People into Thinking You're Really Good Looking |publisher=YouTube |date=2011-02-15 |accessdate=2011-11-02}}</ref> The video was well-received by the female demographic.<ref name="barstoolsports1"/> Her video "How To Avoid Talking To People You Don't Want To Talk To" was featured in an August article in the ''[[New York Times]]''<ref name="nytimes1"/> and [[ABC News]],<ref name=abcnews>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/US/jenna-marbles-anti-dirty-dance-teens-grinding/story?id=14314828 |title="Jenna Marbles'" Anti-Dirty Dance: Teens Say No to Grinding - ABC News |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |date=2011-08-16 |accessdate=2011-10-04}}</ref> in which Mourey said, "I'm sick and tired of guys thinking that just because I showed up at a club or a dance or a bar, that I want to have their genetalia touching my back side." The video has over 13,000,000 views as of November 2011.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jenna Marbles |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8wRXa971Xw0 |title=How To Avoid Talking To People You Don't Want To Talk To |publisher=YouTube |date=2011-02-15 |accessdate=2011-10-04}}</ref>

{{As of|November 2011}}, Marbles' channel has over one million subscribers.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.youtube.com/user/JennaMarbles JennaMarbles], Jenna Marble's YouTube channel
* [http://www.youtube.com/user/JennaMarblesVlog JennaMarblesVlog], Jenna Marble's 2nd YouTube channel

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Jenna Mourey
| Alias = Jenna Marbles
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Internet Celebrity, Blogger
| DATE OF BIRTH = September 27, 1982
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [N/A]
| DATE OF DEATH = [N/A]
| PLACE OF DEATH = [N/A]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Marbles, Jenna}}
[[Category:American Internet personalities]]
[[Category:People from Boston, Massachusetts]]

Dading Kalbuadi

2011-11-19T23:21:05Z

JimVC3: sp happend > happened

{{Infobox military person
|name= '''Dading Kalbuadi'''
|birth_date= {{Birth date|df=yes|1931|4|14}}
|death_date= {{Death date and age|df=yes|1999|10|10|1931|4|14}}
|birth_place= {{Flag icon|Indonesia}} [[Adipala]], [[Central Java]],
|death_place= {{Flag icon|Indonesia}} [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]]
|placeofburial= {{Flag icon|Indonesia}} [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]]
|Place of burial_label= Taman Makam Pahlawan Kalibata
|image=[[File:Dading_Kalbuadi_East_Timor.jpg]]
|caption=Dading Kalbuadi in East Timor during ''Operation Seroja''
|nickname=Dading Kalbuadi
|allegiance= {{Flag icon|Indonesia}} [[Indonesia]]
|branch= [[Indonesian Army]]
|serviceyears=
|rank= [[Lieutenant General]]
|servicenumber=
|commands=
|unit= [[Kopassus]] (Komando Pasukan Khusus)
|battles=[[Indonesian invasion of East Timor]]
|awards=
|laterwork=
}}

Dading Kalbuadi (Lieutenant General (Ret.) Dading Kalbuadi) (14 April 1931 - 10 October 1999) was an Indonesian Army Officer and the commander of Operation "Seroja" (Operation Lotus) during the Indonesian invasion of East Timor (1975-1976). He last served as an Inspector General of the Departement Of Defense of Indonesia. He collected over 25 medals and a number of honors from abroad, including from France, United States, Vietnam, Singapore, and Malaysia.

==Early life==
Dading Kalbuadi was born in Adipala (Central Java), April 14, 1931. As a teenager, he joined the IMAM (Indonesia Merdeka atau Mati) which has most of its operation in Banyumas. He was jointed with Chalmi Imam Santoso (CI Santoso) who also joins the Indonesian Special Forces (Kopassus) together with him. CI Santoso was first recognized after helping Colonel Edhi Wibowo during the crushing raid of PKI in Java.

==Military career==
The person that is most responsible in determining Dading's Career is General (Ret.) [[Benny Moerdani]]. They have been close friends since P3AD (Pusat Pendidikan Perwira Angkatan Darat) in the early 1950s. They have been together from being a student in the P3AD until becoming respected Officers in the TNI headquarters (Mabes TNI). When Benny became the Armed Forces Commander, Dading became the second person after him as a Chief of General Staff (KASUM- Kepala Staff Umum). When Benny became the Minister of Defense, he again invited Dading, placing him as an Inspector General of the Department of Defense. They were really close; when people read Benny's biography, it sometimes seems as though that one is reading the journey of Dading Kalbuadi's life, because he often mentions his name.

After Indonesia's independence war ended, Dading was accepted as a student in the P3AD (Pusat Pendidikan Perwira Angkatan Darat). In this Institute, not only did he meet [[Benny Moerdani]] but also he met other respected Indonesian armed force Officers like Soweno (Former Indonesian Starategic Reserve Command Commander), Sutaryo (former head of BAIS), Sebastianus Soekoso (former Governor of Maluku), and Gunawan Wibisono (Former Assospol of ABRI). They are known as "Benny's Man".

Despite being deployed in various combat operations, for Dading there are no other memorable operation than the operation in East Timor. One of the reason why it is memorable because, he at that time had obtained the rank of general and was therefore appointed as the Commander of the Regional Defense and Security of East Timor, replacing Soewano who happened to be his close friend. Dading is the type of commander who enjoys every second of battlefield, he also once quoted from General [[Douglas MacArthur]] that "Man Will not Fight and Die Unless They know what they fight and die for"

During his career in the military, he had served as the 16th Bali Udayana Military Commander, Chief of Armed Forces Procurement, Assistant Headquarter of the Armed Forces Logistics (1983), Aslog Kasum (Chief of Logistics Staff Division) ABRI, ABRI Kasum (Chief Of General Staff) (1986) and last served as an Inspector General in the Departement of Defense.

==Sources==
TNI Watch!-- Let. Jendral Dading Kalbuadi - http://www.minihub.org/siarlist/msg03876.html (October 12 1999)

[INDONESIA-L] KMP - Dading Kalbuadi- http://www.library.ohiou.edu/indopubs/1999/10/10/0048.html (October 10 1999)

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kalbuadi, Dading}}
[[Category:1931 births]]
[[Category:1999 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Central Java]]
[[Category:Indonesian military personnel]]

Mary Daly

2011-11-09T23:47:09Z

JimVC3: Reverted 3 edits by 90.193.161.199 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by Koavf. (TW)

{{For|the Australian writer|Mary Daly (Australian writer)}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region = Western philosophy
| era = [[20th-century philosophy|20th]] century philosophy
| color = #B0C4DE
| image = 20101226 MAG 337-custom7.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Daly circa 1970
| name = Mary Daly
| birth_date = {{birth date|1928|10|16}}
| birth_place = [[Schenectady, New York]], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|2010|01|03|1928|10|16}}
| death_place = [[Gardner, Massachusetts]], U.S.
| school_tradition = [[Feminist philosophy]]
| main_interests = [[Feminist theology]], [[ontology]], [[metaphysics]]
| notable_ideas =
| influences = [[Paul Tillich]], [[Martin Buber]], [[Thomas Aquinas]]}}
'''Mary Daly''' (October 16, 1928 – January 3, 2010<ref name="fox">{{Cite web| last = Fox| first = Margalit| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Mary Daly, a Leader in Feminist Theology, Dies at 81| work = | publisher = The New York Times| date = January 6, 2010| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/07/education/07daly.html?hpw| doi = | accessdate = January 7, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/femininst-theologian-mary-daly-dies |title=Feminist theologian Mary Daly dies |first=Thomas C. |last=Fox |work=[[National Catholic Reporter]] |date=January 4, 2010 |accessdate=January 4, 2010 }}</ref>) was an [[United States|American]] [[radical feminism|radical feminist]] [[philosophy|philosopher]], academic, and [[theology|theologian]]. Daly, who described herself as a "radical lesbian feminist",<ref name="fox"/> taught at [[Boston College]], a [[Jesuit]]-run institution, for 33 years. Daly retired in 1999, after violating university policy by refusing to allow male students in her advanced [[women's studies]] classes. She allowed male students in her introductory class and privately tutored those who wanted to take advanced classes.<ref name="fox" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bostonherald.com/news/regional/view/20100106feminist_bc_theology_professor_mary_daly_dies/srvc=home&position=recent|title=Feminist BC theology professor Mary Daly dies|date=6 January 2010|work=Associated Press|accessdate=13 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crosscurrents.org/madsenf00.htm |title=The Thin Thread of Conversation: An Interview with Mary Daly |first=Catherine |last=Madsen |work=Cross Currents |date=Fall 2000 |accessdate=January 13, 2010 }}</ref>

{{Feminism sidebar |expanded=all}}

== Education ==
Before obtaining her two doctorates in [[Doctor of Sacred Theology|sacred theology]] and [[philosophy]] from the [[University of Fribourg]], [[Switzerland]], she received her [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] in [[English language|English]] from [[The College of Saint Rose]], her M.A. in English from [[The Catholic University of America]], and a doctorate in religion from [[Saint Mary's College (Indiana)|Saint Mary's College]].

== Career ==
Daly taught classes at Boston College from 1967 to 1999, including courses in theology, feminist [[ethics]], and [[patriarchy]].

Daly was first threatened with dismissal when, following the publication of her first book, ''The Church and the Second Sex'' (1968), she was issued a terminal [[contract]]. As a result of support from the (then all-male) student body and the general public, however, Daly was ultimately granted tenure.

Daly's refusal to admit male students to some of her classes at Boston College also resulted in disciplinary action. While Daly argued that their presence inhibited class discussion, Boston College took the view that her actions were in violation of [[title IX]] of federal law requiring the College to ensure that no person was excluded from an education program on the basis of sex, and of the University's own non-discrimination policy insisting that all courses be open to both male and female students.

In 1998, a [[discrimination]] claim against the college by two male students was backed by the [[Center for Individual Rights]], a conservative advocacy group. Following further reprimand, Daly absented herself from classes rather than admit the male students.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Seele| first = Michael| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Daly's Absence Prompts Cancellations| work = | publisher = The Boston College Chronicle| date = March 4, 1999| url = http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/rvp/pubaf/chronicle/v7/mr4/daly.html| doi = | accessdate = }}</ref> Boston College removed her [[tenure]] rights, citing a verbal agreement by Daly to retire. She brought suit against the college disputing violation of her tenure rights and claimed she was forced out against her will, but her request for an [[injunction]] was denied by Middlesex Superior Court Judge [[Martha Sosman]].<ref>{{Cite web| last = Sullivan| first = Mark| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Judge Denies Daly's Bid for Injunction| work = | publisher = The Boston College Chronicle| date = May 28, 1999| url = http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/rvp/pubaf/chronicle/v7/my28/daly.html| doi = | accessdate = }}</ref>

A confidential [[out-of-court settlement]] was reached. The college maintains that Daly had agreed to retire from her faculty position,<ref>{{Cite web| last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Mary Daly Ends Suit, Agrees to Retire| work = | publisher = The Boston College Chronicle| date = February 15, 2001| url = http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/rvp/pubaf/chronicle/v9/f15/daly.html| doi = | accessdate = }}</ref> while others assert she was forced out.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Pippin |first=Tina |editor1-first=Edward L. |editor1-last=Queen II |editor2-first=Stephen R. |editor2-last=Prothero |editor3-first=Gardiner H. |editor3-last=Shattuck, Jr. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Religious History |title=Mary Daley |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u-_6P2rMy2wC&pg=PA326 |accessdate=August 25, 2011 |edition=3d |year=2009 |publisher=Facts on File |volume=3 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8160-6660-5 |page=326 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/panelists/susan_brooks_thistlethwaite/2010/01/the_courage_to_sin_big_the_life_of_mary_daly.html |title=Mary Daly's 'Courage to Sin Big' |last=Thistlethwaite |first=Susan Brooks |date=January 5, 2010 |work=The Washington Post |accessdate=August 25, 2011 }}</ref> Daly maintained that Boston College wronged her students by depriving her of her right to teach freely to only female students.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Kettle| first = Martin| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Unholy row as feminist lecturer bars men| work = | publisher = The Guardian| date = February 27, 1999| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/1999/feb/27/martinkettle| doi = | accessdate = }}</ref> She documented her account of the events in the 2006 book, ''Amazon Grace: Recalling the Courage to Sin Big''.

Daly protested the commencement speech of [[Condoleezza Rice]] at Boston College, and she spoke on campuses around the United States as well as internationally.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Elton| first = Catherine| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Efforts mount against BC's Rice invitation| work = | publisher = The Boston Globe| date = May 9, 2006| url = http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2006/05/09/efforts_mount_against_bcs_rice_invitation/| doi = | accessdate = }}</ref>

== Works ==
Daly published a number of works, and is perhaps best known for her second book, ''Beyond God the Father'' (1973). ''Beyond God the Father'' is the last book in which Daly really considers God a substantive subject. She laid out her systematic theology, following [[Paul Tillich]]’s example.<ref name=Riswold>{{Cite book| last = Riswold| first = Caryn D.| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Two Reformers| publisher = Wipf & Stock Publishers| year = 2007| location = Eugene, OR| pages = 33| url = | doi = | isbn = 1597528269}}</ref> Often regarded as a foundational work in feminist theology, ''Beyond God the Father'' is her attempt to explain and overcome [[androcentrism]] in [[Western religion]], and it is notable for its playful writing style and its attempt to rehabilitate "God-talk" for the women's liberation movement by critically building on the writing of existentialist theologians such as Paul Tillich and [[Martin Buber]]. While the former increasingly characterized her writing, she soon abandoned the latter.

Daly’s ''Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism'' (1978) argues that men throughout history have sought to oppress women. In this book she moves beyond her previous thoughts on the history of patriarchy to the focus on the actual practices that, in her view, perpetuate patriarchy, which she calls a religion.<ref name=Riswold />

Daly’s ''Pure Lust: Elemental Feminist Philosophy'' (1984) and ''Webster’s First New Intergalactic Wickedary of the English Language'' (1987) introduce and explore an alternative language to explain the process of exorcism and ecstasy. In ''Wickedary'' Daly provides definitions as well as chants that she says can be used by women to free themselves from patriarchal oppression. She also explores the labels that she says patriarchal society places on women to prolong what she sees as male domination of society. Daly said it is the role of women to unveil the liberatory nature of labels such as “Hag”, “Witch”, and “Lunatic”.<ref name=Ruether>{{Cite book| last = Ruether| first = Rosemary Radford| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Women and Redemption: A Theological History| publisher = Fortress Press| year = 1998| location = Minneapolis| pages = 218–9| url = | doi = | isbn = 0800629477}}</ref>

Daly's work continues to influence feminism and [[feminist theology]], as well as the developing concept of [[biophilia hypothesis|biophilia]] as an alternative and challenge to social necrophilia. She was an [[Ethics of eating meat|ethical vegetarian]] and [[animal rights]] activist. ''Gyn/Ecology'', ''Pure Lust'', and ''Webster's First New Intergalactic Wickedary'' all endorse anti-[[Animal testing|vivisection]] and anti-[[Fur clothing|fur]] positions.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} Daly was a member of the advisory board of Feminists For Animal Rights, a group which is now defunct.

Daly created her own theological anthropology based around the context of what it means to be a woman. She created a dualistic thought-praxis that separates the world into the world of false images that create oppression and the world of communion in true being. She labeled these two areas Foreground and Background respectively. Daly considered the Foreground the realm of patriarchy and the Background the realm of Woman. She argued that the Background is under and behind the surface of the false reality of the Foreground. The Foreground, for Daly, was a distortion of true being, the paternalistic society in which she said most people live. It has no real energy, but drains the “life energy” of women residing in the Background. In her view, the Foreground creates a world of poisons that contaminate natural life. She called the male-centered world of the Foreground necrophilic, hating all living things. In contrast, she conceived of the Background as a place where all living things connect.<ref name=Ruether /><ref name=Hoagland>{{Citation| last = Hoagland| first = Sarah Lucia| author-link = | last2 = Frye| first2 = Marilyn| author2-link = | title = Feminist interpretations of Mary Daly| place = | publisher = Penn State Press| year = 2000| volume = | edition = | pages =60, 267| url = | doi = | isbn = 0271020199}}</ref>

=== Gyn/Ecology ===
[[Audre Lorde]] expressed concern over ''Gyn/Ecology'', citing homogenizing tendencies, and a refusal to acknowledge the "[[herstory]] and myth" of women of color.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Audre| first = Lorde| authorlink = Audre_Lorde| coauthors = | title = An Open Letter to Mary Daly| publisher = Crossing Press| year = 1984| location = Berkeley| pages = 66–71| url = | doi = | isbn = }}</ref> The letter,<ref>Audre Lorde's letter is discussed in Dr. Daly's book, ''Outercourse''.</ref> and Daly's apparent decision not to publicly respond, greatly affected the reception of Daly's work among other feminist theorists, and has been described as a "paradigmatic example of challenges to white feminist theory by feminists of color in the 1980s."<ref name= Hoagland/>

Daly's reply letter to Lorde,<ref>''Amazon Grace'' (N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan, 1st ed. [1st printing?] Jan. 2006), pp. 25–26 (reply text).</ref> dated 4½ months later, was found in 2003 in Lorde's files after she died.<ref>''Amazon Grace'', supra, pp. 22–26, esp. pp. 24–26 & nn. 15–16, citing ''Warrior Poet: A Biography of Audre Lorde'', by Alexis De Veaux (N.Y.: W.W. Norton, 1st ed. 2004) (ISBN 0393019543 or ISBN 0393329356).</ref> Daly's reply was followed in a week by a meeting with Lorde at which Ms. Daly said, among other things, that ''Gyn/Ecology'' was not a compendium of goddesses but limited to "those goddess myths and symbols that were direct sources of Christian myth," but whether this was accepted by Ms. Lorde was unknown at the time.<ref>See ''Amazon Grace'', supra, p. 23 ("week" per pp. 24 & 23).</ref>

== Views on men ==
She argued against sexual equality,<ref>Daly, Mary, ''Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism'' (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 1978 & 1990), pp. 384 & 375–376 (fnn. omitted) (prob. all content except ''New Intergalactic Introduction'' 1978 & prob. ''New Intergalactic Introduction'' 1990) (ISBN 0-8070-1413-3)) (''New Intergalactic Introduction'' is separate from ''Introduction: The Metapatriarchal Journey of Exorcism and Ecstasy'').</ref> believing that women ought to govern men;<ref>Daly, Mary, ''Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism'', pp. 15 & xxvi (p. xxvi in ''New Intergalactic Introduction'' (prob. 1990)).</ref> Daly advocated a reversal of sociopolitical power between the sexes.<ref>Daly, Mary, ''Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism'', p. xxvi (''New Intergalactic Introduction'' (prob. 1990)).</ref>

In an interview with ''[[What Is Enlightenment? (magazine)|What Is Enlightenment?]]'' magazine, Daly said, "''I don't think about men.'' I really don't care about them. I'm concerned with ''women's'' capacities, which have been infinitely diminished under patriarchy. Not that they've disappeared, but they've been made subliminal. I'm concerned with ''women'' enlarging our capacities, actualizing them. So that takes all my energy."<ref name=Enlightenment>{{Cite web| last = Bridle| first = Susan| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = No Man's Land| work = | publisher = EnlightenNext Magazine| date = Fall/Winter 1999| url = | doi =}}</ref>

Later in the interview, she said, "If life is to survive on this planet, there must be a decontamination of the Earth. I think this will be accompanied by an evolutionary process that will result in a drastic reduction of the population of males."<ref name=Enlightenment />

== Views on transsexualism ==
In ''Gyn/Ecology,'' Daly asserted her negative view of [[transsexual]] people, writing, "Today the Frankenstein phenomenon is omnipresent . . . in . . . phallocratic technology. . . . Transsexualism is an example of male surgical siring which invades the female world with substitutes."<ref>Daly, Mary, ''Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism'' (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, pbk. [1st printing? printing of [19]90?] 1978 & 1990 (prob. all content except ''New Intergalactic Introduction'' 1978 & prob. ''New Intergalactic Introduction'' 1990) (ISBN 0-8070-1413-3)), pp. 70–71 (page break within ellipsis between sentences) (''New Intergalactic Introduction'' is separate from ''Introduction: The Metapatriarchal Journey of Exorcism and Ecstasy'').</ref> "Transsexualism, which Janice Raymond has shown to be essentially a male problem, is an ''attempt'' to change males into females, whereas in fact no male can assume female chromosomes and life history/experience."<ref>Daly, Mary, ''Gyn/Ecology'', ''op. cit.'', p. 238 n.</ref> "The surgeons and hormone therapists of the transsexual kingdom . . . can be said to produce feminine persons. They cannot produce women."<ref>Daly, Mary, ''Gyn/Ecology'', ''op. cit.'', p. 68 (n. 60 (at end) omitted).</ref>

Daly was also the dissertation advisor to [[Janice Raymond]], whose dissertation, published in 1979 as ''The Transsexual Empire'', is critical of [[transsexualism]].

== Bibliography ==
=== Books ===
* ''The Church and the Second Sex''. Harper & Row, 1968. {{OCLC|1218746}}
* ''Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women's Liberation''. Beacon Press, 1973. ISBN 0807027685
* ''Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism''. Beacon Press, 1978. ISBN 0807015105
* ''Pure Lust: Elemental Feminist Philosophy''. Beacon Press, 1984. ISBN 0807015040
* ''Websters' First New Intergalactic Wickedary of the English Language, Conjured in Cahoots with Jane Caputi'' (with Jane Caputi and Sudie Rakusin). Beacon Press, 1987. ISBN 0807067067
* ''Outercourse: The Bedazzling Voyage, Containing Recollections from My Logbook of a Radical Feminist Philosopher''. HarperSanFrancisco, 1992. ISBN 0062501941
* ''Quintessence... Realizing the Archaic Future: A Radical Elemental Feminist Manifesto''. Beacon Press, 1998. ISBN 0807067903
* ''Amazon Grace: Re-Calling the Courage to Sin Big''. Palgrave Macmillan, 1st ed. Jan. 2006. ISBN 1403968535

=== Articles ===
* ''The Spiritual Dimension of Women's Liberation''. In ''Notes From The Third Year: Women's Liberation'', 1971.<ref>In ''Notes From The Third Year: Women's Liberation'' (N.Y.: Notes From the Second Year, Inc., 1971), pp. 75–79.</ref>
* ''A Call for the Castration of Sexist Religion''. In ''The Unitarian Universalist Christian'' 27 (Autumn/Winter 1972), pp. 23–37.
* ''God Is A Verb''. In ''Ms''., (Dec., 1974), pp. 58–62, 96-98.
* ''Prelude to the First Passage''. In ''Feminist Studies'', vol. 4, no. 3 (Oct., 1978), pp. 81–86. Text is from ''Gyn/Ecology'' (book), at the time not yet published.
* ''Sin Big''. In ''The New Yorker'' (Feb 26 & Mar 4, 1996), pp. 76–84.

=== Theses/Dissertations ===
* ''Natural Knowledge of God in the Philosophy of Jacques Maritain''. Officium Libri Catholici, 1966. {{OCLC|2219525}}
* ''The Problem of Speculative Theology''. Thomist Press. 1965. [[Online Computer Library Center|OCLC]] [http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=%22The+Problem+of+Speculative+Theology%22&qt=owc_search (4 records)]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite web |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2010/01/mary_daly_pione.html |title=Mary Daly, pioneering feminist who tussled with BC, dies at 81 |first=Bryan |last=Marquard |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=January 5, 2010 |accessdate=January 5, 2010 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.advocate.com/article.aspx?id=105004 |title=Mary Daly Dead at 81 |first=Trudy |last=Ring |work=[[The Advocate]] |date=January 5, 2010 |accessdate=January 5, 2010 }}

== External links ==
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n50-38985}}
*[http://www.cddc.vt.edu/feminism/Daly.html Bibliography, Feminist Theory Website, by Kristin Switala et al., hosted at Center for Digital Discourse and Culture (CDDC), Virginia Tech University] (bibliography includes many articles)
*[http://cat.nyu.edu/wickedary/dalyinfo.html New York University website re "Wickedary"]
*{{cite web |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=122258110 |title=Feminist Theologian Mary Daly Remembered |first=Barbara Bradley |last=Hagerty |publisher=[[National Public Radio|NPR]] |format=MP3 |date=January 5, 2010 |accessdate=January 5, 2010 }}
*[http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/daly_m.html Mary Daly on the GLBTQ encyclopedia] (biography)
*[http://www.archive.org/details/KDVS_The_Fringe_4-5-06 Interview with Mary Daly on KDVS, April 5 2006]

{{Persondata
|NAME=Daly, Mary
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Feminist theologian
|DATE OF BIRTH=October 16, 1928
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Schenectady, New York]], USA
|DATE OF DEATH=January 3, 2010
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Gardner, Massachusetts]], USA}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Daly, Mary}}
[[Category:1928 births]]
[[Category:American feminist writers]]
[[Category:American women writers]]
[[Category:Boston College faculty]]
[[Category:Feminist philosophers]]
[[Category:Feminist studies scholars]]
[[Category:Feminist theology]]
[[Category:Gender studies academics]]
[[Category:LGBT feminists]]
[[Category:LGBT writers from the United States]]
[[Category:Saint Mary's College (Indiana) alumni]]
[[Category:The Catholic University of America alumni]]
[[Category:People from Schenectady, New York]]
[[Category:Women philosophers]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:University of Fribourg alumni]]

[[de:Mary Daly]]
[[et:Mary Daly]]
[[el:Μέρι Ντέιλι]]
[[es:Mary Daly]]
[[fr:Mary Daly]]
[[it:Mary Daly]]
[[nl:Mary Daly]]
[[pl:Mary Daly]]
[[pt:Mary Daly]]
[[sv:Mary Daly]]
[[zh:瑪麗·戴莉]]

Citroën Survolt

2011-10-02T19:00:54Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 78.145.210.246 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by Ванька Жуков. (TW)

{{Refimprove|date=November 2010}}
{{Infobox automobile
|image=[[Image:Survolt.jpg|250px|Citroën Survolt Concept]]
|name=Citroën Survolt
|manufacturer=[[Citroën]]
|production=Concept car only
|body style=2-door [[Sports-prototype]]
|class=[[Sports-prototype]]
|engine=2x electric motors
|related=[[Citroën Revolte 2009|Citroën Revolte]]
}}
'''Citroën Survolt''' is a concept [[Electric car|electric]] [[racing car]] produced by [[Citroën]] and presented at the 2010 [[Geneva Motor Show]].

==Overview==
The Survolt is a small-sized racing car based on the [[concept car]] REVOLTe presented at the 2009 [[Frankfurt Motor Show]]. Because the car runs on battery power alone it is classed as a zero-emissions vehicle.

==Design==
The Survolt is 3.85 metres (12.63 feet) long, 1.87 metres (6.14 feet) wide and 1.20 metres (3.94 feet) high and features an irreverent design with the front dominated by the vehicle's badge located above the large oval-shaped grille.

The car has horizontal [[LED light|LED]] [[headlamp]]s which have lower power consumption than traditional filament bulbs, important in a battery-operated vehicle.

At the back the Survolt maintains the light cluster design used on the REVOLTe, and has a [[Spoiler (automotive)|spoiler]] to increase rear downforce.

==Engine and drivetrain==
The Survolt is powered by a pair of [[electric motor]]s with a combined power output of 300 [[BHP]] (223.71 kW). Its top speed is 260 km/h (161.56 MPH), and it can accelerate from 0–100 km/h (62.2 MPH) in less than 5 seconds.

Citroën claims that the batteries provide a range of 200 km (124 miles).

==Motorsports==
The Citroën Survolt made its first appearance on a [[racetrack]] at [[Le Mans]] on 12 July 2010. [[Vanina Ickx]] was the first driver to get behind the wheel of the Survolt.

==Future==
Although it has not been confirmed that the Survolt will ever be produced, there are rumors that Citroën wants to create a limited-production of a [[supermini]]-sized concept based on this car, and start a one-make [[race series]]<ref>[http://www.autoexpress.co.uk/motorshows/geneva-motor-show/248944/live_citroen_survolt_at_geneva_2010.html#ixzz16xH8KADc Citroen is staying tight lipped about any production future for the SURVOLT, but bosses have said that they would like to build a limited number of cars to compete in a one-make racing series]</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Citroën Survolt}}
* [http://www.citroen.fr/concept-car/citroen-survolt/#/concept-car/citroen-survolt/ Citroën]
* [http://www.topgear.com/uk/car-news/tg-drives-the-citroen-survolt Top Gear drives the Citroen Survolt]

{{Modern Citroën vehicles}}
{{Citroën}}

[[Category:Citroën vehicles|Survolt]]
[[Category:Electric cars]]

[[fr:Citroën Survolt]]

Sleep Paralysis

2011-09-08T21:21:10Z

JimVC3: Reverted 1 edit by 86.45.1.47 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by Sentunim. (TW)

'''Sleep paralysis''' is [[paralysis]] associated with sleep that may occur in healthy persons or may be associated with [[narcolepsy]], [[cataplexy]], and [[hypnagogic hallucinations]]. The [[pathophysiology]] of this condition is closely related to the normal [[hypotonia]] that occurs during [[Rapid eye movement sleep|REM sleep]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hishikawa |first=Y. |last2=Shimizu |first2=T. |title=Physiology of REM sleep, cataplexy, and sleep paralysis |journal=Adv Neurol |year=1995 |volume=67 |pages=245–271 |pmid=8848973 }}</ref> When considered to be a disease, isolated sleep paralysis is classified as [[Medical Subject Headings|MeSH]] D020188.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2007/MB_cgi?field=uid&term=D020188 |title=D020188 }}</ref> Some evidence suggests that it can also, in some cases, be a symptom of [[migraine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dreaminglucid.com/articlejc.html |title=Scared Stiff - Sleep Paralysis: An Interview with Jorge Conesa, PhD. |first=Lucy |last=Gillis |year=2001 |work=The Lucid Dream Exchange }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.migraine-aura.org/content/e27891/e27265/e42285/e42290/e55289/e58636/index_en.html |title=Sleep paralysis |date=23 January 2008 |first=Klaus |last=Podoll |first2=Markus |last2=Dahlem |first3=Sofia |last3=Greene }}</ref>

[[Image:John Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare.JPG|thumb|280px|''[[The Nightmare]]'', by [[Henry Fuseli]] (1781) is thought to be one of the classic depictions of sleep paralysis perceived as a [[demon]]ic visitation.]]

==Symptoms and characteristics==
Physiologically, sleep paralysis is closely related to [[REM atonia]], the paralysis that occurs as a natural part of [[Rapid eye movement sleep|REM (rapid eye movement) sleep]]. Sleep paralysis occurs either when falling asleep, or when awakening. When it occurs upon falling asleep, the person remains aware while the body shuts down for REM sleep, and it is called [[hypnagogic]] or predormital sleep paralysis. When it occurs upon awakening, the person becomes aware before the REM cycle is complete, and it is called [[hypnopompic]] or postdormital.<ref>http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/guide/sleep-paralysis</ref> The paralysis can last from several seconds to several minutes, with some rare cases being hours, "by which the individual may experience panic symptoms"<ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007 p. 380">Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis. p. 380</ref> (described below). As the correlation with REM sleep suggests, the paralysis is not entirely complete; use of EOG traces shows that eye movement is still possible during such episodes.<ref>Hearne, K. (1990) The Dream Machine: Lucid dreams and how to control them, p18. ISBN 0-85030-906-9</ref> When there is an absence of narcolepsy, sleep paralysis is referred to as isolated sleep paralysis (ISP).<ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007">Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis</ref>

In addition, the paralysis may be accompanied by terrifying [[hallucinations]] ([[hypnopompic]] or [[Hypnagogia|hypnagogic]]) and an acute sense of danger.<ref>Hersen Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis</ref> Sleep paralysis is particularly frightening to the individual because of the vividness of such hallucinations.<ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007"/> The hallucinatory element to sleep paralysis makes it even more likely that someone will interpret the experience as a dream, since completely fanciful or dream-like objects may appear in the room alongside one's normal vision. Some scientists have proposed this condition as an explanation for [[alien abduction]]s and [[ghost]]ly encounters.<ref name="pmid15881271">{{cite journal |author=McNally RJ, Clancy SA. |title=Sleep Paralysis, Sexual Abuse, and Space Alien Abduction |journal=Transcultural Psychiatry |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=113–122 |year=2005|pmid=15881271 |doi=10.1177/1363461505050715}}</ref> A study by [[Susan Blackmore]] and [[Marcus Cox]] (the Blackmore-Cox study) of the [[University of the West of England]] supports the suggestion that reports of alien abductions are related to sleep paralysis rather than to [[temporal lobe]] lability.<ref name="ejufoas">{{cite journal | last = Blackmore | first = Susan | authorlink = Susan Blackmore | coauthors = Marcus Cox | title = Alien Abductions, Sleep Paralysis and the Temporal Lobe | journal = European Journal of UFO and Abduction Studies | volume = | issue = 1 | pages = 113–118 | publisher = | location = | date = | url = http://72.14.235.132/search?q=cache:oDUW-O3VERkJ:www.susanblackmore.co.uk/Articles/ejufoas00.html+%22Alien+Abductions,+Sleep+Paralysis+and+the+Temporal+Lobe%22&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au&client=firefox-a | doi = | id = | accessdate = 2008-07-26}}</ref> Some authors have warned of the possible misconnection between child sexual abuse (CSA) and hypnagogic/pompic phenomena and have noted that some clients after having described such an event to a fortune teller or psychic that the psychic may have suggested CSA.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Murphy |first=G. |last2=Egan |first2=J. |year=2010 |title=Sleep paralysis and hallucinations: What clinicians need to know |journal=Irish Psychologist |volume=36 |issue= |pages=95–98 |doi= }}</ref><ref>http://www.lenus.ie/hse/bitstream/10147/111896/1/IPMarch2010.pdf</ref>

==Possible causes==
{{Expand section|examples of causal [[neurophysiological]] factors|date=December 2010}}
In surveys from Canada, China, England, Japan and Nigeria, 20% to 60% of individuals reported having experienced sleep paralysis at least once in their lifetime.<ref name="Blackmore, Susan J. 2002 pp. 45-59">{{cite journal |last=Blackmore |first=Susan J. |last2=Parker |first2=Jennifer J. |year=2002 |title=Comparing the Content of Sleep Paralysis and Dream Reports |journal=Dreaming |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=45–59 |doi=10.1023/A:1013894522583 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Spanos |first=N. P. |last2=McNulty |first2=S. A. |last3=DuBreuil |first3=S. C. |last4=Pires |first4=M. |year=1995 |title=The frequency and correlates of sleep paralysis in a university sample |journal=Journal of Research in Personality |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=285–305 |doi=10.1006/jrpe.1995.1017 }}</ref> A study conducted by Sedaghat-Hamedani F. et al. has investigated the prevalence of sleep paralysis among Iranian medical students. 24.1% of students reported experiencing sleep paralysis at least once in their lifetime. The same result was reported among Japanese, Nigerian, Kuwaiti, Sudanese and American students.<ref>{{cite conference |last=Sedaghat-Hamedani |first=F. |last2=Kayvanpour |first2=E. |last3=Rezai |first3=A. |year=2004 |title=Prevalence of sleep paralysis and other symptoms of narcolepsy in Iranian medical students |conference=3rd scientific conference for GCC Medical Students }}</ref>

Many people who commonly enter sleep paralysis also suffer from [[narcolepsy]].<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 12211324 | last1 = Friedman | author-separator =, | first1 = S | author-name-separator= | last2 = Paradis | first2 = C | title = Panic disorder in African-Americans: symptomatology and isolated sleep paralysis. | journal = Culture, medicine and psychiatry| volume=26 | issue=2 | year=2002 | month=June | pages=179–98 | doi = 10.1023/A:1016307515418}}</ref>

Some reports read that various factors increase the likelihood of both paralysis and hallucinations. These include:
* Sleeping in a face upwards or [[supine position]]
* Increased stress
* Sudden environmental/lifestyle changes
* A [[lucid dream]] that immediately precedes the episode.
* Excessive consumption of alcohol coupled with lack of adequate sleep.<ref>{{cite web| author= J. A. Cheyne | url=http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/prevent.html | title= Preventing and Coping with Sleep Paralysis | accessdate=17 July 2006}} (reference for all six factors that increase likelihood of paralysis/hallucinations)</ref>

In ''The Terror That Comes in the Night'', folklorist and behavioral scientist David J. Hufford argues that sleep paralysis is related to an anomalous experience known in Newfoundland as "the Old Hag." According to Hufford, the Old Hag is "an experience with stable contents which is widespread, dramatic, realistic, and bizarre," and elements of the phenomenon cannot be fully explained either by psychology or culture. His works have explored the connection between the Old Hag and parapsychology in what he labels the "experience-centered approach" to hauntings.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hufford |first=D. J. |title=The terror that comes in the night: an experience-centered study of supernatural assault traditions |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1982 |isbn=0812278518 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hufford |first=D. J. |chapter=An experience-centered approach to hauntings |editor1-last=Houran |editor1-first=James |editor2-last=Lange |editor2-first=Rense |title=Hauntings and Poltergeists: Multidisciplinary Perspectives |location=London |publisher=McFarland |year=2001 |isbn=0786409843 }}</ref>

==Treatment==
Treatment starts with patient education about sleep stages and about the muscle atonia that is typically associated with REM sleep. It is recommended that patients be evaluated for [[narcolepsy]] if symptoms persist.<ref>Wills L, Garcia J. Parasomnias: Epidemiology and Management. CNS Drugs [serial online]. December 2002;16(12):803-810.</ref>

==Related phenomena==
Many perceptions associated with sleep paralysis (visceral buzzing, loud sounds, excited mental state,<ref>"The Projection of the Astral Body", 1968, Sylvan Muldoon and Hereward Carrington: p71</ref> presences, and the paralysis itself) also constitute a common phase in the early progression of episodes referred to as [[out of body experience]]s.<ref>http://www.susanblackmore.co.uk/Conferences/SPR99.html "OBEs and Sleep Paralysis", Susan Blackmore</ref> Mental focus varies between the two conditions; paralysis sufferers tend to fixate on reestablishing operation of the body, whereas subjects of out-of-body episodes are more occupied by perceived non-equivalence with the body.

==Folklore==
The original definition of sleep paralysis was codified by [[Dr. Samuel Johnson]] in his ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' as "nightmare," a term that evolved into our modern definition. Such sleep paralysis was widely considered to be the work of [[demon]]s and more specifically [[incubus (demon)|incubi]], which were thought to sit on the chests of sleepers. In [[Old English language|Old English]] the name for these beings was ''mare'' or ''mære'' (from a [[proto-Germanic language|proto-Germanic]] ''*marōn'', cf. [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] ''[[mara (folklore)|mara]]''), hence comes the ''mare'' part in ''nightmare''. The word might be etymologically cognate to Hellenic ''Marōn'' (in the [[Odyssey]]) and [[Sanskrit]] ''[[Mara (demon)|Māra]]''.

In [[Swedish people|Swedish]] folklore, sleep paralysis is caused by a Mare, a supernatural creature related to the [[werewolf]]. The Mare is a damned woman, who is cursed and her body is carried mysteriously during sleep and without her noticing. In this state, she visits villagers to sit on their rib cages while they are asleep, causing them to experience nightmares.

Folk belief in Newfoundland, South Carolina and Georgia describe the negative figure of the [[Hag]] who leaves her physical body at night, and sits on the chest of her victim. The victim usually wakes with a feeling of terror, has difficulty breathing because of a perceived heavy invisible weight on his or her chest, and is unable to move i.e., experiences sleep paralysis. This nightmare experience is described as being "hag-ridden" in the [[Gullah]] lore. The "Old Hag" was a nightmare spirit in British and also Anglophone North American folklore.

In [[Fiji]], the experience is interpreted as "kana tevoro" being 'eaten' or possessed by a demon. In many cases the 'demon' can be the spirit of a recently dead relative who has come back for some unfinished business, or has come to communicate some important news to the living. Often persons sleeping near the afflicted person say "kania, kania" (eat! eat!) in an attempt to prolong the possession for a chance to converse with the dead relative or spirit and seek answers as to why he/she has come back. The person waking up from the experience is often asked to immediately curse or chase the spirit of the dead relative, which sometimes involves literally speaking to the spirit telling him/her to go away or using expletives.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

In Nigeria, "ISP appears to be far more common and recurrent among people of African descent than among whites or Nigerian Africans",<ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007 p. 380"/> and is often referred to within African communities as "the Devil on your back."<ref name="Mattek, 2005 Memoirs p. 34">Mattek, (2005) Memoirs p. 34</ref><ref name="Katherine Roberts">{{cite web|url=http://www.louisianafolklife.org/LT/Articles_Essays/main_misc_cauchemar.html|title=Contemporary Cauchemar: Experience, Belief, Prevention|work=Folklife in Louisiana|author=Katherine Roberts|publisher=The Louisiana Folklife Program}}</ref><ref name="pmid6737506">{{cite journal |author=Bell CC, Shakoor B, Thompson B, Dew D, Hughley E, Mays R, Shorter-Gooden K |title=Prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis in black subjects |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=76 |issue=5 |pages=501–508 |year=1984 |pmid=6737506 |pmc=2561758}}</ref>

In [[Turkey]], and in many Islamic beliefs,{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} Sleep Paralysis is called "[[Karabasan]]" which is very similar to the classic story of a demon visiting a person in sleep. A demon (most commonly known as [[Djinn]] ([[Cin]] in [[Turkish language|Turkish]])) comes to one's room, holds him down hardly enough to not allow any kind of movement, starts to strangle the person and many people even say that they hear the voice of the djinn or Satan. To get rid of the demonic creature, one needs to pray to God ([[Allah]] in Islamic beliefs) with certain lines from the [[Qur'an]]. If one does not pray soon enough, it is said that the demonic creature will kill the person by strangling. Some women actually believe the creature raped them through this process due to waking up with pain around the area of their genitalia and with a feeling of a headache.

Various forms of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and [[spiritual possession]] were also advanced as causes. In nineteenth century [[Europe]], the vagaries of diet were thought to be responsible. For example, in [[Charles Dickens]]'s ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'', [[Ebenezer Scrooge]] attributes the [[ghost]] he sees to "... an undigested bit of beef, a blot of mustard, a crumb of cheese, a fragment of an underdone potato..." In a similar vein, the ''[[Household Cyclopedia]]'' (1881) offers the following advice about nightmares:

:"Great attention is to be paid to regularity and choice of diet. Intemperance of every kind is hurtful, but nothing is more productive of this disease than drinking bad wine. Of eatables those which are most prejudicial are all fat and greasy meats and pastry... Moderate exercise contributes in a superior degree to promote the digestion of food and prevent flatulence; those, however, who are necessarily confined to a sedentary occupation, should particularly avoid applying themselves to study or bodily labor immediately after eating... Going to bed before the usual hour is a frequent cause of night-mare, as it either occasions the patient to sleep too long or to lie long awake in the night. Passing a whole night or part of a night without rest likewise gives birth to the disease, as it occasions the patient, on the succeeding night, to sleep too soundly. Indulging in sleep too late in the morning, is an almost certain method to bring on the paroxysm, and the more frequently it returns, the greater strength it acquires; the propensity to sleep at this time is almost irresistible."<ref>[http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/medicine.html#nightmare The Household Cyclopedia - Medicine]</ref>

==Around the world==
{{No footnotes|section|date=May 2009}}
Complete references to many cultures are given in [[Sleep paralysis#References|the References section]]



=== East Asia ===
* In [[Chinese culture]], sleep paralysis is widely known as "鬼壓身/鬼压身" ([[pinyin]]: guǐ yā shēn) or "鬼壓床/鬼压床" ([[pinyin]]: guǐ yā chuáng), which literally translate into "ghost pressing on body" or "ghost pressing on bed." A more modern term is "夢魘/梦魇" ([[pinyin]]: mèng yǎn).
* In [[Japanese language|Japanese]] culture, sleep paralysis is referred to as ''kanashibari'' ([[:ja:金縛り|金縛り]], literally "bound or fastened in metal," from "kane" (metal) and "shibaru" (to bind, to tie, to fasten). This term is occasionally used by English speaking authors to refer to the phenomenon both in academic papers and in [[popular psychology|pop psych]] literature.<ref name="shibaru">{{Cite journal |title=High prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis: kanashibari phenomenon in Japan |last=Fukuda |first=K. |last2=Miyasita |first2=A. |last3=Inugami |first3=M. |last4=Ishihara |first4=K. |journal=Sleep |year=1987 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=279–286 |doi= |pmid=3629091 }}</ref>
* In [[Korean culture]], sleep paralysis is called ''gawi nulim'' ({{Ko-hhrm|hangul=[[:ko:가위눌림|가위눌림]]}}), literally meaning "being pressed down by a ghost". It is often associated with a superstitious belief that a ghost or spirit is lying on top of or pressing down on the sufferer.
* In [[Mongolian culture]], nightmares in general as well as sleep paralysis is referred to by the verb-phrase ''khar darakh'' (written kara darahu), meaning "to be pressed by the Black" or "when the Dark presses". "Kara" means black and may refer to the dark side personified. "Kharin buu" means shaman of the Black (shamans of the dark side only survive in far-northern [[Mongolia]]), while "tsaghaan zugiin buu" means shaman of the white direction (referring to shamans who only invoke the benevolent spirits). Compare 'karabasan' (the dark presser) in Turkish, which may date from pre-Islamic times when the Turks had the same religion and mythology as the Mongols. See [[Mythology of the Turkic and Mongolian peoples]] and [[Tengriism]].

=== South-East Asia ===
* In Cambodian, Lao, and Thai culture, sleep paralysis is called ''phǐǐ am'' and ''khmout sukkhot''. It is described as an event in which the person is sleeping and dreams that one or more ghostly figures are nearby or even holding him or her down. The sufferer usually thinks that he or she is awake but unable to move or make any noises. This is not to be confused with ''pee khao'' and ''khmout jool'', ghost possession.
* In [[Hmong people|Hmong]] culture, sleep paralysis is understood to be caused by a nocturnal pressing spirit, "dab tsog." ''Dab tsog'' attacks "sleepers" by sitting on their chests, sometimes attempting to strangle them. Some believe that ''dab tsog'' is responsible for [[Sudden unexpected death syndrome|Sudden Unexpected Nocturnal Death Syndrome]] (SUNDS), which claimed the lives of over 100 Southeast Asian immigrants in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Adler (2011) offers a biocultural perspective on sleep paralysis and the sudden deaths. She suggests that an interplay between the Brugada syndrome (a genetic cardiac disorder) and the traditional meaning of a ''dab tsog'' attack are at the heart of the sudden deaths.<ref>{{cite book |last=Adler |first=Shelley R. |year=2011 |title=Sleep Paralysis: Night-mares, Nocebos, and the Mind-Body Connection |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=9780813548852 }}</ref>
* In Vietnamese culture, sleep paralysis is referred to as "ma đè", meaning "held down by a ghost" or "bóng đè", meaning "held down by a shadow".
* In [[Culture of the Philippines|Philippine culture]], "bangungut", or [[sudden unexplained death syndrome]], has traditionally been attributed to nightmares.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Munger|first=Ronald G.|coauthors=Elizabeth A. Booton|year=1998|title=Bangungut in Manila: sudden and unexplained death in sleep of adult Filipinos|journal=[[International Journal of Epidemiology]]|volume=27|issue=4|pages=677–684 |doi=10.1093/ije/27.4.677|pmid=9758125}}</ref> People who have claimed to survive such nightmares have reported experiencing the symptoms of sleep paralysis.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}
*In New Guinea, people refer to this phenomenon as "Suk Ninmyo", believed to originate from sacred trees that use human essence to sustain its life. The trees are said to feed on human essence during night as to not disturb the human's daily life, but sometimes people wake unnaturally during the feeding, resulting in the paralysis.
* In Malay of Malay Peninsula, sleep paralysis is known as 'kena tindih' (or 'ketindihan' in Indonesia), which means "being pressed".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sleepclinicjakarta.tblog.com/post/1969898557 |title=Klinik Gangguan Tidur }}</ref> Incidents are commonly considered to be the work of a malign agency; occurring in what are explained as blind spots in the field of vision, they are reported as demonic figures.

=== South Asia ===
* In [[Pakistan]], sleep paralysis is considered to be an encounter with [[Shaitan]] ([[Urdu language|Urdu]]: شيطان ) ([[Satan]]), [[evil]] [[jinn]]s or [[demon]]s who have taken over one's body. Like [[Iran]], this [[ghoul]] is known as 'bakhtak' ([[Urdu language|Urdu]]: بختک) or 'ifrit'. It is also assumed that it is caused by the [[black magic]] performed by [[enemy|enemies]] and [[jealous]] persons. People, especially children and young girls, wear [[Ta'wiz]] ([[Urdu language|Urdu]]: تعویز) ([[Amulet]]) to ward off [[evil eye]]. [[Spell (paranormal)|Spells]], [[incantation]]s and [[curse]]s could also result in [[ghoul]]s [[haunting]] a person. Some homes and places are also [[Haunting|haunted]] by [[evil]] [[ghost]]s, [[satan]]ic or other [[supernatural]] beings and they could [[Haunting|haunt]] people living there especially during the night. [[Muslim]] holy persons ([[Imam]]s, [[Maulvi]]s, [[Sufi]]s, [[Mullah]]s, [[Fakir|Faqirs]]) perform [[exorcism]] on individuals who are [[Demonic possession|possessed]]. The homes, houses, buildings and grounds are [[Blessing|blessed]] and [[Consecration|consecrated]] by [[Mullah]]s or [[Imam]]s by reciting [[Qur'an]] and [[Adhan]] ([[Urdu language|Urdu]]: أَذَان), the [[Islam]]ic call to [[Salah|prayer]], recited by the [[muezzin]].
* In Tamil Nadu and Sri Lankan Tamil culture, this particular phenomenon is referred to as 'Amuku Be' or 'Amuku Pei' meaning "the ghost that forces one down".
* In Nepal, especially [[Newa people|Newari]] culture it is also known as 'Khyaak' a ghost-like figure believed to reside in the darkness under the staircases of a house.

=== Middle-East, Western and Central Asia ===
* In [[Arabic]] Culture, sleep paralysis is often referred to as 'Kaboos' ({{lang-ar|كابوس}}), literally "presser" or 'Ja-thoom' ({{lang-ar|جاثوم}}) literally "What sits heavily on something", though the term 'Kaboos' is also used to refer to any form of bad dreams. In folklore across Arab countries, the 'Kaboos' is believed to be a ''[[Shaitan|shayṭān]]'' or a ''[[ifrit|‘ifrīt]]'' which sits, heavily, on people's chests.
* In [[Turkey|Turkish]] culture, sleep paralysis is often referred to as "karabasan" ("The dark presser/assailer"). It is believed to be a creature that attacks people in their sleep, pressing on their chest and stealing their breath. However, folk legends do not provide a reason why the devil or ifrit does that.
* In [[Persian people|Persian]] culture it is known as 'bakhtak' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: بختک), which is a ghost-like spear chucker creature that sits on the dreamer's chest, making breathing hard for him/her.

=== Africa ===
* In African culture, isolated sleep paralysis is commonly referred to as "the witch riding your back".<ref name="Mattek, 2005 Memoirs p. 34"/><ref name="Katherine Roberts"/>
*Several studies have shown that African-Americans may be predisposed to isolated sleep paralysis also known as "the witch is riding you" or "the haint is riding you".<ref name="pmid6737506"/> In addition, other studies have shown that African-Americans who have frequent episodes of isolated sleep paralysis, i.e., reporting having one or more sleep paralysis episodes per month coined as "sleep paralysis disorder," were predisposed to having panic attacks.<ref name="pmid3746934">{{cite journal |author=Bell CC, Dixie-Bell DD, Thompson B |title=Further studies on the prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis in black subjects |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=78 |issue=7 |pages=649–659 |year=1986|pmid=3746934 |pmc=2571385}}</ref> This finding has been replicated by other independent researchers.<ref name="pmid15881272">{{cite journal |author=Paradis CM, Friedman S |title=Sleep Paralysis in African Americans with Panic Disorder |journal=Transcultural psychiatry |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=692–694 |year=2006 |pmid=15881272 |isbn=3461505050720 |doi=10.1177/1363461505050720}}</ref><ref name="pmid7982696">{{cite journal |author=Friedman S, Paradis CM, Hatch M |title=Characteristics of African-Americans and white patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia |journal=Hospital and Community Psychiatry |volume=45 |issue=8 |pages=798–803 |year=1994 |pmid=7982696}}</ref>
*Ogun Oru is a traditional explanation for nocturnal disturbances among the Yoruba of Southwest Nigeria; ogun oru (nocturnal warfare) involves an acute night-time disturbance that is culturally attributed to demonic infiltration of the body and psyche during dreaming. Ogun oru is characterized by its occurrence, a female preponderance, the perception of an underlying feud between the sufferer's earthly spouse and a 'spiritual' spouse, and the event of bewitchment through eating while dreaming. The condition is believed to be treatable through Christian prayers or elaborate traditional rituals designed to exorcise the imbibed demonic elements.<ref name="pmid17379609">{{cite journal |author=Aina OF, Famuyiwa OO |title=Ogun Oru: a traditional explanation for nocturnal neuropsychiatric disturbances among the Yoruba of Southwest Nigeria |journal=Transcultural psychiatry |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=44–54 |year=2007 |pmid=17379609 |doi=10.1177/1363461507074968}}</ref>
* In Zimbabwean Shona culture the word Madzikirira is used to refer something really pressing one down. This mostly refers to the spiritual world in which some spirit—especially an evil one—tries to use its victim for some evil purpose. The people believe that witches can only be people of close relations to be effective, and hence a witches often try to use one's spirit to bewitch one's relatives.
* In Ethiopian culture the word 'dukak' is used, which is believed to be an evil spirit that possesses people during their sleep. Some people believe this experience is linked to use of [[Khat]] ('Chat'). Khat users experience sleep paralysis when suddenly quitting chewing [[Khat]] after use for a long time.
* In [[Swahili speaking East Africa]], it is known as 'jinamizi', which refers to a creature sitting on one's chest making it difficult for him/her to breathe. It is attributed to result from a person sleeping on his back. Most people also recall being strangled by this 'creature'. People generally survive these 'attacks'

=== Europe ===
* In [[Hungary|Hungarian]] folk culture sleep paralysis is called "lidércnyomás" ("lidérc pressing") and can be attributed to a number of supernatural entities like "lidérc" (wraith), "boszorkány" (witch), "tündér" (fairy) or "ördögszerető" (demon lover).<ref>[http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02115/html/3-1332.html lidérc], Magyar Néprajzi Lexikon, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1977, ISBN</ref> The word "boszorkány" itself stems from the Turkish root "bas-", meaning "to press".<ref>[http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02115/html/1-925.html boszorkány], Magyar Néprajzi Lexikon, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1977, ISBN</ref>
* In [[Iceland]] folk culture sleep paralysis is generally called having a "[[Mara (folklore)|Mara]]". A [[goblin]] or a [[succubus]] (since it is generally female) believed to cause nightmares (the origin of the word 'Nightmare' itself is derived from her name). Other European cultures share variants of the same folklore, calling her under different names; Proto-Germanic: ''marōn''; Old English: ''mære''; German: ''Mahr''; Dutch: ''nachtmerrie''; Icelandic, Old Norse, Faroese, and Swedish: ''mara''; Danish: ''mare''; Norwegian: ''mare''; Old Irish: ''morrigain''; Croatian, Serbian, Slovene: ''môra''; Bulgarian, Polish: ''mara''; French: ''cauchemar''; Romanian: ''moroi''; Czech: ''můra''. The origin of the belief itself is much older and goes back to the reconstructed Proto Indo-European root ''mora-'', an incubus, from the root ''mer-'' "to rub away" or "to harm".
* In [[Malta]], folk culture attributes a sleep paralysis incident to an attack by the "Haddiela" who is the wife of the "Hares", an entity in Maltese folk culture that haunts the individual in ways similar to a poltergeist. As believed in folk culture, to rid oneself of the Haddiela, one must place a piece of silverware or a knife under the pillow prior to sleep.
* In [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]], it is believed that sleep paralysis occurs when a ghost-like creature or Demon named Mora, Vrachnas or Varypnas (Greek: Μόρα, Βραχνάς, Βαρυπνάς) tries to steal the victim's speech or sits on the victim's chest causing asphyxiation.

=== Americas ===
* During the [[Salem witch trials]] several people reported nighttime attacks by various alleged witches including [[Bridget Bishop]] that may have been the result of sleep paralysis.<ref>[http://www.justiceatsalem.com/Cooke%20justice%20text%20100109.pdf Justice at Salem] ''William H. Cooke''</ref>
* In Mexico, it is believed that this is caused by the spirit of a dead person. This ghost lies down upon the body of the sleeper, rendering him unable to move. People refer to this as "Subirse el Muerto" (Dead Person on you).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/575017.html |title = ¿Has sentido que se te sube el muerto? | publisher = El Universal | date= February 6, 2009}}</ref>
* In many parts of the Southern United States, the phenomenon is known as a "[[hag]]", and the event is said to often be a sign of an approaching tragedy or accident.
* In [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], it is known as the 'Old Hag'.<ref name="OldHag">{{Cite book|author=Firestone, M.|title=The “Old Hag”: sleep paralysis in Newfoundland|work=The Journal of Psychoanalytic Anthropology|year=1985|chapter=Section 8|pages=47–66}}</ref> In island folklore, the Hag can be summoned to attack a third party, like a curse. In his 1982 book, ''The Terror that Comes in the Night'', David J. Hufford writes that in local culture the way to call the Hag is to recite the Lord's Prayer backwards.
* In contemporary western culture it is believed that the phenomenon of reported [[alien abduction]] is caused by sleep paralysis where the hallucination of aliens has been generated by 20th and 21st century [[science fiction]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.skepdic.com/sleepparalysis.html |title= Sleep Paralysis|publisher = The Skeptics Dictionary}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Amitriptyline]]
* [[Hypnagogia]]
* [[Hypnopompic]]
* [[Seroquel]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
* Adler, Shelley R. (2011). Sleep Paralysis: Night-mares, Nocebos, and the Mind-Body Connection. New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813548869
* Culhane-Pera, Kathie (2003). Healing by Heart: Clinical and Ethical Case Stories of Hmong Families and Western Providers. Vanderbilt University Press.
*Bower, Bruce (July 9, 2005). "[http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20050709/bob9.asp Night of the Crusher]." ''Science News''.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Conesa | first1 = J. | year = 2000 | title = Geomagnetic, cross-cultural and occupational faces of sleep paralysis: An ecological perspective | url = | journal = Sleep and Hypnosis | volume = 2 | issue = 3| pages = 105–111 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Conesa | first1 = J. | year = 2002 | title = Isolated Sleep Paralysis and Lucid Dreaming: Ten-year longitudinal case study and related dream frequencies, types, and categories | url = | journal = Sleep and Hypnosis | volume = 4 | issue = 4| pages = 132–143 }}
* Conesa, J. (2003). Sleep Paralysis Signaling (SPS) As A Natural Cueing Method for the Generation and Maintenance of Lucid Dreaming. Presented at The 83rd Annual Convention of the Western Psychological Association, May 1–4, 2003 in Vancouver, BC, Canada.
* Conesa-Sevilla, Jorge (2004). Wrestling With Ghosts: A Personal and Scientific Account of Sleep Paralysis. Pennsylvania: Xlibris/Randomhouse.
* Cooke, William H.. ''[http://www.justiceatsalem.com Justice at Salem: Reexamining the Witch Trials].'' Undertaker Press, Annapolis. 2009 ISBN 1-59594-322-6
* {{cite journal | last1 = The | first1 = Firestone M. | author-separator =, | author-name-separator= | year = 1985 | title = Old Hag": sleep paralysis in Newfoundland | url = | journal = The Journal of Psychoanalytic Anthropology | volume = 8 | issue = | pages = 47–66 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Fukuda | first1 = K | last2 = Miyasita | first2 = A | last3 = Inugami | first3 = M | last4 = Ishihara | first4 = K. | author-separator =, | author-name-separator= | year = 1987 | title = High prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis: kanashibari phenomenon in Japan | url = | journal = Sleep | volume = 10 | issue = 3| pages = 279–286 | pmid = 3629091 }}
* Hartmann E. The nightmare: the psychology and biology of terrifying dreams. New York:Basic,1984.
* Hufford D.J. The terror that comes in the night: an experience-centered study of supernatural assault traditions. Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982
* {{cite journal | pmid = 8321596 | last1 = Kettlewell | author-separator =, | first1 = N | author-name-separator= | last2 = Lipscomb | first2 = S | last3 = Evans | first3 = E | title = Differences in neuropsychological correlates between normals and those experiencing "Old Hag Attacks" | journal = Perceptual and motor skills| volume=76 | issue=3 Pt 1 | year=1993 | month=June | pages=839–45; discussion 846}}
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF00052448 | last1 = Ness | first1 = RC. | author-separator =, | author-name-separator= | year = 1978 | title = The Old Hag" phenomenon as sleep paralysis: a bicultural interpretation. Culture | url = | journal = Medicine and Psychiatry | volume = 2 | issue = | pages = 15–39 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ohayon | first1 = MM | last2 = Zulley | first2 = J | last3 = Guilleminault | first3 = C | last4 = Smirne | first4 = S. | year = 1999 | title = Prevalence and pathologic associations of sleep paralysis in the general population | url = | journal = Neurology | volume = 52 | issue = 6| pages = 1194–1200 | pmid = 10214743 }}
* Sagan, Carl (1997). ''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark''.
* Schneck JM. Sleep paralysis and microsomatognosia with special reference to hypnotherapy. The ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'' 1977; XXV:72-77.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Takeuchi | first1 = T | last2 = Miyasita | first2 = A | last3 = Sasaki | first3 = Y | last4 = Inugami | first4 = M | last5 = Fukuda | first5 = K. | author-separator =, | author-name-separator= | year = 1992 | title = Isolated sleep paralysis elicited by sleep interruption | url = | journal = American Sleep Disorders Association and Sleep Research Society | volume = 15 | issue = | pages = 217–225 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.stanford.edu/~dement/paralysis.html Sleep information and links] from Stanford University
* [http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/S_P.html Sleep Paralysis and Associated Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Experiences] from University of Waterloo
* [http://www.csicop.org/doubtandabout/sleep/ Waking Up to Sleep Paralysis]

{{SleepSeries2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sleep Paralysis}}
[[Category:Sleep physiology]]
[[Category:Sleep disorders]]
[[Category:Neuropsychology]]

[[ar:شلل النوم]]
[[ca:Paràlisi del son]]
[[da:Søvnparalyse]]
[[de:Bewegungsunfähigkeit im Schlaf]]
[[el:Παράλυση ύπνου]]
[[es:Parálisis del sueño]]
[[fa:فلج خواب]]
[[fr:Paralysie du sommeil]]
[[ko:가위눌림]]
[[it:Paralisi nel sonno]]
[[he:שיתוק שינה]]
[[lt:Miego paralyžius]]
[[ms:Kelumpuhan tidur]]
[[nl:Slaapverlamming]]
[[ja:金縛り]]
[[no:Søvnparalyse]]
[[pl:Porażenie przysenne]]
[[pt:Paralisia do sono]]
[[ru:Сонный паралич]]
[[simple:Sleep paralysis]]
[[sr:Paraliza sna]]
[[su:Eureup-eureup]]
[[fi:Unihalvaus]]
[[sv:Sömnparalys]]
[[ta:துயில் வாதம்]]
[[th:ผีอำ]]
[[tr:Uyku felci]]
[[uk:Сонний параліч]]
[[vi:Bóng đè]]
[[zh:睡眠瘫痪症]]

Catch-22 (Dilemma)

2011-08-23T19:33:35Z

JimVC3: sp eachother > each other

{{Original research|date=December 2010}}
A '''Catch-22''', coined by [[Joseph Heller]] in his novel ''[[Catch-22]]'', is a logical [[paradox]] arising from a situation in which an individual needs something that can only be acquired by not being in that very situation; therefore, the acquisition of this thing becomes logically impossible. Catch-22s are often spoken with regard to rules, regulations, procedures, or situations in which one has knowledge of being or becoming a victim but has no control over it occurring (''i.e.'' ''heads you win, tails I lose'', ''output is the input''...)

== Logic ==

The [[Archetype|archetypal]] '''Catch-22''', as formulated by [[Joseph Heller|Heller]], involves the case of [[John Yossarian]], a [[United States Army Air Corps|U.S. Army Air Forces]] [[Bombardier (air force)|bombardier]], who wishes to be grounded from combat flight. This will only happen if he is evaluated by the squadron's [[flight surgeon]] and found "unfit to fly." "Unfit" would be any pilot who is willing to fly such dangerous missions, as one would have to be [[Insanity|mad]] to volunteer for possible death. However, to be evaluated, he must ''request'' the evaluation, an act that is considered sufficient proof for being declared sane. These conditions make it impossible to be declared "unfit."

The "Catch-22" is that "anyone who wants to get out of combat duty isn't really crazy."<ref name="Heller1999" /> Hence, pilots who request a mental fitness evaluation ''are'' sane, and therefore must fly in combat. At the same time, if an evaluation is not requested by the pilot, he will never receive one and thus can never be found insane, meaning he must also fly in combat.

Therefore, Catch-22 ensures that no pilot can ever be grounded for being insane even if he is.

A logical formulation of this situation is:

# <math>(E \rightarrow (I \land R))</math> ([[Premise]]: If a person is excused from flying (E), that must be because he is both insane (I), and requests an evaluation (R));
# <math>(I \rightarrow \neg R)</math> ([[Premise]]: If a person is insane (I), he should not realize that he is, and would have no reason to request an evaluation)
# <math>(\neg I \lor \neg R)</math> (2, [[Material implication|Definition of implication]]: since an insane person would not request an evaluation, it follows that all people must either not be insane, or not request an evaluation)
# <math>(\neg (I \land R))</math> (3, [[De Morgan's laws|De Morgan]]: since all people must either not be insane, or not request an evaluation, it follows that no person is both insane and requests an evaluation)
# <math>(\neg E)</math> (4, 1, [[Modus Tollens]]: since a person may be excused from flying only if he is both insane and requests an evaluation, but no person ''can'' be both insane and request an evaluation, it follows that no person can be excused from flying)

== Other uses from the novel ==
Besides referring to an unsolvable logical [[dilemma]], Catch-22 is invoked to explain or justify the military bureaucracy. For example, in the first chapter it requires Yossarian to sign his name to letters that he censors while he is confined to a hospital bed. One clause mentioned in chapter 10 closes a loophole in promotions, which one private had been exploiting to reattain the attractive rank of [[Private First Class]] after any promotion. Through courts-martial for going AWOL, he would be busted in rank back to PFC, but Catch-22 limited the number of times he could do this before being sent to the stockade.

In chapter 6, Yossarian is told that Catch-22 requires him to do anything his commanding officer tells him to do, regardless of whether these orders contradict orders from the officer's superiors. In Chapter 39 an old woman relates that soldiers had claimed that the actual text of Catch-22 did not have to be revealed when carrying out orders related to it, meaning that "they have a right to do anything we can't stop them from doing." This exchange convinces Yossarian that Catch-22 does not even exist, but because the powers that be claim it does, and the world believes it does, it nevertheless has potent effects. Indeed, because it does not exist there is no way it can be repealed, undone, overthrown, or denounced.

At one point, Captain Black pressures Milo into depriving Major Major of food based on fabricated charges by comparing the situation to Catch-22. He asks, "You're not against Catch-22, are you?" Captain Black wants Major Major punished for not signing a loyalty oath, despite never having given Major the opportunity to sign it.

At another point, after intercourse, Luciana explains to Yossarian that she cannot marry him because he is crazy for wanting to marry her, since she is not a virgin.

In chapter 40, Catch-22 forces Colonels Korn and Cathcart to promote Yossarian to Major and ground him rather than simply sending him home. They fear that if they do not, others will refuse to fly, just as Yossarian did.

== Real-life examples ==
Examples of Catch-22 can be found in real life, although none are the "real" Catch-22. Common examples include the following:

* Until vendors develop applications for [[Linux]], Linux's market share on the [[desktop computer|desktop]] will stagnate. But until the market share of Linux on the desktop rises, no vendor will develop applications for Linux.<ref name="Wine-Chicken-and-egg" />
* One is unlikely to purchase a hydrogen-fueled vehicle without there being a network of hydrogen stations from which to fill up. However, creating a network of hydrogen stations is not viable until there are enough hydrogen vehicles to create the demand.
* Americans in both the living room and the boardroom are growing more fearful about the economy, creating a Catch-22 for the job market: Shoppers will not spend until they feel more secure (as in, being employed), and businesses will not hire until people start spending.
* A man tries to get a job with a company, but they won't hire him because he has no work experience in that field. He cannot gain work experience because he cannot get a job in that field without experience.

== Significance of the number 22 ==
{{main|Catch-22#Explanation of the novel's title}}
Heller originally wanted to call the phrase, and hence the book, by other numbers, but he and his publishers eventually settled on 22. The number has no particular significance; it was chosen more or less for [[euphony]]. The title was originally ''Catch-18'', but Heller changed it after the popular ''[[Mila 18]]'' was published a short time beforehand.<ref name="Aldridge1986" />

== See also ==

{{portal|Novels}}

* [[List of paradoxes]]
Situations which have logical similarities to a ''Catch-22''.
* [[Begging the question|Circular logic]]
* [[False dilemma]]
* [[Irony]]
* [[No-win situation]] – real choices exist, but no choice leads to success.
* [[Kobayashi Maru]] – a scenario involving a choice between death of civilians or of the officers who try to save them.
* [[Reductio ad absurdum]]
* [[The Lady, or the Tiger?]] – a short story involving a princess who must make a decision in a no-win situation.
* [[Chicken or the egg]] – a seemingly unbreakable cycle of causation, which has an unknown origin.
* [[Cornelian dilemma]] – a choice between actions which will all have a detrimental effect on the chooser or on someone they care for.
* [[Deadlock]] – in computing, when two processes reach a standstill or impasse, each waiting for the other to finish.
* [[Double bind]] – a forced choice between two logically conflicting demands.
* [[Hobson's choice]] – the choice between taking an option and not taking it.
* [[Lesser of two evils principle]] – a choice between two undesirable outcomes.
* [[Lesser of two evils principle|Necessary Evil]] – anything which, despite being considered to have undesirable qualities, is preferable to its absence or alternative.
* [[Morton's Fork]] – a choice between two equally unpleasant alternatives.
* [[Paradox]] – a statement or group of statements that leads to a contradiction or a situation which defies intuition.
* [[Chicken (game)|Game of Chicken]] – Two participants desire a positive outcome by taking an action, yet if taken by both the result is devastatingly negative.
* [[Sophie's Choice]] – a choice between two equally beloved entities, one of which must be destroyed to preserve the existence of the other.
* ''[[The Trial]]'' – a novel by Franz Kafka.
* [[Wilhelm Voigt|The Captain of Köpenick]]
* [[Gift of the Magi]] – Where two people in love with each other sell their belongings to buy gifts for each other, only to end up giving gifts related to the belonging they have sacrificed. (ie. A man sells a pocket watch to buy a brush for his wife. The wife then sells her long beautiful hair to buy a chain for the man's pocket watch.)

== References ==

{{reflist
| refs =

<ref name="Heller1999">
{{cite book
| last = Heller
| first = Joseph
| authorlink = Joseph Heller
| title = Catch-22: A Novel
| page = 52
| publisher = Simon and Schuster
| year = 1999
| isbn = 9780684865133
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Xfze51E7TEoC&lpg=PP1&dq=isbn%3A9780684865133&pg=PA52
| accessdate = 2011-01-09
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Wine-Chicken-and-egg">
{{cite web
| url = http://wiki.winehq.org/ImportanceOfWine#head-d8dabd58ae839caee3be1ee40f6b5eff32682b07
| title = Why Wine is so important — Chicken-and-egg problem for Linux on the desktop
| publisher = ImportanceOfWine — The Official Wine Wiki
| accessdate = 2011-01-09
}} re: [[Wine|Wine (software)]]
</ref>

<ref name="Aldridge1986">
{{cite news
| last = Aldridge
| first = John W.
| authorlink = John W. Aldridge
| title = The Loony Horror of it All – 'Catch-22' Turns 25
| newspaper = The New York Times
| date = 1986-10-26
| page = Section 7, Page 3, Column 1
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/02/15/home/heller-loony.html
| accessdate = 2011-01-09
}}
</ref>

}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Catch-22 (Logic)}}
[[Category:English idioms]]
[[Category:Paradoxes]]
[[Category:Catch-22]]
[[Category:Metaphors referring to war and violence]]

[[it:Paradosso del Comma 22]]
[[nl:Catch-22 (logica)]]
[[scn:Catch-22 (paradossu)]]
[[sv:moment 22]]

Bridgwater Castle

2011-07-26T03:05:21Z

JimVC3: sp United Kingdon > United Kingdom

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}
{{Infobox military structure
|name = Bridgwater Castle
|partof =
|location = [[Bridgwater]], [[Somerset]]
|image = [[File:Bridgwater Castle c 1800.jpg|240px]]
|caption = The mansion on the site of the keep c. 1800
|map_type = Somerset
|latitude = 51.12947
|longitude = -3.00411
|map_size = 200
|map_caption = Shown within Somerset and the British Isles
|type = Castle
|coordinates = {{gbmapping|ST302378}}
|code =
|built = 1202
|builder = [[William Brewer (justice)|William Brewer]]
|materials = [[Old Red Sandstone]]
|height =
|used = 1202-1645
|demolished = 1645
|condition =
|ownership =
|open_to_public =
|controlledby =
|garrison =
|current_commander =
|commanders =
|occupants =
|battles =
|events =
|image2 =
|caption2 =
}}
'''Bridgwater Castle''' was a [[castle]] in the town of [[Bridgwater]], [[Somerset]], England.

==Early history==

The castle was built in 1202 by [[William Brewer (justice)|William Brewer]], like several other castle-builders of the period, an exceptionally wealthy man.<ref name="gatehouse">{{cite web|url=http://homepage.mac.com/philipdavis/English%20sites/3242.html|title=Bridgwater Castle|publisher=The Gatehouse|accessdate=12 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Medieval Castle in England and Wales|last=Pounds|first=Nigel|authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge|isbn= |page=151 }}</ref> He was granted the [[Feudalism|lordship]] of the [[Manorialism|Manor]] of Bridgwater by [[John, King of England|King John]] in 1201,<ref name="somharbours">{{cite book |title=Somerset Harbours |last=Farr |first=Grahame |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1954 |publisher=Christopher Johnson |location=London |isbn= |pages=101–116 }}</ref> and founded [[Bridgwater Friary]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webapp1.somerset.gov.uk/her/details.asp?prn=12435|title=Franciscan Friary and later mansion, Bridgwater|work=Somerset Historic Environment Record|publisher=Somerset County Council|accessdate=6 January 2010}}</ref> Before the building of the castle, Bridgwater was much smaller, but after the granting of the charter by King John for the construction of the castle, charters for the creation of a [[borough]] and a market rapidly followed, effectively creating the heart of a new town.<ref name="arch">{{cite web |url=http://www1.somerset.gov.uk/archives/hes/downloads/EUS_BridgwaterText.pdf |title=Bridgwater archaeological survey |last=Gathercole |first=Clare|accessdate=17 July 2011 |format=PDF |publisher=[[Somerset County Council]] }}</ref><ref name="curio">{{cite book |title=Curiosities of Somerset |last=Leete-Hodge |first=Lornie |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1985 |publisher=Bossiney Books |location=Bodmin |isbn=0906456983 |page=75 }}</ref> Initially Bridgwater faced competition from the established nearby port of Downend, but the new settlement rapidly became dominant.<ref>{{cite book |title=Castles and Landscapes|last=Creighton|first=O. H.|authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2002 |publisher=Equinox |location=London|isbn= |page=154 }}</ref>

William Brewer died in 1226 and his son, also called William, died in 1232; after his death, the castle passed to the king the following year,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webapp1.somerset.gov.uk/her/details.asp?prn=12419|title=Bridgwater Castle, Bridgwater|work=Somerset Historic Environment Record|publisher=Somerset County Council|accessdate=12 October 2008}}</ref> after which it was used as a store and prison. In 1242 repairs were ordered to its [[motte and bailey|motte]] and in 1246 to the towers. In 1248 ownership passed to [[Maud de Braose, Baroness Wigmore]] the wife of [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Wigmore]], and the castle was involved in the [[Second Barons' War]].<ref name=dunning/>

In the [[Despenser War]] of 1321, [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] undertook a campaign against the Mortimers, by then a potentially rebellious Marcher Lord family. After the short war, the crown again occupied Bridgwater until 1326 to prevent [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March]] using it as a base for operations if he should escape from custody or return from exile in France.<ref name=dunning/> Roger Mortimer did return from France with Edward's wife, [[Isabella of France|Isabella]]; once they had seized the throne, the castle was returned to the Mortimer family but its upkeep was neglected and part of the moat was filled in. Only St Mark's Chapel and a barn were repaired, until the 1380s and 1390s when the towers, gatehouse and barbican were reinforced.<ref name=dunning/> By 1450 private houses had been built within the walls and its military value was reducing.

==Civil war and the Monmouth Rebellion==
[[Image:Bridgwater_Castle_ruins.jpg|thumb|18th century depiction of the ruins of Bridgwater Castle]]
Some of the external walls of Bridgwater Castle were demolished in the early 1630s by the then owner Henry Harvey. In 1642, however, the [[English Civil War]] broke out between supporters of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] and [[Parliament]]: the town and the castle were still seen as having value and a garrison was established by the Royalists under [[Sir Francis Wyndham, 1st Baronet|Colonel Francis Wyndham]], a personal acquaintance of the King. Wyndham's wife, Lady Crystabella Wyndham, infamously fired a musket shot at [[Oliver Cromwell|Cromwell]] but missed and killed his aide de camp.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bridgwatersomerset.info/history_4_english_civil_war.php|title=The English Civil War |publisher=Bridgwater Somerset|accessdate=13 March 2010}}</ref> Eventually, with many buildings having been destroyed in the town, the castle and its valuable contents were surrendered to the [[Roundhead|Parliamentarians]] on 21 July 1645. The castle itself was [[Slighting|deliberately destroyed]] the following year, while in 1651 Colonel Wyndham made arrangements for [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] to [[Escape of Charles II|flee to France]] following the [[Battle of Worcester]].<ref name="bush">{{cite book|last=Bush|first=Robin|authorlink=Robin Bush (historian)|title=Somerset: The Complete Guide|publisher=Dovecote Press|location=Wimborne|year=1994|pages=41–44|isbn=1874336261}}</ref> Although [[Robert Blake (admiral)|Robert Blake]] was born in Bridgwater and became one of the most important military commanders of the [[Commonwealth of England]] and one of the most famous English admirals of the 17th century, he is not thought to have been involved in the fighting in the town.

During the [[Monmouth Rebellion]] of 1685 rebel troops were hemmed in at Bridgwater on 3 July, and were ordered to refortify the town, prior to the [[Battle of Sedgemoor]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Rebels return to Bridgwater|url=http://www.somersettimeline.org.uk/page.php?pnum=4&plim=1&trid=7|publisher=Somerset Timeline|accessdate=26 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Bridgewater Castle and the Battle of Sedgemoor|url=http://www.uktourist.tv/?p=678|publisher=United Kingdom Tourist Information|accessdate=17 July 2011}}</ref>

==Rebuilding of the site==
[[File:Warmemorialbridgwater.jpg|thumb|King's Square. The site of the castle today]]
During the later part of the 17th century John Harvey built a mansion on the summit of the site.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dunning|first=R.W.|title=Bridgwater Castle|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=18641&strquery=Bridgwater%20Castle|work=A History of the County of Somerset: Volume 6: Andersfield, Cannington, and North Petherton Hundreds|publisher=British History Online|accessdate=17 July 2011}}</ref> The rest of the land was acquired by [[James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos]] who developed an industrial centre in the town.<ref>{{cite web|title=Local History|url=http://www.lowerlakesholidays.co.uk/surroundings/history|publisher=Lower Lakes|accessdate=17 July 2011}}</ref><ref name=dunning/>

Much of the site was built on in the 1720s to create the Georgian [[Castle Street, Bridgwater|Castle Street]]. Parts of the castle wall, water gate and [[undercroft]] still survive.<ref>{{cite web |title=Castle wall to the rear of Nos 10 to 14 (consec) Water Gate | work=[[Images of England]] |publisher=[[English Heritage]] |url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/Details/Default.aspx?id=374023&mode=adv |accessdate=3 January 2010}}</ref> The mansion was later demolished and the site laid out as King's Square.

==Recent history==

In 2008, during sewer renovation work, a section of the curtain wall of the castle and a tunnel used to transport goods from the port were discovered.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bridgwatermercury.co.uk/news/2106587.outstanding_smugglers_tunnel_unearthed_beneath_castle_street/|title="Outstanding" smugglers tunnel unearthed beneath Castle Street|last=Beal|first=James|date=10 March 2008|work=Bridgwater mercury|accessdate=8 May 2009}}</ref>

==Architecture==

Bridgwater Castle was a substantial structure built in [[Old Red Sandstone]], covering a site of 8 or 9 acres (32,000 to 36,000 m²). A tidal [[moat]], up to {{convert|65|ft|m|0}} wide in places,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bridgwater.net/Town/About_Town/History/bridgwater_castle.htm|title=Bridgwater Castle|publisher=Bridgwater.net|accessdate=12 October 2008}}</ref> flowed about along the current streets of Fore Street and Castle Moat, and between Northgate and Chandos Street. The moat was filled from Durleigh brook, a tributary of the [[River Parrett]].<ref name=dunning>{{cite book|last=Dunning|first=Robert|title=Somerset Castles|year=1995|publisher=Somerset Books|location=Tiverton|isbn=978-0861832781|pages=28–30}}</ref>

Unusually, the main entrance opposite the Cornhill was built with a pair of adjacent gates and [[drawbridge]]s. In addition to a [[keep]], located at the south-east corner of what is now King Square, documents show that the complex included a [[dungeon]], chapel, stables and a [[bell tower]]. Built on the only raised ground in the town, the castle controlled the crossing of the town bridge. A {{convert|12|ft|m|0}} thick portion of the castle wall and water gate, which are grade II* [[Listed building|listed]] can still be seen on West Quay,<ref name="gatehouse"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Castle wall, watergate and undercroft|url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/Details/Default.aspx?id=374023|work=[[Images of England]]|publisher=[[English Heritage]]|accessdate=17 July 2011}}</ref> and the remains of a wall of a building that was probably built within the castle can be viewed in Queen Street.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bridgwater Castle|url=http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=190958|work=Pastscape National Monument Record|publisher=[[English Heritage]]|accessdate=17 July 2011}}</ref> The foundations of the tower forming the north-east corner of the castle are buried beneath Homecastle House.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bridgwater.net/Town/About_Town/castle/bridgwater_castle_trail.htm|title=Bridgwater Castle Trail|publisher=Bridgwater Town Web|accessdate=14 March 2010}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
*[[List of castles in England]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*Fry, Plantagenet Somerset, ''The David & Charles Book of Castles'', David & Charles, 1980. ISBN 0-7153-7976-3

[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1202]]
[[Category:Castles in Somerset]]
[[Category:Bridgwater]]

Kissin U

2011-06-27T03:48:42Z

JimVC3: sp lable > label

{{For|other uses|Kissing You (disambiguation){{!}}Kissing You}}
{{Infobox single 
| Name = Kissin U
| Cover = Kissin' U.jpg
| Border = yes
| Artist = [[Miranda Cosgrove]]
| Album = ''[[Sparks Fly]]''
| Released = March 22, 2010 ([[United States|U.S.]] [[music download|digital download]])<ref name=DL /> May 11, 2010 (U.S. [[airplay]]) July 9, 2010 ([[Australia]])
| Format = [[CD single]], [[Music download|Digital download]]
| Recorded = 2009
| Genre = [[Pop music|Pop]], [[pop rock]]
| Length = 3:18
| Label = [[Columbia Records|Columbia]]
| Writer = [[Miranda Cosgrove]], [[Dr. Luke|Lukasz Gottwald]], [[Claude Kelly]]
| Producer = [[Dr. Luke]]
| Certification = Gold
| Last single = "Raining Sunshine" (2009)
| This single = "'''Kissin U'''" (2010)
| Next single = "[[Dancing Crazy]]" (2011)
| Misc = {{Audiosample
| Upper caption = Audio sample
| Audio file = Kissin U sample.ogg}}
}}

"'''Kissin U'''" is American recording artist [[Miranda Cosgrove]]'s first and only single from her debut studio album, ''[[Sparks Fly]]''. It was produced by [[Dr. Luke]] and written by him, [[Claude Kelly]], and Cosgrove. The song was released digitally on March 22, 2010, and to [[contemporary hit radio|mainstream]] radio on May 11, 2010.<ref name="airplay">{{cite web|url=http://fmqb.com/Article.asp?id=16691 |title=Radio Industry News, Music Industry Updates, Arbitron Ratings, Music News and more! |publisher=FMQB |date= |accessdate=2010-04-07}}</ref> The single was later released in [[Australia]] in early July. The single is Cosgrove's first official musical release, after making several soundtrack appearances for some of her shows and films, such as [[iCarly]] and the 2009 animated comedy film, [[Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs (film)|Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs]].

The song has been praised by music critics, and has performed well on music charts, becoming Cosgrove's biggest hit to date. It is her first single to make an impact on U.S. radio stations, where it even entered the top twenty of the U.S. [[Pop Songs]] chart, which focus's mainly on radio airplay in the United States. Aside from its success on US radio stations, the single also became a major digital download hit for Cosgrove, leading it to chart on Billboard's [[Hot 100]] singles chart. It has also charted in several international music charts, including [[Germany]] and [[Austria]], among others.

==Background==
''Kissin' U'' was first announced in late February as the lead single from Cosgrove's untitled upcoming album. The single was previewed on [[Ryan Seacrest|Ryan Seacreast's]] radio show, [[On Air with Ryan Seacrest]] on March 12, 2010, with the song being released to iTunes on March 22, 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://twitter.com/MirandaBuzz/status/10335871654 |title=Twitter / Miranda Cosgrove: I just found out that my single "Kissin U" comes out on iTunes March 23rd!!! |publisher=Twitter.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-01}}</ref> During an interview with [[MTV]] about the song, Cosgrove stated that

{{cquote|[...] "The song's about your first love or thinking you're falling in love, so it's just kind of a really happy, sweet song. I did write it about a guy, and I'm afraid he might have heard it and he's going to figure it out!"<ref name=Sparks>{{cite news| url=http://leisureblogs.chicagotribune.com/about-last-night/2010/04/actresssinger-miranda-cosgrove-comes-clean-to-her-kissin-u-muse.html | work=Chicago Tribune | title=Actress/singer Miranda Cosgrove comes clean to her 'Kissin U' muse | date=February 4, 2010}}</ref>}}

During the same interview, Cosgrove stated the song actually provided her with the inspiration to title her debut album ''Sparks Fly'', saying that "The reason I ended up naming it Sparks Fly [is because] those are the first two words you hear when you pop my album in."<ref>{{cite web|last=Vena |first=Jocelyn |url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1637829/miranda-cosgrove-hopes-sparks-fly-on-debut-album.jhtml#fbid=T1CUSKtGkRS |title=Miranda Cosgrove Hopes Sparks Fly On Debut Album - Music, Celebrity, Artist News |publisher=MTV |date=2010-04-27 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref> The single was released for official radio airplay on May 11, 2010, while Australia saw the release of the single on July 9, 2010. On June 29, 2010 a remix EP containing three remixes of the song was released for digital download. The first track on the [[extended play]], the Jason Nevins remix of the song, was released to several US radio stations in the place of the original version.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newmusicreviews.net/download-miranda-cosgrove-kissin-u-remix-ep/ |title=Download: Miranda Cosgrove – Kissin’ U Remix EP | New Music Reviews, Music News, Music Videos, Lyrics and much more! |publisher=Newmusicreviews.net |date= |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/kissin-u-ep/id378268369 |title=Kissin U - EP by Miranda Cosgrove - Download Kissin U - EP on iTunes |publisher=Itunes.apple.com |date=2010-06-29 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>

==Composition==
''Kissin' U'' has been called [[bubblegum pop]] by several critics, however it also features prominent [[drums]] and [[Bass guitar|bass]]. Several critics have noted the use of auto-tune used in Cosgrove's voice throughout the song, as well as other tracks on ''[[Sparks Fly]]''. The song's melody runs through a [[Down-tempo|downtempo]] [[Pop music|pop]] [[Beat (music)|beat]]. The song has been compared to releases by [[Avril Lavigne]] and [[Miley Cyrus]], among others. The lyrics of the song deal with love and relationships, and the feeling that comes when Cosgrove is kissing her boyfriend.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lyricshall.com/lyrics/Miranda+Cosgrove/Kissin+U/ |title=Kissin U song lyrics performed by Miranda Cosgrove |publisher=Lyricshall.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musicloversgroup.com/miranda-cosgrove-kissin-u-lyrics-and-video/ |title=Miranda Cosgrove - Kissin’ U Lyrics and Video |publisher=Musicloversgroup.com |date=2010-03-16 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sweetslyrics.com/742365.Miranda%20Cosgrove%20-%20Kissin%5C'%20U.html |title=Miranda Cosgrove - Kissin' U Lyrics |publisher=Sweetslyrics.com |date=2010-03-21 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref> During their review of the single, commonsensemedia stated on the songs lyrics that "Young love can be innocent, sweet, and irrepressible. It can also be incredibly annoying when taken to a super-sweet extreme. That's where we're at with this single. Lovebirds not jaded by love's letdowns can celebrate the purely poppy sounds and Cosgrove's limitless enthusiasm here. The rest of us will be left with a headache from constant eye rolling. After one listen you'll forever understand the meaning of "bubblegum pop."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commonsensemedia.org/music-reviews/kissin-u-cd-single |title="Kissin U" (CD single) by Miranda Cosgrove - Music Review |publisher=Commonsensemedia.org |date=2010-02-04 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>

On the other hand, portraitmagazine praised the songs lyrical content as well as the music, saying "Kissin U was the first single from the album, and it really isn't that bad. It's very bubblegum, but that isn't really all that surprising given Miranda's good girl image and Nickelodeon backing. It's also the only track on the album that she had a hand in writing, so it was a good decision for a single. It allows the record label to see how her fans respond to her music, gauge whether or not they should have more of her own writing on her next album. And it's a good effort for her first released song, though I think it's got some of the weakest vocals on the CD. She'll probably do a lot of cowriting with much more experienced musicians the next time around, which will help her grow as a singer/songwriter if she chooses to continue pursuing music."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portraitmagazine.net/reviews/albums/sparksfly.html |title=Miranda Cosgrove: Sparks Fly Reviews - Portrait Reviews |publisher=Portraitmagazine.net |date= |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>

==Reception==
===Critical reception===
The single has been met with generally mixed reviews from critics. J!-ENT reviewed the song, stating the song is "well-produced, well-sung and has that sing/song style similar to [[Taylor Swift]] but with a rock edge." They also stated the song proves that Cosgrove has potential as a musical artist.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nt2099.com/J-ENT/news/world-groove/miranda-cosgrove-kissin-u-a-j-ent-world-groove-digital-single-review/ |title=Miranda Cosgrove – Kissin U (a J!-ENT World Groove Digital Single Review) | J!-ENT entertainment news pop culture TV music DVD Blu-ray reviews fashion celebrity USA Asia UK |publisher=Nt2099.com |date=2010-03-26 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref> Idolator.com also praised the song, as well as compared it to releases by major label artist [[Kesha]], saying "[Kissin' U] is a zippy if cookie-cutter pop song — not terribly exciting or risky, but with enough listens you’ll find yourself singing along with the chorus. Add some Auto-Tune and maybe throw in a line or two about falling out of the closet without wearing pants, and we could imagine [[Ke$ha]] singing it."<ref>{{cite web|author=Reynato  |   Posted on May 18th, 2010 |url=http://idolator.com/5444512/miranda-cosgrove-is-kissin-u-in-her-newest-single |title=Miranda Cosgrove Is “Kissin’ U” In Her Newest Single | Music News, Reviews, and Gossip on |publisher=Idolator.com |date=2010-05-18 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref> Popboi.com compared the single to a recent release by [[Selena Gomez & the Scene]], [[Naturally (Selena Gomez & the Scene song)|Naturally]], stating "The first single, ‘Kissin U’ is actually quite a nice pop track, too! It’s not as perfect a pop gem as Selena Gomez and the Scene’s ‘Naturally’ is, but it’s pretty damn close. The melody is really lovely and catchy and the lyrics are just as cute, if tweeny-bopper in nature."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://popboi.com/2010/05/20/miranda-cosgrove-kissin-u/ |title=Miranda Cosgrove: ‘Kissin U’ « Pop Boi |publisher=Popboi.com |date=2010-05-20 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>

Musicrevies10 had a less than positive opinion about the songs lyrics and music, stating that "Cosgrove's debut single outside of [[iCarly]] and the Nickelodeon machine is Kissin' U, a safe, pop number that's easy on the ears. While Cosgrove is fitting into the pop/rock vibe, if a young pop/rock number is what you want, Disney's [[Demi Lovato]] has far more substance.. and range. Kissin' U plays it safe, and should go on to be a moderate hit, but doesn't break any new ground. But at least it works."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://musicreviews10.blogspot.com/2010/05/miranda-cosgrove-kissin-u-single-review.html |title=Music Reviews 10 |publisher=Musicreviews10.blogspot.com |date=2010-05-03 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>

The song ranked number eighty-eight on Bill Lamb's List of Top 100 Songs of 2010.<ref>Lamb, Bill [http://top40.about.com/od/top10lists/tp/top100songs2010.01.htm Top 100 Songs of 2010]. [[About.com]]. Retrieved 2010-12-31.</ref>

===Commercial performance===
On its first week of charting, "Kissin' U" debuted at number sixty-six on the [[Hot Digital Songs|U.S. ''Billboard'' Hot Digital Songs]] chart. It fell off the next week, but later re-entered at number fifty-four, causing it to debut on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] at number eighty-seven. It dropped out once again the next week, but then re-entered at number ninety-five and rose to a new peak of number fifty-four. The song also became her first to chart internationally, debuting at number eighty-two on the [[Media Control Charts|German Singles Chart]]. The song quickly dwindled down the chart before jumping to a new peak of number seventy-three, and most recently to its current peak of number sixty-seven. It also debuted at number fifty-seven on the [[Austria]]n singles chart, and has rose to a peak of number fifty-four. The single has also become her second single to chart in the UK, where it debuted and peaked at number 198.<ref>[http://acharts.us/uk_singles_top_75%7Ctitulo=UK ]{{dead link|date=February 2011}}</ref>

On January 14, 2011, it was announced that "Kissin U" had been certified gold by [[Recording Industry Association of America|RIAA]] for sales of over 500,000 units.<ref name="RIAA">{{cite web|url=http://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?table=SEARCH_RESULTS&artist=Miranda+Cosgrove&format=&go=Search&perPage=50|title=RIAA Gold & Platinum|publisher=[[Recording Industry Association of America]]|accessdate=January 14, 2011}}</ref>

==Promotion & performances==
To promote the album, Cosgrove performed the single "Kissin U" live at the ''[[Kids Choice Awards]]'' pre-show.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nick.com/videos/clip/miranda-cosgrove-performance-orange-carpet-kca-2010.html |title=Episode Clip | Nick Videos |publisher=Nick.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref> [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] also aired a television special titled ''7 Secrets: Miranda Cosgrove'', which aired on April 24, 2010. The half hour show revealed things about Cosgrove, such as how she got her start in the business, to some of her most embarrassing moments.<ref>[http://www.mmm-mag.com/2010/04/7-secrets-with-miranda-cosgrov.html/]{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> The days following the albums release, Cosgrove did several album signings and appearances, including a stop at a [[Toys-R-Us]] in [[New York]].<ref>{{cite web|author=April 28, 2010 |url=http://neonlimelight.com/2010/04/28/miranda-cosgrove-makes-sparks-fly-at-new-york-album-signing/ |title=Miranda Cosgrove Makes ‘Sparks Fly’ At New York Album Signing – Neon Limelight - Exclusive Music News, Artist Interviews, Reviews, Photos! |publisher=Neonlimelight.com |date=2010-04-28 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref> Cosgrove embarked on a radio promotional tour, and has made appearances at radio concerts in the summer of 2010. On September 6, 2010, she performed "Kissin U", "BAM" (written and produced by Rock Mafia and [[Rodney Jerkins|Darkchild]]), and "[[About You Now]]" (a [[Cover version|cover]], co-written by [[Cathy Dennis]] with [[Dr. Luke]] who produced the song and was originally recorded by [[The Sugababes]] and released as a single on their fifth studio album ''[[Change (Sugababes album)|Change]]'') on ''[[The Today Show]]''.<ref>http://www.billboard.com/#/news/miranda-cosgrove-makes-sparks-fly-with-top-1004089527.story</ref>

Cosgrove headlined her own tour, titled "[[Dancing Crazy Tour]]" which is named after Cosgrove's new single "[[Dancing Crazy]]" co-written by [[Avril Lavigne]], and [[Shellback (producer)|Shellback]] and [[Max Martin]], who produced it and was released on Cosgrove's second [[Extended play|EP]] ''[[High Maintenance]]'', released on March 15, 2011. The tour began January 24, 2011 and ended February 24, 2011. The tour featured dates in [[House of Blues]] locations such as ones located in Houston, TX and Anaheim, CA. She also performed at several theatres on the tour including locations in cities such as Atlanta, GA, Tampa, FL and Orlando FL.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://neufutur.com/?p=19953 |title=Miranda Cosgrove – Dancing Crazy Tour | NeuFutur Magazine |publisher=Neufutur.com |date=2011-01-07 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mag |first=Teen |url=http://www.seventeen.com/teenmag/miranda-cosgrove-dancing-crazy-single |title=Miranda Cosgrove Dancing Crazy - Miranda Cosgrove Tour Dates |publisher=Seventeen |date=2011-01-11 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myspace.com/events/View/8914992/Miranda-Cosgrove/Dancing-Crazy-Tour |title=Miranda Cosgrove in Verizon Theatre (Grand Prairie, Texas) | Evenementen op Myspace |publisher=Myspace.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>

==Music video==
The music video was shot in [[Santa Monica, California]] and debuted on March 19, 2010. It was directed by [[Alan Ferguson (music video director)|Alan Ferguson]]. The video shows Cosgrove on the beach singing and walking, to meet her love interest who is a sidewalk artist. They go to his house and she sees all the paintings he has painted, as well as trying to teach her how to draw, and later washing his car in front of her house, she splashes him with the hose and he chases her around the car. Later they are seen at a party where it seems they kiss. When she wakes up that morning she looks out the window to see a drawing of a butterfly with images of her and him in the wings on the sidewalk.<ref>{{cite web|author=Posted by Admin  |url=http://www.shineon-media.com/2010/03/19/miranda-cosgrove-kissin-u-music-video-more-icarly/ |title=Post Topic » Miranda Cosgrove: Kissin U Music Video & More iCarly |publisher=Shine On Media |date= |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nickutopia.com/2010/03/20/miranda-cosgrove-kissin-u-music-video/ |title=Miranda Cosgrove "Kissin' U" Music Video | Nickelodeon News |publisher=Nickutopia.com |date=2010-03-20 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Maricel Diola |url=http://www.kovideo.net/kissing-you-video-miranda-cosgrove-1146312.html |title=Miranda Cosgrove - Kissing You Music Video |publisher=Kovideo.net |date= |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>

The music video was met with some criticism by parents. Jennifer Smith of associated content stated "I am puzzled as to why Nickelodeon would produce such a grown up music video and feature it during shows that young kids watch. The video is clearly targeting the teen demographic but the iCarly show is geared towards a tween audience. Tweens are between the ages of 9 and 12. This is clearly too young of an age to be watching a young television star that girls look up to engaged in much older behavior. [[iCarly]] is one of the best shows for the tween audience and many parents approve of this show for their kids but probably would not agree with the video being featured between [[iCarly]] episodes. She later went on to say "As my 9 year old watches [[iCarly]] her younger sisters also sometimes tune in and although they may not understand everything that is going on, I am usually fine with them watching this show as it is funny and depicts real life situations kids find themselves in. So when I heard my five year old singing along to Kissin U I was torn between laughing and anger. I watched the video and decided that my 9 year old daughter was clearly being bombarded with images that I am trying to protect her from. Although the overall premise of the video, Kissin U, is tame, I think that in the fragile years of preteen, kids are better served not to be exposed to mature situations that plant a seed to behaviors more appropriate for adults. Desensitizing kids with images of kissing and other grown up behaviors may cause them to act these behaviors out at a much younger age. This is not what parents expect from a television network clearly benefiting from parents and families tuning in. The issue of child stars who grow up on television are ready to transition into a more mature career should be handled with consideration to the audience watching. The transitional videos, shows and all other medias should be reserved for later hours when younger kids are not watching or for other mediums that can exclude the younger audience such as the Internet. Nickelodeon is not handling the evolution of Miranda Cosgrove well. [[Miranda Cosgrove]] is clearly outgrowing her [[iCarly]] fan base and while she still can and should continue the show, transforming impressionable tweens into adulthood is not a right that Nickelodeon has the authority to do."

==Track listing==
*'''Digital download''' <ref name="DL">[http://www.amazon.com/Kissin-U/dp/B003BWB8Q4/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=dmusic&qid=1269294043&sr=8-3 Digital download Track listing]</ref>
# Kissin' U (Single Version) 3:18

*'''German iTunes 2 Track Single''' <ref>{{cite web|url=http://itunes.apple.com/de/album/kissin-u-single/id373271666 |title=Kissin' U - Single von Miranda Cosgrove - Kissin' U - Single bei iTunes laden |publisher=Itunes.apple.com |date=2010-05-28 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>
# Kissin U (Album Version) 3:19
# Kissin U (Mike Rizzo Extended Club Remix) 5:56

*'''Remix EP''' <ref>[http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/kissin-u-ep/id378268369 Digital download Track listing]</ref>
# Kissin' U ([[Jason Nevins]] Radio Remix) 3:11
# Kissin' U (Mike Rizzo Radio Remix) 3:08
# Kissin' U (Smash Mode Radio Remix) 3:22

*'''[[Yogi Bear (film)|Yogi Bear]] Soundtrack'''
# Kissin' U (Yogi Bear remix) 3:20

==Charts==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!align="left"|Chart (2010)
! style="text-align:center;"|Peak position
|-
|align="left"|Austria ([[Ö3 Austria Top 75]])<ref>{{cite web|author=Steffen Hung |url=http://www.austriancharts.at/showitem.asp?interpret=Miranda+Cosgrove&titel=Kissin+U&cat=s |title=Miranda Cosgrove - Kissin U |publisher=austriancharts.at |date= |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|51
|-
|align="left"|Germany ([[Media Control Charts|Media Control AG]])<ref>{{cite web|author=musicline.de / PhonoNet GmbH |url=http://musicline.de/de/chartverfolgung_summary/title/Miranda+Cosgrove/Kissin+U/single |title=Die ganze Musik im Internet: Charts, News, Neuerscheinungen, Tickets, Genres, Genresuche, Genrelexikon, Künstler-Suche, Musik-Suche, Track-Suche, Ticket-Suche |publisher=musicline.de |date= |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|67
|-
|align="left"|Russian Airplay Top 100<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tophit.ru/search.shtml?q=miranda |title=Поиск |publisher=tophit.ru |date=2008-07-11 |accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|39
|-
|align="left"|United Kingdom [[UK Singles Chart|The Official Singles Chart]]<ref>[http://acharts.us/uk_singles_top_75|titulo=UK Singles Chart Miranda UK Singles Chart]</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|198
|-
|align="left"|US [[Hot Digital Songs]] (''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'')<ref>http://www.billboard.com/#/artist/miranda-cosgrove/chart-history/1008601?f=395&g=Singles</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|29
|-
|align="left"|US ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] [[Hot 100]]<ref>http://www.billboard.com/#/artist/Miranda+Cosgrove/chart-history/1008601?f=379&g=Singles</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|54
|-
|align="left"| US [[Pop Songs]] (''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'')<ref>http://www.billboard.com/#/artist/Miranda+Cosgrove/chart-history/1008601?f=381&g=Singles</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|19
|-
|align="left"|US [[Adult Top 40|Adult Pop Songs]] (''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'')<ref>http://www.billboard.com/#/artist/Miranda+Cosgrove/chart-history/1008601?f=343&g=Singles</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|36
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.accesshollywood.com/music-video-premiere-miranda-cosgrove-kissin-u_video_1210483 "Kissin' U" music video]

{{Miranda Cosgrove}}

[[Category:2010 singles]]
[[Category:Miranda Cosgrove songs]]
[[Category:Songs written by Dr. Luke]]
[[Category:Songs written by Claude Kelly]]
[[Category:Pop rock songs]]
[[Category:Pop ballads]]
[[Category:Songs produced by Dr. Luke]]

[[es:Kissin' U]]
[[hr:Kissin' U]]
[[nl:Kissin U]]
[[pt:Kissin' U]]

Werrikimbe-Nationalpark

2011-03-15T23:49:33Z

JimVC3: Reverted edits by 203.45.240.169 (talk) to last version by AvicAWB

{{Infobox_protected_area_of_Australia
| name = Werrikimbe National Park
| iucn_category = Ib
| image = Werrikimbe.jpg
| caption = [[Tree fern]]s, Werrikimbe National Park
| locator_x =
| locator_y =
| nearest_town_or_city =
| coordinates = {{Coord|31|12|S|152|14|E|type:landmark_region:AU|display=inline,title}}
| area = {{Convert|333.06|km2|sqmi|2|abbr=on}}
| established = 11 July 1975
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| managing_authorities = [[National Parks and Wildlife Service (New South Wales)|National Parks and Wildlife Service]]
| official_site =
}}
[[Image:Yellow Carabeen - Cobcroft Rest Area - Werrikimbe National Park.JPG|thumb|[[Yellow Carabeen]], Werrikimbe National Park, NSW]]
[[Image:Werrikimbe NP.jpg|thumb|Werrikimbe National Park]]
[[Image:Eriostemon myoporoides - Morren.jpg|thumb|''Philotheca myoporoides'', found only in Werrikimbe NP and QLD]]
[[Image:SpottedQuoll 2005 SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|[[Spotted quoll]]]]
'''Werrikimbe National Park''' is in the catchment zone of the Upper [[Hastings River]], [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]], about 486 km north of [[Sydney, Australia|Sydney]]. This national park is about 80 km west of [[Wauchope, New South Wales|Wauchope]] and 90 km east of [[Walcha, New South Wales|Walcha]] on the eastern escarpment of the [[Great Dividing Range]].

The Park is part of the Hastings-Macleay Group of the [[World Heritage Site]] [[Gondwana Rainforests of Australia]] inscribed in 1986 and added to the [[Australian National Heritage List]] in 2007.

==Overview==

Werrikimbe Park is noted for a rich diversity of plants and animals, rainforest, extensive wilderness, scenic wild rivers and opportunities for outdoor recreation in a remote location. This national park contains an [[Australian Aborigines|Aboriginal]] stone arrangement of two stone rings, [[bora ring]]s, where initiation ceremonies were held.<ref name="NPWS96">Werrikimbe Wilderness, NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service, April 1996</ref>

All access roads to the park have a gravel surface, winding and steep in places. These roads are unsuitable for caravans. Beyond the Mooraback Road there is a [[four-wheel drive]] (4WD) trail to '''Youdales Hut''' visitor area (which is only accessible by a 4WD with low range, and obtaining a key for the locked gate from either the [[National Parks and Wildlife Service]] or Apsley Motors in Walcha.<ref>Werrikimbe National Park, NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service, July 2000</ref> There are five visitor areas with basic facilities — three on the eastern side near the edge of the escarpment, and two on the west, on the plateau.

Camping sites are available at:
* '''Brushy Mountain''' campground (20 sites) on the north-eastern edge of the park. Campsites are suitable for: people who are happy to walk a short distance from car to tent. Facilities: toilets, amenities block, picnic tables, wood barbecues
* '''Mooraback''' campground (5 sites) at the north-western end of the park. Facilities: toilets, picnic tables, wood barbecues
* '''Plateau Beech''' campground (5 sites), beside your vehicle, on the eastern side of the park. Facilities: Pit/composting toilets, amenities block, picnic tables, wood barbecues

The [[Bicentennial National Trail]] passes through the western edge of the Werrikimbe Wilderness along the headwaters of the [[Hastings River]] and onto the Kunderang Brook. Horses and vehicles are not permitted within the declared Wilderness.<ref name="NPWS96"/>

==History==

The Mooraback area was one of the earliest settlements along the "Falls Country" to the east of Walcha, with records showing the first settlers grazed blocks at Mooraback in the 1850s. The names of some of these settlers are reflected in the names featured in the park: Bishops Swamp, Cleghorns Creek and Careys Trail.

During the 1950s some [[manganese]] mining was carried out in what is now within the park confines.

==Flora==
There is a great variety of vegetation here, depending on rainfall and altitude: eucalypt woodlands of [[coachwood]]s, [[southern sassafras|sassafras]], stinging trees (''[[Dendrocnide]]''), ''[[Philotheca]] myoporoides'' (long-leaf waxflowers) and yellow carabeens (''[[Sloanea woollsii]]'') with their flying buttressed trunks. Werrikimbe Park is home to the rare plants: ''[[Chiloglottis]] anaticeps'' (bird orchid),<ref>Threatened Species of the New England Tablelands & NW Slopes of NSW, NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service, 2003, ISBN 0 7313 6673 5</ref> downy Guinea flower, ''[[Thismia]] rodway'' (fairy lanterns) and pygmy cypress. These forests also contain the only examples of the filmy king fern (''Leptopteris fraseri'') known to occur in northern New South Wales. The Antarctic beech (''[[Nothofagus moorei]]'') forest, found at the end of the North Plateau Road is estimated to be up to 1,000 years old and forms the largest compact beech forest in existence.<ref>Readers Digest Guide to Australian Places, Readers Digest, Sydney</ref> The threatened species, Pygmy Cypress Pine ''[[Callitris oblonga]]'' subsp. parva, occurs in northern NSW on the eastern edge of the [[Northern Tablelands]] in Werrikimbe National Park.<ref>[http://www.threatenedspecies.environment.nsw.gov.au/tsprofile/profile.aspx?id=10132 Threatened Species] Retrieved on 13-3-2009</ref>

==Fauna==
Werrikimbe National Park is the habitat of at least 22 threatened animal species, including the vulnerable [[Rufous Scrub-bird]] (''Atrichornis rufescens''). The rare (native) [[Hastings River Mouse]] was considered to be extinct until it was re-discovered in Werrikimbe National Park, in 1981. This mouse frequents the heathlands and open forest areas near streams. The [[Australian brush-turkey]], [[koala]], ''Psophodes olivaceus'' ([[Eastern Whipbird]]), [[powerful owl]] (''Ninox strenua''), ''[[Petaurus]]'' (glider), [[quoll]] and [[lyrebird]] may be seen in the park.

==Citations==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Protected areas of New South Wales]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
* [http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/parks.nsf/parkContent/N0042?OpenDocument&ParkKey=N0042&Type=Xo New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service]

==External links==
* [http://www.australiannationalparks.com/newsouthwales/Werrikimbe/default.htm Werrikimbe National Park]

{{National Parks of New South Wales}}
{{Towns in New England}}

[[Category:National parks of New South Wales]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1975]]
[[Category:Gondwana Rainforests of Australia]]

[[es:Parque Nacional Werrikimbe]]
[[nl:Nationaal park Werrikimbe]]
[[pl:Park Narodowy Werrikimbe]]

Mapledurham Lock

2011-02-11T05:49:02Z

JimVC3: Reverted edits by 24.255.19.46 (talk) to last version by Starbois

{{Infobox Waterlock
|lock_name = Mapledurham Lock
|image= Mapledurham_Lock.jpg|thumb|right|]]
|caption= Mapledurham Lock on a fine August day
|waterway = [[River Thames]]
|county = [[Berkshire]]
|maint = [[Environment Agency]]
|operation = Hydraulic
|first = 1777<ref name='Thacker222'/>
|latest = 1908<ref name='Thacker225'/>
|length = 202’ 5” (61.69m)<ref name='EA23'>{{Harvnb|Environment Agency||pp=23–24}}</ref>
|width = 21’ 1” (6.42m)<ref name='EA23'/>
|fall = 6’ 9” (2.05m)<ref name='EA23'/>
|sealevel = 127'
|enda = [[Teddington Lock]]
|distenda = 59 miles
|endb =
|distendb =
| map_cue=
| map_image=
| map_text=
| map_width=
| coordinates=
| lat=
| long=
| extra=
}}
{{Mapledurham Lock map}}

'''Mapledurham Lock''' is a [[lock (water transport)|lock]] and [[weir]] situated on the [[River Thames]] in [[England]]. The lock was first built in 1777 by the [[Thames Navigation Commissioners]]<ref name='Thacker222'/> and the present lock dates from 1908.<ref name='Thacker225'/>

Despite its name, the lock is located in the [[Berkshire]] village and [[civil parishes in England|civil parish]] of [[Purley-On-Thames]] on the south bank of the river, rather than in the [[Oxfordshire]] village of [[Mapledurham]] on the other side of the river. The weir stretches across the river, in both counties.<ref name=elecmap>{{cite web | url = http://www.election-maps.co.uk/electmaps.jsf | title = Election Maps | publisher = Ordnance Survey | accessdate = 2010-01-02}}</ref>

The weir runs from the lock island in a long curve across the river between the two villages. However no access is possible across the weir, and without a boat, journeys between the two villages require a lengthy detour via [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]] or [[Pangbourne]]. The weir still provides a head of water to drive [[Mapledurham Watermill]] which is on the opposite side of the river. The weir is also the furthest upstream on the Thames that has a [[fish ladder|salmon ladder]].

==History==
[[Image:Mapledurham Weir.JPG|thumb|left|The weir, viewed from the Mapledurham side of the river]]
Mapledurham mill dates back to [[Domesday Book]], and the weir was probably connected to it then, although the earliest extant reference to the weir is from the time of [[Edward I of England|Edward I]].<ref name='Thacker221'>{{Harvnb|Thacker|1920|p=221}}</ref> The mill was attached to the property of [[Mapledurham House]], owned by the Blount family, who have always had an interest in the weir. There was a [[flash lock]] at the weir but passage through this was stopped at the opening of the pound lock in 1777.<ref name='Thacker222'>{{Harvnb|Thacker|1920|p=222}}</ref> The lock was built of fir on the Purley side of the river and was to be called Purley Lock. However local custom retained the old name.<ref name='Thacker222'/> A cottage was ordered for the lock-keeper in 1816. During the 19th century there were disputes between the lock-keeper William Sheppard and the Blount family. However despite Blount's representations to the Conservators, Sheppard remained in post for 54 years, retiring at the age of 79.<ref name='Thacker224'>{{Harvnb|Thacker|1920|p=224}}</ref> A new and greatly enlarged lock was built beside the old one in 1908.<ref name='Thacker225'>{{Harvnb|Thacker|1920|p=225}}</ref>

Mapledurham Mill is still functioning across the river from the lock, making this the only lock and weir combination on the Thames that supports the two functions that were originally the norm on river navigations. As both mill and navigation are now principally tourist enterprises, this no longer leads to the sort of conflicts between milling and navigation interests that were once common on the river.

==Access to the lock==
The lock is accessible from Purley, by going down Mapledurham Drive, a metalled lane that turns to gravel.

==Reach above the lock==
[[Image:River Thames above Mapledurham Lock.JPG|thumb|left|The River Thames above Mapledurham Lock]]
The river is in open country nearly all the way to [[Pangbourne]] and has been described by [[Robert Gibbings]] writing in 1939 (''Sweet Thames Run Softly'') as so crowded with views "they might have dropped from the gold frames of the [[Royal Academy]]".

After Mapledurham, [[Hardwick House]] is visible on the northern side of the river. Pangbourne Meadows, owned by the National Trust, lie to the south of the river before [[Whitchurch Bridge]]. This toll bridge crosses the river between Pangbourne and [[Whitchurch-on-Thames|Whitchurch]]. Between the bridge and Whitchurch Lock, the [[River Pang]] joins the Thames from the south.

The '''[[Thames Path]]''' follows the southern bank to Whitchurch Bridge, where it crosses the river. (Although this is a toll bridge, pedestrians are no longer charged).

==Literature and the Media==
The artist [[E. H. Shepherd]] who illustrated [[The Wind in the Willows]] made many drawings in this area, and Toad Hall is said to be based on either [[Mapledurham House]] or [[Hardwick House]], home of [[Charles Day Rose]], nearby.<ref>Paul Goldsack ''River Thames:In the Footsteps of the Famous'' Bradt/English Heritage ISBN 1 841620440</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|UK Waterways}}
*[[Locks on the River Thames]]
==References==
;Notes
{{Reflist|2}}

;Bibliography
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation|last=Environment Agency|first=|title=A User's Guide to the River Thames:Part II|publisher=[[Environment Agency]]|location=|year=|isbn=|url=http://www.visitthames.co.uk/uploads/a_users_guide_to_the_River_thames.pdf}}
*{{citation|last=Thacker|first=Fred S.|title=The Thames Highway: A History of the Locks and Weirs|publisher=|location=Kew|year=1920|isbn=}}
{{Refend}}

{{Start box}}
{{River lock start|River=[[River Thames]]}}
{{River lock line|upstream=[[Whitchurch Lock]] 2.28 miles|downstream=[[Caversham Lock]] 4.40 miles|location=SU667768}}
{{End box}}

{{Coord|51.48623|N|1.04078|W|region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(SU667768)|display=title}}

[[Category:Locks of Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Locks on the River Thames]]
[[Category:Weirs on the River Thames]]
[[Category:Thames Path]]

Mary Brunner

2009-10-19T19:15:45Z

JimVC3: Reverted edits by 216.213.225.5 (talk) to last version by Kevin Forsyth

{{Infobox Criminal
| subject_name = Mary Theresa Brunner
| image_name = Marybruner.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| image_caption = Mary Brunner in a 1969 mugshot
| date_of_birth = {{birth date and age|1943|12|17|mf=y}}
| place_of_birth = [[Eau Claire, Wisconsin]]
| date_of_death =
| place_of_death =
| charge = Armed Robbery, Credit Card Theft, Indecent Exposure
| penalty = Incarcerated at the California Institution for Women
| status = Paroled in 1977
| parents = John and Evelyn Brunner
| spouse =
| children = Michael Valentine Manson (son with [[Charles Manson]])
}}

'''Mary Theresa Brunner''' (born [[December 17]], [[1943]]) is a former member of the "Manson Family" who was present during the 1969 murder of Gary Allen Hinman, a [[California]] musician and [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] [[Ph.D.]] candidate in [[sociology]].<ref>[http://www.mansonfamilytoday.info/beausoleil-manuscript.htm The Manson Family Today]</ref> <ref>[http://crime.about.com/od/murder/p/charliemanson2.htm Crime/Punishment]</ref> Brunner was subsequently arrested for numerous offenses, including [[credit card]] [[theft]] and [[armed robbery]], and served a [[prison]] sentence at the California Institute for Women.

==Meeting Charles Manson==
Born and raised in [[Eau Claire, Wisconsin]] to John and Evelyn Brunner, she moved to [[California]] upon graduating from the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] in 1965 after receiving a job offer as a library assistant at [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]]. There, she met 33-year-old career criminal [[Charles Manson]], who had been released from [[Terminal Island]] prison for a [[parole]] violation several weeks prior to their meeting. She let Manson stay at her apartment and, after a period of weeks, the two began sleeping together. Not long after the relationship began, Manson traded a newly acquired friend's piano for a cheap [[Volkswagen]] van, Brunner quit her job and the two began to drift around California, meeting other young women.

In late 1967, Brunner became pregnant by Manson and on [[April 15]], [[1968]] gave birth to a son she named Valentine Michael (nicknamed "Pooh Bear")<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent: ''Helter Skelter'', 1994. pg. 513</ref> in a condemned house in [[Topanga, California|Topanga Canyon]] and was assisted during the birth by several of the young women from the "Family". Brunner (like most members of the group) acquired a number of aliases and nicknames, including: "Marioche", "Och", "Mother Mary", "Mary Manson", "Linda Dee Manson" and "Christine Marie Euchts".<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent: ''Helter Skelter'', 1974. pg. ''xv''.</ref>

After arriving in [[Venice, Los Angeles, California|Venice, California]], Brunner and Manson met 18-year-old [[Lynette Fromme]] and the three began living together in a rented house at 636 Cole Street in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. Over the course of the following two years, the "Family" enlarged to include between 20 and 30 individuals living [[Commune (intentional community)|communally]]; some, like Brunner and Fromme, became ardent followers of Manson, while others drifted in and out of the group.

After traveling along the California coast and excursions to [[Washington]], [[Oregon]] and [[Nevada]], the ever-growing number of young women and men eventually settled down at [[Spahn Ranch]], an occasional film set operated by an elderly man named [[George Spahn]], near the Los Angeles [[suburb]] of [[Chatsworth, Los Angeles, California|Chatsworth]].
Unemployed, the group of mostly older teenagers and young adults had much spare time on their hands at Spahn Ranch and they passed it by taking drugs and engaging in sexual orgies.<ref>[http://crimemagazine.com/04/manson,1212.htm ''Crime Magazine: An Encyclopedia of Crime'']</ref> The group supported itself financially by selling drugs and auto theft.

==The Hinman murder==
On [[July 25]], [[1969]], 21-year-old "Family" member, musician and aspiring actor [[Bobby Beausoleil]] left Spahn Ranch, accompanied by Brunner and another group member named [[Susan Atkins]] to pay a visit to an associate named Gary Allen Hinman at his home in [[Topanga, California|Topanga Canyon]], just south of [[Malibu, California|Malibu]]. Hinman had been friendly with the "Family" and had often allowed members to stay at his home. Both Beausoleil and Brunner had previously lived with Hinman for short periods of time and, according to a 1981 interview with Beausoleil, Brunner was close friends with Hinman. Beausoleil had in his possession a knife and a 9 mm Radom pistol that he had borrowed from "Family" member Bruce Davis.<ref name="charliemanson.com">[http://www.charliemanson.com/beausoleil.htm Oui magazine. Jailhouse Interview: Bobby Beausoleil and the Manson Murders. November, 1981]</ref>

On [[July 31]], [[1969]], Hinman was found murdered in his home. His face had been deeply slashed on the left side and he had two stab wounds to the chest. Hinman's house had been ransacked and the words "Political Piggy" and "paw" marks symbolic of the [[Black Panther Party]] were written on the wall in his blood. Both of Hinman's vehicles were missing: a [[Volkswagen]] van and a [[Fiat]] station wagon. On [[August 5]], [[1969]], Beausoleil was found by the [[California Highway Patrol]] asleep in the back of Hinman's Fiat near [[San Luis Obispo, California]]. Beausoleil had a sheath knife attached to his belt. <ref>[http://www.charliemanson.com/beausoleil.htm Oui magazine. ''Jailhouse Interview:Bobby Beausoleil and the Manson Murders. November, 1981]</ref> Robert Kenneth "Bobby" Beausoleil was arrested and charged with the murder of Gary Allen Hinman.

On [[August 8]], [[1969]], Brunner and another "Family" member, [[Sandra Good]], were arrested in [[San Fernando, California]] at a [[Sears, Roebuck and Company|Sears]] store for purchasing items with a stolen credit card. Brunner had signed for her purchases with the alias "Mary Vitasek" and the two women fled the store when a cashier became suspicious. After being followed by the store manager, the police caught up with the two and found them in possession of numerous stolen credit cards and fake identification cards. They were charged with violating Section 459 and 484e of the [[California Penal Code]] and booked into the [[Sybil Brand Institute]] Reception Center later that evening. <ref>Sanders, Ed. ''The Family''. 2002. pgs. 199-201</ref>

That same evening, "Family" members [[Charles "Tex" Watson]], [[Susan Atkins]], [[Linda Kasabian]] and [[Patricia Krenwinkel]] visited [[10050 Cielo Drive]] and murdered film actress [[Sharon Tate]] and her guests [[Wojciech Frykowski]], [[Jay Sebring]] and [[Abigail Folger]], as well as 18-year-old [[Steven Parent]], who was visiting Tate's groundskeeper [[William Garretson]].

=== Conflicting stories ===
According to former Deputy [[District Attorney]] prosecutor [[Vincent Bugliosi]] in his 1974 book ''[[Helter Skelter (book)|Helter Skelter]]'', Manson instructed Beausoleil, Brunner and Atkins to go to Hinman's house and demand that he hand over a large sum of money that he believed Hinman had inherited and the titles to Hinman's vehicles.<ref name="Bugliosi, Vincent 1974. pg. 76">Bugliosi, Vincent. ''Helter Skelter''. 1974. pg. 76</ref> Bugliosi also claimed that at one point during Hinman's two day detention in his home, that Manson himself came to Hinman's house and slashed Hinman's face with a knife when Hinman wouldn't cooperate with his captors and give them the money.<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent. ''Helter Skelter''. 1974. pg. 102-103.</ref> This account was later corroborated by various "Family" members.

According to a 1981 interview with ''[[Oui (magazine)|Oui]]'' magazine, Beausoleil denied Manson's direct involvement and disputed that neither Brunner or Atkins had any direct knowledge of why he was visiting Hinman.<ref name="charliemanson.com"/> Beausoleil contended that he went to Hinman's home in order to confront Hinman and collect $1,000 from him. Beausoleil claimed that he had purchased from Hinman tabs of [[mescaline]] that he then sold to a biker gang called the Straight Satans and that several hours after the gang purchased the mescaline from Beausoleil they showed up at Spahn Ranch, claiming the mescaline was poisoned with [[strychnine]], demanded their money back and threatened to kill Beausoleil.<ref name="charliemanson.com"/> Beausoleil contended that both Brunner and Atkins merely went along with him to Hinman's because they "liked" Hinman and wanted to visit. In the interview, he states that neither he nor Brunner nor Atkins were instructed by Manson to go to Hinman's and that he initially had no intention to kill him. This contradicted Beausoleil's own testimony at his first trial in 1969, when he claimed that Manson did in fact instruct him to kill Hinman.

Beausoleil claims that the trio were at Hinman's home less than 24 hours and that "Mary Brunner was just scared to death. She just faded into the woodwork" during the murder, but that Atkins went back into the house after Beausoleil stabbed Hinman and placed a pillow over Hinman's face. He also contended that it was Atkins who wrote the words "Political Piggy" on Hinman's wall (at Beausoleil's instructions).<ref name="charliemanson.com"/>

In October 1969, the police raided the "Family's" new residence of [[Barker Ranch]] near [[Death Valley, California]], holding most of the group in custody on charges of automobile theft. Among those arrested were Atkins who, while being questioned by police sergeants Whitley and Guenther on [[October 13]], [[1969]], implicated herself in the murder of Hinman and told the officers that Manson had sent her and Beausoleil to Hinman's residence to force Hinman to hand over money that Manson believed Hinman had inherited.<ref name="Bugliosi, Vincent 1974. pg. 76"/> Atkins also told the police that Beausoleil alone acted in the murder of Hinman, stabbing him twice in the heart after being detained in his home for over two days. Atkins also maintained that it was Beausoleil who slashed Hinman's face, not Manson.<ref name="Bugliosi, Vincent 1974. pg. 76"/> However, Atkins gave several differing accounts of the murder of Hinman; at times claiming that she killed Hinman, Manson killed Hinman or that Beausoleil killed Hinman.

==Trial==
[[Image:mary brunner.jpg|right|thumb|200px|<center>Mary Brunner during the Tate/LaBianca trial.]]
Mary Brunner and Susan Atkins were subsequently charged along with Bobby Beausoleil with the murder of Gary Hinman. Brunner later received [[immunity from prosecution]] to testify against both Beausoleil and Atkins.<ref name="Crime/Punishment">[http://crime.about.com/od/murder/ig/The-Manson-Family/marybruner.htm Crime/Punishment]</ref> Even so, Brunner did so very grudgingly. Beausoleil's first trial, which began in November 1969 ended in a [[hung jury]], with Beausoleil claiming that Manson alone had murdered Hinman.

However, during Beausoleil's March 1970 trial, Brunner repudiated her testimony that Beausoleil murdered Hinman and Beausoleil produced an [[affidavit]] signed by Brunner stating that he did not stab Hinman. Called to the stand to testify, Brunner eventually repudiated her previous testimony and insisted that she had said Beausoleil stabbed Hinman to death in her attempt to absolve Charles Manson of any participation in the crime.<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent. ''Helter Skelter''. 1974. pg. 293</ref> Various former "Family" members such as Ella Jo Bailey contradicted this testimony and testified that Manson confessed to them that he in fact was present at the Hinman house and that he fully participated in the murder.<ref>[http://crime.about.com/od/murder/ig/The-Manson-Family/ellajobailey.htm Ella Jo Bailey at Crime/Punishment]</ref>

Beausoleil was [[death penalty|sentenced to death]] and Atkins pled guilty for her participation in Hinman's death and was sentenced to [[life imprisonment]] for her involvement. Separate trials were held for the murders of Gary Hinman and Spahn Ranch-hand Donald "Shorty" Shea for "Family" members Bruce Davis (who was charged in the murder of Hinman after it was learned Beausoleil called Davis at Spahn Ranch from Hinman's house and asked Davis to come over and pick up Hinman's Volkswagen van), Charles Manson, and another "Family" member named [[Steve Grogan (Manson Family)|Steve Grogan]].<ref>Bugliosi, Vincent. ''Helter Skelter''. 1974. pg. 466</ref>

Brunner subsequently returned to the remaining members of the "Family" and rallied support for those incarcerated for the [[Sharon Tate|Tate]]/[[Leno and Rosemary LaBianca|LaBianca]] murders. Her son Valentine was sent to live with her parents.

==Hawthorne shootout==
On [[August 21]], [[1971]], Mary Brunner, accompanied by "Family" member [[Catherine "Gypsy" Share]] and several male "Family" associates — Dennis Rice, Charles Lovett, Larry Bailey, and Kenneth Como — drove a white van to a [[Hawthorne, California]] Western Surplus Store. Once inside the store, the group brandished guns and ordered the store patrons and clerks to lie on the ground. They then took 143 rifles from the premises, loading them into their van, while a store clerk tripped the silent alarm. According to police officers, the group then debated whether to kill all of those in the store.<ref name="Sanders 2002. pg. 474">Sanders, Ed. ''The Family''. 2002. pg. 474</ref>

The group's plan was to hijack a [[Boeing 747]] and threaten to kill one passenger every hour until Manson and fellow "Family" members were released from prison.<ref name="Sanders 2002. pg. 474"/> When a police squad car arrived, Share opened fire on the vehicle, shattering the windshield. As more squad cars arrived, they blocked the van from fleeing the scene, spraying it with over 50 bullets; the "Family" members fired nearly 20 rounds at the officers. When police finally gained control of the scene and apprehended the group, Mary Brunner, Catherine Share, and Larry Bailey were injured.<ref name="Sanders 2002. pg. 474"/><ref name="Crime/Punishment"/>

Brunner and Share were convicted of the crime and incarcerated at the [[California Institution for Women]], where [[Leslie Van Houten]], Susan Atkins and Patricia Krenwinkel were serving their sentences for their participation in the Tate/LaBianca murders. Brunner served just over six years for her participation in the Hawthorne shootout and was released in 1977.<ref name="crime.about.com">[http://crime.about.com/od/murder/ig/The-Manson-Family/marybruner.htm Crime/Punishment]</ref>

==Later life==

After her release from prison, Brunner disassociated herself from the "Manson Family" and regained custody of her son with Manson. She subsequently changed her name and currently lives somewhere in the [[Midwestern United States]].<ref name="crime.about.com"/><ref>[http://charliesfamily.tripod.com/mary.html The Manson Girl Info Center]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* ''Helter Skelter: The True Story of the Manson Murders'', by Vincent Bugliosi with [[Curt Gentry]]. New York, 1974, W.W. Norton and Co. ISBN 0-553-57435-3.
* ''The Family'' by Ed Sanders (Thunder's Mouth Press rev update edition), 2002, ISBN 1-56025-396-7

==External links==
*[http://www.charliemanson.com/beausoleil.htm ''Oui'' magazine interview with Bobby Beausoleil. 1981]
*[http://crimemagazine.com/04/manson,1212.htm ''Crime Magazine: An Encyclopedia of Crime'']
*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/manson/mansonsummation.html Closing Argument: ''The State of California v. Charles Manson et al.'' delivered by Vincent Bugliosi, Los Angeles, California, January 15, 1971]

{{Manson Family}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Brunner, Mary}}
[[Category:Manson Family]]
[[Category:People from Eau Claire, Wisconsin]]
[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni]]

[[pt:Mary Brunner]]