Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Olympische Sommerspiele 2016/Teilnehmer (Kosovo)

2015-05-10T21:15:52Z

Jfruh: tweak for style/readability

{{Infobox Olympics Kosovo
|games=2016 Summer
|competitors= TBA
|sports=
|flagbearer= [[Majlinda Kelmendi]]
|gold=
|silver=
|bronze=
|rank=
}}

'''[[Kosovo]]''' is scheduled to compete at the '''[[2016 Summer Olympics]]''' in [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil, from 5 to 21 August 2016. This will be Kosovo's first participation in the [[Olympic Games|Olympics]] since gaining membership by the [[International Olympic Committee]] in December 2014.

This will be Kosovo's first participation in the Olympics since gaining IOC membership in December 2014. Serbia protested Kosovo's admission to the IOC, as it officially claims that Kosovo is an [[Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija|autonomous province]] of Serbia. However, Serbia, considering the harmful effects of [[United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_757|Yugoslavia's explusion in 1992]], decided against boycotting the 2016 Rio Olympics as a consequence.<ref>[http://in.mobile.reuters.com/article/idINKBN0JN10S20141209?irpc=932 Reuters]</ref> Kosovo is only recognised as a state by {{numrec|KOS||UN member states}} and Taiwan (Chinese Taipei).

It has been announced that world champion in [[judo]], [[Majlinda Kelmendi]] will carry Kosovo's flag during the [[2016 Summer Olympics Parade of Nations|Parade of Nations]] within the [[2016 Summer Olympics opening ceremony|opening ceremony in Rio]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Majlinda Kelmendi carries the flag of Kosovo at Rio 2016|url=http://100judo.com/post/majlinda-kelmendi-carries-the-flag-of-kosovo-at-rio-2016|publisher=100Judo.com|accessdate=9 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Kosovo wijst direct vlaggendrager Rio 2016 aan|url=http://www.volkskrant.nl/dossier-olympische-spelen/kosovo-wijst-direct-vlaggendrager-rio-2016-aan~a3807218/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Kosovo Gets Full Membership In International Olympic Committee|url=http://www.rferl.org/content/kosovo-olympics-ioc-2016-serbia-reaction/26734076.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Majlinda Kelmendi do ta bartë flamurin e Kosovës në "Rio 2016" (Albanian) - Majlinda Kelmendi will wave Kosovo's flag in Rio|url=http://www.zeri.info/sport/3605/majlinda-kelmendi-do-ta-barte-flamurin-e-kosoves-ne-rio-2016/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Majlinda Kelmendi: Two-time world champion and Kosovan heroine|url=http://www.insidethegames.biz/sports/summer/judo/judo-heroes/1024178-majlinda-kelmendi-two-time-world-champion-and-kosovan-heroine}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Nations at the 2016 Summer Olympics}}

[[Category:Nations at the 2016 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Kosovo at the Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:2016 in Kosovo]]

{{Kosovo-stub}}
{{olympic-stub}}

Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011

2015-05-05T18:14:31Z

Jfruh: /* Provisions */ clarify

{{Infobox UK legislation
|short_title = Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011
|parliament = Parliament of the United Kingdom
|long_title = An Act to make provision about the dissolution of Parliament and the determination of polling days for parliamentary general elections; and for connected purposes.
|year = 2011
|statute_book_chapter = c. 14
|introduced_by = [[Nick Clegg]] [[Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Deputy Prime Minister]]
|territorial_extent = United Kingdom
|royal_assent = 15 September 2011
|commencement = 15 September 2011
|repeal_date =
|amendments =
|related_legislation =
|repealing_legislation=
|status = Current
|original_text = http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2011/14/enacted
|legislation_history = http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2010-11/fixedtermparliaments.html
|use_new_UK-LEG =
|revised_text =
}}

The '''Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011''' (c. 14) is an [[Act of Parliament|Act]] of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] that introduced [[fixed-term election]]s to the Westminster parliament. Under the provisions of the Act, parliamentary elections must be held every five years, beginning in 2015. The Act received [[Royal Assent]] on 15 September 2011. Fixed-term Parliaments, where general elections ordinarily take place in accordance with a schedule set far in advance, were part of the [[Conservative – Liberal Democrat Coalition Agreement|Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition agreement]] which was produced after the [[United Kingdom general election, 2010|2010 general election]].

==Background==
{{See also|Lascelles Principles}}
Before the passage of the Act, Parliament could be [[dissolution of the Parliament of the United Kingdom|dissolved]] by [[royal proclamation]] by virtue of the [[Royal Prerogative in the United Kingdom|Royal Prerogative]]. This originally meant that the British Monarch decided when to dissolve Parliament. Over time, the monarch increasingly acted only on the advice of the [[prime minister of the United Kingdom|prime minister]]; by the nineteenth century, prime ministers had a great deal of ''de facto'' control over the timings of general elections.

The [[Septennial Act 1715]] provided that a Parliament expired seven years after it had been summoned; this period was reduced to five years by the [[Parliament Act 1911]]. Apart from special legislation enacted during both World Wars to extend the life of the then-current Parliaments, Parliament was never allowed to reach its maximum statutory length, as the monarch always dissolved it before its expiry.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HT_GS2zgN5QC&pg=PA187 |author=Anthony Wilfred Bradley, Keith D. Ewing |title=Constitutional and Administrative Law |publisher=Pearson Education |location= |year=2006 |pages=187–189 |isbn=1-4058-1207-9 }}</ref> It should be noted, however, that the five-year maximum duration referred to the lifetime of the Parliament, and not to the interval between General Elections. For example, the [[United Kingdom general election, 2010|
2010 General Election]] was held five years and one day after the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|
2005 General Election]], whilst the [[United Kingdom general election, 1992|
1992 General Election]] was held on 9 April 1992 and the next [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|
General Election]] was not held until 1 May 1997.

==Provisions==
{{Refimprove|date=January 2012}}
Section 3(1) of the Act originally stated that Parliament should be automatically dissolved 17 [[Business day|working days]] before a polling day of a general election. This was subsequently amended by the [[Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013]] to 25 working days. Section 1 of the Act provides for such polling days to occur on the first Thursday in May of the fifth year after the previous general election, starting with 7 May 2015. The Prime Minister has the power, by order made by [[Statutory Instrument (UK)|Statutory Instrument]] under section 1(5), to provide that the polling day is to be held up to two months later than that date. Such a Statutory Instrument must be approved by each House of Parliament.

Section 2 of the Act also provides for two ways in which a general election can be held before the end of this five-year period:
*If the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] resolves "[[Motion of no confidence|That this House has no confidence in Her Majesty's Government]]", an early general election is held, unless the House of Commons subsequently resolves "[[Motion of Confidence|That this House has confidence in Her Majesty's Government]]". This second resolution must be made within fourteen days of the first.
*If the House of Commons, with the support of two-thirds of its total membership (including vacant seats), resolves "That there shall be an early parliamentary general election".
In either of these two cases, the monarch (on the recommendation of the prime minister) appoints the date of the new election by proclamation. Parliament is then dissolved 25 working days before that date.

The act makes [[minority governments]] much more stable than in the past, as they no longer need a [[confidence and supply agreement]]. Events that previously might have forced a government out of power—such as [[loss of supply]], defeat of a [[Queen's Speech]] or other important legislation, or a vote of no confidence in the Prime Minister rather than the government as a whole—cannot do so.<ref name="talbot20150503">{{cite web | url=http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/under-the-fixed-term-parliaments-act-a-minority-government-doesnt-need-a-confidence-and-supply-arrangement-to-be-able-to-govern/ | title=Under the Fixed Term Parliaments Act, a minority Government doesn’t need a ‘confidence and supply’ arrangement to be able to govern | publisher=London School of Economics | date=2015-05-03 | accessdate=3 May 2015 | author=Talbot, Colin | authorlink=Colin Talbot}}</ref> Apart from the automatic dissolution in anticipation of a general election (whether held early or not), section 3(2) provides that "Parliament cannot otherwise be dissolved". The act thus removes the traditional [[royal prerogative]] to dissolve Parliament.

The Act repealed the [[Septennial Act 1715]] as well as references in other Acts to the royal prerogative of dissolving parliament.

===Review===
Under section 7(4)–(6), the prime minister is obliged to establish a committee to review the operation of the Act and to make recommendations for its amendment or repeal, if appropriate. The committee must be established between 1 June and 30 November 2020, and the majority of its members must be members of the House of Commons.

==Debate==
When introducing the [[Bill (proposed law)|Bill]] to the House of Commons, [[Nick Clegg]], the deputy prime minister, said that "by setting the date that parliament will dissolve, our prime minister is giving up the right to pick and choose the date of the next general election—that's a true first in British politics."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-10729454 |title=AV referendum question published |date=22 July 2010 |publisher=[[BBC News Online]]}}</ref> The government initially indicated that an "enhanced majority" of 55 per cent of MPs would be needed to trigger a dissolution, but this did not become part of the Act.<ref>{{cite news|author=George Eaton|title=Fixed-term parliaments won’t prevent a second election|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/the-staggers/2010/05/government-fixed-election|publisher=The New Statesman|date=12 May 2010|accessdate=24 March 2014}}</ref> Proposed amendments that would have limited the fixed-year terms to four years, backed by [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]], [[Plaid Cymru]], and the [[Scottish National Party]], were defeated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-11771309 |title=Four-year fixed term parliament bid defeated |date=16 November 2010 |publisher=BBC News Online}}</ref> However, section 4 of the act postponed the [[general election]] of the [[Scottish Parliament]] that would have been held on 7 May 2015 to 5 May 2016 to avoid it coinciding with the UK general election.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, section 4|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2011/14/section/4/enacted|publisher=legislation.gov.uk|accessdate=8 April 2015}}</ref>

==See also==

*[[Agreement of the People]]
*[[Legislative session]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2011/14/contents/enacted Official text of the act, as enacted]
*{{cite journal |title=The summoning and meeting of new Parliaments in the United Kingdom |author=Robert Blackburn |journal=Legal Studies |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=165–176 |year=1989 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-121X.1989.tb00392.x}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2012}}

[[Category:United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 2011]]
[[Category:Election law in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Constitutional laws of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Royal prerogative]]

Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011

2014-01-19T17:39:49Z

Jfruh: /* Provisions */ a bit clarified

{{Infobox UK legislation
|short_title = Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011
|parliament = Parliament of the United Kingdom
|long_title = An Act to make provision about the dissolution of Parliament and the determination of polling days for parliamentary general elections; and for connected purposes.
|year = 2011
|statute_book_chapter = c. 14
|introduced_by = [[Nick Clegg]] [[Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Deputy Prime Minister]]
|territorial_extent = United Kingdom
|royal_assent = 15 September 2011
|commencement = 15 September 2011
|repeal_date =
|amendments =
|related_legislation =
|repealing_legislation=
|status = Current
|original_text = http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2011/14/enacted
|legislation_history = http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2010-11/fixedtermparliaments.html
|use_new_UK-LEG =
|revised_text =
}}

The '''Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011''' (c. 14) is an [[Act of Parliament|Act]] of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] that introduced [[fixed-term election]]s for the first time to the Westminster parliament. Under the provisions of the Act, parliamentary elections must be held every five years, beginning in 2015. The Act received [[Royal Assent]] on 15 September 2011. Fixed-term Parliaments, where general elections ordinarily take place in accordance with a schedule set far in advance, were part of the [[Conservative – Liberal Democrat Coalition Agreement]] which was produced after the [[United Kingdom general election, 2010|2010 general election]].

==Background==
{{See also|Lascelles Principles}}
Before the passage of the Act, Parliament could be [[dissolution of the Parliament of the United Kingdom|dissolved]] by [[royal proclamation]] by virtue of the [[Royal Prerogative in the United Kingdom|Royal Prerogative]]. This originally meant that the British Monarch decided when to dissolve Parliament. Over time, the monarch increasingly acted only on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]]; by the nineteenth century, Prime Ministers had the ''de facto'' power to dissolve Parliament and call a new general election at a time of their choosing.

The [[Septennial Act 1715]] provided that a Parliament expired seven years after it had been summoned; this period was reduced to five years by the [[Parliament Act 1911]]. Apart from special legislation enacted during both World Wars to extend the life of the then-current Parliaments, Parliament was never allowed to reach its maximum statutory length, as the monarch always dissolved it before its expiry.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HT_GS2zgN5QC&pg=PA187 |author=Anthony Wilfred Bradley, Keith D. Ewing |title=Constitutional and Administrative Law |publisher=Pearson Education |location= |year=2006 |pages=187–189 |isbn=1-4058-1207-9 }}</ref>

==Provisions==
{{Refimprove|date=January 2012}}
Under section 3(1) of the Act, Parliament automatically dissolves 17 working days before a polling day of a general election. Section 1 of the Act provides for such polling days to occur on the first Thursday in May of the fifth year after the previous general election, starting with 7 May 2015. The Prime Minister has the power, by order made by [[Statutory Instrument (UK)|Statutory Instrument]] under section 1(5), to provide that the polling day is to be held up to two months later than that date. Such a Statutory Instrument must be approved by each House of Parliament.

Section 2 of the Act also provides for two ways in which a general election can be held before the end of this five-year period:
*If the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] resolves "[[Motion of no confidence|That this House has no confidence in Her Majesty's Government]]", an early general election is held, unless the House of Commons subsequently resolves "[[Motion of Confidence|That this House has confidence in Her Majesty's Government]]". This second resolution must be made within fourteen days of the first.
*If the House of Commons, with the support of two-thirds of its total membership (including vacant seats), resolves "That there shall be an early parliamentary general election".
In either of these two cases, the monarch (on the recommendation of the Prime Minister) appoints the date of the new election by proclamation. Parliament is then dissolved 17 working days before that date.

Apart from the automatic dissolution in anticipation of a general election (whether held early or not), section 3(2) provides that "Parliament cannot otherwise be dissolved". The act thus removes the traditional [[royal prerogative]] to dissolve Parliament.

The Act repealed the [[Septennial Act 1715]] as well as references in other Acts to the royal prerogative of dissolving parliament.

===Review===
Under section 7(4)–(6), the Prime Minister is obliged to establish a committee to review the operation of the Act and to make recommendations for its amendment or repeal, if appropriate. The committee must be established between 1 June and 30 November 2020, and the majority of its members must be members of the House of Commons.

==Debate==
When introducing the [[Bill (proposed law)|Bill]] to the House of Commons, Deputy Prime Minister [[Nick Clegg]] said that "by setting the date that parliament will dissolve, our prime minister is giving up the right to pick and choose the date of the next general election—that's a true first in British politics."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-10729454 |title=AV referendum question published |date=22 July 2010 |publisher=[[BBC News Online]]}}</ref> Proposed amendments that would have limited the fixed-year terms to four years, backed by [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]], [[Plaid Cymru]] and the [[Scottish National Party]], were defeated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-11771309 |title=Four-year fixed term parliament bid defeated |date=16 November 2010 |publisher=BBC News Online}}</ref>

==See also==

*[[Agreement of the People]]
*[[Legislative session]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2011/14/contents/enacted Official text of the act, as enacted]
*{{cite journal |title=The summoning and meeting of new Parliaments in the United Kingdom |author=Robert Blackburn |journal=Legal Studies |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=165–176 |year=1989 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-121X.1989.tb00392.x}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2012}}

[[Category:United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 2011]]
[[Category:Election law in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Constitutional laws of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Royal prerogative]]

Gaza Strip Premier League

2013-10-26T17:04:08Z

Jfruh: no indication on talk page as to what the POV problem is. please explain before re-adding banner.

{{refimprove|date=February 2013}}

{{Infobox football league
| name = Gaza Strip Premier League
| logo =
| pixels = 140
| country = [[Palestine]]
| confed = [[Palestinian Football Federation|PFA]]
| teams = 12
| relegation = [[Gaza Strip First Division]]
| level = 1
| website = http://www.pfa.ps
| current = [[Gaza Strip Premier League 2012-13|2012–13 season]]
|}}

'''Gaza Strip League''' is one of the two top divisions of the [[Palestinian Football Federation]].

==Champions==
Champions so far are:<ref>{{cite web|title=Palestina - List of Champions and Cup Winners|url=http://www.rsssf.com/tablesp/paleschamp.html|publisher=RSSSF|accessdate=17 October 2011}}</ref>
*1984/85: [[Al-Ahli Gaza]]
*1985/86: [[Khadamat Al-Shatea]]
*1986/87: [[Khadamat Al-Shatea]]
*1987/88-94/95: ''not known''
*1995/96: [[Khadamat Rafah]]
*1996/97: ''not known''
*1997/98: [[Khadamat Rafah]]
*1998/99-2004/05: ''not known''
*2005/06: [[Khadamat Rafah]]
*2006/08: ''not known''
*2008/09: [[Shabab Rafah]]
*2009/10: ''not known''
*2010/11: [[Shabab Khan Younes]]
*2011/12: ''not known''

== Gaza Strip League - Clubs (2012-13) ==
*[[Al-Ahli Gaza]]
*[[Al-Ittihad Khan Younes]]
*[[Al-Ittihad Shejaia]]
*[[Al-Mashtal]]
*[[Gaza Sports Club]]
*[[Jama'ee Rafah]]
*[[Nadi al-Jam'iyya al-Islamiyya]]
*[[Khidmat Al-Nosirat]]
*[[Khidmat Al-Shatia]]
*[[Khidmat Rafah]]
*[[Shabab Khan Younes]]
*[[Shabab Rafah]]

==See also==
* Book by [[Michael Irving Jensen]]: ''The Political Ideology of Hamas: ...''. This includes a lot on "Football and Islamism in the Gaza Strip", based on field research with the ''[[Nadi al-Jam'iyya al-Islamiyya]]'' football team.
*[[West Bank Premier League]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.goalzz.com/main.aspx?c=6371 League] on goalzz.com

{{Football in Palestine}}
{{AFC Leagues}}

[[Category:Football competitions in the Palestinian territories]]
[[Category:National association football premier leagues]]
[[Category:Sport in the Gaza Strip]]

{{Palestine-org-stub}}

Schwarze im Mormonentum

2012-08-30T14:20:32Z

Jfruh: not irrelevant at all. most non-mormons will not know what "priesthood" means in an LDS context and won't click on the link.

{{About|black people and the LDS Church|black people in the early Mormon movement|Black people and early Mormonism}}
[[File:Gladys Knight.jpg|thumb|Since her baptism in 1997, [[Gladys Knight]] has sought to raise awareness of black people in the LDS church.]]
From 1852 to 1978, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) had a policy against ordaining [[black people|black]] men of African descent to the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]]. Under the policy, black men of African descent could not hold the priesthood and were prohibited from participating in the [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]]. The [[Priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|term "priesthood" in the LDS tradition]] does not refer to a full-time salaried clergy as it does in other Christian churches; in Mormonism, virtually all male head-of-household church members are part of the priesthood, and thus the pre-1978 policy essentially meant that black Mormon men were not full spiritual participants in church life. Though the church had an open membership policy for all races, relatively few black people who were aware of the racial policy joined the church,<ref name="WP">{{cite news |work=Washington Post |date=February 17, 2012 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/mindful-of-history-mormon-church-reaches-out-to-minorities/2012/02/13/gIQAZKJrKR_story.html|author=Hamil R. Harris |title=Mindful of history, Mormon Church reaches out to minorities |quote=a period of more than 120 years during which black men were essentially barred from the priesthood and few Americans of color were active in the faith.|accessdate=February 29, 2012}}</ref> despite reassurance that the ban would one day be lifted.

Historically, Mormon attitudes about race were generally close to the national average. Accordingly, before the [[Civil rights movement]], the LDS policy went largely unnoticed and unchallenged. Beginning in the 1960s, however, the church was criticized by civil rights advocates and religious groups, and in 1969 several church leaders voted to rescind the policy, but the vote was not unanimous so the policy stood. In 1978, church leaders led by [[Spencer W. Kimball]] declared they had received [[1978 Revelation on Priesthood|a revelation]] instructing them to reverse the racial restriction policy. The change seems to have been prompted at least in part by problems facing mixed race converts in Brazil. Today the church continues to oppose racial discrimination and [[racism]] in any form.<ref>[[Gordon B. Hinckley]], [http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html "The Need for Greater Kindness"], 2006-04-01.</ref>

In 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the LDS Church, accounting for about 5% of the total membership; most black members live in Africa, [[Brazil]] and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119. "A rough estimate would place the number of Church members with African roots at year-end 1997 at half a million, with about 100,000 each in Africa and the Caribbean, and another 300,000 in Brazil."</ref> Since 1997, the black membership has grown substantially, especially in [[West Africa]], where two temples have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa">[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/africagrowth.html The Church Continues to Grow in Africa]</ref>

==Before 1847==
{{Main|Black people and early Mormonism}}
[[File:Jane Elizabeth Manning James.jpg|thumb|[[Jane Elizabeth Manning James|Jane Manning]] was an early [[African American]] member who lived in [[Joseph Smith]]'s household in [[Nauvoo, Illinois|Nauvoo]] and later followed [[Brigham Young]] to the Utah Territory.]]

During the early years of the LDS movement, black people were admitted to the church, and there seems to have been no racial policy on denying priesthood, since at least two black men became priests, [[Elijah Abel]] and [[Walker Lewis]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Mauss|2003|p=213}}</ref> When the [[Mormons]] migrated to [[Missouri]] they encountered the pro-slavery sentiments of their neighbors. [[Joseph Smith]] upheld the laws regarding slaves and slaveholders, but remained [[abolitionist]] in his actions and doctrines.

Beginning in 1842, Smith made known his increasingly strong anti-slavery position. In 1842 he began studying some abolitionist literature, and stated, "it makes my blood boil within me to reflect upon the injustice, cruelty, and oppression of the rulers of the people. When will these things cease to be, and the Constitution and the laws again bear rule?"<ref>History of the Church, 4:544</ref> In 1844 Joseph Smith wrote his views as a candidate for President of the United States. The anti-slavery plank of his platform called for a gradual end to slavery by the year 1850. His plan called for the government to buy the freedom of slaves using money from the sale of public lands.

==Racial policy under Brigham Young==
After Smith's death in 1844, [[Brigham Young]] became president of the main body of the church, and led the [[Mormon Pioneers]] to what would become the [[Utah territory]]. Like the majority of Americans at the time, Young (who was also the territorial governor) held racist views about black people.<ref name=Mauss2003/> On January 16, 1852 Young made a pronouncement to the [[Utah Territorial Legislature]] stating that "any man having one drop of the seed of [Cain] ... in him cannot hold the priesthood and if no other Prophet ever spake it before I will say it now in the name of Jesus Christ I know it is true and others know it."<ref name = "Mauss-70"/>

A similar statement by Young was recorded on February 13, 1849. The statement — which refers to the [[Curse of Cain]] — was given in response to a question asking about the African's chances for redemption. Young responded, "The Lord had cursed Cain’s seed with blackness and prohibited them the Priesthood."<ref name = "Mauss-70">[http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=445 Bush & Mauss 1984: 70]</ref>

===William McCary===
{{Main|William McCary}}
Some researchers have suggested that the actions of [[William McCary]] in [[Winter Quarters, Nebraska]] led to Brigham Young's decision to adopt the priesthood ban in the LDS Church. McCary was a half-African American convert who, after his baptism and ordination to the priesthood, began to claim to be a [[prophet]] and the possessor of other supernatural gifts.<ref name = Murphy>Larry G. Murphy, [[J. Gordon Melton]], and Gary L. Ward (1993). ''Encyclopedia of African American Religions'' (New York: Garland Publishing) pp. 471–472.</ref> He was excommunicated for apostasy in March 1847 and expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst>Newell G. Bringhurst (1981). ''Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People within Mormonism'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press).</ref> After his excommunication, McCary began attracting Latter Day Saint followers and instituted [[plural marriage]] among his group, and he had himself sealed to several [[White people|white]] wives.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/>

McCary's behavior angered many of the Latter Day Saints in Winter Quarters. Researchers have stated that his marriages to his white wives "played an important role in pushing the Mormon leadership into an anti-Black position"<ref name = Murphy/> and may have prompted Young to institute the priesthood and temple ban on black people.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/><ref>Connell O’Donovan, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html#_ftn107 "The Mormon Priesthood Ban & Elder Q. Walker Lewis: 'An example for his more whiter brethren to follow'], ''John Whitmer Historical Association Journal'', 2006.</ref> A statement from Young to McCary in March 1847 suggested that race had nothing to do with priesthood eligibility<ref>"Its nothing to do with the blood for [from] one blood has God made all flesh, we have to repent [to] regain what we have lost — we have one of the best Elders, an African in Lowell [referring to Walker Lewis].": Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref> and the earliest known statement about the priesthood restriction from any Mormon leader (including the implication that skin color might be relevant) was made by Apostle [[Parley P. Pratt]] a month after McCary was expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst/> Speaking of McCary, Pratt stated that he "was a black man with the blood of Ham in him which lineage was cursed as regards the priesthood".<ref>General Minutes, April 25, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref>

===Young's personal views===
When asked "if the spirits of Negroes were neutral in Heaven," Young is reported in a journal entry to have responded, "No, they were not, there were no neutral [spirits] in Heaven at the time of the rebellion, all took sides …. All spirits are pure that came from the presence of God."<ref>Journal History, 25 December 1869, citing Wilford Woodruff's journal. See also http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html</ref> Prior to learning about Enoch Lewis's marriage to a woman of European descent (December 1847) Young considered Walker Lewis "one of the best Elders."<ref>Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah</ref>

On another occasion, Young said, "You see some classes of the human family that are black, uncouth, uncomely, disagreeable and low in their habits, wild, and seemingly deprived of nearly all the blessings of the intelligence that is generally bestowed upon mankind …. Cain slew his brother. Cain might have been killed, and that would have put a termination to that line of human beings. This was not to be, and the Lord put a mark upon him, which is the flat nose and black skin. Trace mankind down to after the flood, and then another curse is pronounced upon the same race—that they should be the ‘servant of servants’; and they will be, until that curse is removed; and the Abolitionists cannot help it, nor in the least alter that decree."<ref>''Journal of Discourses'', '''7''':290.</ref> On another occasion, Young taught that, "The Lamanites or Indians are just as much the children of our Father and God as we are. So also are the Africans."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=jXQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA272&lpg=PA272&dq=%22The+Lamanites+or+Indians+are+just+as+much+the+children+of+our+Father+and+God+as+we+are.+So+also+are+the+Africans%22&source=bl&ots=4Wt3HHsVmv&sig=HPh3A6FI9pw_4rGGiXcf-N8-efY&hl=en&sa=X&ei=MmpqT_mPA6ikiQKvm5S9BQ&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Lamanites%20or%20Indians%20are%20just%20as%20much%20the%20children%20of%20our%20Father%20and%20God%20as%20we%20are.%20So%20also%20are%20the%20Africans%22&f=false Journal of Discourses Volumes 11-12]</ref>

Brigham Young said this despite the LDS scripture verses that state people may be cursed unto the 3rd and 4th generation, but if any were to repent and make restitution they would be forgiven and the curse lifted.<ref>D&C 98: 45-47</ref> This is reiterated in [[Doctrine and Covenants]] 124:50&52 as well as Mosiah 13:13,14 and Deut 5:9,10. Brigham Young explained it this way:

:"And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to. The volition of the creature is free; this is a law of their existence, and the Lord cannot violate his own law; were he to do that, he would cease to be God. He has placed life and death before his children, and it is for them to choose. If they choose life, they receive the blessings of life; if they chose death, they must abide the penalty. This is a law which has always existed from all eternity, and will continue to exist throughout all the eternities to come. Every intelligent being must have the power of choice, and God brings forth the results of the acts of his creatures to promote his kingdom and subserve his purposes in the salvation and exaltation of his children. If the Lord could have his own way, he would have all the human family to enter into his church and kingdom, receive the Holy Priesthood and come into the celestial kingdom of our Father and God, by the power of their own choice."<ref>http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Journal_of_Discourses/Volume_11/Delegate_Hooper%E2%80%94Beneficial_Effects_of_Polygamy,_etc. Journal of Discourses Volume 11]</ref>

==Slavery==
===In LDS scripture===
{{See also|Christianity and slavery}}
It was a commonly held belief in the South that the Bible permitted slavery. For instance, the [[Old Testament]] has stories of slavery, and gives rules and regulations on how to treat slaves, while the [[New Testament]] tells slaves not to revolt against their masters. However, the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] condemns slavery, teaching "it is not right that any man should be in bondage one to another." ({{lds|D&C|dc|101|79}}) The [[Book of Mormon]] heralds righteous kings who did not allow slavery, ({{lds|Mosiah|mosiah|29|40}}) and righteous men who fought against slavery ({{lds|Alma|alma|48|11}}). The Book of Mormon also describes an ideal society that lived around AD 34-200, in which it teaches the people "had all things common among them; therefore there were not rich and poor, bond and free, but they were all made free, and partakers of the heavenly gift" ({{lds|4 Nephi|4_ne|4|3}}), and says that all people are children of God and "he denieth none that come unto him, black and white, bond and free, male and female" ({{lds|2 Nephi|2_ne|26:33}}). The Pearl of Great Price describes a similar society, in which "they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness; and there was no poor among them" ({{lds|Moses|moses|7|18}}). Mormons believed they too, were commanded by the Lord to "be one; and if ye are not one ye are not mine" ({{lds|D&C|dc|38|27}}). For a short time, Mormons lived in a society with no divisions under the [[United Order]].

===Statements from church leaders===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Young said, "If the Government of the United States, in Congress assembled, had the right to pass an anti-polygamy bill, they had also the right to pass a law that slaves should not be abused as they have been; they had also a right to make a law that negroes should be used like human beings, and not worse than dumb brutes. For their abuse of that race, the whites will be cursed, unless they repent."<ref name = jdcain>''Journal of Discourses'' '''10''':104–111.</ref>

In 1851, Apostle [[Orson Hyde]] said:

{{blockquote|We feel it to be our duty to define our position in relation to the subject of slavery. There are several in the Valley of the Salt Lake from the Southern States, who have their slaves with them. There is no law in Utah to authorize slavery, neither any to prohibit it. If the slave is disposed to leave his master, no power exists there, either legal or moral, that will prevent him. But if the slave chooses to remain with his master, none are allowed to interfere between the master and the slave. All the slaves that are there appear to be perfectly contented and satisfied.

When a man in the Southern states embraces our faith, the Church says to him, if your slaves wish to remain with you, and to go with you, put them not away; but if they choose to leave you, or are not satisfied to remain with you, it is for you to sell them, or let them go free, as your own conscience may direct you. The Church, on this point, assumes not the responsibility to direct. The laws of the land recognize slavery, we do not wish to oppose the laws of the country. If there is sin in selling a slave, let the individual who sells him bear that sin, and not the Church.<ref>''[[Millennial Star]]'', February 15, 1851. Quoted in [http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/quotes.html#smith43 BlackLDS.org]</ref>}}

===In Utah Territory===
[[File:Utah Territory, vector image - 2011.svg|thumb|Utah Territory (1850)]]
The Great [[Compromise of 1850]] allowed [[California]] into the Union as a [[slave and free states|free state]] while permitting Utah and [[New Mexico Territory|New Mexico]] territories the option of deciding the issue by "popular sovereignty". In 1852 the Utah Territorial Legislature officially sanctioned slavery in Utah Territory. At that time, Brigham Young was governor, and the [[1st Utah Territorial Legislature|Utah Territorial Legislature]] was dominated by church leaders.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Forgotten Kingdom: The Mormon Theocracy in the American West, 1847-1896
|last=Bigler
|first=David L.
|year=1998
|isbn=0-87062-282-X
|publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company}}</ref> The Utah slavery law stipulated that slaves would be freed if their masters had sexual relations with them; attempted to take them from the territory against their will; or neglected to feed, clothe, or provide shelter to them. In addition, the law stipulated that slaves must receive schooling. There are conflicting accounts of whether or not slaves could end their bondage by their own choice.<ref>http://utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_part2.htm#Slaves</ref><ref>[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 69]</ref>

Utah was the only western state or territory that had slaves in 1850,<ref>''Negro Slaves in Utah'' by Jack Beller, Utah Historical Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1929, pp. 124-126</ref> but slavery was never important economically in Utah, and there were fewer than 100 slaves in the territory.<ref name=Mauss2003/> In 1860, the census showed that 29 of the 59 black people in Utah Territory were slaves.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} When the [[American Civil War]] broke out in 1861, Utah sided with the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], and slavery ended in 1862 when the [[United States Congress]] abolished slavery in the Utah Territory.

==Racial restriction policy==
Under the racial restrictions that lasted from the presidency of Brigham Young until 1978, persons with any black African ancestry could not hold the priesthood in the LDS Church and could not participate in some temple ordinances, such as the Endowment and [[celestial marriage]]. Black people were permitted to be members of the church, and participate in other temple ordinances, such as [[baptism for the dead]].<ref>In her autobiography, [[Jane Elizabeth Manning James]] says she "had the privilege of going into the temple and being baptized for some of my dead." http://www.blacklds.org/manning Life History of Jane Elizabeth Manning James as transcribed by Elizabeth J.D. Round</ref>

The racial restriction policy was applied to black Africans, persons of black African descent, and any one with mixed race that included any black African ancestry. The policy was not applied to [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], [[Hispanic people|Hispanics]], [[Melanesians]] or [[Polynesian people|Polynesians]].

===Priesthood===
The priesthood restriction was particularly limiting, because the LDS Church has a [[Laity|lay]] priesthood and all worthy male members may receive the priesthood. Young men are generally admitted to the [[Aaronic priesthood (LDS Church)|Aaronic priesthood]] at age 12, and it is a significant [[rite of passage]]. Virtually all white adult male members of the church held the priesthood. Holders of the priesthood officiate at church meetings, perform blessings of healing, and manage church affairs. Excluding black people from the priesthood meant that they could not hold significant church [[Calling (LDS Church)|leadership roles]] or participate in certain spiritual events.

Don Harwell, a black LDS Church member, said, "I remember being in a Sacrament meeting, pre-1978, and the sacrament was being passed and there was special care taken by this person that not only did I not officiate, but I didn't touch the sacrament tray. They made sure that I could take the sacrament, but that I did not touch the tray and it was passed around me. That was awfully hard, considering that often those who were officiating were young men in their early teens, and they had that priesthood. I valued that priesthood, but it wasn't available."<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/archivenews/interview.html Rosemary Winters, "Black Mormons Struggle for Acceptance in the Church", ''[[Salt Lake Tribune]]'', November 4, 2004]</ref>

===Temple marriages===
Between 1844 and 1977, most black people were not permitted to participate in ordinances performed in the LDS Church temples, such as the endowment ritual and temple marriages and family sealings. Denying them the opportunity to participate in these ordinances meant that they could not enjoy the full privileges enjoyed by other Latter-day Saints.

Mormons believe that marriages that are sealed in a celestial marriage would bind the family together forever, whereas those that are not sealed were terminated upon death. President David McKay taught that black people "need not worry, as those who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."<ref>Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23</ref>

Once black people were allowed to have a celestial marriage, their ancestors would also be allowed to have a temple marriage. Brigham Young taught that "When the ordinances are carried out in the temples that will be erected, [children] will be sealed to their [parents], and those who have slept, clear up to Father [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]]. This will have to be done...until we shall form a perfect chain from Father Adam down to the closing up scene."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=88021b08f338c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=f378cb7a29c20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 Chapter 41: Temple Ordinances], Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Brigham Young, 299</ref>

===Entrance to the highest heaven===
A celestial marriage was not required to get into the [[celestial kingdom]], but was required to obtain a [[Degrees of glory|fullness of glory]] within the celestial kingdom.<ref>Church leader [[Bruce McConkie]] wrote "Baptism is the gate to the celestial kingdom; celestial marriage is the gate to an exaltation in the highest heaven within the celestial world."(Mormon Doctrine, 1966, p 118)</ref> The Doctrine and Covenants reads "In the celestial glory there are three heavens or degrees; And in order to obtain the highest, a man must enter into this order of the priesthood [meaning the new and everlasting covenant of marriage]; And if he does not, he cannot obtain it."({{lds|D&C|dc|131|1-3}}) The righteous who do not have a celestial marriage would still make it into heaven, and live eternally with God, but they would be "appointed [[angel]]s in heaven, which angels are ministering servants."({{lds|D&C|dc|132|16}})

Some interpreted this to mean black people would be treated as unmarried whites, being confined to only ever live in God's presence as a ministering servant. In 1954, Apostle Mark E. Petersen told BYU students: "If that Negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the celestial kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get a celestial resurrection."<ref>Address at Convention of Teachers of Religion, BYU, Utah, August 27, 1954.</ref> Apostle George F. Richards in a talk at General Conference similarly taught: "[t]he Negro is an unfortunate man. He has been given a black skin. But that is as nothing compared with that greater handicap that he is not permitted to receive the Priesthood and the ordinances of the temple, necessary to prepare men and women to enter into and enjoy a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom."<ref>Elder George F. Richards, ''Conference Report'', April 1939, p. 58.</ref>

Several leaders, including Joseph Smith,<ref>In regards to black people, Joseph Smith taught that "They have souls, and are subjects of salvation." ''[http://www.boap.org/LDS/Joseph-Smith/Teachings/T5.html Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith]'', selected by Joseph Fielding Smith, (Salt Lake City: ''[[Deseret Book Company]]'', 1976), 269. ISBN 0-87579-243-X</ref> Brigham Young,<ref>Brigham Young said "when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the Priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we are now entitled to." quoted by the First Presidency, August 17, 1949.</ref> [[Wilford Woodruff]],<ref>Wilford Woodruff said "The day will come when all that race will be redeemed and possess all the blessings which we now have" quoted by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949].</ref> [[George Albert Smith]],<ref>George Albert Smith reiterated what was said by both Brigham Young and Wilford Woodruff in a statement by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949]</ref> [[David O. McKay]],<ref>David McKay taught "Sometime in God's eternal plan, the Negro will be given the right to hold the Priesthood. In the meantime, those of that race who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."(Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23)</ref> [[Joseph Fielding Smith]],<ref>In reference to black people, Apostle Joseph Fielding Smith taught: "Every soul coming into this world came here with the promise that through obedience he would receive the blessings of salvation. No person was foreordained or appointed to sin or to perform a mission of evil. No person is ever predestined to salvation or damnation. Every person has free agency." (Joseph Fielding Smith Jr., ''Doctrines of Salvation'', Vol.1, p. 61)</ref> [[Harold B. Lee]],<ref>In 1972, Harold B. Lee said, "It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we're just waiting for that time." (Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.)</ref> and [[Spencer W. Kimball]],<ref>{{lds|Official Declaration|od|2}}</ref> taught that black people would eventually be able to receive a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom.

When the priesthood ban was discussed in 1978, apostle Bruce McConkie argued for its change using the [[Standard Works|Mormon scripture]] and the [[Articles of Faith]]. The Third Article states that "all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel."({{lds|Articles of Faith|a_of_f|1|3}}) From the Book of Mormon he quoted "And even unto the great and last day, when all people, and all kindreds, and all nations and tongues shall stand before God, to be judged of their works, whether they be good or whether they be evil— If they be good, to the resurrection of everlasting life; and if they be evil, to the resurrection of damnation. ({{lds|3 Nephi|3_ne|26|4-5}}) The [[Book of Abraham]] in the [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]] states that [[Abraham]]'s seed "shall all the families of the earth be blessed, even with the blessings of the Gospel, which are the blessings of salvation, even of life eternal." ({{lds|Abraham|abr|2|11}}) According to his son, Joseph F. McConkie, these scriptures played a great part in changing the policy.<ref>[http://www.meridianmagazine.com/articles/030606hallelujahprint.html Hallelujah! The 25th Anniversary of the Revelation of Priesthood]</ref>

===Other racial discrimination===
{{further2|[[Racism in the United States]]}}
Like most Americans at the time, many Mormons held racist views, and exclusion from priesthood wasn't the only discrimination practiced toward black people. In the late 1800s blacks living in Cache Valley were forcibly relocated to Ogden and Salt Lake City. In the 1950s, the San Francisco mission office took legal action to prevent black families from moving into the church neighborhood.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965">Glen W. Davidson, "Mormon Missionaries and the Race Question," The Christian Century, 29 Sept. 1965, pp. 1183-86.</ref> In 1965, a black man living in Salt Lake City, Daily Oliver, described how – as a boy – he was excluded from an LDS-led boy scout troop because they did not want blacks in their building.<ref>Utah Chronicle, May 28, 1965</ref> Mormon apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] describes a black family that tried to join the LDS church: "[some white church members] went to the Branch President, and said that either the [black] family must leave, or they would all leave. The Branch President ruled that [the black family] could not come to church meetings. It broke their hearts."<ref>"Race Problems As They Affect The Church", presentation by Mark E. Petersen to the Convention of Teachers of Religion", 27 August 1954, p. 16</ref> Until the 1970s hospitals with connections to the LDS church, including LDS Hospital, Primary Children's and Cottonwood Hospitals in Salt Lake City, McKay-Dee Hospital in Ogden, and Utah Valley Hospital in Provo, kept separate the blood donated by blacks and whites.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}

==1880–1950==
Under John Taylor's presidency (1880–1887) there was confusion regarding the origin of the racial policy. Abel was living, breathing proof that an African American was ordained to the Priesthood in the days of Joseph Smith. His son, Enoch Abel, had also been conferred the Priesthood.<ref>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/abel.html Elijah Abel | Blacklds.org]</ref> Joseph F. Smith said that Abel's Priesthood had been declared null and void by Joseph Smith himself, though this seems to conflict with Joseph F. Smith's teachings that the Priesthood could not be removed from any man without removing that man from the church.<ref name = "Mauss-76">[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 76-86]</ref> From this point on Joseph Smith was repeatedly referred to as the author of many statements, which had actually been made by Brigham Young, on the subject of Priesthood restriction.<ref name = "Mauss-76"/>

Several black men received the priesthood after the racial restriction policy was put in place, including Elijah Abel's son Enoch Abel, who was ordained an [[Elder (Latter Day Saints)|elder]] on Nov. 10, 1900. Enoch's son and Elijah Abel's grandson — who was also named Elijah Abel — received the Aaronic priesthood and was ordained to the office of [[priest (Latter Day Saints)|priest]] on July 5, 1934. The younger Elijah Abel also received the [[Melchizedek priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Melchizedek priesthood]] and was ordained to the office of elder on Sept. 29, 1935.<ref name = MTR>Newell G. Bringhurst, "The 'Missouri Thesis' Revisisted: Early Mormonism, Slavery, and the Status of Black People" in Newell G. Bringhurst and Darron T. Smith (eds.) (2006). ''Black and Mormon'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press) pp. 13–33 at p. 30.</ref> One commentator has pointed out that these incidents illustrate the "ambiguities, contradictions, and paradoxes" of the issue during the twentieth century.<ref name = MTR/>

{{Anchor|The "Negro Question" Declaration}}
In 1949, the First Presidency under the direction of George Albert Smith made a declaration which included the statement that the priesthood restriction was divinely commanded and not a matter of church policy.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
pages=101–102|
year=1999|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling}}</ref> It stated:

<blockquote>
The attitude of the Church with reference to the Negroes remains as it has always stood. It is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord, on which is founded the doctrine of the Church from the days of its organization, to the effect that Negroes may become members of the Church but that they are not entitled to the Priesthood at the present time. The prophets of the Lord have made several statements as to the operation of the principle. President Brigham Young said: "Why are so many of the inhabitants of the earth cursed with a skin of blackness? It comes in consequence of their fathers rejecting the power of the holy priesthood, and the law of God. They will go down to death. And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the holy priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to."
</blockquote>
The declaration goes on to state that the conditions in which people are born are affected by their conduct in a premortal existence, although the details of the principle are said not to be known. It then says that the privilege of mortal existence is so great that spirits were willing to come to earth even though they would not be able to possess the priesthood. It concludes by stating, "Under this principle there is no injustice whatsoever involved in this deprivation as to the holding of the priesthood by the Negroes."
<ref>First Presidency [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm Letter of the First Presidency] August 17, 1949</ref>

==1951–1977==
In 1954, Church President David O. McKay taught: "There is not now, and there never has been a doctrine in this church that the negroes are under a divine curse. There is no doctrine in the church of any kind pertaining to the negro. ''We believe'' that we have a scriptural precedent for withholding the priesthood from the negro. It is a practice, not a doctrine, and the practice someday will be changed. And that's all there is to it.’<ref>Sterling M. McMurrin affidavit, March 6, 1979. See ''[[David O. McKay and the Rise of Modern Mormonism]]'' by [[Greg Prince]] and [[William Robert Wright]]. Quoted by [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/howtoreach.html Genesis Group]</ref>

Mark E. Petersen (an [[Apostle (Mormonism)|apostle]]) addressed the issue of race and Priesthood in his address to a 1954 Convention of Teachers of Religion at the College Level at Brigham Young University. He said:

<blockquote> The reason that one would lose his blessings by marrying a negro is due to the restriction placed upon them. 'No person having the least particle of negro blood can hold the priesthood' (Brigham Young). It does not matter if they are one-sixth negro or one-hundred and sixth, the curse of no Priesthood is the same. If an individual who is entitled to the priesthood marries a negro, the Lord has decreed that only spirits who are not eligible for the priesthood will come to that marriage as children. To intermarry with a negro is to forfeit a 'nation of priesthood holders'....<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds_race.htm Racism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)]</ref></blockquote>

Petersen held that male descendants of a mixed-marriage could not become a Mormon priest, even if they had a lone ancestor with African blood dating back many generations.<ref name = "Mormon-racism">Peterson, Mark E. "[http://www.lds-mormon.com/racism.shtml Race Problems -- As They Affect The Church]", 27 August 1954</ref> However, he did hold out hope for African Americans, in that a black person baptized into the Mormon faith and who accepted Joseph Smith as a Prophet of God could attain the highest form of [[salvation]] known to Mormons, the [[Celestial Kingdom]].<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/> Petersen said, "If that negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the Celestial Kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get celestial glory."<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/>

In 1969 church apostle Harold B. Lee blocked the LDS Church from rescinding the racial restriction policy.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14">Quinn, Michael D. ''The Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power'' Salt Lake City: 1994 Signature Books Page 14</ref> Church leaders voted to rescind the policy at a meeting in 1969. Lee was absent from the meeting due to travels. When Lee returned he called for a re-vote, arguing that the policy could not be changed without a revelation.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14"/>

Harold B. Lee, president of the church, stated in 1972: "For those who don't believe in modern revelation there is no adequate explanation. Those who do understand revelation stand by and wait until the Lord speaks...It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we’re just waiting for that time."<ref>Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.</ref>

===Civil Rights movement===
In 1958, Joseph Fielding Smith published '''Answers to Gospel Questions''' which stated "No church or other organization is more insistent than The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, that the negroes should receive all the rights and privileges that can possibly be given to any other in the true sense of equality as declared in the Declaration of Independence." He continues to say they should not be barred from any type of employment or education, and should be free "to make their lives as happy as it is possible without interference from white men, labor unions or from any other source."<ref name=history>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html LDS Black History Timeline]</ref> In the 1963 General Conference, Hugh B. Brown stated: "it is a moral evil for any person or group of persons to deny any human being the rights to gainful employment, to full educational opportunity, and to every privilege of citizenship". He continued: "We call upon all men everywhere, both within and outside the church, to commit themselves to the establishment of full civil equality for all of God's children. Anything less than this defeats our high ideal of the brotherhood of man."<ref name=history />

The NAACP attempted to get the LDS church to support civil rights legislation and to reverse its discriminating practices during the [[Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights era]] in the 1960s. In 1963 [[NAACP]] leadership tried to arrange meetings with church leadership, but the church refused to meet with them.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1965, the church leadership did meet with the NAACP, and agreed to publish an editorial in church-owned newspaper [[The Deseret News]], which would support civil rights legislation pending in the Utah legislature. The church failed to follow-through on the commitment, and church Apostle [[N. Eldon Tanner]] explained "We have decided to remain silent".<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In March 1965, the NAACP led an anti-discrimination march in Salt Lake City, protesting church policies.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1966, the NAACP issued a statement criticizing the church, saying the church "has maintained a rigid and continuous segregation stand" and that "the church has made "no effort to conteract the widespread discriminatory practices in education, in housing, in employment, and other areas of life"<ref>[[The Deseret News]], May 3, 1966</ref>

During the 1960s and 1970s, Mormons in the West were close to the national averages in racial attitudes.<ref name=Mauss2003>[[Armand Mauss|Mauss, Armand]] [http://www.fairlds.org/FAIR_Conferences/2003_LDS_Church_and_the_Race_Issue.html The LDS Church and the Race Issue: A Study in Misplaced Apologetics] 2003</ref> In 1966, [[Armand Mauss]] surveyed Mormons on racial attitudes and discriminatory practices. He found that "Mormons resembled the rather "moderate" denominations (such as Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopalian), rather than the "fundamentalists" or the sects."<ref name=Mauss1966>Armand L. Mauss, "Mormonism and Secular Attitudes toward Negroes", Pacific Sociological Review 9 (Fall 1966)</ref> Negative racial attitudes within Mormonism varied inversely with education, occupation, community size of origin, and youth, reflecting the national trend. Urban Mormons with a more orthodox view of Mormonism tended to be more tolerant.<ref name=Mauss1966 />

African-American athletes protested against LDS policies by boycotting several sporting events with [[Brigham Young University]]. In 1968, after the assassination of [[Martin Luther King]], black members of the [[UTEP]] track team approached their coach and expressed their desire not to compete against BYU in an upcoming meet. When the coach disregarded the athletes' complaint, the athletes boycotted the meet.<ref name="ADR"/> In 1969, 14 members of the [[University of Wyoming]] football team were removed from the team for planning to protest the policies of the LDS church.<ref name="ADR">{{cite journal|last=Fried|first=Gil|coauthors=Michael Hiller|year=1997|title=ADR in youth and intercollegiate athletics|journal=Brigham Young University Law Review|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_199701/ai_n8735454/pg_1}}, p. 1, p. 10</ref> In November 1969, Stanford University President Kenneth Pitzer suspended athletic relations with BYU.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=EfYLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=i1cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3753,2673063&dq=kenneth-pitzer+brigham-young |work=Evening Independent |date=December 11, 1969 |author=James J. Kilpatrick |title=A Sturdy Discipline Serves Mormons Well}}</ref>

Since the early part of the 20th century, each LDS ward has organized its own [[Boy Scout]]ing troop. Some LDS troops permitted black youths to join, but an LDS policy required that the troop leader to be the deacon quorum president (a priesthood office held by 12 and 13 year old non-black church members), thus excluding black children from that role. The NAACP filed a federal lawsuit in 1974 challenging this practice, and soon thereafter the LDS church reversed its policy.<ref>http://www.bsa-discrimination.org/html/lds-top.html Exclusionary Practices & Policies of the Boy Scouts of America</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage |first=Armand L. |last=Mauss |page=218 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-252-02803-1}}</ref>

Spencer W. Kimball, LDS apostle and future president of the church taught against racism. In 1972, he said: "Intolerance by Church members is despicable. A special problem exists with respect to black people because they may not now receive the priesthood. Some members of the Church would justify their own un-Christian discrimination against black people because of that rule with respect to the priesthood, but while this restriction has been imposed by the Lord, it is not for us to add burdens upon the shoulders of our black brethren. They who have received Christ in faith through authoritative baptism are heirs to the celestial kingdom along with men of all other races. And those who remain faithful to the end may expect that God may finally grant them all blessings they have merited through their righteousness. Such matters are in the Lord's hands. It is for us to extend our love to all."<ref>The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball, p.237, emphasis in original</ref>

There were some LDS church members who protested against the church's discriminatory practices. Two LDS church members, Douglas A. Wallace and Byron Merchant, were excommunicated by the LDS church (1976 and 1977 respectively) after criticizing the church's discrimatory practices.<ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 13, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', October 4, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 3, 1978</ref><ref>''Dallas Morning News'', October 20, 1977</ref> LDS church member Grant Syphers objected to the church's racial policies and, as a consequence, his stake president refused to give Sypher permission to enter the temple. The president said, "Anyone who could not accept the Church's stand on Negroes ... could not go to the temple".<ref>Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Winter 1967, p. 6</ref>

==Racial policy ends in 1978==
{{Main|1978 Revelation on Priesthood}}
LDS church president Spencer W. Kimball (president 1973-1985) took [[General Conference (LDS Church)|general conference]] on the road, holding area and regional conferences all over the world. He also announced many new temples to be built both in the United States and abroad, including one [[São Paulo Brazil Temple|temple in São Paulo, Brazil]]. The problem of determining priesthood eligibility in Brazil was thought to be nearly impossible due to the mixing of the races in that country. When the temple was announced, church leaders realized the difficulty of restricting persons with African descent from attending the temple in Brazil.<ref>[[Mark L. Grover]], "The Mormon Priesthood Revelation and the São Paulo Brazil Temple", ''[[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]]'' '''23''':39–53 (Spring 1990).</ref>

Finally, on June 8, 1978, the [[First Presidency]] released to the press an official declaration, now a part of the standard works of the church, which contained the following statement:

<blockquote>He has heard our prayers, and ''by revelation'' has confirmed that the long-promised day has come when every faithful, worthy man in the church may receive the Holy Priesthood, with power to exercise its divine authority, and enjoy with his loved ones every blessing that follows there from, including the blessings of the temple. Accordingly, all worthy male members of the church may be ordained to the priesthood without regard for race or color. Priesthood leaders are instructed to follow the policy of carefully interviewing all candidates for ordination to either the Aaronic or the Melchizedek Priesthood to insure that they meet the established standards for worthiness.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/od/2 Official Declaration 2], emphasis added.</ref></blockquote>

According to first-person accounts, after much discussion among the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles on this matter, they engaged the Lord in prayer. According to the writing of one of those present, "It was during this prayer that the revelation came. The Spirit of the Lord rested upon us all; we felt something akin to what happened on the day of [[Pentecost]] and at the [[Kirtland Temple]]. From the midst of eternity, the voice of God, conveyed by the power of the Spirit, spoke to his prophet. The message was that the time had now come to offer the fullness of the everlasting gospel, including celestial marriage, and the priesthood, and the blessings of the temple, to all men, without reference to race or color, solely on the basis of personal worthiness. And we all heard the same voice, received the same message, and became personal witnesses that the word received was the mind and will and voice of the Lord."<ref>''Priesthood'', pp. 127-128, Deseret Book Co., 1981.</ref> Immediately after the receipt of this new revelation, an official announcement of the revelation was prepared, and sent out to all of the various leaders of the Church. It was then read to, approved by and accepted as the word and will of the Lord, by a General Conference of the Church in October 1978. Succeeding editions of the Doctrine and Covenants were printed with this announcement canonized and entitled "[[Official Declaration—2]]".

[[Gordon B. Hinckley]] (a participant in the meetings to reverse the ban), in a churchwide fireside said, "Not one of us who was present on that occasion was ever quite the same after that. Nor has the Church been quite the same. All of us knew that the time had come for a change and that the decision had come from the heavens. The answer was clear. There was perfect unity among us in our experience and in our understanding."<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=6bb6d7630a27b010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____ Priesthood Restoration], an edited version of a talk given 15 May 1988 at the Churchwide fireside commemorating the 159th anniversary of the restoration of the priesthood.</ref>

Later in 1978, McConkie said:<ref>Bruce R. McConkie, 1978 (All Are Alike Unto God, A SYMPOSIUM ON THE BOOK OF MORMON, The Second Annual Church Educational System Religious Educator's Symposium, August 17–19, 1978</ref>
<blockquote>There are statements in our literature by the early brethren which we have interpreted to mean that the Negroes would not receive the priesthood in mortality. I have said the same things, and people write me letters and say, "You said such and such, and how is it now that we do such and such?" And all I can say to that is that it is time disbelieving people repented and got in line and believed in a living, modern prophet. Forget everything that I have said, or what President Brigham Young or President George Q. Cannon or whomsoever has said in days past that is contrary to the present revelation. We spoke with a limited understanding and without the light and knowledge that now has come into the world.... We get our truth and our light line upon line and precept upon precept. We have now had added a new flood of intelligence and light on this particular subject, and it erases all the darkness and all the views and all the thoughts of the past. They don’t matter any more.... It doesn’t make a particle of difference what anybody ever said about the Negro matter before the first day of June of this year.</blockquote>

Critics of the LDS church state that the church's 1978 reversal of the racial restriction policy was not divinely inspired as the church claimed, but simply a matter of political convenience.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0-8024-1234-3 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979|
pages=319–328
}}</ref> Critics state that this reversal of policy occurred as the LDS church began to expand outside the United States into countries such as Brazil that have ethnically mixed populations, and that the policy reversal was announced just a few months before the church opened its new temple in [[São Paulo]], Brazil.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|year=1999|
page=95|
publisher=Harper Collins
}}
</ref>

Critics of the LDS church state that the 1978 revelation undermines the church's claim that its presidents are prophets of God and that their proclamations are God's word, because Brigham Young stated in 1852 that blacks would not receive the priesthood "until the last of the posterity of Able [sic] had received the priesthood, until the redemtion of the earth."<ref>{{cite web|
url=http://www.mrm.org/topics/miscellaneous/black-skin-and-seed-cain|
title=Mormon Research Ministry}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abane|
isbn=1-56858-219-6|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows|
pages=355–374}}
</ref> Mormon apologists reply that revelation is a continuing process and that newer revelations supersede older revelations {{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}.

==Interracial marriages==
===Pre-1978===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Church president Brigham Young said "If the White man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain (those with dark skin), the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so."<ref name = jdcain />

LDS Apostle Mark E. Petersen said in 1954: "I think I have read enough to give you an idea of what the Negro is after. He is not just seeking the opportunity of sitting down in a cafe where white people eat. He isn't just trying to ride on the same streetcar or the same Pullman car with white people. It isn't that he just desires to go to the same theater as the white people. From this, and other interviews I have read, it appears that the Negro seeks absorption with the white race. He will not be satisfied until he achieves it by intermarriage. That is his objective and we must face it."<ref>Race Problems - As They Affect The Church, Convention of Teachers of Religion on the College Level, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, August 27, 1954</ref>

In a 1965 address to BYU students, President Kimball told BYU students: "Now, the brethren feel that it is not the wisest thing to cross racial lines in dating and marrying. There is no condemnation. We have had some of our fine young people who have crossed the lines. We hope they will be very happy, but experience of the brethren through a hundred years has proved to us that marriage is a very difficult thing under any circumstances and the difficulty increases in interrace marriages."<ref name=ChurchNews1978>"Interracial Marriage Discouraged", Church News, June 17, 1978, p. 2.</ref>

===Post-1978===
The official newspaper of the LDS Church<ref>{{Harv|Roberts|1983|p=7}}</ref> – the [[Church News]] – printed an article in entitled "Interracial marriage discouraged". This article was printed on June 17, 1978, in the same issue that announced the policy reversal.

There was no written church policy on interracial marriages, which had been permitted since before the 1978 reversal.<ref name=ChurchNews1978 /> In 1978, church spokesman Don LeFevre said "So there is no ban on interracial marriage. If a black partner contemplating marriage is worthy of going to the Temple, nobody's going to stop him... if he's ready to go to the Temple, obviously he may go with the blessings of the church."<ref>Don LeFevre, Salt Lake Tribune, 14 June 1978</ref>

On the LDS Church website, Dr. Robert Millet writes: "[T]he Church Handbook of Instructions... is the guide for all Church leaders on doctrine and practice. There is, in fact, no mention whatsoever in this handbook concerning interracial marriages. In addition, having served as a Church leader for almost 30 years, I can also certify that I have never received official verbal instructions condemning marriages between black and white members."<ref>Robert L. Millet, [http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/church-response-to-jon-krakauers-under-the-banner-of-heaven "Church Response to Jon Krakauer's Under the Banner of Heaven"], 27 June 2003</ref>

A church lesson manual for adolescent boys that is in use in 2011 contains a 1976 quote from Spencer W. Kimball that says "We recommend that people marry those who are of the same racial background generally, and of somewhat the same economic and social and educational background (some of those are not an absolute necessity, but preferred), and above all, the same religious background, without question".<ref>
*Embry, Jessie L., ''Black Saints in a white church: contemporary African American Mormons'', Signature Books, 1994, p 169.
*The LDS document is online at: [http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=ba805f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=1f4fa41f6cc20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 “Lesson 31: Choosing an Eternal Companion,”] ''Aaronic Priesthood Manual 3'', p. 127.</ref>

==1985 to present==
[[Image:MormonAdFamilyPhoto.jpg|right|thumb|[[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church]]Since the Revelation on the Priesthood in 1978, the church has made no distinctions in policy for black people, but it remains an issue for many black members of the church. Alvin Jackson, a black Bishop, puts his focus on "moving forward rather than looking back."<ref>Page Johnson [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/jackson.html Alvin B. Jackson, Jr—The Bishop is Always In] Meridian Magazine</ref> In an interview with ''Mormon Century'', Jason Smith expresses his viewpoint that the membership of the church was not ready for black people to have the Priesthood at the time of the Restoration, because of prejudice and slavery. He draws analogies to the Bible where only the Israelites have the gospel.<ref>Ken Kuykendall, [http://www.mormoncentury.org/www/ContentPages/HearContent.aspx?PID=1000022 Past racial issues and the Church today]{{Dead link|date=October 2010}} Mormon Century</ref> Officially the church also uses Biblical history to justify the prior ban:

::Ever since biblical times, the Lord has designated through His prophets who could receive the priesthood and other blessings of the gospel. Among the tribes of Israel, for example, only men of the tribe of Levi were given the priesthood and allowed to officiate in certain ordinances. Likewise, during the Savior's earthly ministry, gospel blessings were restricted to the Jews. Only after a revelation to the Apostle Peter were the gospel and priesthood extended to others (see Acts 10:1–33; 14:23; 15:6–8).<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=bbd508f54922d010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=36f2ce9566a43110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ LDS Gospel Topics: Priesthood Ordination before 1978]</ref>

The church opposes racism among its membership. It is currently working to reach out to black people, and has several predominantly black wards inside the United States.<ref>Wilcox, Lauren, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/09/AR2007050901770.html The Saints Go Marching In] Washington Post May 13, 2007</ref> They teach that all are welcome to come unto Christ, and speak against those who harbor ill feelings towards another race. Gordon B. Hinckley, the President of the LDS church, stated:
{{quote|I remind you that no man who makes disparaging remarks concerning those of another race can consider himself a true disciple of Christ. Nor can he consider himself to be in harmony with the teachings of the Church of Christ. Let us all recognize that each of us is a son or daughter of our Father in Heaven, who loves all of His children."<ref name="Hinckley 2006">[http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html The Need for Greater Kindness]</ref>}}

In the July 1992 edition of the [[New Era (magazine)|New Era]], the church published a [[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church. The photo contained several youth of a variety of ethic backgrounds with the words "Family Photo" in large print. Underneath the picture are the words "God created the races—but not racism. We are all children of the same Father. Violence and hatred have no place in His family. (See Acts 10:34.)"<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=024644f8f206c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=445405e063feb010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1
|publisher=[[New Era (magazine)|New Era]]
|title=Family Photo
|month=July | year=1992
|last=Diamond
|first=Craig}}</ref>

===Instances of discrimination after 1978 revelation===
LDS historian Wayne J. Embry interviewed several black LDS church members in 1987 and reported "All of the interviewees reported incidents of aloofness on the part of white members, a reluctance or a refusal to shake hands with them or sit by them, and racist comments made to them." Embry further reported that one black church member "was amazingly persistent in attending Mormon services for three years when, by her report, no one would speak to her." Embry reports that "she [the same black church member] had to write directly to the president of the LDS Church to find out how to be baptized" because none of her fellow church members would tell her.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Black and Mormon|
last=Smith|first=Darron|
publisher=University of Illinois Press|
year=2004|
isbn=0-252-02947-X|
pages=75–77}}</ref>

Black LDS church member Darron Smith wrote in 2003: "Even though the priesthood ban was repealed in 1978, the discourse that constructs what blackness means is still very much intact today. Under the direction of President Spencer W. Kimball, the First Presidency and the Twelve removed the policy that denied black people the priesthood but did very little to disrupt the multiple discourses that had fostered the policy in the first place. Hence there are Church members today who continue to summon and teach at every level of Church education the racial discourse that black people are descendants of Cain, that they merited lesser earthly privilege because they were "fence-sitters" in the War in Heaven, and that, science and climatic factors aside, there is a link between skin color and righteousness" <ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Smith
| first = Darron
| title = The Persistence of Racialized Discourse in Mormonism|
journal = Sunstone
|date=March 2003}}
</ref>

Journalist and church member [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]] in 2007 wrote "Today, many black Mormons report subtle differences in the way they are treated, as if they are not full members but a separate group. A few even have been called 'the n-word' at church and in the hallowed halls of the temple. They look in vain at photos of Mormon general authorities, hoping to see their own faces reflected there.<ref>"New film and revived group help many feel at home in their church" by [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]], The Salt Lake Tribune, July 6, 2007</ref>

White church member [[Eugene England]], a professor at Brigham Young University, wrote in 1998: <blockquote>
This is a good time to remind ourselves that most Mormons are still in denial about the ban, unwilling to talk in Church settings about it, and that some Mormons still believe that Blacks were cursed by descent from Cain through Ham. Even more believe that Blacks, as well as other non-white people, come color-coded into the world, their lineage and even their class a direct indication of failures in a previous life.... I check occasionally in classes at BYU and find that still, twenty years after the revelation, a majority of bright, well-educated Mormon students say they believe that Blacks are descendants of Cain and Ham and thereby cursed and that skin color is an indication of righteousness in the pre-mortal life. They tell me these ideas came from their parents or Seminary and Sunday School teachers, and they have never questioned them. They seem largely untroubled by the implicit contradiction to basic gospel teachings.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = England
| first = Eugene | journal = Sunstone|
pages=54–58|date=June 1998
| title = }}
</ref> </blockquote>

In an interview for the [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] documentary [[The Mormons (documentary)|The Mormons]], [[Jeffrey R. Holland]], a member of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], specifically denounced the perpetuation of [[Mormon folklore|folklore]] suggesting that race was in any way an indication of how faithful a person had been in the [[pre-existence]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/interviews/holland.html trnascript of interview with Holland for the PBS documentary]</ref>

===Church asked to repudiate past racist declarations===
In 1995, black church member A. David Jackson asked church leaders to issue a declaration repudiating past doctrines that treated black people as inferior. In particular, Jackson asked the church to disavow the 1949 "Negro Question" declaration from the church Presidency which stated "The attitude of the church with reference to negroes ... is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord ... to the effect that negroes ... are not entitled to the priesthood...".<ref name = "Ostling-103">{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0-06-066371-5|
pages=103–104|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

The church leadership did not issue a repudiation, and so in 1997 Jackson, aided by other church members including Armand Mauss, sent a second request to church leaders, which stated that white Mormons felt that the 1978 revelation resolved everything, but that [[black Mormons]] react differently when they learn the details. He said that many black Mormons become discouraged and leave the church or become inactive. "When they find out about this, they exit... You end up with the passive African Americans in the church".<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0-06-066371-5|
pages=105|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

Other black church members think giving an apology would be a "detriment" to church work and a catalyst to further racial misunderstanding. African-American church member Bryan E. Powell says "There is no pleasure in old news, and this news is old." Gladys Newkirk agrees, stating "I've never experienced any problems in this church. I don't need an apology. . . . We're the result of an apology."<ref>{{cite news
|first=Bill
|last=Broadway
|publisher=[[Washington Post]]
|date=1998-05-30
|url=http://www.ldshistory.net/1990/mhablack.htm
|title=Black Mormons Resist Apology Talk}}</ref> The large majority of black Mormons say they are willing to look beyond the racist teachings and cleave to the church in part because of its powerful, detailed teachings on life after death.<ref name=Ramirez2005>{{cite news
|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-blackmormons,1,708682.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true
|title=Mormon past steeped in racism: Some black members want church to denounce racist doctrines
|first=Margaret
|last=Ramirez
|date=2005-07-26
|publisher=[[Chicago Tribune]]}}</ref>

Hinckley, then church president, told the Los Angeles Times "The 1978 declaration speaks for itself ... I don't see anything further that we need to do". Church leadership did not issue a repudiation.<ref name = "Ostling-103"/> Church apostle [[Dallin H. Oaks]] said: "It's not the pattern of the Lord to give reasons. We can put reasons to commandments. When we do we're on our own. Some people put reasons to [the ban] and they turned out to be spectacularly wrong. There is a lesson in that.... The lesson I've drawn from that, I decided a long time ago that I had faith in the command and I had no faith in the reasons that had been suggested for it... I'm referring to reasons given by general authorities and reasons elaborated upon [those reasons] by others. The whole set of reasons seemed to me to be unnecessary risk taking... Let's [not] make the mistake that's been made in the past, here and in other areas, trying to put reasons to revelation. The reasons turn out to be man-made to a great extent. The revelations are what we sustain as the will of the Lord and that's where safety lies."<ref>Dallin H. Oaks, Interview with Associated Press, in ''[[Daily Herald (Utah)|Daily Herald]]'', Provo, Utah, 5 June 1988</ref>

===Humanitarian aid in Africa===
The church has been involved in several humanitarian aid projects in Africa. On January 27, 1985, members across the world joined together in a fast for "the victims of famine and other causes resulting in hunger and privation among people of Africa." They also donated the money that would have been used for food during the fast to help those victims, regardless of church membership.<ref>Kimball, Spencer, Romney, Marion, Hinckley, Gordon, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,4383 ''Letters of the First Presidency''] January 11, 1985</ref> Together with other organizations such as UNICEF and the American Red Cross, the church is working towards eradicating measles. Since 1999, there has been a 60 percent drop in deaths from measles in Africa.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=9ca9775baf050110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Church Works to Eradicate Measles in Africa]</ref> Due to their efforts, the [[American Red Cross]] bestowed the First Presidency with the organization's highest financial support honor, the American Red Cross Circle of Humanitarians award.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=df346287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD American Red Cross Recognizes Church for Support of Measles Initiative in Africa]</ref> The church has also been involved in humanitarian aid in Africa by sending food boxes,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=894b6287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Food Boxes Rushed to Ease Starvation in Africa]</ref> digging wells to provide clean water,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=4b12b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Clean Water Projects]</ref> distributing wheelchairs,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=66f4b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Wheelchair Distribution]</ref> fighting AIDS,{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} providing Neonatal Resuscitation Training,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a6f37a520251110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD church Works to Save Infants Through Neonatal Resuscitation Training]</ref> and setting up employment resources service centers.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a658bd9eeb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Employment Resource Service Centers]</ref>

==Black membership==
{{main|Black Mormons}}
The church has never kept official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. Black people have been members of Mormon congregations since its foundation, but before 1978 its black membership was small. It has since grown, and in 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the church (about 5% of the total membership), mostly in Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119.</ref> Black membership has continued to grow substantially, especially in West Africa, where two temples have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa"/>

==See also==
{{div col|cols=2}}
*[[Act in Relation to Service]]
*[[Black people and early Mormonism]]
*[[Black people in Mormon doctrine]]
*[[Randy L. Bott]]
*[[Joseph Freeman (Mormon)]]
*[[Genesis Group]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Primary sources===
*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Mary Lucille Bankhead
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Gilmore H. Chapel
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1986
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Cleolivia Lyons
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1988
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Cherry
| first = Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| coauthors =
| title = It's You and Me, Lord!
| publisher = Trilogy Arts Publications
|year=1970
| location = Provo, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Martin
| first = Wynetta Willis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Mormon Tells Her Story
| publisher = Hawks Publications
|year=1972
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}
*{{cite book
| last = Martins
| first = Helvecio
| authorlink = Helvicio Martins
| coauthors = [[Mark Grover]]
| title = The Autobiography of Elder Helvecio Martins
| publisher = Aspen Books
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite journal
| last = Phelps
| first = Willian W.
| authorlink = W. W. Phelps (Mormon)
| coauthors =
| title = Free People of Color
| journal = [[Evening and Morning Star]]
| volume = 2
| issue = 14
| pages = 109
| publisher = W. W. Phelps & Co.
|month=July | year=1833
| url = http://www.centerplace.org/history/ems/v2n14.htm
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = 2006-07-15 }}
*{{Cite web
| last=Young
| first=Brigham
| authorlink=Brigham Young
| title=Speech by Gov. Young in Joint Session of the Legeslature [sic]
| date=February 5, 1852
| location=Brigham Young Addresses, Ms d 1234, Box 48, folder 3, LDS Church Historical Department, Salt Lake City, Utah
| url=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery%2C_Blacks%2C_and_the_priesthood&oldid=253414
}}.

===Secondary sources===
*{{Cite journal
| last=Allen
| first=James B.
| author-link=James B. Allen (historian)
| title=Would-Be Saints: West Africa before the 1978 Priesthood Revelation
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=17
| year=1991
| pages=207–48
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,15582
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bringhurst
| first = Newel G.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People Within Mormonism (Contributions to the Study of Religion, No. 4)
| publisher = Greenwood Press
|year=1981
| location = Westport, Connecticut
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 0-313-22752-7 }}
*{{Cite journal
| last=Brignhurst
| first=Newel G.
| title=Charles B. Thompson and The Issues of Slavery and Race
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=8
| year=1981
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,12075
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bush
| first = Lester E. Jr
| authorlink =
| coauthors = [[Armand Mauss|Armand L. Mauss]], eds.
| title = Neither White Nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1984
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/neither.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 0-941214-22-2 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Embry
| first = Jessie
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Saints in a White Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/black.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 1-56085-044-2 }}
*{{cite journal
| author = Hawkins, Chester L.
| title = Report on Elijah Abel and his Priesthood
| version =
| publisher = Unpublished Manuscript, Special Collections, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}
* O'Donovan, Connell, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html "The Mormon Priesthood Ban and Elder Q. Walker Lewis"], ''[[John Whitmer Historical Association Journal]]'' (Independence, Missouri, 2006), pp. 47–99.
*''Black Mormons and the Priesthood Ban'' by Darrick T. Evenson (SKU 4935190)
*''Setting the Record Straight: Blacks and the Mormon Priesthood'' by [[Marcus Helvécio T. A. Martins]] (SKU 4995993)
*{{cite book
| title=Black and Mormon
| last=Smith
| first=Darron
| publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]
| year=2004
| isbn=0-252-02947-X
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0-8024-1234-3 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Curse of Cain|
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner}}
*{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|authorlink=Richard and Joan Ostling|year=1999|
publisher=[[Harper Collins]]
}}
*{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abanes|authorlink=Richard Abanes|
isbn=1-56858-219-6|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows}}
* Stewart, John J. ''Mormonism and the Negro'' Salt Lake City, Utah:1960 Bookmark [http://web.archive.org/web/20100409063442/http://www.celestial-orb.org/library/mormon_negro.html Complete text of the 1960 book ''Mormonism and the Negro'' by John J. Stewart, a defense of the former LDS policy of denying the Mormon Priesthood to people of African ancestry:]

===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{citation |publisher= LDS Church |url= http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/race-church |contribution= The Church and Race: All Are Alike Unto God |title= Newsroom: Official Statement |work= mormonnewsroom.org |accessdate = February 29, 2012}}
*{{citation |url= http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/racial-remarks-in-washington-post-article |contribution= Church Statement Regarding 'Washington Post' Article on Race and the Church |date= February 29, 2012 |title= Newsroom: Response |work= mormonnewsroom.org |publisher= LDS Church}}
*[http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETD/id/1130 A Peculiar Place for the Peculiar Institution: Slavery and Sovereignty in Early Territorial Utah], Ricks, Nathaniel R., Master Thesis, ''Brigham Young University'', 2007.
*[[Lester E. Bush, Jr.]] and [[Armand Mauss|Armand L. Mauss]], eds., [http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=438 ''Neither White nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church,''] [[Signature Books]], 1984
*{{citation|publisher = [[University of Chicago]] Divinity School|date = May 31, 2012|title = The Wrong Side of White|first = W. Paul|last = Reeve|url = http://divinity.uchicago.edu/martycenter/publications/sightings/archive_2012/0531.shtml}}

==External links==
*[http://www.blacklds.org/ blacklds.org] an independent (not owned or operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) site maintained by some black and some white Latter-day Saints.

{{Latter-day Saints|hide|show}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Black People And The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-Day Saints}}
[[Category:The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Africa]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
[[Category:Mormonism and race]]
[[Category:Brigham Young]]
[[Category:Criticism of Mormonism]]

{{Link GA|fr}}
[[fr:Situation des Noirs dans le mormonisme]]

Schwarze im Mormonentum

2012-08-29T01:44:36Z

Jfruh: actually, might as well link this here

Schwarze im Mormonentum

2012-08-29T01:41:44Z

Jfruh: tighten

{{About|black people and the LDS Church|black people in the early Mormon movement|Black people and early Mormonism}}
[[File:Gladys Knight.jpg|thumb|Since her baptism in 1997, [[Gladys Knight]] has sought to raise awareness of black people in the LDS church.]]
From 1852 to 1978, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) had a policy against ordaining [[black people|black]] men of African descent to the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]]. Under the policy, black men of African descent could not hold the priesthood and were prohibited from participating in the [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]]. The term "priesthood" in the LDS tradition does not refer to a full-time salaried clergy as it does in other Christian churches; in Mormonism, virtually all male head-of-household church members are part of the priesthood, and thus the pre-1978 policy essentially meant that black Mormon men were not full spiritual participants in church life. Though the church had an open membership policy for all races, relatively few black people who were aware of the racial policy joined the church,<ref name="WP">{{cite news |work=Washington Post |date=February 17, 2012 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/mindful-of-history-mormon-church-reaches-out-to-minorities/2012/02/13/gIQAZKJrKR_story.html|author=Hamil R. Harris |title=Mindful of history, Mormon Church reaches out to minorities |quote=a period of more than 120 years during which black men were essentially barred from the priesthood and few Americans of color were active in the faith.|accessdate=February 29, 2012}}</ref> despite reassurance that the ban would one day be lifted.

Historically, Mormon attitudes about race were generally close to the national average. Accordingly, before the [[Civil rights movement]], the LDS policy went largely unnoticed and unchallenged. Beginning in the 1960s, however, the church was criticized by civil rights advocates and religious groups, and in 1969 several church leaders voted to rescind the policy, but the vote was not unanimous so the policy stood. In 1978, church leaders led by [[Spencer W. Kimball]] declared they had received [[1978 Revelation on Priesthood|a revelation]] instructing them to reverse the racial restriction policy. The change seems to have been prompted at least in part by problems facing mixed race converts in Brazil. Today the church continues to oppose racial discrimination and [[racism]] in any form.<ref>[[Gordon B. Hinckley]], [http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html "The Need for Greater Kindness"], 2006-04-01.</ref>

In 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the LDS Church, accounting for about 5% of the total membership; most black members live in Africa, [[Brazil]] and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119. "A rough estimate would place the number of Church members with African roots at year-end 1997 at half a million, with about 100,000 each in Africa and the Caribbean, and another 300,000 in Brazil."</ref> Since 1997, the black membership has grown substantially, especially in [[West Africa]], where two temples have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa">[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/africagrowth.html The Church Continues to Grow in Africa]</ref>

==Before 1847==
{{Main|Black people and early Mormonism}}
[[File:Jane Elizabeth Manning James.jpg|thumb|[[Jane Elizabeth Manning James|Jane Manning]] was an early [[African American]] member who lived in [[Joseph Smith]]'s household in [[Nauvoo, Illinois|Nauvoo]] and later followed [[Brigham Young]] to the Utah Territory.]]

During the early years of the LDS movement, black people were admitted to the church, and there seems to have been no racial policy on denying priesthood, since at least two black men became priests, [[Elijah Abel]] and [[Walker Lewis]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Mauss|2003|p=213}}</ref> When the [[Mormons]] migrated to [[Missouri]] they encountered the pro-slavery sentiments of their neighbors. [[Joseph Smith]] upheld the laws regarding slaves and slaveholders, but remained [[abolitionist]] in his actions and doctrines.

Beginning in 1842, Smith made known his increasingly strong anti-slavery position. In 1842 he began studying some abolitionist literature, and stated, "it makes my blood boil within me to reflect upon the injustice, cruelty, and oppression of the rulers of the people. When will these things cease to be, and the Constitution and the laws again bear rule?"<ref>History of the Church, 4:544</ref> In 1844 Joseph Smith wrote his views as a candidate for President of the United States. The anti-slavery plank of his platform called for a gradual end to slavery by the year 1850. His plan called for the government to buy the freedom of slaves using money from the sale of public lands.

==Racial policy under Brigham Young==
After Smith's death in 1844, [[Brigham Young]] became president of the main body of the church, and led the [[Mormon Pioneers]] to what would become the [[Utah territory]]. Like the majority of Americans at the time, Young (who was also the territorial governor) held racist views about black people.<ref name=Mauss2003/> On January 16, 1852 Young made a pronouncement to the [[Utah Territorial Legislature]] stating that "any man having one drop of the seed of [Cain] ... in him cannot hold the priesthood and if no other Prophet ever spake it before I will say it now in the name of Jesus Christ I know it is true and others know it."<ref name = "Mauss-70"/>

A similar statement by Young was recorded on February 13, 1849. The statement — which refers to the [[Curse of Cain]] — was given in response to a question asking about the African's chances for redemption. Young responded, "The Lord had cursed Cain’s seed with blackness and prohibited them the Priesthood."<ref name = "Mauss-70">[http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=445 Bush & Mauss 1984: 70]</ref>

===William McCary===
{{Main|William McCary}}
Some researchers have suggested that the actions of [[William McCary]] in [[Winter Quarters, Nebraska]] led to Brigham Young's decision to adopt the priesthood ban in the LDS Church. McCary was a half-African American convert who, after his baptism and ordination to the priesthood, began to claim to be a [[prophet]] and the possessor of other supernatural gifts.<ref name = Murphy>Larry G. Murphy, [[J. Gordon Melton]], and Gary L. Ward (1993). ''Encyclopedia of African American Religions'' (New York: Garland Publishing) pp. 471–472.</ref> He was excommunicated for apostasy in March 1847 and expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst>Newell G. Bringhurst (1981). ''Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People within Mormonism'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press).</ref> After his excommunication, McCary began attracting Latter Day Saint followers and instituted [[plural marriage]] among his group, and he had himself sealed to several [[White people|white]] wives.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/>

McCary's behavior angered many of the Latter Day Saints in Winter Quarters. Researchers have stated that his marriages to his white wives "played an important role in pushing the Mormon leadership into an anti-Black position"<ref name = Murphy/> and may have prompted Young to institute the priesthood and temple ban on black people.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/><ref>Connell O’Donovan, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html#_ftn107 "The Mormon Priesthood Ban & Elder Q. Walker Lewis: 'An example for his more whiter brethren to follow'], ''John Whitmer Historical Association Journal'', 2006.</ref> A statement from Young to McCary in March 1847 suggested that race had nothing to do with priesthood eligibility<ref>"Its nothing to do with the blood for [from] one blood has God made all flesh, we have to repent [to] regain what we have lost — we have one of the best Elders, an African in Lowell [referring to Walker Lewis].": Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref> and the earliest known statement about the priesthood restriction from any Mormon leader (including the implication that skin color might be relevant) was made by Apostle [[Parley P. Pratt]] a month after McCary was expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst/> Speaking of McCary, Pratt stated that he "was a black man with the blood of Ham in him which lineage was cursed as regards the priesthood".<ref>General Minutes, April 25, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref>

===Young's personal views===
When asked "if the spirits of Negroes were neutral in Heaven," Young is reported in a journal entry to have responded, "No, they were not, there were no neutral [spirits] in Heaven at the time of the rebellion, all took sides …. All spirits are pure that came from the presence of God."<ref>Journal History, 25 December 1869, citing Wilford Woodruff's journal. See also http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html</ref> Prior to learning about Enoch Lewis's marriage to a woman of European descent (December 1847) Young considered Walker Lewis "one of the best Elders."<ref>Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah</ref>

On another occasion, Young said, "You see some classes of the human family that are black, uncouth, uncomely, disagreeable and low in their habits, wild, and seemingly deprived of nearly all the blessings of the intelligence that is generally bestowed upon mankind …. Cain slew his brother. Cain might have been killed, and that would have put a termination to that line of human beings. This was not to be, and the Lord put a mark upon him, which is the flat nose and black skin. Trace mankind down to after the flood, and then another curse is pronounced upon the same race—that they should be the ‘servant of servants’; and they will be, until that curse is removed; and the Abolitionists cannot help it, nor in the least alter that decree."<ref>''Journal of Discourses'', '''7''':290.</ref> On another occasion, Young taught that, "The Lamanites or Indians are just as much the children of our Father and God as we are. So also are the Africans."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=jXQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA272&lpg=PA272&dq=%22The+Lamanites+or+Indians+are+just+as+much+the+children+of+our+Father+and+God+as+we+are.+So+also+are+the+Africans%22&source=bl&ots=4Wt3HHsVmv&sig=HPh3A6FI9pw_4rGGiXcf-N8-efY&hl=en&sa=X&ei=MmpqT_mPA6ikiQKvm5S9BQ&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Lamanites%20or%20Indians%20are%20just%20as%20much%20the%20children%20of%20our%20Father%20and%20God%20as%20we%20are.%20So%20also%20are%20the%20Africans%22&f=false Journal of Discourses Volumes 11-12]</ref>

Brigham Young said this despite the LDS scripture verses that state people may be cursed unto the 3rd and 4th generation, but if any were to repent and make restitution they would be forgiven and the curse lifted.<ref>D&C 98: 45-47</ref> This is reiterated in [[Doctrine and Covenants]] 124:50&52 as well as Mosiah 13:13,14 and Deut 5:9,10. Brigham Young explained it this way:

:"And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to. The volition of the creature is free; this is a law of their existence, and the Lord cannot violate his own law; were he to do that, he would cease to be God. He has placed life and death before his children, and it is for them to choose. If they choose life, they receive the blessings of life; if they chose death, they must abide the penalty. This is a law which has always existed from all eternity, and will continue to exist throughout all the eternities to come. Every intelligent being must have the power of choice, and God brings forth the results of the acts of his creatures to promote his kingdom and subserve his purposes in the salvation and exaltation of his children. If the Lord could have his own way, he would have all the human family to enter into his church and kingdom, receive the Holy Priesthood and come into the celestial kingdom of our Father and God, by the power of their own choice."<ref>http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Journal_of_Discourses/Volume_11/Delegate_Hooper%E2%80%94Beneficial_Effects_of_Polygamy,_etc. Journal of Discourses Volume 11]</ref>

==Slavery==
===In LDS scripture===
{{See also|Christianity and slavery}}
It was a commonly held belief in the South that the Bible permitted slavery. For instance, the [[Old Testament]] has stories of slavery, and gives rules and regulations on how to treat slaves, while the [[New Testament]] tells slaves not to revolt against their masters. However, the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] condemns slavery, teaching "it is not right that any man should be in bondage one to another." ({{lds|D&C|dc|101|79}}) The [[Book of Mormon]] heralds righteous kings who did not allow slavery, ({{lds|Mosiah|mosiah|29|40}}) and righteous men who fought against slavery ({{lds|Alma|alma|48|11}}). The Book of Mormon also describes an ideal society that lived around AD 34-200, in which it teaches the people "had all things common among them; therefore there were not rich and poor, bond and free, but they were all made free, and partakers of the heavenly gift" ({{lds|4 Nephi|4_ne|4|3}}), and says that all people are children of God and "he denieth none that come unto him, black and white, bond and free, male and female" ({{lds|2 Nephi|2_ne|26:33}}). The Pearl of Great Price describes a similar society, in which "they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness; and there was no poor among them" ({{lds|Moses|moses|7|18}}). Mormons believed they too, were commanded by the Lord to "be one; and if ye are not one ye are not mine" ({{lds|D&C|dc|38|27}}). For a short time, Mormons lived in a society with no divisions under the [[United Order]].

===Statements from church leaders===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Young said, "If the Government of the United States, in Congress assembled, had the right to pass an anti-polygamy bill, they had also the right to pass a law that slaves should not be abused as they have been; they had also a right to make a law that negroes should be used like human beings, and not worse than dumb brutes. For their abuse of that race, the whites will be cursed, unless they repent."<ref name = jdcain>''Journal of Discourses'' '''10''':104–111.</ref>

In 1851, Apostle [[Orson Hyde]] said:

{{blockquote|We feel it to be our duty to define our position in relation to the subject of slavery. There are several in the Valley of the Salt Lake from the Southern States, who have their slaves with them. There is no law in Utah to authorize slavery, neither any to prohibit it. If the slave is disposed to leave his master, no power exists there, either legal or moral, that will prevent him. But if the slave chooses to remain with his master, none are allowed to interfere between the master and the slave. All the slaves that are there appear to be perfectly contented and satisfied.

When a man in the Southern states embraces our faith, the Church says to him, if your slaves wish to remain with you, and to go with you, put them not away; but if they choose to leave you, or are not satisfied to remain with you, it is for you to sell them, or let them go free, as your own conscience may direct you. The Church, on this point, assumes not the responsibility to direct. The laws of the land recognize slavery, we do not wish to oppose the laws of the country. If there is sin in selling a slave, let the individual who sells him bear that sin, and not the Church.<ref>''[[Millennial Star]]'', February 15, 1851. Quoted in [http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/quotes.html#smith43 BlackLDS.org]</ref>}}

===In Utah Territory===
[[File:Utah Territory, vector image - 2011.svg|thumb|Utah Territory (1850)]]
The Great [[Compromise of 1850]] allowed [[California]] into the Union as a [[slave and free states|free state]] while permitting Utah and [[New Mexico Territory|New Mexico]] territories the option of deciding the issue by "popular sovereignty". In 1852 the Utah Territorial Legislature officially sanctioned slavery in Utah Territory. At that time, Brigham Young was governor, and the [[1st Utah Territorial Legislature|Utah Territorial Legislature]] was dominated by church leaders.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Forgotten Kingdom: The Mormon Theocracy in the American West, 1847-1896
|last=Bigler
|first=David L.
|year=1998
|isbn=0-87062-282-X
|publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company}}</ref> The Utah slavery law stipulated that slaves would be freed if their masters had sexual relations with them; attempted to take them from the territory against their will; or neglected to feed, clothe, or provide shelter to them. In addition, the law stipulated that slaves must receive schooling. There are conflicting accounts of whether or not slaves could end their bondage by their own choice.<ref>http://utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_part2.htm#Slaves</ref><ref>[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 69]</ref>

Utah was the only western state or territory that had slaves in 1850,<ref>''Negro Slaves in Utah'' by Jack Beller, Utah Historical Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1929, pp. 124-126</ref> but slavery was never important economically in Utah, and there were fewer than 100 slaves in the territory.<ref name=Mauss2003/> In 1860, the census showed that 29 of the 59 black people in Utah Territory were slaves.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} When the [[American Civil War]] broke out in 1861, Utah sided with the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], and slavery ended in 1862 when the [[United States Congress]] abolished slavery in the Utah Territory.

==Racial restriction policy==
Under the racial restrictions that lasted from the presidency of Brigham Young until 1978, persons with any black African ancestry could not hold the priesthood in the LDS Church and could not participate in some temple ordinances, such as the Endowment and [[celestial marriage]]. Black people were permitted to be members of the church, and participate in other temple ordinances, such as [[baptism for the dead]].<ref>In her autobiography, [[Jane Elizabeth Manning James]] says she "had the privilege of going into the temple and being baptized for some of my dead." http://www.blacklds.org/manning Life History of Jane Elizabeth Manning James as transcribed by Elizabeth J.D. Round</ref>

The racial restriction policy was applied to black Africans, persons of black African descent, and any one with mixed race that included any black African ancestry. The policy was not applied to [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], [[Hispanic people|Hispanics]], [[Melanesians]] or [[Polynesian people|Polynesians]].

===Priesthood===
The priesthood restriction was particularly limiting, because the LDS Church has a [[Laity|lay]] priesthood and all worthy male members may receive the priesthood. Young men are generally admitted to the [[Aaronic priesthood (LDS Church)|Aaronic priesthood]] at age 12, and it is a significant [[rite of passage]]. Virtually all white adult male members of the church held the priesthood. Holders of the priesthood officiate at church meetings, perform blessings of healing, and manage church affairs. Excluding black people from the priesthood meant that they could not hold significant church [[Calling (LDS Church)|leadership roles]] or participate in certain spiritual events.

Don Harwell, a black LDS Church member, said, "I remember being in a Sacrament meeting, pre-1978, and the sacrament was being passed and there was special care taken by this person that not only did I not officiate, but I didn't touch the sacrament tray. They made sure that I could take the sacrament, but that I did not touch the tray and it was passed around me. That was awfully hard, considering that often those who were officiating were young men in their early teens, and they had that priesthood. I valued that priesthood, but it wasn't available."<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/archivenews/interview.html Rosemary Winters, "Black Mormons Struggle for Acceptance in the Church", ''[[Salt Lake Tribune]]'', November 4, 2004]</ref>

===Temple marriages===
Between 1844 and 1977, most black people were not permitted to participate in ordinances performed in the LDS Church temples, such as the endowment ritual and temple marriages and family sealings. Denying them the opportunity to participate in these ordinances meant that they could not enjoy the full privileges enjoyed by other Latter-day Saints.

Mormons believe that marriages that are sealed in a celestial marriage would bind the family together forever, whereas those that are not sealed were terminated upon death. President David McKay taught that black people "need not worry, as those who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."<ref>Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23</ref>

Once black people were allowed to have a celestial marriage, their ancestors would also be allowed to have a temple marriage. Brigham Young taught that "When the ordinances are carried out in the temples that will be erected, [children] will be sealed to their [parents], and those who have slept, clear up to Father [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]]. This will have to be done...until we shall form a perfect chain from Father Adam down to the closing up scene."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=88021b08f338c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=f378cb7a29c20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 Chapter 41: Temple Ordinances], Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Brigham Young, 299</ref>

===Entrance to the highest heaven===
A celestial marriage was not required to get into the [[celestial kingdom]], but was required to obtain a [[Degrees of glory|fullness of glory]] within the celestial kingdom.<ref>Church leader [[Bruce McConkie]] wrote "Baptism is the gate to the celestial kingdom; celestial marriage is the gate to an exaltation in the highest heaven within the celestial world."(Mormon Doctrine, 1966, p 118)</ref> The Doctrine and Covenants reads "In the celestial glory there are three heavens or degrees; And in order to obtain the highest, a man must enter into this order of the priesthood [meaning the new and everlasting covenant of marriage]; And if he does not, he cannot obtain it."({{lds|D&C|dc|131|1-3}}) The righteous who do not have a celestial marriage would still make it into heaven, and live eternally with God, but they would be "appointed [[angel]]s in heaven, which angels are ministering servants."({{lds|D&C|dc|132|16}})

Some interpreted this to mean black people would be treated as unmarried whites, being confined to only ever live in God's presence as a ministering servant. In 1954, Apostle Mark E. Petersen told BYU students: "If that Negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the celestial kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get a celestial resurrection."<ref>Address at Convention of Teachers of Religion, BYU, Utah, August 27, 1954.</ref> Apostle George F. Richards in a talk at General Conference similarly taught: "[t]he Negro is an unfortunate man. He has been given a black skin. But that is as nothing compared with that greater handicap that he is not permitted to receive the Priesthood and the ordinances of the temple, necessary to prepare men and women to enter into and enjoy a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom."<ref>Elder George F. Richards, ''Conference Report'', April 1939, p. 58.</ref>

Several leaders, including Joseph Smith,<ref>In regards to black people, Joseph Smith taught that "They have souls, and are subjects of salvation." ''[http://www.boap.org/LDS/Joseph-Smith/Teachings/T5.html Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith]'', selected by Joseph Fielding Smith, (Salt Lake City: ''[[Deseret Book Company]]'', 1976), 269. ISBN 0-87579-243-X</ref> Brigham Young,<ref>Brigham Young said "when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the Priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we are now entitled to." quoted by the First Presidency, August 17, 1949.</ref> [[Wilford Woodruff]],<ref>Wilford Woodruff said "The day will come when all that race will be redeemed and possess all the blessings which we now have" quoted by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949].</ref> [[George Albert Smith]],<ref>George Albert Smith reiterated what was said by both Brigham Young and Wilford Woodruff in a statement by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949]</ref> [[David O. McKay]],<ref>David McKay taught "Sometime in God's eternal plan, the Negro will be given the right to hold the Priesthood. In the meantime, those of that race who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."(Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23)</ref> [[Joseph Fielding Smith]],<ref>In reference to black people, Apostle Joseph Fielding Smith taught: "Every soul coming into this world came here with the promise that through obedience he would receive the blessings of salvation. No person was foreordained or appointed to sin or to perform a mission of evil. No person is ever predestined to salvation or damnation. Every person has free agency." (Joseph Fielding Smith Jr., ''Doctrines of Salvation'', Vol.1, p. 61)</ref> [[Harold B. Lee]],<ref>In 1972, Harold B. Lee said, "It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we're just waiting for that time." (Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.)</ref> and [[Spencer W. Kimball]],<ref>{{lds|Official Declaration|od|2}}</ref> taught that black people would eventually be able to receive a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom.

When the priesthood ban was discussed in 1978, apostle Bruce McConkie argued for its change using the [[Standard Works|Mormon scripture]] and the [[Articles of Faith]]. The Third Article states that "all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel."({{lds|Articles of Faith|a_of_f|1|3}}) From the Book of Mormon he quoted "And even unto the great and last day, when all people, and all kindreds, and all nations and tongues shall stand before God, to be judged of their works, whether they be good or whether they be evil— If they be good, to the resurrection of everlasting life; and if they be evil, to the resurrection of damnation. ({{lds|3 Nephi|3_ne|26|4-5}}) The [[Book of Abraham]] in the [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]] states that [[Abraham]]'s seed "shall all the families of the earth be blessed, even with the blessings of the Gospel, which are the blessings of salvation, even of life eternal." ({{lds|Abraham|abr|2|11}}) According to his son, Joseph F. McConkie, these scriptures played a great part in changing the policy.<ref>[http://www.meridianmagazine.com/articles/030606hallelujahprint.html Hallelujah! The 25th Anniversary of the Revelation of Priesthood]</ref>

===Other racial discrimination===
{{further2|[[Racism in the United States]]}}
Like most Americans at the time, many Mormons held racist views, and exclusion from priesthood wasn't the only discrimination practiced toward black people. In the late 1800s blacks living in Cache Valley were forcibly relocated to Ogden and Salt Lake City. In the 1950s, the San Francisco mission office took legal action to prevent black families from moving into the church neighborhood.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965">Glen W. Davidson, "Mormon Missionaries and the Race Question," The Christian Century, 29 Sept. 1965, pp. 1183-86.</ref> In 1965, a black man living in Salt Lake City, Daily Oliver, described how – as a boy – he was excluded from an LDS-led boy scout troop because they did not want blacks in their building.<ref>Utah Chronicle, May 28, 1965</ref> Mormon apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] describes a black family that tried to join the LDS church: "[some white church members] went to the Branch President, and said that either the [black] family must leave, or they would all leave. The Branch President ruled that [the black family] could not come to church meetings. It broke their hearts."<ref>"Race Problems As They Affect The Church", presentation by Mark E. Petersen to the Convention of Teachers of Religion", 27 August 1954, p. 16</ref> Until the 1970s hospitals with connections to the LDS church, including LDS Hospital, Primary Children's and Cottonwood Hospitals in Salt Lake City, McKay-Dee Hospital in Ogden, and Utah Valley Hospital in Provo, kept separate the blood donated by blacks and whites.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}

==1880–1950==
Under John Taylor's presidency (1880–1887) there was confusion regarding the origin of the racial policy. Abel was living, breathing proof that an African American was ordained to the Priesthood in the days of Joseph Smith. His son, Enoch Abel, had also been conferred the Priesthood.<ref>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/abel.html Elijah Abel | Blacklds.org]</ref> Joseph F. Smith said that Abel's Priesthood had been declared null and void by Joseph Smith himself, though this seems to conflict with Joseph F. Smith's teachings that the Priesthood could not be removed from any man without removing that man from the church.<ref name = "Mauss-76">[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 76-86]</ref> From this point on Joseph Smith was repeatedly referred to as the author of many statements, which had actually been made by Brigham Young, on the subject of Priesthood restriction.<ref name = "Mauss-76"/>

Several black men received the priesthood after the racial restriction policy was put in place, including Elijah Abel's son Enoch Abel, who was ordained an [[Elder (Latter Day Saints)|elder]] on Nov. 10, 1900. Enoch's son and Elijah Abel's grandson — who was also named Elijah Abel — received the Aaronic priesthood and was ordained to the office of [[priest (Latter Day Saints)|priest]] on July 5, 1934. The younger Elijah Abel also received the [[Melchizedek priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Melchizedek priesthood]] and was ordained to the office of elder on Sept. 29, 1935.<ref name = MTR>Newell G. Bringhurst, "The 'Missouri Thesis' Revisisted: Early Mormonism, Slavery, and the Status of Black People" in Newell G. Bringhurst and Darron T. Smith (eds.) (2006). ''Black and Mormon'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press) pp. 13–33 at p. 30.</ref> One commentator has pointed out that these incidents illustrate the "ambiguities, contradictions, and paradoxes" of the issue during the twentieth century.<ref name = MTR/>

{{Anchor|The "Negro Question" Declaration}}
In 1949, the First Presidency under the direction of George Albert Smith made a declaration which included the statement that the priesthood restriction was divinely commanded and not a matter of church policy.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
pages=101–102|
year=1999|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling}}</ref> It stated:

<blockquote>
The attitude of the Church with reference to the Negroes remains as it has always stood. It is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord, on which is founded the doctrine of the Church from the days of its organization, to the effect that Negroes may become members of the Church but that they are not entitled to the Priesthood at the present time. The prophets of the Lord have made several statements as to the operation of the principle. President Brigham Young said: "Why are so many of the inhabitants of the earth cursed with a skin of blackness? It comes in consequence of their fathers rejecting the power of the holy priesthood, and the law of God. They will go down to death. And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the holy priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to."
</blockquote>
The declaration goes on to state that the conditions in which people are born are affected by their conduct in a premortal existence, although the details of the principle are said not to be known. It then says that the privilege of mortal existence is so great that spirits were willing to come to earth even though they would not be able to possess the priesthood. It concludes by stating, "Under this principle there is no injustice whatsoever involved in this deprivation as to the holding of the priesthood by the Negroes."
<ref>First Presidency [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm Letter of the First Presidency] August 17, 1949</ref>

==1951–1977==
In 1954, Church President David O. McKay taught: "There is not now, and there never has been a doctrine in this church that the negroes are under a divine curse. There is no doctrine in the church of any kind pertaining to the negro. ''We believe'' that we have a scriptural precedent for withholding the priesthood from the negro. It is a practice, not a doctrine, and the practice someday will be changed. And that's all there is to it.’<ref>Sterling M. McMurrin affidavit, March 6, 1979. See ''[[David O. McKay and the Rise of Modern Mormonism]]'' by [[Greg Prince]] and [[William Robert Wright]]. Quoted by [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/howtoreach.html Genesis Group]</ref>

Mark E. Petersen (an [[Apostle (Mormonism)|apostle]]) addressed the issue of race and Priesthood in his address to a 1954 Convention of Teachers of Religion at the College Level at Brigham Young University. He said:

<blockquote> The reason that one would lose his blessings by marrying a negro is due to the restriction placed upon them. 'No person having the least particle of negro blood can hold the priesthood' (Brigham Young). It does not matter if they are one-sixth negro or one-hundred and sixth, the curse of no Priesthood is the same. If an individual who is entitled to the priesthood marries a negro, the Lord has decreed that only spirits who are not eligible for the priesthood will come to that marriage as children. To intermarry with a negro is to forfeit a 'nation of priesthood holders'....<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds_race.htm Racism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)]</ref></blockquote>

Petersen held that male descendants of a mixed-marriage could not become a Mormon priest, even if they had a lone ancestor with African blood dating back many generations.<ref name = "Mormon-racism">Peterson, Mark E. "[http://www.lds-mormon.com/racism.shtml Race Problems -- As They Affect The Church]", 27 August 1954</ref> However, he did hold out hope for African Americans, in that a black person baptized into the Mormon faith and who accepted Joseph Smith as a Prophet of God could attain the highest form of [[salvation]] known to Mormons, the [[Celestial Kingdom]].<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/> Petersen said, "If that negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the Celestial Kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get celestial glory."<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/>

In 1969 church apostle Harold B. Lee blocked the LDS Church from rescinding the racial restriction policy.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14">Quinn, Michael D. ''The Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power'' Salt Lake City: 1994 Signature Books Page 14</ref> Church leaders voted to rescind the policy at a meeting in 1969. Lee was absent from the meeting due to travels. When Lee returned he called for a re-vote, arguing that the policy could not be changed without a revelation.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14"/>

Harold B. Lee, president of the church, stated in 1972: "For those who don't believe in modern revelation there is no adequate explanation. Those who do understand revelation stand by and wait until the Lord speaks...It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we’re just waiting for that time."<ref>Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.</ref>

===Civil Rights movement===
In 1958, Joseph Fielding Smith published '''Answers to Gospel Questions''' which stated "No church or other organization is more insistent than The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, that the negroes should receive all the rights and privileges that can possibly be given to any other in the true sense of equality as declared in the Declaration of Independence." He continues to say they should not be barred from any type of employment or education, and should be free "to make their lives as happy as it is possible without interference from white men, labor unions or from any other source."<ref name=history>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html LDS Black History Timeline]</ref> In the 1963 General Conference, Hugh B. Brown stated: "it is a moral evil for any person or group of persons to deny any human being the rights to gainful employment, to full educational opportunity, and to every privilege of citizenship". He continued: "We call upon all men everywhere, both within and outside the church, to commit themselves to the establishment of full civil equality for all of God's children. Anything less than this defeats our high ideal of the brotherhood of man."<ref name=history />

The NAACP attempted to get the LDS church to support civil rights legislation and to reverse its discriminating practices during the [[Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights era]] in the 1960s. In 1963 [[NAACP]] leadership tried to arrange meetings with church leadership, but the church refused to meet with them.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1965, the church leadership did meet with the NAACP, and agreed to publish an editorial in church-owned newspaper [[The Deseret News]], which would support civil rights legislation pending in the Utah legislature. The church failed to follow-through on the commitment, and church Apostle [[N. Eldon Tanner]] explained "We have decided to remain silent".<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In March 1965, the NAACP led an anti-discrimination march in Salt Lake City, protesting church policies.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1966, the NAACP issued a statement criticizing the church, saying the church "has maintained a rigid and continuous segregation stand" and that "the church has made "no effort to conteract the widespread discriminatory practices in education, in housing, in employment, and other areas of life"<ref>[[The Deseret News]], May 3, 1966</ref>

During the 1960s and 1970s, Mormons in the West were close to the national averages in racial attitudes.<ref name=Mauss2003>[[Armand Mauss|Mauss, Armand]] [http://www.fairlds.org/FAIR_Conferences/2003_LDS_Church_and_the_Race_Issue.html The LDS Church and the Race Issue: A Study in Misplaced Apologetics] 2003</ref> In 1966, [[Armand Mauss]] surveyed Mormons on racial attitudes and discriminatory practices. He found that "Mormons resembled the rather "moderate" denominations (such as Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopalian), rather than the "fundamentalists" or the sects."<ref name=Mauss1966>Armand L. Mauss, "Mormonism and Secular Attitudes toward Negroes", Pacific Sociological Review 9 (Fall 1966)</ref> Negative racial attitudes within Mormonism varied inversely with education, occupation, community size of origin, and youth, reflecting the national trend. Urban Mormons with a more orthodox view of Mormonism tended to be more tolerant.<ref name=Mauss1966 />

African-American athletes protested against LDS policies by boycotting several sporting events with [[Brigham Young University]]. In 1968, after the assassination of [[Martin Luther King]], black members of the [[UTEP]] track team approached their coach and expressed their desire not to compete against BYU in an upcoming meet. When the coach disregarded the athletes' complaint, the athletes boycotted the meet.<ref name="ADR"/> In 1969, 14 members of the [[University of Wyoming]] football team were removed from the team for planning to protest the policies of the LDS church.<ref name="ADR">{{cite journal|last=Fried|first=Gil|coauthors=Michael Hiller|year=1997|title=ADR in youth and intercollegiate athletics|journal=Brigham Young University Law Review|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_199701/ai_n8735454/pg_1}}, p. 1, p. 10</ref> In November 1969, Stanford University President Kenneth Pitzer suspended athletic relations with BYU.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=EfYLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=i1cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3753,2673063&dq=kenneth-pitzer+brigham-young |work=Evening Independent |date=December 11, 1969 |author=James J. Kilpatrick |title=A Sturdy Discipline Serves Mormons Well}}</ref>

Since the early part of the 20th century, each LDS ward has organized its own [[Boy Scout]]ing troop. Some LDS troops permitted black youths to join, but an LDS policy required that the troop leader to be the deacon quorum president (a priesthood office held by 12 and 13 year old non-black church members), thus excluding black children from that role. The NAACP filed a federal lawsuit in 1974 challenging this practice, and soon thereafter the LDS church reversed its policy.<ref>http://www.bsa-discrimination.org/html/lds-top.html Exclusionary Practices & Policies of the Boy Scouts of America</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage |first=Armand L. |last=Mauss |page=218 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-252-02803-1}}</ref>

Spencer W. Kimball, LDS apostle and future president of the church taught against racism. In 1972, he said: "Intolerance by Church members is despicable. A special problem exists with respect to black people because they may not now receive the priesthood. Some members of the Church would justify their own un-Christian discrimination against black people because of that rule with respect to the priesthood, but while this restriction has been imposed by the Lord, it is not for us to add burdens upon the shoulders of our black brethren. They who have received Christ in faith through authoritative baptism are heirs to the celestial kingdom along with men of all other races. And those who remain faithful to the end may expect that God may finally grant them all blessings they have merited through their righteousness. Such matters are in the Lord's hands. It is for us to extend our love to all."<ref>The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball, p.237, emphasis in original</ref>

There were some LDS church members who protested against the church's discriminatory practices. Two LDS church members, Douglas A. Wallace and Byron Merchant, were excommunicated by the LDS church (1976 and 1977 respectively) after criticizing the church's discrimatory practices.<ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 13, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', October 4, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 3, 1978</ref><ref>''Dallas Morning News'', October 20, 1977</ref> LDS church member Grant Syphers objected to the church's racial policies and, as a consequence, his stake president refused to give Sypher permission to enter the temple. The president said, "Anyone who could not accept the Church's stand on Negroes ... could not go to the temple".<ref>Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Winter 1967, p. 6</ref>

==Racial policy ends in 1978==
{{Main|1978 Revelation on Priesthood}}
LDS church president Spencer W. Kimball (president 1973-1985) took [[General Conference (LDS Church)|general conference]] on the road, holding area and regional conferences all over the world. He also announced many new temples to be built both in the United States and abroad, including one [[São Paulo Brazil Temple|temple in São Paulo, Brazil]]. The problem of determining priesthood eligibility in Brazil was thought to be nearly impossible due to the mixing of the races in that country. When the temple was announced, church leaders realized the difficulty of restricting persons with African descent from attending the temple in Brazil.<ref>[[Mark L. Grover]], "The Mormon Priesthood Revelation and the São Paulo Brazil Temple", ''[[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]]'' '''23''':39–53 (Spring 1990).</ref>

Finally, on June 8, 1978, the [[First Presidency]] released to the press an official declaration, now a part of the standard works of the church, which contained the following statement:

<blockquote>He has heard our prayers, and ''by revelation'' has confirmed that the long-promised day has come when every faithful, worthy man in the church may receive the Holy Priesthood, with power to exercise its divine authority, and enjoy with his loved ones every blessing that follows there from, including the blessings of the temple. Accordingly, all worthy male members of the church may be ordained to the priesthood without regard for race or color. Priesthood leaders are instructed to follow the policy of carefully interviewing all candidates for ordination to either the Aaronic or the Melchizedek Priesthood to insure that they meet the established standards for worthiness.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/od/2 Official Declaration 2], emphasis added.</ref></blockquote>

According to first-person accounts, after much discussion among the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles on this matter, they engaged the Lord in prayer. According to the writing of one of those present, "It was during this prayer that the revelation came. The Spirit of the Lord rested upon us all; we felt something akin to what happened on the day of [[Pentecost]] and at the [[Kirtland Temple]]. From the midst of eternity, the voice of God, conveyed by the power of the Spirit, spoke to his prophet. The message was that the time had now come to offer the fullness of the everlasting gospel, including celestial marriage, and the priesthood, and the blessings of the temple, to all men, without reference to race or color, solely on the basis of personal worthiness. And we all heard the same voice, received the same message, and became personal witnesses that the word received was the mind and will and voice of the Lord."<ref>''Priesthood'', pp. 127-128, Deseret Book Co., 1981.</ref> Immediately after the receipt of this new revelation, an official announcement of the revelation was prepared, and sent out to all of the various leaders of the Church. It was then read to, approved by and accepted as the word and will of the Lord, by a General Conference of the Church in October 1978. Succeeding editions of the Doctrine and Covenants were printed with this announcement canonized and entitled "[[Official Declaration—2]]".

[[Gordon B. Hinckley]] (a participant in the meetings to reverse the ban), in a churchwide fireside said, "Not one of us who was present on that occasion was ever quite the same after that. Nor has the Church been quite the same. All of us knew that the time had come for a change and that the decision had come from the heavens. The answer was clear. There was perfect unity among us in our experience and in our understanding."<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=6bb6d7630a27b010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____ Priesthood Restoration], an edited version of a talk given 15 May 1988 at the Churchwide fireside commemorating the 159th anniversary of the restoration of the priesthood.</ref>

Later in 1978, McConkie said:<ref>Bruce R. McConkie, 1978 (All Are Alike Unto God, A SYMPOSIUM ON THE BOOK OF MORMON, The Second Annual Church Educational System Religious Educator's Symposium, August 17–19, 1978</ref>
<blockquote>There are statements in our literature by the early brethren which we have interpreted to mean that the Negroes would not receive the priesthood in mortality. I have said the same things, and people write me letters and say, "You said such and such, and how is it now that we do such and such?" And all I can say to that is that it is time disbelieving people repented and got in line and believed in a living, modern prophet. Forget everything that I have said, or what President Brigham Young or President George Q. Cannon or whomsoever has said in days past that is contrary to the present revelation. We spoke with a limited understanding and without the light and knowledge that now has come into the world.... We get our truth and our light line upon line and precept upon precept. We have now had added a new flood of intelligence and light on this particular subject, and it erases all the darkness and all the views and all the thoughts of the past. They don’t matter any more.... It doesn’t make a particle of difference what anybody ever said about the Negro matter before the first day of June of this year.</blockquote>

Critics of the LDS church state that the church's 1978 reversal of the racial restriction policy was not divinely inspired as the church claimed, but simply a matter of political convenience.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0-8024-1234-3 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979|
pages=319–328
}}</ref> Critics state that this reversal of policy occurred as the LDS church began to expand outside the United States into countries such as Brazil that have ethnically mixed populations, and that the policy reversal was announced just a few months before the church opened its new temple in [[São Paulo]], Brazil.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|year=1999|
page=95|
publisher=Harper Collins
}}
</ref>

Critics of the LDS church state that the 1978 revelation undermines the church's claim that its presidents are prophets of God and that their proclamations are God's word, because Brigham Young stated in 1852 that blacks would not receive the priesthood "until the last of the posterity of Able [sic] had received the priesthood, until the redemtion of the earth."<ref>{{cite web|
url=http://www.mrm.org/topics/miscellaneous/black-skin-and-seed-cain|
title=Mormon Research Ministry}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abane|
isbn=1-56858-219-6|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows|
pages=355–374}}
</ref> Mormon apologists reply that revelation is a continuing process and that newer revelations supersede older revelations {{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}.

==Interracial marriages==
===Pre-1978===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Church president Brigham Young said "If the White man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain (those with dark skin), the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so."<ref name = jdcain />

LDS Apostle Mark E. Petersen said in 1954: "I think I have read enough to give you an idea of what the Negro is after. He is not just seeking the opportunity of sitting down in a cafe where white people eat. He isn't just trying to ride on the same streetcar or the same Pullman car with white people. It isn't that he just desires to go to the same theater as the white people. From this, and other interviews I have read, it appears that the Negro seeks absorption with the white race. He will not be satisfied until he achieves it by intermarriage. That is his objective and we must face it."<ref>Race Problems - As They Affect The Church, Convention of Teachers of Religion on the College Level, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, August 27, 1954</ref>

In a 1965 address to BYU students, President Kimball told BYU students: "Now, the brethren feel that it is not the wisest thing to cross racial lines in dating and marrying. There is no condemnation. We have had some of our fine young people who have crossed the lines. We hope they will be very happy, but experience of the brethren through a hundred years has proved to us that marriage is a very difficult thing under any circumstances and the difficulty increases in interrace marriages."<ref name=ChurchNews1978>"Interracial Marriage Discouraged", Church News, June 17, 1978, p. 2.</ref>

===Post-1978===
The official newspaper of the LDS Church<ref>{{Harv|Roberts|1983|p=7}}</ref> – the [[Church News]] – printed an article in entitled "Interracial marriage discouraged". This article was printed on June 17, 1978, in the same issue that announced the policy reversal.

There was no written church policy on interracial marriages, which had been permitted since before the 1978 reversal.<ref name=ChurchNews1978 /> In 1978, church spokesman Don LeFevre said "So there is no ban on interracial marriage. If a black partner contemplating marriage is worthy of going to the Temple, nobody's going to stop him... if he's ready to go to the Temple, obviously he may go with the blessings of the church."<ref>Don LeFevre, Salt Lake Tribune, 14 June 1978</ref>

On the LDS Church website, Dr. Robert Millet writes: "[T]he Church Handbook of Instructions... is the guide for all Church leaders on doctrine and practice. There is, in fact, no mention whatsoever in this handbook concerning interracial marriages. In addition, having served as a Church leader for almost 30 years, I can also certify that I have never received official verbal instructions condemning marriages between black and white members."<ref>Robert L. Millet, [http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/church-response-to-jon-krakauers-under-the-banner-of-heaven "Church Response to Jon Krakauer's Under the Banner of Heaven"], 27 June 2003</ref>

A church lesson manual for adolescent boys that is in use in 2011 contains a 1976 quote from Spencer W. Kimball that says "We recommend that people marry those who are of the same racial background generally, and of somewhat the same economic and social and educational background (some of those are not an absolute necessity, but preferred), and above all, the same religious background, without question".<ref>
*Embry, Jessie L., ''Black Saints in a white church: contemporary African American Mormons'', Signature Books, 1994, p 169.
*The LDS document is online at: [http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=ba805f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=1f4fa41f6cc20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 “Lesson 31: Choosing an Eternal Companion,”] ''Aaronic Priesthood Manual 3'', p. 127.</ref>

==1985 to present==
[[Image:MormonAdFamilyPhoto.jpg|right|thumb|[[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church]]Since the Revelation on the Priesthood in 1978, the church has made no distinctions in policy for black people, but it remains an issue for many black members of the church. Alvin Jackson, a black Bishop, puts his focus on "moving forward rather than looking back."<ref>Page Johnson [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/jackson.html Alvin B. Jackson, Jr—The Bishop is Always In] Meridian Magazine</ref> In an interview with ''Mormon Century'', Jason Smith expresses his viewpoint that the membership of the church was not ready for black people to have the Priesthood at the time of the Restoration, because of prejudice and slavery. He draws analogies to the Bible where only the Israelites have the gospel.<ref>Ken Kuykendall, [http://www.mormoncentury.org/www/ContentPages/HearContent.aspx?PID=1000022 Past racial issues and the Church today]{{Dead link|date=October 2010}} Mormon Century</ref> Officially the church also uses Biblical history to justify the prior ban:

::Ever since biblical times, the Lord has designated through His prophets who could receive the priesthood and other blessings of the gospel. Among the tribes of Israel, for example, only men of the tribe of Levi were given the priesthood and allowed to officiate in certain ordinances. Likewise, during the Savior's earthly ministry, gospel blessings were restricted to the Jews. Only after a revelation to the Apostle Peter were the gospel and priesthood extended to others (see Acts 10:1–33; 14:23; 15:6–8).<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=bbd508f54922d010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=36f2ce9566a43110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ LDS Gospel Topics: Priesthood Ordination before 1978]</ref>

The church opposes racism among its membership. It is currently working to reach out to black people, and has several predominantly black wards inside the United States.<ref>Wilcox, Lauren, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/09/AR2007050901770.html The Saints Go Marching In] Washington Post May 13, 2007</ref> They teach that all are welcome to come unto Christ, and speak against those who harbor ill feelings towards another race. Gordon B. Hinckley, the President of the LDS church, stated:
{{quote|I remind you that no man who makes disparaging remarks concerning those of another race can consider himself a true disciple of Christ. Nor can he consider himself to be in harmony with the teachings of the Church of Christ. Let us all recognize that each of us is a son or daughter of our Father in Heaven, who loves all of His children."<ref name="Hinckley 2006">[http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html The Need for Greater Kindness]</ref>}}

In the July 1992 edition of the [[New Era (magazine)|New Era]], the church published a [[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church. The photo contained several youth of a variety of ethic backgrounds with the words "Family Photo" in large print. Underneath the picture are the words "God created the races—but not racism. We are all children of the same Father. Violence and hatred have no place in His family. (See Acts 10:34.)"<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=024644f8f206c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=445405e063feb010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1
|publisher=[[New Era (magazine)|New Era]]
|title=Family Photo
|month=July | year=1992
|last=Diamond
|first=Craig}}</ref>

===Instances of discrimination after 1978 revelation===
LDS historian Wayne J. Embry interviewed several black LDS church members in 1987 and reported "All of the interviewees reported incidents of aloofness on the part of white members, a reluctance or a refusal to shake hands with them or sit by them, and racist comments made to them." Embry further reported that one black church member "was amazingly persistent in attending Mormon services for three years when, by her report, no one would speak to her." Embry reports that "she [the same black church member] had to write directly to the president of the LDS Church to find out how to be baptized" because none of her fellow church members would tell her.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Black and Mormon|
last=Smith|first=Darron|
publisher=University of Illinois Press|
year=2004|
isbn=0-252-02947-X|
pages=75–77}}</ref>

Black LDS church member Darron Smith wrote in 2003: "Even though the priesthood ban was repealed in 1978, the discourse that constructs what blackness means is still very much intact today. Under the direction of President Spencer W. Kimball, the First Presidency and the Twelve removed the policy that denied black people the priesthood but did very little to disrupt the multiple discourses that had fostered the policy in the first place. Hence there are Church members today who continue to summon and teach at every level of Church education the racial discourse that black people are descendants of Cain, that they merited lesser earthly privilege because they were "fence-sitters" in the War in Heaven, and that, science and climatic factors aside, there is a link between skin color and righteousness" <ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Smith
| first = Darron
| title = The Persistence of Racialized Discourse in Mormonism|
journal = Sunstone
|date=March 2003}}
</ref>

Journalist and church member [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]] in 2007 wrote "Today, many black Mormons report subtle differences in the way they are treated, as if they are not full members but a separate group. A few even have been called 'the n-word' at church and in the hallowed halls of the temple. They look in vain at photos of Mormon general authorities, hoping to see their own faces reflected there.<ref>"New film and revived group help many feel at home in their church" by [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]], The Salt Lake Tribune, July 6, 2007</ref>

White church member [[Eugene England]], a professor at Brigham Young University, wrote in 1998: <blockquote>
This is a good time to remind ourselves that most Mormons are still in denial about the ban, unwilling to talk in Church settings about it, and that some Mormons still believe that Blacks were cursed by descent from Cain through Ham. Even more believe that Blacks, as well as other non-white people, come color-coded into the world, their lineage and even their class a direct indication of failures in a previous life.... I check occasionally in classes at BYU and find that still, twenty years after the revelation, a majority of bright, well-educated Mormon students say they believe that Blacks are descendants of Cain and Ham and thereby cursed and that skin color is an indication of righteousness in the pre-mortal life. They tell me these ideas came from their parents or Seminary and Sunday School teachers, and they have never questioned them. They seem largely untroubled by the implicit contradiction to basic gospel teachings.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = England
| first = Eugene | journal = Sunstone|
pages=54–58|date=June 1998
| title = }}
</ref> </blockquote>

In an interview for the [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] documentary [[The Mormons (documentary)|The Mormons]], [[Jeffrey R. Holland]], a member of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], specifically denounced the perpetuation of [[Mormon folklore|folklore]] suggesting that race was in any way an indication of how faithful a person had been in the [[pre-existence]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/interviews/holland.html trnascript of interview with Holland for the PBS documentary]</ref>

===Church asked to repudiate past racist declarations===
In 1995, black church member A. David Jackson asked church leaders to issue a declaration repudiating past doctrines that treated black people as inferior. In particular, Jackson asked the church to disavow the 1949 "Negro Question" declaration from the church Presidency which stated "The attitude of the church with reference to negroes ... is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord ... to the effect that negroes ... are not entitled to the priesthood...".<ref name = "Ostling-103">{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0-06-066371-5|
pages=103–104|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

The church leadership did not issue a repudiation, and so in 1997 Jackson, aided by other church members including Armand Mauss, sent a second request to church leaders, which stated that white Mormons felt that the 1978 revelation resolved everything, but that [[black Mormons]] react differently when they learn the details. He said that many black Mormons become discouraged and leave the church or become inactive. "When they find out about this, they exit... You end up with the passive African Americans in the church".<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0-06-066371-5|
pages=105|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

Other black church members think giving an apology would be a "detriment" to church work and a catalyst to further racial misunderstanding. African-American church member Bryan E. Powell says "There is no pleasure in old news, and this news is old." Gladys Newkirk agrees, stating "I've never experienced any problems in this church. I don't need an apology. . . . We're the result of an apology."<ref>{{cite news
|first=Bill
|last=Broadway
|publisher=[[Washington Post]]
|date=1998-05-30
|url=http://www.ldshistory.net/1990/mhablack.htm
|title=Black Mormons Resist Apology Talk}}</ref> The large majority of black Mormons say they are willing to look beyond the racist teachings and cleave to the church in part because of its powerful, detailed teachings on life after death.<ref name=Ramirez2005>{{cite news
|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-blackmormons,1,708682.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true
|title=Mormon past steeped in racism: Some black members want church to denounce racist doctrines
|first=Margaret
|last=Ramirez
|date=2005-07-26
|publisher=[[Chicago Tribune]]}}</ref>

Hinckley, then church president, told the Los Angeles Times "The 1978 declaration speaks for itself ... I don't see anything further that we need to do". Church leadership did not issue a repudiation.<ref name = "Ostling-103"/> Church apostle [[Dallin H. Oaks]] said: "It's not the pattern of the Lord to give reasons. We can put reasons to commandments. When we do we're on our own. Some people put reasons to [the ban] and they turned out to be spectacularly wrong. There is a lesson in that.... The lesson I've drawn from that, I decided a long time ago that I had faith in the command and I had no faith in the reasons that had been suggested for it... I'm referring to reasons given by general authorities and reasons elaborated upon [those reasons] by others. The whole set of reasons seemed to me to be unnecessary risk taking... Let's [not] make the mistake that's been made in the past, here and in other areas, trying to put reasons to revelation. The reasons turn out to be man-made to a great extent. The revelations are what we sustain as the will of the Lord and that's where safety lies."<ref>Dallin H. Oaks, Interview with Associated Press, in ''[[Daily Herald (Utah)|Daily Herald]]'', Provo, Utah, 5 June 1988</ref>

===Humanitarian aid in Africa===
The church has been involved in several humanitarian aid projects in Africa. On January 27, 1985, members across the world joined together in a fast for "the victims of famine and other causes resulting in hunger and privation among people of Africa." They also donated the money that would have been used for food during the fast to help those victims, regardless of church membership.<ref>Kimball, Spencer, Romney, Marion, Hinckley, Gordon, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,4383 ''Letters of the First Presidency''] January 11, 1985</ref> Together with other organizations such as UNICEF and the American Red Cross, the church is working towards eradicating measles. Since 1999, there has been a 60 percent drop in deaths from measles in Africa.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=9ca9775baf050110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Church Works to Eradicate Measles in Africa]</ref> Due to their efforts, the [[American Red Cross]] bestowed the First Presidency with the organization's highest financial support honor, the American Red Cross Circle of Humanitarians award.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=df346287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD American Red Cross Recognizes Church for Support of Measles Initiative in Africa]</ref> The church has also been involved in humanitarian aid in Africa by sending food boxes,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=894b6287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Food Boxes Rushed to Ease Starvation in Africa]</ref> digging wells to provide clean water,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=4b12b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Clean Water Projects]</ref> distributing wheelchairs,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=66f4b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Wheelchair Distribution]</ref> fighting AIDS,{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} providing Neonatal Resuscitation Training,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a6f37a520251110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD church Works to Save Infants Through Neonatal Resuscitation Training]</ref> and setting up employment resources service centers.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a658bd9eeb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Employment Resource Service Centers]</ref>

==Black membership==
{{main|Black Mormons}}
The church has never kept official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. Black people have been members of Mormon congregations since its foundation, but before 1978 its black membership was small. It has since grown, and in 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the church (about 5% of the total membership), mostly in Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119.</ref> Black membership has continued to grow substantially, especially in West Africa, where two temples have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa"/>

==See also==
{{div col|cols=2}}
*[[Act in Relation to Service]]
*[[Black people and early Mormonism]]
*[[Black people in Mormon doctrine]]
*[[Randy L. Bott]]
*[[Joseph Freeman (Mormon)]]
*[[Genesis Group]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Primary sources===
*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Mary Lucille Bankhead
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Gilmore H. Chapel
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1986
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Cleolivia Lyons
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1988
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Cherry
| first = Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| coauthors =
| title = It's You and Me, Lord!
| publisher = Trilogy Arts Publications
|year=1970
| location = Provo, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Martin
| first = Wynetta Willis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Mormon Tells Her Story
| publisher = Hawks Publications
|year=1972
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}
*{{cite book
| last = Martins
| first = Helvecio
| authorlink = Helvicio Martins
| coauthors = [[Mark Grover]]
| title = The Autobiography of Elder Helvecio Martins
| publisher = Aspen Books
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite journal
| last = Phelps
| first = Willian W.
| authorlink = W. W. Phelps (Mormon)
| coauthors =
| title = Free People of Color
| journal = [[Evening and Morning Star]]
| volume = 2
| issue = 14
| pages = 109
| publisher = W. W. Phelps & Co.
|month=July | year=1833
| url = http://www.centerplace.org/history/ems/v2n14.htm
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = 2006-07-15 }}
*{{Cite web
| last=Young
| first=Brigham
| authorlink=Brigham Young
| title=Speech by Gov. Young in Joint Session of the Legeslature [sic]
| date=February 5, 1852
| location=Brigham Young Addresses, Ms d 1234, Box 48, folder 3, LDS Church Historical Department, Salt Lake City, Utah
| url=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery%2C_Blacks%2C_and_the_priesthood&oldid=253414
}}.

===Secondary sources===
*{{Cite journal
| last=Allen
| first=James B.
| author-link=James B. Allen (historian)
| title=Would-Be Saints: West Africa before the 1978 Priesthood Revelation
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=17
| year=1991
| pages=207–48
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,15582
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bringhurst
| first = Newel G.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People Within Mormonism (Contributions to the Study of Religion, No. 4)
| publisher = Greenwood Press
|year=1981
| location = Westport, Connecticut
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 0-313-22752-7 }}
*{{Cite journal
| last=Brignhurst
| first=Newel G.
| title=Charles B. Thompson and The Issues of Slavery and Race
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=8
| year=1981
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,12075
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bush
| first = Lester E. Jr
| authorlink =
| coauthors = [[Armand Mauss|Armand L. Mauss]], eds.
| title = Neither White Nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1984
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/neither.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 0-941214-22-2 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Embry
| first = Jessie
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Saints in a White Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/black.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 1-56085-044-2 }}
*{{cite journal
| author = Hawkins, Chester L.
| title = Report on Elijah Abel and his Priesthood
| version =
| publisher = Unpublished Manuscript, Special Collections, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}
* O'Donovan, Connell, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html "The Mormon Priesthood Ban and Elder Q. Walker Lewis"], ''[[John Whitmer Historical Association Journal]]'' (Independence, Missouri, 2006), pp. 47–99.
*''Black Mormons and the Priesthood Ban'' by Darrick T. Evenson (SKU 4935190)
*''Setting the Record Straight: Blacks and the Mormon Priesthood'' by [[Marcus Helvécio T. A. Martins]] (SKU 4995993)
*{{cite book
| title=Black and Mormon
| last=Smith
| first=Darron
| publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]
| year=2004
| isbn=0-252-02947-X
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0-8024-1234-3 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Curse of Cain|
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner}}
*{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|authorlink=Richard and Joan Ostling|year=1999|
publisher=[[Harper Collins]]
}}
*{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abanes|authorlink=Richard Abanes|
isbn=1-56858-219-6|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows}}
* Stewart, John J. ''Mormonism and the Negro'' Salt Lake City, Utah:1960 Bookmark [http://web.archive.org/web/20100409063442/http://www.celestial-orb.org/library/mormon_negro.html Complete text of the 1960 book ''Mormonism and the Negro'' by John J. Stewart, a defense of the former LDS policy of denying the Mormon Priesthood to people of African ancestry:]

===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{citation |publisher= LDS Church |url= http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/race-church |contribution= The Church and Race: All Are Alike Unto God |title= Newsroom: Official Statement |work= mormonnewsroom.org |accessdate = February 29, 2012}}
*{{citation |url= http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/racial-remarks-in-washington-post-article |contribution= Church Statement Regarding 'Washington Post' Article on Race and the Church |date= February 29, 2012 |title= Newsroom: Response |work= mormonnewsroom.org |publisher= LDS Church}}
*[http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETD/id/1130 A Peculiar Place for the Peculiar Institution: Slavery and Sovereignty in Early Territorial Utah], Ricks, Nathaniel R., Master Thesis, ''Brigham Young University'', 2007.
*[[Lester E. Bush, Jr.]] and [[Armand Mauss|Armand L. Mauss]], eds., [http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=438 ''Neither White nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church,''] [[Signature Books]], 1984
*{{citation|publisher = [[University of Chicago]] Divinity School|date = May 31, 2012|title = The Wrong Side of White|first = W. Paul|last = Reeve|url = http://divinity.uchicago.edu/martycenter/publications/sightings/archive_2012/0531.shtml}}

==External links==
*[http://www.blacklds.org/ blacklds.org] an independent (not owned or operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) site maintained by some black and some white Latter-day Saints.

{{Latter-day Saints|hide|show}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Black People And The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-Day Saints}}
[[Category:The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Africa]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
[[Category:Mormonism and race]]
[[Category:Brigham Young]]
[[Category:Criticism of Mormonism]]

{{Link GA|fr}}
[[fr:Situation des Noirs dans le mormonisme]]

Schwarze im Mormonentum

2012-08-29T01:37:48Z

Jfruh: add paragraph back in, w/explanation

{{About|black people and the LDS Church|black people in the early Mormon movement|Black people and early Mormonism}}
[[File:Gladys Knight.jpg|thumb|Since her baptism in 1997, [[Gladys Knight]] has sought to raise awareness of black people in the LDS church.]]
From 1852 to 1978, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) had a policy against ordaining [[black people|black]] men of African descent to the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]]. Under the policy, black men of African descent could not hold the priesthood and were prohibited from participating in the [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]]. Whereas other churches usually have full-time salaried clergy of whom individual members are often the chief minister to several families, in the LDS Church virtually all male head-of-household church members are part of the priesthood; thus, the pre-1978 policy essentially meant that black Mormon men were not full spiritual participants in church life. Though the church had an open membership policy for all races, relatively few black people who were aware of the racial policy joined the church,<ref name="WP">{{cite news |work=Washington Post |date=February 17, 2012 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/mindful-of-history-mormon-church-reaches-out-to-minorities/2012/02/13/gIQAZKJrKR_story.html|author=Hamil R. Harris |title=Mindful of history, Mormon Church reaches out to minorities |quote=a period of more than 120 years during which black men were essentially barred from the priesthood and few Americans of color were active in the faith.|accessdate=February 29, 2012}}</ref> despite reassurance that the ban would one day be lifted.

Historically, Mormon attitudes about race were generally close to the national average. Accordingly, before the [[Civil rights movement]], the LDS policy went largely unnoticed and unchallenged. Beginning in the 1960s, however, the church was criticized by civil rights advocates and religious groups, and in 1969 several church leaders voted to rescind the policy, but the vote was not unanimous so the policy stood. In 1978, church leaders led by [[Spencer W. Kimball]] declared they had received [[1978 Revelation on Priesthood|a revelation]] instructing them to reverse the racial restriction policy. The change seems to have been prompted at least in part by problems facing mixed race converts in Brazil. Today the church continues to oppose racial discrimination and [[racism]] in any form.<ref>[[Gordon B. Hinckley]], [http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html "The Need for Greater Kindness"], 2006-04-01.</ref>

In 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the LDS Church, accounting for about 5% of the total membership; most black members live in Africa, [[Brazil]] and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119. "A rough estimate would place the number of Church members with African roots at year-end 1997 at half a million, with about 100,000 each in Africa and the Caribbean, and another 300,000 in Brazil."</ref> Since 1997, the black membership has grown substantially, especially in [[West Africa]], where two temples have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa">[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/africagrowth.html The Church Continues to Grow in Africa]</ref>

==Before 1847==
{{Main|Black people and early Mormonism}}
[[File:Jane Elizabeth Manning James.jpg|thumb|[[Jane Elizabeth Manning James|Jane Manning]] was an early [[African American]] member who lived in [[Joseph Smith]]'s household in [[Nauvoo, Illinois|Nauvoo]] and later followed [[Brigham Young]] to the Utah Territory.]]

During the early years of the LDS movement, black people were admitted to the church, and there seems to have been no racial policy on denying priesthood, since at least two black men became priests, [[Elijah Abel]] and [[Walker Lewis]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Mauss|2003|p=213}}</ref> When the [[Mormons]] migrated to [[Missouri]] they encountered the pro-slavery sentiments of their neighbors. [[Joseph Smith]] upheld the laws regarding slaves and slaveholders, but remained [[abolitionist]] in his actions and doctrines.

Beginning in 1842, Smith made known his increasingly strong anti-slavery position. In 1842 he began studying some abolitionist literature, and stated, "it makes my blood boil within me to reflect upon the injustice, cruelty, and oppression of the rulers of the people. When will these things cease to be, and the Constitution and the laws again bear rule?"<ref>History of the Church, 4:544</ref> In 1844 Joseph Smith wrote his views as a candidate for President of the United States. The anti-slavery plank of his platform called for a gradual end to slavery by the year 1850. His plan called for the government to buy the freedom of slaves using money from the sale of public lands.

==Racial policy under Brigham Young==
After Smith's death in 1844, [[Brigham Young]] became president of the main body of the church, and led the [[Mormon Pioneers]] to what would become the [[Utah territory]]. Like the majority of Americans at the time, Young (who was also the territorial governor) held racist views about black people.<ref name=Mauss2003/> On January 16, 1852 Young made a pronouncement to the [[Utah Territorial Legislature]] stating that "any man having one drop of the seed of [Cain] ... in him cannot hold the priesthood and if no other Prophet ever spake it before I will say it now in the name of Jesus Christ I know it is true and others know it."<ref name = "Mauss-70"/>

A similar statement by Young was recorded on February 13, 1849. The statement — which refers to the [[Curse of Cain]] — was given in response to a question asking about the African's chances for redemption. Young responded, "The Lord had cursed Cain’s seed with blackness and prohibited them the Priesthood."<ref name = "Mauss-70">[http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=445 Bush & Mauss 1984: 70]</ref>

===William McCary===
{{Main|William McCary}}
Some researchers have suggested that the actions of [[William McCary]] in [[Winter Quarters, Nebraska]] led to Brigham Young's decision to adopt the priesthood ban in the LDS Church. McCary was a half-African American convert who, after his baptism and ordination to the priesthood, began to claim to be a [[prophet]] and the possessor of other supernatural gifts.<ref name = Murphy>Larry G. Murphy, [[J. Gordon Melton]], and Gary L. Ward (1993). ''Encyclopedia of African American Religions'' (New York: Garland Publishing) pp. 471–472.</ref> He was excommunicated for apostasy in March 1847 and expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst>Newell G. Bringhurst (1981). ''Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People within Mormonism'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press).</ref> After his excommunication, McCary began attracting Latter Day Saint followers and instituted [[plural marriage]] among his group, and he had himself sealed to several [[White people|white]] wives.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/>

McCary's behavior angered many of the Latter Day Saints in Winter Quarters. Researchers have stated that his marriages to his white wives "played an important role in pushing the Mormon leadership into an anti-Black position"<ref name = Murphy/> and may have prompted Young to institute the priesthood and temple ban on black people.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/><ref>Connell O’Donovan, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html#_ftn107 "The Mormon Priesthood Ban & Elder Q. Walker Lewis: 'An example for his more whiter brethren to follow'], ''John Whitmer Historical Association Journal'', 2006.</ref> A statement from Young to McCary in March 1847 suggested that race had nothing to do with priesthood eligibility<ref>"Its nothing to do with the blood for [from] one blood has God made all flesh, we have to repent [to] regain what we have lost — we have one of the best Elders, an African in Lowell [referring to Walker Lewis].": Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref> and the earliest known statement about the priesthood restriction from any Mormon leader (including the implication that skin color might be relevant) was made by Apostle [[Parley P. Pratt]] a month after McCary was expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst/> Speaking of McCary, Pratt stated that he "was a black man with the blood of Ham in him which lineage was cursed as regards the priesthood".<ref>General Minutes, April 25, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref>

===Young's personal views===
When asked "if the spirits of Negroes were neutral in Heaven," Young is reported in a journal entry to have responded, "No, they were not, there were no neutral [spirits] in Heaven at the time of the rebellion, all took sides …. All spirits are pure that came from the presence of God."<ref>Journal History, 25 December 1869, citing Wilford Woodruff's journal. See also http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html</ref> Prior to learning about Enoch Lewis's marriage to a woman of European descent (December 1847) Young considered Walker Lewis "one of the best Elders."<ref>Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah</ref>

On another occasion, Young said, "You see some classes of the human family that are black, uncouth, uncomely, disagreeable and low in their habits, wild, and seemingly deprived of nearly all the blessings of the intelligence that is generally bestowed upon mankind …. Cain slew his brother. Cain might have been killed, and that would have put a termination to that line of human beings. This was not to be, and the Lord put a mark upon him, which is the flat nose and black skin. Trace mankind down to after the flood, and then another curse is pronounced upon the same race—that they should be the ‘servant of servants’; and they will be, until that curse is removed; and the Abolitionists cannot help it, nor in the least alter that decree."<ref>''Journal of Discourses'', '''7''':290.</ref> On another occasion, Young taught that, "The Lamanites or Indians are just as much the children of our Father and God as we are. So also are the Africans."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=jXQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA272&lpg=PA272&dq=%22The+Lamanites+or+Indians+are+just+as+much+the+children+of+our+Father+and+God+as+we+are.+So+also+are+the+Africans%22&source=bl&ots=4Wt3HHsVmv&sig=HPh3A6FI9pw_4rGGiXcf-N8-efY&hl=en&sa=X&ei=MmpqT_mPA6ikiQKvm5S9BQ&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Lamanites%20or%20Indians%20are%20just%20as%20much%20the%20children%20of%20our%20Father%20and%20God%20as%20we%20are.%20So%20also%20are%20the%20Africans%22&f=false Journal of Discourses Volumes 11-12]</ref>

Brigham Young said this despite the LDS scripture verses that state people may be cursed unto the 3rd and 4th generation, but if any were to repent and make restitution they would be forgiven and the curse lifted.<ref>D&C 98: 45-47</ref> This is reiterated in [[Doctrine and Covenants]] 124:50&52 as well as Mosiah 13:13,14 and Deut 5:9,10. Brigham Young explained it this way:

:"And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to. The volition of the creature is free; this is a law of their existence, and the Lord cannot violate his own law; were he to do that, he would cease to be God. He has placed life and death before his children, and it is for them to choose. If they choose life, they receive the blessings of life; if they chose death, they must abide the penalty. This is a law which has always existed from all eternity, and will continue to exist throughout all the eternities to come. Every intelligent being must have the power of choice, and God brings forth the results of the acts of his creatures to promote his kingdom and subserve his purposes in the salvation and exaltation of his children. If the Lord could have his own way, he would have all the human family to enter into his church and kingdom, receive the Holy Priesthood and come into the celestial kingdom of our Father and God, by the power of their own choice."<ref>http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Journal_of_Discourses/Volume_11/Delegate_Hooper%E2%80%94Beneficial_Effects_of_Polygamy,_etc. Journal of Discourses Volume 11]</ref>

==Slavery==
===In LDS scripture===
{{See also|Christianity and slavery}}
It was a commonly held belief in the South that the Bible permitted slavery. For instance, the [[Old Testament]] has stories of slavery, and gives rules and regulations on how to treat slaves, while the [[New Testament]] tells slaves not to revolt against their masters. However, the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] condemns slavery, teaching "it is not right that any man should be in bondage one to another." ({{lds|D&C|dc|101|79}}) The [[Book of Mormon]] heralds righteous kings who did not allow slavery, ({{lds|Mosiah|mosiah|29|40}}) and righteous men who fought against slavery ({{lds|Alma|alma|48|11}}). The Book of Mormon also describes an ideal society that lived around AD 34-200, in which it teaches the people "had all things common among them; therefore there were not rich and poor, bond and free, but they were all made free, and partakers of the heavenly gift" ({{lds|4 Nephi|4_ne|4|3}}), and says that all people are children of God and "he denieth none that come unto him, black and white, bond and free, male and female" ({{lds|2 Nephi|2_ne|26:33}}). The Pearl of Great Price describes a similar society, in which "they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness; and there was no poor among them" ({{lds|Moses|moses|7|18}}). Mormons believed they too, were commanded by the Lord to "be one; and if ye are not one ye are not mine" ({{lds|D&C|dc|38|27}}). For a short time, Mormons lived in a society with no divisions under the [[United Order]].

===Statements from church leaders===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Young said, "If the Government of the United States, in Congress assembled, had the right to pass an anti-polygamy bill, they had also the right to pass a law that slaves should not be abused as they have been; they had also a right to make a law that negroes should be used like human beings, and not worse than dumb brutes. For their abuse of that race, the whites will be cursed, unless they repent."<ref name = jdcain>''Journal of Discourses'' '''10''':104–111.</ref>

In 1851, Apostle [[Orson Hyde]] said:

{{blockquote|We feel it to be our duty to define our position in relation to the subject of slavery. There are several in the Valley of the Salt Lake from the Southern States, who have their slaves with them. There is no law in Utah to authorize slavery, neither any to prohibit it. If the slave is disposed to leave his master, no power exists there, either legal or moral, that will prevent him. But if the slave chooses to remain with his master, none are allowed to interfere between the master and the slave. All the slaves that are there appear to be perfectly contented and satisfied.

When a man in the Southern states embraces our faith, the Church says to him, if your slaves wish to remain with you, and to go with you, put them not away; but if they choose to leave you, or are not satisfied to remain with you, it is for you to sell them, or let them go free, as your own conscience may direct you. The Church, on this point, assumes not the responsibility to direct. The laws of the land recognize slavery, we do not wish to oppose the laws of the country. If there is sin in selling a slave, let the individual who sells him bear that sin, and not the Church.<ref>''[[Millennial Star]]'', February 15, 1851. Quoted in [http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/quotes.html#smith43 BlackLDS.org]</ref>}}

===In Utah Territory===
[[File:Utah Territory, vector image - 2011.svg|thumb|Utah Territory (1850)]]
The Great [[Compromise of 1850]] allowed [[California]] into the Union as a [[slave and free states|free state]] while permitting Utah and [[New Mexico Territory|New Mexico]] territories the option of deciding the issue by "popular sovereignty". In 1852 the Utah Territorial Legislature officially sanctioned slavery in Utah Territory. At that time, Brigham Young was governor, and the [[1st Utah Territorial Legislature|Utah Territorial Legislature]] was dominated by church leaders.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Forgotten Kingdom: The Mormon Theocracy in the American West, 1847-1896
|last=Bigler
|first=David L.
|year=1998
|isbn=0-87062-282-X
|publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company}}</ref> The Utah slavery law stipulated that slaves would be freed if their masters had sexual relations with them; attempted to take them from the territory against their will; or neglected to feed, clothe, or provide shelter to them. In addition, the law stipulated that slaves must receive schooling. There are conflicting accounts of whether or not slaves could end their bondage by their own choice.<ref>http://utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_part2.htm#Slaves</ref><ref>[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 69]</ref>

Utah was the only western state or territory that had slaves in 1850,<ref>''Negro Slaves in Utah'' by Jack Beller, Utah Historical Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1929, pp. 124-126</ref> but slavery was never important economically in Utah, and there were fewer than 100 slaves in the territory.<ref name=Mauss2003/> In 1860, the census showed that 29 of the 59 black people in Utah Territory were slaves.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} When the [[American Civil War]] broke out in 1861, Utah sided with the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], and slavery ended in 1862 when the [[United States Congress]] abolished slavery in the Utah Territory.

==Racial restriction policy==
Under the racial restrictions that lasted from the presidency of Brigham Young until 1978, persons with any black African ancestry could not hold the priesthood in the LDS Church and could not participate in some temple ordinances, such as the Endowment and [[celestial marriage]]. Black people were permitted to be members of the church, and participate in other temple ordinances, such as [[baptism for the dead]].<ref>In her autobiography, [[Jane Elizabeth Manning James]] says she "had the privilege of going into the temple and being baptized for some of my dead." http://www.blacklds.org/manning Life History of Jane Elizabeth Manning James as transcribed by Elizabeth J.D. Round</ref>

The racial restriction policy was applied to black Africans, persons of black African descent, and any one with mixed race that included any black African ancestry. The policy was not applied to [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], [[Hispanic people|Hispanics]], [[Melanesians]] or [[Polynesian people|Polynesians]].

===Priesthood===
The priesthood restriction was particularly limiting, because the LDS Church has a [[Laity|lay]] priesthood and all worthy male members may receive the priesthood. Young men are generally admitted to the [[Aaronic priesthood (LDS Church)|Aaronic priesthood]] at age 12, and it is a significant [[rite of passage]]. Virtually all white adult male members of the church held the priesthood. Holders of the priesthood officiate at church meetings, perform blessings of healing, and manage church affairs. Excluding black people from the priesthood meant that they could not hold significant church [[Calling (LDS Church)|leadership roles]] or participate in certain spiritual events.

Don Harwell, a black LDS Church member, said, "I remember being in a Sacrament meeting, pre-1978, and the sacrament was being passed and there was special care taken by this person that not only did I not officiate, but I didn't touch the sacrament tray. They made sure that I could take the sacrament, but that I did not touch the tray and it was passed around me. That was awfully hard, considering that often those who were officiating were young men in their early teens, and they had that priesthood. I valued that priesthood, but it wasn't available."<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/archivenews/interview.html Rosemary Winters, "Black Mormons Struggle for Acceptance in the Church", ''[[Salt Lake Tribune]]'', November 4, 2004]</ref>

===Temple marriages===
Between 1844 and 1977, most black people were not permitted to participate in ordinances performed in the LDS Church temples, such as the endowment ritual and temple marriages and family sealings. Denying them the opportunity to participate in these ordinances meant that they could not enjoy the full privileges enjoyed by other Latter-day Saints.

Mormons believe that marriages that are sealed in a celestial marriage would bind the family together forever, whereas those that are not sealed were terminated upon death. President David McKay taught that black people "need not worry, as those who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."<ref>Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23</ref>

Once black people were allowed to have a celestial marriage, their ancestors would also be allowed to have a temple marriage. Brigham Young taught that "When the ordinances are carried out in the temples that will be erected, [children] will be sealed to their [parents], and those who have slept, clear up to Father [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]]. This will have to be done...until we shall form a perfect chain from Father Adam down to the closing up scene."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=88021b08f338c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=f378cb7a29c20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 Chapter 41: Temple Ordinances], Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Brigham Young, 299</ref>

===Entrance to the highest heaven===
A celestial marriage was not required to get into the [[celestial kingdom]], but was required to obtain a [[Degrees of glory|fullness of glory]] within the celestial kingdom.<ref>Church leader [[Bruce McConkie]] wrote "Baptism is the gate to the celestial kingdom; celestial marriage is the gate to an exaltation in the highest heaven within the celestial world."(Mormon Doctrine, 1966, p 118)</ref> The Doctrine and Covenants reads "In the celestial glory there are three heavens or degrees; And in order to obtain the highest, a man must enter into this order of the priesthood [meaning the new and everlasting covenant of marriage]; And if he does not, he cannot obtain it."({{lds|D&C|dc|131|1-3}}) The righteous who do not have a celestial marriage would still make it into heaven, and live eternally with God, but they would be "appointed [[angel]]s in heaven, which angels are ministering servants."({{lds|D&C|dc|132|16}})

Some interpreted this to mean black people would be treated as unmarried whites, being confined to only ever live in God's presence as a ministering servant. In 1954, Apostle Mark E. Petersen told BYU students: "If that Negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the celestial kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get a celestial resurrection."<ref>Address at Convention of Teachers of Religion, BYU, Utah, August 27, 1954.</ref> Apostle George F. Richards in a talk at General Conference similarly taught: "[t]he Negro is an unfortunate man. He has been given a black skin. But that is as nothing compared with that greater handicap that he is not permitted to receive the Priesthood and the ordinances of the temple, necessary to prepare men and women to enter into and enjoy a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom."<ref>Elder George F. Richards, ''Conference Report'', April 1939, p. 58.</ref>

Several leaders, including Joseph Smith,<ref>In regards to black people, Joseph Smith taught that "They have souls, and are subjects of salvation." ''[http://www.boap.org/LDS/Joseph-Smith/Teachings/T5.html Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith]'', selected by Joseph Fielding Smith, (Salt Lake City: ''[[Deseret Book Company]]'', 1976), 269. ISBN 0-87579-243-X</ref> Brigham Young,<ref>Brigham Young said "when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the Priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we are now entitled to." quoted by the First Presidency, August 17, 1949.</ref> [[Wilford Woodruff]],<ref>Wilford Woodruff said "The day will come when all that race will be redeemed and possess all the blessings which we now have" quoted by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949].</ref> [[George Albert Smith]],<ref>George Albert Smith reiterated what was said by both Brigham Young and Wilford Woodruff in a statement by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949]</ref> [[David O. McKay]],<ref>David McKay taught "Sometime in God's eternal plan, the Negro will be given the right to hold the Priesthood. In the meantime, those of that race who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."(Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23)</ref> [[Joseph Fielding Smith]],<ref>In reference to black people, Apostle Joseph Fielding Smith taught: "Every soul coming into this world came here with the promise that through obedience he would receive the blessings of salvation. No person was foreordained or appointed to sin or to perform a mission of evil. No person is ever predestined to salvation or damnation. Every person has free agency." (Joseph Fielding Smith Jr., ''Doctrines of Salvation'', Vol.1, p. 61)</ref> [[Harold B. Lee]],<ref>In 1972, Harold B. Lee said, "It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we're just waiting for that time." (Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.)</ref> and [[Spencer W. Kimball]],<ref>{{lds|Official Declaration|od|2}}</ref> taught that black people would eventually be able to receive a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom.

When the priesthood ban was discussed in 1978, apostle Bruce McConkie argued for its change using the [[Standard Works|Mormon scripture]] and the [[Articles of Faith]]. The Third Article states that "all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel."({{lds|Articles of Faith|a_of_f|1|3}}) From the Book of Mormon he quoted "And even unto the great and last day, when all people, and all kindreds, and all nations and tongues shall stand before God, to be judged of their works, whether they be good or whether they be evil— If they be good, to the resurrection of everlasting life; and if they be evil, to the resurrection of damnation. ({{lds|3 Nephi|3_ne|26|4-5}}) The [[Book of Abraham]] in the [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]] states that [[Abraham]]'s seed "shall all the families of the earth be blessed, even with the blessings of the Gospel, which are the blessings of salvation, even of life eternal." ({{lds|Abraham|abr|2|11}}) According to his son, Joseph F. McConkie, these scriptures played a great part in changing the policy.<ref>[http://www.meridianmagazine.com/articles/030606hallelujahprint.html Hallelujah! The 25th Anniversary of the Revelation of Priesthood]</ref>

===Other racial discrimination===
{{further2|[[Racism in the United States]]}}
Like most Americans at the time, many Mormons held racist views, and exclusion from priesthood wasn't the only discrimination practiced toward black people. In the late 1800s blacks living in Cache Valley were forcibly relocated to Ogden and Salt Lake City. In the 1950s, the San Francisco mission office took legal action to prevent black families from moving into the church neighborhood.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965">Glen W. Davidson, "Mormon Missionaries and the Race Question," The Christian Century, 29 Sept. 1965, pp. 1183-86.</ref> In 1965, a black man living in Salt Lake City, Daily Oliver, described how – as a boy – he was excluded from an LDS-led boy scout troop because they did not want blacks in their building.<ref>Utah Chronicle, May 28, 1965</ref> Mormon apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] describes a black family that tried to join the LDS church: "[some white church members] went to the Branch President, and said that either the [black] family must leave, or they would all leave. The Branch President ruled that [the black family] could not come to church meetings. It broke their hearts."<ref>"Race Problems As They Affect The Church", presentation by Mark E. Petersen to the Convention of Teachers of Religion", 27 August 1954, p. 16</ref> Until the 1970s hospitals with connections to the LDS church, including LDS Hospital, Primary Children's and Cottonwood Hospitals in Salt Lake City, McKay-Dee Hospital in Ogden, and Utah Valley Hospital in Provo, kept separate the blood donated by blacks and whites.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}

==1880–1950==
Under John Taylor's presidency (1880–1887) there was confusion regarding the origin of the racial policy. Abel was living, breathing proof that an African American was ordained to the Priesthood in the days of Joseph Smith. His son, Enoch Abel, had also been conferred the Priesthood.<ref>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/abel.html Elijah Abel | Blacklds.org]</ref> Joseph F. Smith said that Abel's Priesthood had been declared null and void by Joseph Smith himself, though this seems to conflict with Joseph F. Smith's teachings that the Priesthood could not be removed from any man without removing that man from the church.<ref name = "Mauss-76">[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 76-86]</ref> From this point on Joseph Smith was repeatedly referred to as the author of many statements, which had actually been made by Brigham Young, on the subject of Priesthood restriction.<ref name = "Mauss-76"/>

Several black men received the priesthood after the racial restriction policy was put in place, including Elijah Abel's son Enoch Abel, who was ordained an [[Elder (Latter Day Saints)|elder]] on Nov. 10, 1900. Enoch's son and Elijah Abel's grandson — who was also named Elijah Abel — received the Aaronic priesthood and was ordained to the office of [[priest (Latter Day Saints)|priest]] on July 5, 1934. The younger Elijah Abel also received the [[Melchizedek priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Melchizedek priesthood]] and was ordained to the office of elder on Sept. 29, 1935.<ref name = MTR>Newell G. Bringhurst, "The 'Missouri Thesis' Revisisted: Early Mormonism, Slavery, and the Status of Black People" in Newell G. Bringhurst and Darron T. Smith (eds.) (2006). ''Black and Mormon'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press) pp. 13–33 at p. 30.</ref> One commentator has pointed out that these incidents illustrate the "ambiguities, contradictions, and paradoxes" of the issue during the twentieth century.<ref name = MTR/>

{{Anchor|The "Negro Question" Declaration}}
In 1949, the First Presidency under the direction of George Albert Smith made a declaration which included the statement that the priesthood restriction was divinely commanded and not a matter of church policy.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
pages=101–102|
year=1999|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling}}</ref> It stated:

<blockquote>
The attitude of the Church with reference to the Negroes remains as it has always stood. It is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord, on which is founded the doctrine of the Church from the days of its organization, to the effect that Negroes may become members of the Church but that they are not entitled to the Priesthood at the present time. The prophets of the Lord have made several statements as to the operation of the principle. President Brigham Young said: "Why are so many of the inhabitants of the earth cursed with a skin of blackness? It comes in consequence of their fathers rejecting the power of the holy priesthood, and the law of God. They will go down to death. And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the holy priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to."
</blockquote>
The declaration goes on to state that the conditions in which people are born are affected by their conduct in a premortal existence, although the details of the principle are said not to be known. It then says that the privilege of mortal existence is so great that spirits were willing to come to earth even though they would not be able to possess the priesthood. It concludes by stating, "Under this principle there is no injustice whatsoever involved in this deprivation as to the holding of the priesthood by the Negroes."
<ref>First Presidency [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm Letter of the First Presidency] August 17, 1949</ref>

==1951–1977==
In 1954, Church President David O. McKay taught: "There is not now, and there never has been a doctrine in this church that the negroes are under a divine curse. There is no doctrine in the church of any kind pertaining to the negro. ''We believe'' that we have a scriptural precedent for withholding the priesthood from the negro. It is a practice, not a doctrine, and the practice someday will be changed. And that's all there is to it.’<ref>Sterling M. McMurrin affidavit, March 6, 1979. See ''[[David O. McKay and the Rise of Modern Mormonism]]'' by [[Greg Prince]] and [[William Robert Wright]]. Quoted by [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/howtoreach.html Genesis Group]</ref>

Mark E. Petersen (an [[Apostle (Mormonism)|apostle]]) addressed the issue of race and Priesthood in his address to a 1954 Convention of Teachers of Religion at the College Level at Brigham Young University. He said:

<blockquote> The reason that one would lose his blessings by marrying a negro is due to the restriction placed upon them. 'No person having the least particle of negro blood can hold the priesthood' (Brigham Young). It does not matter if they are one-sixth negro or one-hundred and sixth, the curse of no Priesthood is the same. If an individual who is entitled to the priesthood marries a negro, the Lord has decreed that only spirits who are not eligible for the priesthood will come to that marriage as children. To intermarry with a negro is to forfeit a 'nation of priesthood holders'....<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds_race.htm Racism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)]</ref></blockquote>

Petersen held that male descendants of a mixed-marriage could not become a Mormon priest, even if they had a lone ancestor with African blood dating back many generations.<ref name = "Mormon-racism">Peterson, Mark E. "[http://www.lds-mormon.com/racism.shtml Race Problems -- As They Affect The Church]", 27 August 1954</ref> However, he did hold out hope for African Americans, in that a black person baptized into the Mormon faith and who accepted Joseph Smith as a Prophet of God could attain the highest form of [[salvation]] known to Mormons, the [[Celestial Kingdom]].<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/> Petersen said, "If that negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the Celestial Kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get celestial glory."<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/>

In 1969 church apostle Harold B. Lee blocked the LDS Church from rescinding the racial restriction policy.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14">Quinn, Michael D. ''The Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power'' Salt Lake City: 1994 Signature Books Page 14</ref> Church leaders voted to rescind the policy at a meeting in 1969. Lee was absent from the meeting due to travels. When Lee returned he called for a re-vote, arguing that the policy could not be changed without a revelation.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14"/>

Harold B. Lee, president of the church, stated in 1972: "For those who don't believe in modern revelation there is no adequate explanation. Those who do understand revelation stand by and wait until the Lord speaks...It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we’re just waiting for that time."<ref>Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.</ref>

===Civil Rights movement===
In 1958, Joseph Fielding Smith published '''Answers to Gospel Questions''' which stated "No church or other organization is more insistent than The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, that the negroes should receive all the rights and privileges that can possibly be given to any other in the true sense of equality as declared in the Declaration of Independence." He continues to say they should not be barred from any type of employment or education, and should be free "to make their lives as happy as it is possible without interference from white men, labor unions or from any other source."<ref name=history>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html LDS Black History Timeline]</ref> In the 1963 General Conference, Hugh B. Brown stated: "it is a moral evil for any person or group of persons to deny any human being the rights to gainful employment, to full educational opportunity, and to every privilege of citizenship". He continued: "We call upon all men everywhere, both within and outside the church, to commit themselves to the establishment of full civil equality for all of God's children. Anything less than this defeats our high ideal of the brotherhood of man."<ref name=history />

The NAACP attempted to get the LDS church to support civil rights legislation and to reverse its discriminating practices during the [[Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights era]] in the 1960s. In 1963 [[NAACP]] leadership tried to arrange meetings with church leadership, but the church refused to meet with them.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1965, the church leadership did meet with the NAACP, and agreed to publish an editorial in church-owned newspaper [[The Deseret News]], which would support civil rights legislation pending in the Utah legislature. The church failed to follow-through on the commitment, and church Apostle [[N. Eldon Tanner]] explained "We have decided to remain silent".<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In March 1965, the NAACP led an anti-discrimination march in Salt Lake City, protesting church policies.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1966, the NAACP issued a statement criticizing the church, saying the church "has maintained a rigid and continuous segregation stand" and that "the church has made "no effort to conteract the widespread discriminatory practices in education, in housing, in employment, and other areas of life"<ref>[[The Deseret News]], May 3, 1966</ref>

During the 1960s and 1970s, Mormons in the West were close to the national averages in racial attitudes.<ref name=Mauss2003>[[Armand Mauss|Mauss, Armand]] [http://www.fairlds.org/FAIR_Conferences/2003_LDS_Church_and_the_Race_Issue.html The LDS Church and the Race Issue: A Study in Misplaced Apologetics] 2003</ref> In 1966, [[Armand Mauss]] surveyed Mormons on racial attitudes and discriminatory practices. He found that "Mormons resembled the rather "moderate" denominations (such as Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopalian), rather than the "fundamentalists" or the sects."<ref name=Mauss1966>Armand L. Mauss, "Mormonism and Secular Attitudes toward Negroes", Pacific Sociological Review 9 (Fall 1966)</ref> Negative racial attitudes within Mormonism varied inversely with education, occupation, community size of origin, and youth, reflecting the national trend. Urban Mormons with a more orthodox view of Mormonism tended to be more tolerant.<ref name=Mauss1966 />

African-American athletes protested against LDS policies by boycotting several sporting events with [[Brigham Young University]]. In 1968, after the assassination of [[Martin Luther King]], black members of the [[UTEP]] track team approached their coach and expressed their desire not to compete against BYU in an upcoming meet. When the coach disregarded the athletes' complaint, the athletes boycotted the meet.<ref name="ADR"/> In 1969, 14 members of the [[University of Wyoming]] football team were removed from the team for planning to protest the policies of the LDS church.<ref name="ADR">{{cite journal|last=Fried|first=Gil|coauthors=Michael Hiller|year=1997|title=ADR in youth and intercollegiate athletics|journal=Brigham Young University Law Review|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_199701/ai_n8735454/pg_1}}, p. 1, p. 10</ref> In November 1969, Stanford University President Kenneth Pitzer suspended athletic relations with BYU.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=EfYLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=i1cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3753,2673063&dq=kenneth-pitzer+brigham-young |work=Evening Independent |date=December 11, 1969 |author=James J. Kilpatrick |title=A Sturdy Discipline Serves Mormons Well}}</ref>

Since the early part of the 20th century, each LDS ward has organized its own [[Boy Scout]]ing troop. Some LDS troops permitted black youths to join, but an LDS policy required that the troop leader to be the deacon quorum president (a priesthood office held by 12 and 13 year old non-black church members), thus excluding black children from that role. The NAACP filed a federal lawsuit in 1974 challenging this practice, and soon thereafter the LDS church reversed its policy.<ref>http://www.bsa-discrimination.org/html/lds-top.html Exclusionary Practices & Policies of the Boy Scouts of America</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage |first=Armand L. |last=Mauss |page=218 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-252-02803-1}}</ref>

Spencer W. Kimball, LDS apostle and future president of the church taught against racism. In 1972, he said: "Intolerance by Church members is despicable. A special problem exists with respect to black people because they may not now receive the priesthood. Some members of the Church would justify their own un-Christian discrimination against black people because of that rule with respect to the priesthood, but while this restriction has been imposed by the Lord, it is not for us to add burdens upon the shoulders of our black brethren. They who have received Christ in faith through authoritative baptism are heirs to the celestial kingdom along with men of all other races. And those who remain faithful to the end may expect that God may finally grant them all blessings they have merited through their righteousness. Such matters are in the Lord's hands. It is for us to extend our love to all."<ref>The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball, p.237, emphasis in original</ref>

There were some LDS church members who protested against the church's discriminatory practices. Two LDS church members, Douglas A. Wallace and Byron Merchant, were excommunicated by the LDS church (1976 and 1977 respectively) after criticizing the church's discrimatory practices.<ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 13, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', October 4, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 3, 1978</ref><ref>''Dallas Morning News'', October 20, 1977</ref> LDS church member Grant Syphers objected to the church's racial policies and, as a consequence, his stake president refused to give Sypher permission to enter the temple. The president said, "Anyone who could not accept the Church's stand on Negroes ... could not go to the temple".<ref>Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Winter 1967, p. 6</ref>

==Racial policy ends in 1978==
{{Main|1978 Revelation on Priesthood}}
LDS church president Spencer W. Kimball (president 1973-1985) took [[General Conference (LDS Church)|general conference]] on the road, holding area and regional conferences all over the world. He also announced many new temples to be built both in the United States and abroad, including one [[São Paulo Brazil Temple|temple in São Paulo, Brazil]]. The problem of determining priesthood eligibility in Brazil was thought to be nearly impossible due to the mixing of the races in that country. When the temple was announced, church leaders realized the difficulty of restricting persons with African descent from attending the temple in Brazil.<ref>[[Mark L. Grover]], "The Mormon Priesthood Revelation and the São Paulo Brazil Temple", ''[[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]]'' '''23''':39–53 (Spring 1990).</ref>

Finally, on June 8, 1978, the [[First Presidency]] released to the press an official declaration, now a part of the standard works of the church, which contained the following statement:

<blockquote>He has heard our prayers, and ''by revelation'' has confirmed that the long-promised day has come when every faithful, worthy man in the church may receive the Holy Priesthood, with power to exercise its divine authority, and enjoy with his loved ones every blessing that follows there from, including the blessings of the temple. Accordingly, all worthy male members of the church may be ordained to the priesthood without regard for race or color. Priesthood leaders are instructed to follow the policy of carefully interviewing all candidates for ordination to either the Aaronic or the Melchizedek Priesthood to insure that they meet the established standards for worthiness.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/od/2 Official Declaration 2], emphasis added.</ref></blockquote>

According to first-person accounts, after much discussion among the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles on this matter, they engaged the Lord in prayer. According to the writing of one of those present, "It was during this prayer that the revelation came. The Spirit of the Lord rested upon us all; we felt something akin to what happened on the day of [[Pentecost]] and at the [[Kirtland Temple]]. From the midst of eternity, the voice of God, conveyed by the power of the Spirit, spoke to his prophet. The message was that the time had now come to offer the fullness of the everlasting gospel, including celestial marriage, and the priesthood, and the blessings of the temple, to all men, without reference to race or color, solely on the basis of personal worthiness. And we all heard the same voice, received the same message, and became personal witnesses that the word received was the mind and will and voice of the Lord."<ref>''Priesthood'', pp. 127-128, Deseret Book Co., 1981.</ref> Immediately after the receipt of this new revelation, an official announcement of the revelation was prepared, and sent out to all of the various leaders of the Church. It was then read to, approved by and accepted as the word and will of the Lord, by a General Conference of the Church in October 1978. Succeeding editions of the Doctrine and Covenants were printed with this announcement canonized and entitled "[[Official Declaration—2]]".

[[Gordon B. Hinckley]] (a participant in the meetings to reverse the ban), in a churchwide fireside said, "Not one of us who was present on that occasion was ever quite the same after that. Nor has the Church been quite the same. All of us knew that the time had come for a change and that the decision had come from the heavens. The answer was clear. There was perfect unity among us in our experience and in our understanding."<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=6bb6d7630a27b010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____ Priesthood Restoration], an edited version of a talk given 15 May 1988 at the Churchwide fireside commemorating the 159th anniversary of the restoration of the priesthood.</ref>

Later in 1978, McConkie said:<ref>Bruce R. McConkie, 1978 (All Are Alike Unto God, A SYMPOSIUM ON THE BOOK OF MORMON, The Second Annual Church Educational System Religious Educator's Symposium, August 17–19, 1978</ref>
<blockquote>There are statements in our literature by the early brethren which we have interpreted to mean that the Negroes would not receive the priesthood in mortality. I have said the same things, and people write me letters and say, "You said such and such, and how is it now that we do such and such?" And all I can say to that is that it is time disbelieving people repented and got in line and believed in a living, modern prophet. Forget everything that I have said, or what President Brigham Young or President George Q. Cannon or whomsoever has said in days past that is contrary to the present revelation. We spoke with a limited understanding and without the light and knowledge that now has come into the world.... We get our truth and our light line upon line and precept upon precept. We have now had added a new flood of intelligence and light on this particular subject, and it erases all the darkness and all the views and all the thoughts of the past. They don’t matter any more.... It doesn’t make a particle of difference what anybody ever said about the Negro matter before the first day of June of this year.</blockquote>

Critics of the LDS church state that the church's 1978 reversal of the racial restriction policy was not divinely inspired as the church claimed, but simply a matter of political convenience.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0-8024-1234-3 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979|
pages=319–328
}}</ref> Critics state that this reversal of policy occurred as the LDS church began to expand outside the United States into countries such as Brazil that have ethnically mixed populations, and that the policy reversal was announced just a few months before the church opened its new temple in [[São Paulo]], Brazil.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|year=1999|
page=95|
publisher=Harper Collins
}}
</ref>

Critics of the LDS church state that the 1978 revelation undermines the church's claim that its presidents are prophets of God and that their proclamations are God's word, because Brigham Young stated in 1852 that blacks would not receive the priesthood "until the last of the posterity of Able [sic] had received the priesthood, until the redemtion of the earth."<ref>{{cite web|
url=http://www.mrm.org/topics/miscellaneous/black-skin-and-seed-cain|
title=Mormon Research Ministry}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abane|
isbn=1-56858-219-6|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows|
pages=355–374}}
</ref> Mormon apologists reply that revelation is a continuing process and that newer revelations supersede older revelations {{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}.

==Interracial marriages==
===Pre-1978===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Church president Brigham Young said "If the White man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain (those with dark skin), the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so."<ref name = jdcain />

LDS Apostle Mark E. Petersen said in 1954: "I think I have read enough to give you an idea of what the Negro is after. He is not just seeking the opportunity of sitting down in a cafe where white people eat. He isn't just trying to ride on the same streetcar or the same Pullman car with white people. It isn't that he just desires to go to the same theater as the white people. From this, and other interviews I have read, it appears that the Negro seeks absorption with the white race. He will not be satisfied until he achieves it by intermarriage. That is his objective and we must face it."<ref>Race Problems - As They Affect The Church, Convention of Teachers of Religion on the College Level, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, August 27, 1954</ref>

In a 1965 address to BYU students, President Kimball told BYU students: "Now, the brethren feel that it is not the wisest thing to cross racial lines in dating and marrying. There is no condemnation. We have had some of our fine young people who have crossed the lines. We hope they will be very happy, but experience of the brethren through a hundred years has proved to us that marriage is a very difficult thing under any circumstances and the difficulty increases in interrace marriages."<ref name=ChurchNews1978>"Interracial Marriage Discouraged", Church News, June 17, 1978, p. 2.</ref>

===Post-1978===
The official newspaper of the LDS Church<ref>{{Harv|Roberts|1983|p=7}}</ref> – the [[Church News]] – printed an article in entitled "Interracial marriage discouraged". This article was printed on June 17, 1978, in the same issue that announced the policy reversal.

There was no written church policy on interracial marriages, which had been permitted since before the 1978 reversal.<ref name=ChurchNews1978 /> In 1978, church spokesman Don LeFevre said "So there is no ban on interracial marriage. If a black partner contemplating marriage is worthy of going to the Temple, nobody's going to stop him... if he's ready to go to the Temple, obviously he may go with the blessings of the church."<ref>Don LeFevre, Salt Lake Tribune, 14 June 1978</ref>

On the LDS Church website, Dr. Robert Millet writes: "[T]he Church Handbook of Instructions... is the guide for all Church leaders on doctrine and practice. There is, in fact, no mention whatsoever in this handbook concerning interracial marriages. In addition, having served as a Church leader for almost 30 years, I can also certify that I have never received official verbal instructions condemning marriages between black and white members."<ref>Robert L. Millet, [http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/church-response-to-jon-krakauers-under-the-banner-of-heaven "Church Response to Jon Krakauer's Under the Banner of Heaven"], 27 June 2003</ref>

A church lesson manual for adolescent boys that is in use in 2011 contains a 1976 quote from Spencer W. Kimball that says "We recommend that people marry those who are of the same racial background generally, and of somewhat the same economic and social and educational background (some of those are not an absolute necessity, but preferred), and above all, the same religious background, without question".<ref>
*Embry, Jessie L., ''Black Saints in a white church: contemporary African American Mormons'', Signature Books, 1994, p 169.
*The LDS document is online at: [http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=ba805f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=1f4fa41f6cc20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 “Lesson 31: Choosing an Eternal Companion,”] ''Aaronic Priesthood Manual 3'', p. 127.</ref>

==1985 to present==
[[Image:MormonAdFamilyPhoto.jpg|right|thumb|[[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church]]Since the Revelation on the Priesthood in 1978, the church has made no distinctions in policy for black people, but it remains an issue for many black members of the church. Alvin Jackson, a black Bishop, puts his focus on "moving forward rather than looking back."<ref>Page Johnson [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/jackson.html Alvin B. Jackson, Jr—The Bishop is Always In] Meridian Magazine</ref> In an interview with ''Mormon Century'', Jason Smith expresses his viewpoint that the membership of the church was not ready for black people to have the Priesthood at the time of the Restoration, because of prejudice and slavery. He draws analogies to the Bible where only the Israelites have the gospel.<ref>Ken Kuykendall, [http://www.mormoncentury.org/www/ContentPages/HearContent.aspx?PID=1000022 Past racial issues and the Church today]{{Dead link|date=October 2010}} Mormon Century</ref> Officially the church also uses Biblical history to justify the prior ban:

::Ever since biblical times, the Lord has designated through His prophets who could receive the priesthood and other blessings of the gospel. Among the tribes of Israel, for example, only men of the tribe of Levi were given the priesthood and allowed to officiate in certain ordinances. Likewise, during the Savior's earthly ministry, gospel blessings were restricted to the Jews. Only after a revelation to the Apostle Peter were the gospel and priesthood extended to others (see Acts 10:1–33; 14:23; 15:6–8).<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=bbd508f54922d010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=36f2ce9566a43110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ LDS Gospel Topics: Priesthood Ordination before 1978]</ref>

The church opposes racism among its membership. It is currently working to reach out to black people, and has several predominantly black wards inside the United States.<ref>Wilcox, Lauren, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/09/AR2007050901770.html The Saints Go Marching In] Washington Post May 13, 2007</ref> They teach that all are welcome to come unto Christ, and speak against those who harbor ill feelings towards another race. Gordon B. Hinckley, the President of the LDS church, stated:
{{quote|I remind you that no man who makes disparaging remarks concerning those of another race can consider himself a true disciple of Christ. Nor can he consider himself to be in harmony with the teachings of the Church of Christ. Let us all recognize that each of us is a son or daughter of our Father in Heaven, who loves all of His children."<ref name="Hinckley 2006">[http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html The Need for Greater Kindness]</ref>}}

In the July 1992 edition of the [[New Era (magazine)|New Era]], the church published a [[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church. The photo contained several youth of a variety of ethic backgrounds with the words "Family Photo" in large print. Underneath the picture are the words "God created the races—but not racism. We are all children of the same Father. Violence and hatred have no place in His family. (See Acts 10:34.)"<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=024644f8f206c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=445405e063feb010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1
|publisher=[[New Era (magazine)|New Era]]
|title=Family Photo
|month=July | year=1992
|last=Diamond
|first=Craig}}</ref>

===Instances of discrimination after 1978 revelation===
LDS historian Wayne J. Embry interviewed several black LDS church members in 1987 and reported "All of the interviewees reported incidents of aloofness on the part of white members, a reluctance or a refusal to shake hands with them or sit by them, and racist comments made to them." Embry further reported that one black church member "was amazingly persistent in attending Mormon services for three years when, by her report, no one would speak to her." Embry reports that "she [the same black church member] had to write directly to the president of the LDS Church to find out how to be baptized" because none of her fellow church members would tell her.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Black and Mormon|
last=Smith|first=Darron|
publisher=University of Illinois Press|
year=2004|
isbn=0-252-02947-X|
pages=75–77}}</ref>

Black LDS church member Darron Smith wrote in 2003: "Even though the priesthood ban was repealed in 1978, the discourse that constructs what blackness means is still very much intact today. Under the direction of President Spencer W. Kimball, the First Presidency and the Twelve removed the policy that denied black people the priesthood but did very little to disrupt the multiple discourses that had fostered the policy in the first place. Hence there are Church members today who continue to summon and teach at every level of Church education the racial discourse that black people are descendants of Cain, that they merited lesser earthly privilege because they were "fence-sitters" in the War in Heaven, and that, science and climatic factors aside, there is a link between skin color and righteousness" <ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Smith
| first = Darron
| title = The Persistence of Racialized Discourse in Mormonism|
journal = Sunstone
|date=March 2003}}
</ref>

Journalist and church member [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]] in 2007 wrote "Today, many black Mormons report subtle differences in the way they are treated, as if they are not full members but a separate group. A few even have been called 'the n-word' at church and in the hallowed halls of the temple. They look in vain at photos of Mormon general authorities, hoping to see their own faces reflected there.<ref>"New film and revived group help many feel at home in their church" by [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]], The Salt Lake Tribune, July 6, 2007</ref>

White church member [[Eugene England]], a professor at Brigham Young University, wrote in 1998: <blockquote>
This is a good time to remind ourselves that most Mormons are still in denial about the ban, unwilling to talk in Church settings about it, and that some Mormons still believe that Blacks were cursed by descent from Cain through Ham. Even more believe that Blacks, as well as other non-white people, come color-coded into the world, their lineage and even their class a direct indication of failures in a previous life.... I check occasionally in classes at BYU and find that still, twenty years after the revelation, a majority of bright, well-educated Mormon students say they believe that Blacks are descendants of Cain and Ham and thereby cursed and that skin color is an indication of righteousness in the pre-mortal life. They tell me these ideas came from their parents or Seminary and Sunday School teachers, and they have never questioned them. They seem largely untroubled by the implicit contradiction to basic gospel teachings.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = England
| first = Eugene | journal = Sunstone|
pages=54–58|date=June 1998
| title = }}
</ref> </blockquote>

In an interview for the [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] documentary [[The Mormons (documentary)|The Mormons]], [[Jeffrey R. Holland]], a member of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], specifically denounced the perpetuation of [[Mormon folklore|folklore]] suggesting that race was in any way an indication of how faithful a person had been in the [[pre-existence]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/interviews/holland.html trnascript of interview with Holland for the PBS documentary]</ref>

===Church asked to repudiate past racist declarations===
In 1995, black church member A. David Jackson asked church leaders to issue a declaration repudiating past doctrines that treated black people as inferior. In particular, Jackson asked the church to disavow the 1949 "Negro Question" declaration from the church Presidency which stated "The attitude of the church with reference to negroes ... is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord ... to the effect that negroes ... are not entitled to the priesthood...".<ref name = "Ostling-103">{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0-06-066371-5|
pages=103–104|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

The church leadership did not issue a repudiation, and so in 1997 Jackson, aided by other church members including Armand Mauss, sent a second request to church leaders, which stated that white Mormons felt that the 1978 revelation resolved everything, but that [[black Mormons]] react differently when they learn the details. He said that many black Mormons become discouraged and leave the church or become inactive. "When they find out about this, they exit... You end up with the passive African Americans in the church".<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0-06-066371-5|
pages=105|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

Other black church members think giving an apology would be a "detriment" to church work and a catalyst to further racial misunderstanding. African-American church member Bryan E. Powell says "There is no pleasure in old news, and this news is old." Gladys Newkirk agrees, stating "I've never experienced any problems in this church. I don't need an apology. . . . We're the result of an apology."<ref>{{cite news
|first=Bill
|last=Broadway
|publisher=[[Washington Post]]
|date=1998-05-30
|url=http://www.ldshistory.net/1990/mhablack.htm
|title=Black Mormons Resist Apology Talk}}</ref> The large majority of black Mormons say they are willing to look beyond the racist teachings and cleave to the church in part because of its powerful, detailed teachings on life after death.<ref name=Ramirez2005>{{cite news
|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-blackmormons,1,708682.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true
|title=Mormon past steeped in racism: Some black members want church to denounce racist doctrines
|first=Margaret
|last=Ramirez
|date=2005-07-26
|publisher=[[Chicago Tribune]]}}</ref>

Hinckley, then church president, told the Los Angeles Times "The 1978 declaration speaks for itself ... I don't see anything further that we need to do". Church leadership did not issue a repudiation.<ref name = "Ostling-103"/> Church apostle [[Dallin H. Oaks]] said: "It's not the pattern of the Lord to give reasons. We can put reasons to commandments. When we do we're on our own. Some people put reasons to [the ban] and they turned out to be spectacularly wrong. There is a lesson in that.... The lesson I've drawn from that, I decided a long time ago that I had faith in the command and I had no faith in the reasons that had been suggested for it... I'm referring to reasons given by general authorities and reasons elaborated upon [those reasons] by others. The whole set of reasons seemed to me to be unnecessary risk taking... Let's [not] make the mistake that's been made in the past, here and in other areas, trying to put reasons to revelation. The reasons turn out to be man-made to a great extent. The revelations are what we sustain as the will of the Lord and that's where safety lies."<ref>Dallin H. Oaks, Interview with Associated Press, in ''[[Daily Herald (Utah)|Daily Herald]]'', Provo, Utah, 5 June 1988</ref>

===Humanitarian aid in Africa===
The church has been involved in several humanitarian aid projects in Africa. On January 27, 1985, members across the world joined together in a fast for "the victims of famine and other causes resulting in hunger and privation among people of Africa." They also donated the money that would have been used for food during the fast to help those victims, regardless of church membership.<ref>Kimball, Spencer, Romney, Marion, Hinckley, Gordon, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,4383 ''Letters of the First Presidency''] January 11, 1985</ref> Together with other organizations such as UNICEF and the American Red Cross, the church is working towards eradicating measles. Since 1999, there has been a 60 percent drop in deaths from measles in Africa.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=9ca9775baf050110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Church Works to Eradicate Measles in Africa]</ref> Due to their efforts, the [[American Red Cross]] bestowed the First Presidency with the organization's highest financial support honor, the American Red Cross Circle of Humanitarians award.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=df346287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD American Red Cross Recognizes Church for Support of Measles Initiative in Africa]</ref> The church has also been involved in humanitarian aid in Africa by sending food boxes,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=894b6287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Food Boxes Rushed to Ease Starvation in Africa]</ref> digging wells to provide clean water,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=4b12b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Clean Water Projects]</ref> distributing wheelchairs,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=66f4b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Wheelchair Distribution]</ref> fighting AIDS,{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} providing Neonatal Resuscitation Training,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a6f37a520251110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD church Works to Save Infants Through Neonatal Resuscitation Training]</ref> and setting up employment resources service centers.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a658bd9eeb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Employment Resource Service Centers]</ref>

==Black membership==
{{main|Black Mormons}}
The church has never kept official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. Black people have been members of Mormon congregations since its foundation, but before 1978 its black membership was small. It has since grown, and in 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the church (about 5% of the total membership), mostly in Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119.</ref> Black membership has continued to grow substantially, especially in West Africa, where two temples have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa"/>

==See also==
{{div col|cols=2}}
*[[Act in Relation to Service]]
*[[Black people and early Mormonism]]
*[[Black people in Mormon doctrine]]
*[[Randy L. Bott]]
*[[Joseph Freeman (Mormon)]]
*[[Genesis Group]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Primary sources===
*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Mary Lucille Bankhead
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Gilmore H. Chapel
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1986
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Cleolivia Lyons
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1988
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Cherry
| first = Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| coauthors =
| title = It's You and Me, Lord!
| publisher = Trilogy Arts Publications
|year=1970
| location = Provo, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Martin
| first = Wynetta Willis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Mormon Tells Her Story
| publisher = Hawks Publications
|year=1972
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}
*{{cite book
| last = Martins
| first = Helvecio
| authorlink = Helvicio Martins
| coauthors = [[Mark Grover]]
| title = The Autobiography of Elder Helvecio Martins
| publisher = Aspen Books
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite journal
| last = Phelps
| first = Willian W.
| authorlink = W. W. Phelps (Mormon)
| coauthors =
| title = Free People of Color
| journal = [[Evening and Morning Star]]
| volume = 2
| issue = 14
| pages = 109
| publisher = W. W. Phelps & Co.
|month=July | year=1833
| url = http://www.centerplace.org/history/ems/v2n14.htm
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = 2006-07-15 }}
*{{Cite web
| last=Young
| first=Brigham
| authorlink=Brigham Young
| title=Speech by Gov. Young in Joint Session of the Legeslature [sic]
| date=February 5, 1852
| location=Brigham Young Addresses, Ms d 1234, Box 48, folder 3, LDS Church Historical Department, Salt Lake City, Utah
| url=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery%2C_Blacks%2C_and_the_priesthood&oldid=253414
}}.

===Secondary sources===
*{{Cite journal
| last=Allen
| first=James B.
| author-link=James B. Allen (historian)
| title=Would-Be Saints: West Africa before the 1978 Priesthood Revelation
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=17
| year=1991
| pages=207–48
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,15582
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bringhurst
| first = Newel G.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People Within Mormonism (Contributions to the Study of Religion, No. 4)
| publisher = Greenwood Press
|year=1981
| location = Westport, Connecticut
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 0-313-22752-7 }}
*{{Cite journal
| last=Brignhurst
| first=Newel G.
| title=Charles B. Thompson and The Issues of Slavery and Race
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=8
| year=1981
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,12075
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bush
| first = Lester E. Jr
| authorlink =
| coauthors = [[Armand Mauss|Armand L. Mauss]], eds.
| title = Neither White Nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1984
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/neither.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 0-941214-22-2 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Embry
| first = Jessie
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Saints in a White Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/black.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 1-56085-044-2 }}
*{{cite journal
| author = Hawkins, Chester L.
| title = Report on Elijah Abel and his Priesthood
| version =
| publisher = Unpublished Manuscript, Special Collections, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}
* O'Donovan, Connell, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html "The Mormon Priesthood Ban and Elder Q. Walker Lewis"], ''[[John Whitmer Historical Association Journal]]'' (Independence, Missouri, 2006), pp. 47–99.
*''Black Mormons and the Priesthood Ban'' by Darrick T. Evenson (SKU 4935190)
*''Setting the Record Straight: Blacks and the Mormon Priesthood'' by [[Marcus Helvécio T. A. Martins]] (SKU 4995993)
*{{cite book
| title=Black and Mormon
| last=Smith
| first=Darron
| publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]
| year=2004
| isbn=0-252-02947-X
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0-8024-1234-3 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Curse of Cain|
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner}}
*{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|authorlink=Richard and Joan Ostling|year=1999|
publisher=[[Harper Collins]]
}}
*{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abanes|authorlink=Richard Abanes|
isbn=1-56858-219-6|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows}}
* Stewart, John J. ''Mormonism and the Negro'' Salt Lake City, Utah:1960 Bookmark [http://web.archive.org/web/20100409063442/http://www.celestial-orb.org/library/mormon_negro.html Complete text of the 1960 book ''Mormonism and the Negro'' by John J. Stewart, a defense of the former LDS policy of denying the Mormon Priesthood to people of African ancestry:]

===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{citation |publisher= LDS Church |url= http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/race-church |contribution= The Church and Race: All Are Alike Unto God |title= Newsroom: Official Statement |work= mormonnewsroom.org |accessdate = February 29, 2012}}
*{{citation |url= http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/racial-remarks-in-washington-post-article |contribution= Church Statement Regarding 'Washington Post' Article on Race and the Church |date= February 29, 2012 |title= Newsroom: Response |work= mormonnewsroom.org |publisher= LDS Church}}
*[http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETD/id/1130 A Peculiar Place for the Peculiar Institution: Slavery and Sovereignty in Early Territorial Utah], Ricks, Nathaniel R., Master Thesis, ''Brigham Young University'', 2007.
*[[Lester E. Bush, Jr.]] and [[Armand Mauss|Armand L. Mauss]], eds., [http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=438 ''Neither White nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church,''] [[Signature Books]], 1984
*{{citation|publisher = [[University of Chicago]] Divinity School|date = May 31, 2012|title = The Wrong Side of White|first = W. Paul|last = Reeve|url = http://divinity.uchicago.edu/martycenter/publications/sightings/archive_2012/0531.shtml}}

==External links==
*[http://www.blacklds.org/ blacklds.org] an independent (not owned or operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) site maintained by some black and some white Latter-day Saints.

{{Latter-day Saints|hide|show}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Black People And The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-Day Saints}}
[[Category:The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Africa]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
[[Category:Mormonism and race]]
[[Category:Brigham Young]]
[[Category:Criticism of Mormonism]]

{{Link GA|fr}}
[[fr:Situation des Noirs dans le mormonisme]]

Schwarze im Mormonentum

2012-08-17T05:58:05Z

Jfruh: not irrelevant; see talk

{{About|black people and the modern LDS church|Blacks and the early Mormon movement|Black people and the Latter Day Saint movement}}
[[File:Gladys Knight.jpg|thumb|Since her baptism in 1997, [[Gladys Knight]] has sought to raise awareness of black people in the LDS church.]]

From the mid-1800s to 1978, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) had a policy against ordaining [[black people|black]] men of African descent to the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]]. Whereas other churches usually have full-time salaried clergy of whom individual members are often the chief minister to several families, in the LDS Church virtually all male head-of-household church members are part of the priesthood. Under the pre-1978 policy, black men of African descent could not hold the priesthood, and were also prohibited from participating in the [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Endowment (Latter Day Saints)|Endowment]] and [[Sealing (Latter Day Saints)|sealings]], [[ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]] that the church teaches are necessary for the [[Exaltation (LDS Church)|highest degree of salvation]]. The LDS Church has always had an open membership policy for all races, but few black people who were aware of the racial policy joined the church,<ref name="WP">{{cite news |work=Washington Post |date=February 17, 2012 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/mindful-of-history-mormon-church-reaches-out-to-minorities/2012/02/13/gIQAZKJrKR_story.html|author=Hamil R. Harris |title=Mindful of history, Mormon Church reaches out to minorities |quote=a period of more than 120 years during which black men were essentially barred from the priesthood and few Americans of color were active in the faith.|accessdate=February 29, 2012}}</ref> despite reassurance that one day they would have the opportunity. In 1978, church leaders ceased the racial restriction policy for black men, declaring that they had received a [[1978 Revelation on Priesthood|revelation]] instructing them to do so. Today's church opposes racial discrimination and [[racism]].<ref>[[Gordon B. Hinckley]], [http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html "The Need for Greater Kindness"], 2006-04-01.</ref>

In 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the LDS Church, accounting for about 5% of the total membership; most black members live in Africa, [[Brazil]] and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119. "A rough estimate would place the number of Church members with African roots at year-end 1997 at half a million, with about 100,000 each in Africa and the Caribbean, and another 300,000 in Brazil."</ref> Since 1997, the black membership has grown substantially, especially in [[West Africa]], where two temples have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa">[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/africagrowth.html The Church Continues to Grow in Africa]</ref>

==Before 1847==
{{Main|Black people and early Mormonism}}

During the early years of the LDS movement, blacks were admitted to the church, and at least two black men became priests, [[Elijah Abel]] and [[Walker Lewis]].

==Racial policy under Brigham Young==

Under the leadership of [[Joseph Smith]], several African-Americans, including Elijah Abel were admitted to the priesthood. But that policy changed sometime before 1852, because in that year, church president [[Brigham Young]] made a pronouncement to the [[Utah Territorial Legislature]] stating that African-Americans "cannot hold the Priesthood."<ref name = "Mauss-70"/>

===Racial restriction policy under Brigham Young===
An early statement by Young about a priesthood ban in the LDS Church was made on February 13, 1849. The statement — which refers to the [[Curse of Cain]] as the reason for the policy — was given in response to a question asking about the African's chances for redemption. Young responded, "The Lord had cursed Cain’s seed with blackness and prohibited them the Priesthood."<ref name = "Mauss-70">[http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=445 Bush & Mauss 1984: 70]</ref>

In 1852, while addressing the Utah Territorial Legislature, Young stated, "Any man having one drop of the seed of [Cain] ... in him cannot hold the Priesthood and if no other Prophet ever spoke it before I will say it now in the name of Jesus Christ I know it is true and others know it."<ref name = "Mauss-70"/>

===William McCary===
{{Main|William McCary}}
Some researchers have suggested that the actions of [[William McCary]] in [[Winter Quarters, Nebraska]] led to Brigham Young's decision to adopt the priesthood ban in the LDS Church. McCary was a half-African American convert who, after his baptism and ordination to the priesthood, began to claim to be a [[prophet]] and the possessor of other supernatural gifts.<ref name = Murphy>Larry G. Murphy, [[J. Gordon Melton]], and Gary L. Ward (1993). ''Encyclopedia of African American Religions'' (New York: Garland Publishing) pp. 471–472.</ref> He was excommunicated for apostasy in March 1847 and expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst>Newell G. Bringhurst (1981). ''Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People within Mormonism'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press).</ref> After his excommunication, McCary began attracting Latter Day Saint followers and instituted [[plural marriage]] among his group, and he had himself sealed to several [[White people|white]] wives.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/>

McCary's behavior angered many of the Latter Day Saints in Winter Quarters. Researchers have stated that his marriages to his white wives "played an important role in pushing the Mormon leadership into an anti-Black position"<ref name = Murphy/> and may have prompted Young to institute the priesthood and temple ban on black people.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/><ref>Connell O’Donovan, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html#_ftn107 "The Mormon Priesthood Ban & Elder Q. Walker Lewis: 'An example for his more whiter brethren to follow'], ''John Whitmer Historical Association Journal'', 2006.</ref> A statement from Young to McCary in March 1847 suggested that race had nothing to do with priesthood eligibility<ref>"Its nothing to do with the blood for [from] one blood has God made all flesh, we have to repent [to] regain what we have lost — we have one of the best Elders, an African in Lowell [referring to Walker Lewis].": Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref> and the earliest known statement about the priesthood restriction from any Mormon leader (including the implication that skin color might be relevant) was made by Apostle [[Parley P. Pratt]] a month after McCary was expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst/> Speaking of McCary, Pratt stated that he "was a black man with the blood of Ham in him which lineage was cursed as regards the priesthood".<ref>General Minutes, April 25, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref>

===Young's personal views===
When asked "if the spirits of Negroes were neutral in Heaven," Young is reported in a journal entry to have responded, "No, they were not, there were no neutral [spirits] in Heaven at the time of the rebellion, all took sides …. All spirits are pure that came from the presence of God."<ref>Journal History, 25 December 1869, citing Wilford Woodruff's journal. See also http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html</ref> Prior to learning about Enoch Lewis's marriage to a woman of European descent (December 1847) and subsequently enacting a ban on Negroes in the priesthood, Brigham Young considered Walker Lewis "one of the best Elders."<ref>Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah</ref>

On another occasion, Young said, "You see some classes of the human family that are black, uncouth, uncomely, disagreeable and low in their habits, wild, and seemingly deprived of nearly all the blessings of the intelligence that is generally bestowed upon mankind …. Cain slew his brother. Cain might have been killed, and that would have put a termination to that line of human beings. This was not to be, and the Lord put a mark upon him, which is the flat nose and black skin. Trace mankind down to after the flood, and then another curse is pronounced upon the same race—that they should be the ‘servant of servants’; and they will be, until that curse is removed; and the Abolitionists cannot help it, nor in the least alter that decree."<ref>''Journal of Discourses'', '''7''':290.</ref>

Brigham Young said this despite the LDS scripture verses that state people may be cursed unto the 3rd and 4th generation, but if any were to repent and make restitution they would be forgiven and the curse lifted.<ref>D&C 98: 45-47</ref> This is reiterated in [[Doctrine and Covenants]] 124:50&52 as well as Mosiah 13:13,14 and Deut 5:9,10. Brigham Young explained it this way:

:"And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to. The volition of the creature is free; this is a law of their existence, and the Lord cannot violate his own law; were he to do that, he would cease to be God. He has placed life and death before his children, and it is for them to choose. If they choose life, they receive the blessings of life; if they chose death, they must abide the penalty. This is a law which has always existed from all eternity, and will continue to exist throughout all the eternities to come. Every intelligent being must have the power of choice, and God brings forth the results of the acts of his creatures to promote his kingdom and subserve his purposes in the salvation and exaltation of his children. If the Lord could have his own way, he would have all the human family to enter into his church and kingdom, receive the Holy Priesthood and come into the celestial kingdom of our Father and God, by the power of their own choice."<ref>http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Journal_of_Discourses/Volume_11/Delegate_Hooper%E2%80%94Beneficial_Effects_of_Polygamy,_etc. Journal of Discourses Volume 11]</ref>

==Slavery==
===Slavery scripture===
{{See also|Christianity and slavery}}
LDS scripture has various views on slavery. The [[Old Testament]] has stories of slavery, and gives rules and regulations on how to treat slaves. The [[New Testament]] tells slaves not to revolt against their masters. It was a commonly held belief in the South that the Bible permitted slavery. However, the Doctrine and Covenants condemns slavery, teaching "it is not right that any man should be in bondage one to another." ({{lds|D&C|dc|101|79}}) The Book of Mormon heralds righteous kings who did not allow slavery, ({{lds|Mosiah|mosiah|29|40}}) and righteous men who fought against slavery ({{lds|Alma|alma|48|11}}). The Book of Mormon also describes an ideal society that lived around AD 34-200, in which it teaches the people "had all things common among them; therefore there were not rich and poor, bond and free, but they were all made free, and partakers of the heavenly gift" ({{lds|4 Nephi|4_ne|4|3}}). The Pearl of Great Price describes a similar society, in which "they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness; and there was no poor among them" ({{lds|Moses|moses|7|18}}). Mormons believed they too, were commanded by the Lord to "be one; and if ye are not one ye are not mine" ({{lds|D&C|dc|38|27}}). For a short time, Mormons lived in a society with no divisions under the [[United Order]].

===Statements from church leaders===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Young said, "If the Government of the United States, in Congress assembled, had the right to pass an anti-polygamy bill, they had also the right to pass a law that slaves should not be abused as they have been; they had also a right to make a law that negroes should be used like human beings, and not worse than dumb brutes. For their abuse of that race, the whites will be cursed, unless they repent."<ref name = jdcain>''Journal of Discourses'' '''10''':104–111.</ref>

In 1851, Apostle [[Orson Hyde]] said:

{{blockquote|We feel it to be our duty to define our position in relation to the subject of slavery. There are several in the Valley of the Salt Lake from the Southern States, who have their slaves with them. There is no law in Utah to authorize slavery, neither any to prohibit it. If the slave is disposed to leave his master, no power exists there, either legal or moral, that will prevent him. But if the slave chooses to remain with his master, none are allowed to interfere between the master and the slave. All the slaves that are there appear to be perfectly contented and satisfied.

When a man in the Southern states embraces our faith, the Church says to him, if your slaves wish to remain with you, and to go with you, put them not away; but if they choose to leave you, or are not satisfied to remain with you, it is for you to sell them, or let them go free, as your own conscience may direct you. The Church, on this point, assumes not the responsibility to direct. The laws of the land recognize slavery, we do not wish to oppose the laws of the country. If there is sin in selling a slave, let the individual who sells him bear that sin, and not the Church.<ref>''[[Millennial Star]]'', February 15, 1851. Quoted in [http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/quotes.html#smith43 BlackLDS.org]</ref>}}

===Utah sanctions slavery===
The Great [[Compromise of 1850]] allowed [[California]] into the Union as a [[slave and free states|free state]] while permitting Utah and [[New Mexico Territory|New Mexico]] territories the option of deciding the issue by "popular sovereignty". In 1852 the Utah Territorial Legislature officially sanctioned slavery in Utah Territory. At that time, Brigham Young was governor, and the [[1st Utah Territorial Legislature|Utah Territorial Legislature]] was dominated by church leaders.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Forgotten Kingdom: The Mormon Theocracy in the American West, 1847-1896
|last=Bigler
|first=David L.
|year=1998
|isbn=0-87062-282-X
|publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company}}</ref> The Utah slavery law stipulated that slaves would be freed if their masters had sex with them; attempted to take them from the territory against their will; or neglected to feed, clothe, or provide shelter to them. In addition, the law stipulated that slaves must receive schooling. There are conflicting accounts of whether or not slaves could end their bondage by their own choice.<ref>http://utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_part2.htm#Slaves</ref><ref>[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 69]</ref>

Utah was the only western state or territory that had slaves in 1850.<ref>''Negro Slaves in Utah'' by Jack Beller, Utah Historical Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1929, pp. 124-126</ref> In 1860, the census showed that 29 of the 59 black people in Utah Territory were slaves.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} When the [[American Civil War]] broke out in 1861, Utah sided with the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], and slavery ended in 1862 when the [[United States Congress]] abolished slavery in the Utah Territory.

== Children of God ==

The Book of Mormon teaches that all people are children of God and "he denieth none that come unto him, black and white, bond and free, male and female". (2 Nephi 26:33) Brigham Young taught that:
:"The Lamanites or Indians are just as much the children of our Father and God as we are. So also are the Africans."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=jXQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA272&lpg=PA272&dq=%22The+Lamanites+or+Indians+are+just+as+much+the+children+of+our+Father+and+God+as+we+are.+So+also+are+the+Africans%22&source=bl&ots=4Wt3HHsVmv&sig=HPh3A6FI9pw_4rGGiXcf-N8-efY&hl=en&sa=X&ei=MmpqT_mPA6ikiQKvm5S9BQ&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Lamanites%20or%20Indians%20are%20just%20as%20much%20the%20children%20of%20our%20Father%20and%20God%20as%20we%20are.%20So%20also%20are%20the%20Africans%22&f=false Journal of Discourses Volumes 11-12]</ref>

==Racial restriction policy==
Under the racial restrictions that lasted from the presidency of Brigham Young until 1978, persons with any black African ancestry could not hold the priesthood in the LDS Church and could not participate in some temple ordinances, such as the Endowment and [[celestial marriage]]. Black people were permitted to be members of the church, and participate in other temple ordinances, such as [[baptism for the dead]].<ref>In her autobiography, [[Jane Elizabeth Manning James]] says she "had the privilege of going into the temple and being baptized for some of my dead." http://www.blacklds.org/manning Life History of Jane Elizabeth Manning James as transcribed by Elizabeth J.D. Round</ref>

The racial restriction policy was applied to black Africans, persons of black African descent, and any one with mixed race that included any black African ancestry. The policy was not applied to [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], [[Hispanic people|Hispanics]], [[Melanesians]] or [[Polynesian people|Polynesians]].

===Priesthood===
The priesthood restriction was particularly limiting, because the LDS Church has a [[Laity|lay]] priesthood and all worthy male members may receive the priesthood. Young men are generally admitted to the [[Aaronic priesthood (LDS Church)|Aaronic priesthood]] at age 12, and it is a significant [[rite of passage]]. Virtually all white adult male members of the church held the priesthood. Holders of the priesthood officiate at church meetings, perform blessings of healing, and manage church affairs. Excluding black people from the priesthood meant that they could not hold significant church [[Calling (LDS Church)|leadership roles]] or participate in certain spiritual events.

Don Harwell, a black LDS Church member, said, "I remember being in a Sacrament meeting, pre-1978, and the sacrament was being passed and there was special care taken by this person that not only did I not officiate, but I didn't touch the sacrament tray. They made sure that I could take the sacrament, but that I did not touch the tray and it was passed around me. That was awfully hard, considering that often those who were officiating were young men in their early teens, and they had that priesthood. I valued that priesthood, but it wasn't available."<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/archivenews/interview.html Rosemary Winters, "Black Mormons Struggle for Acceptance in the Church", ''[[Salt Lake Tribune]]'', November 4, 2004]</ref>

===Temple marriages===
Between 1844 and 1977, most black people were not permitted to participate in ordinances performed in the LDS Church temples, such as the endowment ritual and temple marriages and family sealings. Denying them the opportunity to participate in these ordinances meant that they could not enjoy the full privileges enjoyed by other Latter-day Saints.

Mormons believe that marriages that are sealed in a celestial marriage would bind the family together forever, whereas those that are not sealed were terminated upon death. President David McKay taught that black people "need not worry, as those who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."<ref>Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23</ref>

Once black people were allowed to have a celestial marriage, their ancestors would also be allowed to have a temple marriage. Brigham Young taught that "When the ordinances are carried out in the temples that will be erected, [children] will be sealed to their [parents], and those who have slept, clear up to Father [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]]. This will have to be done...until we shall form a perfect chain from Father Adam down to the closing up scene."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=88021b08f338c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=f378cb7a29c20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 Chapter 41: Temple Ordinances], Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Brigham Young, 299</ref>

===Entrance to the highest heaven===
A celestial marriage was not required to get into the [[celestial kingdom]], but was required to obtain a [[Degrees of glory|fullness of glory]] within the celestial kingdom.<ref>Church leader [[Bruce McConkie]] wrote "Baptism is the gate to the celestial kingdom; celestial marriage is the gate to an exaltation in the highest heaven within the celestial world."(Mormon Doctrine, 1966, p 118)</ref> The Doctrine and Covenants reads "In the celestial glory there are three heavens or degrees; And in order to obtain the highest, a man must enter into this order of the priesthood [meaning the new and everlasting covenant of marriage]; And if he does not, he cannot obtain it."({{lds|D&C|dc|131|1-3}}) The righteous who do not have a celestial marriage would still make it into heaven, and live eternally with God, but they would be "appointed [[angel]]s in heaven, which angels are ministering servants."({{lds|D&C|dc|132|16}})

Some interpreted this to mean black people would be treated as unmarried whites, being confined to only ever live in God's presence as a ministering servant. In 1954, Apostle Mark E. Petersen told BYU students: "If that Negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the celestial kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get a celestial resurrection."<ref>Address at Convention of Teachers of Religion, BYU, Utah, August 27, 1954.</ref> Apostle George F. Richards in a talk at General Conference similarly taught: "[t]he Negro is an unfortunate man. He has been given a black skin. But that is as nothing compared with that greater handicap that he is not permitted to receive the Priesthood and the ordinances of the temple, necessary to prepare men and women to enter into and enjoy a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom."<ref>Elder George F. Richards, ''Conference Report'', April 1939, p. 58.</ref>

Several leaders, including Joseph Smith,<ref>In regards to black people, Joseph Smith taught that "They have souls, and are subjects of salvation." ''[http://www.boap.org/LDS/Joseph-Smith/Teachings/T5.html Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith]'', selected by Joseph Fielding Smith, (Salt Lake City: ''[[Deseret Book Company]]'', 1976), 269. ISBN 0-87579-243-X</ref> Brigham Young,<ref>Brigham Young said "when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the Priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we are now entitled to." quoted by the First Presidency, August 17, 1949.</ref> [[Wilford Woodruff]],<ref>Wilford Woodruff said "The day will come when all that race will be redeemed and possess all the blessings which we now have" quoted by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949].</ref> [[George Albert Smith]],<ref>George Albert Smith reiterated what was said by both Brigham Young and Wilford Woodruff in a statement by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949]</ref> [[David O. McKay]],<ref>David McKay taught "Sometime in God's eternal plan, the Negro will be given the right to hold the Priesthood. In the meantime, those of that race who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."(Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23)</ref> [[Joseph Fielding Smith]],<ref>In reference to black people, Apostle Joseph Fielding Smith taught: "Every soul coming into this world came here with the promise that through obedience he would receive the blessings of salvation. No person was foreordained or appointed to sin or to perform a mission of evil. No person is ever predestined to salvation or damnation. Every person has free agency." (Joseph Fielding Smith Jr., ''Doctrines of Salvation'', Vol.1, p. 61)</ref> [[Harold B. Lee]],<ref>In 1972, Harold B. Lee said, "It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we're just waiting for that time." (Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.)</ref> and [[Spencer W. Kimball]],<ref>{{lds|Official Declaration|od|2}}</ref> taught that black people would eventually be able to receive a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom.

When the priesthood ban was discussed in 1978, apostle Bruce McConkie argued for its change using the [[Standard Works|Mormon scripture]] and the [[Articles of Faith]]. The Third Article states that "all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel."({{lds|Articles of Faith|a_of_f|1|3}}) From the Book of Mormon he quoted "And even unto the great and last day, when all people, and all kindreds, and all nations and tongues shall stand before God, to be judged of their works, whether they be good or whether they be evil— If they be good, to the resurrection of everlasting life; and if they be evil, to the resurrection of damnation. ({{lds|3 Nephi|3_ne|26|4-5}}) The [[Book of Abraham]] in the [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]] states that [[Abraham]]'s seed "shall all the families of the earth be blessed, even with the blessings of the Gospel, which are the blessings of salvation, even of life eternal." ({{lds|Abraham|abr|2|11}}) According to his son, Joseph F. McConkie, these scriptures played a great part in changing the policy.<ref>[http://www.meridianmagazine.com/articles/030606hallelujahprint.html Hallelujah! The 25th Anniversary of the Revelation of Priesthood]</ref>

===Racial discrimination other than racial restriction policy===
{{further2|[[Racism in the United States]]}}
The exclusion from the priesthood was not the only discrimination practiced by church members. In the late 1800s blacks living in Cache Valley were forcibly relocated to Ogden and Salt Lake City. In the 1950s, the San Francisco mission office took legal action to prevent black families from moving into the church neighborhood.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965">Glen W. Davidson, "Mormon Missionaries and the Race Question," The Christian Century, 29 Sept. 1965, pp. 1183-86.</ref> In 1965, a black man living in Salt Lake City, Daily Oliver, described how – as a boy – he was excluded from an LDS-led boy scout troop because they did not want blacks in their building.<ref>Utah Chronicle, May 28, 1965</ref> Mormon apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] describes a black family that tried to join the LDS church: "[some white church members] went to the Branch President, and said that either the [black] family must leave, or they would all leave. The Branch President ruled that [the black family] could not come to church meetings. It broke their hearts."<ref>"Race Problems As They Affect The Church", presentation by Mark E. Petersen to the Convention of Teachers of Religion", 27 August 1954, p. 16</ref> Until the 1970s hospitals with connections to the LDS church, including LDS Hospital, Primary Children's and Cottonwood Hospitals in Salt Lake City, McKay-Dee Hospital in Ogden, and Utah Valley Hospital in Provo, kept separate the blood donated by blacks and whites.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}

==Racial policy under John Taylor==
Under John Taylor's presidency, there was confusion regarding the origin of the racial policy. Abel was living, breathing proof that an African American was ordained to the Priesthood in the days of Joseph Smith. His son, Enoch Abel, had also been conferred the Priesthood.<ref>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/abel.html Elijah Abel | Blacklds.org]</ref> Joseph F. Smith said that Abel's Priesthood had been declared null and void by Joseph Smith himself, though this seems to conflict with Joseph F. Smith's teachings that the Priesthood could not be removed from any man without removing that man from the church.<ref name = "Mauss-76">[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 76-86]</ref> From this point on Joseph Smith was repeatedly referred to as the author of many statements, which had actually been made by Brigham Young, on the subject of Priesthood restriction.<ref name = "Mauss-76"/>

==Exceptions==
Several black men received the priesthood after the racial restriction policy was put in place, including Elijah Abel's son Enoch Abel, who was ordained an [[Elder (Latter Day Saints)|elder]] on Nov. 10, 1900. Enoch's son and Elijah Abel's grandson — who was also named Elijah Abel — received the Aaronic priesthood and was ordained to the office of [[priest (Latter Day Saints)|priest]] on July 5, 1934. The younger Elijah Abel also received the [[Melchizedek priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Melchizedek priesthood]] and was ordained to the office of elder on Sept. 29, 1935.<ref name = MTR>Newell G. Bringhurst, "The 'Missouri Thesis' Revisisted: Early Mormonism, Slavery, and the Status of Black People" in Newell G. Bringhurst and Darron T. Smith (eds.) (2006). ''Black and Mormon'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press) pp. 13–33 at p. 30.</ref> One commentator has pointed out that these incidents illustrate the "ambiguities, contradictions, and paradoxes" of the issue during the twentieth century.<ref name = MTR/>

==The "Negro Question" Declaration==
In 1949, the First Presidency under the direction of George Albert Smith made a declaration which included the statement that the priesthood restriction was divinely commanded and not a matter of church policy.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
pages=101–102|
year=1999|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling}}</ref> It stated:

<blockquote>
The attitude of the Church with reference to the Negroes remains as it has always stood. It is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord, on which is founded the doctrine of the Church from the days of its organization, to the effect that Negroes may become members of the Church but that they are not entitled to the Priesthood at the present time. The prophets of the Lord have made several statements as to the operation of the principle. President Brigham Young said: "Why are so many of the inhabitants of the earth cursed with a skin of blackness? It comes in consequence of their fathers rejecting the power of the holy priesthood, and the law of God. They will go down to death. And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the holy priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to."
</blockquote>
The declaration goes on to state that the conditions in which people are born are affected by their conduct in a premortal existence, although the details of the principle are said not to be known. It then says that the privilege of mortal existence is so great that spirits were willing to come to earth even though they would not be able to possess the priesthood. It concludes by stating, "Under this principle there is no injustice whatsoever involved in this deprivation as to the holding of the priesthood by the Negroes."
<ref>First Presidency [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm Letter of the First Presidency] August 17, 1949</ref>

==Racial policy 1951-1977==
In 1954, Church President David O. McKay taught: "There is not now, and there never has been a doctrine in this church that the negroes are under a divine curse. There is no doctrine in the church of any kind pertaining to the negro. ''We believe'' that we have a scriptural precedent for withholding the priesthood from the negro. It is a practice, not a doctrine, and the practice someday will be changed. And that's all there is to it.’<ref>Sterling M. McMurrin affidavit, March 6, 1979. See ''[[David O. McKay and the Rise of Modern Mormonism]]'' by [[Greg Prince]] and [[William Robert Wright]]. Quoted by [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/howtoreach.html Genesis Group]</ref>

Mark E. Petersen (an [[Apostle (Mormonism)|apostle]]) addressed the issue of race and Priesthood in his address to a 1954 Convention of Teachers of Religion at the College Level at Brigham Young University. He said:

<blockquote> The reason that one would lose his blessings by marrying a negro is due to the restriction placed upon them. 'No person having the least particle of negro blood can hold the priesthood' (Brigham Young). It does not matter if they are one-sixth negro or one-hundred and sixth, the curse of no Priesthood is the same. If an individual who is entitled to the priesthood marries a negro, the Lord has decreed that only spirits who are not eligible for the priesthood will come to that marriage as children. To intermarry with a negro is to forfeit a 'nation of priesthood holders'....<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds_race.htm Racism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)]</ref></blockquote>

Petersen held that male descendants of a mixed-marriage could not become a Mormon priest, even if they had a lone ancestor with African blood dating back many generations.<ref name = "Mormon-racism">Peterson, Mark E. "[http://www.lds-mormon.com/racism.shtml Race Problems -- As They Affect The Church]", 27 August 1954</ref> However, he did hold out hope for African Americans, in that a black person baptized into the Mormon faith and who accepted Joseph Smith as a Prophet of God could attain the highest form of [[salvation]] known to Mormons, the [[Celestial Kingdom]].<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/> Petersen said, "If that negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the Celestial Kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get celestial glory."<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/>

===Apostle Harold B. Lee blocks policy change===
In 1969 church apostle Harold B. Lee blocked the LDS Church from rescinding the racial restriction policy.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14">Quinn, Michael D. ''The Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power'' Salt Lake City: 1994 Signature Books Page 14</ref> Church leaders voted to rescind the policy at a meeting in 1969. Lee was absent from the meeting due to travels. When Lee returned he called for a re-vote, arguing that the policy could not be changed without a revelation.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14"/>

===Church president statement in 1972===
Harold B. Lee, president of the church, stated in 1972: "For those who don't believe in modern revelation there is no adequate explanation. Those who do understand revelation stand by and wait until the Lord speaks...It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we’re just waiting for that time."<ref>Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.</ref>

==Civil Rights movement==
===Church and the Civil Rights movement===
In 1958, Joseph Fielding Smith published '''Answers to Gospel Questions''' which stated "No church or other organization is more insistent than The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, that the negroes should receive all the rights and privileges that can possibly be given to any other in the true sense of equality as declared in the Declaration of Independence." He continues to say they should not be barred from any type of employment or education, and should be free "to make their lives as happy as it is possible without interference from white men, labor unions or from any other source."<ref name=history>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html LDS Black History Timeline]</ref> In the 1963 General Conference, Hugh B. Brown stated: "it is a moral evil for any person or group of persons to deny any human being the rights to gainful employment, to full educational opportunity, and to every privilege of citizenship". He continued: "We call upon all men everywhere, both within and outside the church, to commit themselves to the establishment of full civil equality for all of God's children. Anything less than this defeats our high ideal of the brotherhood of man."<ref name=history />

The NAACP attempted to get the LDS church to support civil rights legislation and to reverse its discriminating practices during the [[Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights era]] in the 1960s. In 1963 [[NAACP]] leadership tried to arrange meetings with church leadership, but the church refused to meet with them.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1965, the church leadership did meet with the NAACP, and agreed to publish an editorial in church-owned newspaper [[The Deseret News]], which would support civil rights legislation pending in the Utah legislature. The church failed to follow-through on the commitment, and church Apostle [[N. Eldon Tanner]] explained "We have decided to remain silent".<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In March 1965, the NAACP led an anti-discrimination march in Salt Lake City, protesting church policies.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1966, the NAACP issued a statement criticizing the church, saying the church "has maintained a rigid and continuous segregation stand" and that "the church has made "no effort to conteract the widespread discriminatory practices in education, in housing, in employment, and other areas of life"<ref>[[The Deseret News]], May 3, 1966</ref>

During the 1960s and 1970s, Mormons in the West were close to the national averages in racial attitudes.<ref>[[Armand Mauss|Mauss, Armand]] [http://www.fairlds.org/FAIR_Conferences/2003_LDS_Church_and_the_Race_Issue.html The LDS Church and the Race Issue: A Study in Misplaced Apologetics] 2003</ref> In 1966, [[Armand Mauss]] surveyed Mormons on racial attitudes and discriminatory practices. He found that "Mormons resembled the rather "moderate" denominations (such as Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopalian), rather than the "fundamentalists" or the sects."<ref name=Mauss1966>Armand L. Mauss, "Mormonism and Secular Attitudes toward Negroes", Pacific Sociological Review 9 (Fall 1966)</ref> Negative racial attitudes within Mormonism varied inversely with education, occupation, community size of origin, and youth, reflecting the national trend. Urban Mormons with a more orthodox view of Mormonism tended to be more tolerant.<ref name=Mauss1966 />

===Sports boycotts of BYU===
African-American athletes protested against LDS policies by boycotting several sporting events with [[Brigham Young University]]. In 1968, after the assassination of [[Martin Luther King]], black members of the [[UTEP]] track team approached their coach and expressed their desire not to compete against BYU in an upcoming meet. When the coach disregarded the athletes' complaint, the athletes boycotted the meet.<ref name="ADR"/> In 1969, 14 members of the [[University of Wyoming]] football team were removed from the team for planning to protest the policies of the LDS church.<ref name="ADR">{{cite journal|last=Fried|first=Gil|coauthors=Michael Hiller|year=1997|title=ADR in youth and intercollegiate athletics|journal=Brigham Young University Law Review|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_199701/ai_n8735454/pg_1}}, p. 1, p. 10</ref> In November 1969, Stanford University President Kenneth Pitzer suspended athletic relations with BYU.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=EfYLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=i1cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3753,2673063&dq=kenneth-pitzer+brigham-young |work=Evening Independent |date=December 11, 1969 |author=James J. Kilpatrick |title=A Sturdy Discipline Serves Mormons Well}}</ref>

===Boy Scout leaders===
Since the early part of the 20th century, each LDS ward has organized its own [[Boy Scout]]ing troop. Some LDS troops permitted black youths to join, but an LDS policy required that the troop leader to be the deacon quorum president (a priesthood office held by 12 and 13 year old non-black church members), thus excluding black children from that role. The NAACP filed a federal lawsuit in 1974 challenging this practice, and soon thereafter the LDS church reversed its policy.<ref>http://www.bsa-discrimination.org/html/lds-top.html Exclusionary Practices & Policies of the Boy Scouts of America</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage |first=Armand L. |last=Mauss |page=218 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-252-02803-1}}</ref>

===Spencer W. Kimball denounces racism===
Spencer W. Kimball, LDS apostle and future president of the church taught against racism. In 1972, he said: "Intolerance by Church members is despicable. A special problem exists with respect to black people because they may not now receive the priesthood. Some members of the Church would justify their own un-Christian discrimination against black people because of that rule with respect to the priesthood, but while this restriction has been imposed by the Lord, it is not for us to add burdens upon the shoulders of our black brethren. They who have received Christ in faith through authoritative baptism are heirs to the celestial kingdom along with men of all other races. And those who remain faithful to the end may expect that God may finally grant them all blessings they have merited through their righteousness. Such matters are in the Lord's hands. It is for us to extend our love to all."<ref>The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball, p.237, emphasis in original</ref>

==Retaliation against Mormon anti-discrimination activists==

There were some LDS church members who protested against the church's discriminatory practices. Two LDS church members, Douglas A. Wallace and Byron Merchant, were excommunicated by the LDS church (1976 and 1977 respectively) after criticizing the church's discrimatory practices.<ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 13, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', October 4, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 3, 1978</ref><ref>''Dallas Morning News'', October 20, 1977</ref> LDS church member Grant Syphers objected to the church's racial policies and, as a consequence, his stake president refused to give Sypher permission to enter the temple. The president said, "Anyone who could not accept the Church's stand on Negroes ... could not go to the temple".<ref>Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Winter 1967, p. 6</ref>

==Racial policy ends in 1978==
{{Main|1978 Revelation on Priesthood}}
LDS church president Spencer W. Kimball (president 1973-1985) took [[General Conference (LDS Church)|general conference]] on the road, holding area and regional conferences all over the world. He also announced many new temples to be built both in the United States and abroad, including one [[São Paulo Brazil Temple|temple in São Paulo, Brazil]]. The problem of determining priesthood eligibility in Brazil was thought to be nearly impossible due to the mixing of the races in that country. When the temple was announced, church leaders realized the difficulty of restricting persons with African descent from attending the temple in Brazil.<ref>[[Mark L. Grover]], "The Mormon Priesthood Revelation and the São Paulo Brazil Temple", ''[[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]]'' '''23''':39–53 (Spring 1990).</ref>

Finally, on June 8, 1978, the [[First Presidency]] released to the press an official declaration, now a part of the standard works of the church, which contained the following statement:

<blockquote>He has heard our prayers, and ''by revelation'' has confirmed that the long-promised day has come when every faithful, worthy man in the church may receive the Holy Priesthood, with power to exercise its divine authority, and enjoy with his loved ones every blessing that follows there from, including the blessings of the temple. Accordingly, all worthy male members of the church may be ordained to the priesthood without regard for race or color. Priesthood leaders are instructed to follow the policy of carefully interviewing all candidates for ordination to either the Aaronic or the Melchizedek Priesthood to insure that they meet the established standards for worthiness.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/od/2 Official Declaration 2], emphasis added.</ref></blockquote>

According to first-person accounts, after much discussion among the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles on this matter, they engaged the Lord in prayer. According to the writing of one of those present, "It was during this prayer that the revelation came. The Spirit of the Lord rested upon us all; we felt something akin to what happened on the day of [[Pentecost]] and at the [[Kirtland Temple]]. From the midst of eternity, the voice of God, conveyed by the power of the Spirit, spoke to his prophet. The message was that the time had now come to offer the fullness of the everlasting gospel, including celestial marriage, and the priesthood, and the blessings of the temple, to all men, without reference to race or color, solely on the basis of personal worthiness. And we all heard the same voice, received the same message, and became personal witnesses that the word received was the mind and will and voice of the Lord."<ref>''Priesthood'', pp. 127-128, Deseret Book Co., 1981.</ref> Immediately after the receipt of this new revelation, an official announcement of the revelation was prepared, and sent out to all of the various leaders of the Church. It was then read to, approved by and accepted as the word and will of the Lord, by a General Conference of the Church in October 1978. Succeeding editions of the Doctrine and Covenants were printed with this announcement canonized and entitled "[[Official Declaration—2]]".

[[Gordon B. Hinckley]] (a participant in the meetings to reverse the ban), in a churchwide fireside said, "Not one of us who was present on that occasion was ever quite the same after that. Nor has the Church been quite the same. All of us knew that the time had come for a change and that the decision had come from the heavens. The answer was clear. There was perfect unity among us in our experience and in our understanding."<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=6bb6d7630a27b010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____ Priesthood Restoration], an edited version of a talk given 15 May 1988 at the Churchwide fireside commemorating the 159th anniversary of the restoration of the priesthood.</ref>

Later in 1978, McConkie said:<ref>Bruce R. McConkie, 1978 (All Are Alike Unto God, A SYMPOSIUM ON THE BOOK OF MORMON, The Second Annual Church Educational System Religious Educator's Symposium, August 17–19, 1978</ref>
<blockquote>There are statements in our literature by the early brethren which we have interpreted to mean that the Negroes would not receive the priesthood in mortality. I have said the same things, and people write me letters and say, "You said such and such, and how is it now that we do such and such?" And all I can say to that is that it is time disbelieving people repented and got in line and believed in a living, modern prophet. Forget everything that I have said, or what President Brigham Young or President George Q. Cannon or whomsoever has said in days past that is contrary to the present revelation. We spoke with a limited understanding and without the light and knowledge that now has come into the world.... We get our truth and our light line upon line and precept upon precept. We have now had added a new flood of intelligence and light on this particular subject, and it erases all the darkness and all the views and all the thoughts of the past. They don’t matter any more.... It doesn’t make a particle of difference what anybody ever said about the Negro matter before the first day of June of this year.</blockquote>

===Critics question motivation of policy reversal===

Critics of the LDS church state that the church's 1978 reversal of the racial restriction policy was not divinely inspired as the church claimed, but simply a matter of political convenience.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0-8024-1234-3 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979|
pages=319–328
}}</ref> Critics state that this reversal of policy occurred as the LDS church began to expand outside the United States into countries such as Brazil that have ethnically mixed populations, and that the policy reversal was announced just a few months before the church opened its new temple in [[São Paulo]], Brazil.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|year=1999|
page=95|
publisher=Harper Collins
}}
</ref>

===Critics claim that 1978 revelation undermines prophets===
Critics of the LDS church state that the 1978 revelation undermines the church's claim that its presidents are prophets of God and that their proclamations are God's word, because Brigham Young stated in 1852 that blacks would not receive the priesthood "until the last of the posterity of Able [sic] had received the priesthood, until the redemtion of the earth."<ref>{{cite web|
url=http://www.mrm.org/topics/miscellaneous/black-skin-and-seed-cain|
title=Mormon Research Ministry}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abane|
isbn=1-56858-219-6|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows|
pages=355–374}}
</ref> Mormon apologists reply that revelation is a continuing process and that newer revelations supersede older revelations {{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}.

==Interracial marriages==
===Pre-1978===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Church president Brigham Young said "If the White man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain (those with dark skin), the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so."<ref name = jdcain />

LDS Apostle Mark E. Petersen said in 1954: "I think I have read enough to give you an idea of what the Negro is after. He is not just seeking the opportunity of sitting down in a cafe where white people eat. He isn't just trying to ride on the same streetcar or the same Pullman car with white people. It isn't that he just desires to go to the same theater as the white people. From this, and other interviews I have read, it appears that the Negro seeks absorption with the white race. He will not be satisfied until he achieves it by intermarriage. That is his objective and we must face it."<ref>Race Problems - As They Affect The Church, Convention of Teachers of Religion on the College Level, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, August 27, 1954</ref>

In a 1965 address to BYU students, President Kimball told BYU students: "Now, the brethren feel that it is not the wisest thing to cross racial lines in dating and marrying. There is no condemnation. We have had some of our fine young people who have crossed the lines. We hope they will be very happy, but experience of the brethren through a hundred years has proved to us that marriage is a very difficult thing under any circumstances and the difficulty increases in interrace marriages."<ref name=ChurchNews1978>"Interracial Marriage Discouraged", Church News, June 17, 1978, p. 2.</ref>

===Post-1978===
The official newspaper of the LDS Church<ref>{{Harv|Roberts|1983|p=7}}</ref> – the [[Church News]] – printed an article in entitled "Interracial marriage discouraged". This article was printed on June 17, 1978, in the same issue that announced the policy reversal.

There was no written church policy on interracial marriages, which had been permitted since before the 1978 reversal.<ref name=ChurchNews1978 /> In 1978, church spokesman Don LeFevre said "So there is no ban on interracial marriage. If a black partner contemplating marriage is worthy of going to the Temple, nobody's going to stop him... if he's ready to go to the Temple, obviously he may go with the blessings of the church."<ref>Don LeFevre, Salt Lake Tribune, 14 June 1978</ref>

On the LDS Church website, Dr. Robert Millet writes: "[T]he Church Handbook of Instructions... is the guide for all Church leaders on doctrine and practice. There is, in fact, no mention whatsoever in this handbook concerning interracial marriages. In addition, having served as a Church leader for almost 30 years, I can also certify that I have never received official verbal instructions condemning marriages between black and white members."<ref>Robert L. Millet, [http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/church-response-to-jon-krakauers-under-the-banner-of-heaven "Church Response to Jon Krakauer's Under the Banner of Heaven"], 27 June 2003</ref>

A church lesson manual for adolescent boys that is in use in 2011 contains a 1976 quote from Spencer W. Kimball that says "We recommend that people marry those who are of the same racial background generally, and of somewhat the same economic and social and educational background (some of those are not an absolute necessity, but preferred), and above all, the same religious background, without question".<ref>
*Embry, Jessie L., ''Black Saints in a white church: contemporary African American Mormons'', Signature Books, 1994, p 169.
*The LDS document is online at: [http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=ba805f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=1f4fa41f6cc20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 “Lesson 31: Choosing an Eternal Companion,”] ''Aaronic Priesthood Manual 3'', p. 127.</ref>

==1985 to present==
[[Image:MormonAdFamilyPhoto.jpg|right|thumb|[[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church]]Since the Revelation on the Priesthood in 1978, the church has made no distinctions in policy for black people, but it remains an issue for many black members of the church. Alvin Jackson, a black Bishop, puts his focus on "moving forward rather than looking back."<ref>Page Johnson [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/jackson.html Alvin B. Jackson, Jr—The Bishop is Always In] Meridian Magazine</ref> In an interview with ''Mormon Century'', Jason Smith expresses his viewpoint that the membership of the church was not ready for black people to have the Priesthood at the time of the Restoration, because of prejudice and slavery. He draws analogies to the Bible where only the Israelites have the gospel.<ref>Ken Kuykendall, [http://www.mormoncentury.org/www/ContentPages/HearContent.aspx?PID=1000022 Past racial issues and the Church today]{{Dead link|date=October 2010}} Mormon Century</ref> Officially the church also uses Biblical history to justify the prior ban:

::Ever since biblical times, the Lord has designated through His prophets who could receive the priesthood and other blessings of the gospel. Among the tribes of Israel, for example, only men of the tribe of Levi were given the priesthood and allowed to officiate in certain ordinances. Likewise, during the Savior's earthly ministry, gospel blessings were restricted to the Jews. Only after a revelation to the Apostle Peter were the gospel and priesthood extended to others (see Acts 10:1–33; 14:23; 15:6–8).<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=bbd508f54922d010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=36f2ce9566a43110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ LDS Gospel Topics: Priesthood Ordination before 1978]</ref>

The church opposes racism among its membership. It is currently working to reach out to black people, and has several predominantly black wards inside the United States.<ref>Wilcox, Lauren, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/09/AR2007050901770.html The Saints Go Marching In] Washington Post May 13, 2007</ref> They teach that all are welcome to come unto Christ, and speak against those who harbor ill feelings towards another race. Gordon B. Hinckley, the President of the LDS church, stated:
{{quote|I remind you that no man who makes disparaging remarks concerning those of another race can consider himself a true disciple of Christ. Nor can he consider himself to be in harmony with the teachings of the Church of Christ. Let us all recognize that each of us is a son or daughter of our Father in Heaven, who loves all of His children."<ref name="Hinckley 2006">[http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html The Need for Greater Kindness]</ref>}}

In the July 1992 edition of the [[New Era (magazine)|New Era]], the church published a [[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church. The photo contained several youth of a variety of ethic backgrounds with the words "Family Photo" in large print. Underneath the picture are the words "God created the races—but not racism. We are all children of the same Father. Violence and hatred have no place in His family. (See Acts 10:34.)"<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=024644f8f206c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=445405e063feb010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1
|publisher=[[New Era (magazine)|New Era]]
|title=Family Photo
|month=July | year=1992
|last=Diamond
|first=Craig}}</ref>

===Instances of discrimination after 1978 revelation===
LDS historian Wayne J. Embry interviewed several black LDS church members in 1987 and reported "All of the interviewees reported incidents of aloofness on the part of white members, a reluctance or a refusal to shake hands with them or sit by them, and racist comments made to them." Embry further reported that one black church member "was amazingly persistent in attending Mormon services for three years when, by her report, no one would speak to her." Embry reports that "she [the same black church member] had to write directly to the president of the LDS Church to find out how to be baptized" because none of her fellow church members would tell her.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Black and Mormon|
last=Smith|first=Darron|
publisher=University of Illinois Press|
year=2004|
isbn=0-252-02947-X|
pages=75–77}}</ref>

Black LDS church member Darron Smith wrote in 2003: "Even though the priesthood ban was repealed in 1978, the discourse that constructs what blackness means is still very much intact today. Under the direction of President Spencer W. Kimball, the First Presidency and the Twelve removed the policy that denied black people the priesthood but did very little to disrupt the multiple discourses that had fostered the policy in the first place. Hence there are Church members today who continue to summon and teach at every level of Church education the racial discourse that black people are descendants of Cain, that they merited lesser earthly privilege because they were "fence-sitters" in the War in Heaven, and that, science and climatic factors aside, there is a link between skin color and righteousness" <ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Smith
| first = Darron
| title = The Persistence of Racialized Discourse in Mormonism|
journal = Sunstone
|date=March 2003}}
</ref>

Journalist and church member [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]] in 2007 wrote "Today, many black Mormons report subtle differences in the way they are treated, as if they are not full members but a separate group. A few even have been called 'the n-word' at church and in the hallowed halls of the temple. They look in vain at photos of Mormon general authorities, hoping to see their own faces reflected there.<ref>"New film and revived group help many feel at home in their church" by [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]], The Salt Lake Tribune, July 6, 2007</ref>

White church member [[Eugene England]], a professor at Brigham Young University, wrote in 1998: <blockquote>
This is a good time to remind ourselves that most Mormons are still in denial about the ban, unwilling to talk in Church settings about it, and that some Mormons still believe that Blacks were cursed by descent from Cain through Ham. Even more believe that Blacks, as well as other non-white people, come color-coded into the world, their lineage and even their class a direct indication of failures in a previous life.... I check occasionally in classes at BYU and find that still, twenty years after the revelation, a majority of bright, well-educated Mormon students say they believe that Blacks are descendants of Cain and Ham and thereby cursed and that skin color is an indication of righteousness in the pre-mortal life. They tell me these ideas came from their parents or Seminary and Sunday School teachers, and they have never questioned them. They seem largely untroubled by the implicit contradiction to basic gospel teachings.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = England
| first = Eugene | journal = Sunstone|
pages=54–58|date=June 1998
| title = }}
</ref> </blockquote>

In an interview for the [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] documentary [[The Mormons (documentary)|The Mormons]], [[Jeffrey R. Holland]], a member of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], specifically denounced the perpetuation of [[Mormon folklore|folklore]] suggesting that race was in any way an indication of how faithful a person had been in the [[pre-existence]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/interviews/holland.html trnascript of interview with Holland for the PBS documentary]</ref>

===Church asked to repudiate past racist declarations===
In 1995, black church member A. David Jackson asked church leaders to issue a declaration repudiating past doctrines that treated black people as inferior. In particular, Jackson asked the church to disavow the 1949 "Negro Question" declaration from the church Presidency which stated "The attitude of the church with reference to negroes ... is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord ... to the effect that negroes ... are not entitled to the priesthood...".<ref name = "Ostling-103">{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0-06-066371-5|
pages=103–104|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

The church leadership did not issue a repudiation, and so in 1997 Jackson, aided by other church members including Armand Mauss, sent a second request to church leaders, which stated that white Mormons felt that the 1978 revelation resolved everything, but that [[black Mormons]] react differently when they learn the details. He said that many black Mormons become discouraged and leave the church or become inactive. "When they find out about this, they exit... You end up with the passive African Americans in the church".<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0-06-066371-5|
pages=105|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

Other black church members think giving an apology would be a "detriment" to church work and a catalyst to further racial misunderstanding. African-American church member Bryan E. Powell says "There is no pleasure in old news, and this news is old." Gladys Newkirk agrees, stating "I've never experienced any problems in this church. I don't need an apology. . . . We're the result of an apology."<ref>{{cite news
|first=Bill
|last=Broadway
|publisher=[[Washington Post]]
|date=1998-05-30
|url=http://www.ldshistory.net/1990/mhablack.htm
|title=Black Mormons Resist Apology Talk}}</ref> The large majority of black Mormons say they are willing to look beyond the racist teachings and cleave to the church in part because of its powerful, detailed teachings on life after death.<ref name=Ramirez2005>{{cite news
|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-blackmormons,1,708682.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true
|title=Mormon past steeped in racism: Some black members want church to denounce racist doctrines
|first=Margaret
|last=Ramirez
|date=2005-07-26
|publisher=[[Chicago Tribune]]}}</ref>

Hinckley, then church president, told the Los Angeles Times "The 1978 declaration speaks for itself ... I don't see anything further that we need to do". Church leadership did not issue a repudiation.<ref name = "Ostling-103"/> Church apostle [[Dallin H. Oaks]] said: "It's not the pattern of the Lord to give reasons. We can put reasons to commandments. When we do we're on our own. Some people put reasons to [the ban] and they turned out to be spectacularly wrong. There is a lesson in that.... The lesson I've drawn from that, I decided a long time ago that I had faith in the command and I had no faith in the reasons that had been suggested for it... I'm referring to reasons given by general authorities and reasons elaborated upon [those reasons] by others. The whole set of reasons seemed to me to be unnecessary risk taking... Let's [not] make the mistake that's been made in the past, here and in other areas, trying to put reasons to revelation. The reasons turn out to be man-made to a great extent. The revelations are what we sustain as the will of the Lord and that's where safety lies."<ref>Dallin H. Oaks, Interview with Associated Press, in ''[[Daily Herald (Utah)|Daily Herald]]'', Provo, Utah, 5 June 1988</ref>

===Humanitarian aid in Africa===
The church has been involved in several humanitarian aid projects in Africa. On January 27, 1985, members across the world joined together in a fast for "the victims of famine and other causes resulting in hunger and privation among people of Africa." They also donated the money that would have been used for food during the fast to help those victims, regardless of church membership.<ref>Kimball, Spencer, Romney, Marion, Hinckley, Gordon, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,4383 ''Letters of the First Presidency''] January 11, 1985</ref> Together with other organizations such as UNICEF and the American Red Cross, the church is working towards eradicating measles. Since 1999, there has been a 60 percent drop in deaths from measles in Africa.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=9ca9775baf050110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Church Works to Eradicate Measles in Africa]</ref> Due to their efforts, the [[American Red Cross]] bestowed the First Presidency with the organization's highest financial support honor, the American Red Cross Circle of Humanitarians award.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=df346287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD American Red Cross Recognizes Church for Support of Measles Initiative in Africa]</ref> The church has also been involved in humanitarian aid in Africa by sending food boxes,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=894b6287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Food Boxes Rushed to Ease Starvation in Africa]</ref> digging wells to provide clean water,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=4b12b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Clean Water Projects]</ref> distributing wheelchairs,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=66f4b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Wheelchair Distribution]</ref> fighting AIDS,{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} providing Neonatal Resuscitation Training,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a6f37a520251110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD church Works to Save Infants Through Neonatal Resuscitation Training]</ref> and setting up employment resources service centers.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a658bd9eeb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Employment Resource Service Centers]</ref>

==Black membership==
{{main|Black Mormons}}
The church has never kept official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. Black people have been members of Mormon congregations since its foundation, but before 1978 its black membership was small. It has since grown, and in 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the church (about 5% of the total membership), mostly in Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119.</ref> Black membership has continued to grow substantially, especially in West Africa, where two temples have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa"/>

==See also==
{{div col|cols=2}}
*[[Act in Relation to Service]]
*[[Black people and early Mormonism]]
*[[Black people in Mormon doctrine]]
*[[Randy L. Bott]]
*[[Joseph Freeman (Mormon)]]
*[[Genesis Group]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Primary sources===
*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Mary Lucille Bankhead
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Gilmore H. Chapel
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1986
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Cleolivia Lyons
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1988
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Cherry
| first = Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| coauthors =
| title = It's You and Me, Lord!
| publisher = Trilogy Arts Publications
|year=1970
| location = Provo, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Martin
| first = Wynetta Willis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Mormon Tells Her Story
| publisher = Hawks Publications
|year=1972
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}
*{{cite book
| last = Martins
| first = Helvecio
| authorlink = Helvicio Martins
| coauthors = [[Mark Grover]]
| title = The Autobiography of Elder Helvecio Martins
| publisher = Aspen Books
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite journal
| last = Phelps
| first = Willian W.
| authorlink = W. W. Phelps (Mormon)
| coauthors =
| title = Free People of Color
| journal = [[Evening and Morning Star]]
| volume = 2
| issue = 14
| pages = 109
| publisher = W. W. Phelps & Co.
|month=July | year=1833
| url = http://www.centerplace.org/history/ems/v2n14.htm
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = 2006-07-15 }}
*{{Cite web
| last=Young
| first=Brigham
| authorlink=Brigham Young
| title=Speech by Gov. Young in Joint Session of the Legeslature [sic]
| date=February 5, 1852
| location=Brigham Young Addresses, Ms d 1234, Box 48, folder 3, LDS Church Historical Department, Salt Lake City, Utah
| url=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery%2C_Blacks%2C_and_the_priesthood&oldid=253414
}}.

===Secondary sources===
*{{Cite journal
| last=Allen
| first=James B.
| author-link=James B. Allen (historian)
| title=Would-Be Saints: West Africa before the 1978 Priesthood Revelation
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=17
| year=1991
| pages=207–48
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,15582
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bringhurst
| first = Newel G.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People Within Mormonism (Contributions to the Study of Religion, No. 4)
| publisher = Greenwood Press
|year=1981
| location = Westport, Connecticut
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 0-313-22752-7 }}
*{{Cite journal
| last=Brignhurst
| first=Newel G.
| title=Charles B. Thompson and The Issues of Slavery and Race
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=8
| year=1981
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,12075
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bush
| first = Lester E. Jr
| authorlink =
| coauthors = [[Armand Mauss|Armand L. Mauss]], eds.
| title = Neither White Nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1984
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/neither.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 0-941214-22-2 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Embry
| first = Jessie
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Saints in a White Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/black.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 1-56085-044-2 }}
*{{cite journal
| author = Hawkins, Chester L.
| title = Report on Elijah Abel and his Priesthood
| version =
| publisher = Unpublished Manuscript, Special Collections, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}
* O'Donovan, Connell, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html "The Mormon Priesthood Ban and Elder Q. Walker Lewis"], ''[[John Whitmer Historical Association Journal]]'' (Independence, Missouri, 2006), pp. 47–99.
*''Black Mormons and the Priesthood Ban'' by Darrick T. Evenson (SKU 4935190)
*''Setting the Record Straight: Blacks and the Mormon Priesthood'' by [[Marcus Helvécio T. A. Martins]] (SKU 4995993)
*{{cite book
| title=Black and Mormon
| last=Smith
| first=Darron
| publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]
| year=2004
| isbn=0-252-02947-X
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0-8024-1234-3 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Curse of Cain|
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner}}
*{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|authorlink=Richard and Joan Ostling|year=1999|
publisher=[[Harper Collins]]
}}
*{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abanes|authorlink=Richard Abanes|
isbn=1-56858-219-6|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows}}
* Stewart, John J. ''Mormonism and the Negro'' Salt Lake City, Utah:1960 Bookmark [http://web.archive.org/web/20100409063442/http://www.celestial-orb.org/library/mormon_negro.html Complete text of the 1960 book ''Mormonism and the Negro'' by John J. Stewart, a defense of the former LDS policy of denying the Mormon Priesthood to people of African ancestry:]

===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{citation |publisher= LDS Church |url= http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/race-church |contribution= The Church and Race: All Are Alike Unto God |title= Newsroom: Official Statement |work= mormonnewsroom.org |accessdate = February 29, 2012}}
*{{citation |url= http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/racial-remarks-in-washington-post-article |contribution= Church Statement Regarding 'Washington Post' Article on Race and the Church |date= February 29, 2012 |title= Newsroom: Response |work= mormonnewsroom.org |publisher= LDS Church}}
*[http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETD/id/1130 A Peculiar Place for the Peculiar Institution: Slavery and Sovereignty in Early Territorial Utah], Ricks, Nathaniel R., Master Thesis, ''Brigham Young University'', 2007.
*[[Lester E. Bush, Jr.]] and [[Armand Mauss|Armand L. Mauss]], eds., [http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=438 ''Neither White nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church,''] [[Signature Books]], 1984
*{{citation|publisher = [[University of Chicago]] Divinity School|date = May 31, 2012|title = The Wrong Side of White|first = W. Paul|last = Reeve|url = http://divinity.uchicago.edu/martycenter/publications/sightings/archive_2012/0531.shtml}}

==External links==
*[http://www.blacklds.org/ blacklds.org] an independent (not owned or operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) site maintained by some black and some white Latter-day Saints.

{{Latter-day Saints|hide|show}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Black People And The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-Day Saints}}
[[Category:The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Africa]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
[[Category:Mormonism and race]]
[[Category:Brigham Young]]
[[Category:Criticism of Mormonism]]

{{Link GA|fr}}
[[fr:Situation des Noirs dans le mormonisme]]

Kasım-Ağa-Moschee

2012-04-07T20:51:35Z

Jfruh: /* History */ i assume this is what was meant...

{{Infobox mosque
| name = Kasim Ağa Mosque
| native_name = Kasim Aga Mescidi
| native_name_lang = tr
| image = Byzantine Constantinople eng.png
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Map of Byzantine Constantinople. The Kasim Ağa Mosque is located near the eastern section of the land walls, about 300 m southeast of the Gate of Charisius and north of the Cistern of Aetius.
| coordinates = {{Coord|41.0290|N|28.9390|E|source:dewiki_region:TR-34_scale:5000_type:landmark|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| location = Salmatomruk, [[Fatih]], [[Istanbul]]
| year =
| tradition =
| administration =
| ownership =
| imam =
| chairman =
| spokesperson =
| specifications =
| architect =
| architecture_style = [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]]
| capacity =
| length =
| width =
| area =
| totalarea =
| height =
| dome_quantity =
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}}
'''Kasim Ağa Mosque''' ({{lang-tr|Kasım Ağa Mescidi}}; also ''Kâsım Bey Mescidi'', where ''mescit'' is the Turkish word for a small mosque) is a former [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] building converted into a [[mosque]] by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. Neither surveying during the last restoration nor medieval sources have made it possible to find a satisfactory answer as to its origin and possible dedication. It is probable that the small building was part of the Byzantine monastery whose main church was the building known in Ottoman Age as the Odalar Mosque, whose dedication is also uncertain.<ref name=mw164>Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 164.</ref> The edifice is a minor example of [[Byzantine architecture]] in [[Constantinople]], and is important for historical reasons.

==Location==
The Mosque lies in [[Istanbul]], in the district of [[Fatih]], in the neighborhood ({{lang-tr|[[Mahalle]]}}) of Salmatomruk, not far from [[Edirnekapı, Istanbul|Edirnekapı]] (the ancient [[Walls_of_Constantinople#Gate_of_Charisius|Gate of Charisius]]), more or less halfway between the [[Chora Church]] and the [[Fethiye Mosque]], <ref name=we1>Westphalen (1998), p. 1.</ref> and about 100 m Southwest of the remains of the [[Odalar Mosque]].<ref name=ey72>Eyice (1955) p. 72</ref> The small mosque – enclosed in a garden with trees – lies between ''{{Lang|tr|Koza Sokak}}'' and ''{{Lang|tr|Kasim Odalar Sokak}}'', and is surrounded by modern blocks.<ref name=we1/>

==History==
[[File:Kasımağa Camii Fatih.jpg|right|250px|thumb|A view from south of the mosque in ruin after the fire of 1919. To its right in the background the minaret of the [[Odalar Mosque]], also burned. The distant minaret belongs to the [[Chora Church|Kariye Mosque]].]]
The building was erected on the top of the [[Seven hills of Istanbul|sixth hill of Constantinople]], on a plateau which is limited by the open air [[Cistern]] of [[Aetius (praetorian prefect)|Aetios]] (now a [[Vefa Stadium|football field]]) and by the unidentified Byzantine edifice denominated in Ottoman times as ''[[Bogdan Saray|Boĝdan Saray]]''.<ref name=we1/> Nothing is known about the edifice in the Byzantine Age. Both usage and possible dedication of this building are unknown, <ref name=mw164/> but it is probable that it was an annex of the monastery whose ''[[katholikon]]'' is the building known in the Ottoman Age as Odalar Mosque.<ref name=mw164/><ref name=we1/> The water supply for this complex came without doubt from the nearby Ipek [[cistern]].<ref name=mw164/><ref name=we1/> Anyway, at the time of the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, the edifice was already in ruin.<ref name=mw164/>

After the Conquest of Constantinople, a predominantly Christian population settled in the neighborhood around the building. Despite that in 1506, under the reign of Sultan [[Bayezid II]], a [[Waqf|foundation]] endowed by Kasım bey bin Abdullah (possibly at that time ''Sekbanbaşı'', that is, chief ({{lang-tr|[[Agha (Ottoman Empire)|Agha]]}}) of the [[Janissary|Janissaries]]), had a small mosque erected on the ruins of the building. To the mosque were endowed several shops and plots of land nearby, among them also the still existent Byzantine cistern named Ipek Bodrum ({{lang-tr|Silk Basement}}, named so because in the Ottoman Age the ample room was used as [[silk throwing]] workshop).<ref name=mw164/> The small mosque was heavily damaged by the earthquake of 1894 <ref name =ma309>Mamboury (1953), p. 309</ref> and by the Salmatomruk fire on 2 July 1919, so that afterward only the perimeter walls and the base of the minaret were still standing.<ref name=mw164/> Subsequently abandoned, from the middle of the 20th century the edifice was used as a shanty ({{lang-tr|[[Gecekondu]]}}), but in the 1970s it was fully restored and is now open for worship.<ref name=mw164/>

==Description==
[[File:Kasim Aĝa Mosque 01.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Close-up of the northeast side of the mosque with the brickwork]]
The edifice has a square plan, with a northeast–southwest orientation. The Byzantine edifice was also roughly square in plan, with a single [[nave]] preceded by an atrium at NE and a projecting room on the east side. Due to its small dimensions, the building can hardly be identified as a church, but rather as an annex belonging to a monastery. The analysis of the [[brickwork]] during the restoration showed different construction phases,<ref name=mw164/> and revealed that the foundations and the surviving walls were made of brick and stone.<ref name=ey72/> Moreover, the surveys show that during the conversion into a mosque in 1506 the atrium and the wall of the [[Mihrab]] had to be rebuilt. At the same time, a massive minaret was erected on the northeast side of the building.<ref name=mw164/>

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=33em}}

==Sources==
{{commons category|Kasim Aga Mosque}}

*{{cite book
| last=Mamboury
| first= Ernest
| authorlink=Ernest Mamboury
| title=The Tourists' Istanbul
| publisher=Çituri Biraderler Basımevi
| location=Istanbul
| year=1953
}}
*{{cite book
| last=Eyice
| first= Semavi
| authorlink=Semavi Eyice
| title=Istanbul. Petite Guide a travers les Monuments Byzantins et Turcs
| publisher=Istanbul Matbaası
| location=Istanbul
| year=1955
| language=French
}}
*{{cite book
| last=Müller-Wiener
| first= Wolfgang
| title=Bildlexikon zur Topographie Istanbuls: Byzantion, Konstantinupolis, Istanbul bis zum Beginn d. 17 Jh
| publisher=Wasmuth
| location=Tübingen
| year=1977
| isbn = 9783803010223
| language=German
}}

*{{cite book
| last=Westphalen
| first= Stephan
| title=Die Odalar Camii in Istanbul. Architektur und Malerei einer mittelbyzantinischen Kirche
| publisher=Wasmuth
| location=Tübingen
| language=German
| year=1998
| isbn = 3-8030-1741-6
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kasim Aga Mosque}}

{{Mosques in Turkey}}
{{Churches-Mosques in Istanbul}}

[[Category:Fatih, Istanbul]]

Dawda Jawara

2012-03-31T18:46:29Z

Jfruh: rewrite for clarity/accuracy

{{BLP sources|date=May 2010}}
{{Cleanup-rewrite|date=August 2010}}
{{Infobox president
|honorific-prefix =Sir
|name = Dawda Jawara
|image = Sir dawda Jawara.jpg
|office = [[Heads of State of The Gambia|President of the Gambia]]
|vicepresident =
|term_start = 24 April 1970
|term_end = 22 July 1994
|predecessor =
|successor = [[Yahya Jammeh]]
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1924|5|16|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Barajally]], [[MacCarthy Island Division]]
|death_date =
|death_place =
|religion =Muslim
|spouse =
|children =
|party =[[People's Progressive Party (The Gambia)|People Progressive Party]] (PPP)
}}
'''Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara''', [[Order of St Michael and St George|GCMG]] (born May 16, 1924) was the first leader of [[The Gambia]], serving first as [[Prime Minister]] from 1962 to 1970 and then as [[Heads of State of The Gambia|President]] from 1970 to 1994.

He was initially trained as a veterinary surgeon at the [[University of Glasgow School of Veterinary Medicine|Glasgow veterinary school]] he then moved to complete his training at [[Liverpool University]]. From 1962 until 1970, when [[The Gambia (Commonwealth realm)|the country was a Commonwealth realm]] with [[Elizabeth II]] as head of state, Jawara was Prime Minister and head of government; a 1970 referendum made the country a [[republic]], and Jawara became the nation's first president on April 24 of that year.

Born Kairaba Jawara on May 16, 1924 at [[Barajally]], MacCarthy Island Division (now [[Central River Division]]). His parents were Mamma Fatty and Almami Jawara, Sir Dawda was educated at the Methodist Boys’ High School in colonial Bathurst (now [[Banjul]]), then attended [[Achimota College]] in [[Ghana]], he then finished his studies at the [[University of Glasgow]].

==Childhood and Early Education==

Dawda Jawara was born in 1924 to Almammi Jawara and Mamma Fatty in the village of [[Barajally|Barajally Tenda]] in the central region of [[The Gambia]], approximately 150 miles from the capital, [[Banjul|Bathurst]]. One of six sons, Dawda is the lastborn on his mother’s side and a younger brother to sister Na Ceesay and brothers Basaddi and Sheriffo Jawara. Their father Almammi, who had several wives, was a well-to-do trader who commuted from Barajally Tenda to his trading post in Wally Kunda. Dawda from an early age attended the local Arabic schools to memorize the [[Quran]], a rite of passage for many Gambian children. Needless to say, there were no primary schools in Barajally Tenda; the nearest was in Georgetown, the provincial capital, but this boarding school was reserved for the sons of the chiefs.

Yet, as fate would have it, around 1933, young Jawara’s formal education was sponsored by a friend of his father’s,a trader named Ebrima Youma Jallow, whose trading post was across the street from Alammi’s in Wally-Kunda. Dawda was then enrolled at Mohammedan primary school. After graduation from Mohammedan, Jawara won a scholarship to a all Boys High School, where he enjoyed all his classes, but showed the greatest aptitude in science and math. Upon matriculation in 1945, he worked as a nurse until 1947 at the Victoria Hospital in colonial Bathurst. The limited career and educational opportunities in colonial Gambia led to a year’s stint at [[Achimota College]] in [[Ghana]], where he studied science. While at [[Achimota College]], Jawara showed little interest in [[politics]], even when Ghana and many colonies in Africa at the time were beginning to become restless for [[independence|political independence]] or internal self-government. While he was happy to have met Ghana’s founding father, [[Kwame N’Krumah]], the impact did not prove significant at the time.<ref>Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara, written by Dawda Kairaba Jawara</ref>

After attending [[Achimota College]], Jawara won a scholarship to [[Scotland]]’s [[Glasgow University]] to study veterinary medicine. This was indeed a remarkable accomplishment for two reasons. First, it was noteworthy at the time because colonial education was intended to train Africans for the most menial of clerical tasks in the civil service. And secondly, it was rare for Gambians to be awarded scholarships in the sciences. It was at Glasgow University in the late 1940s, that Jawara’s interest in politics began. In 1948 he joined the African Students Association and was later elected secretary-general and president, respectively. Also, while at Glasgow, Jawara honed his political interests and skills by joining the Student Labour Party Organization, Forward Group, and became active in labor politics of the time. Though never a “leftist,” Jawara immersed himself in the Labour Party’s socialist politics and ideology. At [[Glasgow]] Jawara met Cheddi Jeggan, [[Guyana]]’s future “leftist” prime minister, and classified this period in his life “as very interesting politically”.<ref>Saine, 2000</ref> It was a moment of rising Pan-Africanist fervor and personal growth politically. Yet, still a political career was furthest from Jawara’s mind upon completing his studies in 1953.

==Return to The Gambia==

When Jawara returned home in 1953 after completing his studies as a veterinary surgeon, he served first as a veterinary officer. He became a Christian, and now, as “David,” in 1955 married Augusta Mahoney, daughter of Sir John Mahoney, a prominent Aku in Bathurst. The Aku, a small and educated group, are descendants of freed slaves who settled in The Gambia after [[manumission]]. Despite their relatively small size, they came to dominate both the social, political and economic life of the colony. It was this class that young David Jawara married into. Many opponents claim that it was a pragmatic, albeit an unusual, fulfillment of Jawara’s wish to marry a well-to-do Anglican woman.

As a veterinary officer, Jawara traveled the length and breadth of the Gambia for months vaccinating [[cattle]]. In the process, he established valuable social contacts and relationships with the relatively well-to-do cattle owners in the protectorate. Indeed, it is this group, together with the district chiefs and village heads, who in later years formed the bulk of his initial political support. As indicated previously, British colonial policy at that time divided The Gambia into two sections; the colony and the protectorate. Adults in the colony area, which included Bathurst and the Kombo St. Mary sub-regions, were franchised, while their counterparts in the protectorate were not. What this meant in effect was that political activity and representation at the Legislative Council were limited to the Colony.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessgambia.com/information/colonial-government.html|title=Information on Colonial-Government|accessdate=October 16, 2011}}</ref> At the time of his return to The Gambia, politics in the colony were dominated by a group of urban elites from Bathurst and the Kombo St. Mary’s areas. Needless to say, at a meeting in 1959 at Basse, a major commercial town almost at the end of the Gambia River, the leadership of the People’s Progressive Society decided on a name change, designed to challenge the urban-based parties and their leaders. Thus was born the Protectorate People’s Party.

In that same year, a delegation headed by Sanjally Bojang, a well-off patron and founding member of the new party, together with Bokarr Fofanah and Madiba Janneh, arrived at Abuko to inform Jawara of his nomination as secretary of the party. Jawara resigned his position as chief veterinary officer in order to contest the 1960 election.<ref>Sir Dawada Kairaba Jawara by Dawada Kairaba Jawara. Published by Alhaji Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara (December 31, 2009)</ref> In that same year, the Protectorate People’s Party was renamed the [[People's Progressive Party (The Gambia)|People’s Progressive Party]] (PPP). The name change could not be more timely and appropriate, for it, in principle if not in practice, made the party inclusive as opposed to the generally held perception of it being a Mandinka-based party. Over time, the PPP and Jawara would supersede the urban-based parties and their leaders. This change is what Arnold Hughes termed a “Green Revolution,” a political process in which a rural elite emerges to challenge and ultimately defeat an urban-based political petty-bourgeoisie.<ref>The Oxford companion to politics of the world by By Joël Krieger, Margaret E. Crahan. Published by Oxford University Press, 2001</ref> Jawara’s political ascendance to the head of the party was hardly contested. As one of the few university graduates from the protectorate, the only other possible alternative candidate was Dr. Lamin Marena from Kudang.<ref>Saine, 2000</ref> In fact, some sources indicated that Marena was the first choice for the post of secretary general, which he declined. Jawara’s origin as a member of the cobbler caste was not looked upon favorably by some within the party and the electorate who claimed to, and in many cases actually did, come from royal background. In time, however, the issue of caste became less important, as the 1960 election results would demonstrate.

==Self-Government in The Gambia==

In 1962, Jawara became [[Prime Minister]], which laid the foundation for PPP and Jawara domination of The Gambia’s political landscape. With Jawara’s rise to power after the 1962 elections, the colonial administration began a gradual withdrawal from The Gambia, with self-government granted in 1963. Jawara was appointed Prime Minister in the same year, and independence came on February 18, 1965. This completed The Gambia’s peaceful transition from colonial rule.<ref>{{cite book|http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=soZ4pu8_l8wC&oi=fnd&pg=PA406&dq=sir+dawda+kairaba+jawara&ots=SW9A9h8sC2&sig=O7juA7cf849ztS-GGnoIUHY_e-g#v=onepage&q=sir%20dawda%20kairaba%20jawara&f=false|title= Countries and Territories of the World Vol III|publisher=pediapress}}</ref> Yet, independence had its many challenges, as years of colonial neglect left The Gambia with only two government-owned hospitals and high schools, and a poor infrastructure. Unfortunately, The Gambia also faced limited natural resources, a mono-crop export sector and poor social services. At independence, almost all African countries had evolved economies that were extremely vulnerable and heavily dependent on colonial markets and former colonial powers. Thus, Jawara and his cabinet inherited serious problems that influenced the subsequent course of politics in The Gambia. With a small civil service, staffed mostly by the Aku and urban [[Wolof people|Wollof]]s, Jawara and the PPP sought to build a nation and develop an economy to sustain both farmers and urban dwellers. Many in the rural areas hoped that political independence would bring with it immediate improvement in their life circumstances. These high expectations, as in other newly independent ex-colonies, stemmed partly from the extravagant promises made by some political leaders. In time, however, a measure of disappointment set in as the people quickly discovered that their leaders could not deliver on all their promises.

==The 1981 Aborted Coup==

The greatest challenge to Sir Dawda’s rule (other than the coup that ended his power in 1994) was a putsch in 1981, headed by a disgruntled ex-politician turned Marxist, [[Kukoi Samba Sanyang]], and some members of the Field Force (Saine, 1989). The attempted coup reflected the desire for change, at least on the part of some civilians and their allies in the Field Force. Despite Kukoi’s failure to assume power permanently, the attempted coup revealed major weaknesses within the ruling PPP and society as a whole. The hegemony of the PPP, contraction of intra-party competition and growing social inequalities were factors that could not be discounted. Also crucial to the causes of the aborted coup was a deteriorating economy whose major victims were the urban youth in particular. In his 1981 New Year message, Jawara explained The Gambia’s economic problems thus: {{quote|“We live in a world saddled with massive economic problems. The economic situation has generally been characterized by rampant inflation, periods of excessive monetary instability and credit squeeze . . . soaring oil prices and commodity speculation. These worldwide problems have imposed extreme limitations on the economies like The Gambia”.<ref>Sallah, 1990</ref>}}

The most striking consequence of the aborted coup was the intervention of the Senegalese troops at the request of Jawara, as a result of the defense treaty signed between the two countries in 1965. At the time of the aborted coup, Jawara was attending the wedding of [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Princess Diana]] in London and flew immediately to [[Dakar]] to consult with President [[Abdou Diouf]]. While Senegal’s intervention was ostensibly to rescue President Jawara’s regime, it had the effect of undermining The Gambia’s sovereignty, which was something that had been jealously guarded by Gambians and Jawara in particular. Yet it was relinquished expediently. The presence of Senegalese troops in Banjul was testimony to Jawara’s growing reliance on Senegal, which consequently was a source of much resentment.

==The Senegambian Confederation==

Just three weeks after the aborted coup and the successful restoration of Jawara by Senegalese troops, Presidents Diouf and Jawara, at a joint press conference, announced plans for the establishment of the [[Senegambian Confederation]]. In December 1981, five months after the foiled coup, the treaties of confederation were signed in Dakar.<ref>http://www.gambia.dk/senegambia_confederation.html</ref> The speed with which the treaties were signed and the lack of input from the bulk of the Gambian population suggested to many that the arrangement was an exercise in political expedience. Clearly, President Jawara was under great pressure because of the repercussions of the aborted coup and the Senegalese government. Under the treaty with Senegal, President Diouf served as president and Sir Dawda as his vice. A confederal parliament and cabinet were set up with several ministerial positions going to The Gambia. Additionally, a new Gambian army was created as part of a new confederate army.<ref>Countries and Territories of the World Vol III</ref>

The creation of a new Gambian army was cause for concern for many observers. Such an institution, it was felt, would by no means diminish the re-occurrence of the events of July 30, 1981, nor would it guarantee the regime’s stability. By agreeing to the creation of an army, Jawara had unwittingly planted the very seeds of his eventual political demise. The army would in time become a serious contender for political office, different from political parties only in its control over the instruments of violence. Therefore, it seems likely that Jawara had few if any other option but to create a new Gambia army. Such an atmosphere, however, as the events of 1994 would show, was fertile ground for coups and counter coups. Perhaps more important, the creation of a new army diverted limited resources that could have otherwise been used to enhanced the strong rural development programs of the PPP government. The Confederation eventually collapsed in 1989.

Jawara did not resort to the authoritarian and often punitive backlash that follows coups in most of Africa. Instead, he made overtures of reconciliation, with judicious and speedy trial and subsequent release of well over 800 detainees. Individuals who received death sentence convictions were committed to life in prison instead, and many prisoners were released for lack of sufficient evidence. The trial of more serious offenders by an impartial panel of judges drawn from Anglophone Commonwealth countries is testimony to Jawara’s democratic impulses, sense of fair play and respect for human rights.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawar|author= Dawda K Jawara}}</ref> International goodwill toward the regime was immediate and generous and before long Jawara had begun a process of political and economic reconstruction of the country. Thus, it would have been premature to dismiss democracy in The Gambia at that time.

==Economic Reform==

As one of the most marginal nations in the capitalist periphery at the time of independence, The Gambia was incorporated into the world capitalist system as a supplier of agricultural exports (largely groundnuts) and tourism. Since independence, there has been little change in the structure of the economy, which remains very heavily dependent on groundnut production. Agriculture and tourism are the dominant sectors and also the main sources of foreign exchange, employment, and income for the country. Thanks to the growing economy, the government introduced in the 1970s the policy of Gambianization, which led to an expansion of the state’s role in the economy. There was a 75 percent increase in total government employment over the period from 1975 to 1980.<ref>http://allafrica.com/stories/200608160905.html</ref>

In mid-1985, The Gambia under Jawara, initiated the Economic Recovery Program (ERP), one of the most comprehensive economic adjustment programs devised by any country in sub-Saharan Africa. With the aid of a team of economists from the [[Harvard Institute for International Development]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]], The Gambia greatly reformed the economic structure of the country. Under ERP, in 1985-86, the deficit was 72 million Dalasis, and it increased to 169 million Dalasis in 1990-91 (Budget Speech, June 15, 1990). However, by mid-1986, just a year after the ERP was established, the revival of The Gambian economy had begun. The government reduced its budget deficit, increased it foreign exchange reserves, and eliminated it debt service arrears.<ref>Economic recovery in the Gambia: insights for adjustmet in Sub-Saharan Africa. edited by Malcolm F. McPherson and Steven C. Radelet. Published by Harvard Press, 1995</ref>

Under the ERP, money-seeking opportunities became more abundant, and, unfortunately, many private businessmen and public officials turned to illegal means to make profit. Corruption created a serious legitimacy crisis for the PPP. Several cases of corruption were revealed and these seriously indicted the PPP regime. The Gambia Commercial Development Bank collapsed, largely due to its failure to collect loans. An Asset Management and Recovery Corporation (AMRC) was set up under an act of parliament in 1992, but the PPP government was not willing to use its influence to assist AMRC in its recovery exercise. This was particularly embarrassing because of the fact that the people and organizations with the highest loans were close to PPP. In an embezzlement scheme at the Gambia Cooperative Union (GCU), fraud was revealed in Customs,<ref>Economic recovery in the Gambia: insights for adjustmet in Sub-Saharan Africa. edited by Malcolm F. McPherson and Steven C. Radelet. Published by Harvard Press, 1995</ref> and through the process of privatization, it was discovered that many dummy loans had been given to well-connected individuals at GCDB.<ref>Economic recovery in the Gambia: insights for adjustmet in Sub-Saharan Africa. edited by Malcolm F. McPherson and Steven C. Radelet. Published by Harvard Press, 1995</ref> A group of parastatal heads and big businessmen closely associated with the PPP (nicknamed the Banjul Mafia) were seen as the culprits responsible for corruption in the public sector.<ref>Economics and Politics in the Gambia
Tijan M. Sallah
The Journal of Modern African Studies
Vol. 28, No. 4 (Dec., 1990), pp. 621-648
(article consists of 28 pages)
Published by: Cambridge University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/160924</ref> Driven to make profit, many elites did not refrain from manipulating state power to maintain a lifestyle of wealth and privilege. Corruption had become a serious problem in The Gambia, especially during the last two years of the PPP rule.

By 1992, The Gambia was one of the poorest countries in Africa and the world, with a 45-year life expectancy at birth, an infant mortality rate of 130 per 1000 live births, a child mortality rate of 292 per 1000, and an under-five mortality rate of 227 per 1000. At that time, 120 out of every 1000 live births died of malaria. The Gambia also had a 75 percent illiteracy rate, only 40 percent of the population had access to potable water supply, and over 75 percent of the population were living in absolute poverty.<ref>http://resourcepage.gambia.dk/demogrph/ras_2.htm</ref>

Structural adjustment programs implemented in response to the economic crisis resulted in government fragmentation, privatization, less patronage in co-opting various groups and growing corruption. The 30-years the PPP regime operated with diminished resources and therefore could no longer rule as it always had. The credibility of the competitive party system was severely challenged as Jawara’s PPP was unable to show that good economic management could lead to benefits for the majority of society.

To combat the myriad threats to political survival, a leader needs resources. Despite the existence of both state- and time-specific variations, it is possible to identify a range of resources leaders may employ to prolong their rule. African leaders have access to two types of resources: domestic (by virtue of their access to the state) and external (foreign aid, loans, and so forth). Given states’ widely disparate levels of domestic resources, with some possessing valuable mineral deposits and others confined to agricultural production, generalizations are unwise, although an accurate case-by-case assessment of a leader’s domestic resource base is clearly an important factor when explaining political survival.

==Regime Survival==

In The Gambia the PPP regime’s prolonged survival owed much to its leader. There existed an intimate, almost inextricable link between the survival of Dawda Jawara and the survival of the regime, Jawara’s apparent indispensability reflected his uncommon ability to maintain subordinates’ loyalty without forfeiting popular support. Jawara’s rule created and sustained a predominant position within the PPP.

With Jawara’s precarious hold on power at The Gambia's independence, his low caste status constituted a grave handicap and one which threatened to overshadow his strengths (most notably, a university education). The two pre-independence challenges to Jawara’s position demonstrated his vulnerability and illustrated the fact that he could not rely upon the undivided loyalty of the party’s founding members. At independence Jawara’s lieutenants regarded him as their representative, almost a nominal leader, and clearly intended him to promote their personal advancement.

Given these circumstances, Jawara’s task was to overcome his low caste status, assert his authority over the party and secure control over its political direction. In doing this, he did not use coercion. Politically inspired “disappearances” were never an element of PPP rule; neither opponents nor supporters suffered harassment or periods of detention on fabricated charges. That Jawara was able to eschew coercive techniques and still survive reflected an element of good fortune, and yet his skillful political leadership was also crucial. Within his own party Jawara was fortunate to be surrounded by individuals willing to refrain from violence to achieve their goals, and yet much of the credit for this restraint must go to Jawara—his skilful manipulation of patronage resources, cultivation of affective ties and shrewd balancing of factions within the PPP. Lacking the coercive option, and given that affective ties, which had to be earned, were a medium- to long-term resource, Jawara initially relied heavily on instrumental ties and distribution of patronage. His limited resource base posed an obvious, though not insurmountable, problem. Within the ruling group, ministerial positions—which provided a generous salary, perks and for some, access to illicit wealth—constituted the most sought after form of patronage and yet, before 1970, the number of ministerial posts did not exceed seven.<ref>{{cite book|title=From Green Uprising to National Reconciliation: The people's Progressive Party in The Gambia 1959-1973|author=Arnold Hughes|Published by Canadian Journal of African Studies}}</ref> By 1992 the number remained a comparatively modest fourteen. Despite these limits, Jawara skillfully used all the various permutations of patronage distribution (appointment, promotion, termination, demotion and rehabilitation) to dramatize his power over subordinates’ political futures and entrench himself as leader.

After independence, in response to the pre-1965 challenges to his authority, Jawara moved to reduce the size, cohesion and authority of the founding members as a group. Many of the party’s earliest adherents (even those who showed no outward sign of disloyalty) lost ministerial posts during the early years of PPP rule. Jawara may not have used force, but neither was he hampered by sentiment; his pragmatism and willingness to demote, or even drop, former supporters in order to strengthen his personal political position was apparent. Jawara further strengthened his political position with the incorporation of new sources of support within the ruling group. His enthusiasm for political accommodation stemmed from the closely related imperatives of weakening the influence of the PPP’s original members and avoiding political isolation. The original group resented the fact that newcomers had not participated in the early struggle for power and yet were now enjoying the fruits of their labor. The secondary factor of ethno-regional considerations compounded this resentment; those who were co-opted came from all ethnic groups in the former colony and protectorate.

Jawara’s popular support and cultivation of effective ties were crucial for easing the pressure on scarce patronage resources. Although the skilful distribution of patronage and associated tolerance of corruption (to be discussed later) played an important role in the PPP’s survival, Jawara did not rely on elite-level resource distribution as heavily as some of his counterparts.

==Corruption and Political Survival==

For many years observers viewed corruption in The Gambia as significantly less prevalent than in many other African states. In retrospect this view appears overstated, though it is true that corruption did not reach the heights seen elsewhere. Jawara himself refrained from excessive self-enrichment and many of his lieutenants followed suit. Conflicting survival imperatives—in particular, the need for foreign aid and popular support, both of which were unlikely to be forthcoming under a thoroughly corrupt regime, persuaded Jawara to set some limits on “allowable” corruption. The possibility of exposure in parliament or by the press provided a further constraint.

Nevertheless, events during the closing years of the [[People's Progressive Party (The Gambia)|People's Progressive Party]] rule together with post-coup revelations and inquiries suggest that corruption was both a significant phenomenon and one which played an important role in the [[People's Progressive Party (The Gambia)|People's Progressive Party]]’s survival. Jawara understood the political advantages of corruption. Fundamentally, corruption formed an important component of the patronage network, facilitating elite accumulation. It provided a means of creating and sustaining mutually beneficial and supportive relationships between PPP politicians (headed by Jawara), senior civil servants and Gambian businessmen.

Initially, then, corruption played a significant part in the survival of the [[People's Progressive Party (The Gambia)|People's Progressive Party]], uniting political, bureaucratic and business interests in a series of mutually beneficial and supportive relationships. In the longer term, however, it served to undermine the regime. Perhaps the first indication of this occurred in 1981 when, during the coup attempt of that year, Kukoi Samba Sanyang cited “corruption and the squandering of public funds” as a primary motive of intervention. No doubt there was a strong element of opportunism in Sanyang’s actions, yet the fact that he seized upon corruption as a suitable justification for his actions reflected increasing public awareness of the problem. Just a month prior to the coup, Reverend Ian Roach had spoken out publicly against corruption, the local press reported numerous instances of low-level bureaucratic theft, and higher up, Jawara’s leniency towards the ministers and civil servants towards the end of the 1970s was widely resented. The increased public awareness of corruption weakened the [[People's Progressive Party (The Gambia)|People's Progressive Party]] regime and furnished the 1994 conspirators with a suitable pretext for intervention. Since many soldiers reportedly regarded their unsatisfactory living conditions as a manifestation of corruption, it also gave them a motive. Sir Dawda may have underestimated the real risk a new army would pose to himself and the country, and in fact, may have dragged his feet in dealing accordingly with corruption. To this accusation he responded:{{Quote|“I believe in the rule of law and democracy. We are a poor country where petty jealousies exist. One buys a car or builds a house, so he must be corrupt, and Jawara did not do anything. I am expected to serve as a judge and policeman at the same time. At the Cooperative Union it was agreed that a Presidential Commission be established to investigate alleged corruption. Action was taken, then the coup occurred. We must let the law take its course. We were serious to run a government according to therule of law and for this we were highly rated and respected”.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sir Dawada Kairaba Jawara|author= Dawada Kairaba Jawara|publisher= Alhaji Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara|date=December 31, 2009}}</ref>}}

Of course, many African leaders are aware of the positive relationship between popular support and elite acquiescence. However, resource shortages had more likely than not persuaded leaders to priorities in favor of elites. In The Gambia two additional factors persuaded Jawara to pursue a somewhat different route to political survival. On the one hand, the [[People's Progressive Party (The Gambia)|People's Progressive Party]] needed to win successive multi-party elections. On the other, Jawara’s rejection of coercion as a survival technique meant that overt public challenges could not simply be suppressed; it was vital the latent threat posed by specific societal groups remain dormant. Fortunately, Jawara did have a great deal of public support.

==Personal Rule and Public Support==

Given Jawara’s prolonged political survival under difficult circumstances, one might expect the Gambian leader to have possessed exceptional political qualities. Jawara did possess three advantages; the same advantages which had prompted his selection as party leader in 1959. First was his protectorate birth and [[Mandinka people|Mandinka ethnic identity]]; Jawara personified the PPP’s early electoral appeal to [[protectorate]], and specifically Mandinka, sensibilities. His personal connections in the rural areas cultivated during his travels as a senior veterinary officer during the second half of the 1950s were seen as an additional electoral asset. Eclipsing both these attributes, however, was Jawara’s graduate status. Whereas most PPP members shared the same ethnic background, few could claim to have been educated beyond high school. Jawara’s university education both distinguished him from his colleagues and outweighed the fact that it was others who had initiated political activities within the protectorate.

In contrast to these advantages, however, Jawara possessed the decided disadvantage of low [[caste]]. As a member of the leather workers’ caste, Jawara’s social standing was much lower than many of his colleagues, which provoked doubt as to his suitability for the position of leader. Some regarded caste as a more important consideration than education and lobbied for the selection of the chief’s son, instead.

It is assumed that long-surviving political leaders do think in [[Political strategy|strategic terms]], that they have some sort of “game plan” for pre-empting and countering threats to their position. That is not to downplay the importance of less tangible factors, intuition for example, but simply to say that on some level, successful leaders consider how they might prolong their rule, and respond accordingly. Secondly, it is assumed that leaders possess sufficient authority to implement their chosen strategies and that degree of skill they bring to bear on a situation will influence the outcome. Accounting for the importance of leadership, scholars typically point to the absence of established constitutional rules, effective political institutions or widely shared values, all of which, to varying degrees, characterized African states. The impact of these characteristics has been analyzed in a study by Jackson and Rosberg. Adopting the classical concept of a [[Political system|political institution]] as “an impersonal system of rules and offices that effectively binds the conduct of individuals involved in them,” they suggest that, in most African states, non-institutionalized governments “where persons take precedence over rules” prevails. Conceptualizing African politics in this way caused Jackson and Rosberg to identify a distinctive type of political system which they labeled “personal rule.” Subject to certain modifications, the theory of personal rule provides a useful framework for the study of leadership and survival, not only explaining why leaders frequently play such a key role in the elite political sphere but also identifying the specific threats that they might expect to confront.

Without the backing of effective institutional rules, a personal ruler is undoubtedly vulnerable. Nevertheless, if elites generally are unrestrained by rules, the same is equally true of leaders. Constrained only by the power of other “big men,” the political liberation supplied by a system of personal rule enables a leader to utilize strategies (designed to strengthen his grip) that would be unthinkable in institutional systems. Moreover, the political rules may be changed, as in the establishment of a [[single-party state]] to suit a leader’s personal political convenience. He may also utilize constituent components of the system of personal rule, including [[clientelism]], [[patronage]] and purges, to perpetuate his rule. Adopting these strategies, a leader attempts to prevent politics from deteriorating into a violent fight, a fight he may well lose. Whether or not he succeeds is primarily dependent upon political skill. Jackson and Rosberg’s theory addresses threats to a regime’s survival, possible strategies to deal with threats, as well as the defining factor, or skill, which determines a leader’s success or failure.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/2010277|title= Why Africa's Weak State Persits|author= Robert Jackson and Carl Rosberg|journal= World Politics, Vol.35|published= Oct 1, 1982}}</ref> Somewhat surprisingly, this theory does not truly describe the state of Jawara’s leadership in The Gambia. Whereas systems of personal rule generally lack effective institutions and are “inherently authoritarian,” in The Gambia, Jawara’s adherence to democratic norms was responsible for both a non-authoritarian approach to power retention and a degree of [[institutionalization]].

Although the theory of personal rule cannot be applied wholesale to the study of Gambian politics, and is subject to certain modifications, it remains a useful model. The first general point, for example, is Jackson and Rosberg’s depiction of African politics as an “institutionless” arena. Although this perspective illuminates central features of the [[African politics|African political process]], it is important not to lose sight of the variations between states. States other than The Gambia have, at different times, exhibited varying degrees of institutionalization, some have undoubtedly enjoyed a “purer” form of personal rule than others, and in this sense it is possible to envisage an abstract scale of personal rule. The Gambia, though occupying a low ranking, would not, during the years of PPP rule, have been off the scale altogether. President Jawara was, in many ways, a typical personal ruler due to the pivotal political role he occupied, the threats he faced and the strategies he used attest to this.

One strategy or approach Jawara failed to adopt was [[authoritarianism]]. Jackson and Rosberg, noting the “widespread removal of constitutional rights and protection from political opponents, the elimination of institutional [[checks and balances]], the termination of open [[party politics]] and the regulation and confinement of [[political participation]], usually within the framework of a “single party,” describe systems of personal rule as “inherently authoritarian.” Jawara, on the other hand, retained a [[multi-party system]] (at least in theory), a choice which can be likely explained in one of two ways. First, it may have reflected Jawara’s perception of the political advantages of a multi-party system. If so, the theory of personal rule retains its utility. Thus, Jackson and Rosberg argue that personal rulers only follow rules when they “have been changed . . . to suit his . . . personal political convenience”.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/2010277|title= Why Africa's Weak State Persits|author= Robert Jackson and Carl Rosberg|journal= World Politics, Vol.35|published= Oct 1, 1982}}</ref> In Jawara’s case the rules were already “convenient”—there was no need to change them.

Conversely; it is possible to speculate that had the rules become a hindrance (had an opposition party won a general election, for example), Jawara’s commitment to a multi-party system was such that he would have agreed to step down. Though hardly the action of a typical leader practicing personal rule, this would nevertheless have been a personal decision. Nevertheless, although Jawara may have adhered to the rules which as a result of his personal skill as a leader had been retained, there was little to prevent him following the same route as other African leaders and instituting a series of authoritarian reforms. Indeed, many of his subordinates would have welcomed such a move. The element of restraint Jawara demonstrated with regard to political opposition was not dictated by fully established institutional rules. Rather, he chose a non-authoritarian approach. Jawara’s choice held important implications for the PPP’s survival. Perhaps most significantly, it compelled the cultivation of popular support, a feature not incorporated into Jackson and Rosberg’s theory of personal rule, which suggests that mass support is of negligible importance to a personal ruler’s survival. Though popular support may not be a necessary component of survival, it may be a significant factor in the longevity of both single-party and multi-party regimes.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/2010277|title= Why Africa's Weak State Persits|author= Robert Jackson and Carl Rosberg|journal= World Politics, Vol.35|published= Oct 1, 1982}}</ref>

The public support enjoyed by the PPP stemmed, in part, from Jawara’s personal popularity. A fundamentally pragmatic and flexible individual, Jawara was no ideologue and did not possess a charismatic hold on the populace. However, he did possess the ability to inspire trust. An important aspect of this was Jawara’s accessibility (assisted by the small size of The Gambia). He undertook annual “meet the farmers” tours,during which he listened to people’s problems and explained government policy as well as periodic meetings with sections of the Banjul Community. Despite the increased security surrounding the State House after the 1981 coup attempt, Jawara remained available to individuals or delegations seeking audience. In addition to being fairly accessible, Jawara remained “in touch” with his people. His lifestyle, though obviously comfortable, did not feature the insensitive extravagance of some African leaders. Whether distributing gifts or inspecting projects, he demonstrated a seemingly genuine concern for his people. As time passed Jawara’s longevity and seeming invincibility also worked to his advantage. Many Gambians simply could not imagine life without him.

==Treatment of the Press==

Jawara’s non-authoritarian approach to political survival extended to his treatment of the press, as evidenced by the fact that he eschewed the tactics favored by many other African leaders. He allowed newspapers to operate [[Freedom of the press|free of coercive legislation]], police harassment or frequent court appearances. Jawara’s tolerance reflected his readiness to risk legitimacy-deflating exposes in order to sustain his legitimacy-inducing reputation (both at home and abroad) as a peaceable democrat. The risk was lessened, too, by Jawara’s ability to keep corruption within limits, mass [[illiteracy]] and newspaper’s perennial lack of resources for [[investigative journalism]] or even producing issues on a regular basis. Almost certainly some ministers wished to see what one local observer described as a more “respectful” press, but as long as Jawara retained his commitment to press freedom, a change of direction remained unlikely.

Of course, the press was not only a to the [[People's Progressive Party (The Gambia)|People's Progressive Party]] but also served as a useful survival resource. Government-controlled newspapers, and [[Radio Gambia]] even more so, served as a useful communication and legitimization tool during elections or periods of difficulty for the regime, such as labor unrest and the introduction of the ERP. While opposition groups were not denied all access to the radio during elections and most major events in between received coverage, broadcasts were primarily a government tool and a degree of self-censorship was practiced.

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
The Gambia Echo [http://www.thegambiaecho.com/Homepage/tabid/36/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/1263/Default.aspx]
http://freedomnewspaper.com/Homepage/tabid/36/mid/367/newsid367/5105/Gambia-Who-is-Kairaba-/Default.aspx

==External links==
{{Portalbox|The Gambia|Biography|Politics}}
*[http://www.gambianow.com/home More stories of ex-Gambian president's legacy]

{{S-start}}
{{S-off}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Pierre Sarr N'Jie]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Heads of Government of The Gambia|Prime Minister of The Gambia]]|years=1962–1970}}
{{S-aft|after=none}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], under the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Heads of Government of The Gambia|President of The Gambia]]|years=1970–1994}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Yahya Jammeh]]}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Ibrahim Babangida]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Economic Community of West African States|Chairman of the Economic Community of West African States]]|years=1989 – 1990}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Blaise Compaoré]]}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Blaise Compaoré]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Economic Community of West African States|Chairman of the Economic Community of West African States]]|years=1991 – 1992}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Abdou Diouf]]}}
{{S-end}}
{{GambianPresidents}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Jawara, Dawda
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = May 16, 1924
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Barajally]], [[MacCarthy Island Division]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jawara, Dawda}}
[[Category:1924 births]]
[[Category:Converts to Christianity]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George]]
[[Category:Leaders ousted by a coup]]
[[Category:Alumni of Achimota School]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Gambia]]
[[Category:Government ministers of the Gambia]]
[[Category:People's Progressive Party (Gambia) politicians]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1981]]

[[br:Dawda Jawara]]
[[cs:Dawda Jawara]]
[[de:Dawda Jawara]]
[[el:Ντάουντα Τζαγουάρα]]
[[es:Dawda Jawara]]
[[eu:Dawda Jawara]]
[[fr:Dawda Jawara]]
[[ka:დაუდა კაირიბა ჯავარა]]
[[ko:다우다 자와라]]
[[hi:दाव्डा जावारा]]
[[io:Dawda Jawara]]
[[id:Dawda Jawara]]
[[sw:Dawda Jawara]]
[[nl:Dawda Kairaba Jawara]]
[[ja:ダウダ・ジャワラ]]
[[oc:Dawda Kairaba Jawara]]
[[pl:Dawda Kairaba Jawara]]
[[pt:Dawda Kairaba Jawara]]
[[fi:Dawda Jawara]]
[[sv:Dawda Jawara]]
[[yo:Dawda Jawara]]

Siward, Earl of Northumbria

2011-07-27T22:37:11Z

Jfruh: more idiomatic English

{{ Infobox monarch
| name = Siward
| title = Earl of Northumbria
| image = [[File:Death of Earl Siward (cropped).jpg|alt=Head and shoulders of bearded man in the gloom, wearing a medieval helmet]]
| caption = From the ''Death of Earl Siward'', 1861, by [[James Smetham]] (see [[#Death_and_legacy|below]])
| reign = 1041–55
| othertitles = Also earl in York from 1023x33
| native_lang1 = Sigvarðr Diger
| predecessor = [[Eric of Hlathir|Erik of Hlathir]] (for York) [[Eadulf III of Bernicia|Eadulf]] (for Bamburgh) [[Uhtred the Bold]] (for both)
| successor = [[Tostig Godwinson]]
| spouse 1 = Ælfflæd
| spouse 2 = Godgifu
| offspring = [[Osbjorn Bulax|Osbjorn]] (unclear) [[Waltheof II, Earl of Northumbria|Waltheof]] (Ælfflæd)
| father = Bjorn (?)
| mother = unknown
| birth_date = unknown
| birth_place = [[Scandinavia]]
| death_date = 1055
| place of burial = [[St Olave's Church, York|St Olaf's church]], [[York]]
}}
'''Siward''' or '''Sigurd''' ([[Old English]]: ''Sigeweard'')<ref>The English name Siward or '''Sigeweard''' was cognate to the single Old Norse name written variously as ''Sigvarðr'' and ''Sigurðr''; see Holman, ''Northern Conquest'', p. 103; Munch (ed.), ''Chronica regum Manniae et Insularum'', vol. i, p. 140; Stevenson, ''Simeon of Durham'', p. 119</ref> was an important [[earl]] of 11th-century northern England. The [[Old Norse]] nickname ''Digri'' and its Latin translation ''Grossus'' ("the stout") are given to him by near-contemporary texts.<ref>Barlow (ed.), ''Life of King Edward'', p. 35 (= ''Vita Ædwardi'', i. 3); Aird, "Siward"; see also reference in on the ''Vita Waldevi'' below</ref> Siward was probably of [[Scandinavia]]n origin, perhaps a relative of [[Earl Ulf]], and emerged as a powerful regional strongman in England during the reign of [[Cnut the Great|Cnut]] ("Canute the Great", 1016–1035). Cnut was a Scandinavian ruler who conquered England in the 1010s, and Siward was one of the many Scandinavians who came to England in the aftermath of that conquest. Siward subsequently rose to become sub-ruler of most of northern England. From 1033 at the latest Siward was in control of southern [[Northumbria]], that is, present-day [[Yorkshire]], governing as earl on Cnut's behalf.

He entrenched his position in northern England by marrying Ælfflæd, the daughter of [[Ealdred, Earl of Bamburgh|Ealdred]], [[Earl of Bamburgh]]. After killing Ealdred's successor [[Eadwulf III of Bamburgh|Eadulf]] in 1041, Siward gained control of all Northumbria. He exerted his power in support of Cnut's successors, kings [[Harthacnut]] and [[Edward the Confessor|Edward]], assisting them with vital military aid and counsel. He probably gained control of the middle [[shire]]s of [[Northampton]] and [[Huntingdon]] by the 1050s, and there is some evidence that he spread Northumbrian control into [[Cumberland]]. In the early 1050s Earl Siward turned against the Scottish ruler [[Mac Bethad mac Findlaích]] ("Macbeth"). Despite the death of his son [[Osbjorn Bulax|Osbjorn]] a year previously, Siward defeated Mac Bethad in battle in 1054. More than half a millennium later the Scotland adventure earned him a place in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Macbeth]]''. Siward died in 1055, leaving one son, [[Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria|Waltheof]], who would eventually succeed to Northumbria. [[St Olave's Church, York|St Olaf's church]] in [[York]] and nearby [[Heslington Hill]] are associated with Siward.

==Sources==
[[Image:EmpireNorth.JPG|thumb|right||alt=A map of north-western Europe in which Cnut's dominions are depicted in red; there is red over what is now England, Denmark and Norway, the Lothian and Borders region of modern Scotland, as well as a substantial amount of modern Sweden|The dominions of Cnut; Cnut's career is probably the key context for how another Dane rose to become sub-ruler of northern England.]]
Source material on Siward's life and career is scarce, and only a small and potentially unrepresentative amount of information exists. No contemporary or near-contemporary biography has survived, and narratives from around the time of his life such as the ''[[Encomium Emmae]]'' and the ''[[Vita Ædwardi Regis]]'' scarcely mention him; historians are therefore dependent on a few entries in the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' and comparable Irish sources. Later [[Anglo-Norman]] histories may or may not be reliable depending on their source material, but useful ones include the ''Chronicle'' of [[John of Worcester]] (compiled between 1124 and 1140),<ref>Gransden, ''Historical Writing'', p. 144</ref> [[William of Malmesbury]] (writing between c. 1125 and 1142),<ref>Thomson, "Malmesbury, William of"</ref> [[Henry of Huntingdon]] (writing between c. 1133 and 1154),<ref>Gransden, ''Historical Writing'', p. 194</ref> and [[Orderic Vitalis]] (writing between c. 1114 and 1141).<ref>Gransden, ''Historical Writing'', p. 152</ref> Other sources<ref>For source discussion in this period, see Lawson, ''Cnut'', pp. 39–80 and Gransden, ''Historical Writing'', passim; for particular relevant analysis, see sources used by Duncan, ''Kingship'', pp. 33–43 and Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 248–71</ref> include the material attributed to [[Symeon of Durham]] (compiled and written as extant between the late 1000s and the first half of the 1100s).<ref>The texts in question are the ''[[Historia Regum]]'', the ''[[Libellus de exordio]]'', ''[[De primo Saxonum adventu]]'' and ''[[De obsessione Dunelmi]]''; the ''Libellus de exordio'' is likely to have been "authored" by Symeon; see Rollason, ''Symeon of Durham'', pp. xlii–l, lxxvii–xci, et passim, for a recent discussion</ref> Legendary material, such as that in [[hagiography]] or later medieval sources such as [[John of Fordun]] or [[Andrew of Wyntoun]], is not generally regarded as useful beyond its limited potential for cleanly preserving earlier source material.<ref>Duncan, ''Kingship'', passim; Broun, ''Scottish Independence'', passim</ref>

==Background==
Siward's career in northern England spanned the reigns of four different monarchs. It began during the reign of [[Cnut the Great|Cnut]], and lasted through those of [[Harold Harefoot]] and [[Harthacnut]] into the early years of [[Edward the Confessor]]. Most important was the reign of Cnut, in which so many new political figures rose to power that some historians think it comparable to the [[Norman conquest]] five decades later.<ref name=Fleming-ch2>E.g. Fleming, ''Kings and Lords'', pp. 21–52</ref> These "new men" were military figures, usually with weak hereditary links to the West Saxon royal house that Cnut had deposed.<ref name=Fleming-ch2/> As Cnut ruled several [[Scandinavia]]n kingdoms in addition to England, power at the highest level was delegated to such strongmen.<ref>Lawson, ''Cnut'', pp. 81–102; Sawyer, ""Cnut's Scandinavian empire", pp. 10–22</ref> In England, it fell to a handful of newly promoted "ealdormen" or "earls", who ruled a [[shire]] or group of shires on behalf of the king.<ref>See, for a list and discussion of Cnut's earls, Keynes, "Cnut's earls", pp. 43–88; the term was, by Cnut's reign, interchangeable with the Scandinavian word [[earl]], which supplanted the former by the end of the 11th-century (Crouch, ''Image of the Aristocracy'', pp. 46–50)</ref> Siward was, in the words of historian Robin Fleming, "the third man in Cnut's new triumvirate of earls",<ref name=Fleming49>Fleming, ''Kings and Lords'', p. 49</ref> the other two being [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex|Godwine]], [[Earl of Wessex]] and [[Leofwine, Earl of Mercia|Leofwine]], [[Earl of Mercia]].<ref name=Fleming49/>

Northern England in the 11th-century was a region quite distinct from the rest of the country. The former kingdom of Northumbria stretched from the [[Humber]] and [[River Mersey|Mersey]] estuaries, northward to the [[Firth of Forth]], where, passing the western [[Kingdom of Strathclyde]], it met the [[Kingdom of Alba]] (Scotland).<ref>Lewis, "Introduction", p. 6; Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 232–40</ref> Northumbria had been united with the West Saxon English kingdom only in the 950s, by King [[Eadred of England|Eadred]], and subsequent control was exerted through the agency of at least two ealdormen, one to the north and one to the south of the [[river Tees]].<ref>Rollason, ''Northumbria'', pp. 65–66; Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 190, 211</ref> The former is associated with the stronghold of [[Bamburgh]], while the latter is associated with the great Roman city of [[York]].<ref>Fletcher, ''Bloodfeud'', passim; Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', passim</ref> It was a politically fragmented region. The western part, from [[Lancashire]] to [[Cumberland]], was heavily settled by Norse-Gaels, while in the rest of Northumbria English and Anglo-Scandinavian regional magnates—[[thegn]]s, [[Hold (title)|hold]]s and [[high-reeve]]s—exercised a considerable degree of independence from the ealdormen.<ref>Bolton, ''Empire of Cnut'', pp. 109–18</ref> One such example was the magnate [[Thurbrand the Hold|Thurbrand]], a hold in Yorkshire, probably based in [[Holderness]], whose family were frequently at odds with the ruling earls at Bamburgh.<ref>Bolton, ''Empire of Cnut'', pp. 114–17 Fletcher, ''Bloodfeud'', passim</ref>

==Ancestry==
{| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#dddddd9; color:black; width:40em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" |"The Stories of the ancients tell us that ''Ursus'' (a certain nobleman whom the Lord, contrary to what normally happens in human procreation, allowed to be created from a white bear as a father and a noblewoman as a mother), begot ''Spratlingus''; ''Spratlingus'' begot ''Ulfius''; and ''Ulfius'' begot ''Beorn'', who was nicknamed ''Beresune'', that is, "Bear's Son". This Beorn was Danish by race, a distinguished earl and famous soldier. As a sign, however, that due to part of his ancestry he was of a different species, nature had given him the ears of his father's line, namely those of a bear. In all other features he was of his mother's appearance. And after many manly deeds and military adventures, he begot a son, a tried imitator of his father's strength and military skill. His name was Siward, nicknamed ''Diere'', that is, the Stout (''grossus'')".
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | — A description of Siward's ancestry and his father Beorn, taken from the ''Vita Waldevi'', a saint's life dedicated to Siward's son Waltheof.<ref name=SiwardOrigin/>
|}
Historians generally claim Siward to be of Scandinavian origin, a conclusion supported by the ''Vita Ædwardi Regis'', which states that Siward was "[called] ''Digri'' in the Danish tongue" (''Danica lingua Digara'').<ref>Barlow (ed.), ''Life of King Edward'', pp. 34, 35</ref> Legendary material incorporated in the ''Vita et passio Waldevi comitis'' (or simply ''Vita Waldevi''), the hagiographic biography of Siward's son [[Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria|Waltheof]], states that Siward was the son of a Scandinavian earl named Bjorn and provides a genealogy claiming that he was the descendant of a [[polar bear]],<ref name=SiwardOrigin>Michel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=LqJCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA104&vq=Incipiunt+Gesta+anteccssorum+comitis&dq=Gesta+antecessorum+comitis+Waldevi#PPA104,M1 ''Chroniques Anglo-Normandes''], vol. iii, p. 104; Rauer, ''Beowulf and the Dragon'', pp. 162–63</ref> a commonplace piece of Germanic folklore.<ref>For a collection of such accounts see Panzer, ''Beowulf'', vol. i, pp. 16–29; [[Axel Olrik]] noted the correspondence between Siward's genealogy and two others: [[Saxo Grammaticus]]'s genealogy of King [[Sweyn II of Denmark|Sweyn Estridsson]] of Denmark; and the genealogy of Sweyn's brother Earl Bjorn recorded by John of Worcester (Olrik, "Siward Digri", pp. 218–19, 234; Darlington, McGurk & Bray (eds.), ''Chronicle of John of Worcester'', vol. ii, pp. 548, 549; Christiansen, ''Saxo Grammaticus'', vol. i, pp. 29–30). Saxo related that [[Thorgil Sprakling]] (i.e. ''Spatlingus''), the father of [[Earl Ulf]] (i.e. ''Ulfius'') father of Bjorn and Sweyn, was similarly born from a bear (Christiansen, ''Saxo Grammaticus'', vol. i, p. 190). Saxo may have borrowed from Siward's story and genealogy when he wrote his account of Sprakling (Olrik, "Siward Digri", p. 234, noting in n. 1 that the name of Siward's son, ''Osbjorn'' ("bear spirit") strengthens the idea that Siward's father was actually called Bjorn); alternatively, the earlier version in John of Worcester may have been the source for both (Christiansen, ''Saxo Grammaticus'', vol. i, p. 190, who nevertheless believes Saxo may have had access to the ''Vita Waldevi'' or the sources behind it).</ref>

Historian Timothy Bolton has recently argued that the similarities between these genealogies is evidence of a shared family tradition between the descendants of Siward and Thorgil Sprakling. Bolton hypothesized that Siward's alleged father Bjorn was probably a historical figure, a brother of [[Thorgil Sprakling]]. Siward would then have been first cousin to [[Earl Ulf]], the earl of Denmark who married Cnut's sister [[Estrid Svendsdatter|Estrith]] and founded the dynasty of Danish monarchs that eventually succeeded Cnut's.<ref>Bolton, "Ancestors of the Danish Royal Family?", pp. 42–71</ref> Bolton argued that the Sprakling family had only recently risen to prominence in Scandinavia, and so Siward's career in England was another indication of that family's success in Scandinavian politics.<ref>Bolton, "Ancestors of the Danish Royal Family?", p. 71</ref>

The ''Vita Waldevi'' provides further legendary detail of Siward's journey from Scandinavia to England. According to the ''Vita'', Siward passed through [[Orkney]], killing a [[dragon]] there before moving on to [[Northumbria]]. There he encountered another dragon, before meeting an [[Oðinn]]-like old man on a hill,<ref>See Rauer, ''Beowulf and the Dragon'', pp. 128, 131, for discussion of the raven banner and the old man on the hill as Oðinn; Siward's dragon-slaying can be compared to the dragon-slaying of his namesake [[Sigurd|Sigurd the Dragon-Slayer]]</ref> who handed him a [[raven banner]] and instructed him to proceed to London to receive the patronage of the king of England.<ref>Michel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=LqJCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA104&vq=Incipiunt+Gesta+anteccssorum+comitis&dq=Gesta+antecessorum+comitis+Waldevi#PPA104,M1 ''Chroniques Anglo-Normandes''], vol. iii, p. 104; Rauer, ''Beowulf and the Dragon'', pp. 125–33, 162–66</ref>{{clear}}

==Career under Cnut, Harold and Harthacnut==
{| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#dddddd9; color:black; width:40em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" |"[A]fter a short conversation the king took him [Siward] into his service, and promised him the first position of dignity which became vacant in his realm. After that Siward said farewell, and he and his men took the way back to London. On the bridge not far from the monastery [Westminster] he met the Earl of Huntingdon, Tosti, a Dane by birth; the king hated him because he had married Earl Godwine's daughter, sister to the queen. The earl crossed the foot-bridge so near Siward that he soiled his mantle with his dirty feet; for at that time it was fashionable to wear a mantle without any cord by which to hold it up. Then blood rushed to his heart; yet he checked himself from taking revenge on the spot, because the shame was inflicted upon him by one who was on his way to the king's hall. But he remained standing with his men by the same bridge until Tosti came from the king; then he drew his sword and hacked off Tosti's head, and went with it under his mantle back to the king's hall. Here he asked, according to his promise, to give him the earldom of Huntingdon. But as the earl had just left him, the king thought he was only joking. Then Siward related his deed, and, as sure proof, cast the head down before the king's feet. The king then kept his promise, and proclaimed him at once earl of Huntingdon ... A few days later, the Northmen began to attack the realm. The king then was in a state of uncertainty, and deliberated with the great men of his realm as to what means should be adopted; and they made over with one voice Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmoreland to Earl Siward, and the king invested him with earldom over them".
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | — A saga-like description of Siward's accession to power in England, taken from the ''Vita Waldevi''<ref>Translation Olrik, "Siward Digri", pp. 215–16</ref>
|}

The exact date and context of Siward's arrival in England are unknown, though the ''Vita Waldevi'' offers a legendary account.<ref>Aird, "Siward"; this account (see box) he story relates that Siward slew Tostig, and as a reward the king (Edward the Confessor) granted Siward the earldom of [[Huntingdon]]. Soon after, Siward obtained Northumbria too.; for text and translations of account, see Michel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=LqJCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA104&vq=Incipiunt+Gesta+anteccssorum+comitis&dq=Gesta+antecessorum+comitis+Waldevi#PPA104,M1 ''Chroniques Anglo-Normandes''], vol. iii, pp. 107–09; Bartlett, ''England under the Norman and Angevin Kings'', pp. 33–34; Olrik, "Siward Digri", pp. 215–16; even though there is evidence that a prominent magnate named Tostig—but not [[Tostig Godwinson]]—was active during the period, Edward [the Confessor] did not become king until 1042, and this story like others in the ''Vita Waldevi'' is regarded as fanciful; see Harmer, ''Anglo-Saxon Writs'', pp. 303–04</ref> Charters dating to 1019, 1024, 1032, 1033 and 1035 mention a ''Si[ge]ward Minister'', "the [[thegn]] Siward", but it is impossible to securely identify any of these names with the man who became [[Earl of Northumbria]].<ref>Keynes, "Cnut's Earls", p. 65; several of Cnut's Danish earls appear earliest with the style ''Minister'', for which see ''Ibid'', pp. 54–66</ref> The earliest certain contemporary record of Siward occurs in a charter of King Cnut to [[Ælfric Puttoc]], [[Archbishop of York]], in 1033.<ref name=AirdKeynes>Aird, "Siward"; Keynes, "Cnut's Earls", pp. 65–66; {{citation|title=Sawyer 968|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+968| publisher= Anglo-Saxons.net|accessdate=2009-03-13}}</ref> This charter attestation can be identified as Siward the earl because he is styled ''dux'' ("earl").<ref name=AirdKeynes/>

Although it is clear that Siward was earl by 1033, he may have attained the position somewhat earlier. His predecessor [[Eric of Hlathir|Erik of Hlathir]] last appeared in the historical sources in 1023, leaving a ten-year gap during which Siward could have taken the position.<ref>Aird, "Siward"; Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', p. 23; Fletcher, ''Bloodfeud'', p. 131; Keynes, "Cnut's Earls", p. 66; Rollason, ''Northumbria'', p. 267</ref> Although William of Malmesbury asserted that Erik was driven back to Scandinavia, Scandinavian tradition firmly maintained he died in England.<ref>Keynes, "Cnut's Earls", p. 58</ref> Historian [[William Kapelle]] believed that Erik ceased to be earl in or soon after 1023, and that Carl son of Thurbrand was appointed hold or high-reeve (''heahgerefa'') for the king in Yorkshire. Carl retained this position, it was argued, even after Siward was installed as earl a few years later, but from then on he acted as a deputy to the earl rather than to the king.<ref>Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', p. 23</ref> [[Richard A. Fletcher|Richard Fletcher]] remained agnostic on the point, although he did argue that Erik must have been dead by 1028.<ref>Fletcher, ''Bloodfeud'', pp. 121, 131</ref> Timothy Bolton, although rejecting Kapelle's argument concerning Carl son of Thurbrand, believed Erik died c. 1023 and that the earldom may have remained vacant for a period.<ref>Bolton, ''Empire of Cnut'', pp. 119–22</ref> Bolton argued that Cnut left the earldom of Northumbria empty and appears to have paid it little attention until the last years of his reign, and another northerner [[Ealdred of Bamburgh|Ealdred son of Uhtred]] rose to power in the political vacuum.<ref>Bolton, ''Empire of Cnut'', pp. 122–25</ref>

When Cnut died in 1035, there were a number of rival claimants for his throne. These included his son [[Harthacnut]], and the nobleman [[Harold Harefoot]], as well as [[Alfred Ætheling]] and Edward (later, King [[Edward the Confessor]]), the exiled sons of [[Æthelred the Unready]]. Isolated in Scandinavia, Harthacnut was unable to prevent Harold Harefoot seizing the crown for himself. Ruling England from 1035, Harold died in 1040 just as Harthacnut was preparing an invasion.<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 48; see Idem pp. 28–53 for more general picture</ref> Arriving soon after Harold's death, Harthacnut reigned in England only two years before his own death in 1042, a death that led to the peaceful succession of Edward.<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 53</ref> Frank Barlow speculated on Siward's political stance, guessing that during these upheavals Siward assumed "a position of benevolent or prudent neutrality".<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 57</ref>

Siward is found in 1038, as ''Sywardus Comes'' ("Earl Siward"), witnessing a charter of King Harthacnut to the [[Abbey of Bury St Edmunds]].<ref>{{citation|title=Sawyer 995|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+995| publisher= Anglo-Saxons.net|accessdate=2009-03-13}}; Keynes, ''Atlas of Attestations'', Table LXIX (1 of 1)</ref> He witnessed a confirmation granted by Harthacnut to [[Fécamp Abbey]], between 1040 and 1042, of an earlier grant made by Cnut.<ref>{{citation|title=Sawyer 982|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+982| publisher= Anglo-Saxons.net|accessdate=2009-03-13}}; Keynes, ''Atlas of Attestations'', Table LXIX (1 of 1)</ref> In 1042, he witnessed grants by Harthacnut to [[Abingdon Abbey]] and to [[Ælfwine of Winchester|Ælfwine]], [[Bishop of Winchester]].<ref>{{citation|title=Sawyer 993|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+993| publisher= Anglo-Saxons.net|accessdate=2009-03-13}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 994|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+994| publisher= Anglo-Saxons.net|accessdate=2009-03-13}}; Keynes, ''Atlas of Attestations'', Table LXIX (1 of 1)</ref>

Siward was, at some stage, married to Ælfflæd, daughter of [[Ealdred, Earl of Bamburgh]], and granddaughter of [[Uhtred the Bold]].<ref name=Aird>Aird, "Siward"</ref> The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''' asserts that, in 1041 [[Eadulf III of Bernicia|Eadulf]], Earl of Bamburgh, was "betrayed" by King Harthacnut.<ref>ASC MSs [http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/c/c-L.html C], [http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/d/d-L.html D], s.a. 1041</ref> The "betrayal" seems to have been carried out by Siward; since when the ''[[Libellus de Exordio]]'' and other sources write about the same event, they say that Siward attacked and killed Eadulf.<ref>Rollason (ed.), ''Libellus de Exordio'', pp. 170–71</ref> It was thus that Siward became earl of all Northumbria, perhaps the first person to do so since Uhtred the Bold. It is possible that Siward used Ælfflæd's lineage to claim the earldom of Bamburgh for himself, although it is unclear whether the marriage took place before or after Siward killed Eadulf.<ref>Morris, ''Marriage and Murder'', p. 14</ref> Kapelle has pointed out that no ruler of Bamburgh after Uhtred is attested at the English royal court, which he argued "must mean they were in revolt" against the monarchy, and that Siward's attack may therefore have been encouraged by a monarch wishing to crush a rebellious or disloyal vassal.<ref>Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', p. 24</ref> Siward however probably had his own interests too. Killing Eadulf eliminated his main rival in the north, and the marriage associated him with the family of Uhtred the Bold, and with Uhtred's surviving son [[Gospatric, son of Uhtred|Gospatric]].<ref name=Aird-53>Aird, ''St Cuthbert'', p. 53</ref>

There may nonetheless be a connection between the murder of Eadulf and events further south. For the same year the ''Chronicle'' of John of Worcester related that, because of an attack on two of Harthacnut's tax-collectors there, Siward took part in a reprisal on the city and monastery of [[Worcester]].<ref>Aird, "Siward"; Whitelock (ed.), ''English Historical Documents'', p. 318</ref> Harthacnut reigned only another year, dying on 8 June 1042.<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 53</ref> He was succeeded by the exiled English [[ætheling]] Edward. As an ætheling, a royal prince with a present or likely future claim on the throne, Edward appears to have been invited back by Harthacnut in 1041, fortuitously smoothing over the coming change in ruler.<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', pp. 48–49</ref> Edward was crowned king on [[Easter Day]], 3 April 1043.<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 61</ref>

==English affairs under Edward the Confessor==
[[File:Edward the Confessor 1042 1066.jpg|thumb|alt= A coin depicting a bearded man facing to the right holding a sceptre, with a Latin inscription going from left to right over him|Coin of King Edward]]
Relations between Siward and King Edward appear to have been good. Neither Siward nor any associates of Siward were punished by Edward in later years.<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', pp. 76–77</ref> In fact, Siward appears to have been one of Edward's most powerful supporters. On 16 November 1043, Siward, along with Earls Godwine of Wessex and [[Leofric of Mercia]], marched with King Edward against [[Emma of Normandy|Queen Emma]], helping the king to deprive the queen of her huge treasury.<ref>[http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/d/d-L.html ASC MS D], s.a. 1043; Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 76; Baxter, ''Earls of Mercia'', p. 39</ref> Edward then accused Emma of treason and deposed [[Stigand]], [[List of the bishops of the Diocese of Norwich, England and its precursor offices|Bishop of Elmham]] from his position "because he was closest to his mother's counsel".<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', pp. 76–77, & n. 1 on p. 1, for the quote from the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', MS C</ref>

The Norman propagandist and historian, [[William of Poitiers]], claimed that Siward was among those who had sworn an oath to uphold Edward the Confessor's alleged declaration that [[William, Duke of Normandy]] (later King William I), was to be his heir.<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 107, n. 1. The passage is quote in ''Ibid'', p. 222</ref> Others said to have made that oath were Earls Godwine of Wessex and Leofric of Mercia, along with Stigand, who had been pardoned in 1044, and raised to [[Bishop of Winchester]] in 1047).<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 78</ref> If this did happen, it was probably during or a little before spring 1051, when [[Robert of Jumièges|Robert]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], was journeying to Rome for his [[pallium]].<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 107</ref>

In 1051 Siward, along with Earls Leofric and [[Ralph the Timid]], mobilised forces in defence of the king against a rebellion by Earl Godwine and his sons.<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 107; Mason, ''House of Godwin'', p. 63</ref> The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' relates that although Siward had to call up reinforcements, King Edward was successful and Earl Godwine was temporarily exiled.<ref>[http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/d/d-L.html ASC MS D], s.a. 1051; Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', pp. 107–14</ref> Earl Godwine remained a threat in exile, and the continued "belligerent support" of Siward and Leofric was thus vital to King Edward's safety.<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 119</ref> It was apparently, however, the reluctance of these two earls to fight Earl Godwine that contributed to Godwine's re-establishment in England in 1052.<ref>Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 119; William, "Godwine"</ref>

There is evidence to suggest that Siward extended his power southward, bringing the [[Northamptonshire|shire of Northampton]] into his control in the 1040s and the [[shire of Huntingdon]] in the 1050s.<ref>Anderson, ''Early Sources'', p. 595 (n. 1 from p. 594); Cain, "Introduction", p. 31; Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', p. 29</ref> The evidence comes from royal [[writ]]s addressed to Siward as earl in these shires.<ref>Anderson, ''Early Sources'', p. 595</ref> Siward's predecessors as earl in these areas were other Scandinavians, Thuri and Bjorn son of Earl Ulf; the former was styled "earl of the Midlanders" (''comes mediterraneorum''), showing that this earldom represented the earlier polity of the [[Middle Angles]] of Mercia.<ref>Anderson, ''Early Sources'', pp. 595–96; Barlow, ''Edward the Confessor'', p. 89, n. 5; Williams, "'Cockles amongst the Wheat'", pp. 11, 20 n. 61</ref> It was this area, rather than Northumbria, to which Siward's descendants were most attached.<ref>Anderson, ''Early Sources'', pp. 596–97</ref>

Likewise, it has been argued that Siward brought [[Cumberland]], thought by some historians to have been lost to Strathclyde, back under Northumbrian lordship.<ref>Phythian-Adams, ''Land of the Cumbrians'', pp. 109, 148</ref> The evidence comes from a document known to historians as "Gospatric's Writ".<ref>Harmer (ed.), ''Anglo-Saxon Writs'', no. 121, pp. 419–23 ; Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', pp. 42–43; Phythian-Adams, ''Land of the Cumbrians'', pp. 109, 148</ref> This is a written instruction, issued either by the future [[Gospatric, Earl of Northumbria]]<ref>Phythian-Adams, ''Land of the Cumbrians'', p. 181</ref> or Gospatric, son of Earl Uhtred<ref>Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', p. 43</ref>) that was addressed to all Gospatric's kindred and to the notables dwelling in the "all the lands that were Cumbrian" (''on eallun þam landann þeo Cōmbres''); it ordered that one Thorfinn mac Thore be free in all things (''þ Thorfynn mac Thore beo swa freo in eallan ðynges'') in [[Allerdale]], and that no man is to break the peace which was given by Gospatric and Earl Siward.<ref>Harmer (ed.), ''Anglo-Saxon Writs'', pp. 423–4</ref> Historians such as Charles Phythian-Adams believed that such phraseology indicated that Siward conquered the region from its previous rulers,<ref>Phythian-Adams, ''Land of the Cumbrians'', pp. 131–52;, 174–81</ref> although others, like William Kapelle, believed that the region had come, were it ever lost, back into English power before Siward's time.<ref>Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', pp. 43–44; Phythian-Adams, ''Land of the Cumbrians'', pp. 131–52;, 174–81</ref>

A little can be said about Siward's relations with the Northumbrian church, in particular with regard to his relations with [[Durham]]. As a result of Siward's marriage to Ælfflæd, Siward gained possession of a group of estates in [[Teesside]] claimed by the bishops of Durham.<ref>Aird, ''St Cuthbert'', p. 53; Morris, ''Marriage and Murder'', pp. 4–5</ref> Acquisition of these estates might have brought opposition from the [[List of Bishops of Durham|Bishop of Durham]], but [[Æthelric (Bishop of Durham)|Æthelric]] the incumbent had been expelled by the clergy of Durham in either 1045 or 1046 and, according to the ''[[Libellus de Exordio]]'', only returned by bribing Siward.<ref>Aird, ''St Cuthbert'', pp. 53–54; Rollason (ed.), ''Libellus de Exordio'', p. 171</ref> According to the ''Libellus'', the clergy were "terrified and overwhelmed by the fearful power of the earl" and "were compelled willy nilly to be reconciled to the bishop, and to admit him into his episcopal see".<ref>Rollason (ed.), ''Libellus de Exordio'', p. 171</ref> Despite this, Siward escaped censure in the writings of later Durham monks, something which suggests relations between Siward and Durham were probably good in general.<ref>Aird, ''St Cuthbert'', p. 54</ref>

Siward can be found witnessing numerous charters during Edward's reign, though not as many as the Godwinsons; Siward usually comes third in lists of earls, behind Godwine and Leofric but ahead of Godwine's sons and the other earls.<ref>For a survey, see Keynes, ''Atlas of Attestations'', Table LXXIV (1 of 1)</ref> He witnessed at least seven, possibly nine, extant charters in 1044, six or seven in 1045, two in 1046, one in 1048 and one in 1049.<ref>{{citation|title=Sawyer 1001|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1001}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1006|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1006}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1005|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1005}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1004|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1004}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1003|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1003}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1002|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1002}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1044|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1044}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1391|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1391}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1011|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1011}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1010|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1010}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1012|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1012}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1007|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1007}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1008|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1008}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1009|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1009}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1014|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1014}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1015|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1015}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1055|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1055}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1017|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1017}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1019|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1019| publisher= Anglo-Saxons.net|accessdate=2009-03-13}}; Keynes, ''Atlas of Attestations'', Table LXXIV (1 of 1)</ref> A ''Dux'' ("earl") named Sihroþ and Sihroð witnessed two charters in 1050, and this may be Siward.<ref>{{citation|title=Sawyer 1022|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1022}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1020|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1020| publisher= Anglo-Saxons.net|accessdate=2009-03-13}}; Keynes, ''Atlas of Attestations'', Table LXXIV (1 of 1)</ref> There is another attestation in 1050, and his name appears in two dubious witness lists attached to charters dating to 1052 and 1054.<ref>{{citation|title=Sawyer 1021|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1021}}; {{citation|title=Sawyer 1023|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1023| publisher= Anglo-Saxons.net|accessdate=2009-03-13}}; Keynes, ''Atlas of Attestations'', Table LXXIV (1 of 1)</ref> Possibly Siward's last historical appearance in English legal documents is in the agreement made—probably at [[Lincoln, Lincolnshire|Lincoln]]—between [[Wulfwig]], [[Bishop of Dorchester (historic)|Bishop of Dorchester]], and Earl Leofric, dating to between 1053 and 1055.<ref>{{citation|title=Sawyer 1478|url= http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1478| publisher= Anglo-Saxons.net|accessdate=2009-03-13}}; Keynes, ''Atlas of Attestations'', Table LXXIV (1 of 1)</ref>

==Expedition against the Scots==
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#dddddd9; color:black; width:40em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" |"Around this time Siward, the mighty earl of Northumbria, almost a giant in stature, very strong mentally and physically, sent his son to conquer Scotland. When they came back and reported to his father that he had been killed in battle, he asked 'Did he receive his fatal wound in the front or the back of his body?' The messengers said 'In the front'. Then he said, 'That makes me very happy, for I consider no other death worthy for me or my son'. Then Siward set out for Scotland, and defeated the king in battle, destroyed the whole realm, and having destroyed it, subjected it to himself".<ref>Greenway, ''Henry of Huntingdon'', p. 21</ref>
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | — A description of Osbjorn's death and Siward's reaction, taken from the ''Historia Anglorum'' of Henry of Huntingdon<ref name=SiwardOrigin/>
|}
Siward is perhaps most famous for his expedition in 1054 against [[Mac Bethad mac Findlaích]] (known to the English of a later era as King Macbeth of Scotland), an expedition that cost Siward his eldest son, [[Osbjorn Bulax|Osbjorn]]. The origin of Siward's conflict with the Scots is unclear. According to the ''Libellus de Exordio'', in 1039 or 1040, the Scottish king [[Donnchad mac Crínáin]] attacked northern Northumbria and besieged Durham.<ref>Aird, ''St Cuthbert'', p. 53; Rollason (ed.), ''Libellus de Exordio'', p. 169; Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 254–55</ref> Within a year, Mac Bethad had deposed killed Donnchad.<ref>Aird, ''St Cuthbert'', p. 53; Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', p. 255</ref> The failed siege occurred a year before Siward attacked and killed Earl Eadulf of Bamburgh, and though no connection between the two events is clear it is likely that they were linked.<ref>Aird, ''St Cuthbert'', p. 53; Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 254–55</ref>

The ''Annals of Lindisfarne and Durham'', written in the early 12th-century, relate under the year 1046 that "Earl Siward with a great army came to Scotland, and expelled king Mac Bethad, and appointed another; but after his departure Mac Bethad recovered his kingdom".<ref>Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 84</ref> Historian William Kapelle thought that this was a genuine event of the 1040s, related to the ''Annals of Tigernach'' entry for 1045 that reported a "battle between the Scots" which led to the death of [[Crínán of Dunkeld]], Donnchad's father; Kapelle thought that Siward had tried to place Crínán's son and Donnchad's brother Maldred on the Scottish throne.<ref>Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', p. 46</ref> Another historian, [[Alex Woolf]], argued that the ''Annals of Lindisfarne and Durham'' entry was probably referring to the invasion of Siward in 1054, but misplaced under 1046.<ref>Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', p. 259</ref>

During the invasion of 1054, a battle was fought somewhere in Scotland north of the [[Firth of Forth]], a battle known variously as the "Battle of the Seven Sleepers" or the "Battle of Dunsinane".<ref>Aitchison, ''Macbeth'', p. 90</ref> The tradition that the battle actually took place at [[Dunsinane]] has its origins in later medieval legend. The earliest mention of Dunsinane as the location of the battle is in the early 15th-century by [[Andrew of Wyntoun]].<ref>Aitchison, ''Macbeth'', p. 90; Duncan, ''Kingship'', pp. 35–36; see Aitchison, ''Macbeth'', pp. 172–73, for a discussion of the possibility that Dunsinane was the location</ref>

The earliest contemporary English account of the battle is found in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', [[recension]] D: <blockquote>
{|
| ''Her ferde Siward eolr mid miclum here on Scotland, ægðer ge mid scyphere 7 mid landfyrde, 7 feaht wið Scottas, 7 aflymde þone kyng Macbeoðen, 7 ofsloh eall þæt þær betst wæs on þam lande, 7 lædde þonan micele herehuðe swilce nan man ær ne begeat,  ''
| At this time earl Siward went with a great army into Scotland, with both fleet and a land-force; and fought against the Scots, and put to flight the king Mac Bethad, and slew all that were best in the land, and brought thence much war-spoil, such as no man obtained before;  
|-
| '' ac his sunu Osbarn, 7 his sweostor suna Sihward, 7 of his huscarlum 7 eac þæs cynges wurdon þær ofslægene on þone dæg Septem Dormientium..  ''
| And there were slain his son Osbjorn, and his sister's son Siward, and some of his [[housecarl]]s, and also of the king's, on the day of the [[Seven Sleepers]] (July 27).  <ref>[http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/d/d-L.html ASC MS D], s.a. 1054; translation based on Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', pp. 86–87</ref>
|} </blockquote> John of Worcester, using a related version of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', adds that Normans named Osbern Pentecost and Hugh, who had joined Mac Bethad earlier after fleeing from England, were killed in the battle.<ref>Darlington, McGurk and Bray (eds.), ''Chronicle of John of Worcester'', vol. ii, pp. 572 n. 2, 573, 574 n. 12, 575</ref>

The battle is mentioned in the Irish annals too, briefly in the ''[[Annals of Tigernach]]'' and more extensively in the ''[[Annals of Ulster]]'':<blockquote>
{|
| ''Cath eter firu Alban & Saxanu i torchradur tri mile do Feraib Alban & mile co leth do Shaxanaib im Dolfinn m. Finntuir.  ''
| A battle [was fought] between the men of Scotland and the English; and in it fell three thousand of the men of Scotland, and one thousand five hundred of the English, including Dolfin, Finntur's son;  <ref>[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100001A/text625.html Annals of Ulster, s. a. 1054]; translation based on Anderson, ''Early Sources'', vol. i, p. 593</ref>
|} </blockquote>

Dolfin is unidentified, but may have been a relation of Mac Bethad's enemy Crínán of Dunkeld, on the basis that some of Crínán's descendants may have borne this name.<ref>Aitchison, ''Macbeth'', p. 89; the relationship is dependent on the Crínán, grandfather of [[Gospatric, Earl of Northumbria]] being the same as Crínán of Dunkeld, something which is now in doubt; see Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 249–52 and n. 39</ref>

[[File:Battle of Dunsinane - John Martin.jpg|thumb||alt=Two kilted men standing on a ridge in a mountainous landscape, watching a long twisting column of warriors approaching from below|Anachronistic early 19th-century depiction by John Martin of Mac Bethad (centre-right) watching Siward's Northumbrian army approaching (right)]]
The purpose of Siward's invasion is unclear, but it may be related to the identity of the "Máel Coluim" (Malcolm) mentioned in the sources. The early 12th-century chronicle attributed to John of Worcester, probably using an earlier source, wrote that Siward defeated Mac Bethad and made "Máel Coluim, son of the king of the Cumbrians" a king (''Malcolmum, regis Cumbrorum filium, ut rex jusserat, regem constituit'')<ref>Darlington et al., ''Chronicle'', vol. ii, pp. 574, 575; see also Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', p. 261, n. 59</ref> The identity of Máel Coluim and the reasons for Siward's help are controversial. The traditional historical interpretation was that "Máel Coluim" is [[Máel Coluim mac Donnchada]], known sometimes today as Malcolm III or Malcolm Canmore, and that Siward was attempting to oust Mac Bethad in his favour.<ref>See, for instance, Ritchie, ''Normans'', p. 5, or Stenton, ''Anglo-Saxon England'', p. 570</ref>

The traditional historical interpretation that "Máel Coluim" is Máel Coluim mac Donnchada derives from the ''Chronicle'' attributed to the 14th-century chronicler of Scotland, John of Fordun, as well as from earlier sources such as William of Malmesbury.<ref>Broun, "Identity of the Kingdom", pp. 133–34; Duncan, ''Kingship'', p. 40</ref> The latter reported that Mac Bethad was killed in the battle by Siward, but it is known that Mac Bethad outlived Siward by two years.<ref>Oram, ''David I'', p. 29</ref> [[A. A. M. Duncan]] argued in 2002 that, using the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' entry as their source, later writers innocently misidentified Máel Coluim "son of the king of the Cumbrians" with the later Scottish king of the same name.<ref>Duncan, ''Kingship'', pp. 37–41</ref> Duncan's argument has been supported by several subsequent historians specialising in the era, such as [[Richard Oram]], [[Dauvit Broun]] and Alex Woolf.<ref>Broun, "Identity of the Kingdom", p. 134; Oram, ''David I'', pp. 18–20; Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', p. 262</ref> It has also been suggested that Máel Coluim may have been a son of the Strathclyde British king [[Owen the Bald]],<ref>Duncan, ''Kingship of the Scots'', p. 41</ref> perhaps by a daughter of [[Máel Coluim II]], King of Scotland.<ref>Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', p. 262</ref>

Duncan in fact believes that the Battle of the Seven Sleepers did not lead directly to a change of leadership in the Kingdom of Scotland.<ref>Duncan, ''Kingship'', p. 40</ref> It has been suggested that the chief consequence of Siward's expedition was not the overthrow of Mac Bethad, but the transfer of British territory—perhaps previously lying under Scottish suzerainty—to Northumbrian overlordship. Alex Woolf has posited that, in such a context, Máel Coluim might have been a discontented Cumbrian prince who had been forced to "put himself under English protection".<ref>Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 262–63</ref> Evidence for Northumbrian control of [[Strathclyde]] in this period includes 11th-century Northumbrian masonry found at the site of Glasgow Cathedral as well as early 12th-century claims from the [[archbishopric of York]] that Archbishop [[Cynesige]] (1051–1060) had consecrated two [[Bishops of Glasgow]].<ref>See Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', p. 263; Johnson ''et al.'', ''Hugh the Chanter'', pp. 52, 53</ref>

==Death and legacy==
[[Image:Death of Earl Siward (Smetham).jpg|thumb|alt=A painting depicting a tall beared man wearing a helmet, with two smaller figures holding onto him: a man on the left and a woman on the right|The ''Death of Earl Siward'' (1861) by [[James Smetham]], a 19th-century representation of Earl Siward readying for death]]
{| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#dddddd9; color:black; width:40em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" |"Siward, the stalwart earl, being stricken by dysentery, felt that death was near, and said, "How shameful it is that I, who could not die in so many battles, should have been saved for the ignominious death of a cow! At least clothe me in my impenetrable breastplate, gird me with my sword, place my helmet on my head, my shield in my left hand, my gilded battle-axe in my right, that I, the bravest of soldiers, may die like a soldier." He spoke, and armed as he had requested, he gave up his spirit with honour".
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | — A description of Siward's death, taken from the ''Historia Anglorum'' of Henry of Huntingdon.<ref name=Greenway-22>Greenway, ''Henry of Huntingdon'', p. 22</ref>
|}
The 12th-century historian, Henry of Huntingdon, in his ''Historia Anglorum'', relates that when Siward was attacked by [[dysentery]], fearing to die "like a cow" and wishing rather to die like a soldier, he clothed himself in armour and took to hand an axe and shield. Ennobled in such a manner, Siward died.<ref name=Greenway-22/> This anecdote is of doubtful historicity, and is thought to be derived from the [[saga]] devoted to Earl Siward, now lost.<ref>Mason, ''House of Godwine'', pp. 88–89</ref> The ''Vita Ædwardi Regis'' states that Siward died at York and was buried in "the monastery of St Olaf" at [[Galmanho]], a claim confirmed by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', John of Worcester, and the ''[[Historia Regum]]''.<ref name=Galmanho>Barlow (ed.), ''Life of King Edward'', p. 49 (= ''Vita Ædwardi'', i. 5), & note ''Ibid'', p. 48, n. 114; Darlington, McGurk and Bray (eds.), ''Chronicle of John of Worcester'', vol. ii, pp. 576, & n. 5; Stevenson, ''Simeon of Durham'', p. 124</ref>

Material incorporated in two surviving sources is thought by some to attest to the existence of a lost saga or some other kind of literary tradition concerning Siward's life. The first source is the ''Vita et Passio Waldevi'', a hagiographic history of Siward's cult-inspiring son Waltheof. This text contains an account of Waltheof's [[Father|paternal]] origin, and in the process recounts certain adventures of his father Siward (see boxes throughout article). The second major witness of the tradition is Henry of Huntingdon's ''Historia Anglorum'', which contains extracts of saga-like material relating to Siward's invasion of Scotland (1054) and his death (1055).<ref>Wright, ''Cultivation of Saga'', pp. 75, 76, 127–33, 136</ref> The Anglo-Saxonist [[Frank Stenton]] declared that Siward was "not a statesman, but a Danish warrior of the primitive type".<ref>Stenton, ''Anglo-Saxon England'', p. 417</ref> Writers in the half-century after his death remembered Siward as a strong ruler who brought peace and suppressed brigandage.<ref>Aird, ''St Cuthbert'', p. 54, and notes 163–63</ref>

Siward died more than a decade before the death of Edward the Confessor, but despite this the ''[[Domesday Book]]'' recorded 4 manors, 3 in Yorkshire and 1 in Derbyshire, owned directly by Earl Siward in 1066, all of them subsequently held by [[Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester]].<ref>See Williams & Martin (eds.), ''Domesday Book'', pp. 744, 802–03; Clarke, ''English Nobility'', pp. 28, 220</ref> This land was stated to have been worth £212, while his son Waltheof was said to have held £136 worth of land across 9 counties.<ref>Clarke, ''English Nobility'', pp. 221–24</ref> Domesday records give an incomplete picture of Siward's holdings. In total it recorded property worth £348 for Siward and his son, which on its own would compare poorly with the £2493 in value recorded to have been held by the family of the earls of Mercia.<ref>Clarke, ''English Nobility'', pp. 206–20</ref> Of the latter, however, [[Morcar of Northumbria|Morcar of Mercia]], Earl of Northumbria on the day of King Edward's death, possessed land worth £968, while Tostig, exiled earl at the time, had land worth £491; both may have come into possession of some of Siward's land in the course of becoming Earls of Northumbria.<ref>Clarke, ''English Nobility'', pp. 191–94, 205, 215–17, 220</ref> Moreover, the counties that would become [[County Durham|Durham]], [[Northumberland]], [[Cumberland]] and [[Westmorland]] were largely omitted from the survey, while, besides being only very poorly documented, the lands in Yorkshire had been severely devastated and devalued during the [[Harrying of the North]].<ref>Green, ''Aristocracy'', pp. 100–10; Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', pp. 158–90</ref>

Siward is said to have built a church dedicated to St Olaf at Galmanho, York.<ref name=Galmanho/> The record of his burial in this church is the only notice of a non-royal lay burial inside a church in pre-Norman England.<ref>Daniell, ''Death and Burial in Medieval England'', p. 186</ref> [[Siward's Howe]], ''i.e.'', Heslington Hill near York, was most likely named after Earl Siward, although probably because Siward held popular courts there rather than because it was his burial place.<ref>Baxter, ''Earls of Mercia'', p. 103</ref>

One of Siward's sons is known to have survived him, Waltheof, whose mother was Ælfflæd. Waltheof later rose to be an earl in the [[East Midlands]] before becoming Earl of Northumbria.<ref name=Lewis-Waltheof>Lewis, "Waltheof"</ref> When Waltheof rebelled against William the Conqueror, however, the act led to his execution and to his subsequent veneration as a [[saint]] at [[Crowland Abbey]].<ref>Lewis, "Waltheof"; Scott, "Earl Waltheof", pp. 206–07; Watkins, "Cult of Earl Waltheof", pp. 95–101</ref> Waltheof's daughter married [[David I, King of the Scots]], and through this connection Siward became one of the many ancestors of the later Scottish and British monarchs.<ref name=Lewis-Waltheof/>

Besides Ælfflæd, Siward is known to have been married to a woman named Godgifu, who died before Siward. The marriage is known from a grant she made of territory around [[Stamford, Lincolnshire]], to [[Peterborough Abbey]].<ref name=Aird/> Although no surviving children are attested, and no source states the name of Osbjorn's mother, this marriage has nonetheless raised the possibility that Waltheof and Osbjorn were born to different mothers, and William Kapelle suggested that Siward may have originally intended Osbjorn to inherit his southern territories while Waltheof inherited those territories in the north associated with the family of his mother Ælfflæd.<ref>Aird, ''St Cuthbert'', p. 53, n. 160; Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', p. 31</ref>
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
===Primary sources===
{{refbegin}}
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* {{citation |editor-last= Darlington |editor-first= R. R. | editor-link= |editor2-last=McGurk |editor2-first= P. | editor2-link= |editor3-last=Bray |editor3-first= Jennifer | editor3-link= |title=The Chronicle of John of Worcester. Volume II, The Annals from 450 To 1066 |year=1995|series=Oxford Medieval Texts |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-822261-0}}
* {{citation | editor-last = Greenway | editor-first = Diana | editor-link = | title = Henry of Huntingdon: The History of the English People 1000–1154/ Translated from the Latin with an Introduction and Notes | series = Oxford World Classics | place = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-19-284075-4 }}
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{{refend}}

{{featured article}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Siward, Earl Of Northumbria
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Scandinavia]]
| DATE OF DEATH = 1055
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Siward, Earl Of Northumbria}}
[[Category:Earls of Northumbria]]
[[Category:1055 deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]

[[eo:Siward (Northumbria)]]
[[fr:Siward de Northumbrie]]
[[nl:Siward van Northumbria]]
[[no:Siward av Northumbria]]
[[ru:Сивард]]

Schwarze im Mormonentum

2011-06-09T17:03:22Z

Jfruh: reinsert "black" -- i suppose the policy probably didn't apply to berbers or n. african arabs

{{About|Blacks and the modern LDS church|Blacks and the early Mormon movement|Black people and the Latter Day Saint movement}}
From 1849 to 1978, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) had a policy against ordaining [[black people|black]] men of African descent to the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]]. Whereas other churches usually have full-time salaried clergy of whom individual members are often the chief minister to several families, in the LDS Chruch virtually all male head-of-household church members are part of the priesthood. Under the pre-1978 policy, black men and women of African descent could not hold the priesthood in this way, and were also prohibited from participating in the [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Endowment (Latter Day Saints)|Endowment]] and [[Sealing (Latter Day Saints)|sealings]], [[ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]] that the church teaches are necessary for the [[Exaltation (LDS Church)|highest degree of salvation]]. However, the LDS Church has always had an open membership policy for all races, and black people who were aware of the racial policy did join the church. In 1978, church leaders ceased the racial restriction policy for black men, declaring that they had received a [[1978 Revelation on Priesthood|revelation]] instructing them to do so. Today's church opposes racial discrimination and [[racism]], even though they continue to teach that the pre-1978 priesthood ban for black men was a god-given policy.<ref>[[Gordon B. Hinckley]], [http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html "The Need for Greater Kindness"], 2006-04-01.</ref>{{verify source|date=June 2011}}

In 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the LDS Church, accounting for about 5% of the total membership; most black members live in Africa, [[Brazil]] and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119. "A rough estimate would place the number of Church members with African roots at year-end 1997 at half a million, with about 100,000 each in Africa and the Caribbean, and another 300,000 in Brazil."</ref> Since 1997, the black membership has grown substantially, especially in [[West Africa]], where two [[Temple (LDS Church)|temples]] have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa">[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/africagrowth.html The Church Continues to Grow in Africa]</ref>

==Before 1847==
{{Main|Blacks and the Latter Day Saint movement}}

During the early years of the LDS movement, blacks were admitted to the church, and several black men became priests, including [[Elijah Abel]] and [[Walker Lewis]]. [[Joseph Smith]] himself supported the government paying slaveholders for their slaves and then forcibly shipping them back to Africa.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} After Smith's death, the [[Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints)|succession crisis]] ensued, and [[Brigham Young]] led the largest splinter of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] west to establish the church in Utah.

==Racial policy under Brigham Young==

Under the leadership of [[Joseph Smith]], several African-Americans, including [[Elijah Abel]] were admitted to the priesthood. But that policy changed sometime before 1852, because in that year, church president [[Brigham Young]] made a pronouncement to the [[Utah Territorial Legislature]] stating that African-Americans "cannot hold the Priesthood."<ref name = "Mauss-70"/>

===Racial restriction policy under Brigham Young===
An early statement by Young about a priesthood ban in the LDS Church was made on February 13, 1849. The statement — which refers to the [[Curse of Cain]] as the reason for the policy — was given in response to the question, "What chance is there for the redemption of the Negro?" Young responded, "The Lord had cursed Cain's seed with blackness and prohibited them the Priesthood."<ref name = "Mauss-70">[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 70]</ref>

In 1852, while addressing the [[Utah Territorial Legislature]], Young stated, "Any man having one drop of the seed of [Cain] ... in him cannot hold the Priesthood and if no other Prophet ever spoke it before I will say it now in the name of Jesus Christ I know it is true and others know it."<ref name = "Mauss-70"/>

===William McCary===
{{Main|William McCary}}
Some researchers have suggested that the actions of [[William McCary]] in [[Winter Quarters, Nebraska]] led to Brigham Young's decision to adopt the priesthood ban in the LDS Church. McCary was a half-African American convert who, after his baptism and ordination to the priesthood, began to claim to be a [[prophet]] and the possessor of other supernatural gifts.<ref name = Murphy>Larry G. Murphy, [[J. Gordon Melton]], and Gary L. Ward (1993). ''Encyclopedia of African American Religions'' (New York: Garland Publishing) pp. 471–472.</ref> He was excommunicated for apostasy in March 1847 and expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst>Newell G. Bringhurst (1981). ''Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People within Mormonism'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press).</ref> After his excommunication, McCary began attracting Latter Day Saint followers and instituted [[plural marriage]] among his group, and he had himself [[Sealing (Latter Day Saints)|sealed]] to several [[White people|white]] wives.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/>

McCary's behavior angered many of the Latter Day Saints in Winter Quarters. Researchers have stated that his marriages to his white wives "played an important role in pushing the Mormon leadership into an anti-Black position"<ref name = Murphy/> and may have prompted Young to institute the priesthood and temple ban on black people.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/><ref>Connell O’Donovan, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html#_ftn107 "The Mormon Priesthood Ban & Elder Q. Walker Lewis: 'An example for his more whiter brethren to follow'], ''John Whitmer Historical Association Journal'', 2006.</ref> A statement from Young to McCary in March 1847 suggested that race had nothing to do with priesthood eligibility<ref>"Its nothing to do with the blood for [from] one blood has God made all flesh, we have to repent [to] regain what we have lost — we have one of the best Elders, an African in Lowell [referring to [[Walker Lewis]] ].": Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref> and the earliest known statement about the priesthood restriction from any Mormon leader (including the implication that skin color might be relevant) was made by Apostle [[Parley P. Pratt]] a month after McCary was expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst/> Speaking of McCary, Pratt stated that he "was a black man with the blood of Ham in him which lineage was cursed as regards the priesthood".<ref>General Minutes, April 25, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref>

===Young's personal views===
When asked "if the spirits of Negroes were neutral in Heaven," Young responded, "No, they were not, there were no neutral [spirits] in Heaven at the time of the rebellion, all took sides …. All spirits are pure that came from the presence of God."<ref>Journal History, 25 December 1869, citing Wilford Woodruff's journal. See also http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html</ref> Prior to learning about Enoch Lewis's marriage to a woman of European descent (December 1847) and subsequently enacting a ban on Negroes in the priesthood, he considered [[Walker Lewis]] "one of the best Elders."<ref>Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah</ref>

On another occasion, Young said, "You see some classes of the human family that are black, uncouth, uncomely, disagreeable and low in their habits, wild, and seemingly deprived of nearly all the blessings of the intelligence that is generally bestowed upon mankind …. Cain slew his brother. Cain might have been killed, and that would have put a termination to that line of human beings. This was not to be, and the Lord put a mark upon him, which is the flat nose and black skin. Trace mankind down to after the flood, and then another curse is pronounced upon the same race—that they should be the ‘servant of servants’; and they will be, until that curse is removed; and the Abolitionists cannot help it, nor in the least alter that decree."<ref>''Journal of Discourses'', '''7''':290.</ref>

Brigham Young said this despite the LDS scripture verses that state people may be cursed unto the 3rd and 4th generation, but if any were to repent and make restitution they would be forgiven and the curse lifted.<ref>D&C 98: 45-47</ref> This is reiterated in [[Doctrine and Covenants|D&C]] 124:50&52 as well as Mosiah 13:13,14 and Deut 5:9,10.

==Slavery==
===Slavery scripture===
{{See also|Christianity and slavery}}
LDS scripture has various views on slavery. The [[Old Testament]] has stories of slavery, and gives rules and regulations on how to treat slaves. The [[New Testament]] tells slaves not to revolt against their masters. It was a commonly held belief in the South that the Bible permitted slavery. However, the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] condemns slavery, teaching "it is not right that any man should be in bondage one to another." ({{lds|D&C|dc|101|79}}) The Book of Mormon heralds righteous kings who did not allow slavery, ({{lds|Mosiah|mosiah|29|40}}) and righteous men who fought against slavery ({{lds|Alma|alma|48|11}}). The Book of Mormon also describes an ideal society that lived around AD 34-200, in which it teaches the people "had all things common among them; therefore there were not rich and poor, bond and free, but they were all made free, and partakers of the heavenly gift" ({{lds|4 Nephi|4_ne|4|3}}). The Pearl of Great Price describes a similar society, in which "they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness; and there was no poor among them" ({{lds|Moses|moses|7|18}}). Mormons believed they too, were commanded by the Lord to "be one; and if ye are not one ye are not mine" ({{lds|D&C|dc|38|27}}). For a short time, Mormons lived in a society with no divisions under the [[United Order]].

===Statements from church leaders===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Young said, "If the Government of the United States, in Congress assembled, had the right to pass an anti-polygamy bill, they had also the right to pass a law that slaves should not be abused as they have been; they had also a right to make a law that negroes should be used like human beings, and not worse than dumb brutes. For their abuse of that race, the whites will be cursed, unless they repent."<ref name = jdcain>''Journal of Discourses'' '''10''':104–111.</ref>

In 1851, Apostle [[Orson Hyde]] said:

{{blockquote|We feel it to be our duty to define our position in relation to the subject of slavery. There are several in the Valley of the Salt Lake from the Southern States, who have their slaves with them. There is no law in Utah to authorize slavery, neither any to prohibit it. If the slave is disposed to leave his master, no power exists there, either legal or moral, that will prevent him. But if the slave chooses to remain with his master, none are allowed to interfere between the master and the slave. All the slaves that are there appear to be perfectly contented and satisfied.

When a man in the Southern states embraces our faith, the Church says to him, if your slaves wish to remain with you, and to go with you, put them not away; but if they choose to leave you, or are not satisfied to remain with you, it is for you to sell them, or let them go free, as your own conscience may direct you. The Church, on this point, assumes not the responsibility to direct. The laws of the land recognize slavery, we do not wish to oppose the laws of the country. If there is sin in selling a slave, let the individual who sells him bear that sin, and not the Church.<ref>''[[Millennial Star]]'', February 15, 1851. Quoted in [http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/quotes.html#smith43 BlackLDS.org]</ref>}}

===Utah sanctions slavery===
The Great [[Compromise of 1850]] allowed [[California]] into the Union as a [[slave and free states|free state]] while permitting Utah and [[New Mexico Territory|New Mexico]] territories the option of deciding the issue by "popular sovereignty". In 1852 the Utah Territorial Legislature officially sanctioned slavery in Utah Territory. At that time, Brigham Young was governor, and the [[1st Utah Territorial Legislature|Utah Territorial Legislature]] was dominated by church leaders.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Forgotten Kingdom: The Mormon Theocracy in the American West, 1847-1896
|last=Bigler
|first=David L.
|year=1998
|isbn=087062282X
|publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company}}</ref> The Utah slavery law stipulated that slaves would be freed if their masters had sex with them; attempted to take them from the territory against their will; or neglected to feed, clothe, or provide shelter to them. In addition, the law stipulated that slaves must receive schooling. There are conflicting accounts of whether or not slaves could end their bondage by their own choice.<ref>http://utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_part2.htm#Slaves</ref><ref>[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 69]</ref>

Utah was the only western state or territory that had slaves in 1850.<ref>''Negro Slaves in Utah'' by Jack Beller, Utah Historical Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1929, pp. 124-126</ref> In 1860, the census showed that 29 of the 59 black people in Utah Territory were slaves.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} When the [[American Civil War]] broke out in 1861, Utah sided with the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], and slavery ended in 1862 when the [[United States Congress]] abolished slavery in the Utah Territory.

==Racial restriction policy==
Under the racial restrictions that lasted from the presidency of Brigham Young until 1978, persons with any black African ancestry could not hold the priesthood in the LDS Church and could not participate in some [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]], such as the [[Endowment (Latter Day Saints)|Endowment]] and [[celestial marriage]]. Black people were permitted to be members of the church, and participate in other [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]], such as [[baptism for the dead]].<ref>In her autobiography, [[Jane Elizabeth Manning James]] says she "had the privilege of going into the temple and being baptized for some of my dead." http://www.blacklds.org/manning Life History of Jane Elizabeth Manning James as transcribed by Elizabeth J.D. Round</ref>

The racial restriction policy was applied to black Africans, persons of black African descent, and any one with mixed race that included any black African ancestry. The policy was not applied to [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], [[Hispanic people|Hispanics]], [[Melanesians]] or [[Polynesian people|Polynesians]].

===Priesthood===
The priesthood restriction was particularly limiting, because the LDS Church has a [[Laity|lay]] priesthood and all worthy male members may receive the priesthood. Young men are generally admitted to the [[Aaronic priesthood]] at age 12, and it is a significant [[rite of passage]]. Virtually all white adult male members of the church held the priesthood. Holders of the priesthood officiate at church meetings, perform blessings of healing, and manage church affairs. Excluding black people from the priesthood meant that they could not hold significant church [[Calling (LDS Church)|leadership roles]] or participate in certain spiritual events.

Don Harwell, a black LDS Church member, said, "I remember being in a Sacrament meeting, pre-1978, and the sacrament was being passed and there was special care taken by this person that not only did I not officiate, but I didn't touch the sacrament tray. They made sure that I could take the sacrament, but that I did not touch the tray and it was passed around me. That was awfully hard, considering that often those who were officiating were young men in their early teens, and they had that priesthood. I valued that priesthood, but it wasn't available."<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/archivenews/interview.html Rosemary Winters, "Black Mormons Struggle for Acceptance in the Church", ''[[Salt Lake Tribune]]'', November 4, 2004]</ref>

===Temple marriages===
Most black people were not permitted to participate in [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]] performed in the LDS Church temples, such as the [[Endowment (Latter Day Saints)|endowment ritual]] and [[Celestial marriage|temple marriages]] and [[Sealing (Latter Day Saints)|family sealings]]. Denying them the opportunity to participate in these ordinances meant that they could not enjoy the full privileges enjoyed by other Latter-day Saints.

Mormons believe that marriages that are sealed in a [[celestial marriage]] would bind the family together forever, whereas those that are not sealed were terminated upon death. President David McKay taught that black people "need not worry, as those who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."<ref>Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23</ref>

Once black people were allowed to have a celestial marriage, their ancestors would also be allowed to have a temple marriage. Brigham Young taught that "When the ordinances are carried out in the temples that will be erected, [children] will be sealed to their [parents], and those who have slept, clear up to Father [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]]. This will have to be done...until we shall form a perfect chain from Father Adam down to the closing up scene."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=88021b08f338c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=f378cb7a29c20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 Chapter 41: Temple Ordinances], Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Brigham Young, 299</ref>

===Entrance to the highest heaven===
A [[celestial marriage]] was not required to get into the [[celestial kingdom]], but was required to obtain a [[Degrees of glory|fullness of glory]] within the celestial kingdom.<ref>Church leader [[Bruce McConkie]] wrote "Baptism is the gate to the celestial kingdom; celestial marriage is the gate to an exaltation in the highest heaven within the celestial world."(Mormon Doctrine, 1966, p 118)</ref> The [[Doctrine and Covenants]] reads "In the celestial glory there are three heavens or degrees; And in order to obtain the highest, a man must enter into this order of the priesthood [meaning the [[celestial marriage|new and everlasting covenant of marriage]]]; And if he does not, he cannot obtain it."({{lds|D&C|dc|131|1-3}}) The righteous who do not have a celestial marriage would still make it into heaven, and live eternally with God, but they would be "appointed [[angel]]s in heaven, which angels are ministering servants."({{lds|D&C|dc|132|16}})

Some interpreted this to mean black people would be treated as unmarried whites, being confined to only ever live in God's presence as a ministering servant. In 1954, Apostle Mark E. Petersen told BYU students: "If that Negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the celestial kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get a celestial resurrection."<ref>Address at Convention of Teachers of Religion, BYU, Utah, August 27, 1954.</ref> Apostle George F. Richards in a talk at General Conference similarly taught: "[t]he Negro is an unfortunate man. He has been given a black skin. But that is as nothing compared with that greater handicap that he is not permitted to receive the Priesthood and the ordinances of the temple, necessary to prepare men and women to enter into and enjoy a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom."<ref>Elder George F. Richards, ''Conference Report'', April 1939, p. 58.</ref>

Several leaders, including [[Joseph Smith]],<ref>In regards to black people, Joseph Smith taught that "They have souls, and are subjects of salvation." ''[http://www.boap.org/LDS/Joseph-Smith/Teachings/T5.html Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith]'', selected by Joseph Fielding Smith, (Salt Lake City: ''[[Deseret Book Company]]'', 1976), 269. ISBN 087579243X</ref> Brigham Young,<ref>Brigham Young said "when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the Priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we are now entitled to." quoted by the First Presidency, August 17, 1949.</ref> [[Wilford Woodruff]],<ref>Wilford Woodruff said "The day will come when all that race will be redeemed and possess all the blessings which we now have" quoted by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949].</ref> [[George Albert Smith]],<ref>George Albert Smith reiterated what was said by both Brigham Young and Wilford Woodruff in a statement by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949]</ref> [[David O. McKay]],<ref>David McKay taught "Sometime in God's eternal plan, the Negro will be given the right to hold the Priesthood. In the meantime, those of that race who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."(Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23)</ref> [[Joseph Fielding Smith]],<ref>In reference to black people, Apostle Joseph Fielding Smith taught: "Every soul coming into this world came here with the promise that through obedience he would receive the blessings of salvation. No person was foreordained or appointed to sin or to perform a mission of evil. No person is ever predestined to salvation or damnation. Every person has free agency." (Joseph Fielding Smith Jr., ''Doctrines of Salvation'', Vol.1, p. 61)</ref> [[Harold B. Lee]],<ref> In 1972, Harold B. Lee said, "It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we're just waiting for that time." (Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.)</ref> and [[Spencer W. Kimball]],<ref>{{lds|Official Declaration|od|2}}</ref> taught that black people would eventually be able to receive a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom.

When the priesthood ban was discussed in 1978, apostle [[Bruce McConkie]] argued for its change using the [[Standard Works|Mormon scripture]] and the [[Articles of Faith]]. The Third Article states that "all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel."({{lds|Articles of Faith|a_of_f|1|3}}) From the Book of Mormon he quoted "And even unto the great and last day, when all people, and all kindreds, and all nations and tongues shall stand before God, to be judged of their works, whether they be good or whether they be evil— If they be good, to the resurrection of everlasting life; and if they be evil, to the resurrection of damnation. ({{lds|3 Nephi|3_ne|26|4-5}}) The [[Book of Abraham]] in the [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]] states that [[Abraham]]'s seed "shall all the families of the earth be blessed, even with the blessings of the Gospel, which are the blessings of salvation, even of life eternal." ({{lds|Abraham|abr|2|11}}) According to his son, Joseph F. McConkie, these scriptures played a great part in changing the policy.<ref>[http://www.meridianmagazine.com/articles/030606hallelujahprint.html Hallelujah! The 25th Anniversary of the Revelation of Priesthood]</ref>

===Statements on duration of policy===
Brigham Young said in 1854: "When all the other children of Adam have had the privilege of receiving the Priesthood, and of coming into the kingdom of God, and of being redeemed from the four quarters of the earth, and have received their resurrection from the dead, then it will be time enough to remove the curse from Cain and his posterity. He deprived his brother of the privilege of pursuing his journey through life, and of extending his kingdom by multiplying upon the earth; and because he did this, he is the last to share the joys of the kingdom of God".<ref>Journal of Discourses, vol. 2, p. 143</ref> And in 1859 he said "How long is that race to endure the dreadful curse that is upon them? That curse will remain upon them, and they never can hold the Priesthood or share in it until all the other descendants of Adam have received the promises and enjoyed the blessings of the Priesthood and the keys thereof. Until the last ones of the residue of Adam's children are brought up to that favourable position, the children of Cain cannot receive the first ordinances of the Priesthood. They were the first that were cursed, and they will be the last from whom the curse will be removed".<ref>Journal of Discourses, vol. 7, pp. 290-291</ref> He also prophesied: "Children are now born who will live until every son of Adam will have the privilege of receiving the principles of eternal life."<ref>Young, Brigham. Journal of Discourses: {{sourcetext|source=Journal of Discourses/Volume 8|book=Character of God and Christ, etc.}} pg. 116</ref> At another time, he stated "That the time will come when they will have the privilege of all we have the privilege of and more."<ref>Brigham Young, Speech given in Joint Session of the Utah Legislature, February 5, 1952, in Fred Collier, The Teachings of President Brigham Young. Salt Lake City, Collier's Publishing, 1987, 43</ref>

[[Joseph Fielding Smith]] wrote in 1935 "Not only was Cain called upon to suffer, but because of his wickedness he became the father of an inferior race. A curse was placed upon him and that curse has been continued through his lineage and must do so while time endures". In his book he made clear that the contents were his opinion.<ref>Way to Perfection, 1935, p. 101</ref> In 1963, while discussing when the ban would be lifted, he told a reporter that "Such a change can come about only through divine revelation, and no one can predict when a divine revelation will occur."<ref>[[Look (American magazine)]], Oct. 22, 1963, p.79</ref>

LDS author John Lewis Lund wrote in 1967 "Brigham Young revealed that the negro will not receive the Priesthood until a great while after the second coming of Jesus Christ, whose coming will usher in a millennium of peace".<ref>The Church and the Negro: A Discussion of Mormons, Negroes, and the Priesthood, 1967, p. 45</ref>

When the policy was reversed in 1978, church president Kimball referred to it as "the long-promised day". Critics say that lifting the restriction before the resurrection is contrary to Young's 1854 and 1859 statements,<ref>[http://utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_part4.htm Jerald and Sandra Tanner - ''Curse of Cain'']</ref> while church apologists say that Brigham Young's statements meant that Africans could receive the priesthood after all other ''races'' were eligible to receive it, not all other individuals.

===Racial discrimination other than racial restriction policy===
{{further|[[Racism in the United States]]}}
The exclusion from the priesthood was not the only discrimination practiced by church members. In the late 1800s blacks living in Cache Valley were forcibly relocated to Ogden and Salt Lake City. In the 1950s, the San Francisco mission office took legal action to prevent black families from moving into the church neighborhood.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965">Glen W. Davidson, "Mormon Missionaries and the Race Question," The Christian Century, 29 Sept. 1965, pp. 1183-86.</ref> In 1965, a black man living in Salt Lake City, Daily Oliver, described how – as a boy – he was excluded from an LDS-led boy scout troop because they did not want blacks in their building.<ref>Utah Chronicle, May 28, 1965</ref> Mormon apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] describes a black family that tried to join the LDS church: "[some white church members] went to the Branch President, and said that either the [black] family must leave, or they would all leave. The Branch President ruled that [the black family] could not come to church meetings. It broke their hearts."<ref>"Race Problems As They Affect The Church", presentation by Mark E. Petersen to the Convention of Teachers of Religion", 27 August 1954, p. 16</ref> Until the 1970s hospitals with connections to the LDS church, including LDS Hospital, Primary Children's and Cottonwood Hospitals in Salt Lake City, McKay-Dee Hospital in Ogden, and Utah Valley Hospital in Provo, kept separate the blood donated by blacks and whites.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}

==Reasons given for racial restriction policy==
==="Curse of Cain" and representative of Satan===
Some members of the church used the [[Curse and mark of Cain|curse of Cain]] to justify the racial restriction policy. In the [[book of Genesis]],<ref>{{lds|Genesis|gen|4|9|15}}</ref> God puts a mark on Cain after he kills his brother [[Abel]]. Church leader [[Bruce R. McConkie]] wrote in his 1966 edition of ''[[Mormon Doctrine]]'':
<blockquote>
Of the two-thirds who followed Christ, however, some were more valiant than others ....Those who were less valiant in pre-existence and who thereby had certain spiritual restrictions imposed upon them during mortality are known to us as the negroes. Such spirits are sent to earth through the lineage of Cain, the mark put upon him for his rebellion against God and his murder of Abel being a black skin (Moses 5:16-41; 12:22). Noah's son Ham married Egyptus, a descendant of Cain, thus preserving the negro lineage through the flood (Abraham 1:20-27). Negroes in this life are denied the priesthood; under no circumstances can they hold this delegation of authority from the Almighty. (Abra. 1:20-27.) The gospel message of salvation is not carried affirmatively to them (Moses 7:8, 12, 22), although sometimes negroes search out the truth, join the Church, and become by righteous living heirs of the celestial kingdom of heaven. President Brigham Young and others have taught that in the future eternity worthy and qualified negroes will receive the priesthood and every gospel blessing available to any man.
The present status of the negro rests purely and simply on the foundation of pre-existence. Along with all races and peoples he is receiving here what he merits as a result of the long pre-mortal probation in the presence of the Lord....The negroes are not equal with other races where the receipt of certain spiritual blessings are concerned, particularly the priesthood and the temple blessings that flow therefrom, but this inequality is not of man's origin. It is the Lord's doing.<ref>{{cite book
|last=McConkie
|first=Bruce
|title=[[Mormon Doctrine]]
|year=1966}}</ref></blockquote>

In 1881, church president [[John Taylor (Latter Day Saints)|John Taylor]] said "And after the flood we are told that the curse that had been pronounced upon Cain was continued through Ham's wife, as he had married a wife of that seed. And why did it pass through the flood? Because it was necessary that the devil should have a representation upon the earth as well as God; and that man should be a free agent to act for himself, and that all men might have the opportunity of receiving or rejecting the truth, and be governed by it or not according to their wishes and abide the result; and that those who would be able to maintain correct principles under all circumstances, might be able to associate with the Gods in the eternal worlds." (Journal of Discourses, Vol. 22 page 304).

Black journalist and church member [[Darius Gray|Darius Aidan Gray]], in 2007, commented "I think the most damning statement came from one of the presidents of the church, the third president of the church, [[John Taylor (Latter Day Saints)|John Taylor]]. Basically, he said that the reason that black people had been allowed to come through the flood, the flood of Noah, was so that Satan would have representation upon the earth, that black folks were here to represent Satan and to have a balance against white folks, who were here to represent Jesus Christ, the savior. How do you damn a people more than to say that their existence upon the earth is to represent Satan?"<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/etc/script2.html PBS Frontline TV show transcript]</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/view/15.html PBS Frontline TV show video]</ref>

LDS scholar W. John Walsh disagrees. He reads the quote as saying the devil must have a representation so that all men, including black people, may have ability to choose to receive or reject the truth, not that black people were that representation.<ref>Walsh, W. John [http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/response/qa/blacks_representative.htm Blacks Are Not Satan's Representatives]</ref>

====Pearl of Great Price====
The Church leadership began using the newly canonized [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]], which has the following verse:

<blockquote>Pharaoh, being a righteous man, established his kingdom and judged his people wisely and justly all his days, seeking earnestly to imitate that order established by the fathers in the first generations, in the days of the first patriarchal reign, even in the reign of Adam, and also of Noah, his father, who blessed him with the blessing of the earth, and with the blessing of wisdom, ''but cursed him as pertaining the priesthood''. Now, Pharaoh being of that lineage by which he could not have the right of the priesthood, notwithstanding the Pharaohs would fain claim it from Noah, through Ham, therefore my father was led away by their idolatry. ({{sourcetext|source=Pearl of Great Price|version=|book=Abraham|chapter=1|verse=26|range=-27}}, emphasis added)</blockquote>

===Less valiant in pre-existence===
One of the justifications that some Latter-day Saints used for the discriminatory policy was that black individual's [[pre-existence]] spirits were not as virtuous as white pre-existence spirits. For example, Apostle [[Joseph Fielding Smith]] wrote: "According to the doctrine of the church, the negro because of some condition of unfaithfulness in the spirit — or pre-existence, was not valiant and hence was not denied the mortal probation, but was denied the blessing of the priesthood."<ref>Letter to J. Henderson, April 10, 1963). {{cite web|
url=http://www.utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_appendix_c.htm|
title=Letter from Joseph Fielding Smith to J. Henderson}}</ref>

Smith also reasoned that during the [[war in Heaven]], some spirits would logically have been less valiant in following the Savior than others, therefore the priesthood was restricted from the least valiant.<ref>Smith, Joseph Fielding, Way to Perfection, 1950, p.46</ref> However, Smith made clear that the book was his own personal opinion. Of the doctrine of the church, Smith said "The Mormon Church does not believe, nor does it teach, that the Negro is an inferior being. Mentally, and physically, the Negro is capable of great achievement, as great and in some cases greater than the potentiality of the white race. He can become a lawyer, a doctor, a scientist, and he can achieve great heights."<ref>(Deseret News, Church Section, June 14, 1962)</ref>

===Reasons not known===
[[David O. McKay]] said: "From the beginning of this dispensation, Joseph Smith and all succeeding presidents of the church have taught that negroes, while spirit children of a common Father, and the progeny of our earthly parents Adam and Eve, were not yet to receive the priesthood, for reasons which we believe are known to God, but which He has not made fully known to man."<ref>Bringhurst 1981: 223</ref>

===Human error===
Although not refuting his belief that the policy came from the Lord, [[Apostle (Latter Day Saints)|apostle]] [[Spencer W. Kimball]] acknowledged in 1963 that it could have been brought about through an error on man's part. In 1963, he said, "The doctrine or policy has not varied in my memory. I know it could. I know the Lord could change his policy and release the ban and forgive the possible error which brought about the deprivation."<ref>{{cite book
|title=The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball
|pages=448–9
|last=Kimball
|first=Edward L.
|authorlink=Edward L. Kimball
|publisher=[[Bookcraft]]}}</ref>

==Racial policy under John Taylor==
Under John Taylor's presidency, there was confusion regarding the origin of the racial policy. Abel was living, breathing proof that an African American was ordained to the Priesthood in the days of Joseph Smith. His son, Enoch Abel, had also been conferred the Priesthood.<ref>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/abel.html Elijah Abel | Blacklds.org]</ref> Joseph F. Smith said that Abel's Priesthood had been declared null and void by Joseph Smith himself, though this seems to conflict with Joseph F. Smith's teachings that the Priesthood could not be removed from any man without removing that man from the church.<ref name = "Mauss-76">[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 76-86]</ref> From this point on Joseph Smith was repeatedly referred to as the author of many statements, which had actually been made by Brigham Young, on the subject of Priesthood restriction.<ref name = "Mauss-76"/>

==Exceptions==
Several black men received the priesthood after the racial restriction policy was put in place, including Elijah Abel's son Enoch Abel, who was ordained an [[Elder (Latter Day Saints)|elder]] on Nov. 10, 1900. Enoch's son and Elijah Abel's grandson — who was also named Elijah Abel — received the [[Aaronic priesthood]] and was ordained to the office of [[priest (Latter Day Saints)|priest]] on July 5, 1934. The younger Elijah Abel also received the [[Melchizedek priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Melchizedek priesthood]] and was ordained to the office of [[Elder (Latter Day Saints)|elder]] on Sept. 29, 1935.<ref name = MTR>Newell G. Bringhurst, "The 'Missouri Thesis' Revisisted: Early Mormonism, Slavery, and the Status of Black People" in Newell G. Bringhurst and Darron T. Smith (eds.) (2006). ''Black and Mormon'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press) pp. 13–33 at p. 30.</ref> One commentator has pointed out that these incidents illustrate the "ambiguities, contradictions, and paradoxes" of the issue during the twentieth century.<ref name = MTR/>

==The "Negro Question" Declaration==
In 1949, the First Presidency under the direction of [[George Albert Smith]] made a declaration which included the statement that the priesthood restriction was divinely commanded and not a matter of church policy.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
pages=101–102|
year=1999|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling}}</ref> It stated:

<blockquote>
The attitude of the Church with reference to the Negroes remains as it has always stood. It is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord, on which is founded the doctrine of the Church from the days of its organization, to the effect that Negroes may become members of the Church but that they are not entitled to the Priesthood at the present time. The prophets of the Lord have made several statements as to the operation of the principle. President Brigham Young said: "Why are so many of the inhabitants of the earth cursed with a skin of blackness? It comes in consequence of their fathers rejecting the power of the holy priesthood, and the law of God. They will go down to death. And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the holy priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to."
</blockquote>
The declaration goes on to state that the conditions in which people are born are affected by their conduct in a premortal existence, although the details of the principle are said not to be known. It then says that the privilege of mortal existence is so great that spirits were willing to come to earth even though they would not be able to possess the priesthood. It concludes by stating, "Under this principle there is no injustice whatsoever involved in this deprivation as to the holding of the priesthood by the Negroes."
<ref>First Presidency [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm Letter of the First Presidency] August 17, 1949</ref>

==Darkness associated with sin==
Many LDS church documents and church leaders asserted that dark skin was an indication of sin or a curse.<ref>A verse from the Book of Mormon (2 Nephi 30:6) relating to that belief discusses the Lamanites (Native Americans) "... and many generations shall not pass away among the, save they shall be a white and delightsome people". In 1980, the church changed the wording of that verse from "white and delightsome people" to "pure and delightsome people," which also appears in the 1840 edition printed in Nauvoo, edited by Joseph Smith. Church leaders claimed that they were simply restoring the verse to reflect the 1840 change by Joseph Smith, and that the verse did not concern skin color but rather concerned character. But church critic [[Richard Abanes]] claims that that change of that verse by the church is an attempt to cover-up its past attitudes, despite the change having been made 140 year previously. {{cite book
|title=One Nation Under Gods
|first = Richard
|last = Abanes
|page=420}}</ref><ref>For many examples, see Mormonism: Shadow or Reality? Gerald and Sandra Tanner. p. 262-266</ref><ref>"A black skin is a mark of the curse of heaven.... We understand that when God made man in his own image and pronounced him very good, that he made him white." [[Juvenile Instructor]], vol 3, page 157</ref> One belief held by some LDS members was that skin color of Native Americans would gradually change from dark to light as they repented of their sins.<ref>General Conference Report, October, 1960. Improvement Era, December 1960, pp. 922-923. A verse from the Book of Mormon (2 Nephi 30:6) relating to that belief discusses the Lamanites (Native Americans) "... and many generations shall not pass away among them, save they shall be a white and delightsome people".</ref><ref>Mormon writer [[George Edward Clark]] wrote (regarding an Indian tribe in South Carolina): "That tribe, or most of its members, are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Those Indians, at least as many as I have observed, were white and delightsome; as white and fair as any group of citizens of our country. I know of no prophecy , ancient or modern, that as had a more literal fulfillment".{{cite book
|title=Why I Believe, Fifty-four Evidences of the Divine Calling of Joseph Smith
|first=George Edward
|last=Clark
|year=1954}}</ref><ref>LDS church president [[Spencer W. Kimball]] said in 1960 (when he was a member of the 12 apostles):
I saw a striking contrast in the progress of the Indian people today.... For years they have been growing delightsome, and they are now becoming white and delightsome, as they were promised. In this picture of the twenty Lamanite missionaries, fifteen of the twenty were as light as Anglos, five were darker but equally delightsome The children in the home placement program in Utah are often lighter than their brothers and sisters in the hogans on the reservation. At one meeting a father and mother and their sixteen-year-old daughter were present, the little member girl--sixteen--sitting between the dark father and mother, and it was evident she was several shades lighter than her parents--on the same reservation, in the same hogan, subject to the same sun and wind and weather....These young members of the Church are changing to whiteness and to delightsomeness. One white elder jokingly said that he and his companion were donating blood regularly to the hospital in the hope that the process might be accelerated. '' General Conference Report'', October, 1960. Improvement Era, December 1960, pp. 922-923.</ref>

==Racial policy 1951-1977==
In 1954, Church President [[David O. McKay]] taught: "There is not now, and there never has been a doctrine in this church that the negroes are under a divine curse. There is no doctrine in the church of any kind pertaining to the negro. ''We believe'' that we have a scriptural precedent for withholding the priesthood from the negro. It is a practice, not a doctrine, and the practice someday will be changed. And that's all there is to it.’<ref>Sterling M. McMurrin affidavit, March 6, 1979. See ''[[David O. McKay and the Rise of Modern Mormonism]]'' by [[Greg Prince]] and [[William Robert Wright]]. Quoted by [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/howtoreach.html Genesis Group]</ref>

[[Mark E. Petersen]] (an [[Apostle (Mormonism)|apostle]]) addressed the issue of race and Priesthood in his address to a 1954 Convention of Teachers of Religion at the College Level at Brigham Young University. He said:

<blockquote> The reason that one would lose his blessings by marrying a negro is due to the restriction placed upon them. 'No person having the least particle of negro blood can hold the priesthood' (Brigham Young). It does not matter if they are one-sixth negro or one-hundred and sixth, the curse of no Priesthood is the same. If an individual who is entitled to the priesthood marries a negro, the Lord has decreed that only spirits who are not eligible for the priesthood will come to that marriage as children. To intermarry with a negro is to forfeit a 'nation of priesthood holders'....<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds_race.htm Racism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)]</ref></blockquote>

Petersen held that male descendants of a mixed-marriage could not become a Mormon priest, even if they had a lone ancestor with African blood dating back many generations.<ref name = "Mormon-racism">Peterson, Mark E. "[http://www.lds-mormon.com/racism.shtml Race Problems -- As They Affect The Church]", 27 August 1954</ref> However, he did hold out hope for African Americans, in that a black person baptized into the Mormon faith and who accepted Joseph Smith as a Prophet of God could attain the highest form of [[salvation]] known to Mormons, the [[Celestial Kingdom]].<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/> Petersen said, "If that negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the Celestial Kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get celestial glory."<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/>

===Apostle Harold B. Lee blocks policy change===
In 1969 church apostle [[Harold B. Lee]] blocked the LDS Church from rescinding the racial restriction policy.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14">Quinn, Michael D. ''The Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power'' Salt Lake City: 1994 Signature Books Page 14</ref> Church leaders voted to rescind the policy at a meeting in 1969. Lee was absent from the meeting due to travels. When Lee returned he called for a re-vote, arguing that the policy could not be changed without a revelation.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14"/>

===Church president statement in 1972===
[[Harold B. Lee]], president of the church, stated in 1972: "For those who don't believe in modern revelation there is no adequate explanation. Those who do understand revelation stand by and wait until the Lord speaks...It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we’re just waiting for that time."<ref>Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.</ref>

==Civil Rights movement==
===Church and the Civil Rights movement===
In 1958, [[Joseph Fielding Smith]] published '''Answers to Gospel Questions''' which stated "No church or other organization is more insistent than The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, that the negroes should receive all the rights and privileges that can possibly be given to any other in the true sense of equality as declared in the Declaration of Independence." He continues to say they should not be barred from any type of employment or education, and should be free "to make their lives as happy as it is possible without interference from white men, labor unions or from any other source."<ref name=history>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html LDS Black History Timeline]</ref> In the 1963 General Conference, Hugh B. Brown stated: "it is a moral evil for any person or group of persons to deny any human being the rights to gainful employment, to full educational opportunity, and to every privilege of citizenship". He continued: "We call upon all men everywhere, both within and outside the church, to commit themselves to the establishment of full civil equality for all of God's children. Anything less than this defeats our high ideal of the brotherhood of man."<ref name=history />

The NAACP attempted to get the LDS church to support civil rights legislation and to reverse its discriminating practices during the [[Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights era]] in the 1960s. In 1963 [[NAACP]] leadership tried to arrange meetings with church leadership, but the church refused to meet with them.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1965, the church leadership did meet with the NAACP, and agreed to publish an editorial in church-owned newspaper [[The Deseret News]], which would support civil rights legislation pending in the Utah legislature. The church failed to follow-through on the commitment, and church Apostle [[N. Eldon Tanner]] explained "We have decided to remain silent".<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In March 1965, the NAACP led a anti-discrimination march in Salt Lake City, protesting church policies.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1966, the NAACP issued a statement criticizing the church, saying the church "has maintained a rigid and continuous segregation stand" and that "the church has made "no effort to conteract the widespread discriminatory practices in education, in housing, in employment, and other areas of life"<ref>[[The Deseret News]], May 3, 1966</ref>

During the 1960s and 1970s, Mormons in the West were close to the national averages in racial attitudes.<ref>[[Armand Mauss|Mauss, Armand]] [http://www.fairlds.org/FAIR_Conferences/2003_LDS_Church_and_the_Race_Issue.html The LDS Church and the Race Issue: A Study in Misplaced Apologetics] 2003</ref> In 1966, [[Armand Mauss]] surveyed Mormons on racial attitudes and discriminatory practices. He found that "Mormons resembled the rather "moderate" denominations (such as Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopalian), rather than the "fundamentalists" or the sects."<ref name=Mauss1966>Armand L. Mauss, "Mormonism and Secular Attitudes toward Negroes", Pacific Sociological Review 9 (Fall 1966)</ref> Negative racial attitudes within Mormonism varied inversely with education, occupation, community size of origin, and youth, reflecting the national trend. Urban Mormons with a more orthodox view of Mormonism tended to be more tolerant.<ref name=Mauss1966 />

===Sports boycotts of BYU===
African-American athletes protested against LDS policies by boycotting several sporting events with [[Brigham Young University]]. In 1968, after the assassination of [[Martin Luther King]], black members of the [[UTEP]] track team approached their coach and expressed their desire not to compete against BYU in an upcoming meet. When the coach disregarded the athletes' complaint, the athletes boycotted the meet.<ref name="ADR"/> In 1969, 14 members of the [[University of Wyoming]] football team were removed from the team for planning to protest the policies of the LDS church.<ref name="ADR">{{cite journal|last=Fried|first=Gil|coauthors=Michael Hiller|year=1997|title=ADR in youth and intercollegiate athletics|journal=Brigham Young University Law Review|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_199701/ai_n8735454/pg_1}}, p. 1, p. 10</ref> In November 1969, Stanford University President Kenneth Pitzer suspended athletic relations with BYU.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=EfYLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=i1cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3753,2673063&dq=kenneth-pitzer+brigham-young |work=Evening Independent |date=December 11, 1969 |author=James J. Kilpatrick |title=A Sturdy Discipline Serves Mormons Well}}</ref>

===Boy Scout leaders===
Since the early part of the 20th century, each LDS ward has organized its own [[Boy Scout]]ing troop. Some LDS troops permitted black youths to join, but an LDS policy required that the troop leader to be the deacon quorum president (a priesthood office held by 12 and 13 year old non-black church members), thus excluding black children from that role. The [[NAACP]] filed a federal lawsuit in 1974 challenging this racist practice, and soon thereafter the LDS church reversed its policy.<ref>http://www.bsa-discrimination.org/html/lds-top.html Exclusionary Practices & Policies of the
Boy Scouts of America</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage |first=Armand L. |last=Mauss |page=218 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2003 |isbn=0252028031}}</ref>

===Spencer W. Kimball denounces racism===
[[Spencer W. Kimball]], LDS apostle and future president of the church taught against racism. In 1972, he said: "Intolerance by Church members is despicable. A special problem exists with respect to black people because they may not now receive the priesthood. Some members of the Church would justify their own un-Christian discrimination against black people because of that rule with respect to the priesthood, but while this restriction has been imposed by the Lord, it is not for us to add burdens upon the shoulders of our black brethren. They who have received Christ in faith through authoritative baptism are heirs to the celestial kingdom along with men of all other races. And those who remain faithful to the end may expect that God may finally grant them all blessings they have merited through their righteousness. Such matters are in the Lord's hands. It is for us to extend our love to all."<ref>The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball, p.237, emphasis in original</ref>

==Retaliation against Mormon anti-discrimination activists==

There were some LDS church members who protested against the church's discriminatory practices. Two LDS church members, Douglas A. Wallace and Byron Merchant, were excommunicated by the LDS church (1976 and 1977 respectively) after criticizing the church's discrimatory practices.<ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 13, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', October 4, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 3, 1978</ref><ref>''Dallas Morning News'', October 20, 1977</ref> LDS church member Grant Syphers objected to the church's racial policies and, as a consequence, his stake president refused to give Sypher permission to enter the temple. The president said, "Anyone who could not accept the Church's stand on Negroes ... could not go to the temple".<ref>Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Winter 1967, p. 6</ref>

==Racial policy ends in 1978==
{{Main|1978 Revelation on Priesthood}}
LDS church president [[Spencer W. Kimball]] (president 1973-1985) took [[General Conference (LDS Church)|general conference]] on the road, holding area and regional conferences all over the world. He also announced many new [[Temple (LDS Church)|temples]] to be built both in the United States and abroad, including one at [[São Paulo Brazil Temple|temple in São Paulo, Brazil]]. The problem of determining priesthood eligibility in Brazil was thought to be nearly impossible due to the mixing of the races in that country. When the temple was announced, church leaders realized the difficulty of restricting persons with African descent from attending the temple in Brazil.<ref>[[Mark L. Grover]], "The Mormon Priesthood Revelation and the São Paulo Brazil Temple", ''[[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]]'' '''23''':39–53 (Spring 1990).</ref>

Finally, on June 8, 1978, the [[First Presidency]] released to the press an official declaration, now a part of the standard works of the church, which contained the following statement:

<blockquote>He has heard our prayers, and ''by revelation'' has confirmed that the long-promised day has come when every faithful, worthy man in the church may receive the Holy Priesthood, with power to exercise its divine authority, and enjoy with his loved ones every blessing that follows there from, including the blessings of the temple. Accordingly, all worthy male members of the church may be ordained to the priesthood without regard for race or color. Priesthood leaders are instructed to follow the policy of carefully interviewing all candidates for ordination to either the Aaronic or the Melchizedek Priesthood to insure that they meet the established standards for worthiness.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/od/2 Official Declaration 2], emphasis added.</ref></blockquote>

According to first-person accounts, after much discussion among the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles on this matter, they engaged the Lord in prayer. According to the writing of one of those present, "It was during this prayer that the revelation came. The Spirit of the Lord rested upon us all; we felt something akin to what happened on the day of [[Pentecost]] and at the [[Kirtland Temple]]. From the midst of eternity, the voice of God, conveyed by the power of the Spirit, spoke to his prophet. The message was that the time had now come to offer the fullness of the everlasting gospel, including celestial marriage, and the priesthood, and the blessings of the temple, to all men, without reference to race or color, solely on the basis of personal worthiness. And we all heard the same voice, received the same message, and became personal witnesses that the word received was the mind and will and voice of the Lord."<ref>''Priesthood'', pp. 127-128, Deseret Book Co., 1981.</ref> Immediately after the receipt of this new revelation, an official announcement of the revelation was prepared, and sent out to all of the various leaders of the Church. It was then read to, approved by and accepted as the word and will of the Lord, by a General Conference of the Church in October 1978. Succeeding editions of the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] were printed with this announcement canonized and entitled "[[Official Declaration—2]]".

[[Gordon B. Hinckley]] (a participant in the meetings to reverse the ban), in a churchwide fireside said, "Not one of us who was present on that occasion was ever quite the same after that. Nor has the Church been quite the same. All of us knew that the time had come for a change and that the decision had come from the heavens. The answer was clear. There was perfect unity among us in our experience and in our understanding."<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=6bb6d7630a27b010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____ Priesthood Restoration], an edited version of a talk given 15 May 1988 at the Churchwide fireside commemorating the 159th anniversary of the restoration of the priesthood.</ref>

Later in 1978, McConkie said:<ref>Bruce R. McConkie, 1978 (All Are Alike Unto God, A SYMPOSIUM ON THE BOOK OF MORMON, The Second Annual Church Educational System Religious Educator's Symposium, August 17–19, 1978</ref>
<blockquote>There are statements in our literature by the early brethren which we have interpreted to mean that the Negroes would not receive the priesthood in mortality. I have said the same things, and people write me letters and say, "You said such and such, and how is it now that we do such and such?" And all I can say to that is that it is time disbelieving people repented and got in line and believed in a living, modern prophet. Forget everything that I have said, or what President Brigham Young or President George Q. Cannon or whomsoever has said in days past that is contrary to the present revelation. We spoke with a limited understanding and without the light and knowledge that now has come into the world.... We get our truth and our light line upon line and precept upon precept. We have now had added a new flood of intelligence and light on this particular subject, and it erases all the darkness and all the views and all the thoughts of the past. They don’t matter any more.... It doesn’t make a particle of difference what anybody ever said about the Negro matter before the first day of June of this year.</blockquote>

===Critics question motivation of policy reversal===

Critics of the LDS church claim that the church's 1978 reversal of the racial restriction policy was not divinely inspired as the church claimed, but simply a matter of political convenience.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0802412343 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979|
pages=319–328
}}</ref> Critics point out that this reversal of policy occurred as the LDS church began to expand outside the United States into countries such as Brazil that have ethnically mixed populations, and that the policy reversal was announced just a few months before the church opened its new temple in [[São Paulo]], Brazil.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|year=1999|
page=95|
publisher=Harper Collins
}}
</ref>

===Critics claim that 1978 revelation undermines prophets===
Critics of the LDS church point out that the 1978 revelation undermines the church's claim that its presidents are prophets of God and that their proclamations are God's word, because Brigham Young stated in 1852 that blacks would not receive the preisthood "until the last of the posterity of Able [sic] had received the priesthood, until the redemtion of the earth."<ref>{{cite web|
url=http://www.mrm.org/topics/miscellaneous/black-skin-and-seed-cain|
title=Mormon Research Ministry}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abane|
isbn=1568582196|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows|
pages=355–374}}
</ref> Mormon apologists reply that revelation is a continuing process and that newer revelations supersede older revelations {{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}.

==Interracial marriages==
===Pre-1978===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Church president Brigham Young said "If the White man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain (those with dark skin), the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so."<ref name = jdcain />

LDS Apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] said in 1954: "I think I have read enough to give you an idea of what the Negro is after. He is not just seeking the opportunity of sitting down in a cafe where white people eat. He isn't just trying to ride on the same streetcar or the same Pullman car with white people. It isn't that he just desires to go to the same theater as the white people. From this, and other interviews I have read, it appears that the Negro seeks absorption with the white race. He will not be satisfied until he achieves it by intermarriage. That is his objective and we must face it."<ref>Race Problems - As They Affect The Church, Convention of Teachers of Religion on the College Level, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, August 27, 1954</ref>

In a 1965 address to BYU students, President Kimball told BYU students: "Now, the brethren feel that it is not the wisest thing to cross racial lines in dating and marrying. There is no condemnation. We have had some of our fine young people who have crossed the lines. We hope they will be very happy, but experience of the brethren through a hundred years has proved to us that marriage is a very difficult thing under any circumstances and the difficulty increases in interrace marriages."<ref name=ChurchNews1978>"Interracial Marriage Discouraged", Church News, June 17, 1978, p. 2.</ref>

===Post-1978===
The official newspaper of the LDS Church<ref>{{Harv|Roberts|1983|p=7}}</ref> – the [[Church News]] – printed an article in entitled "Interracial marriage discouraged". This article was printed on June 17, 1978, in the same issue that announced the policy reversal.

There was no written church policy on interracial marriages, which had been permitted since before the 1978 reversal.<ref name=ChurchNews1978 /> In 1978, church spokesman Don LeFevre said "So there is no ban on interracial marriage. If a black partner contemplating marriage is worthy of going to the Temple, nobody's going to stop him... if he's ready to go to the Temple, obviously he may go with the blessings of the church."<ref>Don LeFevre, Salt Lake Tribune, 14 June 1978</ref>

On the LDS Church website, Dr. Robert Millet writes: "[T]he Church Handbook of Instructions... is the guide for all Church leaders on doctrine and practice. There is, in fact, no mention whatsoever in this handbook concerning interracial marriages. In addition, having served as a Church leader for almost 30 years, I can also certify that I have never received official verbal instructions condemning marriages between black and white members."<ref>Robert L. Millet, [http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=a1aa39628b88f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=f5f411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD "Church Response to Jon Krakauer's Under the Banner of Heaven,"] 27 June 2003</ref>

A church lesson manual for adolescent boys that is in use in 2011 contains a 1976 quote from [[Spencer W. Kimball]] that says "We recommend that people marry those who are of the same racial background generally, and of somewhat the same economic and social and educational background (some of those are not an absolute necessity, but preferred), and above all, the same religious background, without question".<ref>
*Embry, Jessie L., ''Black Saints in a white church: contemporary African American Mormons'', Signature Books, 1994, p 169.
*The LDS document is online at: [http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=ba805f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=1f4fa41f6cc20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 “Lesson 31: Choosing an Eternal Companion,”] ''Aaronic Priesthood Manual 3'', p. 127.</ref>

==1985 to present==
[[Image:MormonAdFamilyPhoto.jpg|right|thumb|[[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church]]Since the Revelation on the Priesthood in 1978, the church has made no distinctions in policy for black people, but it remains an issue for many black members of the church. Alvin Jackson, a black Bishop, puts his focus on "moving forward rather than looking back."<ref>Page Johnson [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/jackson.html Alvin B. Jackson, Jr—The Bishop is Always In] Meridian Magazine</ref> In an interview with ''Mormon Century'', Jason Smith expresses his viewpoint that the membership of the church was not ready for black people to have the Priesthood at the time of the Restoration, because of prejudice and slavery. He draws analogies to the Bible where only the Israelites have the gospel.<ref>Ken Kuykendall, [http://www.mormoncentury.org/www/ContentPages/HearContent.aspx?PID=1000022 Past racial issues and the Church today]{{Dead link|date=October 2010}} Mormon Century</ref> Officially the church also uses Biblical history to justify the prior ban:

::Ever since biblical times, the Lord has designated through His prophets who could receive the priesthood and other blessings of the gospel. Among the tribes of Israel, for example, only men of the tribe of Levi were given the priesthood and allowed to officiate in certain ordinances. Likewise, during the Savior's earthly ministry, gospel blessings were restricted to the Jews. Only after a revelation to the Apostle Peter were the gospel and priesthood extended to others (see Acts 10:1–33; 14:23; 15:6–8).<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=bbd508f54922d010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=36f2ce9566a43110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ LDS Gospel Topics: Priesthood Ordination before 1978]</ref>

The church opposes racism among its membership. It is currently working to reach out to black people, and has several predominantly black wards inside the United States.<ref>Wilcox, Lauren, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/09/AR2007050901770.html The Saints Go Marching In] Washington Post May 13, 2007</ref> They teach that all are welcome to come unto Christ, and speak against those who harbor ill feelings towards another race. [[Gordon B. Hinckley]], the President of the LDS church, stated:
{{quote|I remind you that no man who makes disparaging remarks concerning those of another race can consider himself a true disciple of Christ. Nor can he consider himself to be in harmony with the teachings of the Church of Christ. Let us all recognize that each of us is a son or daughter of our Father in Heaven, who loves all of His children."<ref name="Hinckley 2006">[http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html The Need for Greater Kindness]</ref>}}

In the July 1992 edition of the [[New Era (magazine)|New Era]], the church published a [[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church. The photo contained several youth of a variety of ethic backgrounds with the words "Family Photo" in large print. Underneath the picture are the words "God created the races—but not racism. We are all children of the same Father. Violence and hatred have no place in His family. (See Acts 10:34.)"<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=024644f8f206c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=445405e063feb010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1
|publisher=[[New Era (magazine)|New Era]]
|title=Family Photo
|month=July | year=1992
|last=Diamond
|first=Craig}}</ref>

===Instances of discrimination after 1978 revelation===
LDS historian Wayne J. Embry interviewed several black LDS church members in 1987 and reported "All of the interviewees reported incidents of aloofness on the part of white members, a reluctance or a refusal to shake hands with them or sit by them, and racist comments made to them." Embry further reported that one black church member "was amazingly persistent in attending Mormon services for three years when, by her report, no one would speak to her." Embry reports that "she [the same black church member] had to write directly to the president of the LDS Church to find out how to be baptized" because none of her fellow church members would tell her.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Black and Mormon|
last=Smith|first=Darron|
publisher=University of Illinois Press|
year=2004|
isbn=025202947X|
pages=75–77}}</ref>

Black LDS church member Darron Smith wrote in 2003: "Even though the priesthood ban was repealed in 1978, the discourse that constructs what blackness means is still very much intact today. Under the direction of President Spencer W. Kimball, the First Presidency and the Twelve removed the policy that denied black people the priesthood but did very little to disrupt the multiple discourses that had fostered the policy in the first place. Hence there are Church members today who continue to summon and teach at every level of Church education the racial discourse that black people are descendants of Cain, that they merited lesser earthly privilege because they were "fence-sitters" in the War in Heaven, and that, science and climatic factors aside, there is a link between skin color and righteousness" <ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Smith
| first = Darron
| title = The Persistence of Racialized Discourse in Mormonism|
journal = Sunstone
|date=March 2003}}
</ref>

Journalist and church member [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]] in 2007 wrote "Today, many black Mormons report subtle differences in the way they are treated, as if they are not full members but a separate group. A few even have been called 'the n-word' at church and in the hallowed halls of the temple. They look in vain at photos of Mormon general authorities, hoping to see their own faces reflected there.<ref>"New film and revived group help many feel at home in their church" by [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]], The Salt Lake Tribune, July 6, 2007</ref>

White church member [[Eugene England]], a professor at Brigham Young University, wrote in 1998: <blockquote>
This is a good time to remind ourselves that most Mormons are still in denial about the ban, unwilling to talk in Church settings about it, and that some Mormons still believe that Blacks were cursed by descent from Cain through Ham. Even more believe that Blacks, as well as other non-white people, come color-coded into the world, their lineage and even their class a direct indication of failures in a previous life.... I check occasionally in classes at BYU and find that still, twenty years after the revelation, a majority of bright, well-educated Mormon students say they believe that Blacks are descendants of Cain and Ham and thereby cursed and that skin color is an indication of righteousness in the pre-mortal life. They tell me these ideas came from their parents or Seminary and Sunday School teachers, and they have never questioned them. They seem largely untroubled by the implicit contradiction to basic gospel teachings.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = England
| first = Eugene | journal = Sunstone|
pages=54–58|date=June 1998
| title = }}
</ref> </blockquote>

In an interview for the [[PBS]] documentary [[The Mormons (documentary)|The Mormons]], [[Jeffrey R. Holland]], a member of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], specifically denounced the perpetuation of [[Mormon folklore|folklore]] suggesting that race was in any way an indication of how faithful a person had been in the [[pre-existence]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/interviews/holland.html trnascript of interview with Holland for the PBS documentary]</ref>

===Church asked to repudiate past racist declarations===
In 1995, black church member A. David Jackson asked church leaders to issue a declaration repudiating past doctrines that treated black people as inferior. In particular, Jackson asked the church to disavow the 1949 "Negro Question" declaration from the church Presidency which stated "The attitude of the church with reference to negroes ... is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord ... to the effect that negroes ... are not entitled to the priesthood...".<ref name = "Ostling-103">{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0060663715|
pages=103–104|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

The church leadership did not issue a repudiation, and so in 1997 Jackson, aided by other church members including Armand Mauss, sent a second request to church leaders, which stated that white Mormons felt that the 1978 revelation resolved everything, but that black Mormons react differently when they learn the details. He said that many black Mormons become discouraged and leave the church or become inactive. "When they find out about this, they exit... You end up with the passive African Americans in the church".<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0060663715|
pages=105|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

Other black church members think giving an apology would be a "detriment" to church work and a catalyst to further racial misunderstanding. African-American church member Bryan E. Powell says "There is no pleasure in old news, and this news is old." Gladys Newkirk agrees, stating "I've never experienced any problems in this church. I don't need an apology. . . . We're the result of an apology."<ref>{{cite news
|first=Bill
|last=Broadway
|publisher=[[Washington Post]]
|date=1998-05-30
|url=http://www.ldshistory.net/1990/mhablack.htm
|title=Black Mormons Resist Apology Talk}}</ref> The large majority of black Mormons say they are willing to look beyond the racist teachings and cleave to the church in part because of its powerful, detailed teachings on life after death.<ref name=Ramirez2005 />

Hinckley, then church president, told the Los Angeles Times "The 1978 declaration speaks for itself ... I don't see anything further that we need to do". Church leadership did not issue a repudiation.<ref name = "Ostling-103"/> Church apostle [[Dallin H. Oaks]] said: "It's not the pattern of the Lord to give reasons. We can put reasons to commandments. When we do we're on our own. Some people put reasons to [the ban] and they turned out to be spectacularly wrong. There is a lesson in that.... The lesson I've drawn from that, I decided a long time ago that I had faith in the command and I had no faith in the reasons that had been suggested for it... I'm referring to reasons given by general authorities and reasons elaborated upon [those reasons] by others. The whole set of reasons seemed to me to be unnecessary risk taking... Let's [not] make the mistake that's been made in the past, here and in other areas, trying to put reasons to revelation. The reasons turn out to be man-made to a great extent. The revelations are what we sustain as the will of the Lord and that's where safety lies."<ref>Dallin H. Oaks, Interview with Associated Press, in ''[[Daily Herald (Utah)|Daily Herald]]'', Provo, Utah, 5 June 1988</ref>

===Humanitarian aid in Africa===
The church has been involved in several humanitarian aid projects in Africa. On January 27, 1985, members across the world joined together in a fast for "the victims of famine and other causes resulting in hunger and privation among people of Africa." They also donated the money that would have been used for food during the fast to help those victims, regardless of church membership.<ref>Kimball, Spencer, Romney, Marion, Hinckley, Gordon, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,4383 ''Letters of the First Presidency''] January 11, 1985</ref> Together with other organizations such as UNICEF and the American Red Cross, the church is working towards eradicating measles. Since 1999, there has been a 60 percent drop in deaths from measles in Africa.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=9ca9775baf050110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Church Works to Eradicate Measles in Africa]</ref> Due to their efforts, the [[American Red Cross]] bestowed the First Presidency with the organization's highest financial support honor, the American Red Cross Circle of Humanitarians award.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=df346287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD American Red Cross Recognizes Church for Support of Measles Initiative in Africa]</ref> The church has also been involved in humanitarian aid in Africa by sending food boxes,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=894b6287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Food Boxes Rushed to Ease Starvation in Africa]</ref> digging wells to provide clean water,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=4b12b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Clean Water Projects]</ref> distributing wheelchairs,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=66f4b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Wheelchair Distribution]</ref> fighting AIDS,{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} providing Neonatal Resuscitation Training,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a6f37a520251110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD church Works to Save Infants Through Neonatal Resuscitation Training]</ref> and setting up employment resources service centers.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a658bd9eeb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Employment Resource Service Centers]</ref>

==Black membership==
The church has never kept official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. Black people have been members of Mormon congregations since its foundation, but before 1978 its black membership was small. It has since grown, and in 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the church (about 5% of the total membership), mostly in Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119.</ref> Black membership has continued to grow substantially, especially in [[West Africa]], where two [[Temple (LDS Church)|temples]] have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa"/>

===Notable early black church members===
{{Main|Blacks and the Latter Day Saint movement}}
Prior to 1847, blacks that were members of the church included [[Elijah Abel]] and [[Walker Lewis]].

[[Jane Elizabeth Manning James|Jane Manning James]] had been born free and worked as a housekeeper in Joseph Smith's home.<ref>Jerel Harris and Brian Passey [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/1stblacks.html The History of Black Pioneers: Slaves, Free Blacks Among the First Utah Settlers]</ref> When she requested the temple ordinances, [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]] took her petition to the Quorum of the Twelve, but her request was denied. When [[Wilford Woodruff]] became president of the church, he compromised and allowed Jane to be sealed to the family of Joseph Smith as a servant. This was unsatisfying to Jane as it did not include the saving ordinance of the endowment, and she repeated her petitions. She died in 1908. President [[Joseph F. Smith]] honored her by speaking at her funeral.<ref name = "Embry-40">Embry 1994: 40-41.</ref>

Other notable early black LDS church members included Green Flake, the slave of John Flake, a convert to the church and from whom he got his name. He was baptized a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints at the age of 16 in the Mississippi River, but remained a slave. Samuel D. Chambers was another early African American pioneer. He was baptized secretly at the age of thirteen when he was still a slave in Mississippi. He was unable to join the main body of the church and lost track of them until after the Civil War. He was thirty-eight when he had saved enough money to immigrate to Utah with his wife and son.<ref name = "Embry-40"/>

===Expansion in West Africa===
{{See also|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Ghana}}
The church began receiving letters from West Africa requesting information about the church in the 1940s. As the church began sending back literature, two LDS bookstores were formed. Because the Africans could not receive the priesthood, leaders hesitated sending missionaries.<ref name=AfricaPioneers>[[E. Dale LeBaron|LeBaron, E. Dale]], [http://deseretbook.com/mormon-life/news/story?story_id=527 Church Pioneers in Africa] ''LDS Living'' November 2001</ref> In 1960, David O. McKay sent Glen G. Fisher on a fact-finding mission to Africa, where he found thousands of people waiting for him.<ref>LaMar Williams, interview by [[E. Dale LeBaron]] in Salt Lake City, February 12, 1988.</ref> McKay decided to send missionaries, but the Nigerian government refused to issue the necessary visas.<ref>[[E. Dale LeBaron]], [http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/daily/history/blacks/lebaron_africa.htm "African Converts Without Baptism: A Unique and Inspiring Chapter in Church History"], [[Marriott Center]] devotional address November 3, 1998</ref> Five months after the 1978 revelation, the first missionaries arrived in Nigeria. [[Anthony Obinna]] was one of the first to be baptized.<ref>Larry Morris [http://deseretbook.com/mormon-life/news/story?story_id=739 Obinna Brothers to the First Presidency]''LDS Living'' April 2007</ref> Within one year there were more than 1,700 members in 35 branches in West Africa.<ref>Mabey and Allred, ''Brother to Brother'', p. vii</ref>

===Wynetta Willis Martin===
In 1970, Wynetta Willis Martin gained the distinction of being the first African-American member of the faculty at [[Brigham Young University]]. After being baptized she joined the [[Mormon Tabernacle Choir]]. She accepted it as her personal mission to prove to the world that there were in fact African-American Mormons and that the Mormons were not racist. She toured with the choir for two years before accepting her appointment on the faculty at BYU. She was employed in the training of nurses and tried to help them become more culturally aware.<ref>Martin, 1972."</ref> About the racial restriction policy, she said: "These two things: baptism and the Holy Ghost are the only requirements, contrary to popular belief, for entering the Celestial Kingdom and being with God for eternity if one is worthy. Therefore, the Priesthood covenants of the Temple which we are not allowed at this point are not really so crucial as popular belief dictates.<ref>Martin 1972: 56, emphasis her own.</ref>

===Genesis Group===
On October 19, 1971, the [[Genesis Group]] was established as an auxiliary unit to the church. Its purpose was to serve the needs of black members, including activating members and welcoming converts. It continues to meet on the first Sunday of each month in Utah. Don Harwell is the current president.<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org Genesis Group]</ref> When asked about racism in the church, he said "Now, is the church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints racist? No, never has been. But some of those people within the church have those tendencies. You have to separate the two."<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/archivenews/interview.html Rosemary Winters, "Black Mormons Struggle for Acceptance in the Church", ''Salt Lake Tribune'', November 4, 2004]</ref>

===Joseph Freeman, Jr.===
[[Joseph Freeman, Jr.]] was the first African American to receive the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]] after the 1978 revelation.<ref name = SLT>''[[Salt Lake Tribune]]'', 1978-06-24.</ref> Freeman was also the first black member ever to receive church [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]].<ref name = Time>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,948228,00.html "Mormonism Enters a New Era"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', 1978-08-07.</ref> On June 23, 1978, Freeman was sealed to his wife and five children in the [[Salt Lake Temple]] by then [[Apostle (Latter Day Saints)|apostle]] [[Thomas S. Monson]].<ref name = SLT/><ref name = Time/>

===Helvécio Martins===
{{Main|Helvécio Martins}}
Helvécio Martins was the first person of African descent to be a [[general authority]] (a leadership position) of the church. Martins was born in Brazil to parents descended from African slaves. He had found success in his professional life but felt unfulfilled with the religious life he was pursuing. The missionaries visited his home in 1972 while he was going through a difficult spiritual crisis. The missionaries visited his home late one night and were worried about how to teach an African since the church had not yet reversed its policy. Indeed, Martins' first question upon inviting the missionaries into his home concerned the church's attitude toward race. The spiritual experiences that the Martins family had while investigating the church superseded their concerns for the racial policy of priesthood restriction, and they were baptized. They experienced much resistance from members of their extended family and former church friends, but eventually found peace with them. Martins served in his ward as a [[Sunday School (LDS Church)|Sunday school]] teacher. He was not troubled by the priesthood restriction, but others were. Often, members of the ward would ask him how he could remain a member of the church without the priesthood. It was never an issue for him. He had resolved the issue in his own mind and never expected to receive the priesthood.

When the announcement came, he describes his reaction and that of his wife as unbelieving. It was something for which they had not dared to hope. Martins then served as a member of a [[stake presidency]], as a [[Bishop (Latter Day Saints)|bishop]], a [[mission president]], and finally as a [[Seventy (Latter Day Saints)|seventy]]. His son was one of the first three people of black African descent to serve a full-time mission for the church in nearly 100 years.<ref>Martins & Grover, 1994.</ref>

===Growth in black membership===
The Church had an increase in membership upon repealing the ban <ref>{{cite news
|title=LDS Church follows members to inner cities
|publisher=The Denver Post
|date=2004-05-01
|first=Eric
|last=Gorski
|url=http://www.rickross.com/reference/mormon/mormon158.html}}</ref> by experiencing rapid growth in predominately black communities while other mainstream sects have been losing members.<ref name=Burst2005>{{cite news
|title=Black saints in a White church; Mormon Church grows in urban areas despite racist reputation
|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-117831794.html
|publisher=Baltimore Afro-American
|date=2005-12-23
|first=H. Allen
|last=Hurst}}</ref> In the last 20 years, the church has been well received among middle-class African-Americans, and African American membership grew from minuscule before 1978 to an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 in 2005.<ref name=Ramirez2005>{{cite news
|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-blackmormons,1,708682.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true
|title=Mormon past steeped in racism: Some black members want church to denounce racist doctrines
|first=Margaret
|last=Ramirez
|date=2005-07-26
|publisher=[[Chicago Tribune]]}}</ref> A 2007 study by the [[Pew Research Center]] found that 3% of American Mormons were black.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/table-ethnicity-by-tradition.pdf
|format=PDF|title=Race by Religious Tradition
|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]
|year=2007}}</ref> A 1998 survey by a Mormon and amateur sociologist, James W. Lucas, found that about 20 percent of Mormons in New York City were black.<ref>{{cite news
|url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE4DB1030F931A35753C1A9639C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1
|title=For Mormons in Harlem, Bigger Space Beckons
|first=Andy
|last=Newman
|date=2005-10-02
|publisher=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> Melvyn Hammarberg explained the growth: "There is a kind of changing face of the LDS Church because of its continuing commitment to work in the inner cities."<ref>{{cite news
|title=Mormons gain in inner cities
|url=http://www.rickross.com/reference/mormon/mormon276.html
|last=Hill
|first=Miriam
|publisher=Philadelphia Inquirer
|date=2005-12-10}}</ref> Sociology and Religious Studies Professor Armand Mauss says African Americans are particularly attracted by the focus on promoting healthy families. However, these numbers still only represent a fraction of total church membership in the United States, suggesting that African Americans remain comparatively hesitant to join, partly because of the church's past.<ref name=Colorblind>{{cite news
|title=Colorblind Faith
|url=http://www.chicagoreporter.com/index.php/c/Inside_Stories/d/Colorblind_faith
|publisher=Chicago Reporter
|last=Shebeck
|first=Amy}}</ref> Still, Don Harwell, president of the Genesis Group, sees it as a sign that "People are getting past the stereotypes put on the church."<ref name=Burst2005 /> The revelation also helped pave the way for the church's exponential growth in areas like Africa and the Caribbean.<ref name=Colorblind /> The church has been more successful among blacks outside the United States than inside, partly because there is less awareness of this past historic discrimination.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Mormonism spreading around the world
|first=Mary
|last=Jordan
|publisher=The Washington Post
|url=http://www.columbiamissourian.com/stories/2007/11/30/mormonism-spreading-around-world/
|date=2007-11-30}}</ref> In 2005, the church had some 120,000 members in West Africa,<ref name=dedication>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20050808/ai_n14856252 Pres. Hinckley dedicates the Aba Nigeria Temple]</ref> and two temples, the [[Aba Nigeria Temple]] and the [[Accra Ghana Temple]].

===Black people in church leadership===
The church has never kept official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. No member of the two highest governing bodies, the [[First Presidency]] and the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], have ever been black. There have been several black members of the [[Seventy (Latter Day Saints)|Quorums of the Seventy]];<ref>For example, [http://www.angelfire.com/mo2/blackmormon/homepage2.html Elder Christopher Chukwurah], [http://www.lds.co.za/artview.asp?ObjectID=1501 Elder Kapumba Kola] and [http://www.hotpepper.ca/lds/africa/history/leaders.html more].</ref> and, as of 2009, Brazilian [[Helvécio Martins]] (a member of the Second Quorum of the Seventy from 1990 to 1995) and [[Kenya]]n [[Joseph W. Sitati]] (a member of the First Quorum of the Seventy since 2009) have served as [[General Authority|general authorities]]. There has never been a black member of the general presidencies of the [[Relief Society]], [[Young Women (organization)|Young Women]], [[Primary (LDS Church)|Primary]], [[Young Men (organization)|Young Men]], or [[Sunday School (LDS Church)|Sunday School]]. The first African member of the Relief Society general board<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20031004/ai_n11424774/pg_1
|title=Pair reflect LDS Nigerians' faith
|publisher=[[Deseret News]]
|date=2003-10-04
|first=Carrie A.
|last=Moore}}</ref> was chosen in 2003, and she shared her testimony at the general meeting of the Relief Society in September 2003.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Testimonies: "Choose That Good Part"
|publisher=[[Ensign]]
|url=http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=fe9474536cf0c010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1
|date=November 2003}}</ref>

Mauss commented "As far as leadership is concerned, the role of the various minorities in Mormonism as a whole is not yet very great, but it is growing, and it is crucial in parts of the world outside the U.S."<ref name=Ramirez2005 />
Approximately 5% of church members have African ancestry (mostly in congregations in Africa, South America, and the Caribbean).{citation needed}

===Notable black Mormons===

*[[Alex Boyé]] - actor and musician.<ref>[http://www.alexboye.com/about-alex-boy%C3%A9 About Alex Boyé | alexboye.com]</ref>
*Catherine M. Stokes, former deputy director of the [[Illinois Department of Public Health]], in August 2010 she was one of the original 13 members of the ''[[Deseret News]]'' Editorial Advisory Council.<ref>[http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700059575/Deseret-News-introduces-Editorial-Advisory-Board.html?pg=3 ''Deseret News'', Aug. 23, 2010]</ref>
*[[Thurl Bailey]], basketball player and singer.
*[[Mia Love]], mayor of [[Saratoga Springs, Utah]]

====Gladys Knight====
[[Image:Gladys Knight.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Since her baptism in 1997, [[Gladys Knight]] has strived to raise awareness of black people in the LDS church.]]

[[Gladys Knight]], who joined the church in 1997, created and now directs the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS]] choir [[Saints Unified Voices]].<ref>[http://www.suvchoir.org SUV Choir]</ref> SUV has released a Grammy Award-winning CD entitled ''One Voice'', and occasionally performs at LDS [[Stake (Mormonism)|stake]] [[Fireside (Mormonism)|fireside]]s. Knight said:
{{blockquote|Since I joined the church, I desire to be more and more obedient to God. As I do so, many people say to me, 'I see a light in you more than ever before. What is it?'...During one performance at Disney world...[a member of the audience asked,] 'Could you please tell us...how you got that light?' The question was direct, so I gave a direct answer: 'I have become a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.'<ref>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/testimonies.html#knight Testimonies | Blacklds.org]</ref>}}

==See also==
*[[Blacks and the Latter Day Saint movement]]
*[[Joseph Freeman (Mormon)]]
*[[Genesis Group]]

==References==
===Primary sources===
*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Mary Lucille Bankhead
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Gilmore H. Chapel
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1986
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Cleolivia Lyons
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1988
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Cherry
| first = Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| coauthors =
| title = It's You and Me, Lord!
| publisher = Trilogy Arts Publications
|year=1970
| location = Provo, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Martin
| first = Wynetta Willis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Mormon Tells Her Story
| publisher = Hawks Publications
|year=1972
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}
*{{cite book
| last = Martins
| first = Helvecio
| authorlink = Helvicio Martins
| coauthors = [[Mark Grover]]
| title = The Autobiography of Elder Helvecio Martins
| publisher = Aspen Books
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite journal
| last = Phelps
| first = Willian W.
| authorlink = W. W. Phelps (Mormon)
| coauthors =
| title = Free People of Color
| journal = [[Evening and Morning Star]]
| volume = 2
| issue = 14
| pages = 109
| publisher = W. W. Phelps & Co.
|month=July | year=1833
| url = http://www.centerplace.org/history/ems/v2n14.htm
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = 2006-07-15 }}
*{{Cite web
| last=Young
| first=Brigham
| authorlink=Brigham Young
| title=Speech by Gov. Young in Joint Session of the Legeslature [sic]
| date=February 5, 1852
| location=Brigham Young Addresses, Ms d 1234, Box 48, folder 3, LDS Church Historical Department, Salt Lake City, Utah
| url=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery%2C_Blacks%2C_and_the_priesthood&oldid=253414
}}.

===Secondary sources===
*{{Cite journal
| last=Allen
| first=James B.
| author-link=James B. Allen (historian)
| title=Would-Be Saints: West Africa before the 1978 Priesthood Revelation
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=17
| year=1991
| pages=207–48
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,15582
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bringhurst
| first = Newel G.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People Within Mormonism (Contributions to the Study of Religion, No. 4)
| publisher = Greenwood Press
|year=1981
| location = Westport, Connecticut
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 0-313-22752-7 }}
*{{Cite journal
| last=Brignhurst
| first=Newel G.
| title=Charles B. Thompson and The Issues of Slavery and Race
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=8
| year=1981
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,12075
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bush
| first = Lester E. Jr
| authorlink =
| coauthors = [[Armand L. Mauss]], eds.
| title = Neither White Nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1984
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/neither.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 0-941214-22-2 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Embry
| first = Jessie
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Saints in a White Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/black.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 1-56085-044-2 }}
*{{cite journal
| author = Hawkins, Chester L.
| title = Report on Elijah Abel and his Priesthood
| version =
| publisher = Unpublished Manuscript, Special Collections, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}
* O'Donovan, Connell, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html "The Mormon Priesthood Ban and Elder Q. Walker Lewis"], ''[[John Whitmer Historical Association Journal]]'' (Independence, Missouri, 2006), pp. 47–99.
*''Black Mormons and the Priesthood Ban'' by Darrick T. Evenson (SKU 4935190)
*''Setting the Record Straight: Blacks and the Mormon Priesthood'' by [[Marcus Helvécio T. A. Martins]] (SKU 4995993)
*{{cite book
| title=Black and Mormon
| last=Smith
| first=Darron
| publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]
| year=2004
| isbn=025202947X
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0802412343 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Curse of Cain|
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner}}
*{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|authorlink=Richard and Joan Ostling|year=1999|
publisher=[[Harper Collins]]
}}
*{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abanes|authorlink=Richard Abanes|
isbn=1568582196|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows}}
* Stewart, John J. ''Mormonism and the Negro'' Salt Lake City, Utah:1960 Bookmark [http://www.celestial-orb.org/library/mormon_negro.html Complete text of the 1960 book ''Mormonism and the Negro'' by John J. Stewart, a defense of the former LDS policy of denying the Mormon Priesthood to people of African ancestry:]

===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
*[http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/ETD/image/etd1909.pdf A Peculiar Place for the Peculiar Institution: Slavery and Sovereignty in Early Territorial Utah], Ricks, Nathaniel R., Master Thesis, ''Brigham Young University'', 2007.
*[http://www.blacklds.org/ black lds.org] an indpendent (not owned or operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) site maintained by some black and some white Latter-day Saints.
*[[Lester E. Bush, Jr.]] and [[Armand L. Mauss]], eds., [http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=438 ''Neither White nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church,''] [[Signature Books]], 1984

{{Latter-day Saints|hide|show}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Black People And The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-Day Saints}}
[[Category:The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Africa]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
[[Category:Mormonism and race]]
[[Category:Brigham Young]]
[[Category:Criticism of Mormonism]]

{{Link GA|fr}}
[[fr:Situation des Noirs dans le mormonisme]]

Schwarze im Mormonentum

2011-06-09T17:00:28Z

Jfruh: copy edit lede to make things a bit clearer

{{About|Blacks and the modern LDS church|Blacks and the early Mormon movement|Black people and the Latter Day Saint movement}}
From 1849 to 1978, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) had a policy against ordaining [[black people|black]] men of African descent to the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]]. Whereas other churches usually have full-time salaried clergy of whom individual members are often the chief minister to several families, in the LDS Chruch virtually all male head-of-household church members are part of the priesthood. Under the pre-1978 policy, men and women of African descent could not hold the priesthood in this way, and were also prohibited from participating in the [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Endowment (Latter Day Saints)|Endowment]] and [[Sealing (Latter Day Saints)|sealings]], [[ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]] that the church teaches are necessary for the [[Exaltation (LDS Church)|highest degree of salvation]]. However, the LDS Church has always had an open membership policy for all races, and black people who were aware of the racial policy did join the church. In 1978, church leaders ceased the racial restriction policy for black men, declaring that they had received a [[1978 Revelation on Priesthood|revelation]] instructing them to do so. Today's church opposes racial discrimination and [[racism]], even though they continue to teach that the pre-1978 priesthood ban for black men was a god-given policy.<ref>[[Gordon B. Hinckley]], [http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html "The Need for Greater Kindness"], 2006-04-01.</ref>{{verify source|date=June 2011}}

In 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the LDS Church, accounting for about 5% of the total membership; most black members live in Africa, [[Brazil]] and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119. "A rough estimate would place the number of Church members with African roots at year-end 1997 at half a million, with about 100,000 each in Africa and the Caribbean, and another 300,000 in Brazil."</ref> Since 1997, the black membership has grown substantially, especially in [[West Africa]], where two [[Temple (LDS Church)|temples]] have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa">[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/africagrowth.html The Church Continues to Grow in Africa]</ref>

==Before 1847==
{{Main|Blacks and the Latter Day Saint movement}}

During the early years of the LDS movement, blacks were admitted to the church, and several black men became priests, including [[Elijah Abel]] and [[Walker Lewis]]. [[Joseph Smith]] himself supported the government paying slaveholders for their slaves and then forcibly shipping them back to Africa.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} After Smith's death, the [[Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints)|succession crisis]] ensued, and [[Brigham Young]] led the largest splinter of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] west to establish the church in Utah.

==Racial policy under Brigham Young==

Under the leadership of [[Joseph Smith]], several African-Americans, including [[Elijah Abel]] were admitted to the priesthood. But that policy changed sometime before 1852, because in that year, church president [[Brigham Young]] made a pronouncement to the [[Utah Territorial Legislature]] stating that African-Americans "cannot hold the Priesthood."<ref name = "Mauss-70"/>

===Racial restriction policy under Brigham Young===
An early statement by Young about a priesthood ban in the LDS Church was made on February 13, 1849. The statement — which refers to the [[Curse of Cain]] as the reason for the policy — was given in response to the question, "What chance is there for the redemption of the Negro?" Young responded, "The Lord had cursed Cain's seed with blackness and prohibited them the Priesthood."<ref name = "Mauss-70">[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 70]</ref>

In 1852, while addressing the [[Utah Territorial Legislature]], Young stated, "Any man having one drop of the seed of [Cain] ... in him cannot hold the Priesthood and if no other Prophet ever spoke it before I will say it now in the name of Jesus Christ I know it is true and others know it."<ref name = "Mauss-70"/>

===William McCary===
{{Main|William McCary}}
Some researchers have suggested that the actions of [[William McCary]] in [[Winter Quarters, Nebraska]] led to Brigham Young's decision to adopt the priesthood ban in the LDS Church. McCary was a half-African American convert who, after his baptism and ordination to the priesthood, began to claim to be a [[prophet]] and the possessor of other supernatural gifts.<ref name = Murphy>Larry G. Murphy, [[J. Gordon Melton]], and Gary L. Ward (1993). ''Encyclopedia of African American Religions'' (New York: Garland Publishing) pp. 471–472.</ref> He was excommunicated for apostasy in March 1847 and expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst>Newell G. Bringhurst (1981). ''Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People within Mormonism'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press).</ref> After his excommunication, McCary began attracting Latter Day Saint followers and instituted [[plural marriage]] among his group, and he had himself [[Sealing (Latter Day Saints)|sealed]] to several [[White people|white]] wives.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/>

McCary's behavior angered many of the Latter Day Saints in Winter Quarters. Researchers have stated that his marriages to his white wives "played an important role in pushing the Mormon leadership into an anti-Black position"<ref name = Murphy/> and may have prompted Young to institute the priesthood and temple ban on black people.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/><ref>Connell O’Donovan, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html#_ftn107 "The Mormon Priesthood Ban & Elder Q. Walker Lewis: 'An example for his more whiter brethren to follow'], ''John Whitmer Historical Association Journal'', 2006.</ref> A statement from Young to McCary in March 1847 suggested that race had nothing to do with priesthood eligibility<ref>"Its nothing to do with the blood for [from] one blood has God made all flesh, we have to repent [to] regain what we have lost — we have one of the best Elders, an African in Lowell [referring to [[Walker Lewis]] ].": Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref> and the earliest known statement about the priesthood restriction from any Mormon leader (including the implication that skin color might be relevant) was made by Apostle [[Parley P. Pratt]] a month after McCary was expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst/> Speaking of McCary, Pratt stated that he "was a black man with the blood of Ham in him which lineage was cursed as regards the priesthood".<ref>General Minutes, April 25, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref>

===Young's personal views===
When asked "if the spirits of Negroes were neutral in Heaven," Young responded, "No, they were not, there were no neutral [spirits] in Heaven at the time of the rebellion, all took sides …. All spirits are pure that came from the presence of God."<ref>Journal History, 25 December 1869, citing Wilford Woodruff's journal. See also http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html</ref> Prior to learning about Enoch Lewis's marriage to a woman of European descent (December 1847) and subsequently enacting a ban on Negroes in the priesthood, he considered [[Walker Lewis]] "one of the best Elders."<ref>Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah</ref>

On another occasion, Young said, "You see some classes of the human family that are black, uncouth, uncomely, disagreeable and low in their habits, wild, and seemingly deprived of nearly all the blessings of the intelligence that is generally bestowed upon mankind …. Cain slew his brother. Cain might have been killed, and that would have put a termination to that line of human beings. This was not to be, and the Lord put a mark upon him, which is the flat nose and black skin. Trace mankind down to after the flood, and then another curse is pronounced upon the same race—that they should be the ‘servant of servants’; and they will be, until that curse is removed; and the Abolitionists cannot help it, nor in the least alter that decree."<ref>''Journal of Discourses'', '''7''':290.</ref>

Brigham Young said this despite the LDS scripture verses that state people may be cursed unto the 3rd and 4th generation, but if any were to repent and make restitution they would be forgiven and the curse lifted.<ref>D&C 98: 45-47</ref> This is reiterated in [[Doctrine and Covenants|D&C]] 124:50&52 as well as Mosiah 13:13,14 and Deut 5:9,10.

==Slavery==
===Slavery scripture===
{{See also|Christianity and slavery}}
LDS scripture has various views on slavery. The [[Old Testament]] has stories of slavery, and gives rules and regulations on how to treat slaves. The [[New Testament]] tells slaves not to revolt against their masters. It was a commonly held belief in the South that the Bible permitted slavery. However, the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] condemns slavery, teaching "it is not right that any man should be in bondage one to another." ({{lds|D&C|dc|101|79}}) The Book of Mormon heralds righteous kings who did not allow slavery, ({{lds|Mosiah|mosiah|29|40}}) and righteous men who fought against slavery ({{lds|Alma|alma|48|11}}). The Book of Mormon also describes an ideal society that lived around AD 34-200, in which it teaches the people "had all things common among them; therefore there were not rich and poor, bond and free, but they were all made free, and partakers of the heavenly gift" ({{lds|4 Nephi|4_ne|4|3}}). The Pearl of Great Price describes a similar society, in which "they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness; and there was no poor among them" ({{lds|Moses|moses|7|18}}). Mormons believed they too, were commanded by the Lord to "be one; and if ye are not one ye are not mine" ({{lds|D&C|dc|38|27}}). For a short time, Mormons lived in a society with no divisions under the [[United Order]].

===Statements from church leaders===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Young said, "If the Government of the United States, in Congress assembled, had the right to pass an anti-polygamy bill, they had also the right to pass a law that slaves should not be abused as they have been; they had also a right to make a law that negroes should be used like human beings, and not worse than dumb brutes. For their abuse of that race, the whites will be cursed, unless they repent."<ref name = jdcain>''Journal of Discourses'' '''10''':104–111.</ref>

In 1851, Apostle [[Orson Hyde]] said:

{{blockquote|We feel it to be our duty to define our position in relation to the subject of slavery. There are several in the Valley of the Salt Lake from the Southern States, who have their slaves with them. There is no law in Utah to authorize slavery, neither any to prohibit it. If the slave is disposed to leave his master, no power exists there, either legal or moral, that will prevent him. But if the slave chooses to remain with his master, none are allowed to interfere between the master and the slave. All the slaves that are there appear to be perfectly contented and satisfied.

When a man in the Southern states embraces our faith, the Church says to him, if your slaves wish to remain with you, and to go with you, put them not away; but if they choose to leave you, or are not satisfied to remain with you, it is for you to sell them, or let them go free, as your own conscience may direct you. The Church, on this point, assumes not the responsibility to direct. The laws of the land recognize slavery, we do not wish to oppose the laws of the country. If there is sin in selling a slave, let the individual who sells him bear that sin, and not the Church.<ref>''[[Millennial Star]]'', February 15, 1851. Quoted in [http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/quotes.html#smith43 BlackLDS.org]</ref>}}

===Utah sanctions slavery===
The Great [[Compromise of 1850]] allowed [[California]] into the Union as a [[slave and free states|free state]] while permitting Utah and [[New Mexico Territory|New Mexico]] territories the option of deciding the issue by "popular sovereignty". In 1852 the Utah Territorial Legislature officially sanctioned slavery in Utah Territory. At that time, Brigham Young was governor, and the [[1st Utah Territorial Legislature|Utah Territorial Legislature]] was dominated by church leaders.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Forgotten Kingdom: The Mormon Theocracy in the American West, 1847-1896
|last=Bigler
|first=David L.
|year=1998
|isbn=087062282X
|publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company}}</ref> The Utah slavery law stipulated that slaves would be freed if their masters had sex with them; attempted to take them from the territory against their will; or neglected to feed, clothe, or provide shelter to them. In addition, the law stipulated that slaves must receive schooling. There are conflicting accounts of whether or not slaves could end their bondage by their own choice.<ref>http://utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_part2.htm#Slaves</ref><ref>[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 69]</ref>

Utah was the only western state or territory that had slaves in 1850.<ref>''Negro Slaves in Utah'' by Jack Beller, Utah Historical Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1929, pp. 124-126</ref> In 1860, the census showed that 29 of the 59 black people in Utah Territory were slaves.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} When the [[American Civil War]] broke out in 1861, Utah sided with the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], and slavery ended in 1862 when the [[United States Congress]] abolished slavery in the Utah Territory.

==Racial restriction policy==
Under the racial restrictions that lasted from the presidency of Brigham Young until 1978, persons with any black African ancestry could not hold the priesthood in the LDS Church and could not participate in some [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]], such as the [[Endowment (Latter Day Saints)|Endowment]] and [[celestial marriage]]. Black people were permitted to be members of the church, and participate in other [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]], such as [[baptism for the dead]].<ref>In her autobiography, [[Jane Elizabeth Manning James]] says she "had the privilege of going into the temple and being baptized for some of my dead." http://www.blacklds.org/manning Life History of Jane Elizabeth Manning James as transcribed by Elizabeth J.D. Round</ref>

The racial restriction policy was applied to black Africans, persons of black African descent, and any one with mixed race that included any black African ancestry. The policy was not applied to [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], [[Hispanic people|Hispanics]], [[Melanesians]] or [[Polynesian people|Polynesians]].

===Priesthood===
The priesthood restriction was particularly limiting, because the LDS Church has a [[Laity|lay]] priesthood and all worthy male members may receive the priesthood. Young men are generally admitted to the [[Aaronic priesthood]] at age 12, and it is a significant [[rite of passage]]. Virtually all white adult male members of the church held the priesthood. Holders of the priesthood officiate at church meetings, perform blessings of healing, and manage church affairs. Excluding black people from the priesthood meant that they could not hold significant church [[Calling (LDS Church)|leadership roles]] or participate in certain spiritual events.

Don Harwell, a black LDS Church member, said, "I remember being in a Sacrament meeting, pre-1978, and the sacrament was being passed and there was special care taken by this person that not only did I not officiate, but I didn't touch the sacrament tray. They made sure that I could take the sacrament, but that I did not touch the tray and it was passed around me. That was awfully hard, considering that often those who were officiating were young men in their early teens, and they had that priesthood. I valued that priesthood, but it wasn't available."<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/archivenews/interview.html Rosemary Winters, "Black Mormons Struggle for Acceptance in the Church", ''[[Salt Lake Tribune]]'', November 4, 2004]</ref>

===Temple marriages===
Most black people were not permitted to participate in [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]] performed in the LDS Church temples, such as the [[Endowment (Latter Day Saints)|endowment ritual]] and [[Celestial marriage|temple marriages]] and [[Sealing (Latter Day Saints)|family sealings]]. Denying them the opportunity to participate in these ordinances meant that they could not enjoy the full privileges enjoyed by other Latter-day Saints.

Mormons believe that marriages that are sealed in a [[celestial marriage]] would bind the family together forever, whereas those that are not sealed were terminated upon death. President David McKay taught that black people "need not worry, as those who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."<ref>Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23</ref>

Once black people were allowed to have a celestial marriage, their ancestors would also be allowed to have a temple marriage. Brigham Young taught that "When the ordinances are carried out in the temples that will be erected, [children] will be sealed to their [parents], and those who have slept, clear up to Father [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]]. This will have to be done...until we shall form a perfect chain from Father Adam down to the closing up scene."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=88021b08f338c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=f378cb7a29c20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 Chapter 41: Temple Ordinances], Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Brigham Young, 299</ref>

===Entrance to the highest heaven===
A [[celestial marriage]] was not required to get into the [[celestial kingdom]], but was required to obtain a [[Degrees of glory|fullness of glory]] within the celestial kingdom.<ref>Church leader [[Bruce McConkie]] wrote "Baptism is the gate to the celestial kingdom; celestial marriage is the gate to an exaltation in the highest heaven within the celestial world."(Mormon Doctrine, 1966, p 118)</ref> The [[Doctrine and Covenants]] reads "In the celestial glory there are three heavens or degrees; And in order to obtain the highest, a man must enter into this order of the priesthood [meaning the [[celestial marriage|new and everlasting covenant of marriage]]]; And if he does not, he cannot obtain it."({{lds|D&C|dc|131|1-3}}) The righteous who do not have a celestial marriage would still make it into heaven, and live eternally with God, but they would be "appointed [[angel]]s in heaven, which angels are ministering servants."({{lds|D&C|dc|132|16}})

Some interpreted this to mean black people would be treated as unmarried whites, being confined to only ever live in God's presence as a ministering servant. In 1954, Apostle Mark E. Petersen told BYU students: "If that Negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the celestial kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get a celestial resurrection."<ref>Address at Convention of Teachers of Religion, BYU, Utah, August 27, 1954.</ref> Apostle George F. Richards in a talk at General Conference similarly taught: "[t]he Negro is an unfortunate man. He has been given a black skin. But that is as nothing compared with that greater handicap that he is not permitted to receive the Priesthood and the ordinances of the temple, necessary to prepare men and women to enter into and enjoy a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom."<ref>Elder George F. Richards, ''Conference Report'', April 1939, p. 58.</ref>

Several leaders, including [[Joseph Smith]],<ref>In regards to black people, Joseph Smith taught that "They have souls, and are subjects of salvation." ''[http://www.boap.org/LDS/Joseph-Smith/Teachings/T5.html Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith]'', selected by Joseph Fielding Smith, (Salt Lake City: ''[[Deseret Book Company]]'', 1976), 269. ISBN 087579243X</ref> Brigham Young,<ref>Brigham Young said "when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the Priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we are now entitled to." quoted by the First Presidency, August 17, 1949.</ref> [[Wilford Woodruff]],<ref>Wilford Woodruff said "The day will come when all that race will be redeemed and possess all the blessings which we now have" quoted by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949].</ref> [[George Albert Smith]],<ref>George Albert Smith reiterated what was said by both Brigham Young and Wilford Woodruff in a statement by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949]</ref> [[David O. McKay]],<ref>David McKay taught "Sometime in God's eternal plan, the Negro will be given the right to hold the Priesthood. In the meantime, those of that race who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."(Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23)</ref> [[Joseph Fielding Smith]],<ref>In reference to black people, Apostle Joseph Fielding Smith taught: "Every soul coming into this world came here with the promise that through obedience he would receive the blessings of salvation. No person was foreordained or appointed to sin or to perform a mission of evil. No person is ever predestined to salvation or damnation. Every person has free agency." (Joseph Fielding Smith Jr., ''Doctrines of Salvation'', Vol.1, p. 61)</ref> [[Harold B. Lee]],<ref> In 1972, Harold B. Lee said, "It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we're just waiting for that time." (Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.)</ref> and [[Spencer W. Kimball]],<ref>{{lds|Official Declaration|od|2}}</ref> taught that black people would eventually be able to receive a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom.

When the priesthood ban was discussed in 1978, apostle [[Bruce McConkie]] argued for its change using the [[Standard Works|Mormon scripture]] and the [[Articles of Faith]]. The Third Article states that "all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel."({{lds|Articles of Faith|a_of_f|1|3}}) From the Book of Mormon he quoted "And even unto the great and last day, when all people, and all kindreds, and all nations and tongues shall stand before God, to be judged of their works, whether they be good or whether they be evil— If they be good, to the resurrection of everlasting life; and if they be evil, to the resurrection of damnation. ({{lds|3 Nephi|3_ne|26|4-5}}) The [[Book of Abraham]] in the [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]] states that [[Abraham]]'s seed "shall all the families of the earth be blessed, even with the blessings of the Gospel, which are the blessings of salvation, even of life eternal." ({{lds|Abraham|abr|2|11}}) According to his son, Joseph F. McConkie, these scriptures played a great part in changing the policy.<ref>[http://www.meridianmagazine.com/articles/030606hallelujahprint.html Hallelujah! The 25th Anniversary of the Revelation of Priesthood]</ref>

===Statements on duration of policy===
Brigham Young said in 1854: "When all the other children of Adam have had the privilege of receiving the Priesthood, and of coming into the kingdom of God, and of being redeemed from the four quarters of the earth, and have received their resurrection from the dead, then it will be time enough to remove the curse from Cain and his posterity. He deprived his brother of the privilege of pursuing his journey through life, and of extending his kingdom by multiplying upon the earth; and because he did this, he is the last to share the joys of the kingdom of God".<ref>Journal of Discourses, vol. 2, p. 143</ref> And in 1859 he said "How long is that race to endure the dreadful curse that is upon them? That curse will remain upon them, and they never can hold the Priesthood or share in it until all the other descendants of Adam have received the promises and enjoyed the blessings of the Priesthood and the keys thereof. Until the last ones of the residue of Adam's children are brought up to that favourable position, the children of Cain cannot receive the first ordinances of the Priesthood. They were the first that were cursed, and they will be the last from whom the curse will be removed".<ref>Journal of Discourses, vol. 7, pp. 290-291</ref> He also prophesied: "Children are now born who will live until every son of Adam will have the privilege of receiving the principles of eternal life."<ref>Young, Brigham. Journal of Discourses: {{sourcetext|source=Journal of Discourses/Volume 8|book=Character of God and Christ, etc.}} pg. 116</ref> At another time, he stated "That the time will come when they will have the privilege of all we have the privilege of and more."<ref>Brigham Young, Speech given in Joint Session of the Utah Legislature, February 5, 1952, in Fred Collier, The Teachings of President Brigham Young. Salt Lake City, Collier's Publishing, 1987, 43</ref>

[[Joseph Fielding Smith]] wrote in 1935 "Not only was Cain called upon to suffer, but because of his wickedness he became the father of an inferior race. A curse was placed upon him and that curse has been continued through his lineage and must do so while time endures". In his book he made clear that the contents were his opinion.<ref>Way to Perfection, 1935, p. 101</ref> In 1963, while discussing when the ban would be lifted, he told a reporter that "Such a change can come about only through divine revelation, and no one can predict when a divine revelation will occur."<ref>[[Look (American magazine)]], Oct. 22, 1963, p.79</ref>

LDS author John Lewis Lund wrote in 1967 "Brigham Young revealed that the negro will not receive the Priesthood until a great while after the second coming of Jesus Christ, whose coming will usher in a millennium of peace".<ref>The Church and the Negro: A Discussion of Mormons, Negroes, and the Priesthood, 1967, p. 45</ref>

When the policy was reversed in 1978, church president Kimball referred to it as "the long-promised day". Critics say that lifting the restriction before the resurrection is contrary to Young's 1854 and 1859 statements,<ref>[http://utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_part4.htm Jerald and Sandra Tanner - ''Curse of Cain'']</ref> while church apologists say that Brigham Young's statements meant that Africans could receive the priesthood after all other ''races'' were eligible to receive it, not all other individuals.

===Racial discrimination other than racial restriction policy===
{{further|[[Racism in the United States]]}}
The exclusion from the priesthood was not the only discrimination practiced by church members. In the late 1800s blacks living in Cache Valley were forcibly relocated to Ogden and Salt Lake City. In the 1950s, the San Francisco mission office took legal action to prevent black families from moving into the church neighborhood.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965">Glen W. Davidson, "Mormon Missionaries and the Race Question," The Christian Century, 29 Sept. 1965, pp. 1183-86.</ref> In 1965, a black man living in Salt Lake City, Daily Oliver, described how – as a boy – he was excluded from an LDS-led boy scout troop because they did not want blacks in their building.<ref>Utah Chronicle, May 28, 1965</ref> Mormon apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] describes a black family that tried to join the LDS church: "[some white church members] went to the Branch President, and said that either the [black] family must leave, or they would all leave. The Branch President ruled that [the black family] could not come to church meetings. It broke their hearts."<ref>"Race Problems As They Affect The Church", presentation by Mark E. Petersen to the Convention of Teachers of Religion", 27 August 1954, p. 16</ref> Until the 1970s hospitals with connections to the LDS church, including LDS Hospital, Primary Children's and Cottonwood Hospitals in Salt Lake City, McKay-Dee Hospital in Ogden, and Utah Valley Hospital in Provo, kept separate the blood donated by blacks and whites.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}

==Reasons given for racial restriction policy==
==="Curse of Cain" and representative of Satan===
Some members of the church used the [[Curse and mark of Cain|curse of Cain]] to justify the racial restriction policy. In the [[book of Genesis]],<ref>{{lds|Genesis|gen|4|9|15}}</ref> God puts a mark on Cain after he kills his brother [[Abel]]. Church leader [[Bruce R. McConkie]] wrote in his 1966 edition of ''[[Mormon Doctrine]]'':
<blockquote>
Of the two-thirds who followed Christ, however, some were more valiant than others ....Those who were less valiant in pre-existence and who thereby had certain spiritual restrictions imposed upon them during mortality are known to us as the negroes. Such spirits are sent to earth through the lineage of Cain, the mark put upon him for his rebellion against God and his murder of Abel being a black skin (Moses 5:16-41; 12:22). Noah's son Ham married Egyptus, a descendant of Cain, thus preserving the negro lineage through the flood (Abraham 1:20-27). Negroes in this life are denied the priesthood; under no circumstances can they hold this delegation of authority from the Almighty. (Abra. 1:20-27.) The gospel message of salvation is not carried affirmatively to them (Moses 7:8, 12, 22), although sometimes negroes search out the truth, join the Church, and become by righteous living heirs of the celestial kingdom of heaven. President Brigham Young and others have taught that in the future eternity worthy and qualified negroes will receive the priesthood and every gospel blessing available to any man.
The present status of the negro rests purely and simply on the foundation of pre-existence. Along with all races and peoples he is receiving here what he merits as a result of the long pre-mortal probation in the presence of the Lord....The negroes are not equal with other races where the receipt of certain spiritual blessings are concerned, particularly the priesthood and the temple blessings that flow therefrom, but this inequality is not of man's origin. It is the Lord's doing.<ref>{{cite book
|last=McConkie
|first=Bruce
|title=[[Mormon Doctrine]]
|year=1966}}</ref></blockquote>

In 1881, church president [[John Taylor (Latter Day Saints)|John Taylor]] said "And after the flood we are told that the curse that had been pronounced upon Cain was continued through Ham's wife, as he had married a wife of that seed. And why did it pass through the flood? Because it was necessary that the devil should have a representation upon the earth as well as God; and that man should be a free agent to act for himself, and that all men might have the opportunity of receiving or rejecting the truth, and be governed by it or not according to their wishes and abide the result; and that those who would be able to maintain correct principles under all circumstances, might be able to associate with the Gods in the eternal worlds." (Journal of Discourses, Vol. 22 page 304).

Black journalist and church member [[Darius Gray|Darius Aidan Gray]], in 2007, commented "I think the most damning statement came from one of the presidents of the church, the third president of the church, [[John Taylor (Latter Day Saints)|John Taylor]]. Basically, he said that the reason that black people had been allowed to come through the flood, the flood of Noah, was so that Satan would have representation upon the earth, that black folks were here to represent Satan and to have a balance against white folks, who were here to represent Jesus Christ, the savior. How do you damn a people more than to say that their existence upon the earth is to represent Satan?"<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/etc/script2.html PBS Frontline TV show transcript]</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/view/15.html PBS Frontline TV show video]</ref>

LDS scholar W. John Walsh disagrees. He reads the quote as saying the devil must have a representation so that all men, including black people, may have ability to choose to receive or reject the truth, not that black people were that representation.<ref>Walsh, W. John [http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/response/qa/blacks_representative.htm Blacks Are Not Satan's Representatives]</ref>

====Pearl of Great Price====
The Church leadership began using the newly canonized [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]], which has the following verse:

<blockquote>Pharaoh, being a righteous man, established his kingdom and judged his people wisely and justly all his days, seeking earnestly to imitate that order established by the fathers in the first generations, in the days of the first patriarchal reign, even in the reign of Adam, and also of Noah, his father, who blessed him with the blessing of the earth, and with the blessing of wisdom, ''but cursed him as pertaining the priesthood''. Now, Pharaoh being of that lineage by which he could not have the right of the priesthood, notwithstanding the Pharaohs would fain claim it from Noah, through Ham, therefore my father was led away by their idolatry. ({{sourcetext|source=Pearl of Great Price|version=|book=Abraham|chapter=1|verse=26|range=-27}}, emphasis added)</blockquote>

===Less valiant in pre-existence===
One of the justifications that some Latter-day Saints used for the discriminatory policy was that black individual's [[pre-existence]] spirits were not as virtuous as white pre-existence spirits. For example, Apostle [[Joseph Fielding Smith]] wrote: "According to the doctrine of the church, the negro because of some condition of unfaithfulness in the spirit — or pre-existence, was not valiant and hence was not denied the mortal probation, but was denied the blessing of the priesthood."<ref>Letter to J. Henderson, April 10, 1963). {{cite web|
url=http://www.utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_appendix_c.htm|
title=Letter from Joseph Fielding Smith to J. Henderson}}</ref>

Smith also reasoned that during the [[war in Heaven]], some spirits would logically have been less valiant in following the Savior than others, therefore the priesthood was restricted from the least valiant.<ref>Smith, Joseph Fielding, Way to Perfection, 1950, p.46</ref> However, Smith made clear that the book was his own personal opinion. Of the doctrine of the church, Smith said "The Mormon Church does not believe, nor does it teach, that the Negro is an inferior being. Mentally, and physically, the Negro is capable of great achievement, as great and in some cases greater than the potentiality of the white race. He can become a lawyer, a doctor, a scientist, and he can achieve great heights."<ref>(Deseret News, Church Section, June 14, 1962)</ref>

===Reasons not known===
[[David O. McKay]] said: "From the beginning of this dispensation, Joseph Smith and all succeeding presidents of the church have taught that negroes, while spirit children of a common Father, and the progeny of our earthly parents Adam and Eve, were not yet to receive the priesthood, for reasons which we believe are known to God, but which He has not made fully known to man."<ref>Bringhurst 1981: 223</ref>

===Human error===
Although not refuting his belief that the policy came from the Lord, [[Apostle (Latter Day Saints)|apostle]] [[Spencer W. Kimball]] acknowledged in 1963 that it could have been brought about through an error on man's part. In 1963, he said, "The doctrine or policy has not varied in my memory. I know it could. I know the Lord could change his policy and release the ban and forgive the possible error which brought about the deprivation."<ref>{{cite book
|title=The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball
|pages=448–9
|last=Kimball
|first=Edward L.
|authorlink=Edward L. Kimball
|publisher=[[Bookcraft]]}}</ref>

==Racial policy under John Taylor==
Under John Taylor's presidency, there was confusion regarding the origin of the racial policy. Abel was living, breathing proof that an African American was ordained to the Priesthood in the days of Joseph Smith. His son, Enoch Abel, had also been conferred the Priesthood.<ref>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/abel.html Elijah Abel | Blacklds.org]</ref> Joseph F. Smith said that Abel's Priesthood had been declared null and void by Joseph Smith himself, though this seems to conflict with Joseph F. Smith's teachings that the Priesthood could not be removed from any man without removing that man from the church.<ref name = "Mauss-76">[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 76-86]</ref> From this point on Joseph Smith was repeatedly referred to as the author of many statements, which had actually been made by Brigham Young, on the subject of Priesthood restriction.<ref name = "Mauss-76"/>

==Exceptions==
Several black men received the priesthood after the racial restriction policy was put in place, including Elijah Abel's son Enoch Abel, who was ordained an [[Elder (Latter Day Saints)|elder]] on Nov. 10, 1900. Enoch's son and Elijah Abel's grandson — who was also named Elijah Abel — received the [[Aaronic priesthood]] and was ordained to the office of [[priest (Latter Day Saints)|priest]] on July 5, 1934. The younger Elijah Abel also received the [[Melchizedek priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Melchizedek priesthood]] and was ordained to the office of [[Elder (Latter Day Saints)|elder]] on Sept. 29, 1935.<ref name = MTR>Newell G. Bringhurst, "The 'Missouri Thesis' Revisisted: Early Mormonism, Slavery, and the Status of Black People" in Newell G. Bringhurst and Darron T. Smith (eds.) (2006). ''Black and Mormon'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press) pp. 13–33 at p. 30.</ref> One commentator has pointed out that these incidents illustrate the "ambiguities, contradictions, and paradoxes" of the issue during the twentieth century.<ref name = MTR/>

==The "Negro Question" Declaration==
In 1949, the First Presidency under the direction of [[George Albert Smith]] made a declaration which included the statement that the priesthood restriction was divinely commanded and not a matter of church policy.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
pages=101–102|
year=1999|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling}}</ref> It stated:

<blockquote>
The attitude of the Church with reference to the Negroes remains as it has always stood. It is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord, on which is founded the doctrine of the Church from the days of its organization, to the effect that Negroes may become members of the Church but that they are not entitled to the Priesthood at the present time. The prophets of the Lord have made several statements as to the operation of the principle. President Brigham Young said: "Why are so many of the inhabitants of the earth cursed with a skin of blackness? It comes in consequence of their fathers rejecting the power of the holy priesthood, and the law of God. They will go down to death. And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the holy priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to."
</blockquote>
The declaration goes on to state that the conditions in which people are born are affected by their conduct in a premortal existence, although the details of the principle are said not to be known. It then says that the privilege of mortal existence is so great that spirits were willing to come to earth even though they would not be able to possess the priesthood. It concludes by stating, "Under this principle there is no injustice whatsoever involved in this deprivation as to the holding of the priesthood by the Negroes."
<ref>First Presidency [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm Letter of the First Presidency] August 17, 1949</ref>

==Darkness associated with sin==
Many LDS church documents and church leaders asserted that dark skin was an indication of sin or a curse.<ref>A verse from the Book of Mormon (2 Nephi 30:6) relating to that belief discusses the Lamanites (Native Americans) "... and many generations shall not pass away among the, save they shall be a white and delightsome people". In 1980, the church changed the wording of that verse from "white and delightsome people" to "pure and delightsome people," which also appears in the 1840 edition printed in Nauvoo, edited by Joseph Smith. Church leaders claimed that they were simply restoring the verse to reflect the 1840 change by Joseph Smith, and that the verse did not concern skin color but rather concerned character. But church critic [[Richard Abanes]] claims that that change of that verse by the church is an attempt to cover-up its past attitudes, despite the change having been made 140 year previously. {{cite book
|title=One Nation Under Gods
|first = Richard
|last = Abanes
|page=420}}</ref><ref>For many examples, see Mormonism: Shadow or Reality? Gerald and Sandra Tanner. p. 262-266</ref><ref>"A black skin is a mark of the curse of heaven.... We understand that when God made man in his own image and pronounced him very good, that he made him white." [[Juvenile Instructor]], vol 3, page 157</ref> One belief held by some LDS members was that skin color of Native Americans would gradually change from dark to light as they repented of their sins.<ref>General Conference Report, October, 1960. Improvement Era, December 1960, pp. 922-923. A verse from the Book of Mormon (2 Nephi 30:6) relating to that belief discusses the Lamanites (Native Americans) "... and many generations shall not pass away among them, save they shall be a white and delightsome people".</ref><ref>Mormon writer [[George Edward Clark]] wrote (regarding an Indian tribe in South Carolina): "That tribe, or most of its members, are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Those Indians, at least as many as I have observed, were white and delightsome; as white and fair as any group of citizens of our country. I know of no prophecy , ancient or modern, that as had a more literal fulfillment".{{cite book
|title=Why I Believe, Fifty-four Evidences of the Divine Calling of Joseph Smith
|first=George Edward
|last=Clark
|year=1954}}</ref><ref>LDS church president [[Spencer W. Kimball]] said in 1960 (when he was a member of the 12 apostles):
I saw a striking contrast in the progress of the Indian people today.... For years they have been growing delightsome, and they are now becoming white and delightsome, as they were promised. In this picture of the twenty Lamanite missionaries, fifteen of the twenty were as light as Anglos, five were darker but equally delightsome The children in the home placement program in Utah are often lighter than their brothers and sisters in the hogans on the reservation. At one meeting a father and mother and their sixteen-year-old daughter were present, the little member girl--sixteen--sitting between the dark father and mother, and it was evident she was several shades lighter than her parents--on the same reservation, in the same hogan, subject to the same sun and wind and weather....These young members of the Church are changing to whiteness and to delightsomeness. One white elder jokingly said that he and his companion were donating blood regularly to the hospital in the hope that the process might be accelerated. '' General Conference Report'', October, 1960. Improvement Era, December 1960, pp. 922-923.</ref>

==Racial policy 1951-1977==
In 1954, Church President [[David O. McKay]] taught: "There is not now, and there never has been a doctrine in this church that the negroes are under a divine curse. There is no doctrine in the church of any kind pertaining to the negro. ''We believe'' that we have a scriptural precedent for withholding the priesthood from the negro. It is a practice, not a doctrine, and the practice someday will be changed. And that's all there is to it.’<ref>Sterling M. McMurrin affidavit, March 6, 1979. See ''[[David O. McKay and the Rise of Modern Mormonism]]'' by [[Greg Prince]] and [[William Robert Wright]]. Quoted by [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/howtoreach.html Genesis Group]</ref>

[[Mark E. Petersen]] (an [[Apostle (Mormonism)|apostle]]) addressed the issue of race and Priesthood in his address to a 1954 Convention of Teachers of Religion at the College Level at Brigham Young University. He said:

<blockquote> The reason that one would lose his blessings by marrying a negro is due to the restriction placed upon them. 'No person having the least particle of negro blood can hold the priesthood' (Brigham Young). It does not matter if they are one-sixth negro or one-hundred and sixth, the curse of no Priesthood is the same. If an individual who is entitled to the priesthood marries a negro, the Lord has decreed that only spirits who are not eligible for the priesthood will come to that marriage as children. To intermarry with a negro is to forfeit a 'nation of priesthood holders'....<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds_race.htm Racism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)]</ref></blockquote>

Petersen held that male descendants of a mixed-marriage could not become a Mormon priest, even if they had a lone ancestor with African blood dating back many generations.<ref name = "Mormon-racism">Peterson, Mark E. "[http://www.lds-mormon.com/racism.shtml Race Problems -- As They Affect The Church]", 27 August 1954</ref> However, he did hold out hope for African Americans, in that a black person baptized into the Mormon faith and who accepted Joseph Smith as a Prophet of God could attain the highest form of [[salvation]] known to Mormons, the [[Celestial Kingdom]].<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/> Petersen said, "If that negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the Celestial Kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get celestial glory."<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/>

===Apostle Harold B. Lee blocks policy change===
In 1969 church apostle [[Harold B. Lee]] blocked the LDS Church from rescinding the racial restriction policy.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14">Quinn, Michael D. ''The Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power'' Salt Lake City: 1994 Signature Books Page 14</ref> Church leaders voted to rescind the policy at a meeting in 1969. Lee was absent from the meeting due to travels. When Lee returned he called for a re-vote, arguing that the policy could not be changed without a revelation.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14"/>

===Church president statement in 1972===
[[Harold B. Lee]], president of the church, stated in 1972: "For those who don't believe in modern revelation there is no adequate explanation. Those who do understand revelation stand by and wait until the Lord speaks...It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we’re just waiting for that time."<ref>Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.</ref>

==Civil Rights movement==
===Church and the Civil Rights movement===
In 1958, [[Joseph Fielding Smith]] published '''Answers to Gospel Questions''' which stated "No church or other organization is more insistent than The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, that the negroes should receive all the rights and privileges that can possibly be given to any other in the true sense of equality as declared in the Declaration of Independence." He continues to say they should not be barred from any type of employment or education, and should be free "to make their lives as happy as it is possible without interference from white men, labor unions or from any other source."<ref name=history>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html LDS Black History Timeline]</ref> In the 1963 General Conference, Hugh B. Brown stated: "it is a moral evil for any person or group of persons to deny any human being the rights to gainful employment, to full educational opportunity, and to every privilege of citizenship". He continued: "We call upon all men everywhere, both within and outside the church, to commit themselves to the establishment of full civil equality for all of God's children. Anything less than this defeats our high ideal of the brotherhood of man."<ref name=history />

The NAACP attempted to get the LDS church to support civil rights legislation and to reverse its discriminating practices during the [[Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights era]] in the 1960s. In 1963 [[NAACP]] leadership tried to arrange meetings with church leadership, but the church refused to meet with them.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1965, the church leadership did meet with the NAACP, and agreed to publish an editorial in church-owned newspaper [[The Deseret News]], which would support civil rights legislation pending in the Utah legislature. The church failed to follow-through on the commitment, and church Apostle [[N. Eldon Tanner]] explained "We have decided to remain silent".<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In March 1965, the NAACP led a anti-discrimination march in Salt Lake City, protesting church policies.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1966, the NAACP issued a statement criticizing the church, saying the church "has maintained a rigid and continuous segregation stand" and that "the church has made "no effort to conteract the widespread discriminatory practices in education, in housing, in employment, and other areas of life"<ref>[[The Deseret News]], May 3, 1966</ref>

During the 1960s and 1970s, Mormons in the West were close to the national averages in racial attitudes.<ref>[[Armand Mauss|Mauss, Armand]] [http://www.fairlds.org/FAIR_Conferences/2003_LDS_Church_and_the_Race_Issue.html The LDS Church and the Race Issue: A Study in Misplaced Apologetics] 2003</ref> In 1966, [[Armand Mauss]] surveyed Mormons on racial attitudes and discriminatory practices. He found that "Mormons resembled the rather "moderate" denominations (such as Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopalian), rather than the "fundamentalists" or the sects."<ref name=Mauss1966>Armand L. Mauss, "Mormonism and Secular Attitudes toward Negroes", Pacific Sociological Review 9 (Fall 1966)</ref> Negative racial attitudes within Mormonism varied inversely with education, occupation, community size of origin, and youth, reflecting the national trend. Urban Mormons with a more orthodox view of Mormonism tended to be more tolerant.<ref name=Mauss1966 />

===Sports boycotts of BYU===
African-American athletes protested against LDS policies by boycotting several sporting events with [[Brigham Young University]]. In 1968, after the assassination of [[Martin Luther King]], black members of the [[UTEP]] track team approached their coach and expressed their desire not to compete against BYU in an upcoming meet. When the coach disregarded the athletes' complaint, the athletes boycotted the meet.<ref name="ADR"/> In 1969, 14 members of the [[University of Wyoming]] football team were removed from the team for planning to protest the policies of the LDS church.<ref name="ADR">{{cite journal|last=Fried|first=Gil|coauthors=Michael Hiller|year=1997|title=ADR in youth and intercollegiate athletics|journal=Brigham Young University Law Review|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_199701/ai_n8735454/pg_1}}, p. 1, p. 10</ref> In November 1969, Stanford University President Kenneth Pitzer suspended athletic relations with BYU.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=EfYLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=i1cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3753,2673063&dq=kenneth-pitzer+brigham-young |work=Evening Independent |date=December 11, 1969 |author=James J. Kilpatrick |title=A Sturdy Discipline Serves Mormons Well}}</ref>

===Boy Scout leaders===
Since the early part of the 20th century, each LDS ward has organized its own [[Boy Scout]]ing troop. Some LDS troops permitted black youths to join, but an LDS policy required that the troop leader to be the deacon quorum president (a priesthood office held by 12 and 13 year old non-black church members), thus excluding black children from that role. The [[NAACP]] filed a federal lawsuit in 1974 challenging this racist practice, and soon thereafter the LDS church reversed its policy.<ref>http://www.bsa-discrimination.org/html/lds-top.html Exclusionary Practices & Policies of the
Boy Scouts of America</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage |first=Armand L. |last=Mauss |page=218 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2003 |isbn=0252028031}}</ref>

===Spencer W. Kimball denounces racism===
[[Spencer W. Kimball]], LDS apostle and future president of the church taught against racism. In 1972, he said: "Intolerance by Church members is despicable. A special problem exists with respect to black people because they may not now receive the priesthood. Some members of the Church would justify their own un-Christian discrimination against black people because of that rule with respect to the priesthood, but while this restriction has been imposed by the Lord, it is not for us to add burdens upon the shoulders of our black brethren. They who have received Christ in faith through authoritative baptism are heirs to the celestial kingdom along with men of all other races. And those who remain faithful to the end may expect that God may finally grant them all blessings they have merited through their righteousness. Such matters are in the Lord's hands. It is for us to extend our love to all."<ref>The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball, p.237, emphasis in original</ref>

==Retaliation against Mormon anti-discrimination activists==

There were some LDS church members who protested against the church's discriminatory practices. Two LDS church members, Douglas A. Wallace and Byron Merchant, were excommunicated by the LDS church (1976 and 1977 respectively) after criticizing the church's discrimatory practices.<ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 13, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', October 4, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 3, 1978</ref><ref>''Dallas Morning News'', October 20, 1977</ref> LDS church member Grant Syphers objected to the church's racial policies and, as a consequence, his stake president refused to give Sypher permission to enter the temple. The president said, "Anyone who could not accept the Church's stand on Negroes ... could not go to the temple".<ref>Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Winter 1967, p. 6</ref>

==Racial policy ends in 1978==
{{Main|1978 Revelation on Priesthood}}
LDS church president [[Spencer W. Kimball]] (president 1973-1985) took [[General Conference (LDS Church)|general conference]] on the road, holding area and regional conferences all over the world. He also announced many new [[Temple (LDS Church)|temples]] to be built both in the United States and abroad, including one at [[São Paulo Brazil Temple|temple in São Paulo, Brazil]]. The problem of determining priesthood eligibility in Brazil was thought to be nearly impossible due to the mixing of the races in that country. When the temple was announced, church leaders realized the difficulty of restricting persons with African descent from attending the temple in Brazil.<ref>[[Mark L. Grover]], "The Mormon Priesthood Revelation and the São Paulo Brazil Temple", ''[[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]]'' '''23''':39–53 (Spring 1990).</ref>

Finally, on June 8, 1978, the [[First Presidency]] released to the press an official declaration, now a part of the standard works of the church, which contained the following statement:

<blockquote>He has heard our prayers, and ''by revelation'' has confirmed that the long-promised day has come when every faithful, worthy man in the church may receive the Holy Priesthood, with power to exercise its divine authority, and enjoy with his loved ones every blessing that follows there from, including the blessings of the temple. Accordingly, all worthy male members of the church may be ordained to the priesthood without regard for race or color. Priesthood leaders are instructed to follow the policy of carefully interviewing all candidates for ordination to either the Aaronic or the Melchizedek Priesthood to insure that they meet the established standards for worthiness.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/od/2 Official Declaration 2], emphasis added.</ref></blockquote>

According to first-person accounts, after much discussion among the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles on this matter, they engaged the Lord in prayer. According to the writing of one of those present, "It was during this prayer that the revelation came. The Spirit of the Lord rested upon us all; we felt something akin to what happened on the day of [[Pentecost]] and at the [[Kirtland Temple]]. From the midst of eternity, the voice of God, conveyed by the power of the Spirit, spoke to his prophet. The message was that the time had now come to offer the fullness of the everlasting gospel, including celestial marriage, and the priesthood, and the blessings of the temple, to all men, without reference to race or color, solely on the basis of personal worthiness. And we all heard the same voice, received the same message, and became personal witnesses that the word received was the mind and will and voice of the Lord."<ref>''Priesthood'', pp. 127-128, Deseret Book Co., 1981.</ref> Immediately after the receipt of this new revelation, an official announcement of the revelation was prepared, and sent out to all of the various leaders of the Church. It was then read to, approved by and accepted as the word and will of the Lord, by a General Conference of the Church in October 1978. Succeeding editions of the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] were printed with this announcement canonized and entitled "[[Official Declaration—2]]".

[[Gordon B. Hinckley]] (a participant in the meetings to reverse the ban), in a churchwide fireside said, "Not one of us who was present on that occasion was ever quite the same after that. Nor has the Church been quite the same. All of us knew that the time had come for a change and that the decision had come from the heavens. The answer was clear. There was perfect unity among us in our experience and in our understanding."<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=6bb6d7630a27b010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____ Priesthood Restoration], an edited version of a talk given 15 May 1988 at the Churchwide fireside commemorating the 159th anniversary of the restoration of the priesthood.</ref>

Later in 1978, McConkie said:<ref>Bruce R. McConkie, 1978 (All Are Alike Unto God, A SYMPOSIUM ON THE BOOK OF MORMON, The Second Annual Church Educational System Religious Educator's Symposium, August 17–19, 1978</ref>
<blockquote>There are statements in our literature by the early brethren which we have interpreted to mean that the Negroes would not receive the priesthood in mortality. I have said the same things, and people write me letters and say, "You said such and such, and how is it now that we do such and such?" And all I can say to that is that it is time disbelieving people repented and got in line and believed in a living, modern prophet. Forget everything that I have said, or what President Brigham Young or President George Q. Cannon or whomsoever has said in days past that is contrary to the present revelation. We spoke with a limited understanding and without the light and knowledge that now has come into the world.... We get our truth and our light line upon line and precept upon precept. We have now had added a new flood of intelligence and light on this particular subject, and it erases all the darkness and all the views and all the thoughts of the past. They don’t matter any more.... It doesn’t make a particle of difference what anybody ever said about the Negro matter before the first day of June of this year.</blockquote>

===Critics question motivation of policy reversal===

Critics of the LDS church claim that the church's 1978 reversal of the racial restriction policy was not divinely inspired as the church claimed, but simply a matter of political convenience.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0802412343 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979|
pages=319–328
}}</ref> Critics point out that this reversal of policy occurred as the LDS church began to expand outside the United States into countries such as Brazil that have ethnically mixed populations, and that the policy reversal was announced just a few months before the church opened its new temple in [[São Paulo]], Brazil.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|year=1999|
page=95|
publisher=Harper Collins
}}
</ref>

===Critics claim that 1978 revelation undermines prophets===
Critics of the LDS church point out that the 1978 revelation undermines the church's claim that its presidents are prophets of God and that their proclamations are God's word, because Brigham Young stated in 1852 that blacks would not receive the preisthood "until the last of the posterity of Able [sic] had received the priesthood, until the redemtion of the earth."<ref>{{cite web|
url=http://www.mrm.org/topics/miscellaneous/black-skin-and-seed-cain|
title=Mormon Research Ministry}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abane|
isbn=1568582196|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows|
pages=355–374}}
</ref> Mormon apologists reply that revelation is a continuing process and that newer revelations supersede older revelations {{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}.

==Interracial marriages==
===Pre-1978===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Church president Brigham Young said "If the White man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain (those with dark skin), the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so."<ref name = jdcain />

LDS Apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] said in 1954: "I think I have read enough to give you an idea of what the Negro is after. He is not just seeking the opportunity of sitting down in a cafe where white people eat. He isn't just trying to ride on the same streetcar or the same Pullman car with white people. It isn't that he just desires to go to the same theater as the white people. From this, and other interviews I have read, it appears that the Negro seeks absorption with the white race. He will not be satisfied until he achieves it by intermarriage. That is his objective and we must face it."<ref>Race Problems - As They Affect The Church, Convention of Teachers of Religion on the College Level, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, August 27, 1954</ref>

In a 1965 address to BYU students, President Kimball told BYU students: "Now, the brethren feel that it is not the wisest thing to cross racial lines in dating and marrying. There is no condemnation. We have had some of our fine young people who have crossed the lines. We hope they will be very happy, but experience of the brethren through a hundred years has proved to us that marriage is a very difficult thing under any circumstances and the difficulty increases in interrace marriages."<ref name=ChurchNews1978>"Interracial Marriage Discouraged", Church News, June 17, 1978, p. 2.</ref>

===Post-1978===
The official newspaper of the LDS Church<ref>{{Harv|Roberts|1983|p=7}}</ref> – the [[Church News]] – printed an article in entitled "Interracial marriage discouraged". This article was printed on June 17, 1978, in the same issue that announced the policy reversal.

There was no written church policy on interracial marriages, which had been permitted since before the 1978 reversal.<ref name=ChurchNews1978 /> In 1978, church spokesman Don LeFevre said "So there is no ban on interracial marriage. If a black partner contemplating marriage is worthy of going to the Temple, nobody's going to stop him... if he's ready to go to the Temple, obviously he may go with the blessings of the church."<ref>Don LeFevre, Salt Lake Tribune, 14 June 1978</ref>

On the LDS Church website, Dr. Robert Millet writes: "[T]he Church Handbook of Instructions... is the guide for all Church leaders on doctrine and practice. There is, in fact, no mention whatsoever in this handbook concerning interracial marriages. In addition, having served as a Church leader for almost 30 years, I can also certify that I have never received official verbal instructions condemning marriages between black and white members."<ref>Robert L. Millet, [http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=a1aa39628b88f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=f5f411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD "Church Response to Jon Krakauer's Under the Banner of Heaven,"] 27 June 2003</ref>

A church lesson manual for adolescent boys that is in use in 2011 contains a 1976 quote from [[Spencer W. Kimball]] that says "We recommend that people marry those who are of the same racial background generally, and of somewhat the same economic and social and educational background (some of those are not an absolute necessity, but preferred), and above all, the same religious background, without question".<ref>
*Embry, Jessie L., ''Black Saints in a white church: contemporary African American Mormons'', Signature Books, 1994, p 169.
*The LDS document is online at: [http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=ba805f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=1f4fa41f6cc20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 “Lesson 31: Choosing an Eternal Companion,”] ''Aaronic Priesthood Manual 3'', p. 127.</ref>

==1985 to present==
[[Image:MormonAdFamilyPhoto.jpg|right|thumb|[[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church]]Since the Revelation on the Priesthood in 1978, the church has made no distinctions in policy for black people, but it remains an issue for many black members of the church. Alvin Jackson, a black Bishop, puts his focus on "moving forward rather than looking back."<ref>Page Johnson [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/jackson.html Alvin B. Jackson, Jr—The Bishop is Always In] Meridian Magazine</ref> In an interview with ''Mormon Century'', Jason Smith expresses his viewpoint that the membership of the church was not ready for black people to have the Priesthood at the time of the Restoration, because of prejudice and slavery. He draws analogies to the Bible where only the Israelites have the gospel.<ref>Ken Kuykendall, [http://www.mormoncentury.org/www/ContentPages/HearContent.aspx?PID=1000022 Past racial issues and the Church today]{{Dead link|date=October 2010}} Mormon Century</ref> Officially the church also uses Biblical history to justify the prior ban:

::Ever since biblical times, the Lord has designated through His prophets who could receive the priesthood and other blessings of the gospel. Among the tribes of Israel, for example, only men of the tribe of Levi were given the priesthood and allowed to officiate in certain ordinances. Likewise, during the Savior's earthly ministry, gospel blessings were restricted to the Jews. Only after a revelation to the Apostle Peter were the gospel and priesthood extended to others (see Acts 10:1–33; 14:23; 15:6–8).<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=bbd508f54922d010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=36f2ce9566a43110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ LDS Gospel Topics: Priesthood Ordination before 1978]</ref>

The church opposes racism among its membership. It is currently working to reach out to black people, and has several predominantly black wards inside the United States.<ref>Wilcox, Lauren, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/09/AR2007050901770.html The Saints Go Marching In] Washington Post May 13, 2007</ref> They teach that all are welcome to come unto Christ, and speak against those who harbor ill feelings towards another race. [[Gordon B. Hinckley]], the President of the LDS church, stated:
{{quote|I remind you that no man who makes disparaging remarks concerning those of another race can consider himself a true disciple of Christ. Nor can he consider himself to be in harmony with the teachings of the Church of Christ. Let us all recognize that each of us is a son or daughter of our Father in Heaven, who loves all of His children."<ref name="Hinckley 2006">[http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html The Need for Greater Kindness]</ref>}}

In the July 1992 edition of the [[New Era (magazine)|New Era]], the church published a [[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church. The photo contained several youth of a variety of ethic backgrounds with the words "Family Photo" in large print. Underneath the picture are the words "God created the races—but not racism. We are all children of the same Father. Violence and hatred have no place in His family. (See Acts 10:34.)"<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=024644f8f206c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=445405e063feb010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1
|publisher=[[New Era (magazine)|New Era]]
|title=Family Photo
|month=July | year=1992
|last=Diamond
|first=Craig}}</ref>

===Instances of discrimination after 1978 revelation===
LDS historian Wayne J. Embry interviewed several black LDS church members in 1987 and reported "All of the interviewees reported incidents of aloofness on the part of white members, a reluctance or a refusal to shake hands with them or sit by them, and racist comments made to them." Embry further reported that one black church member "was amazingly persistent in attending Mormon services for three years when, by her report, no one would speak to her." Embry reports that "she [the same black church member] had to write directly to the president of the LDS Church to find out how to be baptized" because none of her fellow church members would tell her.<ref>{{cite book|
title=Black and Mormon|
last=Smith|first=Darron|
publisher=University of Illinois Press|
year=2004|
isbn=025202947X|
pages=75–77}}</ref>

Black LDS church member Darron Smith wrote in 2003: "Even though the priesthood ban was repealed in 1978, the discourse that constructs what blackness means is still very much intact today. Under the direction of President Spencer W. Kimball, the First Presidency and the Twelve removed the policy that denied black people the priesthood but did very little to disrupt the multiple discourses that had fostered the policy in the first place. Hence there are Church members today who continue to summon and teach at every level of Church education the racial discourse that black people are descendants of Cain, that they merited lesser earthly privilege because they were "fence-sitters" in the War in Heaven, and that, science and climatic factors aside, there is a link between skin color and righteousness" <ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Smith
| first = Darron
| title = The Persistence of Racialized Discourse in Mormonism|
journal = Sunstone
|date=March 2003}}
</ref>

Journalist and church member [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]] in 2007 wrote "Today, many black Mormons report subtle differences in the way they are treated, as if they are not full members but a separate group. A few even have been called 'the n-word' at church and in the hallowed halls of the temple. They look in vain at photos of Mormon general authorities, hoping to see their own faces reflected there.<ref>"New film and revived group help many feel at home in their church" by [[Peggy Fletcher Stack]], The Salt Lake Tribune, July 6, 2007</ref>

White church member [[Eugene England]], a professor at Brigham Young University, wrote in 1998: <blockquote>
This is a good time to remind ourselves that most Mormons are still in denial about the ban, unwilling to talk in Church settings about it, and that some Mormons still believe that Blacks were cursed by descent from Cain through Ham. Even more believe that Blacks, as well as other non-white people, come color-coded into the world, their lineage and even their class a direct indication of failures in a previous life.... I check occasionally in classes at BYU and find that still, twenty years after the revelation, a majority of bright, well-educated Mormon students say they believe that Blacks are descendants of Cain and Ham and thereby cursed and that skin color is an indication of righteousness in the pre-mortal life. They tell me these ideas came from their parents or Seminary and Sunday School teachers, and they have never questioned them. They seem largely untroubled by the implicit contradiction to basic gospel teachings.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = England
| first = Eugene | journal = Sunstone|
pages=54–58|date=June 1998
| title = }}
</ref> </blockquote>

In an interview for the [[PBS]] documentary [[The Mormons (documentary)|The Mormons]], [[Jeffrey R. Holland]], a member of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], specifically denounced the perpetuation of [[Mormon folklore|folklore]] suggesting that race was in any way an indication of how faithful a person had been in the [[pre-existence]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/interviews/holland.html trnascript of interview with Holland for the PBS documentary]</ref>

===Church asked to repudiate past racist declarations===
In 1995, black church member A. David Jackson asked church leaders to issue a declaration repudiating past doctrines that treated black people as inferior. In particular, Jackson asked the church to disavow the 1949 "Negro Question" declaration from the church Presidency which stated "The attitude of the church with reference to negroes ... is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord ... to the effect that negroes ... are not entitled to the priesthood...".<ref name = "Ostling-103">{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0060663715|
pages=103–104|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

The church leadership did not issue a repudiation, and so in 1997 Jackson, aided by other church members including Armand Mauss, sent a second request to church leaders, which stated that white Mormons felt that the 1978 revelation resolved everything, but that black Mormons react differently when they learn the details. He said that many black Mormons become discouraged and leave the church or become inactive. "When they find out about this, they exit... You end up with the passive African Americans in the church".<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0060663715|
pages=105|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

Other black church members think giving an apology would be a "detriment" to church work and a catalyst to further racial misunderstanding. African-American church member Bryan E. Powell says "There is no pleasure in old news, and this news is old." Gladys Newkirk agrees, stating "I've never experienced any problems in this church. I don't need an apology. . . . We're the result of an apology."<ref>{{cite news
|first=Bill
|last=Broadway
|publisher=[[Washington Post]]
|date=1998-05-30
|url=http://www.ldshistory.net/1990/mhablack.htm
|title=Black Mormons Resist Apology Talk}}</ref> The large majority of black Mormons say they are willing to look beyond the racist teachings and cleave to the church in part because of its powerful, detailed teachings on life after death.<ref name=Ramirez2005 />

Hinckley, then church president, told the Los Angeles Times "The 1978 declaration speaks for itself ... I don't see anything further that we need to do". Church leadership did not issue a repudiation.<ref name = "Ostling-103"/> Church apostle [[Dallin H. Oaks]] said: "It's not the pattern of the Lord to give reasons. We can put reasons to commandments. When we do we're on our own. Some people put reasons to [the ban] and they turned out to be spectacularly wrong. There is a lesson in that.... The lesson I've drawn from that, I decided a long time ago that I had faith in the command and I had no faith in the reasons that had been suggested for it... I'm referring to reasons given by general authorities and reasons elaborated upon [those reasons] by others. The whole set of reasons seemed to me to be unnecessary risk taking... Let's [not] make the mistake that's been made in the past, here and in other areas, trying to put reasons to revelation. The reasons turn out to be man-made to a great extent. The revelations are what we sustain as the will of the Lord and that's where safety lies."<ref>Dallin H. Oaks, Interview with Associated Press, in ''[[Daily Herald (Utah)|Daily Herald]]'', Provo, Utah, 5 June 1988</ref>

===Humanitarian aid in Africa===
The church has been involved in several humanitarian aid projects in Africa. On January 27, 1985, members across the world joined together in a fast for "the victims of famine and other causes resulting in hunger and privation among people of Africa." They also donated the money that would have been used for food during the fast to help those victims, regardless of church membership.<ref>Kimball, Spencer, Romney, Marion, Hinckley, Gordon, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,4383 ''Letters of the First Presidency''] January 11, 1985</ref> Together with other organizations such as UNICEF and the American Red Cross, the church is working towards eradicating measles. Since 1999, there has been a 60 percent drop in deaths from measles in Africa.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=9ca9775baf050110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Church Works to Eradicate Measles in Africa]</ref> Due to their efforts, the [[American Red Cross]] bestowed the First Presidency with the organization's highest financial support honor, the American Red Cross Circle of Humanitarians award.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=df346287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD American Red Cross Recognizes Church for Support of Measles Initiative in Africa]</ref> The church has also been involved in humanitarian aid in Africa by sending food boxes,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=894b6287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Food Boxes Rushed to Ease Starvation in Africa]</ref> digging wells to provide clean water,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=4b12b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Clean Water Projects]</ref> distributing wheelchairs,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=66f4b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Wheelchair Distribution]</ref> fighting AIDS,{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} providing Neonatal Resuscitation Training,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a6f37a520251110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD church Works to Save Infants Through Neonatal Resuscitation Training]</ref> and setting up employment resources service centers.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a658bd9eeb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Employment Resource Service Centers]</ref>

==Black membership==
The church has never kept official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. Black people have been members of Mormon congregations since its foundation, but before 1978 its black membership was small. It has since grown, and in 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the church (about 5% of the total membership), mostly in Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119.</ref> Black membership has continued to grow substantially, especially in [[West Africa]], where two [[Temple (LDS Church)|temples]] have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa"/>

===Notable early black church members===
{{Main|Blacks and the Latter Day Saint movement}}
Prior to 1847, blacks that were members of the church included [[Elijah Abel]] and [[Walker Lewis]].

[[Jane Elizabeth Manning James|Jane Manning James]] had been born free and worked as a housekeeper in Joseph Smith's home.<ref>Jerel Harris and Brian Passey [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/1stblacks.html The History of Black Pioneers: Slaves, Free Blacks Among the First Utah Settlers]</ref> When she requested the temple ordinances, [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]] took her petition to the Quorum of the Twelve, but her request was denied. When [[Wilford Woodruff]] became president of the church, he compromised and allowed Jane to be sealed to the family of Joseph Smith as a servant. This was unsatisfying to Jane as it did not include the saving ordinance of the endowment, and she repeated her petitions. She died in 1908. President [[Joseph F. Smith]] honored her by speaking at her funeral.<ref name = "Embry-40">Embry 1994: 40-41.</ref>

Other notable early black LDS church members included Green Flake, the slave of John Flake, a convert to the church and from whom he got his name. He was baptized a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints at the age of 16 in the Mississippi River, but remained a slave. Samuel D. Chambers was another early African American pioneer. He was baptized secretly at the age of thirteen when he was still a slave in Mississippi. He was unable to join the main body of the church and lost track of them until after the Civil War. He was thirty-eight when he had saved enough money to immigrate to Utah with his wife and son.<ref name = "Embry-40"/>

===Expansion in West Africa===
{{See also|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Ghana}}
The church began receiving letters from West Africa requesting information about the church in the 1940s. As the church began sending back literature, two LDS bookstores were formed. Because the Africans could not receive the priesthood, leaders hesitated sending missionaries.<ref name=AfricaPioneers>[[E. Dale LeBaron|LeBaron, E. Dale]], [http://deseretbook.com/mormon-life/news/story?story_id=527 Church Pioneers in Africa] ''LDS Living'' November 2001</ref> In 1960, David O. McKay sent Glen G. Fisher on a fact-finding mission to Africa, where he found thousands of people waiting for him.<ref>LaMar Williams, interview by [[E. Dale LeBaron]] in Salt Lake City, February 12, 1988.</ref> McKay decided to send missionaries, but the Nigerian government refused to issue the necessary visas.<ref>[[E. Dale LeBaron]], [http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/daily/history/blacks/lebaron_africa.htm "African Converts Without Baptism: A Unique and Inspiring Chapter in Church History"], [[Marriott Center]] devotional address November 3, 1998</ref> Five months after the 1978 revelation, the first missionaries arrived in Nigeria. [[Anthony Obinna]] was one of the first to be baptized.<ref>Larry Morris [http://deseretbook.com/mormon-life/news/story?story_id=739 Obinna Brothers to the First Presidency]''LDS Living'' April 2007</ref> Within one year there were more than 1,700 members in 35 branches in West Africa.<ref>Mabey and Allred, ''Brother to Brother'', p. vii</ref>

===Wynetta Willis Martin===
In 1970, Wynetta Willis Martin gained the distinction of being the first African-American member of the faculty at [[Brigham Young University]]. After being baptized she joined the [[Mormon Tabernacle Choir]]. She accepted it as her personal mission to prove to the world that there were in fact African-American Mormons and that the Mormons were not racist. She toured with the choir for two years before accepting her appointment on the faculty at BYU. She was employed in the training of nurses and tried to help them become more culturally aware.<ref>Martin, 1972."</ref> About the racial restriction policy, she said: "These two things: baptism and the Holy Ghost are the only requirements, contrary to popular belief, for entering the Celestial Kingdom and being with God for eternity if one is worthy. Therefore, the Priesthood covenants of the Temple which we are not allowed at this point are not really so crucial as popular belief dictates.<ref>Martin 1972: 56, emphasis her own.</ref>

===Genesis Group===
On October 19, 1971, the [[Genesis Group]] was established as an auxiliary unit to the church. Its purpose was to serve the needs of black members, including activating members and welcoming converts. It continues to meet on the first Sunday of each month in Utah. Don Harwell is the current president.<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org Genesis Group]</ref> When asked about racism in the church, he said "Now, is the church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints racist? No, never has been. But some of those people within the church have those tendencies. You have to separate the two."<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/archivenews/interview.html Rosemary Winters, "Black Mormons Struggle for Acceptance in the Church", ''Salt Lake Tribune'', November 4, 2004]</ref>

===Joseph Freeman, Jr.===
[[Joseph Freeman, Jr.]] was the first African American to receive the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]] after the 1978 revelation.<ref name = SLT>''[[Salt Lake Tribune]]'', 1978-06-24.</ref> Freeman was also the first black member ever to receive church [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]].<ref name = Time>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,948228,00.html "Mormonism Enters a New Era"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', 1978-08-07.</ref> On June 23, 1978, Freeman was sealed to his wife and five children in the [[Salt Lake Temple]] by then [[Apostle (Latter Day Saints)|apostle]] [[Thomas S. Monson]].<ref name = SLT/><ref name = Time/>

===Helvécio Martins===
{{Main|Helvécio Martins}}
Helvécio Martins was the first person of African descent to be a [[general authority]] (a leadership position) of the church. Martins was born in Brazil to parents descended from African slaves. He had found success in his professional life but felt unfulfilled with the religious life he was pursuing. The missionaries visited his home in 1972 while he was going through a difficult spiritual crisis. The missionaries visited his home late one night and were worried about how to teach an African since the church had not yet reversed its policy. Indeed, Martins' first question upon inviting the missionaries into his home concerned the church's attitude toward race. The spiritual experiences that the Martins family had while investigating the church superseded their concerns for the racial policy of priesthood restriction, and they were baptized. They experienced much resistance from members of their extended family and former church friends, but eventually found peace with them. Martins served in his ward as a [[Sunday School (LDS Church)|Sunday school]] teacher. He was not troubled by the priesthood restriction, but others were. Often, members of the ward would ask him how he could remain a member of the church without the priesthood. It was never an issue for him. He had resolved the issue in his own mind and never expected to receive the priesthood.

When the announcement came, he describes his reaction and that of his wife as unbelieving. It was something for which they had not dared to hope. Martins then served as a member of a [[stake presidency]], as a [[Bishop (Latter Day Saints)|bishop]], a [[mission president]], and finally as a [[Seventy (Latter Day Saints)|seventy]]. His son was one of the first three people of black African descent to serve a full-time mission for the church in nearly 100 years.<ref>Martins & Grover, 1994.</ref>

===Growth in black membership===
The Church had an increase in membership upon repealing the ban <ref>{{cite news
|title=LDS Church follows members to inner cities
|publisher=The Denver Post
|date=2004-05-01
|first=Eric
|last=Gorski
|url=http://www.rickross.com/reference/mormon/mormon158.html}}</ref> by experiencing rapid growth in predominately black communities while other mainstream sects have been losing members.<ref name=Burst2005>{{cite news
|title=Black saints in a White church; Mormon Church grows in urban areas despite racist reputation
|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-117831794.html
|publisher=Baltimore Afro-American
|date=2005-12-23
|first=H. Allen
|last=Hurst}}</ref> In the last 20 years, the church has been well received among middle-class African-Americans, and African American membership grew from minuscule before 1978 to an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 in 2005.<ref name=Ramirez2005>{{cite news
|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-blackmormons,1,708682.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true
|title=Mormon past steeped in racism: Some black members want church to denounce racist doctrines
|first=Margaret
|last=Ramirez
|date=2005-07-26
|publisher=[[Chicago Tribune]]}}</ref> A 2007 study by the [[Pew Research Center]] found that 3% of American Mormons were black.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/table-ethnicity-by-tradition.pdf
|format=PDF|title=Race by Religious Tradition
|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]
|year=2007}}</ref> A 1998 survey by a Mormon and amateur sociologist, James W. Lucas, found that about 20 percent of Mormons in New York City were black.<ref>{{cite news
|url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE4DB1030F931A35753C1A9639C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1
|title=For Mormons in Harlem, Bigger Space Beckons
|first=Andy
|last=Newman
|date=2005-10-02
|publisher=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> Melvyn Hammarberg explained the growth: "There is a kind of changing face of the LDS Church because of its continuing commitment to work in the inner cities."<ref>{{cite news
|title=Mormons gain in inner cities
|url=http://www.rickross.com/reference/mormon/mormon276.html
|last=Hill
|first=Miriam
|publisher=Philadelphia Inquirer
|date=2005-12-10}}</ref> Sociology and Religious Studies Professor Armand Mauss says African Americans are particularly attracted by the focus on promoting healthy families. However, these numbers still only represent a fraction of total church membership in the United States, suggesting that African Americans remain comparatively hesitant to join, partly because of the church's past.<ref name=Colorblind>{{cite news
|title=Colorblind Faith
|url=http://www.chicagoreporter.com/index.php/c/Inside_Stories/d/Colorblind_faith
|publisher=Chicago Reporter
|last=Shebeck
|first=Amy}}</ref> Still, Don Harwell, president of the Genesis Group, sees it as a sign that "People are getting past the stereotypes put on the church."<ref name=Burst2005 /> The revelation also helped pave the way for the church's exponential growth in areas like Africa and the Caribbean.<ref name=Colorblind /> The church has been more successful among blacks outside the United States than inside, partly because there is less awareness of this past historic discrimination.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Mormonism spreading around the world
|first=Mary
|last=Jordan
|publisher=The Washington Post
|url=http://www.columbiamissourian.com/stories/2007/11/30/mormonism-spreading-around-world/
|date=2007-11-30}}</ref> In 2005, the church had some 120,000 members in West Africa,<ref name=dedication>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20050808/ai_n14856252 Pres. Hinckley dedicates the Aba Nigeria Temple]</ref> and two temples, the [[Aba Nigeria Temple]] and the [[Accra Ghana Temple]].

===Black people in church leadership===
The church has never kept official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. No member of the two highest governing bodies, the [[First Presidency]] and the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], have ever been black. There have been several black members of the [[Seventy (Latter Day Saints)|Quorums of the Seventy]];<ref>For example, [http://www.angelfire.com/mo2/blackmormon/homepage2.html Elder Christopher Chukwurah], [http://www.lds.co.za/artview.asp?ObjectID=1501 Elder Kapumba Kola] and [http://www.hotpepper.ca/lds/africa/history/leaders.html more].</ref> and, as of 2009, Brazilian [[Helvécio Martins]] (a member of the Second Quorum of the Seventy from 1990 to 1995) and [[Kenya]]n [[Joseph W. Sitati]] (a member of the First Quorum of the Seventy since 2009) have served as [[General Authority|general authorities]]. There has never been a black member of the general presidencies of the [[Relief Society]], [[Young Women (organization)|Young Women]], [[Primary (LDS Church)|Primary]], [[Young Men (organization)|Young Men]], or [[Sunday School (LDS Church)|Sunday School]]. The first African member of the Relief Society general board<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20031004/ai_n11424774/pg_1
|title=Pair reflect LDS Nigerians' faith
|publisher=[[Deseret News]]
|date=2003-10-04
|first=Carrie A.
|last=Moore}}</ref> was chosen in 2003, and she shared her testimony at the general meeting of the Relief Society in September 2003.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Testimonies: "Choose That Good Part"
|publisher=[[Ensign]]
|url=http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=fe9474536cf0c010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1
|date=November 2003}}</ref>

Mauss commented "As far as leadership is concerned, the role of the various minorities in Mormonism as a whole is not yet very great, but it is growing, and it is crucial in parts of the world outside the U.S."<ref name=Ramirez2005 />
Approximately 5% of church members have African ancestry (mostly in congregations in Africa, South America, and the Caribbean).{citation needed}

===Notable black Mormons===

*[[Alex Boyé]] - actor and musician.<ref>[http://www.alexboye.com/about-alex-boy%C3%A9 About Alex Boyé | alexboye.com]</ref>
*Catherine M. Stokes, former deputy director of the [[Illinois Department of Public Health]], in August 2010 she was one of the original 13 members of the ''[[Deseret News]]'' Editorial Advisory Council.<ref>[http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700059575/Deseret-News-introduces-Editorial-Advisory-Board.html?pg=3 ''Deseret News'', Aug. 23, 2010]</ref>
*[[Thurl Bailey]], basketball player and singer.
*[[Mia Love]], mayor of [[Saratoga Springs, Utah]]

====Gladys Knight====
[[Image:Gladys Knight.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Since her baptism in 1997, [[Gladys Knight]] has strived to raise awareness of black people in the LDS church.]]

[[Gladys Knight]], who joined the church in 1997, created and now directs the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS]] choir [[Saints Unified Voices]].<ref>[http://www.suvchoir.org SUV Choir]</ref> SUV has released a Grammy Award-winning CD entitled ''One Voice'', and occasionally performs at LDS [[Stake (Mormonism)|stake]] [[Fireside (Mormonism)|fireside]]s. Knight said:
{{blockquote|Since I joined the church, I desire to be more and more obedient to God. As I do so, many people say to me, 'I see a light in you more than ever before. What is it?'...During one performance at Disney world...[a member of the audience asked,] 'Could you please tell us...how you got that light?' The question was direct, so I gave a direct answer: 'I have become a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.'<ref>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/testimonies.html#knight Testimonies | Blacklds.org]</ref>}}

==See also==
*[[Blacks and the Latter Day Saint movement]]
*[[Joseph Freeman (Mormon)]]
*[[Genesis Group]]

==References==
===Primary sources===
*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Mary Lucille Bankhead
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Gilmore H. Chapel
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1986
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite journal
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Cleolivia Lyons
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1988
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Cherry
| first = Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| coauthors =
| title = It's You and Me, Lord!
| publisher = Trilogy Arts Publications
|year=1970
| location = Provo, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Martin
| first = Wynetta Willis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Mormon Tells Her Story
| publisher = Hawks Publications
|year=1972
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}
*{{cite book
| last = Martins
| first = Helvecio
| authorlink = Helvicio Martins
| coauthors = [[Mark Grover]]
| title = The Autobiography of Elder Helvecio Martins
| publisher = Aspen Books
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite journal
| last = Phelps
| first = Willian W.
| authorlink = W. W. Phelps (Mormon)
| coauthors =
| title = Free People of Color
| journal = [[Evening and Morning Star]]
| volume = 2
| issue = 14
| pages = 109
| publisher = W. W. Phelps & Co.
|month=July | year=1833
| url = http://www.centerplace.org/history/ems/v2n14.htm
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = 2006-07-15 }}
*{{Cite web
| last=Young
| first=Brigham
| authorlink=Brigham Young
| title=Speech by Gov. Young in Joint Session of the Legeslature [sic]
| date=February 5, 1852
| location=Brigham Young Addresses, Ms d 1234, Box 48, folder 3, LDS Church Historical Department, Salt Lake City, Utah
| url=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery%2C_Blacks%2C_and_the_priesthood&oldid=253414
}}.

===Secondary sources===
*{{Cite journal
| last=Allen
| first=James B.
| author-link=James B. Allen (historian)
| title=Would-Be Saints: West Africa before the 1978 Priesthood Revelation
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=17
| year=1991
| pages=207–48
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,15582
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bringhurst
| first = Newel G.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People Within Mormonism (Contributions to the Study of Religion, No. 4)
| publisher = Greenwood Press
|year=1981
| location = Westport, Connecticut
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 0-313-22752-7 }}
*{{Cite journal
| last=Brignhurst
| first=Newel G.
| title=Charles B. Thompson and The Issues of Slavery and Race
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=8
| year=1981
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,12075
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bush
| first = Lester E. Jr
| authorlink =
| coauthors = [[Armand L. Mauss]], eds.
| title = Neither White Nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1984
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/neither.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 0-941214-22-2 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Embry
| first = Jessie
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Saints in a White Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/black.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 1-56085-044-2 }}
*{{cite journal
| author = Hawkins, Chester L.
| title = Report on Elijah Abel and his Priesthood
| version =
| publisher = Unpublished Manuscript, Special Collections, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}
* O'Donovan, Connell, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html "The Mormon Priesthood Ban and Elder Q. Walker Lewis"], ''[[John Whitmer Historical Association Journal]]'' (Independence, Missouri, 2006), pp. 47–99.
*''Black Mormons and the Priesthood Ban'' by Darrick T. Evenson (SKU 4935190)
*''Setting the Record Straight: Blacks and the Mormon Priesthood'' by [[Marcus Helvécio T. A. Martins]] (SKU 4995993)
*{{cite book
| title=Black and Mormon
| last=Smith
| first=Darron
| publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]
| year=2004
| isbn=025202947X
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0802412343 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Curse of Cain|
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner}}
*{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|authorlink=Richard and Joan Ostling|year=1999|
publisher=[[Harper Collins]]
}}
*{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abanes|authorlink=Richard Abanes|
isbn=1568582196|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows}}
* Stewart, John J. ''Mormonism and the Negro'' Salt Lake City, Utah:1960 Bookmark [http://www.celestial-orb.org/library/mormon_negro.html Complete text of the 1960 book ''Mormonism and the Negro'' by John J. Stewart, a defense of the former LDS policy of denying the Mormon Priesthood to people of African ancestry:]

===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
*[http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/ETD/image/etd1909.pdf A Peculiar Place for the Peculiar Institution: Slavery and Sovereignty in Early Territorial Utah], Ricks, Nathaniel R., Master Thesis, ''Brigham Young University'', 2007.
*[http://www.blacklds.org/ black lds.org] an indpendent (not owned or operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) site maintained by some black and some white Latter-day Saints.
*[[Lester E. Bush, Jr.]] and [[Armand L. Mauss]], eds., [http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=438 ''Neither White nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church,''] [[Signature Books]], 1984

{{Latter-day Saints|hide|show}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Black People And The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-Day Saints}}
[[Category:The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Africa]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
[[Category:Mormonism and race]]
[[Category:Brigham Young]]
[[Category:Criticism of Mormonism]]

{{Link GA|fr}}
[[fr:Situation des Noirs dans le mormonisme]]

Edward McMillan-Scott

2009-07-24T16:41:53Z

Jfruh: sigh ... more POV-pushing

{{nofootnotes|date=July 2009}}
{{refimproveBLP|date=July 2009}}
{{Infobox MEP
| image =  |
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Edward McMillan-Scott
| honorific-suffix =[[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]
| party = Independent
| constituency_MP = [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber]]
| term_start = [[10 June]] [[1999]]
| term_end =
| parliament = European
| majority =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1949|8|15|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[United Kingdom|British]]
| spouse =
| relations =
| children =
| residence =
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| profession =
| religion =
| signature =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Edward H. C. McMillan-Scott''' (born [[August 15]], [[1949]], [[Cambridge]]) is a [[Member of the European Parliament]] for the [[United Kingdom]] and one of the [[Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament]]. He was elected for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] in the [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber constituency]].

As a supporter of greater European Union federal integaration, McMillan-Scott was critical of the British Conservatives' plan of leaving [[European People's Party-European Democrats]] grouping in the European Parliament to form a new anti-federalist parliamentary group after the [[2009 EP elections]], the [[European Conservatives and Reformists]] (ECR). In July 2009 he successfully stood for re-election as Vice-President of the European Parliament against the official candidate of his grouping and consequently he was expelled from the British Conservative delegation and from the ECR group. Consequently he is now seated as a non-attached ([[Non-Inscrit]]) MEP in the European Parliament.

==European Parliament==
McMillan-Scott was the MEP for [[York]] from 1984 to 1994, MEP for [[North Yorkshire]] from 1994 to 1999, and MEP for [[Yorkshire and the Humber]] from 1999 onwards. Before the 2009 elections, he signed the pledge to support a new anti-federalist group in the new parliament. However, after the election, in July 2009, he stood against his own group as an independent candidate for Vice-President of the parliament. As a result, the Conservative Party withdrew the whip from him.

===Roles and Responsibilities===
McMillan-Scott was leader of the Conservative MEPs between 1997 and 2001. On [[23 July]] [[2004]] he was elected fourth of the 14 [[President of the European Parliament|Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament]]. He was re-elected a Vice-President in 2007. McMillan-Scott's responsibilities as Vice-President include relations with national EU parliaments and the [[Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly]], which brings together 240 MPs from [[European Union|the EU]], [[North Africa]] and the Middle East.

A long term opponent of Israeli actions in Palestine he was elected chairman of the European Parliament's largest-ever [[Election monitoring|election observer]] missions, 30 MEPs, to Palestine in January 2005 and January 2006 for the presidential and parliamentary elections respectively.

He is an honorary life member of the [[Tory Reform Group]].<ref>[http://www.trg.org.uk/aaa/about_people.php Tory Reform Group], accessed 17 July 2009</ref>

===Campaigning===
McMillan-Scott was the founder of the [[European Democracy Initiative]] which was an initiative originally aimed at the transformation of the ex-Soviet bloc and which he is now directing towards the reforming [[Arab world]] and authoritarian countries such as China, Cuba and Russia. He no longer runs the project.

He campaigns for improved children's rights across the EU and has dealt with a number of cross-frontier [[child abduction]] cases. He is currently{{when}} campaigning for an EU-wide missing child alert with Kate and Gerry McCann, parents of missing [[Madeleine McCann|Madeleine]]. A majority of MEPs supported a resolution to this effect, sponsored in the summer of 2008 by McMillan-Scott. In the USA, the Department of Justice's [[AMBER Alert|Amber Alert]] has recovered 400 abducted children since 2003, 80% within the crucial first 72 hours. France has an identical system but other countries, including the UK, rely on a patchwork of volunteers and charities.

His 'Golden Fleece' campaign against fraud and malpractice in the Costa villa and [[timeshare]] market won wide support. He is currently{{when}} campaigning for more secure [[Property|property rights]] in the EU's neighbourhood, as buyers move into the Balkans, Turkey and North Africa, where the legal framework is insecure.

===Opposition to party re-grouping and expulsion===
As a long time enthusiast for European integration and a federal EU McMillan-Scott was opposed to [[David Cameron]]'s decision to leave the centre-right [[EPP-ED]] group. He originally signed David Cameron's pledge to join a new anti federalist group but, once elected, he attacked the group and then claimed the new [[European Conservatives and Reformists]] group was "a pure political adventure" because of the membership of right-wing populist and extremist parties.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/5626057/Tory-MEP-voices-real-concern-over-new-European-grouping.html|Tory MEP voices 'real concern' over new European grouping] Daily Telegraph, [[2009-06-25]]</ref>

On 14 July 2009, McMillan-Scott stood as an independent against his own group's officially nominated candidate for Vice-President of the European Parliament, [[Michał Kamiński]], and McMillan-Scott won. McMillan-Scott was then immediately expelled from the ECR group. Commenting after his re-election as Vice-President, McMillan-Scott, the first ever to to break the group system of nominations, stated: ''"Rather than withdrawing the whip, David Cameron should be pleased that a Tory is still at the top in Europe. ... The public want to see transparency and real democracy among their parliamentarians, in Brussels or Westminster ... Standing as an independent candidate - and for the values of democracy and human rights which I have worked through the EU to promote worldwide - I have made a start."''<ref>[http://www.euractiv.com/en/eu-elections/tory-lawmaker-rocks-parliament-eurosceptics/article-184105 Tory lawmaker rocks Parliament's Eurosceptics], EurActiv.com, 15 July 2009</ref>

After Polish ECR MEP [[Michał Kamiński]]'s failure to be elected as a vice-president, the Poles within the ECR Group were angered that the deal brokered by British Conservative leader Timothy Kirkhope had been compromised and threatened to leave the group - which would bring it close to collapse (without the Poles, it would consist of MEPs from seven countries which is the minumum requirement for a group). Kirkhope stood aside to allow Kamiński to become Group President.

It was speculated that McMillan-Scott might join the EPP group as an independent MEP.<ref>[http://euobserver.com/9/28457/?rk=1 New European Conservatives group in disarray over renegade MEP], [[EUobserver]], 14 July 2009</ref>

During the dispute, McMillan-Scott had accused Michał Kamiński of being linked with [[antisemitism]], [[racism]] and [[homophobia]]. Kamiński replied: ''"I am not a Nazi and if he repeats these allegations in public I will sue him. ... Everyone who knows me knows that this is rubbish. I have never done anything improper."<ref>http://www.theparliament.com/no_cache/latestnews/news-article/newsarticle/kaminski-threatens-legal-action-over-nazi-allegations Kaminski threatens legal action over Nazi allegations, TheParliament.com, 16 July 2009</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://emcmillanscott.com Official website]
*[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/public/geoSearch/view.do?country=GB&partNumber=1&zone=Yorkshire+and+the+Humber&language=EN&id=1405 Profile at European Parliament website]

{{Yorkshire and the Humber MEPs}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macmillan-Scott, Edward}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Conservative MEPs]]
[[Category:Members of the European Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:ECRG MEPs serving 2009-2014]]

[[ro:Edward McMillan-Scott]]
[[sv:Edward McMillan-Scott]]

Edward McMillan-Scott

2009-07-23T13:51:44Z

Jfruh: rv to last NPOV version

{{nofootnotes|date=July 2009}}
{{refimproveBLP|date=July 2009}}
{{Infobox MEP
| image =  |
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Edward McMillan-Scott
| honorific-suffix =[[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]
| party = Independent
| constituency_MP = [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber]]
| term_start = [[10 June]] [[1999]]
| term_end =
| parliament = European
| majority =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1949|8|15|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[United Kingdom|British]]
| spouse =
| relations =
| children =
| residence =
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| profession =
| religion =
| signature =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Edward H. C. McMillan-Scott''' (born [[August 15]], [[1949]], [[Cambridge]]) is a [[Member of the European Parliament]] for the [[United Kingdom]] and one of the [[Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament]]. He was elected for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] in the [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber constituency]].

As a supporter of greater European Union federal integaration, McMillan-Scott was critical of the British Conservatives' plan of leaving [[European People's Party-European Democrats]] grouping in the European Parliament to form a new anti-federalist parliamentary group after the [[2009 EP elections]], the [[European Conservatives and Reformists]] (ECR). In July 2009 he successfully stood for re-election as Vice-President of the European Parliament against the official candidate of his grouping and consequently he was expelled from the British Conservative delegation and from the ECR group. Consequently he is now seated as a non-attached ([[Non-Inscrit]]) MEP in the European Parliament.

==European Parliament==
McMillan-Scott was the MEP for [[York]] from 1984 to 1994, MEP for [[North Yorkshire]] from 1994 to 1999, and MEP for [[Yorkshire and the Humber]] from 1999 onwards. Before the 2009 elections, he signed the pledge to support a new anti-federalist group in the new parliament. However, after the election, in July 2009, he stood against his own group as an independent candidate for Vice-President of the parliament. As a result, the Conservative Party withdrew the whip from him.

===Roles and Responsibilities===
McMillan-Scott was leader of the Conservative MEPs between 1997 and 2001. On [[23 July]] [[2004]] he was elected fourth of the 14 [[President of the European Parliament|Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament]]. He was re-elected a Vice-President in 2007. McMillan-Scott's responsibilities as Vice-President include relations with national EU parliaments and the [[Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly]], which brings together 240 MPs from [[European Union|the EU]], [[North Africa]] and the Middle East.

A long term opponent of Israeli actions in Palestine he was elected chairman of the European Parliament's largest-ever [[Election monitoring|election observer]] missions, 30 MEPs, to Palestine in January 2005 and January 2006 for the presidential and parliamentary elections respectively.

He is an honorary life member of the [[Tory Reform Group]].<ref>[http://www.trg.org.uk/aaa/about_people.php Tory Reform Group], accessed 17 July 2009</ref>

===Campaigning===
McMillan-Scott was the founder of the [[European Democracy Initiative]] which was an initiative originally aimed at the transformation of the ex-Soviet bloc and which he is now directing towards the reforming [[Arab world]] and authoritarian countries such as China, Cuba and Russia. He no longer runs the project.

He campaigns for improved children's rights across the EU and has dealt with a number of cross-frontier [[child abduction]] cases. He is currently{{when}} campaigning for an EU-wide missing child alert with Kate and Gerry McCann, parents of missing [[Madeleine McCann|Madeleine]]. A majority of MEPs supported a resolution to this effect, sponsored in the summer of 2008 by McMillan-Scott. In the USA, the Department of Justice's [[AMBER Alert|Amber Alert]] has recovered 400 abducted children since 2003, 80% within the crucial first 72 hours. France has an identical system but other countries, including the UK, rely on a patchwork of volunteers and charities.

His 'Golden Fleece' campaign against fraud and malpractice in the Costa villa and [[timeshare]] market won wide support. He is currently{{when}} campaigning for more secure [[Property|property rights]] in the EU's neighbourhood, as buyers move into the Balkans, Turkey and North Africa, where the legal framework is insecure.

===Opposition to party re-grouping and expulsion===
As a long time enthusiast for European integration and a federal EU McMillan-Scott was opposed to [[David Cameron]]'s decision to leave the centre-right [[EPP-ED]] group. He originally signed David Cameron's pledge to join a new anti federalist group but, once elected, he attacked the group and then claimed the new [[European Conservatives and Reformists]] group was "a pure political adventure" because of the membership of right-wing populist and extremist parties.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/5626057/Tory-MEP-voices-real-concern-over-new-European-grouping.html|Tory MEP voices 'real concern' over new European grouping] Daily Telegraph, [[2009-06-25]]</ref>

On 14 July 2009, McMillan-Scott stood as an independent against his own group's officially nominated candidate for Vice-President of the European Parliament, [[Michał Kamiński]], and McMillan-Scott won. McMillan-Scott was then immediately expelled from the ECR group. Commenting after his re-election as Vice-President, McMillan-Scott, the first ever to to break the group system of nominations, stated: ''"Rather than withdrawing the whip, David Cameron should be pleased that a Tory is still at the top in Europe. ... The public want to see transparency and real democracy among their parliamentarians, in Brussels or Westminster ... Standing as an independent candidate - and for the values of democracy and human rights which I have worked through the EU to promote worldwide - I have made a start."''<ref>[http://www.euractiv.com/en/eu-elections/tory-lawmaker-rocks-parliament-eurosceptics/article-184105 Tory lawmaker rocks Parliament's Eurosceptics], EurActiv.com, 15 July 2009</ref>

After Polish ECR MEP [[Michał Kamiński]]'s failure to be elected as a vice-president, the Poles within the ECR Group were angered that the deal brokered by British Conservative leader Timothy Kirkhope had been compromised and threatened to leave the group - which would bring it close to collapse (without the Poles, it would consist of MEPs from seven countries which is the minumum requirement for a group). Kirkhope stood aside to allow Kamiński to become Group President.

It was speculated that McMillan-Scott might join the EPP group as an independent MEP.<ref>[http://euobserver.com/9/28457/?rk=1 New European Conservatives group in disarray over renegade MEP], [[EUobserver]], 14 July 2009</ref>

During the dispute, McMillan-Scott had accused Michał Kamiński of being linked with [[antisemitism]], [[racism]] and [[homophobia]]. Kamiński replied: ''"I am not a Nazi and if he repeats these allegations in public I will sue him. ... Everyone who knows me knows that this is rubbish. I have never done anything improper."<ref>http://www.theparliament.com/no_cache/latestnews/news-article/newsarticle/kaminski-threatens-legal-action-over-nazi-allegations Kaminski threatens legal action over Nazi allegations, TheParliament.com, 16 July 2009</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://emcmillanscott.com Official website]
*[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/public/geoSearch/view.do?country=GB&partNumber=1&zone=Yorkshire+and+the+Humber&language=EN&id=1405 Profile at European Parliament website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macmillan-Scott, Edward}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Conservative MEPs]]
[[Category:Members of the European Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:ECRG MEPs serving 2009-2014]]

[[ro:Edward McMillan-Scott]]
[[sv:Edward McMillan-Scott]]

Edward McMillan-Scott

2009-07-22T13:08:15Z

Jfruh: rv anon's revert; tim's version is better

{{nofootnotes|date=July 2009}}
{{refimproveBLP|date=July 2009}}
{{Infobox MEP
| image =  |
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Edward McMillan-Scott
| honorific-suffix =[[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]
| party = Independent
| constituency_MP = [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber]]
| term_start = [[10 June]] [[1999]]
| term_end =
| parliament = European
| majority =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1949|8|15|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[United Kingdom|British]]
| spouse =
| relations =
| children =
| residence =
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| profession =
| religion =
| signature =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Edward H. C. McMillan-Scott''' (born [[August 15]], [[1949]], [[Cambridge]]) is a [[Member of the European Parliament]] for the [[United Kingdom]] and one of the [[Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament]]. He is elected for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] in the [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber constituency]]. Being a supporter of greater European Union federalist integaration, he was critical of the British Conservatives' plan of leaving [[European People's Party-European Democrats]] grouping in the European Parliament to form a new anti-federalist parliamentary group after the [[2009 EP elections]], the [[European Conservatives and Reformists]] (ECR). In July 2009 he successfully stood for re-election as Vice-President of the European Parliament against the official candidate of his grouping and consequently he was expelled from the British Conservative delegation and from the ECR group. He is now seated as a non-attached MEP in the European Parliament ([[Non-Inscrit]]).

==Life==
McMillan-Scott was born in Cambridge into a [[lower middle class]] family.

He speaks French, Italian, some German and Spanish. He is married to Henrietta, a member of the Law Society's Children's Panel, and they have two daughters.

==European Parliament==
He was the MEP for [[York]] from 1984 to 1994, MEP for [[North Yorkshire]] from 1994 to 1999, and MEP for [[Yorkshire and the Humber]] from 1999 onwards.

Before the 2009 elections, he signed the pledge to support a new anti-federalist group in the new parliament. However, after the election, in July 2009, he stood against his own group as an independent candidate for Vice-President of the parliament. As a result, the Conservative Party withdrew the whip from him.

===Roles and Responsibilities===
McMillan-Scott was leader of the Conservative MEPs between 1997 and 2001.

On [[23 July]] [[2004]] he was elected fourth of the 14 [[President of the European Parliament|Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament]]. He was re-elected a Vice-President in 2007.

McMillan-Scott's responsibilities as Vice-President include relations with national EU parliaments and the [[Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly]], which brings together 240 MPs from [[European Union|the EU]], [[North Africa]] and the Middle East.

A long term oponent of Israeli actions in Palestine he was elected chairman of the European Parliament's largest-ever [[Election monitoring|election observer]] missions, 30 MEPs, to Palestine in January 2005 and January 2006 for the presidential and parliamentary elections respectively.

He is an honorary life member of the [[Tory Reform Group]].<ref>[http://www.trg.org.uk/aaa/about_people.php Tory Reform Group], accessed 17 July 2009</ref>

===Campaigning===
He is founder of the [[European Democracy Initiative]], with a budget of about € 140 million, which was originally aimed at the transformation of the ex-Soviet bloc and which he is now directing towards the reforming [[Arab world]] and authoritarian countries such as China, Cuba and Russia. He no longer runs the project.

He campaigns for improved children's rights across the EU and has dealt with a number of cross-frontier [[child abduction]] cases. He is currently{{when}} campaigning for an EU-wide missing child alert with Kate and Gerry McCann, parents of missing [[Madeleine McCann|Madeleine]]. A majority of MEPs supported a resolution to this effect, sponsored in the summer of 2008 by McMillan-Scott. In the USA, the Department of Justice's [[AMBER Alert|Amber Alert]] has recovered 400 abducted children since 2003, 80% within the crucial first 72 hours. France has an identical system but other countries, including the UK, rely on a patchwork of volunteers and charities.

His 'Golden Fleece' campaign against fraud and malpractice in the Costa villa and [[timeshare]] market won wide support. He is currently{{when}} campaigning for more secure [[Property|property rights]] in the EU's neighbourhood, as buyers move into the Balkans, Turkey and North Africa, where the legal framework is insecure.

===Opposition to party re-grouping and expulsion===
As a long time enthusiast for European integration and a federal EU he was opposed to [[David Cameron]]'s decision to leave the centre-right [[EPP-ED]] group. However, he signed David Cameron's pledge to join a new anti federalist group. Despite this, once elected, he attacked the group and then claimed the new [[European Conservatives and Reformists]] group was "a pure political adventure" because of the right-wing populist and extremist parties.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/5626057/Tory-MEP-voices-real-concern-over-new-European-grouping.html|Tory MEP voices 'real concern' over new European grouping] Daily Telegraph, [[2009-06-25]]</ref>

On 14 July 2009, in an unprecedented case, McMillan-Scott then stood as an independent against his own group's officially nominated candidate for Vice-President of the European Parliament, [[Michał Kamiński]], and McMillan-Scott won. McMillan-Scott was then immediately expelled from the group. Commenting after his re-election as Vice-President, McMillan-Scott, the first ever to to break the group system of nominations, stated: ''"Rather than withdrawing the whip, David Cameron should be pleased that a Tory is still at the top in Europe. ... The public want to see transparency and real democracy among their parliamentarians, in Brussels or Westminster ... Standing as an independent candidate - and for the values of democracy and human rights which I have worked through the EU to promote worldwide - I have made a start."''<ref>[http://www.euractiv.com/en/eu-elections/tory-lawmaker-rocks-parliament-eurosceptics/article-184105 Tory lawmaker rocks Parliament's Eurosceptics], EurActiv.com, 15 July 2009</ref>

After Polish ECR MEP [[Michał Kamiński]]'s failure to be elected as a vice-president, the Poles within the ECR Group were angered that the deal brokered by British Conservative leader Timothy Kirkhope had been compromised and threatened to leave the group which would bring it close to collapse (without the Poles, it would consist of MEPs from seven countries which is the minumum requirement for a group). Kirkhope stood aside to allow Kamiński to become Group President.

It was speculated that McMillan-Scott might join the EPP group as an independent MEP.<ref>[http://euobserver.com/9/28457/?rk=1 New European Conservatives group in disarray over renegade MEP], [[EUobserver]], 14 July 2009</ref>

During the dispute, McMillan-Scott had accused Michał Kamiński of being linked with [[antisemitism]], [[racism]] and [[homophobia]]. Kamiński replied: ''"I am not a Nazi and if he repeats these allegations in public I will sue him. ... Everyone who knows me knows that this is rubbish. I have never done anything improper."<ref>http://www.theparliament.com/no_cache/latestnews/news-article/newsarticle/kaminski-threatens-legal-action-over-nazi-allegations Kaminski threatens legal action over Nazi allegations, TheParliament.com, 16 July 2009</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://emcmillanscott.com Official website]
*[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/public/geoSearch/view.do?country=GB&partNumber=1&zone=Yorkshire+and+the+Humber&language=EN&id=1405 Profile at European Parliament website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macmillan-Scott, Edward}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Conservative MEPs]]
[[Category:Members of the European Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:ECRG MEPs serving 2009-2014]]

[[ro:Edward McMillan-Scott]]
[[sv:Edward McMillan-Scott]]

Edward McMillan-Scott

2009-07-21T00:02:52Z

Jfruh: /* European Parliament */ the reader can decide whether or not this constitutes dishonorable behavior

{{cleanup|date=July 2009}}
{{nofootnotes|date=July 2009}}
{{refimproveBLP|date=July 2009}}
{{Infobox MEP
| image =  |
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Edward McMillan-Scott
| honorific-suffix =[[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]
| party = Independent
| constituency_MP = [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber]]
| term_start = [[10 June]] [[1999]]
| term_end =
| parliament = European
| majority =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1949|8|15|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[United Kingdom|British]]
| spouse =
| relations =
| children =
| residence =
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| profession =
| religion =
| signature =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Edward H. C. McMillan-Scott''' (born [[August 15]], [[1949]], [[Cambridge]]) is a [[Member of the European Parliament]] for the [[United Kingdom]] and one of the [[Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament]]. He is elected for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] in the [[Yorkshire and the Humber]] [[constituency]]. Being an EU federalist, he was critical to the British Conservatives' plan of leaving [[EPP-ED]] to form a new antifederalist parliamentary group after the [[2009 EP elections]], the [[European Conservatives and Reformists]] (ECR), and after his controversial re-election as Vice-President of the European Parliament in July 2009 he was expelled from the British Conservative delegation and from the ECR group. He is now seating as an independent in the European Parliament ([[Non-Inscrit]]).

==Life==
McMillan-Scott was born in Cambridge into a [[lower middle class]] family.

He speaks French, Italian, some German and Spanish. He is married to Henrietta, a member of the Law Society's Children's Panel, and they have two daughters.

==European Parliament==
He was the MEP for [[York]] from 1984 to 1994, MEP for [[North Yorkshire]] from 1994 to 1999, and MEP for [[Yorkshire and the Humber]] from 1999 onwards.

Before the 2009 elections, he signed the pledge to support a new anti-federalist group in the new parliament. However, after the election, in July 2009, he stood against his own group as an independent candidate for Vice-President of the parliament. As a result, the Conservative Party withdrew the whip from him.

===Roles and Responsibilities===
McMillan-Scott was leader of the Conservative MEPs between 1997 and 2001.

On [[23 July]] [[2004]] he was elected fourth of the 14 [[President of the European Parliament|Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament]]. He was re-elected a Vice-President in 2007.

McMillan-Scott's responsibilities as Vice-President include relations with national EU parliaments and the [[Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly]], which brings together 240 MPs from [[European Union|the EU]], [[North Africa]] and the Middle East.

He was elected chairman of the European Parliament's largest-ever [[Election monitoring|election observer]] missions, 30 MEPs, to Palestine in January 2005 and January 2006 for the presidential and parliamentary elections respectively.

He is an honorary life member of the [[Tory Reform Group]].<ref>[http://www.trg.org.uk/aaa/about_people.php TRG about people], accessed 17 July</ref>

===Campaigning===
He is founder of the [[European Democracy Initiative]], with a budget of about € 140 million, which was originally aimed at the transformation of the ex-Soviet bloc and which he is now directing towards the reforming [[Arab world]] and authoritarian countries such as China, Cuba and Russia. He no longer runs the project.

He campaigns for improved children's rights across the EU and has dealt with a number of cross-frontier [[child abduction]] cases. He is currently{{when}} campaigning for an EU-wide missing child alert with Kate and Gerry McCann, parents of missing [[Madeleine McCann|Madeleine]]. A majority of MEPs supported a resolution to this effect, sponsored in the summer of 2008 by McMillan-Scott. In the USA, the Department of Justice's [[AMBER Alert|Amber Alert]] has recovered 400 abducted children since 2003, 80% within the crucial first 72 hours. France has an identical system but other countries, including the UK, rely on a patchwork of volunteers and charities.

His 'Golden Fleece' campaign against fraud and malpractice in the Costa villa and [[timeshare]] market won wide support. He is currently{{when}} campaigning for more secure [[Property|property rights]] in the EU's neighbourhood, as buyers move into the Balkans, Turkey and North Africa, where the legal framework is insecure.

===Opposition to party re-grouping and expulsion===
As a long time enthusiast for European integration and a federal EU he was opposed to [[David Cameron]]'s decision to leave the centre-right [[EPP-ED]] group. However, he signed David Cameron's pledge to join a new anti federalist group. Despite this, once elected, he then claimed the new [[European Conservatives and Reformists]] group was "a pure political adventure" because of the right-wing populist and extremist parties.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/5626057/Tory-MEP-voices-real-concern-over-new-European-grouping.html|Tory MEP voices 'real concern' over new European grouping] Daily Telegraph, [[2009-06-25]]</ref>

On 14 July 2009, in an unprecedented case, McMillan-Scott then stood as an independent against his own group's officially nominated candidate for Vice-President of the European Parliament , [[Michał Kamiński]], and McMillan-Scott won. McMillan-Scott was then immediately expelled from the group. Commenting after his re-election as Vice-President, McMillan-Scott, the first ever to to break the group system of nominations, stated: ''"Rather than withdrawing the whip, David Cameron should be pleased that a Tory is still at the top in Europe. ... The public want to see transparency and real democracy among their parliamentarians, in Brussels or Westminster ... Standing as an independent candidate - and for the values of democracy and human rights which I have worked through the EU to promote worldwide - I have made a start."''<ref>[http://www.euractiv.com/en/eu-elections/tory-lawmaker-rocks-parliament-eurosceptics/article-184105 Tory lawmaker rocks Parliament's Eurosceptics], EurActiv.com, 15 July 2009</ref>

After Polish ECR MEP [[Michał Kamiński]]'s failure to be elected as a vice-president, the Poles within the ECR Group were angered that the deal brokered by British Conservative Leader Timothy Kirkhope MEP had been compromised and threatened to leave the group which would bring it close to collapse (without the Poles, it would consist of MEPs from seven countries which is the minumum requirement for a group). Kirkhope stood aside to allow Kamiński to become Group President.

It was speculated that McMillan-Scott might join the EPP group as an independent MEP.<ref>[http://euobserver.com/9/28457/?rk=1 New European Conservatives group in disarray over renegade MEP], [[EUobserver]], 14 July 2009</ref>

During the dispute, McMillan-Scott had accused Michał Kamiński of being linked with [[antisemitism]], [[racism]] and [[homophobia]]. Kamiński replied: ''"I am not a Nazi and if he repeats these allegations in public I will sue him. ... Everyone who knows me knows that this is rubbish. I have never done anything improper."<ref>http://www.theparliament.com/no_cache/latestnews/news-article/newsarticle/kaminski-threatens-legal-action-over-nazi-allegations</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://emcmillanscott.com Official website]
*[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/public/geoSearch/view.do?country=GB&partNumber=1&zone=Yorkshire+and+the+Humber&language=EN&id=1405 Profile at European Parliament website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macmillan-Scott, Edward}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Conservative MEPs]]
[[Category:Members of the European Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:ECRG MEPs serving 2009-2014]]

[[ro:Edward McMillan-Scott]]
[[sv:Edward McMillan-Scott]]

Edward McMillan-Scott

2009-07-19T18:00:03Z

Jfruh: /* Opposition to party re-grouping and expulsion */ he was expelled -- it's no mere rumor

{{cleanup|date=July 2009}}
{{nofootnotes|date=July 2009}}
{{refimproveBLP|date=July 2009}}
{{Infobox MEP
| image =  |
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Edward McMillan-Scott
| honorific-suffix =[[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]
| party = Independent
| constituency_MP = [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber]]
| term_start = [[10 June]] [[1999]]
| term_end =
| parliament = European
| majority =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1949|8|15|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[United Kingdom|British]]
| spouse =
| relations =
| children =
| residence =
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| profession =
| religion =
| signature =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Edward H. C. McMillan-Scott''' (born [[August 15]], [[1949]], [[Cambridge]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] politician, [[Member of the European Parliament]] for the [[Yorkshire and the Humber]] [[regions of England|region]] who was elected for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]].

==European Parliament==

He was the MEP for [[York]] from 1984 to 1994, MEP for [[North Yorkshire]] from 1994 to 1999, and MEP for Yorkshire and the Humber from 1999 onwards.

The Conservative Party withdrew the whip from him in 2009 over opposition to his party group's candidate for Vice-President of the European Parliament.

===Roles and Responsibilities===
McMillan-Scott was leader of the Conservative MEPs between 1997 and 2001.

On [[23 July]] [[2004]] he was elected fourth of the 14 [[President of the European Parliament|Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament]]. He was re-elected a Vice-President in 2007.

McMillan-Scott's responsibilities as Vice-President include relations with national EU parliaments and the [[Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly]], which brings together 240 MPs from [[European Union|the EU]], [[North Africa]] and the Middle East.

He was elected chairman of the European Parliament's largest-ever [[Election monitoring|election observer]] missions, 30 MEPs, to Palestine in January 2005 and January 2006 for the presidential and parliamentary elections respectively.

He wrote a ground-breaking report for the European Parliament's [[Foreign Affairs Committee|foreign affairs committee]] on a new EU/China strategy in 1997. After a visit to Beijing in May 2006, all the Chinese with whom he had contact - reformists, ex-prisoners of conscience, dissidents - were arrested, imprisoned and in some cases tortured. His campaign aimed at a political boycott of the August 2008 Beijing [[Olympic Games]] was his response.<ref>http://www.BoycottBeijing.eu</ref> In the event, the Presidents of the European Parliament and [[European Commission]] boycotted, as did the EU's external affairs Commissioner, apart from the Canadian and [[New Zealand]] premiers, [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles]] and famously, Steven Spielberg.

He is an honorary life member of the [[Tory Reform Group]].<ref>[http://www.trg.org.uk/aaa/about_people.php TRG about people], accessed 17 July</ref>

===Campaigning===
He is founder of the [[European Democracy Initiative]], with a budget of some €140 million which was originally aimed at the transformation of the ex-Soviet bloc and which he is now directing towards the reforming [[Arab world]] and 'difficult' countries such as China, Cuba and Russia.

He campaigns for improved children's rights across the EU and has successfully dealt with a number of cross-frontier [[child abduction]] cases. He is currently campaigning for an EU-wide missing child alert with Kate and Gerry McCann, parents of missing Madeleine. A majority of MEPs supported a resolution to this effect, sponsored in the summer of 2008 by McMillan-Scott.. In the USA, the Department of Justice's [[AMBER Alert|Amber Alert]] has recovered 400 abducted children since 2003, 80% within the crucial first 72 hours. France has an identical system but other countries, including the UK, rely on a patchwork of volunteers and charities.

His 'Golden Fleece' campaign against fraud and malpractice in the Costa villa and timeshare market won wide support and both national and EU consumer laws. He is currently campaigning for more secure [[Property|property rights]] in the EU's neighbourhood, as buyers move into the Balkans, Turkey and North Africa, where the legal framework is insecure.

===Opposition to party re-grouping and expulsion===

As a long time enthusiast for European integration he was opposed to [[David Cameron]]'s decision to leave the centre-right [[EPP-ED]] group. However, in order to get reelected he signed Dacid Cameron's pledge to join a new anti federalist group. Despite this once elected he then claimed the [[European Conservatives and Reformists]], were a grouping of right-wing populist and extremist parties<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/5626057/Tory-MEP-voices-real-concern-over-new-European-grouping.html|Tory MEP voices 'real concern' over new European grouping ] ''Daily Telegraph'' [[2009-06-25]]</ref>. He then stood against the ECR's candidate for Vice President and won giving him a large travel budget. Commenting after his re-election as Vice-President of the European Parliament (14 July 2009), McMillan-Scott, the first ever to to break the group system of nominations, said: "The public want to see transparency and real democracy among their parliamentarians, in Brussels or Westminster. 'Standing as an independent candidate - and for the values of democracy and human rights which I have worked through the EU to promote worldwide - I have made a start. Rather than withdrawing the whip, David Cameron should be pleased that a [ex] Tory is still at the top in Europe." The decision to stand for the election resulted in the Polish ECR MEP [[Michał Kamiński]]'s failure to be elected as a vice-president; Because of this failure, the Poles within the ECR Group were angered that the deal brokered by British Conservative Leader Timothy Kirkhope MEP had been compromised, they threatened to leave the Group, which would have caused its collapse. Kirkhope stood aside to allow Mr Kaminski to become Group President. McMillan-Scott was then expelled from the Conservative Party and there were rumours that he might join the EPP group as an independent MEP.<ref>http://euobserver.com/9/28457/?rk=1</ref> Michal Kaminsky has threatened to sue him for libel.<ref>http://www.theparliament.com/no_cache/latestnews/news-article/newsarticle/kaminski-threatens-legal-action-over-nazi-allegations</ref>

==Personal Life==

He speaks French, Italian, some German and Spanish. He is married to Henrietta, a member of the Law Society's Children's Panel: they have two daughters.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://emcmillanscott.com Official website]
*[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/public/geoSearch/view.do?country=GB&partNumber=1&zone=Yorkshire+and+the+Humber&language=EN&id=1405 Profile at European Parliament website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macmillan-Scott, Edward}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Conservative MEPs]]
[[Category:Members of the European Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:ECRG MEPs serving 2009-2014]]

[[ro:Edward McMillan-Scott]]
[[sv:Edward McMillan-Scott]]

Edward McMillan-Scott

2009-07-19T17:58:55Z

Jfruh: /* Opposition to party re-grouping and expulsion */ remove peacock terms

{{cleanup|date=July 2009}}
{{nofootnotes|date=July 2009}}
{{refimproveBLP|date=July 2009}}
{{Infobox MEP
| image =  |
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Edward McMillan-Scott
| honorific-suffix =[[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]
| party = Independent
| constituency_MP = [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber]]
| term_start = [[10 June]] [[1999]]
| term_end =
| parliament = European
| majority =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1949|8|15|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[United Kingdom|British]]
| spouse =
| relations =
| children =
| residence =
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| profession =
| religion =
| signature =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Edward H. C. McMillan-Scott''' (born [[August 15]], [[1949]], [[Cambridge]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] politician, [[Member of the European Parliament]] for the [[Yorkshire and the Humber]] [[regions of England|region]] who was elected for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]].

==European Parliament==

He was the MEP for [[York]] from 1984 to 1994, MEP for [[North Yorkshire]] from 1994 to 1999, and MEP for Yorkshire and the Humber from 1999 onwards.

The Conservative Party withdrew the whip from him in 2009 over opposition to his party group's candidate for Vice-President of the European Parliament.

===Roles and Responsibilities===
McMillan-Scott was leader of the Conservative MEPs between 1997 and 2001.

On [[23 July]] [[2004]] he was elected fourth of the 14 [[President of the European Parliament|Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament]]. He was re-elected a Vice-President in 2007.

McMillan-Scott's responsibilities as Vice-President include relations with national EU parliaments and the [[Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly]], which brings together 240 MPs from [[European Union|the EU]], [[North Africa]] and the Middle East.

He was elected chairman of the European Parliament's largest-ever [[Election monitoring|election observer]] missions, 30 MEPs, to Palestine in January 2005 and January 2006 for the presidential and parliamentary elections respectively.

He wrote a ground-breaking report for the European Parliament's [[Foreign Affairs Committee|foreign affairs committee]] on a new EU/China strategy in 1997. After a visit to Beijing in May 2006, all the Chinese with whom he had contact - reformists, ex-prisoners of conscience, dissidents - were arrested, imprisoned and in some cases tortured. His campaign aimed at a political boycott of the August 2008 Beijing [[Olympic Games]] was his response.<ref>http://www.BoycottBeijing.eu</ref> In the event, the Presidents of the European Parliament and [[European Commission]] boycotted, as did the EU's external affairs Commissioner, apart from the Canadian and [[New Zealand]] premiers, [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles]] and famously, Steven Spielberg.

He is an honorary life member of the [[Tory Reform Group]].<ref>[http://www.trg.org.uk/aaa/about_people.php TRG about people], accessed 17 July</ref>

===Campaigning===
He is founder of the [[European Democracy Initiative]], with a budget of some €140 million which was originally aimed at the transformation of the ex-Soviet bloc and which he is now directing towards the reforming [[Arab world]] and 'difficult' countries such as China, Cuba and Russia.

He campaigns for improved children's rights across the EU and has successfully dealt with a number of cross-frontier [[child abduction]] cases. He is currently campaigning for an EU-wide missing child alert with Kate and Gerry McCann, parents of missing Madeleine. A majority of MEPs supported a resolution to this effect, sponsored in the summer of 2008 by McMillan-Scott.. In the USA, the Department of Justice's [[AMBER Alert|Amber Alert]] has recovered 400 abducted children since 2003, 80% within the crucial first 72 hours. France has an identical system but other countries, including the UK, rely on a patchwork of volunteers and charities.

His 'Golden Fleece' campaign against fraud and malpractice in the Costa villa and timeshare market won wide support and both national and EU consumer laws. He is currently campaigning for more secure [[Property|property rights]] in the EU's neighbourhood, as buyers move into the Balkans, Turkey and North Africa, where the legal framework is insecure.

===Opposition to party re-grouping and expulsion===

As a long time enthusiast for European integration he was opposed to [[David Cameron]]'s decision to leave the centre-right [[EPP-ED]] group. However, in order to get reelected he signed Dacid Cameron's pledge to join a new anti federalist group. Despite this once elected he then claimed the [[European Conservatives and Reformists]], were a grouping of right-wing populist and extremist parties<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/5626057/Tory-MEP-voices-real-concern-over-new-European-grouping.html|Tory MEP voices 'real concern' over new European grouping ] ''Daily Telegraph'' [[2009-06-25]]</ref>. He then stood against the ECR's candidate for Vice President and won giving him a large travel budget. Commenting after his re-election as Vice-President of the European Parliament (14 July 2009), McMillan-Scott, the first ever to to break the group system of nominations, said: "The public want to see transparency and real democracy among their parliamentarians, in Brussels or Westminster. 'Standing as an independent candidate - and for the values of democracy and human rights which I have worked through the EU to promote worldwide - I have made a start. Rather than withdrawing the whip, David Cameron should be pleased that a [ex] Tory is still at the top in Europe." The decision to stand for the election resulted in the Polish ECR MEP [[Michał Kamiński]]'s failure to be elected as a vice-president; Because of this failure, the Poles within the ECR Group were angered that the deal brokered by British Conservative Leader Timothy Kirkhope MEP had been compromised, they threatened to leave the Group, which would have caused its collapse. Kirkhope stood aside to allow Mr Kaminski to become Group President. McMillan-Scott was then expelled from the Conservative Party and there were rumours that he might join the EPP group as an independent MEP. This would result in him being expelled from the Conservative Party.<ref>http://euobserver.com/9/28457/?rk=1</ref> Michal Kaminsky has threatened to sue him for libel.<ref>http://www.theparliament.com/no_cache/latestnews/news-article/newsarticle/kaminski-threatens-legal-action-over-nazi-allegations</ref>

==Personal Life==

He speaks French, Italian, some German and Spanish. He is married to Henrietta, a member of the Law Society's Children's Panel: they have two daughters.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://emcmillanscott.com Official website]
*[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/public/geoSearch/view.do?country=GB&partNumber=1&zone=Yorkshire+and+the+Humber&language=EN&id=1405 Profile at European Parliament website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macmillan-Scott, Edward}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Conservative MEPs]]
[[Category:Members of the European Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:ECRG MEPs serving 2009-2014]]

[[ro:Edward McMillan-Scott]]
[[sv:Edward McMillan-Scott]]

Stadtbahn Seattle

2009-07-18T15:33:59Z

Jfruh: doesn't go to sea-tac yet

{{Infobox rail line
|name = Central Link
|logo = Sound-Transit-logo.png
|image = Link Tunell Sound transit.jpg
|image_width = 300px
|caption = The first trains on a test run in the tunnel.
|type = [[Light rail]]
|system = [[Link Light Rail]]
|status =
|start = [[Seattle-Tacoma International Airport|Sea-Tac Airport]]
|end = [[Westlake Center]]
|stations = 13
|open = July 18th, 2009<ref name='July18PressRelease'> {{cite web|url=http://www.soundtransit.org/x11071.xml |title=Sound Transit: Countdown to a new era: all aboard Link light rail starting July 18 |accessdate=2009-04-20 |first=Sound Transit |date=2009-04-20 |work=Sound Transit |publisher=www.soundtransit.org }}</ref>
|close =
|owner = [[Sound Transit]]
|operator = [[Sound Transit]]
|character = Underground, at grade, elevated
|stock =
|linelength = {{mi to km|15.7|abbr=yes}}
|tracklength =
|notrack = 2
|gauge = {{RailGauge|ussg}}
|el = [[Overhead catenary]]
|speed = {{Auto mph|55}}
|}}

'''Central Link''' is a 15.7-mile (25.3 km) [[light rail]] line running between downtown [[Seattle]] and [[Tukwila, Washington]]. Currently, the initial phase of [[Sound Transit]]'s [[Link Light Rail]] system is in service, with trains composed of two cars,<ref>{{cite web | title=Draft 2009 Service Implementation Plan | publisher=Sound Transit | url=http://www.soundtransit.org/Documents/pdf/newsroom/SIP/2009DraftSIP.pdf | format = pdf | accessdate=2009-01-27}}</ref> each car having a capacity of 200 passengers — 74 seated and 126 standing.<ref name="lrv" /> The extension to [[Seattle-Tacoma International Airport]] will be completed in December of 2009.

== Routing ==
The northern terminus is at [[Westlake_Station_(Link_station)|Westlake Station]] near the intersection of Pine Street and 5th Avenue. Central Link trains operate inside the [[Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel]] sharing the right-of-way with diesel-electric hybrid buses. The route serves four of the five stations in the [[Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel|tunnel]] (The Convention Place Station's elevation is too high to be served by trains.{{fact|date=May 2009}}) After exiting the southern end of the [[Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel|tunnel]] at [[International District Station (Link station)|International District Station]], the route then joins the SoDo Busway (formerly 5th Avenue S) as a traffic-separated surface route, where it has priority for all intersections. The route serves two stations on the busway and then rises to an elevated section through the [[SoDo, Seattle, Washington|SoDo]].

[[File:Sound_Transit_Light_Link_Rail_Beacon_Hill_West_Portal.jpg|thumb|left|West portal of the Beacon Hill tunnel]]
The route then enters a tunnel through Beacon Hill and makes one stop at the underground [[Beacon_Hill_Station_(Link_station)|Beacon Hill Station]]. Exiting the tunnel, the route becomes grade separated on an elevated bridge. It serves [[Mount Baker Station (Link station)|Mount Baker Station]]
near [[Benjamin Franklin High School (Seattle, Washington)|Franklin High School]] before it becomes an at-grade surface route on [[Martin Luther King Junior Way (Seattle)|Martin Luther King Jr. Way South]] and serves four stations in the Rainier Valley.

Continuing south on [[Martin Luther King Junior Way (Seattle)|Martin Luther King Jr. Way South]], it again becomes grade separated on an elevated bridge and runs alongside Boeing Access Road, East Marginal Way South, Interurban Boulevard, [[Washington State Route 599|SR 599]], and [[Interstate 5 (Washington)|Interstate 5]]. Just north of [[Washington State Route 518|State Route 518]], the route turns west and parallels [[Washington State Route 518|State Route 518]]. It stops at the [[Tukwila International Boulevard Station (Link station)|Tukwila/International Boulevard Station]].

After Airport Link is complete near the end of 2009, it will then cross [[Washington_State_Route_99|International Boulevard]] and parallel the North Airport Expressway. The southern terminus of Central Link will then be at the [[Seattle-Tacoma_International_Airport_(Link_station)|Sea-Tac/Airport station]] will be an elevated station lying northeast of the parking garage, immediately west of [[Washington_State_Route_99|International Boulevard]]. The garage's return-to-terminal ramps have been demolished to make way for the light rail station. After the initial segment opens there will be free shuttles between [[Tukwila International Boulevard Station (Link station)|Tukwila/International Boulevard Station]] and [[Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (Link station)|Sea-Tac/Airport station]] until [[Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (Link_station)|Sea-Tac/Airport station]] officially opens.

{{clear}}

==Stations==
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! 
!align=center| Name
!align=center| Opening Year
!align=center| City/Neighborhood
!align=center| Location
!align=center| Notes
!align=center| Pictogram
|-
|align=center colspan="7"| '''End of line; future extension ([[University Link]])'''
|-
|align=center colspan="7"| '''[[Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel]]'''
|-
| [[Image:WestlakeCenterStation.jpg|160px|center]]
| [[Westlake Station (Link station)|Westlake Station]]
| 1989
| [[Downtown Seattle]]
| under Pine St & 4th Ave
| Connections to [[Seattle Monorail|monorail]] and [[South Lake Union Streetcar|streetcar]].
| [[File:Westlake Seattle Symbol.svg]]
|-
| [[Image:UniversityStreetStation.jpg|160px|center]]
| [[University Street Station (Link station)|University Street]]
| 1989
| [[Downtown Seattle]]
| under 3rd Ave & University St
|
| [[File:University Street Station Pictogram.svg]]
|-
| [[Image:PioneerSquareMezzanine.jpg|160px|center]]
| [[Pioneer Square Station (Link station)|Pioneer Square]]
| 1989
| [[Pioneer Square, Seattle, Washington|Pioneer Square, Seattle]]
| under 3rd Ave & Cherry St
|
| [[File:Pioneer Square Station Pictogram.svg]]
|-
| [[Image:Link Tunell Sound transit.jpg|160px|center]]
| [[International District Station (Link station)|International District]]
| 1989
| [[International District, Seattle, Washington|International District / Chinatown, Seattle]]
| under [[Union Station (Seattle)|Union Station]]
|
| [[File:International District Chinatown Station Pictogram.svg]]
|-
|align=center colspan="7"| '''Surface'''
|-
| [[image:Sound Transit Stadium Station.jpg|160px|center]]
| [[Stadium Station (Link station)|Stadium]]
| 2009
| [[SoDo, Seattle, Washington|SoDo, Seattle]]
| SODO Busway & S Royal Brougham Way
| Larger platform to serve Safeco Field and Qwest Field
| [[File:Stadium Station Pictogram.svg]]
|-
| [[image:Sound Transit SODO Station.jpg|160px|center]]
| [[SODO Station (Link station)|SODO]]
| 2009
| [[SoDo, Seattle, Washington|SoDo, Seattle]]
| SODO Busway & S Lander St
|
| [[File:SODO Station Pictogram.svg]]
|-
|align=center colspan="7"| '''Tunnel'''
|-
|
| [[Beacon Hill Station (Link station)|Beacon Hill]]
| 2009
| [[Beacon Hill, Seattle, Washington|Beacon Hill, Seattle]]
| under Beacon Ave S & S Lander St
|
| [[File:Beacon Hill Station Pictogram.svg]]
|-
|align=center colspan="7"| '''Elevated'''
|-
| [[Image:Sound_Transit_Central_Link_Mount_Baker_Station.jpg|160px|center]]
| [[Mount Baker Station (Link station)|Mount Baker]]
| 2009
| [[Mount Baker, Seattle, Washington|Mount Baker, Seattle]]
| MLK Jr. Way & Rainier Ave
|
| [[File:Mount Baker Station Pictogram.svg]]
|-
|align=center colspan="7"| '''Surface ([[Martin Luther King Junior Way (Seattle)|Martin Luther King Jr. Way]])'''
|-
| [[Image:Columbia city station.jpg|center|160px]]
| [[Columbia City Station (Link station)|Columbia City]]
| 2009
| [[Columbia City, Seattle, Washington|Columbia City, Seattle]]
| MLK Jr. Way between S Edmunds St & S Alaska St
|
| [[File:Columbia City Station Pictogram.svg]]
|-
| [[Image:Othello_Station.jpg|160px|center]]
| [[Othello Station (Link station)|Othello]]
| 2009
| [[Beacon Hill, Seattle, Washington|New Holly]], [[Seattle]]
| MLK Jr. Way between S Othello St & S Myrtle St
|
| [[File:Othello Station Pictogram.svg]]
|-
| [[Image:Rainier beach stn.jpg|160px|center]]
| [[Rainier Beach Station (Link station)|Rainier Beach]]
| 2009
| [[Rainier Valley, Seattle, Washington|Rainier Valley, Seattle]]
| MLK Jr. Way & S Henderson St
|
| [[File:Rainier Beach Station Pictogram.svg]]
|-
|align=center colspan="7"| '''Elevated'''
|-
| [[image:tukwila-intl blvd stn.jpg|160px|center]]
| [[Tukwila International Boulevard Station (Link station)|Tukwila Int'l Blvd]]
| 2009
| [[Tukwila, Washington|Tukwila]]
| [[Washington State Route 518|SR 518]] & [[Washington State Route 99|Int'l Blvd]]
| 600-space park & ride lot; free shuttles to/from the airport until Airport section is complete
| [[File:Tukwila International Boulevard Station Pictogram.svg]]
|-
| [[image:seatac.jpg|160px|center]]
| [[Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (Link station)|Sea-Tac/Airport Station]]
| 2009
| [[SeaTac, Washington|SeaTac]]
| East of parking garage
| Opens late in 2009, after other stations. Pedestrian bridges to main terminal and [[kiss-and-ride]] center at [[Washington State Route 99|Int'l Blvd]]
| [[File:SeaTac Airport Station Pictogram.svg]]
|}

==Fares==
{{fixHTML|beg}}
{{Central Link map}}
{{fixhtml|mid}}
[[Image:Light Rail Train Testing.jpg|thumb|right|Light rail train testing in SoDo.]]
{{fixHTML|end}}
The fares for Link are distance-based, with a flat rate starting at $1.75 plus 5 cents per mile, rounded to the nearest quarter. Riding in the [[Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel]] will not be free, however the buses operating in the tunnel will remain free (inside the tunnel).<ref>{{cite web | title=Riding Link Light Rail: What it costs to ride | publisher=Sound Transit | url=http://www.soundtransit.org/x8343.xml | accessdate=2008-03-27}}</ref> The maximum cost of a one-way ticket is $2.50 and allows a trip from Downtown Seattle to [[Seattle-Tacoma International Airport|Sea-Tac Airport]]--compared to the fare (as of February 2009) of $1.75 (off-peak) to $2.50 (peak) for the same route on [[King County Metro|Metro's]] Route 194. <ref>{{cite web | title=Sound Transit proposes fares for Link light rail, seeks public input | publisher=Sound Transit | url=http://www.soundtransit.org/x10164.xml | accessdate=2008-01-14}}</ref> Maintaining the ride-free area downtown for light rail would have resulted in fares 25 cents higher.

Adult fares for Link are as follows:<ref name='linkfares'> {{cite web|url=http://www.soundtransit.org/x8343.xml |title=Link Light Rail (Central Link) Fares - fare service begins July 20 |accessdate=2009-05-19 |date=2009-03-26 |publisher=[[Sound Transit]] }}</ref><ref name='linkfares_pr'> {{cite web|url=http://www.soundtransit.org/x10920.xml |title=Board adopts fares for Link light rail; adult trips will range from $1.75 to $2.50 |accessdate=2009-05-19 |date=2009-03-26 |publisher=[[Sound Transit]] }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
| 
! Westlake
! University Street
! Pioneer Square
! Int'l Dist
! Stadium
! SODO
! Beacon Hill
! Mt. Baker
! Columbia City
! Othello
! Rainier Beach
! Tukwila
! SeaTac/ Airport
|-
! Westlake
| --
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.50
| $2.50
|-
! University St
| $1.75
| --
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.50
| $2.50
|-
! Pioneer Sq
| $1.75
| $1.75
| --
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.50
| $2.50
|-
! Int'l Dist
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| --
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.50
| $2.50
|-
! Stadium
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| --
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.25
| $2.25
|-
! SODO
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| --
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.25
| $2.25
|-
! Beacon Hill
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| --
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.25
| $2.25
|-
! Mt. Baker
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| --
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $2.00
| $2.25
| $2.25
|-
! Columbia City
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $1.75
| --
| $1.75
| $1.75
| $2.00
| $2.00
|-
! Othello
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $1.75
| $1.75
| --
| $1.75
| $2.00
| $2.00
|-
! Rainier Beach
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $1.75
| $1.75
| --
| $2.00
| $2.00
|-
! Tukwila
| $2.50
| $2.50
| $2.50
| $2.50
| $2.25
| $2.25
| $2.25
| $2.25
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| --
| $1.75
|-
! SeaTac/ Airport
| $2.50
| $2.50
| $2.50
| $2.50
| $2.25
| $2.25
| $2.25
| $2.25
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $2.00
| $1.75
| --
|}

Youth and [[Senior_citizen|Senior]] (65+ yr)/Disabled fares are fifty cents and one dollar less than the adult fares, respectively.

=== Transfers ===
Users of the [[ORCA Card]] will have their transfer fares calculated automatically. Users of cash and paper tickets can obtrain transfer credit as follows<ref name='linkfares' />:

'''Central Link to bus'''

A Central Link ticket purchased with cash can be used at face value on [[Sound Transit Express|ST Express]], as a one-zone fare on [[King County Metro]] and a local fare on [[Community Transit]] and [[Pierce Transit]].

'''Bus to Central Link'''

Users that pay with cash or tickets on a [[Community Transit]], [[King County Metro]], [[Pierce Transit]] or [[Sound Transit Express|ST Express]] transfers can be used the full value on Link<ref name='sttransfers'> {{cite web|url=http://www.soundtransit.org/Riding-Sound-Transit/Fares-and-Passes/Transfers.xml |title=Transfers |accessdate=2009-07-16 |publisher=[[Sound Transit]] }}</ref>. After December 31, 2009, paper transfers obtained on buses not be accepted.<ref name='sttransfers' />

==Headways==
Central Link operates on the following schedule<ref name='schedule'> {{cite web|url=http://www.soundtransit.org/x11204.xml |title=Link Light Rail (Central Link) Schedule - starting July 20, 2009 |accessdate=2009-05-24 |publisher=[[Sound Transit]] }}</ref>:
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! 
! Time
! [[Headway]]
|-
|rowspan=6|Monday through Friday
|5:00 am - 6:00 am
|15
|-
|6:00 am - 8:30 am
|7.5
|-
|8:30 am - 3:00 pm
|10
|-
|3:00 pm - 6:30 pm
|7.5
|-
|6:30 pm - 10:00 pm
|10
|-
|10:00 pm - 1:00 am
|15
|-
|rowspan=3|Saturday
|5:00 am - 8:00 am
|15
|-
|8:00 am - 10:00 pm
|10
|-
|10:00 pm - 1:00 am
|15
|-
|rowspan=3|Sunday
|6:00 am - 8:00 am
|15
|-
|8:00 am - 10:00 pm
|10
|-
|10:00 pm - 12:00 midnight
|15
|}

==Travel Times==
The vehicles operate at a maximum and cruising speed of {{Auto mph|55}}, with an estimated end-to-end travel time of 36 minutes over the 15.7 mile route between Westlake/Seattle and SeaTac/Airport .<ref name="metro_llr_freq">{{cite web|title=Link light rail|publisher=[[King County Metro]]|accessdate=2009=06-09|url=http://metro.kingcounty.gov/up/sc/plans/2009/012009-llr.html"}}</ref> Travel times will be as follows<ref name="metro_llr_freq" />; all times measured in minutes.
{| class="wikitable" border="1" style=" text-align: center;"
|-
| 
!style="width: 67px;"| Westlake
!style="width: 67px;"| University Street
!style="width: 67px;"| Pioneer Square
!style="width: 67px;"| Int'l Dist
!style="width: 67px;"| Stadium
!style="width: 67px;"| SODO
!style="width: 67px;"| Beacon Hill
!style="width: 67px;"| Mt. Baker
!style="width: 67px;"| Columbia City
!style="width: 67px;"| Othello
!style="width: 67px;"| Rainier Beach
!style="width: 67px;"| Tukwila
!style="width: 67px;"| SeaTac/ Airport
|-
! Westlake
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 2
| 4
| 6
| 8
| 10
| 12
| 14
| 17
| 22
| 25
| 34
| 36
|-
! University St
| 2
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 2
| 4
| 6
| 7
| 10
| 12
| 15
| 19
| 23
| 32
| 34
|-
! Pioneer Sq
| 4
| 2
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 2
| 4
| 6
| 8
| 10
| 13
| 18
| 21
| 30
| 32
|-
! Int'l Dist
| 6
| 4
| 2
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 2
| 4
| 6
| 8
| 11
| 16
| 19
| 28
| 30
|-
! Stadium
| 8
| 6
| 4
| 2
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 2
| 4
| 6
| 9
| 14
| 17
| 26
| 28
|-
! SODO
| 10
| 7
| 6
| 4
| 2
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 3
| 5
| 8
| 12
| 16
| 24
| 27
|-
! Beacon Hill
| 12
| 10
| 8
| 6
| 4
| 3
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 2
| 5
| 9
| 13
| 21
| 24
|-
! Mt. Baker
| 14
| 12
| 10
| 8
| 6
| 5
| 2
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 3
| 8
| 11
| 20
| 22
|-
! Columbia City
| 17
| 15
| 13
| 11
| 9
| 8
| 5
| 3
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 5
| 8
| 17
| 19
|-
! Othello
| 22
| 19
| 18
| 16
| 14
| 12
| 9
| 8
| 5
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 4
| 12
| 15
|-
! Rainier Beach
| 25
| 23
| 21
| 19
| 17
| 16
| 13
| 11
| 8
| 4
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 9
| 11
|-
! Tukwila
| 34
| 32
| 30
| 28
| 26
| 24
| 21
| 20
| 17
| 12
| 9
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
| 2
|-
! SeaTac/ Airport
| 36
| 34
| 32
| 30
| 28
| 27
| 24
| 22
| 19
| 15
| 11
| 2
|style="background-color: #F2F2F2;"| --
|}

The 36 minute travel time from Westlake Station to SeaTac/Aiport Station is similar to the 32 minute scheduled travel time of [[King County Metro | Metro]] bus route 194 from Convention Place Station to the airport.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://metro.kingcounty.gov/tops/bus/schedules/s194_0_.html | title = Metro Route 194 | publisher = [[King County Metro]] | accessdate = 2009-01-14}}</ref> Wait times will be shorter and access will be better, as light rail will run more frequently and during more hours of the day than Route 194, and will serve more stops between downtown and the airport. Since light rail operates on its own right of way, it is not subject to delays due to traffic congestion.<ref name="lrv">{{cite web | title = Link Light Rail Train Specifications | publisher = [[Sound Transit]] | url = http://www.soundtransit.org/x4306.xml | accessdate = 2009-02-12}}</ref>. The Link trip will cost 75 cents more than the bus during [[King County Metro|Metro]]'s off peak periods (all hours other than 6-9 a.m. and 3-7 p.m. weekdays).

[[King County Metro]] will discontinue route 194 in February, 2010.<ref>{{cite web | title = Metro Schedule and Route Revisions September 2009 & February 2010 | publisher = [[King County Metro]] | url =http://metro.kingcounty.gov/up/sc/plans/2009/pre-0909-0210-rtchanges.html | accessdate = 2009-06-09}}</ref> Riders who previously boarded route 194 at the Kent/Des Moines or Star Lake (272nd) park-and-ride whose destinations were north of the [[Seattle-Tacoma International Airport|SeaTac Airport]] will need to board [[Sound Transit|ST]] route 574 and then transfer to light rail at the [[Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (Link station)|Sea-Tac/Airport station]].

==Equipment==

[[Kinkisharyo-Mitsui]] was chosen to design and manufacture low-floor light rail vehicles and provide additional equipment and support. Thirty-five light rail cars were delivered between November 2006 and September 2008. Each vehicle is 95 feet (30 m) long, accommodate 200 people each (74 seated), and double-ended to allow travel in either direction. Two-car trains will be used initially, but as ridership increases, trains can be up to four-cars long. Until [[University Link]] construction is completed, only three-car trains can be used<ref name="CentralLinkOpsPlan">[http://www.bettertransport.info/pitf/SoundTransitCentralLinkOpsPlan.7.29.08.pdf Central Link Operations Plan - Westlake to SeaTac/Airport]</ref> due to the length of the stub tracks at the north-end interlock. The maximum speed of the light rail vehicle is {{Auto mph|65}}.

The current plan is for 180 total units for the system by 2030.<ref>[http://future.soundtransit.org/documents/SYS_LRT_Link_Maintenance_Bases_Vehicles_Operations_2008.pdf Link LRT: Maintenance Bases, Vehicles and Operations for ST2 Expansion]</ref>

==See also==
*[[History of Link Light Rail]]
*[[Tacoma Link]]
*[[University Link]]
*[[List of rapid transit systems]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|Sound Transit Light Link Rail}}
*[http://www.soundtransit.org/images/projects/lightrail/MAP_Central-Link.jpg Central Link System Map] at soundtransit.org.
* [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2009298543_lightrailride04m.html Central Link ride along video] at ''The Seattle Times''.
*[http://www.soundtransit.org Official Sound Transit website]
*[http://www.sireneinternet.net/pstran/sealink Puget Sound Transportation Projects: Seattle Link]
*[http://flickr.com/groups/soundtransit/ Photos of Sound Transit] Flickr group, includes photos of Central Link.

{{Puget Sound Transit}}
{{USLightRail}}

[[Category:Link Light Rail]]
[[Category:King County, Washington]]
[[Category:Transportation in Seattle, Washington]]

Franko-Persische Allianz

2009-06-19T00:33:17Z

Jfruh: /* Background */ missing period

[[File:Franco Persian alliance.jpg|thumb|The Persian Envoy Mirza Mohammed Reza-Qazvini meeting with [[Napoleon I]] at the [[Finkenstein castle]], 27 Avril 1807, by [[François Mulard]], 1810.]]
A '''Franco-Persian alliance''' was formed for a short period between the [[French Empire]] of [[Napoleon I]] and the [[Persian Empire]] of [[Fath Ali Shah]] against [[Russia]] and [[Great Britain]] between 1807 to 1809. The alliance was part of a grand Napoleonic scheme to cross the [[Middle-East]] in order to attack [[British India]]. The alliance unravelled when France finally allied with Russia and turned its focus to European campaigns.

==Background==
[[Image:Olivier Guillaume Antoine 1756-1814.png|thumb|left|In 1796, [[Guillaume Antoine Olivier]] (''depicted'') and [[Jean-Guillaume Bruguières]] tried to establish an alliance with Persia, but in vain.]]
France had already developed relations and signed treaties with Persia in 1708 and 1715 under [[Louis XIV]], but these relations ceased in 1722 with the fall of the [[Safavid dynasty]] and the invasion of Persia by the [[Afghans]].<ref>Amini, p.xvii, p. 6-7</ref>

Attempts to resume contact were made following the [[French revolution]], as France was in conflict with [[Russia]] and wished to find an ally against that country. In 1796, two scientists, [[Jean-Guillaume Bruguières]] and [[Guillaume-Antoine Olivier]], were sent to Persia by the [[Directoire]], but were unsuccessful in obtaining an agreement.<ref>Amini, p.6</ref>

Soon however, with the advent of [[Napoleon I]], France adopted a strongly expansionist policy in the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Near East]]. Following the [[Treaty of Campo Formio]] in 1797, France acquired possessions in the Mediterranean such as the [[Ionian islands]] as well as former Venetian bases on the coast of [[Albania]] and [[Greece]], geographically close to the Middle-East.

[[File:Sebastianilegiondhonneur.jpg|thumb|The French General [[Horace Sebastiani]] negotiated a [[Franco-Ottoman alliance]] with [[Selim III]].]]
[[Napoleon Bonaparte]] launched the [[French Invasion of Egypt (1798)|French Invasion of Egypt]] in 1798 and fought against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] to establish a French presence in the Middle East, with the ultimate dream of linking with a Muslim enemy of the British in India, [[Tippoo Sahib]].<ref>''Tricolor and crescent'' William E. Watson p.13-14 [http://books.google.com/books?id=o4vrUbMK5eEC&pg=PA13]</ref> Napoleon assured the [[Directoire]] that ''"as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, attack the English in their possessions."''<ref>''Napoleon and Persia'' by Iradj Amini, p.12 [http://books.google.com/books?id=n5IOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA12]</ref> According to a 13 February 1798 report by [[Talleyrand]]: ''"Having occupied and fortified Egypt, we shall send a force of 15,000 men from [[Suez]] to India, to join the forces of Tipu-Sahib and drive away the English."''<ref>''Napoleon and Persia'' by Iradj Amini, p.12 [http://books.google.com/books?id=n5IOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA12]</ref>

Napoleon was initially defeated by the Ottoman Empire and Britain at the [[Siege of Acre (1799)|Siege of Acre]] in 1799, and at the [[Battle of Abukir (1801)|Battle of Abukir]] in 1801; by 1802, the French were completely vanquished in the Middle East.<ref>Karsh, p.11 [http://books.google.com/books?id=UBilxxaKRKkC&pg=PA11]</ref> Soon however, from 1803, Napoleon went to great lengths to try to convince the Ottoman Empire to fight against [[Russia]] in the [[Balkans]] and join his anti-Russian coalition.<ref>Karsh, p.11</ref> Napoleon sent General [[Horace Sebastiani]] as envoy extraordinary, promising to help the Ottoman Empire recover lost territories.<ref>Karsh, p.11</ref>

In February 1806, following Napoleon's remarkable victory in the December 1805 [[Battle of Austerlitz]] and the ensuing [[dismemberment]] of the [[Habsburg Empire]], Selim III finally recognized Napoleon as Emperor, formally opting for [[Franco-Ottoman alliance|an alliance with France]] ''"our sincere and natural ally"'', and war with Russia and England.<ref>Karsh, p.12</ref>

==Persian alliance==
===Napoleon's motivation===
[[File:Letter of Fath Shah to Napoleon I.jpg|thumb|Letter of [[Fath-Ali Shah]] to Napoleon I, thanking him for the letter received through M. Jaubert, and asking for military instructors, December 1806.]]
In his grand scheme to reach India (the "India Expedition"), the next step for Napoleon was now to develop an alliance with the Persian Empire. Early 1805, Napoléon sent one of his officers [[Amédée Jaubert]] on a mission to Persia. He would return to France in October 1806.<ref>''Napoleon and Persia'' Iradj Amini p.55 [http://books.google.com/books?id=n5IOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA55]</ref>

===Persian motivation===
[[File:The Persian Envoy Mirza Mohammed Reza Qazvini Finkenstein Castle 27 Avril 1807 by Francois Mulard.jpg|thumb|left|The Persian Envoy Mirza Mohammed Reza-Qazvini meeting with [[Napoleon I]] at the [[Finkenstein castle]], 27 Avril 1807, by [[François Mulard]].]]
One the other hand, the Shah of Persia needed help against the Russian menace to his northern frontiers, as Russia had annexed Eastern [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] in 1801 following the death of [[George XII of Georgia]].<ref>''The Russian empire, 1801-1917'' by Hugh Seton-Watson p.117 [http://books.google.com/books?id=40KbWNve4XkC&pg=PA117]</ref> General [[Pavel Tsitsianov|Tsitsianov]] occupied Georgia against rival Persian and Ottoman claims, and attacked [[Erevan]] in Persia in 1804, triggering a [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian War]], and soon the [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)|Russo-Turkish War]] was also declared in 1806.<ref>''The Russian empire, 1801-1917'' by Hugh Seton-Watson p.117 [http://books.google.com/books?id=40KbWNve4XkC&pg=PA117]</ref>

Britain, an ally of Russia, had been temporizing without a clear show of support. The Shah decided to respond to Napoleon's offers, sending a letter carried by ambassador Mirza Mohammed Reza-Qazvini (Mirza Riza) to the court of Napoleon, then in [[Tilsit]] in eastern [[Germany]].<ref>''A History of Persia'' by Percy Molesworth Sykes p.402 [http://books.google.com/books?id=nwVacyw7G-AC&pg=PA402]</ref> In his instructions to the ambassador, the Shah explained that:

{{quote|[Russia] was equally an enemy of the kings of Persia and of France, and her destruction accordingly became the duty of the two kings. France would attack her from that quarter, Persia from this."|Instructions of the Shah of Persia to Mirza Riza<ref>''A History of Persia'' by Percy Molesworth Sykes p.402 [http://books.google.com/books?id=nwVacyw7G-AC&pg=PA402]</ref>}}

The Shah also clearly considered helping France in the invasion of India:

{{quote|"If the French have an intention of invading [[Khorasan]], the king will appoint an army to go down by the road of [[Kabul]] and [[Kandahar]]."|Instructions of the Shah of Persia to Mirza Riza<ref>''A History of Persia'' by Percy Molesworth Sykes p.402 [http://books.google.com/books?id=nwVacyw7G-AC&pg=PA402]</ref>}}

The Shah however denied the possibility of providing a port to the French "on they way to [[Hindustan]]".<ref>Instructions of the Shah of Persia to Mirza Riza in ''A History of Persia'' by Percy Molesworth Sykes p.402 [http://books.google.com/books?id=nwVacyw7G-AC&pg=PA402]</ref>

===Alliance and military mission===
Following the visit of the Persian Envoy Mirza Mohammed Reza-Qazvini to Napoleon, the [[Treaty of Finkenstein]] formalized the alliance on 4 May 1807, in which France supported Persia's claim to [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], promissing to act so that Russia would surrender the territory. In exchange, Persia was to fight [[Great Britain]], and to allow France to cross the Persian territory to reach India.<ref>''The Islamic world in decline'' by Martin Sicker p.97 [http://books.google.com/books?id=BzMJys65u9wC&pg=PA97]</ref>

[[File:Gardane Jaubert Jouanin.jpg|thumb|left|General [[Claude Matthieu, Count Gardane|Gardane]], with colleagues Jaubert and Joanin, at the Persian court of [[Fath Ali Shah]] in 1808.]]
[[File:Askar Khan Afshar received by Napoleon I at Saint Cloud 4 September 1808 by Benjamin Zix.jpg|thumb|Askar Khan Afshar received by Napoleon I at [[Saint-Cloud]], 4 September 1808, by Benjamin Zix.]]
A military mission was also sent under General [[Claude Matthieu, Count Gardane|Antoine Gardanne]] in order to help modernize the Persian army, and in order to chart an invasion route to India.<ref>''The Islamic world in decline'' by Martin Sicker p.97 [http://books.google.com/books?id=BzMJys65u9wC&pg=PA97]</ref> Gardanne also had the missions to coordinate Ottoman and Persian efforts against Russia.<ref>''The Islamic world in decline'' by Martin Sicker p.97 [http://books.google.com/books?id=BzMJys65u9wC&pg=PA97]</ref> Gardanne's mission consisted in 70 commissionned and non-commissioned officers, and started to work at modernizing the Persian army along European lines.<ref>''A History of Persia'' by Percy Molesworth Sykes p.402 [http://books.google.com/books?id=nwVacyw7G-AC&pg=PA402]</ref> The mission arrived on 4 December 1807.<ref>''Persia and Napoleon'' A Lecture by Ambassador Iradj Amini (Qajar) at the "Iran Society," - London, December 17, 1997 [http://users.sedona.net/~sepa/napiran.html]</ref>

The 19th century diplomat Sir [[Justin Sheil]] commented positively on the French contribution in modernizing the Persian army:

[[File:Askar Khan Afshar in Paris between July 1808 to April 1810 by Madame Vavin.jpg|thumb|Persian ambassador [[Askar Khan Afshar]], in Paris from July 1808 to April 1810, by Madame Vavin.]]
{{quote|"It is to the military genius of the French that we are indebted for the formation of the Indian army. Our warlike neighbours were the first to introduce into India the system of drilling native troops and converting them into a regularly disciplined force. Their example was copied by us, and the result is what we now behold.

The French carried to Persia the same military and administrative faculties, and established the origin of the present Persian regular army, as it is styled. When Napoleon the Great resolved to take Persia under his auspices, he despatched several officers of superior intelligence to that country with the mission of General Gardanne in 1808. Those gentlemen commenced their operations in the provinces of [[Azerbijan]] and [[Kermanshah]], and it is said with considerable success."|Sir [[Justin Sheil]] (1803-1871).<ref>''Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia'' by Lady Mary Leonora Woulfe Sheil, with additional notes by Sir [[Justin Sheil]] [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/sheil/persia/persia.html]</ref>}}

The embassy of Gardanne to Persia soon lost one of the main reasons for its original dispatch. In a final reversal, Napoleon I finally vanquished Russia at the [[Battle of Friedland]] in July 1807, and France and Russia became allied at the [[Treaty of Tilsit]].<ref>''The Islamic world in decline'' by Martin Sicker p.97 [http://books.google.com/books?id=BzMJys65u9wC&pg=PA97]</ref> General Gardanne arrived in [[Tehran]] in Persia after the Treaty of Tilsit, in December 1807.<ref>''The Islamic world in decline'' by Martin Sicker p.97 [http://books.google.com/books?id=BzMJys65u9wC&pg=PA97]</ref>

Napoleon however wished to continue fostering the Franco-Persian alliance, in order to pursue his plan of invading India. To this effect, he planned to nominate his brother [[Lucien Bonaparte]] as his representative in Teheran.<ref>''A History of Persia'' by Percy Molesworth Sykes p.403 [http://books.google.com/books?id=nwVacyw7G-AC&pg=PA403]</ref> Napoleon still planned to invade [[British India]], this time with Russian help.<ref>''The Russian empire, 1801-1917'' by Hugh Seton-Watson p.118 [http://books.google.com/books?id=40KbWNve4XkC&pg=PA118]</ref>

A Persian ambassador was sent to Paris, named [[Askar Khan Afshar]].<ref>''Napoleon and Persia'' Iradj Amini, p.140 [http://books.google.com/books?id=n5IOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA140]</ref> He arrived in Paris on 20 July 1808 and was able to meet Napoleon on 4 September 1808.<ref>''Persia and Napoleon'' A Lecture by Ambassador Iradj Amini (Qajar) at the "Iran Society," - London, December 17, 1997 [http://users.sedona.net/~sepa/napiran.html]</ref>

Persia however lost the main motivation for the alliance, the recovery of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaidjan]] over Russia, which had not even been addressed at the Treaty of Tilsit.<ref>''A History of Persia'' by Percy Molesworth Sykes p.403 [http://books.google.com/books?id=nwVacyw7G-AC&pg=PA403]</ref><ref>''The Russian empire, 1801-1917'' by Hugh Seton-Watson p.118 [http://books.google.com/books?id=40KbWNve4XkC&pg=PA118]</ref>

[[File:French_and_British_embassies_at_the_Persian_Court_1808.jpg|thumb|center|800px|Nigaristan Palace Mural [[triptych]] showing the British (left) and French (right) representatives around [[Fath Ali Shah]] at the Persian Court in 1808.]]
The Franco-Persian alliance thus lost its main motivation as France and Russia were now allied. The Shah of Persia again turned to the British for military advisers.<ref>''The Russian empire, 1801-1917'' by Hugh Seton-Watson p.118 [http://books.google.com/books?id=40KbWNve4XkC&pg=PA118]</ref> In the east, a mutual defense treaty was signed between British India and Shah [[Shuja al-Mulk]] of [[Afghanistan]] on 17 June 1809 in order to better resist the Franco-Persian threat, but by that time Persia had already denounced its alliance with France.<ref>''The Islamic world in decline'' by Martin Sicker p.97-98 [http://books.google.com/books?id=BzMJys65u9wC&pg=PA97]</ref>

===Return of a British alliance===
[[File:Malcom at the court of Fath Ali Shah in 1808.jpg|thumb|The English delegation at the Court of Fath Ali Shah in 1808: [[John Malcolm]], [[Harford Jones]] and [[Gore Ouseley]].]]
After the failed mission of [[John Malcolm]] in 1808, Sir [[Sir Harford Jones Brydges, 1st Baronet|Harford Jones]] managed to sign in March 1809 a preliminary treaty with Persia and General Gardanne was returned to France.<ref>''A History of Persia'' by Percy Molesworth Sykes p.404-405 [http://books.google.com/books?id=wiAZyeSKKWwC&pg=PA404]</ref> In another mission in 1810, Malcom brought a large mission of officers, one of whom, [[Lindsay Bethune]], would become Commander-in-Chief of the Persian army for several years.<ref>''A History of Persia'' by Percy Molesworth Sykes p.406 [http://books.google.com/books?id=wiAZyeSKKWwC&pg=PA406]</ref> In 1809-1810, the Shah sent ambassador Haji Mirza Abul Hasan Khan to the Court in [[London]], immortalized as [[The Adventures of Hajji Baba|Hajji Baba]] by diplomat [[James Justinian Morier|James Morier]].<ref>''A History of Persia'' by Percy Molesworth Sykes p.407 [http://books.google.com/books?id=wiAZyeSKKWwC&pg=PA407]</ref> According to Sir Justin Sheil:

{{quote|"English influence becoming supreme, and the French Mission having quitted Persia, it was determined to accede to the wishes of the Persian Government and continue the same military organization. Sir John Malcolm was accompanied in 1808 by two officers of the Indian army, Major Christie and Lieutenant Lindsay, to whom was confided this duty: they did it well. Major Christie was a man of considerable military endowments; he undertook the charge of the infantry, and was killed at his post at the [[Battle of Aslanduz|battle of Aslandooz]] in 1812. His able successor was Major Hart, of the Royal Army. Under the auspices and indefatigable cooperation of [[Abbas Meerza]], heir apparent to the throne of Persia, by whom absolute authority was confided to him, he brought the infantry of Azerbijan to a wonderful state of perfection. The artillery was placed under Lieutenant Lindsay, afterwards Major-General Sir H. Lindsay. This officer acquired extraordinary influence in the army, and in particular among the artillery. He brought this branch of the forces in [[Azerbaidjan|Azerbijan]] to such a pitch of real working perfection, and introduced so complete a system of [[esprit de corps]], that to this day his name is venerated, and traces of his instruction still survive in the artillery of that province, which even now preserves some degree of efficiency."|Sir [[Justin Sheil]] (1803-1871).<ref>''Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia'' by Lady Mary Leonora Woulfe Sheil, with additional notes by Sir [[Justin Sheil]] [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/sheil/persia/persia.html]</ref>}}

==Epilogue==
The alliance between France and the Ottoman Empire was maintained, and a peace settlement was brokered between Russia and the Ottomans, but the territories the Ottomans had been promised ([[Moldavia]] and [[Wallachia]]) through the [[Treaty of Tilsit]] were never returned, although the Ottomans themselves had complied with their part of the agreement by moving their troops south of the [[Danube]].<ref>Karsh, p.14</ref>

[[File:Livebridge.jpg|thumb|An episode of the 1804-1813 [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian war]].]]
Meanwhile a [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian war]] raged on despite France and Russia's efforts to try to reach a settlement between Russia and Persia.<ref>''The Islamic world in decline'' by Martin Sicker p.98 [http://books.google.com/books?id=BzMJys65u9wC&pg=PA98]</ref> In 1812 Persia had to face a major defeat against Russia at the [[Battle of Aslandoz]], forcing the Shah to negotiate the [[Treaty of Gulistan]], on 12 October 1813.<ref>''The Islamic world in decline'' by Martin Sicker p.98 [http://books.google.com/books?id=BzMJys65u9wC&pg=PA98]</ref>

In 1812, through the [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)|Treaty of Bucharest]], the Ottoman Empire and Russia also agreed to make peace, just as Russia was anxious to liberate this southern front in anticipation of Napoleon's [[French invasion of Russia|Invasion of Russia]], with Russia keeping [[Bessarabia]] and the Ottomans regaining [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]].<ref>''Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774-2000'' by William M. Hale, p.23 [http://books.google.com/books?id=_xLgtpBsovwC&pg=PA23]</ref>

==See also==
* [[Franco-Ottoman alliance]]
* [[France-Iran relations]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|3}}

==References==
* Inari Karsh ''Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789-1923'' Harvard University Press, 2001 ISBN 0674005414
* Iradj Amini ''Napoleon and Persia: Franco-Persian relations under the First Empire'' Taylor & Francis, 2000 ISBN 0934211582
* Martin Sicker ''The Islamic world in decline: from the Treaty of Karlowitz to the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire'' Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001 ISBN 027596891X

[[Category:History of France]]
[[Category:History of Iran]]

Main Street Historic District (New Hamburg, New York)

2008-10-18T03:51:10Z

Jfruh: /* History */ fix broken lnk

{{Infobox nrhp
| name = Main Street Historic District
| nrhp_type = hd
| image = Houses on Main Street, New Hamburg, NY.jpg
| caption = Houses at 13 and 15 Main Street, 2008
| lat_degrees = 41
| lat_minutes = 35
| lat_seconds = 14
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 73
| long_minutes = 56
| long_seconds = 54
| long_direction = W
| location = Main St. roughly bounded by Stone and Bridge Sts., [[New Hamburg, New York|New Hamburg]], [[New York|NY]]
| nearest_city = [[Poughkeepsie (city), New York|Poughkeepsie]]
| area = 1 acre (4,000 m²)
| built = ca. 1845-1876
| architect =
| architecture =
| added = February 27, 1987<ref name="nris">{{cite web|url=http://www.nr.nps.gov/|title=National Register Information System|date=2008-04-15|work=National Register of Historic Places|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref>
| refnum = 87000122<ref name="nris"/>
| mpsub = New Hamburg MRA
| governing_body = Private businesses and residences
}}
The '''Main Street Historic District''' in [[New Hamburg, New York|New Hamburg]], [[New York]], [[United States]] is located along that street just west of the [[New Hamburg (Metro-North station)|train station]]. Six buildings on a single acre (4,000 m²) are an intact remnant of the [[Administrative divisions of New York#Hamlet|hamlet]] as it was developed in the middle of the 19th century, prior to the [[New York Central Railroad#The Hudson River Railroad|Hudson River Railroad]]'s construction, which cut it in half.

Its [[contributing property|contributing]] buildings, three houses and three commercial buildings, are made of [[brick]] and representative of [[vernacular architecture|vernacular]] applications of the then-popular [[Greek Revival architecture|Greek Revival]] and [[Gothic Revival]] [[architectural style|styles]]. The neighborhood was recognized as a [[historic district]] and added to the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1987. It is the smallest in area of the 62 Main Street Historic Districts on the Register.<ref name="smallest">Acreage is included on the entry information in the [[U.S. National Park Service]]'s National Register Information System. A search on all entries with the name "Main Street Historic District" finds no other entries with even one acre. The next largest, in [[Trempealeau, Wisconsin]], is 1.6 acres in area.</ref>

==Buildings==

The district includes all the [[lot (real estate)|lots]] along the north side of Main between Railroad and Bridge streets. On the south side, a former church building [[adaptive reuse|converted]] into apartments at 12 Main Street is not included due to those modifications. All buildings save one on the remaining lots between Main and Bridge are considered contributing properties.

*'''9A Main Street'''. Two-story five-[[bay (architecture)|bay]] [[framing (construction)|frame]] residence built by John Lawson ca. 1845 on a [[brick]] and [[stonemasonry|stone]] [[foundation (architecture)|foundation]]. It has been subsequently modified with a [[hip roof|hipped-roof]] [[porch]] with [[Tuscan column]]s and a [[spindle]]-turned [[balustrade]].<ref name="NRHP nom">{{cite web|last=Larson|first=Neil|title=National Register of Historic Places nomination, Main Street Historic District|url=http://www.oprhp.state.ny.us/hpimaging/hp_view.asp?GroupView=1739|publisher=[[New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation]]|date=December 1986|accessdate=2008-10-14}}</ref>
*'''10 Main Street'''. Two-story commercial [[clapboard (architecture)|clapboard]] commercial/residential structure built ca. 1876.<ref name="NRHP nom" />
*'''11 Main Street'''. One-and-a-half story three-bay frame house on raised brick foundation built ca. 1850. Low-[[roof pitch|pitched]] [[saltbox]] roofline is accentuated by eyebrow windows around cornice.<ref name="NRHP nom" />
*'''12 Main Street'''. A one-and-a-half-story five bay brick residence on stone foundation, built in 1875 as the New Hamburg [[post office]]. Projecting roof has paired [[bracket (architecture)|brackets]] and spiked [[finial]]s at corners.<ref name="NRHP nom" />
*'''13 Main Street'''. One-and-a-half story five-bay brick house on stone foundation built in two sections ca. 1855 by Conklin Bishop. Eyebrow windows on south (front) elevation under [[cornice]]d roof. Decorative porch added later. A more recent [[garage]] with [[gambrel roof]] is the district's only non-contributing resource.<ref name="NRHP nom" />
*'''15 Main Street'''. Built ca. 1855 as the Central House Hotel, it is the largest and most elaborate building in the district, a five-bay two-and-a-half-story brick structure with [[tin]] [[gable]]d roof and two end [[chimney]]s. The front facade has a full-length, two-tier [[verandah]] with [[chamfer]]ed, bracketed posts and [[ornament (architecture)|decorative]] [[jigsaw]] cutout on the [[balustrades]].<ref name="NRHP nom" />

==History==

New Hamburg began as a port community on the river, with ships loaded and unloaded along nearby Point Street and then taken to [[Poughkeepsie (city), New York|Poughkeepsie]] and [[Wappingers Falls, New York|Wappingers Falls]] via road. By the 1840s, most of the Point Street lots had been taken and newer residents were turning to Main Street, a few blocks inland. The house at 9A Main Street, built by John Lawson, a descendant of the area's first [[European colonization of the Americas|European settlers]], is the earliest known to have been built in the current district.<ref name="NRHP nom" />

In 1848 construction began on the [[New York Central Railroad#The Hudson River Railroad|Hudson River Railroad]]. An {{convert|800|ft|m|adj=on}} tunnel<ref name="tunnel today">Now an open cut.</ref> was built through a hillside north of town, and the work being done there triggered the development of Main Street as a commercial area. This continued after the tunnel was completed, since a passenger station and freight facilities were built for [[transshipment]] purposes. An 1858 map of the area shows four of the six houses already complete, and by 1876 another map shows all of them.<ref name="NRHP nom" />

The railroad that had nurtured Main Street eventually caused its decline. In 1928, now part of the [[New York Central Railroad|New York Central]], the line was expanded from one track to two, and in the process Main Street's [[grade crossing]] was eliminated in favor of a new overpass called Bridge Street, one block to the north. Traffic to what little commercial activity remained at the riverfront simply followed the new street straight to it, turning Main into a short side street that remained important to the community only as the location of its [[general store]].<ref name="NRHP nom" />

After the Second World War, the railroad would itself decline, taking commercial activity along Main and in New Hamburg with it. The station was eventually closed, but later reopened as a [[commuter rail]] station by [[Metro-North Railroad]], which eventually succeeded the New York Central (later the Penn Central and then Conrail) as the regional passenger operator on the line. Amtrak, created in 1971, provides intercity passenger service, and CSX Railroad has succeeded Conrail's freight service.

Most of the buildings along Main were converted to primarily residential use.

==Aesthetics==

The mid-century houses show the influence of the [[Greek Revival architecture|Greek Revival]] style still popular at the time of their construction. Their form is rectilinear; their interiors follow that style's central-hall format. The eyebrow windows are a further touch common to such buildings.<ref name="NRHP nom" />

Later buildings show the rise of the [[Gothic Revival]] movement. The Central House's steeply-pitched front cross-gable is the most notable application, showing the sophistication of the [[Picturesque]] mode. It may have influenced the later additions in that style to some of the other buildings, most notably the Lawson House.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{National Register of Historic Places}}

[[Category:Registered Historic Places in New York]]
[[Category:Poughkeepsie, New York]]

Sophia von Großbritannien, Irland und Hannover

2007-11-26T21:51:23Z

Jfruh: /* Marriage */ change heading -- she was never married

{{Infobox British Royalty|royal
| name =Princess Sophia
| image =Princess Sophia.jpg
| imgw =200
| royal house =[[House of Hanover]]
| full name =Sophia Matilda
| titles =''HRH'' The Princess Sophia
| father =[[George III of Great Britain|George III]]
| mother =[[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]]
| date of birth ={{birth date|1777|11|2|df=y}}
| place of birth =[[Buckingham Palace]], [[London]]
| place of christening =[[St James's Palace]], [[London]]
| date of death ={{death date and age|1848|5|27|1777|11|2|df=y}}
| place of death =[[Kensington Palace]], [[London]]
| place of burial =[[Kensal Green Cemetery]], [[London]]
|}}
'''The Princess Sophia''' (Sophia Matilda; [[2 November]] [[1777]] – [[27 May]] [[1848]]) was a member of the [[British Royal Family]], the twelfth child and fifth daughter of [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]].

==Early life==
The Princess Sophia was born at [[Buckingham Palace]], [[London]]. Her father was the reigning British monarch, George III, the eldest son of [[Frederick, Prince of Wales]] and [[Augusta of Saxe-Gotha]]. Her mother was [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz|Queen Charlotte (née Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz)]].

==Adulthood==
Like most of her other sisters, Princess Sophia was forced to live her life as a companion of her mother, Queen Charlotte. The Princesses were not allowed to mix with anyone outside the Royal Court.

During her life there were various rumours about her alleged incestous relationship with her brother, [[Ernest Augustus I of Hanover|Ernest Augustus]], Duke of Cumberland who later became the King of Hanover. It is unclear whether there was truth to these rumours, or whether they were circulated by Whigs to damage the Duke, who was an extreme Tory and influential in the [[House of Lords]].

==Later life==
After having been [[Blindness|blind]] for over ten years, Princess Sophia died on [[May 27]], [[1848]] at Vicarage Place, [[Kensington]] in [[London]]. She was buried at [[Kensal Green Cemetery]] in London rather than at [[Windsor Castle]], as she wished to be near her brother, [[Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex]].

==Titles, styles, honours and arms==
===Titles and styles===
*'''[[2 November]] [[1777]] – [[27 May]] [[1848]]''': ''Her Royal Highness'' The Princess Sophia

==Ancestors==
<center>{{ahnentafel-compact5
|style=font-size: 90%; line-height: 110%;
|border=1
|boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0;
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. '''Princess Sophia of the United Kingdom'''
|2= 2. [[George III of the United Kingdom]]
|3= 3. [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]]
|4= 4. [[Frederick, Prince of Wales]]
|5= 5. [[Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha]]
|6= 6. [[Charles Louis Frederick, Duke of Mecklenburg-Mirow|Duke Charles Louis Frederick of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Prince of Mirow]]
|7= 7. [[Princess Elizabeth Albertine of Saxe-Hildburghausen]]
|8= 8. [[George II of Great Britain]]
|9= 9. [[Caroline of Ansbach]]
|10= 10. [[Frederick II, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg]]
|11= 11. [[Magdalena Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst]]
|12= 12. [[Adolf Frederick II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]]
|13= 13. Christiane Emilie of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
|14= 14. [[Ernest Frederick I, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen]]
|15= 15. Sophia Albertine of Erbach-Erbach
|16= 16. [[George I of Great Britain]]
|17= 17. [[Sophia Dorothea of Celle]]
|18= 18. [[Johann Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|John Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]]
|19= 19. Eleanor Erdmuthe Louise of Saxe-Eisenach
|20= 20. [[Frederick I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg]]
|21= 21. [[Magdalena Sibylle of Saxe-Weissenfels]]
|22= 22. [[Karl of Anhalt-Zerbst|Charles, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst]]
|23= 23. Sophia of Saxe-Weissenfels
|24= 24. Adolf Frederick I, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
|25= 25. Maria Katharina of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel
|26= 26. Christian William I of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
|27= 27. Antoine Sybille of Barby-Muhlingen
|28= 28. [[Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen]]
|29= 29. Sofie of Waldeck
|30= 30. George Louis I of Erbach-Erbach
|31= 31. Amelie Katherine of Waldeck-Eisenberg
}}</center>

==External links==
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=9442 Princess Sophia's grave]

==Further reading==
* Fraser, Flora. ''Princesses: The Six Daughters of George III''. 2004. London: John Murray, 2005. ISBN 0-7195-6109-4

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sophia of the United Kingdom, Princess}}
[[Category:House of Hanover]]
[[Category:English and British princesses]]
[[Category:People from Westminster]]
[[Category:1777 births]]
[[Category:1848 deaths]]

[[nl:Sophia van het Verenigd Koninkrijk]]

Europa zuerst

2007-11-12T22:56:49Z

Jfruh: /* Agreement */ reword -- originally sounded like the dec. of war was at the conference

'''Europe first''' (sometimes known as '''Germany first''') was the key element of the [[grand strategy]] employed by the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] during [[World War II]]. According to this policy, the United States and the United Kingdom would use the preponderance of their resources to subdue [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] in [[Europe]] first, and fight a holding action against [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] in the [[Pacific]] in the meanwhile, using fewer resources. After the defeat of Germany, considered the greater threat because of the long-going war and direct threat to the United States' powerful allies at the time [[UK]] and [[Soviet Union]] (at the same time Japan was also busy involved in wars against other Asian nations at the time like war with [[Republic of China|China]]), all Allied forces could be concentrated against Japan. If Nazi Germany defeated both UK and Soviet Union, it would be harder for US to defeat Germany, resulting in possible linkage between Germany and Japan along [[Eurasia]].

==Background==
When Japan attacked the United States, the United Kingdom had already been fighting in Europe for years, and had relatively few resources to spare to protect far-flung [[colonialism|colonies]]. Since Germany declared war on the United States on [[December 11]], the United States faced a decision about how to allocate resources between these two separate theaters of war. (At the maximum extent of Axis power, there were still several thousand miles of Allied territory between the regions of German occupation and Japanese occupation, so the wars could be considered separately from a strategic viewpoint.) On the one hand, Japan had attacked the United States directly, and the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese navy]] threatened United States territory in a way that Germany, with a limited surface navy, was not in a position to do. On the other hand, Germany was universally considered the stronger and more dangerous power by circumstance especially because of its closer geographical proximity to the [[UK]] and [[Soviet Union]] and also because it was on the offense and invasion against both nations (Operation [[Barbarossa]] against the Soviet Union and the ongoing bombing of [[London]]), and the United States' European allies were forced by geography to focus there.

==Agreement==
Soon after the declaration of war, the United States and the United Kingdom agreed at the [[Arcadia Conference]] on the Europe first strategy, and the United States committed to sending the [[United States Army|army]] and [[United States Army Air Forces|air force]] it was raising to fight Germany in Europe and Africa as soon as it was ready. The campaign against Japan would be focused on halting Japanese expansion until the war on Germany was complete, at which time the full power of the United Kingdom, the United States, and eventually the [[Soviet Union]] could be turned against Japan. This strategy would concentrate on what was perceived as the strongest of the Axis Powers, and would prevent a German victory that might knock the United Kingdom or the Soviets out of the war.

==Consequences==
In practice, the United States was able to use most of its [[aircraft carrier|carriers]], [[battleship]]s, and cruisers against Japan anyway. Germany's surface fleet was small and the escort ships used in the [[Second Battle of the Atlantic]] were mostly [[destroyer]]s and [[destroyer escort]]s to counter the [[U-boat]] threat.

The Pacific War could be prosecuted successfully with relatively small numbers of ground troops (usually [[uS Marine Corps|Marines]]), and by the time Germany was defeated, the Allies had reconquered [[Burma]], the [[Philippines]], and a string of island bases leading up to the home islands of Japan. The US started a massive reallocation of troops to the Pacific to prepare for the [[Operation Downfall|invasion of Japan]], but in the process, Japan surrendered following detonation of [[atomic bomb]]s over [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] victories in [[Manchuria]].

One clear result of the Europe First was that battles in the European theatre tended to be set-piece, pre-planned events. With fewer resources, the Allied Commanders in the Pacific tended to run much smaller, ad-hoc operations and were forced (by necessity of circumstances) to be more flexible in their strategic planning - for example, as a result of fortuitous events, the [[Battle of Leyte]] and later [[Battle of Iwo Jima]] were undertaken with almost no strategic foreplanning.

The differences in the theaters were also due to their nature; as Europe was heavily land-based, the only possible defeat of Nazi Germany was an invasion of the continent. When Germany surrendered, Berlin had been captured and only Norway remained in Axis hands. By contrast, to defeat Imperial Japan which was a naval power spread out wide across islands, key islands could be taken (such as [[Battle of Leyte|Leyte]]) to cut off supply lines and bypass major bases (such as [[Rabaul]] and [[Truk Lagoon]]) at the end of World War II the Japanese still held most of their conquered possessions in China and Southeast Asia.

[[Category:World War II politics]]

[[no:Europa først]]
[[ro:Mai întâi Europa]]

Avalon (Kalifornien)

2007-05-11T05:36:27Z

Jfruh: this should be in its own section, not plopped in the middle of the intro

{{current}}
{{Infobox City
|official_name = City of Avalon
|other_name =
|native_name = 
|nickname =
|motto =
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|imagesize =
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|image_seal = Seal_avalon_ca.png
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|image_map = CAMap-doton-Avalon.png
|mapsize =
|map_caption = Location of Avalon in California
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States of America]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[California]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in California|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]]
|subdivision_type3 =
|subdivision_name3 =
|subdivision_type4 =
|subdivision_name4 =
|government_type =
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = Bob Kennedy <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cityofavalon.com/content/2517/2520/default.aspx | title = City of Avalon, CA - City Council | accessdate = 2007-01-17}}</ref>
|leader_title1 = 
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|established_date2 =
|established_title3 = Incorporated (city)
|established_date3 = [[1913-06-26]] <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cacities.org/resource_files/20457.IncorpDateLO.doc | title = Incorporation Dates of California Cities | accessdate = 2007-01-18}}</ref>
|area_magnitude =
|area_total = 8.15
|TotalArea_sq_mi = 3.15
|area_land = 7.28
|LandArea_sq_mi = 2.81
|area_water = 0.87
|WaterArea_sq_mi = 0.33
|area_water_percent = 10.63
|area_urban =
|UrbanArea_sq_mi =
|area_metro =
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|population_as_of = 2000
|population_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web | url = http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?_event=Search&geo_id=&_geoContext=&_street=&_county=&_cityTown=Avalon&_state=04000US06&_zip=&_lang=en&_sse=on&pctxt=fph&pgsl=010 | title = Avalon city, California - Fact Sheet - American FactFinder | accessdate = 2007-01-17}}</ref>
|population_note =
|settlement_type = 
|population_total = 3,127
|population_density =
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|timezone = [[Pacific Time Zone|PST]]
|utc_offset = -8
|timezone_DST = PDT
|utc_offset_DST = -7
|latd = 33
|latm = 20
|lats = 27
|latNS = N
|longd = 118
|longm = 19
|longs = 40
|longEW = W
|elevation =
|elevation_ft =
|postal_code_type = Zip Code
|postal_code = 90704 <ref>{{cite web | url = http://zip4.usps.com/zip4/zcl_1_results.jsp?visited=1&pagenumber=0&state=ca&city=Avalon | title = USPS - ZIP Code Lookup - Find a ZIP+ 4 Code By City Results | accessdate = 2007-01-17}}</ref>
|area_code =
|website = [http://www.cityofavalon.com/ http://www.cityofavalon.com/]
|footnotes =
}} 

'''Avalon''', on '''Avalon Bay''', is the only city on [[Santa Catalina Island, California|Santa Catalina Island]]. Besides Avalon, the only other center of population is the small [[unincorporated area|unincorporated]] town of [[Two Harbors, California|Two Harbors]] on the island. Its [[ZIP code]] is 90704 and it is in [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]], [[California]], [[United States]]. [[as of 2000|As of the 2000 census]], the city population was 3,127, with another 195 close outside of the city limits. The population is now estimated to be over 3,500. The default for wired phone numbers in the Avalon [[central office]] is (310) 510-xxxx, however, beginning on August 26, 2006, many of the phone numbers will be transferred to the newly created [[Area code 424|424 area code]].

The older parts of the town nearer the shoreline are dominated by small houses and two and three-story buildings in various traditional architectural styles. There are also several large apartment complexes nestled in the hills away from the shoreline, so that they are not obvious in most postcard photos of Avalon.

[[Image:Lightmatter Avalon Bay.jpg|thumb|400px|Avalon Bay and the city of Avalon.]]

==About Avalon==
[[Image:Beach Avalon Catalina California 2003-22-19.jpg|thumb|400px|A summertime beach in Avalon]]
Avalon is a rural waterfront town with the usual tourist-oriented businesses and services lining the coastline. Apart from the town itself, primary attractions include various trails into the hills surrounding the town, and the [[Wrigley Memorial]] and [[Wrigley Botanical Gardens|Botanical Garden]] just outside of town in the hills to the southwest.

==Geography==
Avalon is located at {{coor dms|33|20|27|N|118|19|40|W|city}} (33.340941, -118.327821){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 8.2 [[km²]] (3.2 [[square mile|mi²]]). 7.3 km² (2.8 mi²) of it is land and 0.9 km² (0.3 mi²) of it (10.48%) is water.

== Transportation ==
===Intercity===
[[Image:Douglas-DC3---Catalina.1024.jpg|200px|thumb|Douglas DC-3 taking off from Catalina Island Airport.]]
The city is served by several ferry lines with regular daily service to [[Newport Beach, California|Newport Beach]], [[San Pedro, California|San Pedro]], [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]], [[Marina del Rey, California|Marina del Rey]], and [[Dana Point, California|Dana Point]]. [[Catalina Airport]] (FAA Identifier: AVX), also known as Airport-in-the-Sky, is located at (NAD83 rounded from FAA-provided coordinates): {{coor dms|33|24|17|N|118|24|59|W}}, 10 miles to the west of Avalon. Fixed-wing flights other than emergency landings require prior arrangements. Several helicopter companies serve the city.

===Intracity===
The main method of transportation in Avalon is by small gasoline-powered motorcars similar to golf carts. For purposes of vehicle registration, Catalina Island is divided into two parts: Avalon and everywhere else. It is very difficult to get a permit to have a full sized vehicle in Avalon. The city has its own strict permit program which local vehicle owners must comply with, in addition with the usual requirements imposed by the statewide Department of Motor Vehicles.

Visitors can walk, rent a bicycle, rent a cart, ride a shuttle bus, or hire one of several private taxis.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 3,127 people, 1,158 households, and 719 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 429.7/km² (1,112.4/mi²). There were 1,839 housing units at an average density of 252.7/km² (654.2/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 71.63% [[Race (United States Census)|White]], 0.74% [[Race (United States Census)|Black]] 1.02% [[Race (United States Census)|Native American]], 0.61% [[Race (United States Census)|Asian]], 0.22% [[Race (United States Census)|Pacific Islander]], 20.37% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 5.40% from two or more races. 45.95% of the population were [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (United States Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There were 1,158 households out of which 38.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.9% were non-families. 31.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the average family size was 3.38.

In the city the population was spread out with 30.3% under the age of 18, 7.7% from 18 to 24, 30.2% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 10.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 99.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.2 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $39,327, and the median income for a family was $46,406. Males had a median income of $30,789 versus $24,643 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $21,032. About 9.2% of families and 10.4% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 11.5% of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 or over.

==Education==
Children in Avalon attend schools in the [[Long Beach Unified School District]].

Avalon is served by the K-12 [[Avalon Schools]], which is divided into elementary, junior high, and high schools, but with a single principal [http://www.lbusd.k12.ca.us/avalon/avalon.htm]. LBUSD also has a [[one-room school]], [[Two Harbors Elementary School]], at [[Two Harbors, California|Two Harbors]] in unincorporated [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]].

==2007 fire==

On May 10, 2007, fire broke out the the hills north and west of the city. At least three structures burned, and over 500 acres were consumed by flames. Avalon City Councilman Scott Nelson said: "We've lost five or six small businesses in Falls Canyon and a construction company building in Birdpark Canyon." He also said that evacuees who took refuge in the casino, which is without power, have been moved to another location.

Nelson said about 100 firefighters were battling the blaze and that another 200 new recruits, arriving by hovercraft and Marine helicopters, were bedding down at the airport to work the day shift in the morning. Catalina Express was also running extra boats through the night to take people off the island. 700 evacuees were reportedly at the Ceasar E. Chavez center in Long Beach.

==References==
<div class="references-small"><references /></div>

==External links==
* [http://www.cityofavalon.com Official City of Avalon Website]
*{{wikitravel|Avalon}}
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|33.340941|-118.327821}}

{{Cities of Los Angeles County, California}}

[[Category:Coastal towns in California]]
[[Category:Cities in Los Angeles County]]
[[Category:Channel Islands of California]]

[[bg:Авалон (Калифорния)]]
[[es:Avalon (California)]]
[[fr:Avalon (Californie)]]
[[pl:Avalon (Kalifornia)]]

Mary Freeman-Grenville, 12. Lady Kinloss

2006-09-21T15:08:02Z

Jfruh: zap extraneous phrase

'''Beatrice Mary Grenville Freeman-Grenville''' (born [[1922]]) is the 12th [[Lord Kinloss|Lady Kinloss]].

She is the heir to [[Edward Seymour, Lord Beauchamp]], the only son of [[Lady Catherine Grey]], the second daughter of [[Frances Brandon, Duchess of Suffolk]], who herself was the eldest daughter of [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk]]. If the marriage of Catherine Grey from which Edward seymour was born is deemed legitimate for dynastic purposes, she then is the genealogical representative of Mary, Duchess of Suffolk and Dowager Queen of France.
In that case, in accordance with the parliament-sanctioned testament of [[Henry VIII of England]] and the succession order there stipulated, Lady Kinloss would be reigning queen of [[kingdom of England]] and Ireland, possessor of the throne however in 1603 taken by [[James VI of Scotland]].

{{UK-noble-stub}}

Fall der Creole

2006-08-21T23:00:25Z

Jfruh: i don't think that word means what you think it means

The '''''Creole case''''' was an incident in American history concerning the [[coastwise slave trade]], which flourished for a half century or longer. In [[1841]], a brig named ''Creole'' (also known as [[USS]] ''Creole'') was transporting 135 slaves between [[Hampton Roads]], [[Virginia]] and [[New Orleans]]. Nineteen slaves on board the ''Creole'' revolted, led by [[Madison Washington]], and directed the ship to be taken to [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]], on the island of [[New Providence]] in the [[Bahamas]], which was then a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[colony]].

The ''Creole case'' generated diplomatic tension between [[Great Britain]] and the [[United States]], and political rumblings within the [[United States]] itself. [[Secretary of State]] [[Daniel Webster]] explained that the slaves were legal properties and demanded their return. Slavery was by this time illegal in Great Britain and her colonies, and so the British ignored the claim.

In the [[United States House of Representatives]], [[Joshua Reed Giddings]] of [[Ohio]] introduced a series of nine resolutions that argued that Virginia state law did not apply to slaves outside of Virginian waters, and that the US federal government should not act to protect the rights of the slaveholders in this case. The resolutions provoked strong emotions. The House [[censure]]d Giddings, who promptly resigned. The voters of [[Ohio]] reelected him soon afterwards.

Though either the United States or the British might have raised the issue during the discussions that produced the [[Webster-Ashburton Treaty]] of [[1842]], neither nation did. Among other declarations, the Webster-Ashburton Treaty called for a final end to the slave trade on the high seas to be enforced by both signatories. The British arrested and incarcerated the nineteen rebellious slaves and held them on a charge of murder. The arrest of the conspirators may have placated the Americans sufficiently. Other issues were vastly more important in August [[1842]].

A similar incident took place on the high seas in [[1839]] on board the [[Amistad (case)|Amistad]].

==The Giddings Resolutions==
# Resolved, That, prior to the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, each of the several States composing this Union exercised full and exclusive jurisdiction over the subject of slavery within its own territory, and possessed full power to continue or abolish it at pleasure.
# Resolved, That, by adopting the Constitution, no part of the aforesaid powers were delegated to the Federal Government, but were reserved by and still pertain to each of the several States.
# Resolved, That, by the 8th section of the 1st article of the Constitution, each of the several States surrendered to the Federal Government all jurisdiction over the subjects of commerce and navigation upon the high seas.
# Resolved. That slavery, being an abridgment of the natural rights of man, can exist only by force of positive ''municipal law,'' and is necessarily confined to the territorial jurisdiction of the power creating it.
# Resolved, That when a ship belonging to the citizens of any State of the Union leaves the waters and territory of such State, and enters upon the high seas, the persons on board cease to be subject to the slave laws of such State, and therefore are governed in their relations to each other by, and are amenable to, the laws of the United States.
# Resolved, That when the brig Creole, on her late passage for New Orleans, left the territorial jurisdiction of Virginia, the slave laws of that State ceased to have jurisdiction over the persons on board such brig, and such persons became amenable only to the laws of the United States.
# Resolved, That the persons on board the said ship, in resuming their natural rights of personal liberty, violated no law of the United States, incurred no legal responsibility, and are justly liable to no punishment.
# Resolved, That all attempts to regain possession of or to re-enslave said persons are unauthorized by the Constitution or laws of the United States, and are incompatible with our national honor.
# Resolved, That all attempts to exert our national influence in favor of the ''coastwise slave trade'', or to place this nation in the attitude of maintaining a "commerce in human beings," are subversive to the rights and injurious to the feelings of the free States, are unauthorized by the Constitution, and prejudicial to our national character.

[[Category:1841]]
[[Category:History of slavery in the United States]]

Orange Line (MBTA)

2006-06-05T19:53:33Z

Jfruh: add subway template

[[Image:NorthStationOrange.jpg|thumb|300px|''Inbound Train at North Station'']]
[[Image:NorthStationOrangeOutbound.jpg|thumb|300px|''Outbound Train at North Station'']]
[[Image:Main Line Elevated.jpg|thumb|300px|The old Main Line Elevated and related lines]]
The '''Orange Line''' is one of the four subway lines of the [[MBTA]]. It extends from [[Forest Hills (MBTA station)|Forest Hills]] in [[Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts|Jamaica Plain]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] in the south to [[Oak Grove (MBTA station)|Oak Grove]] in [[Malden, Massachusetts]] in the north. It meets the [[Red Line (MBTA)|Red Line]] at [[Downtown Crossing (MBTA station)|Downtown Crossing]], the [[Blue Line (MBTA)|Blue Line]] at [[State (MBTA station)|State]], and the [[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] at [[Haymarket (MBTA station)|Haymarket]] and [[North Station (MBTA station)|North Station]]. It connects with [[Amtrak]] and Commuter Rail service at [[Back Bay (MBTA station)|Back Bay]] and North Station, and just the commuter rail at Ruggles station in Roxbury.

Originally known as the Main Line of the [[Boston Elevated Railway]] and later the Forest Hills-Everett Elevated Line, the current name is derived from Orange Street, an old name for the section of Washington Street immediately south of downtown under which the Washington Street Tunnel, forming the center of the line, still runs. (Cars throughout the Boston rapid transit network were formerly painted orange or with orange stripes by MBTA predecessors, and restored [[streetcar]]s on the [[Ashmont-Mattapan High Speed Line]] wear their historical orange livery, but this is largely coincidental.) In 1975, the [[Charlestown Elevated]] to [[Everett, Massachusetts|Everett]] was shut down and replaced with a rerouting to Malden. In April 1987, the [[Washington Street Elevated]] south of the Essex (Chinatown) station was closed; service along part of the line was ultimately replaced in 2002 with the [[Silver Line (MBTA)|Silver Line]]. The line was rerouted into a modern subway running along the Amtrak right-of-way (the [[Northeast Corridor]]) from Back Bay to Forest Hills.

During the conceptual stages of the modern Orange Line in the 1970s, extensions to the [[beltway]] [[Massachusetts State Highway 128|Route 128]] were proposed, with termini at [[Reading, Massachusetts|Reading]] in the north and [[Dedham, Massachusetts|Dedham]] in the south.

The old Orange Line El was the train seen in the opening sequence of the television program [[St. Elsewhere]].

==Stations==
==Station listing==
{| border=1
!Station
!Time to Downtown Crossing
!Opened
!Transfers and notes
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Oak Grove (MBTA station)|Oak Grove]]
|
|[[March 20]], [[1977]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Malden Center (MBTA station)|Malden Center]]
|
|[[December 27]], [[1975]]
|[[Commuter Rail (MBTA)|Commuter Rail]] [[Haverhill/Reading Line]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Wellington (MBTA station)|Wellington]]
|
|[[September 6]], [[1975]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Sullivan Square (MBTA station)|Sullivan Square]]
|
|[[April 7]], [[1975]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Community College (MBTA station)|Community College]]
|
|[[April 7]], [[1975]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[North Station (MBTA station)|North Station]]
|
|[[April 7]], [[1975]]
|[[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] and [[Commuter Rail (MBTA)|Commuter Rail]] north side lines
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Haymarket (MBTA station)|Haymarket]]
|
|[[November 30]], [[1908]]
|[[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] originally Friend-Union until [[January 25]], [[1967]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[State (MBTA station)|State]]
|
|[[November 30]], [[1908]]
|[[Blue Line (MBTA)|Blue Line]] originally Milk-State until [[January 24]], [[1967]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Downtown Crossing (MBTA station)|Downtown Crossing]]
|
|[[November 30]], [[1908]]
|[[Red Line (MBTA)|Red Line]], [[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] and [[Silver Line (MBTA)|Silver Line]] originally Winter-Summer until [[January 22]], [[1967]], then Washington until [[May 3]], [[1987]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Chinatown (MBTA station)|Chinatown]]
|
|[[November 30]], [[1908]]
|[[Silver Line (MBTA)|Silver Line]] originally Boylston-Essex until [[February 10]], [[1967]], then Essex until [[May 3]], [[1987]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[New England Medical Center (MBTA station)|New England Medical Center]]
|
|[[May 4]], [[1987]]
|[[Silver Line (MBTA)|Silver Line]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Back Bay (MBTA station)|Back Bay]]
|
|[[May 4]], [[1987]]
|[[Commuter Rail (MBTA)|Commuter Rail]] [[Attleboro/Stoughton Line]], [[Framingham/Worcester Line]], [[Franklin Line]] and [[Needham Line]] also called Back Bay/South End
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Massachusetts Avenue (MBTA station)|Massachusetts Avenue]]
|
|[[May 4]], [[1987]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Ruggles (MBTA station)|Ruggles]]
|
|[[May 4]], [[1987]]
|[[Commuter Rail (MBTA)|Commuter Rail]] [[Attleboro/Stoughton Line]], [[Franklin Line]] and [[Needham Line]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Roxbury Crossing (MBTA station)|Roxbury Crossing]]
|
|[[May 4]], [[1987]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Jackson Square (MBTA station)|Jackson Square]]
|
|[[May 4]], [[1987]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Stony Brook (MBTA station)|Stony Brook]]
|
|[[May 4]], [[1987]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Green Street (MBTA station)|Green Street]]
|
|[[May 4]], [[1987]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Forest Hills (MBTA station)|Forest Hills]]
|
|[[May 4]], [[1987]]
|[[Commuter Rail (MBTA)|Commuter Rail]] [[Attleboro/Stoughton Line]], [[Franklin Line]] and [[Needham Line]]
|}

==Trains/Equipment==
The Orange Line's current fleet is the 01200 series, built [[1980]]-[[1981]] by [[Hawker Siddeley]] Canada Car and Foundry (now [[Bombardier]] Transportation) of [[Fort William, Ontario]], [[Canada]]. They are 65 feet (20 meters) long and 111 inches (2.8 meters) wide, with three pairs of doors on each side. They are based on the PA3 model used by [[Port Authority Trans-Hudson|PATH]] in [[New Jersey]]. There are 120 cars, numbered 01200-01319. These units are expected to remain in service until [[2015]].[http://www.mbta.com/insidethet/transitcommitments.asp]

==Accessibility==
All stations on the Orange Line are [[handicapped accessible]], though [[State (MBTA station)|State]] is not fully accessible on the [[Blue Line (MBTA)|Blue Line]].

{{MBTA}}

{{USSubway}}

==External links==
*[http://www.jphs.org/transportation/orange-line-memories.html Jamaica Plain Historical Society - Orange Line Memories]
*[http://www.jphs.org/transportation/orange-line-replaced-old-railroad-embankment.html Jamaica Plain Historical Society - Orange Line Replaced Old Railroad Embankment]

[[Category:Orange Line (MBTA)| ]]
{{metro-stub}}

Red Line (MBTA)

2006-05-29T18:23:24Z

Jfruh: add heavy rail template

[[Image:View from Boston Red Line.agr.jpg|thumb|View of Boston from the Red Line]]

[[Image:RedLineCharlesMGH.jpg|thumb|right|256px|An MBTA Red Line train leaving [[Charles/MGH (MBTA station)|Charles/MGH station]] bound for [[Alewife (MBTA station)|Alewife.]]]]

The '''Red Line''' is the newest of the [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority|MBTA]] [[rapid transit]] lines in the [[Boston, Massachusetts]] area. Its northwestern terminal is at [[Alewife (MBTA station)|Alewife]] near [[Fresh Pond Parkway]] and [[Massachusetts Route 2|Route 2]] in West [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], from which it passes through downtown, with transfers to the [[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] at [[Park Street (MBTA station)|Park Street]] and the [[Orange Line (MBTA)|Orange Line]] at [[Downtown Crossing (MBTA station)|Downtown Crossing]]. South of downtown it splits into two branches; one branch runs to [[Braintree (MBTA station)|Braintree]] and the other to [[Ashmont (MBTA station)|Ashmont]], with the [[Ashmont-Mattapan High Speed Line]] continuing to [[Mattapan (MBTA station)|Mattapan]].

==History==
The oldest [[Right-of-way (railroad)|right-of-way]] on the Red Line is south of South Boston, where the Ashmont Branch was built on the path of the former '''Shawmut Branch Railroad'''. That railroad was incorporated in [[1870]], taken over by the [[Old Colony Railroad]], and opened in [[1872]] as an alternate route between the Old Colony's main line at [[Harrison Square (Boston)|Harrison Square]] and the [[Dorchester and Milton Branch Railroad]], which branched from the Old Colony at [[Neponset, Massachusetts|Neponset]] and ran west to [[Mattapan (MBTA station)|Mattapan]].

The Red Line was the last of the four lines to begin construction, with the '''Cambridge Tunnel''' opening from [[Eliot Yard]] and [[Harvard (MBTA station)|Harvard]] to [[Park Street (MBTA station)|Park Street]] on the [[Tremont Street Subway]] on [[March 23]], [[1912]]. At Harvard, a [[prepayment station]] was provided for easy transfer to streetcar routes operating in a separate tunnel (now the [[Harvard Bus Tunnel]]). The tunnel ran from Harvard under [[Massachusetts Avenue (Cambridge)|Massachusetts Avenue]] and [[Main Street (Cambridge)|Main Street]] to the [[Longfellow Bridge]], where it ran along the middle of the bridge (opened in [[1906]]). On the Boston side of the bridge, the line became [[elevated railway|elevated]], rising to go over [[Charles Circle (Boston)|Charles Circle]] and into a tunnel through [[Beacon Hill (Boston)|Beacon Hill]] to Park Street. Extensions (built as the '''Dorchester Tunnel''') to [[Washington Street (MBTA station)|Washington Street]] and [[South Station (MBTA station)|South Station]] opened on [[April 4]], [[1915]] and [[December 3]], [[1916]], with transfers to the [[Washington Street Tunnel]] and [[Atlantic Avenue Elevated]] respectively. Further extensions opened to [[Broadway (MBTA station)|Broadway]] on [[December 15]], [[1917]] and [[Andrew (MBTA station)|Andrew]] on [[June 29]], [[1918]], both [[prepayment stations]] for streetcar transfer. The Broadway station included an upper level with its own tunnel for streetcars, which was abandoned in [[1919]] due to most lines being truncated to Andrew. The upper level has since been incorporated into the [[mezzanine]].

Old Colony and later [[New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad]] passenger service operated on the Shawmut Branch until [[September 4]], [[1926]]. [http://world.nycsubway.org/us/boston/red/mbta-red-savinhill.html] The MBTA bought the branch and opened the first phase of the '''Dorchester Extension''' to [[Fields Corner (MBTA station)|Fields Corner]] on [[November 5]], [[1927]].{{dubious}} This extension ran south from Andrew and turned southeast to surface and run along the west side of the [[Old Colony Railroad]] mainline in a depressed right-of-way. Surface stations were built at [[Columbia (MBTA station)|Columbia]] and [[Savin Hill (MBTA station)|Savin Hill]], at the site of Old Colony stations. No station was built at the former junction of the Old Colony main line with the Shawmut Branch, where the Old Colony's [[Harrison Square (OCRR station)|Harrison Square]] station had been operated, because it was very close to Fields Corner.

The rest of the extension opened to [[Ashmont (MBTA station)|Ashmont]] and [[Codman Yard]] on [[September 1]], [[1928]], and included a station - [[Shawmut (MBTA station)|Shawmut]] - where there had been no Old Colony station. The first phase of the [[Ashmont-Mattapan High Speed Line]] opened on [[August 26]], [[1929]], using the rest of the Shawmut Branch right-of-way, including the [[Cedar Grove (MBTA station)|Cedar Grove]] station, and part of the old [[Dorchester and Milton Branch]].

The color red was assigned on [[August 26]], [[1965]] to what had been called the '''Cambridge-Dorchester Tunnel''' and marked on maps as route {{mb|1}}. The color was chosen because the line ended at [[Harvard University]], whose school color is [[crimson]], a shade of red.

The first section of the '''South Shore Line''' opened on [[September 1]], [[1971]]. This line branched from the original line at a [[flying junction]] north of Columbia and ran along the west side of the Old Colony right-of-way (since reduced to one track), crossing to the east side north of Savin Hill. Its northernmost station was [[North Quincy (MBTA station)|North Quincy]], with two others at [[Wollaston (MBTA station)|Wollaston]] and [[Quincy Center (MBTA station)|Quincy Center]]. The rest of the line, the '''Braintree Extension''' to [[Braintree (MBTA station)|Braintree]], opened [[March 22]], [[1980]], and the intermediate station at [[Quincy Adams (MBTA station)|Quincy Adams]] opened on [[September 10]], [[1983]].

The first part of the '''Northwest Extension''', the relocation of [[Harvard (MBTA station)|Harvard]] station, was finished on [[September 6]], [[1983]]. During construction, several temporary stations were built at Harvard Square. The old Eliot Yard was demolished; Harvard's [[Kennedy School of Government]] now sits inside the retaining walls built for the railyard. Subsequent extensions to [[Davis (MBTA station)|Davis]] on [[December 8]], [[1984]] and [[Alewife (MBTA station)|Alewife]] on [[March 30]], [[1985]] brought the Red Line to its current extent. A platform on the South Shore Line opened at JFK/UMass (formerly Columbia) on [[December 14]], [[1988]].

Platforms on older stations were lengthened in the late [[1980s]] to allow six-car trains, which first ran [[January 21]], [[1988]]. During the expansion, the MBTA invested in an ''Arts on the line'' [[public art]] program.

In [[1968]], letters were assigned to the south branches - "A" for Quincy (planned to extend to South Braintree) and "C" for Ashmont. "B" was probably reserved for a planned branch from Braintree to [[Brockton (MA)|Brockton]]. As new [[rollsign]]s were made, this lettering was phased out. In [[1994]], new electronic signs included a different labeling - "A" for Ashmont, "B" for Braintree and "C" for Alewife. [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/misc.transport.urban-transit/browse_frm/thread/a39e96e4ecc836ca/a9a23545f09a35c6]

==Accessibility==
Most, but not all, Red Line stations are [[wheelchair accessible]]. See also [[MBTA accessibility]].

==Rolling stock==
Red Line trains consist of mated pairs of [[Multiple unit|Electrical Multiple Unit]] cars powered from a [[List of current systems for electric rail traction|600 VDC]] [[third rail]]. Two basic types of cars are in use today:


*Three series of older [[Aluminium|aluminum]]-bodied cars built by Pullman-Standard and [[Urban Transportation Development Corporation|UTDC]]. The older two series of this batch, the 01500 and 01600 series, were built by Pullman in [[1969]]-[[1970]]. The 1700 series was built by UTDC in [[1988]]. These cars seat 62 to 64 customers and approximately 132 cars are in active service. All cars in these series are painted white with red trim and use manually-operated exterior signs.

:All three groups of these older cars (units 1500 through 1757) use traditional [[Direct current|DC]] [[traction motor]]s with [[electromechanical]] controls manufactured by [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] and can inter-operate among the three series. The 1500 and 1700 series cars could operate as singletons, but in practice, are always operated as mated pairs. The 1600 series could only operate as mated pairs.

[[Image:Mbta-redline-bombardier.jpg|thumb|right|''A Bombardier car at [[Harvard (MBTA station)|Harvard]].'']]
*One series of newer [[stainless steel]]-bodied cars built by [[Bombardier]] from components manufactured in [[Canada]] and assembled in [[Barre, Vermont]]. These cars seat 50 passengers and 86 cars are in active service. An automatic [[voice synthesis]] system provides station announcements; the announcements are also displayed on [[light-emitting diode|LED]] signs in each car. Train operation is automated. These cars are stainless steel with red trim and use yellow [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]] exterior signs.

:Known as the 1800 series, they were built in [[1993]]-[[1994]]. These newer cars (units 1800 through 1885) use modern [[Alternating current|AC]] traction motors with [[solid state]] controls manufactured by [[General Electric]], can only operate as mated pairs, and can not interoperate with the older three series of cars.

Rolling stock is stored and maintained at the [[Cabot Yard]], near the [[Broadway (MBTA station)|Broadway]] station in [[South Boston]]. The connection to this yard is at the junction where the two branches split.

==Culture and trivia==
*In [[1944]], [[Tom Lehrer]] wrote a song called '''Boston''', (a parody of the song ''Mother'') whose lyrics list stops on the Red Line beginning with ''"H" is for my alma mater, Hahvid...'', and ending with ''Put them all together, they spell...HCKC...PW...Which is just about what Boston means to me!''

*The tunnels of the Red Line have a cameo in the 1936 [[H. P. Lovecraft]] novella "[[At the Mountains of Madness]]," in which a character rattles off the stops from South Station to Harvard to calm himself as a nameless horror chases him through a cave in [[Antarctica]]. Park Street also shows up in his 1927 story "Pickman's Model."

*At the [[Harvard (MBTA station)|Harvard station]] (and nowhere else on the main branch of the Red Line), the electronic announcer on the newer ([[Bombardier]]-built) trains makes a special announcement: "No [[Tobacco smoking|smoking]], please!" This announcement can be heard on other stations south of [[JFK/UMass (MBTA station)|JFK/UMass]]. Ironically, this announcement can also be heard on the Green Line B's Harvard Avenue stop as well as Boylston on the subway part.

*Newer aboveground stations (particularly Alewife, Braintree, and Quincy Adams) are excellent examples of [[brutalist]] architecture.

*In between [[South Station (MBTA)|South Station]] and [[Broadway (MBTA)|Broadway]], there is an advertisment in the form of a [[zoetrope]]. The speed of the train along with strategically timed strobe lights make the individual frames look animated.

==Station listing==
===Main line===
[[Image:mbta-red-rollsign.jpg|thumb|150px|A [[rollsign]] in a [[Red Line (MBTA)|Red Line]] car. This selection was only used in late [[1984]] and early [[1985]], while the Red Line was being expanded towards [[Alewife (MBTA station)|Alewife]]; during that time, [[Davis (MBTA station)|Davis]] was the end of the line. However, this photo was taken in [[2005]], and was thus anachronistic.]]
[[Image:RedOutSouthStation.jpg|thumb|150px|Outbound train approaching South Station. ]]
{| border=1
!Station
!Location
!Time to Park Street
!Opened
!Transfers and notes
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Alewife (MBTA station)|Alewife]]
|[[Alewife Brook Parkway]], [[Cambridge (MA)|Cambridge]]
|20 minutes
|[[March 30]], [[1985]]
|[[bus]] terminal, [[park and ride]] garage, [[Minuteman Bikeway]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Davis (MBTA station)|Davis]]
|[[Davis Square]], [[Somerville, Massachusetts|Somerville]]
|
|[[December 8]], [[1984]]
|[[Somerville Community Path]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Porter (MBTA station)|Porter]]
|[[Porter Square]], Cambridge
|
|[[December 8]], [[1984]]
|[[MBTA Commuter Rail]] [[Fitchburg Line]]
|-
|[[Stadium (MBTA station)|Stadium]]
|[[Harvard Square]], Cambridge
|
|[[October 26]], [[1912]]
|Across [[Charles River]] from [[Harvard Stadium]]. Only used during [[Harvard]] [[football (American)|football]] games, last known use [[November 18]], [[1967]]
|-
|[[Harvard/Brattle (MBTA station)|Harvard/Brattle]]
|[[Harvard Square]], Cambridge
|
|[[March 24]], [[1979]]
|Closed [[September 1]], [[1983]], supplemented Harvard during construction of the Alewife extension
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Harvard (MBTA station)|Harvard]]
|[[Harvard Square]], Cambridge
|11 minutes (sign said 8)
|[[September 6]], [[1983]]
|Original station opened [[March 23]], [[1912]] and closed [[January 30]], [[1981]], [[Harvard/Holyoke (MBTA station)|Harvard/Holyoke]] opened [[January 31]], [[1981]] and closed [[September 1]], [[1983]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Central (MBTA station)|Central]]
|[[Central Square (Cambridge)|Central Square]], Cambridge
|(sign said 5)
|[[March 23]], [[1912]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Kendall/MIT (MBTA station)|Kendall/MIT]]
|[[Kendall Square]], Cambridge
|4 minutes (sign said 3)
|[[March 23]], [[1912]]
|originally Kendall until [[August 6]], [[1978]], named Cambridge Center/MIT between [[December 2]], [[1982]] and [[June 25]], [[1985]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Charles/MGH (MBTA station)|Charles/MGH]]
|Cambridge and Charles Streets, Boston
|
|[[February 27]], [[1932]]
|originally Charles until [[December]] [[1973]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Park Street (MBTA station)|Park Street]]
|Park, Tremont, and Winter Streets, Boston
|0 minutes
|[[March 23]], [[1912]]
|[[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] originally Park Street Under
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Downtown Crossing (MBTA station)|Downtown Crossing]]
|Summer, Washington, and Winter Streets, Boston
|
|[[April 4]], [[1915]]
|[[Orange Line (MBTA)|Orange Line]] and [[Silver Line (MBTA)|Silver Line]] Phase I originally Washington until [[May 3]], [[1987]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[South Station (MBTA station)|South Station]]
|[[Dewey Square]], Boston
|3 minutes
|[[December 3]], [[1916]]
|[[Silver Line (MBTA)|Silver Line]] Phase II and [[MBTA Commuter Rail]] south side lines Had a transfer to the [[Atlantic Avenue Elevated]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Broadway (MBTA station)|Broadway]]
|Broadway and Dorchester Avenue, [[South Boston]]
|
|[[December 15]], [[1917]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Andrew (MBTA station)|Andrew]]
|[[Andrew Square]], South Boston
|
|[[June 29]], [[1918]]
|-
|colspan=5|North of JFK/UMass, the Red Line surfaces and separates into two branches which operate on separate platforms at JFK/UMass. Just south of the station, the two branches divide as described below.
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[JFK/UMass (MBTA station)|JFK/UMass]]
|Columbia Road and Morrissey Boulevard, [[Dorchester (Boston)|Dorchester]]
|10 minutes
|[[November 5]], [[1927]]
|[[MBTA Commuter Rail]] [[Plymouth/Kingston Line]] and [[Middleborough/Lakeville Line]] originally Columbia until [[December 1]], [[1982]], Braintree branch platform opened [[December 14]], [[1988]] was called Crescent Avenue as an [[Old Colony Railroad]] station
|}

===Ashmont Branch===
Diverging from JFK/UMass:
{| border=1
!Station
!Location
!Time to Park Street
!Opened
!Transfers and notes
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Savin Hill (MBTA station)|Savin Hill]]
|Savin Hill Avenue and Sidney Street
|
|[[November 5]], [[1927]]
|was an [[Old Colony Railroad]] station
|-
|[[Harrison Square (OCRR station)|Harrison Square]]
|
|
|
|former split and transfer station between the [[Old Colony Railroad]] mainline and the Shawmut Branch Railroad, never a rapid transit station
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Fields Corner (MBTA station)|Fields Corner]]
|Charles Street and Dorchester Avenue
|15 minutes
|[[November 5]], [[1927]]
|was a Shawmut Branch Railroad station
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Shawmut (MBTA station)|Shawmut]]
|Dayton Street
|
|[[September 1]], [[1928]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Ashmont (MBTA station)|Ashmont]]
|Ashmont Street and Dorchester Avenue
|19 minutes
|[[September 1]], [[1928]]
|Continuing service to [[Mattapan (MBTA station)|Mattapan]] via the 10-minute [[Ashmont-Mattapan High Speed Line]] (opened [[December 21]], [[1929]]) was a Shawmut Branch Railroad station [[Cedar Grove (MBTA station)|Cedar Grove]] station on the Shawmut Branch Railroad is now a station on the Mattapan Line, after which the line merges with the former [[Dorchester and Milton Branch Railroad]] right-of-way
|}

===Braintree Branch (originally South Shore Line)===
Diverging from JFK/UMass:
{| border=1
!Station
!Location
!Time to Park Street
!Opened
!Transfers and notes
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[North Quincy (MBTA station)|North Quincy]]
|East Squantum and Hancock Streets, [[Quincy, Massachusetts|Quincy]]
|19 minutes
|[[September 1]], [[1971]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Wollaston (MBTA station)|Wollaston]]
|Newport Avenue and Beale Street, Quincy
|
|[[September 1]], [[1971]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Quincy Center (MBTA station)|Quincy Center]]
|Hancock and Washington Streets, Quincy
|24 minutes
|[[September 1]], [[1971]]
|[[MBTA Commuter Rail]] [[Plymouth/Kingston Line]] and [[Middleborough/Lakeville Line]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Quincy Adams (MBTA station)|Quincy Adams]]
|Burgin Parkway and Centre Street, Quincy
|
|[[September 10]], [[1983]]
|[[Park and ride]]
|-
|bgcolor=ffdfdf|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Braintree (MBTA station)|Braintree]]
|Ivory and Union Streets, [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]]
|30 minutes
|[[March 22]], [[1980]]
|[[MBTA Commuter Rail]] [[Plymouth/Kingston Line]] and [[Middleborough/Lakeville Line]] [[Park and ride]]
|}

{{MBTA}}

{{Template:USSubway}}

==External links==
*[http://www.mbta.com/traveling_t/schedules_subway_redline.asp MBTA - Red Line]
*[http://world.nycsubway.org/us/boston/red/index.html nycsubway.org - MBTA Red Line]

==References==
*[http://members.aol.com/eddanamta/busfiles/contents.pdf Changes to Transit Service in the MBTA district] ([[PDF]])
*[http://www.earlpleasants.com/search_1.asp Railroad History Database]

[[Category:Red Line (MBTA)| ]]

Blue Line (MBTA)

2006-05-29T18:22:50Z

Jfruh: add heavy rail template

[[Image:Boston blue line station airport.jpg|thumb|''A Blue Line train at the recently rebuilt [[Airport (MBTA station)|Logan Airport]] station.'']]

The '''Blue Line''' is one of the four [[rapid transit|subway]] lines of the [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority]]. It extends from Wonderland Station in [[Revere, Massachusetts|Revere]] in the north to Bowdoin Street near [[Beacon Hill, Boston, Massachusetts|Beacon Hill]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] in the south. It meets the [[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] at Government Center and the [[Orange Line (MBTA)|Orange Line]] at State Street. It also provides mass-transit service to [[Logan International Airport]]. The line is designated "Blue" because for much of its length it uses the old [[Boston, Revere Beach & Lynn Railroad]] right-of-way along the seacoast in Revere and [[East Boston, Massachusetts|East Boston]], and the tunnel to East Boston runs under water.

Blue Line cars are unique among rapid transit vehicles in Boston in that they use both [[third rail]] and overhead [[pantograph (rail)|pantograph]] current pickup. The line switches between the two at the [[Airport (MBTA station)|Logan Airport]] station where it transitions between running in a tunnel and running above ground. (The [[Silver Line (MBTA)|Silver Line]] waterfront switches between overhead and diesel power.) These cars are also shorter than otherwise similar ones running on the Orange Line, as the Blue Line (known as the East Boston Tunnel before the MBTA was formed) was initially designed to carry [[Light rail|streetcar]]s. The subway portion of the line was retrofitted with raised station platforms and [[rapid transit]] cars in the [[1920s]], with the surface portion between East Boston and Revere (known pre-MBTA as the Revere Extension) added in the [[1950s]].

[[As of 2005]], there is currently a proposal to extend the Blue Line northward to [[Lynn, Massachusetts]]; the land to extend the line was purchased during initial construction, but due to budgetary constraints, Wonderland was designated the northern terminus. The northward extension project would either run on the ex-[[Boston and Maine Railroad]] [[Eastern Route Main Line]] or the ERML in combination with narrow gauge. There is also a plan to extend the line's southern end west to [[Charles/MGH (MBTA station)|Charles/MGH]], where it would connect with the [[Red Line (MBTA)|Red Line]]. This was one of the mitigation measures the Commonwealth of [[Massachusetts]] agreed to as part of the [[Big Dig]].

==Station listing==
{| border=1
!Station
!Time to Government Center
!Opened
!Transfers and notes
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Wonderland (MBTA station)|Wonderland]]
|21 minutes
|[[January 19]], [[1954]]
|former [[BRB&L]] station (as Bath House)
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Revere Beach (MBTA station)|Revere Beach]]
|19 minutes
|[[January 19]], [[1954]]
|former [[BRB&L]] station (as Crescent Beach)
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Beachmont (MBTA station)|Beachmont]]
|17 minutes
|[[January 19]], [[1954]]
|former [[BRB&L]] station
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Suffolk Downs (MBTA station)|Suffolk Downs]]
|15 minutes
|[[April 21]], [[1952]]
|former [[BRB&L]] station (as Belle Isle)
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Orient Heights (MBTA station)|Orient Heights]]
|13 minutes
|[[January 5]], [[1952]]
|former [[BRB&L]] station
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Wood Island (MBTA station)|Wood Island]]
|11 minutes
|[[January 5]], [[1952]]
|Formerly Day Square, renamed Wood Island Park [[October 21]], [[1954]], renamed Wood Island [[1967]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Airport (MBTA station)|Airport]]
|9 minutes
|[[June 3]], [[2004]]
|Old station opened [[January 5]], [[1952]] and closed [[June 2]], [[2004]]
|-
|[[Maverick (MBTA station)|Maverick]]
|7 minutes
|[[April 18]], [[1924]]
|Streetcar portal opened [[December 30]], [[1904]]
|-
|[[Image:Accessible.png]] [[Aquarium (MBTA station)|Aquarium]]
|4 minutes
|[[April 5]], [[1906]]
|Formerly Atlantic, renamed [[February 13]], [[1967]] Had a transfer to the [[Atlantic Avenue Elevated]]
|-
|[[State (MBTA station)|State]] [[Image:Accessible.png]] (outbound platform only)
|2 minutes
|[[December 30]], [[1904]]
|[[Orange Line (MBTA)|Orange Line]] Formerly Devonshire, renamed [[January 25]], [[1967]]
|-
|[[Government Center (MBTA station)|Government Center]]
|0 minutes
|[[March 18]], [[1916]]
|[[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] Formerly Scollay Square Under, renamed [[October 28]], [[1963]] Court Street opened [[December 30]], [[1904]] and closed [[March 17]], [[1916]]
|-
|[[Bowdoin (MBTA station)|Bowdoin]]
|2 minutes
|[[March 18]], [[1916]]
|Closed evenings and weekends
|}

==Accessibility==
The Blue Line is accessible except for the most important stations: those downtown. Currently, the outbound Blue Line platform at State Street is wheelchair accessible to the street. Inbound wheelchair users can take the Blue Line to Government Center and cross the platform there to an outbound Blue Line train and take it to the accessible State Street platform. The [[MBTA]] has plans to make the remaining Blue Line stations accessible as part of a larger effort to permit 6 car trains on the line. ''See'' [[MBTA accessibility]].

==Rolling Stock==
The Blue Line's current fleet is the 0600 series, built [[1978]]-[[1980]] by [[Hawker Siddeley]] Canada Car and Foundry (now [[Bombardier]] Transportation) of [[Fort William, Ontario]], [[Canada]]. They are 48.5 feet (14.8 meters) long and 111 inches (2.8 meters) wide, with two pairs of doors on each side. They are based on the PA3 model used by [[Port Authority Trans-Hudson|PATH]] in [[New Jersey]]. There are 70 Hawker cars, numbered 0600-0669.

[[As of 2005]] the Blue Line will be adding new [[Siemens AG|Siemens]] Transportation Systems #5 HR cars with [[stainless steel]] bodies. A total of 94 units (47 pairs) are to be delivered by [[2007]]. The cars are of a similar design to those built for the [[Tren Urbano]] system in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]]. Boston's units are 8.5 feet (2.6 meters) wide and 48.5 feet (14.8 meters) long.

Additionally, 20 cars from the older series are being renovated. These may be kept in reserve for the Blue Line, although the possibility of refitting them for Orange Line service has also been considered.

==Trivia==

The 1998 romantic comedy ''[[Next Stop Wonderland]]'' features some scenes from the Blue Line.

{{MBTA}}

{{Template:USSubway}}

==External links==
*[http://references.transportation.siemens.com/refdb/showReference.do?r=1004&div=5&l=en Blue Line car specifications] from Siemens

==References==
*[http://members.aol.com/eddanamta/busfiles/contents.pdf Changes to Transit Service in the MBTA district] ([[PDF]])

[[Category:Blue Line (MBTA)| ]]

Liste ungewöhnlicher Todesfälle

2006-01-04T18:47:47Z

Jfruh: /* Modern Age */ Aussie PM who drowned

This is a '''list of unusual deaths''', including unique or extremely rare causes of death recorded throughout history, as well as less rare but still unusual causes of death of prominent persons.

== [[Ancient Age]] ==

*[[456 BC]]: [[Aeschylus]], [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[dramatist]], according to [[legend]], died when a [[vulture]], mistaking his bald head for a stone, dropped a [[tortoise]] on it.
*[[207 BC]]: [[Chrysippus]], [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[stoic]] [[philosopher]], is believed to have [[Fatal hilarity|died of laughter]] after seeing a [[donkey]] eating [[fig|figs]].
*[[121 BC]]: [[Gaius Gracchus]], [[Roman Republic|Roman]] [[tribune]], was, according to the ancient Roman historian [[Plutarch]], executed by assassins out to receive a bounty on the weight of his head in gold. One of the co-conspirators in his murder, [[Septimuleius]], then decapitated Gaius, scooped the brains out of his severed head, and filled the cavity of his skull with molten lead. Once the lead hardened, the head was taken to the Senate and weighed in on the scale at over seventeen pounds. Septimuleius was paid in full. [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/gracchus.html]
*[[30 BC]]: [[Cleopatra]], beautiful queen of [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Ptolemaic Egypt]], allegedly killed herself with an [[asp]] snake bite.
*[[260]]: Roman emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]], after being defeated in battle and captured by the [[Sassanid dynasty|Persians]] was used as a footstool by their king [[Shapur I of Persia|Shapur I]]. After a long period of treatment and humiliation of this sort, he offered Shapur a huge ransom for his release. In reply, Shapur had molten gold poured down his throat. He then had the unfortunate Valerian skinned and his skin stuffed with straw and preserved as a trophy in the main Persian temple. Only after Persia's defeat in their last war with Rome three and a half centuries later was his skin given a cremation and burial.
*[[453]]: [[Attila the Hun]] suffered a severe [[nosebleed]] and [[choke]]d to death on his [[wedding]] night.

== [[Middle Age]] ==

*[[895]]: [[High Prince Álmos|Álmos]], the top chieftain leading Hungarian tribes towards the [[Carpathian basin]], was executed in a ''horse sacrifice'' on the border, not allowed to enter the haven for ritual reasons - an ironic reflection of the fate of [[Moses]], but in full accordance with the nomadic customs that called for a chieftain to be sacrificed if the tribe suffered any large-scale defeats (in this case the [[Pecheneg]] invasion).
*[[1063]]: [[Eight Deer Jaguar Claw]], [[Mixtecs|Mixtec]] ruler, served as a [[human sacrifice]].
*[[1063]]: King [[Béla I of Hungary|Béla]] I of [[Hungary]] died when his tall wooden [[throne]] collapsed due to [[sabotage]].
*[[1277]]: [[Pope John XXI]] was killed in the collapse of his [[science|scientific]] [[laboratory]].
*[[1327]]: [[Edward II of England|King Edward II of England]], after being deposed and imprisoned by his [[Queen consort]] [[Isabella of France|Isabella]] and her lover [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]], was rumored to have been murdered by having a red-hot iron shoved up his anus.
*[[1490]]: [[Matthias Corvinus]], the most successful king of [[Hungary]], died after eating [[poison]]ed [[fig]]s.
*[[1514]]: [[György Dózsa]], leader of the Peasants' Revolt in the Kingdom of Hungary, was roasted alive on a white hot iron chair. His captured companions were forced to eat his flesh.
*[[1526]]: [[Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia|King Louis II]] of Hungary drowned in a stream under the weight of his own [[plate armour]] while fleeing the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]s after the lost [[battle of Mohács]].
*[[1532]]: [[Vlad Înecatul]] (Vlad the Drowned), Prince of [[Wallachia]], got severely drunk and rode his horse into the waters of the [[Dâmboviţa River]].
*[[1534]]: [[Pope Clement VII]] died after eating the [[death cap]] mushroom.
*[[1541]]: George Friar, Governor of [[Transylvania]], was assassinated but his body was not discovered in his room until half a year later, as people thought he simply retracted to some months of hermit-hood.
*[[1543]]: [[Pedro de Valdivia]], a dreaded [[conquistador]], was captured by Native Americans and executed by pouring molten gold down his throat to satisfy his thirst for treasures.
*[[1543]]: [[João Rodrigues Cabrilho]], [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[List of explorers|explorer]] sailing for [[Spain]] (discoverer of [[California]]), died of gangrene in a broken leg. He broke the leg when jumping from one of his ships to attack hostile natives.
*[[1559]]: [[Henry II of France|King Henry II]] of France was killed during a stun knight's [[jousting]] match, when his helmet's soft golden grille gave way to a broken lancetip which hit him right through the eye.

== Early Modern Age ==

*[[1601]]: [[Tycho Brahe]], [[Denmark|Danish]] [[astronomer]], was once thought to have died of a [[bladder]] infection after refusing to leave for the bathroom during a banquet for the sake of good manners. However, newer research suggests that he died of mercury poisoning.
*[[1626]]: [[Francis Bacon]], [[England|English]] [[philosopher]], [[statesman]], and [[essayist]], died of possible [[pneumonia]] after purchasing a [[chicken]] and stuffing it with snow to see if [[cold]] could preserve [[meat]]. [[Highgate]] is reputedly haunted by the chicken's ghost.
*[[1671]]: [[François Vatel]], chef to [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] committed suicide because his seafood order was late and he couldn't stand the shame of a postponed meal. His body was discovered by an aide, sent to tell him of the arrival of the fish.
*[[1687]]: [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]], [[composer]], died of a [[gangrene|gangrenous]] [[abscess]] after piercing his foot with a staff while he was vigorously conducting a ''[[Te Deum]]''.
*[[1695]]: [[Henry Purcell]], [[composer]] died of a chill after returning late from the theatre one night and finding that his wife had locked him out. It is also possible that he died of [[chocolate poisoning]].
*[[1783]]: [[James Otis]], American patriot, struck and killed by lightning.
*[[1834]]: [[David Douglas]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]] [[Botanist]], who fell in a pit trap, was crushed by a bull that fell in the same pit.
*[[1841]]: [[William Henry Harrison]], ninth [[President of the United States]], gave the longest inaugural address in the [[history of the United States]] in heavy snow and subsequently caught a cold. It developed into [[pneumonia]] and killed him in a month.
*[[1844]]: [[United States]] [[Secretary of State]] [[Abel P. Upshur|Upshur]] and the [[Secretary of the Navy]] [[Thomas Walker Gilmer|Gilmer]] along with several other dignitaries were killed when the ''Peacemaker'', a new experimental breech-loading 12-inch naval cannon on board the [[USS Princeton (1843)|USS Princeton]] exploded while firing a salute. The Princeton's Captain [[Robert F. Stockton|Stockton]], the press and the public blamed the great naval engineer [[John Ericsson]], who had to flee to Europe, even though the faulty cannon was a product of one of his rivals.
*[[1850]]: [[Zachary Taylor]], twelfth [[President of the United States]], following ceremonies on an exceptionally hot [[July 4]], Taylor had eaten a large quantity of [[iced milk]] and [[cherries]] then fell ill with acute [[indigestion]] and died five days later, after only 16 months in office. This led to speculation he might have been poisoned which in turn led to his body being [[Burial#Exhumation|exhumed]] in the early [[1990s]].
*[[1867]]: [[William Bullock (inventor)]], accidentally killed by his own invention, the web rotary press.
*[[1884]]: [[Allan Pinkerton]], [[detective]], died of [[gangrene]] resulting from having bitten his [[tongue]] after stumbling on the [[sidewalk]].
*[[1888]]: [[Charles-Valentin Alkan]], composer and pianist, died when a bookcase collapsed on him when he was reaching for a copy of the [[Talmud]] from the top shelf.
*[[1898]]: Austrian empress Elisabeth (affectionately known as [[Sissi]]) was assassinated with a nailfile while boarding a ship.

== [[Modern Age]] ==
*[[1901]]: [[William McKinley]], 25th president of the United States, was assassinated while attending the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. The assassin, [[Leon Czolgosz]], concealed the gun by a cast on his arm.
*[[1911]]: [[Jack Daniels|Jack Daniel]], founder of the famous [[Tennessee whiskey]] distillery, died of [[blood poisoning]] due to a [[toe]] injury he received after kicking his safe in anger when he could not remember its combination code.
*[[1915]]: [[François Faber]], [[Luxembourg|Luxembourgean]] [[Tour de France]] winner, died in a [[trench]] on the western front of [[World War I]]. He received a telegram saying his wife had given birth to a daughter. He cheered, giving away his position, and was shot by a [[Germany|German]] [[sniper]].
*[[1916]]: [[Grigori Rasputin]], [[Russia]]n [[mysticism|mystic]], died of [[drowning]] while trapped under ice. Although the details of his murder are disputed, he was allegedly placed in the water through a hole in the winter ice after having been poisoned, shot multiple times in the head, lung, and liver, and bludgeoned.
*[[1918]]: Young princesses of the [[Romanov]] [[tsar]] [[dynasty]] had to be slaughtered with [[bayonet]]s, after their communist captors' bullets bounced off their garments, stuffed full of hidden family gems.
*[[1926]]: Barcelona's star architect [[Antoni Gaudi]] was run over by a tram. Cab drivers did not take him to hospital immediately, not recognizing the ragged figure who had no money in his pockets. Gaudi was brought to a pauper's hospital, where he died some days later.
*[[1927]]: [[Isadora Duncan]], [[dancer]], died of accidental [[strangulation]] and [[cervical fracture|broken neck]] when her [[scarf]] caught on the wheel of a [[automobile|car]] in which she was a passenger.
*[[1928]]: [[Alexander Bogdanov]], a Russian physician, lost his life as a result of one of the experiments, when the blood of a student suffering from [[malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]] was given to him in a transfusion.
*[[1933]]: [[Michael Malloy]], a homeless man, was murdered by gassing after surviving multiple poisonings, intentional exposure, and being struck by a car. Malloy was murdered by five men in a plot to collect on [[life insurance]] policies they'd purchased.
*[[1937]]: [[Harold Davidson]], a defrocked [[Church of England]] Rector, died after being mauled by a [[lion]].
*[[1940]]: [[Leon Trotsky]], the Soviet revolutionary leader in [[exile]], was assassinated with an [[ice axe]] in his [[Mexico]] home.
*[[1941]]: [[Sherwood Anderson]], [[writer]], swallowed a [[toothpick]] at a party and then died of [[peritonitis]].
*[[1943]]: [[Lady be Good (aircraft)|Lady be Good]], a [[USAAF]] B-24 bomber lost its way and crash landed in the [[Libyan Desert]]. [[Mummified]] remains of its crew, who struggled for a week without water, were not found until [[1960]].
*[[1945]]: After surviving the Second World War, composer [[Anton Webern]] was shot by an American sentry on the veranda of his house in Salzburg, Austria, when he had stepped outside to smoke his after-dinner cigar.
*[[1945]]: Austrian author [[Ödön von Horvath]] was killed by a falling branch during a thunderstorm in Paris
*[[1953]]: [[Frank Hayes (jockey)|Frank Hayes]], [[jockey]], suffered a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] during a [[Horse-racing|horse race]]. The horse, ''[[Sweet Kiss (horse)|Sweet Kiss]]'', went on to finish first, making Hayes the only deceased jockey to win a race.
*[[1960]]: Movie legend [[Clark Gable]] died of long term [[heart disease]] hours before his son was born. Some attributed his death to exhaustion caused by involvement with his film partner [[Marilyn Monroe]], perhaps contributing to her worsening mental condition and eventual suicide.
*[[1967]]: A flash fire began in the pure oxygen atmosphere inside the unlaunched [[Apollo 1]] spacecraft, killing its crew during a training exercise.
*[[1967]]: [[Harold Holt]], the serving [[Prime Minister of Australia]], vanishes while swimming on a resort beach near [[Melbourne]]. His body is never found.
*[[1968]]: [[Thomas Merton]], [[Trappist]] [[monk]], [[author]], was accidentally electrocuted to death while taking a bath.
*[[1971]]: [[John Fare]], Canadian artist, decapitated by a robot during an art performance
*[[1971]]: [[Jerome Irving Rodale]], an [[United States|American]] pioneer of [[organic farming]], died of a heart attack while being interviewed on the ''[[Dick Cavett|Dick Cavett Show]]''. When he appeared to fall asleep, Cavett quipped "Are we boring you, Mr. Rodale?".[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/onstage.htm] The show was never broadcast.
*[[1973]]: [[Péter Vályi]], finance minister of [[Hungary]] fell into a [[blast furnace]] on a visit to a steelworks factory at [[Miskolc]].
*[[1974]]: [[Christine Chubbuck]], an [[United States|American]] [[television]] [[news reporter]] committed [[suicide]] during a live broadcast on [[July 15th]]. At 9:38 AM, 8 minutes into her talk show, on WXLT-TV in [[Sarasota]], [[Florida]], she drew out a [[revolver]] and shot herself in the head.
*[[1977]]: [[Tom Pryce]], a [[Formula One]] driver, and a 19-year-old track marshal both died at the [[1977 South African Grand Prix]] after the marshal ran across the track beyond a blind brow to attend to another car and was struck by Pryce's car. Pryce was hit in the face by the marshal's [[fire extinguisher]] and killed instantly.
*[[1978]]: [[Georgi Markov]], a [[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] dissident, was assassinated by poisoning in [[London]] by an unknown assailant who shot him in the leg with a specially modified [[umbrella]] that fired a metal pellet with a small cavity full of [[ricin]] poison.
*[[1981]]: A 25-year-old Dutch woman studying in [[Paris]], Renée Hartevelt, was killed and [[cannibalism|eaten]] by a classmate, [[Issei Sagawa]], when he invited her to dinner for a literary conversation. The killer was declared unfit to stand trial and extradited back to [[Japan]], where he was released from custody within fifteen months.
*[[1982]]: [[Vic Morrow]], [[actor]], was [[decapitation|decapitated]] by [[helicopter]] blade during filming of ''[[Twilight Zone: The Movie]]'' and was killed instantly, along with two child actors.
*[[1982]]: [[Vladimir Smirnov (fencer)|Vladimir Smirnov]], an [[1980 Summer Olympics|Olympic champion]] [[Fencing|fencer]], died of [[brain damage]] nine days after his opponent's [[Foil (sword)|foil]] snapped during a match, pierced his [[eye]]ball and entered his [[brain]].
*[[1983]]: [[Sergei Chalibashvili]], a professional [[Diving|diver]], died after a diving accident during [[World University Games]]. When he attempted a three-and-a-half reverse [[somersault]] in the tuck position, he smashed his head on the board and was knocked unconscious. He died after being in a [[coma]] for a week.
*[[1983]]: [[Jessica Savitch]], [[NBC]] television news anchor, drowned after the car she was riding in fell into a canal, flipping over and sinking in mud, sealing the doors shut.
*[[1984]]: [[Jon-Erik Hexum]], an American television actor, died after he shot himself in the head with a prop gun during a break in filming. Whether he deliberately committed suicide or was simply unaware of the potentially deadly effects of the [[Blank (cartridge)|blank]] round was not determined.
*[[1986]]: [[Jane Dornacker]], a musician, actress and comedienne turned radio station traffic reporter, died after a helicopter owned by [[New York City|New York]]'s [[WFAN|WNBC-AM]] in which she was a passenger crashed into the [[Hudson River]]. The fatal crash occurred as Dornacker was delivering a traffic report, and was broadcast live on air. Her final words (to the helicopter pilot), "Hit the water! Hit the water! Hit the water!", were clearly heard by listeners.
*[[1987]]: [[Dick Shawn]], aged 63, an actor and comedian, died onstage on [[April 17]], during a [[monologue]] about the [[Holocaust]] in [[San Diego, California]]. Due to the nature of his act, audience members were at first unaware that he had suffered a massive [[heart attack]].
*[[1987]]: [[R. Budd Dwyer]], a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[politician]], committed [[suicide]] during a televised [[press conference]]. Facing a potential 55-year jail sentence for alleged involvement in a [[conspiracy]], Dwyer shot himself in the head with a [[revolver]].
*[[1989]]: A [[Belgian]] teenager was killed by a crashing soviet [[MiG-23]] fighter jet, which escaped from [[East Germany]] on [[autopilot]] after the crew ejected over a false engine failure alarm.
*[[1993]]: [[Brandon Lee]], the son of [[Bruce Lee]], was shot and killed by a prop [[.44 Magnum]] while filming the movie ''[[The Crow]]''. The scene involved the firing of a full-powder blank (full charge of gunpowder, but no bullet) at Brandon's character. However, unknown to the film crew/firearms technician, a bullet was already lodged in the barrel. The gun had previously been fired with a dummy round that had had all its gunpowder removed, but its primer charge left intact in error. The firing of the 'squib' lodged the bullet inside the barrel. When the full powder blank round was later fired, the bullet already in the barrel shot out and fatally wounded Lee.
*[[1996]]: A man known as "The Engineer", chief [[Palestinian territories|Palestinian]] bombmaker of [[Hamas]] and responsible for over 60 Israeli civilian casualties, was assassinated by way of a [[Shin Bet]] (Shabak) rigged mobile phone, which detonated when he answered a call.
*[[1998]]: [[Sani Abacha]], [[Nigeria]]n dictator, died at his residence in [[Abuja]] of a heart attack, rumored to have been caused by the ingestion of large quantities of the drug [[Viagra]] as a prelude to an [[orgy]].
*[[1999]]: [[Owen Hart]], [[World Wrestling Federation|WWF]] (now [[WWE]]) [[Professional wrestling|wrestler]], died when he fell 78 feet while being lowered into the [[ring]] by a cable from the stadium rafters before an upcoming match. He had been scheduled to win the [[WWF Intercontinental Championship]] that night.
*[[2001]]: [[June 1]], [[Crown Prince]] [[Dipendra of Nepal]], enraged from a dispute over his marriage arrangements (and possibly intoxicated), reportedly went on a rampage at dinner and massacred nearly the entire Royal Family, including [[Birendra of Nepal|his father the king]]. But in accordance with custom and tradition, Dipendra, then in a coma due to wounds sustained either from palace guards or a botched suicide attempt, became king for three days before dying on [[June 4]]. He was succeeded by [[Gyanendra of Nepal|his uncle]], [[Paras of Nepal|whose son]] mysteriously survived the massacre unscathed.
*[[2003]]: [[David Bloom]], [[NBC]] news reporter, died of a pulminary condition, [[DVT]], possibly caused by his long hours cramped in a troop carrier while reporting on the invasion of [[Iraq]].
*[[2003]]: [[Brian Wells]], [[pizza delivery]]man, was killed by a time [[explosive|bomb]] fastened to his neck. He was apprehended by the [[police]] for robbing a [[bank]], and claimed he had been forced to do it by three people who had put the bomb around his neck.
*[[2005]] - In [[Enumclaw]], WA. a [[Seattle]] man died of [[peritonitis]] after submitting to anal intercourse with a stallion. The man had done this before, though apparently this time his partner was a little too keen. The case may lead to the criminalization of [[bestiality]] in Washington. [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002569751_horsesex19m.html]

== See also ==

* [[Toilet-related injury]]
* [[List of people who died in the bathroom]]
* [[Darwin Awards]]

[[Category:Lists of people by cause of death|Unusual]]

[[nl:Lijst_van_personen_die_op_ongebruikelijke_manier_zijn_overleden]]

F Market & Wharves

2005-12-16T00:07:51Z

Jfruh: Revert -- this is already covered, with much more coherence, under Extensions

[[Image:San Francisco F line streetcars at Jones.jpg|thumb|right|240px|F Market PCC cars at Jones Street terminal. The lead car is a San Francisco double-ended car painted in honor of the Illinois Terminal railway]]
The '''F Market''' line is one of several [[light rail]] lines in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]]. Unlike the other LRV lines, the F line is operated as a [[heritage railway]] using exclusively historical equipment both from San Francisco's retired fleet as well as from cities around the world. While the F line is operated by the [[San Francisco Municipal Railway]], that operation is supported by the '''Market Street Railway''', a nonprofit organization of streetcar enthusiasts which raises funds and helps to restore vintage streetcars.

==Cars==
[[Image:San Francisco Peter Witt at foot of Market.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Former Milan Peter Witt streetcar turning into the foot of Market Street]]
[[Image:San Francisco 130 at foot of Market.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Veteran San Francisco streetcar 130 turning into the foot of Market Street]]
Included in the equipment are:

* [[PCC streetcar]]s from San Francisco, [[SEPTA|Philadelphia]], and [[Newark City Subway|Newark]], many painted in the color schemes of some past PCC streetcar operators including:
** [[Baltimore Transit Company]], in [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]]
** [[Chicago Transit Authority]], in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]
** [[Cincinnati Street Railway Company]], in [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]]
** [[Illinois Terminal Railroad]], in [[Illinois]]
** [[Kansas City Public Service Company]], in [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City, MO]]
** [[Los Angeles Railway]], in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]
** [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]], in [[Kentucky]]
** [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority]], in [[Boston]]
** Muni, in San Francisco
** [[Pacific Electric Railway]], in Los Angeles
** [[SEPTA Suburban Trolley Lines|Philadelphia Suburban Transportation Company]], in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]
** [[Philadelphia Transportation Company]], in Philadelphia

* [[Peter Witt streetcar]]s from [[Milan]] in [[Italy]]

* Other cars from:
** [[Blackpool tramway|Blackpool Tramway]], in [[Blackpool]], [[England]]
** [[Hamburger Hochbahn AG]], in [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]]
** [[Hankai Electric Rail Service Company]], in [[Osaka]], [[Japan]]
** [[Johnstown Traction Company]], in [[Johnstown, Pennsylvania|Johnstown]], [[Pennsylvania]]
** [[Kobe City Railways]], in [[Kobe]], [[Japan]]
** [[Market Street Railway Company]], in San Francisco
** [[Trams in Melbourne|Melbourne & Metropolitan Tramways Board]], in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]
** [[Moscow]], in [[Russia]]
** Muni, in San Francisco
** [[Porto]], in [[Portugal]]
** [[Brussels trams|STIB/MIVB]], in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]
** [[St. Charles Avenue Streetcar]], in [[New Orleans]]

(Not all cars are currently in service)

==Stations on the F Market line==
The trolleys operate continuously, reversing direction via loops at the ends of the line. The stations and stops are as follows (transfers to other rail transit are noted):
* Jones and Beach (near Piers 45 and 47, the waterfront end of the Powell/Hyde [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line, and the [[San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park|San Francisco Maritime Museum]])
* Jefferson and Taylor (only when '''approaching''' Jones)
* Beach and Mason (only when '''departing''' from Jones, near the Waterfront end of the Powell/Mason [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line))
* Jefferson and Powell (only when '''approaching''' Jones)
* Beach and Stockton (only when '''departing''' from Jones)
* Jefferson and the Embarcadero (near [[Pier 39]])
* Bay and the Embarcadero
* Chestnut and the Embarcadero
* Greenwich and the Embarcadero (near the ''Filbert steps'')
* Green and the Embarcadero(near the ''Fog City Diner'')
* Broadway and the Embarcadero
* Washington and the Embarcadero
* Ferry Terminal/Market and the Embarcadero
* Don Chee Way and Steuart

: At this point, the line leaves the [[Embarcadero, San Francisco|Embarcadero]] and turns southwest, passing briefly through a private [[right of way]] that has been designated as Don Chee Way before coming onto [[Market Street, San Francisco|Market Street]]. Here also is a turning loop capable of turning cars coming off either the Embarcadero or Market Street, and a non-revenue connection to the lines of the [[Muni Metro]] [[N Judah]] line further east along the Embarcadero. The nonprofit Market Street Railway will be opening a museum and gift store celebrating San Francisco's historic streetcars and cable cars adjacent to the Steuart Street stop in the first quarter of [[2006]].

* Main and Drumm (near the Embarcadero end of the California Street [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line, and the [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] [[Embarcadero Station]])
* 1st and Battery
* 2nd and Sansome
* Montgomery (near the [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] [[Montgomery Street Station]])
* 3rd and Kearny
* 4th and Stockton
* 5th and Powell (near the Market Street end of the Powell/Hyde and Powell/Mason [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] lines, and the [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] [[Powell Street Station]])
* 6th and Taylor
* 7th and Jones
* 8th and Hyde (near the [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] [[Civic Center Station (San Francisco)|Civic Center Station]])
* 9th and Larkin
* Van Ness ([[U.S. Highway 101]]; near the [[Muni Metro]] [[Van Ness Station]])
* Haight and Gough
* Laguna and Guerrero
* Dolores and Duboce
* 14th and Church (near the [[Muni Metro]] [[Church Street Station (San Francisco)|Church Street Station]])
* 15th and Sanchez
* 16th and Noe
* 17th and Castro (near the [[Muni Metro]] [[Castro Street Station]] station)

==Extensions==
In [[March]] [[2000]], service on the F line began along a new extension on [[Embarcadero, San Francisco|The Embarcadero]] to [[Fisherman's Wharf]]. This extension bypasses the [[Transbay Terminal]], where service on the F was discontinued.

There are also plans to further extend heritage streetcar operation in San Francisco:

* From the foot of [[Market Street, San Francisco|Market Street]] to the [[Caltrain]] depot at Fourth and King Streets, using the existing non-revenue connection with existing [[Muni Metro]] tracks on the [[Embarcadero, San Francisco|Embarcadero]] east of Market, then sharing those tracks with [[N Judah]] line. Other than a turning loop at the terminal, this would require no additional tracks, and was scheduled for introduction in [[2004]]. The latest predicted tentative date for the start of service is late summer [[2006]].{{ref|starte}}

* From the vicinity of the existing Jones Street terminal, across the front of the [[San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park|San Francisco Maritime Museum]] beside [[Aquatic Park]], and then through an existing but disused railroad tunnel to [[Fort Mason]]. This is a rather longer term possibility.

If and when these extensions happen, the intention is to operate them with a new heritage streetcar line E, leaving the F to operate on its current route.

==Trivia==
* The cars of the F Market line contain typical advertising from their places and times of origin.

* The F Market line operates a car dedicated to [[Herb Caen]], the noted columnist for the [[San Francisco Chronicle]] perhaps most famous for coining the phrase ''[[Baghdad]] by the Bay'' to describe The City. The car contains wood paneling and is decorated with many quotes from Caen.

* In the [[Clint Eastwood]] film ''[[Dirty Harry]]'', Harry Callahan runs through the railroad tunnel under [[Fort Mason]], emerging at the eastern portal facing [[Aquatic Park]]. This is the tunnel which may be used in one of the future extensions of the historic streetcar line(s).

==References==
* {{note|starte}} Morgan, S.J. ([[2005]]). ''System News''. ''Tramways & Urban Transit: November 2005''. [[Light Rail Transit Association]] and [[Ian Allan Publishing Ltd]].

==External links==
* [http://www.streetcar.org Market Street Railway website]
*[http://transit.511.org/providers/maps/SF_923200345630.pdf Muni Metro and San Francisco rail map (195KB PDF)]
*[http://fusion.sims.berkeley.edu/MuniMap/prototype/lineDetail.cfm?lineNum=F F Market route information from the SF Muni Map Project]
*[http://www.transit-rider.com/ca.bayarea/muni.cfm?id=f Transit Rider Photos]

[[Category:San Francisco Municipal Railway]]
[[Category:Heritage streetcar systems]]
[[Category:Presently operating light rail or streetcars in the United States]]

Südwest-Territorium

2005-11-02T22:14:56Z

Jfruh: Should say that this territory was the immediate predeccessor Tennessee in the lede

The '''Southwest Territory''', also known as the '''Territory South of the River Ohio''', was an [[organized territory]] of the [[United States]] formed on [[May 26]], [[1790]]; six years later, the territory would become the state of [[Tennessee]]. [[North Carolina]] had claimed this land, but as a condition of joining the Union, it gave up its claim to this land under an act passed by the [[North Carolina General Assembly]], submitted to the [[1st Congress|First U.S. Congress]] on [[February 25]], [[1790]] and accepted by Congress on [[April 2]], [[1790]]. The ordinance establishing the Southwest Territory was patterned after the [[Northwest Ordinance]] which established the [[Northwest Territory]] in [[1787]].

Although called the Territory South of the [[Ohio River]] (and east of the [[Mississippi River]]), it did not include what is now [[Kentucky]], which was still a part of [[Virginia]] and was already in the process of becoming a state. It also did not include land south of what is now [[Tennessee]], as some of that land was still claimed by [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and the rest was disputed with [[Spain]]. (The land south of Tennessee was later organized as the [[Mississippi Territory]].)

Before becoming a territory, several counties were organized as western counties of North Carolina between 1777 and 1778. After the [[American Revolution|Revolution]], North Carolina was preoccupied with the aftermath of the war and was not very diligent about maintaining the distant counties, which were frequently beset by hostile [[Native Americans|Native American]] tribes, and needed forts, safe roads, and open waterways. The weak federal government under the [[Articles of Confederation]] was in no position to help either, so in [[1784]] these counties formed the breakaway [[State of Franklin]]. [[John Sevier]] was named governor and the area began operating as an independent, although unrecognized, state. At about the same time, settlers in the other parts of the state were making overtures for an alliance with Spain, which controlled the lower Mississippi. North Carolina began to reassert control, and the State of Franklin quietly ceased to exist in [[1788]].

When North Carolina ratified the [[U.S. Constitution]] in [[1789]], it also ceded its claim to territory west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]]. Upon formation of the Southwest Territory, President [[George Washington]] appointed [[William Blount]] as territorial governor. Blount founded [[Knoxville, Tennessee|Knoxville]] as the territorial capital. Land speculation was a booming business in the new territory and most of the prominent politicians had a stake in things. Expanding white settlements inevitably encroached upon Native American lands, despite government prohibitions. In [[1792]], [[Cherokee]] and [[Creek (people)|Creek]] warriors attacked settlements in the Cumberland area. Settlers in this area formed a local militia and in the [[Nickajack Expedition]] of [[1794]] took it upon themselves to raze several [[Chickamauga]] villages. Threats of similar actions against the Creek brought a period of reapproachment with the native tribes.

When Congress organized the Southwest Territory, it had legislated that all of the provisions of the [[Northwest Ordinance]] (except those restricting slavery) would apply ''mutatis mutandis'' to the Southwest Territory. In particular, section 12 stated that once a Territorial Legislature was formed, it could elect a non-voting delegate to the United States Congress. So, on [[September 3]], [[1794]], the territorial government chose [[James White (politician)|James White]] to be its delegate to Congress. This was much more controversial than it might at first appear: the Northwest Ordinance had been passed by the unicameral Congress under the [[Articles of Confederation]], and it was not obvious whether this delegate would be a member of the House, Senate, or both. Moreover, there were doubts about the constitutionality of such a delegate. Nonetheless, on [[November 18]], a week after White's credentials were presented to the House and after two days of debate, White became the first [[Delegate (United States Congress)|Delegate to the House of Representatives]]. He would be the only Delegate from the Southwest Territory.

In [[1795]], a [[census]] revealed there were enough people to petition for statehood and a referendum showed a three-to-one majority in favor of becoming a state. Governor Blount convened a [[constitutional convention (political meeting)|constitutional convention]] and delegates drafted a state constitition. Voters elected Sevier as governor and the new legislature selected Blount and [[William Cocke]] as [[U.S. Senator]]s and [[Andrew Jackson]] as the [[U.S. Representative]].

The Southwest Territory was the first federal territory to petition to join the Union and there was some dissension in the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] about how to proceed. Nonetheless, Tennessee was admitted to the Union on [[June 1]], [[1796]] as the 16th [[U.S. state]]. The Southwest Territory ceased to exist at that point.

Note: The historic Southwest Territory should not be confused with the [[Southwestern United States]] of today.

==See also==
*[[State cessions]]

==External links==
*[http://www.tngenweb.org/tnletters/territories/sw-terr.html Southwest Territory 1790-1796]

[[Category:U.S. historical regions and territories]]
[[Category:Tennessee history]]

Exarchat von Ravenna

2005-06-16T20:35:04Z

Jfruh: Eliminate redirect

The '''Exarchate of Ravenna''' was a center of [[Byzantine]] power in Italy, from the end of the [[6th century]] to [[751]] A.D., when the last [[Exarch]] was put to death by the Emperor's enemies in Italy, the [[Lombards]]. The Western emperors had abandoned Rome first for Milan and then, with [[Emperor Honorius|Honorius]] for [[Ravenna]] in [[402]] ([[404]]?). The city remained the capital of the Western Roman Empire until its dissolution in [[476]], when it became the capital of [[Odoacer]], then of the [[Ostrogoth]]s, but in [[540]] at the close of the [[Goths|Gothic Wars]], Ravenna was occupied by the great Byzantine general [[Belisarius]]. Subsequently, under the exigencies of the Lombard invasion, which began in 568, Ravenna was made the seat of an imperial [[exarch]]ate. Thus the Exarchate was formed and organized during the reign of the Eastern emperor [[Maurice_%28emperor%29|Maurice]] (582 - 602), when the imperial government began to recognize the necessity of providing for a new and a long struggle.

The civil and military head of these imperial possessions, the exarch himself, was the representative at Ravenna of the emperor in Constantinople. The surrounding territory reached from the boundary with [[Venice]] in the north to the Pentapolis at Rimini, the border of the "five cities" in the [[Marches]] along the Adriatic coast. All this territory lies on the eastern flank of the Apennines; this was under the exarch's direct administration and formed the Exarchate in the strictest sense. Surrounding territories were governed by dukes and ''magistri militium'' more or less subject to his authority. From the perspective of Constantinople, the Exarchate consisted of the province of Italy.

The Exarchate of Ravenna was not the sole Byzantine province in Italy. Byzantine [[Sicily]] formed a separate government, and [[Corsica]] and [[Sardinia]], while they remained Byzantine, belonged to the [[Exarchate of Africa]].

The Lombards had their capital at [[Pavia]] and controlled the great valley of the Po. The Lombard wedge in Italy spread to the south, and established duchies at [[Duchy of Spoleto|Spoleto]] and [[Beneventum#Duchy of Benevento|Beneventum]]; they controlled the interior, while Byzantine governors more or less controlled the coasts.

The Piedmont, Lombardy, the interior mainland of Venetia, Tuscany and the interior of Naples belonged to the Lombards, and bit by bit the Imperial representative in Italy lost all genuine power, though in name he controlled areas like Liguria (completely lost in 640 to the Lombards), or Naples and Calabria (being overrun by the Lombard duchy of Benevento). In Rome, the pope was the real master.

At the end, ''ca'' 740, the Exarchate consisted of Istria, Venetia (except for the lagoon of [[Venice]] itself, which was becoming an independent protected city-state, the forerunner of the future republic of Venice), [[Ferrara]], Ravenna (the exarchate in the limited sense), with the Pentapolis, and [[Perugia]].

These fragments of the province of Italy, as it was when reconquered for [[Justinian]], were almost all lost, either to the Lombards, who finally conquered Ravenna itself about 750, or by the revolt of the pope, who finally separated from the Empire on the issue of the [[Iconoclasm|iconoclastic reforms]]. When in [[756]] the Franks drove the Lombards out, [[Pope Stephen II]] claimed the exarchate. His ally [[Pepin III]], King of the Franks, donated the conquered lands of the former exarchate to the Papacy in [[756]]; this donation, which was confirmed by his son [[Charlemagne]] in [[774]], marked the beginning of the temporal power of the popes as the [[Patrimony of Saint Peter]]. The archbishoprics within the former exarchate, however, had developed traditions of local secular power and independence, which contributed to the fragmenting localization of powers. Three centuries later, that independence would fuel the rise of the independent communes.

So the Exarchate disappeared, and the small remnants of the imperial possessions on the mainland, Naples and Calabria, passed under the authority of the [[Catapanate of Italy | Catapan of Italy]], and when Sicily was conquered by the Arabs in the [[10th century]] the remnants were erected into the ''themes'' of Calabria and Langobardia. Istria at the head of the Adriatic was attached to Dalmatia.

In its internal history the exarchate was subject to the splintering influences which were leading to the subdivision of sovereignty and the establishment of feudalism throughout Europe. Step by step, and in spite of the efforts of the emperors at Constantinople, the great imperial officials became local landowners, the lesser owners of land were increasingly kinsmen or at least associates of these officials, and new allegiances intruded on the sphere of imperial administration. Meanwhile the necessity for providing for the defence of the imperial territories against the Lombards led to the formation of local militias, who at first were attached to the imperial regiments, but gradually became independent, as they were recruited entirely locally. These armed men formed the ''exercitus romanae militiae'', who were the forerunners of the free armed burghers of the Italian cities of the middle ages. Other cities of the exarchate were organized on the same model.

[[it:Esarcato di Ravenna]]

[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]

Dschamschid ibn Abdullah

2005-04-13T16:35:24Z

Jfruh: typos

'''Jamshid bin Abdullah Al-Said''' (born [[September 16]], [[1929]] in Zanzibar) was the last [[Sultan of Zanzibar]]. He ruled [[Zanzibar]] from [[July 1]], [[1963]] to [[January 12]], [[1964]]. On [[December 19]], [[1963]], Zanzibar received its independence from the [[United Kingdom]] as a constitutional monarchy under Jamshid. This state of affairs was short-lived, and in January [[1964]], he was overthrown. He went to exile to [[Great Britain]].

Jamshid has been married twice, and has seven children:
*Prince Sayyid Ali bin Jamshid Al-Said
*Prince Sayyid Khalifa bin Jamshid Al-Said
*Princess Sayyida Matuqa bint Jamshid Al-Said (1957-)
*Prince Sayyid Abdullah bin Jamshid Al-Said
*Prince Sayyid Wasfi bin Jamshid Al-Said (1972-)
*Princess Sayyida Adla bint Jamshid Al-Said
*Prince Sayyid Gharib bin Jamshid Al-Said

{{PeerNavbox |
Title=Sultan of [[Zanzibar]] |
Prev=[[Abdullah bin Khalifa of Zanzibar|Abdullah bin Khalifa]] |
Next=N/A
}}

{{bio-stub}}

[[Category:1929 births]]
[[Category:Sultans of Zanzibar|Jamshid bin Abdullah Al-Said]]

F Market & Wharves

2005-02-08T06:02:08Z

Jfruh:

The '''F Market''' line is one of several [[light rail]] lines operated by [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]]'s [[San Francisco Muni|Muni]]. Unlike the other LRV lines, the F Market line is operated as a [[heritage railway]] using exclusively historical equipment both from San Francisco's retired fleet as well as from cities around the world.

Included in the equipment are:
* [[PCC streetcar]]s from:
** San Francisco
** [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]
** [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]
** [[Illinois]]
** [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]
** [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City, MO]]
** [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]]
** [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]
** [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]]
** [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]]

* Many "Peter Witt" cars from [[Milan, Italy]]

* Other cars from:
** [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] (Older cars from Muni and other S.F. railways)
** [[Moscow, Russia]]
** [[Osaka, Japan]]
** [[Porto, Portugal]]
** [[Blackpool, England]]
** [[Johnstown, Pennsylvania]]
** [[Melbourne, Australia]]
** [[Kobe, Japan]]
** [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]
** [[Hamburg, Germany]]
** [[Brussels, Belgium]]

(Not all cars are currently in service.)

Muni operates a large electric [[trolleybus]] fleet whose catenaries are compatible with the overhead cables that power F Market streetcars. These buses are occasionally pressed into service on the F Market line, particularly if a streetcar has broken down somewhere on the track and other streetcars cannot get around it.

==Stations on the F Market line==
The trolleys operate continuously, reversing direction at the ends of the line. The stations are as follows (transfers to other rail transit are noted):
* Jones (near Piers 45 and 47 and the Waterfront end of the Powell/Hyde [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line)
* Taylor (only when '''approaching''' Jones)
* Mason (only when '''departing''' from Jones, near the Waterfront end of the Powell/Mason [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line))
* Stockton (only when '''departing''' from Jones)
* Pier 39 (near [[Fisherman's Wharf]])
* Bay
* Chestnut
* Greenwich (near the ''Filbert steps'')
* Green (near the ''Fog City Diner'')
* Broadway
* Washington
* Ferry Terminal
* Steuart

: At this point, the line leaves the [[Embarcadero]] and turns southwest, passing briefly through a private [[right of way]] before coming onto [[Market Street, San Francisco|Market Street]].

* Main and Drumm (near the Embarcadero end of the California Street [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line, and the Embarcadero [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 1st and Battery
* 2nd and Montgomery (near the Montgomery [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 3rd and Kearny
* 4th and Stockton
* 5th and Powell (near the Market Street end of the Powell/Hyde and Powell/Mason [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] lines, and the Powell [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 6th and Taylor
* 7th and Jones
* 8th and Hyde (near the Civic Center [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 9th and Larkin
* Van Ness ([[U.S. Highway 101]]; near the Van Ness [[Muni Metro]] station)
* Haight and Gough
* Laguna and Guerrero
* Delores and Duboce
* 14th and Church
* 15th and Sanchez (near the Church Street [[Muni Metro]] station)
* 16th and Noe
* 17th and Castro (near the Castro [[Muni Metro]] station)

==Trivia==
The cars of the F Market line contain typical advertising from their places and times of origin.

The F Market line operates a car dedicated to [[Herb Caen]], the noted columnist for the [[San Francisco Chronicle]] perhaps most famous for coining the phrase ''[[Baghdad]] by the Bay'' to describe The City. The car contains wood paneling and is decorated with many quotes from Cain.

==External links==
* [http://www.streetcar.org Official website of the F Market Historic Streetcar Line]

{{stub}}

F Market & Wharves

2005-02-08T06:00:46Z

Jfruh: Info on occasional use of trolleybuses on the F line

The '''F Market''' line is one of several [[light rail]] lines operated by [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]]'s [[San Francisco Muni|Muni]]. Unlike the other LRV lines, the F Market line is operated as a [[heritage railway]] using exclusively historical equipment both from San Francisco's retired fleet as well as from cities around the world.

Included in the equipment are:
* [[PCC streetcar]]s from:
** San Francisco
** [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]
** [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]
** [[Illinois]]
** [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]
** [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City, MO]]
** [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]]
** [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]
** [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]]
** [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]]

* Many "Peter Witt" cars from [[Milan, Italy]]

* Other cars from:
** [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] (Older cars from Muni and other S.F. railways)
** [[Moscow, Russia]]
** [[Osaka, Japan]]
** [[Porto, Portugal]]
** [[Blackpool, England]]
** [[Johnstown, Pennsylvania]]
** [[Melbourne, Australia]]
** [[Kobe, Japan]]
** [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]
** [[Hamburg, Germany]]
** [[Brussels, Belgium]]

(Not all cars are currently in service.)

Muni operates a large electric [[trolleybus]] fleet whose catenaries are compatible with the overhead cables that power F Market streetcars. As a result, these buses are sometimes pressed into service on the F Market line, usually if a streetcar has broken down somewhere on the track and other streetcars cannot get around it.

==Stations on the F Market line==
The trolleys operate continuously, reversing direction at the ends of the line. The stations are as follows (transfers to other rail transit are noted):
* Jones (near Piers 45 and 47 and the Waterfront end of the Powell/Hyde [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line)
* Taylor (only when '''approaching''' Jones)
* Mason (only when '''departing''' from Jones, near the Waterfront end of the Powell/Mason [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line))
* Stockton (only when '''departing''' from Jones)
* Pier 39 (near [[Fisherman's Wharf]])
* Bay
* Chestnut
* Greenwich (near the ''Filbert steps'')
* Green (near the ''Fog City Diner'')
* Broadway
* Washington
* Ferry Terminal
* Steuart

: At this point, the line leaves the [[Embarcadero]] and turns southwest, passing briefly through a private [[right of way]] before coming onto [[Market Street, San Francisco|Market Street]].

* Main and Drumm (near the Embarcadero end of the California Street [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line, and the Embarcadero [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 1st and Battery
* 2nd and Montgomery (near the Montgomery [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 3rd and Kearny
* 4th and Stockton
* 5th and Powell (near the Market Street end of the Powell/Hyde and Powell/Mason [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] lines, and the Powell [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 6th and Taylor
* 7th and Jones
* 8th and Hyde (near the Civic Center [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 9th and Larkin
* Van Ness ([[U.S. Highway 101]]; near the Van Ness [[Muni Metro]] station)
* Haight and Gough
* Laguna and Guerrero
* Delores and Duboce
* 14th and Church
* 15th and Sanchez (near the Church Street [[Muni Metro]] station)
* 16th and Noe
* 17th and Castro (near the Castro [[Muni Metro]] station)

==Trivia==
The cars of the F Market line contain typical advertising from their places and times of origin.

The F Market line operates a car dedicated to [[Herb Caen]], the noted columnist for the [[San Francisco Chronicle]] perhaps most famous for coining the phrase ''[[Baghdad]] by the Bay'' to describe The City. The car contains wood paneling and is decorated with many quotes from Cain.

==External links==
* [http://www.streetcar.org Official website of the F Market Historic Streetcar Line]

{{stub}}

F Market & Wharves

2005-02-08T05:54:42Z

Jfruh: /* Stations on the F Market line */ Added transfer info

The '''F Market''' line is one of several [[light rail]] lines operated by [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]]'s [[San Francisco Muni|Muni]]. Unlike the other LRV lines, the F Market line is operated as a [[heritage railway]] using exclusively historical equipment both from San Francisco's retired fleet as well as from cities around the world.

Included in the equipment are:
* [[PCC streetcar]]s from:
** San Francisco
** [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]
** [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]
** [[Illinois]]
** [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]
** [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City, MO]]
** [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]]
** [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]
** [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]]
** [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]]

* Many "Peter Witt" cars from [[Milan, Italy]]

* Other cars from:
** [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] (Older cars from Muni and other S.F. railways)
** [[Moscow, Russia]]
** [[Osaka, Japan]]
** [[Porto, Portugal]]
** [[Blackpool, England]]
** [[Johnstown, Pennsylvania]]
** [[Melbourne, Australia]]
** [[Kobe, Japan]]
** [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]
** [[Hamburg, Germany]]
** [[Brussels, Belgium]]

(Not all cars are currently in service.)

==Stations on the F Market line==
The trolleys operate continuously, reversing direction at the ends of the line. The stations are as follows (transfers to other rail transit are noted):
* Jones (near Piers 45 and 47 and the Waterfront end of the Powell/Hyde [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line)
* Taylor (only when '''approaching''' Jones)
* Mason (only when '''departing''' from Jones, near the Waterfront end of the Powell/Mason [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line))
* Stockton (only when '''departing''' from Jones)
* Pier 39 (near [[Fisherman's Wharf]])
* Bay
* Chestnut
* Greenwich (near the ''Filbert steps'')
* Green (near the ''Fog City Diner'')
* Broadway
* Washington
* Ferry Terminal
* Steuart

: At this point, the line leaves the [[Embarcadero]] and turns southwest, passing briefly through a private [[right of way]] before coming onto [[Market Street, San Francisco|Market Street]].

* Main and Drumm (near the Embarcadero end of the California Street [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] line, and the Embarcadero [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 1st and Battery
* 2nd and Montgomery (near the Montgomery [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 3rd and Kearny
* 4th and Stockton
* 5th and Powell (near the Market Street end of the Powell/Hyde and Powell/Mason [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] lines, and the Powell [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 6th and Taylor
* 7th and Jones
* 8th and Hyde (near the Civic Center [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]]/[[Muni Metro]] station)
* 9th and Larkin
* Van Ness ([[U.S. Highway 101]]; near the Van Ness [[Muni Metro]] station)
* Haight and Gough
* Laguna and Guerrero
* Delores and Duboce
* 14th and Church
* 15th and Sanchez (near the Church Street [[Muni Metro]] station)
* 16th and Noe
* 17th and Castro (near the Castro [[Muni Metro]] station)

==Trivia==
The cars of the F Market line contain typical advertising from their places and times of origin.

The F Market line operates a car dedicated to [[Herb Caen]], the noted columnist for the [[San Francisco Chronicle]] perhaps most famous for coining the phrase ''[[Baghdad]] by the Bay'' to describe The City. The car contains wood paneling and is decorated with many quotes from Cain.

==External links==
* [http://www.streetcar.org Official website of the F Market Historic Streetcar Line]

{{stub}}