Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Meri Avidzba

2020-09-22T15:34:08Z

JHunterJ: spnd

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Meri Avidzba
| image = Meri_Avidzba.jpg
| birth_date = 24 January 1917
| death_date = 12 April 1986
| birth_place = [[Abkhazia]], [[Russian Empire]]
| death_place = [[Sukhumi]], [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic|Georgian SSR]], [[Soviet Union]]
| allegiance = {{USSR}}
| branch = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Soviet Air Force.svg}} [[Soviet Air Force]]
| serviceyears = 1941–45
| rank = Lieutenant
| unit = [[46th Guards Night Bomber Aviation Regiment]]
| battles = [[World War II]]
| awards = [[Order of the Patriotic War]]
| laterwork = Deputy of the Supreme Soviet of Abkhazia
}}

'''Meri Hafizovna Avidzba''' ({{Lang-ru|Мери Хафизовна Авидзба}}; 24 January 1917{{spnd}}12 April 1986) was a Soviet military pilot and navigator and was the first female aviator from [[Abkhazia]]. She was awarded two medals for her actions in the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Great Patriotic War]] (1941–1945), where she served as a navigator of the 46th Taman Guards Night Bomber Aviation Regiment, known by the Germans as the ''[[Night Witches]]''. Later in her life, she was elected a Deputy of the Supreme Soviet of Abkhazia.

== Biography ==
Avidzba and her twin sister [[Hadzhera Avidzba|Hadzhera]] were born on 24 January 1917.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Fearless navigator Meri Avidzba|url=https://abaza.org/en/fearless-navigator-meri-avidzba|access-date=27 July 2020|website=abaza.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Meri Avidzba|url=https://www.abaza.org/en/tag/meri-avidzba|access-date=27 July 2020|website=www.abaza.org|language=en}}</ref> She attended [[Sukhumi]] School No. 10.<ref name=":0" /> When Victor Argun, the first male Abkhazian pilot,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Сухумский аэропорт|url=https://abkhazia.travel/what-to-see/detail/gulripshsky-district/sukhumi-airport.html|access-date=27 July 2020|website=abkhazia.travel|language=ru}}</ref> came to recruit aviators, Avidzba initially missed the opportunity.<ref name=":0" /> She later joined the Red Banner School of the Civil Air Fleet in [[Bataysk]].<ref name=":0" />

After graduating from Bataysk's Flight School, she joined Sukhum Flying Club as an instructor and worked there until it closed in 1939.<ref name=":0" /> On 18 August 1936 she flew a demonstration flight in front of spectators to prove her piloting abilities.<ref name=":0" /> On 30 December 1936 she circled her plane in a [[flypast]] over the funeral of Abkhazian communist leader [[Nestor Lakoba]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gregory, Paul R.,|first=|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/859581817|title=Women of the Gulag : portraits of five remarkable lives|publisher=|year=|isbn=0-8179-1576-1|location=Stanford, California|pages=59|oclc=859581817}}</ref>

== Military career ==
In 1939, Avidzba joined the Military Medical Academy in [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]]; when she heard that war was due to be declared she volunteered to transfer to the fighter aircraft training school in [[Perm]].<ref name=":0" /> This transition required Avidzba to appeal to the military authorities in order to be transferred.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harris|first=Adrienne|url=https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/handle/1808/4136/umi-ku-2564_1.pdf.txt|title=THE MYTH OF THE WOMAN WARRIOR AND WORLD WAR II IN SOVIET CULTURE|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> From Perm she moved to the military air school in [[Engels, Saratov Oblast|Engels]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1941, she was posted to the Finnish border, where she flew biplanes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Уроженцы Абхазии в Ленинградской битве 1941–1944|url=https://polk.press/news/stranicy-istorii/urozhency-abhazii-v-leningradskoj-bitve-1941-1944|access-date=27 July 2020|website=polk.press|language=ru}}</ref> In December 1942, Avidzba was posted to the Caucasus region, as a navigator in the 46th Guards Light Bomber Night Aviation Regiment of the 4th Air Army of the 2nd Belarusian Front – beginning her career in the ''[[Night Witches]]''.<ref name=":0" /> Here she was under the command of [[Polina Makogon]] and [[Lydia Svistunova]], where she benefited from their instruction and was quickly undertaking solo combat missions.<ref name=":0" />

In February 1943, she flew with Polina Makogon on a mission, where their three sorties repeatedly bombed the Germans in one night.<ref name=":0" /> In September 1943, on a mission to bomb the port of Taman, Avidzba noticed that the Germans were relocating their forces – she reported the reconnaissance findings from her flight to her commanders, who welcomed and acted on this previously unknown intelligence.<ref name=":0" />

In 1944, Avidzba's aircraft was hit by enemy fire, and her spine was severely injured.<ref name=":0" /> This injury led to some partial paralysis, which was successfully treated with an operation seven years later.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title="Ночная ведьма" из Абхазии|url=https://sputnik-abkhazia.ru/Abkhazia/20170124/1020284594/nochnaya-vedma-iz-abxazii.html|access-date=27 July 2020|website=Sputnik Абхазия|language=ru}}</ref>

During the war, Avidzba flew 477 combat sorties, totalling over 1000 hours of time in the air and dropped 63,000 tons of bombs onto the enemy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Адвидзба Мери|url=http://tamanskipolk46.narod.ru/p31aa1.html|access-date=27 July 2020|website=tamanskipolk46.narod.ru}}</ref> She fought in the North Caucasus, as well as on the [[4th Ukrainian Front|4th Ukrainian]] and [[2nd Belorussian Front|2nd Belorussian]] fronts.<ref name=":2" /> She participated in the liberation of Crimea, Ukraine and Poland.<ref name=":2" /> She crossed the front lines on 954 occasions.<ref name=":1" /> Sadly, her brother Koka was killed in the war, and she wrote to her parents about how her work as a pilot avenged his death.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Абхазия в ВОВ|url=http://page5767048.html/|access-date=27 July 2020|website=page5767048.html}}</ref>

== Later life ==
After the end of the war, Avidzba returned to Sukhumi, where she was active in the community, particularly in memorialising the Second World War, as well as being a governor of the school.<ref name=":0" /> She was also elected a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of Abkhazia.<ref name=":1" /> During her lifetime she was awarded the Orders of the Patriotic War (First and Second Degrees), the "For Defence of the Caucasus" Medal and the "For Victory over Germany" Medal.<ref name=":0" />

Avidzba died on 12 April 1986 in Sukhumi.<ref name=":0" />

== Legacy ==
Avidzba is remembered on stamps issued by the Republic of Abkhazia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Enveloping rage: Georgia starts a postal war with Abkhazia|url=https://www.rt.com/news/enveloping-rage-georgia-starts-a-postal-war-with-abkhazia/|access-date=27 July 2020|website=RT International|language=en}}</ref> Her military papers, flying scarf and other items from her career as pilot were donated by her to the [[Abkhaz State Museum]].<ref name=":1" /> There is also a bust of her on display there.<ref>{{Cite web|title=В небе "ночная ведьма" – Мери Авидзба|url=https://zen.yandex.ru/media/putevye_zametki/v-nebe-nochnaia-vedma-meri-avidzba-5cd15fff53522200b0d6a0d5|access-date=27 July 2020|website=Яндекс Дзен {{!}} Платформа для авторов, издателей и брендов|language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
*Film on [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5U12lP85L4 Meri Avidzba's Life] (in Russian)

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Avidzba, Meri}}
[[Category:1917 births]]
[[Category:1986 deaths]]
[[Category:Abkhaz women in politics]]
[[Category:Female aviators]]
[[Category:Abkhaz military personnel]]
[[Category:People from Sukhumi]]
[[Category:Soviet Air Force officers]]

Jitse Groen

2020-06-16T12:48:56Z

JHunterJ: clean up, replaced: 1 billion → 1 billion (2)

{{short description|Dutch businessman}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jitse Groen
| image = TNW Conference 2015 - Day 2 (17242478002) (cropped).jpg
| caption = Jitse Groen, 2015
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1978}}<ref name=MT/>
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = Dutch
| citizenship =
| education = [[University of Twente]]
| occupation = Businessman
| known for =
| home_town =
| networth = US$1.7 billion (May 2020)<ref name="Forbes profile">{{cite web |title=Forbes profile: Jitse Groen |url=https://www.forbes.com/profile/jitse-groen/ |website=Forbes |accessdate=25 May 2020}}</ref>
| title = Founder and CEO, [[Just Eat Takeaway|Takeaway.com]]
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| boards =
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| parents =
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| website =
}}

'''Jitse Groen''' (born 1978)<ref name=MT/> is a Dutch billionaire businessman and the founder of [[Just Eat Takeaway|Takeaway.com]]. He is the current chief executive of Takeaway.com, and, since 2020, he is also the chief executive of [[Just Eat]] following its merger with Takeaway.com.

==Career==

Groen founded [[Just Eat Takeaway|Takeaway.com]] (originally known as Thuisbezorgd.nl) in 2000,<ref name="Forbes newest">{{cite news |last1=Sachmechi |first1=Natalie |title=Meet the World's 178 Newest Billionaires |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/nataliesachmechi/2020/04/07/meet-this-years-newest-billionaires-178-newcomers-worth-369-billion/ |accessdate=24 May 2020}}</ref> at the age of 21.<ref name=BI>{{cite news| url= https://www.businessinsider.nl/jitse-groen-takeaway-aandeel-aex/| title= Jitse Groen is ruim €1,2 miljard waard, nu het aandeel van Takeaway op het hoogste punt ooit staat| language=nl| work=[[Business Insider]]| date=12 June 2019| accessdate=26 May 2020}}</ref> He was a student at the [[University of Twente]] at the time. He came up with the idea after being unable to get a takeaway delivery in [[North Holland]] for a birthday celebration with his family. The nearest options for takeaway delivery were in Amsterdam, which was about {{convert|60|km|mi}} away.<ref name=MT>{{cite news| url= https://www.mt.nl/business/manager-nieuws-jitse-groen-takeaway/540638| title= In het nieuws: Jitse Groen (CEO Takeaway.com)| language=nl| work=MT.nl| date=30 July 2018| accessdate=26 May 2020}}</ref> Thuisbezorgd.nl started in the Netherlands, and in 2012, Groen raised [[Euro|€]]13 million to expand Takeaway.com to other countries.<ref name=MT/> Groen took Takeaway.com public on the [[Euronext Amsterdam]] stock exchange in 2016,<ref name="Forbes newest"/> in order to fund expansion of Takeaway.com in Germany and other European countries.<ref name=MT/>

In 2018, Groen chose to increase the commission for using the platform from 12 to 13%.<ref name=MT/> In the same year, Groen took over Takeaway.com's main competitor in Germany,<ref name=BI/> [[Delivery Hero]].<ref name=RTV>{{cite news| url= https://www.rtvoost.nl/nieuws/324094/Oud-Enschedeer-Jitse-Groen-wereldwijd-op-een-na-grootste-in-maaltijdbezorging| title= Oud-Enschedeër Jitse Groen wereldwijd op een na grootste in maaltijdbezorging| language=nl| work=[[RTV Oost]]| date=10 January 2020| accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref> When Takeaway.com merged with British company [[Just Eat]] in 2020, Groen became chief executive of the merged organisation.<ref>{{cite news| url= https://www.irishtimes.com/business/agribusiness-and-food/takeaway-com-proposes-6bn-deal-to-gobble-up-just-eat-1.3970688| title= Takeaway.com proposes €6bn deal to gobble up Just Eat| work=[[The Irish Times]]| date=29 July 2019| accessdate=26 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url= https://www.ft.com/content/732f07b7-7fd0-4944-ac92-965c42bb5d88| title= Just Eat’s Peter Duffy takes top job at Moneysupermarket| work=[[Financial Times]]| url-access=subscription|date=15 May 2020| accessdate=26 May 2020}}</ref> Groen also owns 11.3% of the merged business;<ref>{{cite news| url= https://www.rtlz.nl/beurs/bedrijven/artikel/5122171/fors-hogere-bonus-voor-jitse-groen-just-eat-takeaway| title= Maximale bonussen Takeaway-topman Jitse Groen met bijna een miljoen verhoogd| language=nl| work=[[RTL Z]]| date=14 May 2020| accessdate=26 May 2020}}</ref> he previously owned 35% of Takeaway.com.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.businessinsider.nl/takeaway-oprichter-jitse-groen-verdient-een-bescheiden-e1-367-per-dag-maar-op-de-beurs-zn-vermogen-met-zon-e-1-miljoen-per-dag-gegroeid/| title= Takeaway-oprichter Jitse Groen verdient een bescheiden €1.367 per dag… maar op de beurs is z’n vermogen dagelijks met €1 miljoen gegroeid| language=nl| work=[[Business Insider]]| date=16 March 2018| accessdate=26 May 2020}}</ref> In 2017, ''[[Quote (magazine)|Quote]]'' magazine listed Groen as the Netherlands' richest self-made millionaire under 40.<ref name=DO>{{cite news| url= https://www.deondernemer.nl/actueel/jitse-groen-thuisbezorgd-miljardair~262477| title= Nederland is even een miljardair rijker: Thuisbezorgd-baas Jitse Groen| language=nl| work=[[De Ondernemer]]| date=24 August 2018| accessdate=26 May 2020}}</ref> In 2018, he became a billionaire, as the interest on his Takeaway.com shares was over 1 billion euros.<ref name=DO/>

==Personal life==
Groen has a bachelor's degree in Business Information Technology from the [[University of Twente]].<ref name="Forbes profile"/><ref name=MT/> Groen lives in the Netherlands.<ref name="Forbes profile"/> In 2017, he bought a 9 bedroom house in [[Noordwijk]] that had had a guide price of €10.25 million.<ref name=DO/> Few details about Groen's personal life are publicly known.<ref name=MT/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Groen, Jitse}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Dutch billionaires]]
[[Category:University of Twente alumni]]
[[Category:Dutch company founders]]
[[Category:1978 births]]

Elsa Dorfman

2020-06-01T14:22:03Z

JHunterJ: spnd

{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{short description|American portrait photographer}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Elsa Dorfman
| honorific_suffix =
| image = Elsa Dorfman (2005).jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Self-portrait of Elsa Dorfman in her studio
| native_name =
| height =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1937|4|26}}
| birth_place = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2020|5|30|1937|4|26}}
| death_place = Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.
| nationality = American
| ethnicity =
| religion =
| education =
| occupation = Photographer
| spouse = [[Harvey Silverglate]] (1976–2020)
| known_for =
| title =
| website =
}}

'''Elsa Dorfman''' (April 26, 1937{{spnd}}May 30, 2020) was an American portrait photographer. She worked in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]], and was known for her use of a [[Large format (photography)|large-format]] instant [[Instant camera|Polaroid]] camera.<ref name="instant karma">{{cite news|author=Mark Feeney |title=Instant karma |url=http://www.boston.com/ae/theater_arts/articles/2008/03/15/instant_karma/?page=full |work=The Boston Globe |date=March 16, 2008 |accessdate=March 15, 2014 }}</ref>

==Early life==
Dorfman was born in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]], on April 26, 1937, and was raised in [[Roxbury, Boston|Roxbury]] and [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton]].<ref name="Globe obit">{{cite news|title=Elsa Dorfman, photographer whose distinctive portraits illuminated her subjects and herself, dies at 83|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/05/30/metro/elsa-dorfman-photographer-whose-distinctive-portraits-illuminated-her-subjects-herself-dies-83/|first=Mark|last=Feeney|date=May 30, 2020|accessdate=May 30, 2020|newspaper=The Boston Globe|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531055327/https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/05/30/metro/elsa-dorfman-photographer-whose-distinctive-portraits-illuminated-her-subjects-herself-dies-83/|archivedate=May 31, 2020}}</ref><ref name=Becker>{{cite news|title=Cambridge Photographer Elsa Dorfman, Famous For Her Giant Polaroids, Dies At 83|url=https://www.wbur.org/news/2020/05/30/cambridge-photographer-elsa-dorfman-famous-for-her-giant-polaroids-dies-at-83|first=Deborah|last=Becker|date=May 30, 2020|accessdate=May 30, 2020|publisher=WBUR-FM}}</ref> She was the eldest of three daughters of Arthur and Elaine (Kovitz). Her father worked at a grocery chain as a produce buyer; her mother was a housewife.<ref name="Globe obit"/> Her family was of Jewish descent.<ref>{{cite news|title=Cheery 'B-Side' marks end of a photographer's era|url=https://archive.sltrib.com/article.php?id=5501385&itype=CMSID|first=Sean P.|last=Means|date=July 13, 2017|accessdate=May 31, 2020|newspaper=The Salt Lake Tribune}}</ref> She studied at [[Tufts University]], where she majored in French literature. During her junior year, she went on [[Student exchange program|exchange]] to Europe, where she worked in [[Brussels]] for [[Expo 58]] and lived in [[Paris]], living in the same student accommodation as [[Susan Sontag]].<ref name="Globe obit"/> Dorfman graduated in 1959 and subsequently moved to [[New York City]], where she was employed as a secretary by [[Grove Press]],<ref name="Globe obit"/> a leading Beat publisher.<ref>Dorfman explains her background in her ''Housebook'' [http://elsa.photo.net/housebook/the-camera.html#elsa The Camera] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901230210/http://elsa.photo.net/housebook/the-camera.html |date=September 1, 2006 }}</ref> When she returned to Boston, she pursued a [[master's degree]] in [[Primary education|elementary education]] at [[Boston College]]. After earning her degree, she spent a year teaching fifth grade at a school in [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]].<ref name="Globe obit"/>

==Work==
Calling herself the "Paterson Society", Dorfman began arranging readings for many Beat authors who had become friends, maintaining an active correspondence with them as they traveled the world. In 1963, she began working for the Educational Development Corporation whose photographer, George Cope, introduced her to photography in June 1965. She made her first sale two months later, in August 1965, for $25 of a photograph of [[Charles Olson]] which was used on the cover of his book ''The Human Universe''. Due to economic limitations, she did not buy her own camera until 1967, when she sent a check for $150 to [[Philip Whalen]] who was then in [[Kyoto]], Japan, and he in turn enlisted [[Gary Snyder]], who could speak [[Japanese language|Japanese]], to purchase the camera and mail it to her.<ref>{{cite news|title=An Interview With Elsa Dorfman|url=https://www.digitalphotopro.com/profiles/an-interview-with-elsa-dorfman/|first=Mark Edward|last=Harris|date=May 19, 2016|accessdate=May 31, 2020|magazine=Digital Photo Pro}}</ref> In May 1968, she moved into the Flagg Street house which would become the basis of her ''Housebook''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Elsa Dorfman discusses Elsa's Housebook: A Woman's Photojournal|url=http://www.harvard.com/event/elsa_dorfman/|date=October 25, 2012|accessdate=May 31, 2020|publisher=Harvard Book Store}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=kpI5AQAAIAAJ&q=%22elsa+dorfman%22+%22Flagg+Street%22+%22may+1968%22&dq=%22elsa+dorfman%22+%22Flagg+Street%22+%22may+1968%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjcufa5i97pAhWJu54KHQbsARIQ6AEIKDAA|title=Elsa's Housebook: A Woman's Photojournal|publisher=D. R. Godine|year=1974|last=Dorfman|first=Elsa|page=14|isbn=9780879230999}}</ref>

[[File:Allen Ginsberg and Bob Dylan by Elsa Dorfman.jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[Bob Dylan]] and [[Allen Ginsberg]], 1975]]
Dorfman's principal published work, originally published in 1974, was ''Elsa's Housebook – A Woman's Photojournal,''<ref>[http://elsa.photo.net/housebook/index.html Elsa Dorfman's Housebook] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060820092334/http://elsa.photo.net/housebook/index.html |date=August 20, 2006 }}</ref> a photographic record of family and friends who visited her in Cambridge when she lived there during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Many well known people, especially literary figures associated with the [[Beat generation]], are prominent in the book, including [[Lawrence Ferlinghetti]],<ref name=CCF>{{cite web|title=Cultural Visionary: Elsa Dorfman|url=http://cambridgecf.org/cultural-visionary-elsa-dorfman/|accessdate=May 31, 2020|publisher=Cambridge Community Foundation}}</ref> [[Allen Ginsberg]], [[Peter Orlovsky]], Gary Snyder, [[Gregory Corso]], and [[Robert Creeley]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Elsa Dorfman talks about ‘Housebook’|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/lifestyle/names/2012/10/26/elsa-dorfman-talks-about-housebook/JLVpExbEmIVP6zSYwAMbrO/story.html|first1=Mark|last1=Shanahan|first2=Meredith|last2=Goldstein|date=October 27, 2012|accessdate=May 30, 2020|newspaper=The Boston Globe}}</ref><ref name=Whyte>{{cite news|title=Elsa Dorfman looks back at 50 years on both sides of the camera|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/02/06/arts/elsa-dorfman-looks-back-50-years-both-sides-camera/|first=Murray|last=Whyte|date=February 6, 2020|accessdate=May 30, 2020|newspaper=The Boston Globe|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212145845/https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/02/06/arts/elsa-dorfman-looks-back-50-years-both-sides-camera/|archivedate=February 12, 2020}}</ref> in addition to people who would become notable in other fields, such as radical feminist [[Andrea Dworkin]],<ref name=CCF/> and civil rights lawyer [[Harvey Silverglate]] (who would become Dorfman's husband).<ref name="Globe obit"/> She also photographed staples of the Boston rock scene such as [[Jonathan Richman]],<ref name=Whyte/> frontman of The Modern Lovers, and [[Steven Tyler]] of Aerosmith.<ref name=CCF/>

She was known for her use of a [[Instant camera|Polaroid]] 20 by 24 inch camera (one of only six in existence),<ref>According to her web site [[FAQ]], [http://elsadorfman.com/camera.html Frequently Asked Questions about Elsa Dorfman's Portrait Photography on the Polaroid 20x24 Camera] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403121940/http://elsadorfman.com/camera.html |date=April 3, 2013 }}</ref> from which she created large prints. She photographed famous writers, poets, and musicians including [[Bob Dylan]] and [[Allen Ginsberg]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thejewishmuseum.org/onlinecollection/object_collection.php?objectid=33166&lefttxt=elsa%20dorfman |title=Allen Ginsberg on Flagg Street, 1973 at the Jewish Museum (New York) |publisher=Thejewishmuseum |date= |accessdate= }}{{dead link|date=December 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Indrisek |first1=Scott |title=The Polaroid Pioneer Who Shot Allen Ginsberg Naked Wants to Take Your Portrait |url=https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-polaroid-pioneer-shot-allen-ginsberg-naked-portrait |publisher=Artsey.net |accessdate=May 31, 2020}}</ref> Due to bankruptcy, the Polaroid Corporation entirely ceased production of its unique instant film products in 2008. Dorfman stocked up with a year's supply of her camera's last available 20 by 24 instant film.<ref name="instant karma" />

Dorfman's life and work were the subject of the 2016 documentary film ''The B-Side: Elsa Dorfman's Portrait Photography'', directed by [[Errol Morris]].<ref name="variety">{{cite magazine|author=Andrew Barker|title=Film Review: 'The B-Side: Elsa Dorfman’s Portrait Photography' |url= https://variety.com/2016/film/reviews/toronto-film-review-the-b-side-elsa-dorfmans-portrait-photography-1201859541/ |magazine=Variety |date=September 13, 2016 |accessdate=October 26, 2017}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Allen Ginsberg by Elsa Dorfman.jpg|[[Allen Ginsberg]]
Gail-mazur-and-gordon-cairnie-by-elsa-dorfman.jpg|Gail Mazur and Gordon Cairnie at [[Grolier Poetry Bookshop|Grolier]]
Denise-levertov.jpg|[[Denise Levertov]]
Anais Nin.jpg|[[Anaïs Nin]]
Bruce Cratsley And Mr Muffit.jpg|[[Bruce Cratsley]]
</gallery>

==Raising awareness==
Dorfman suggested elements of healing through her work in a variety of ways. She photographed terminal cancer patients, emphasizing their dignity. In 1995, she collaborated with graphic artist Marc A. Sawyer to illustrate the booklet ''40 Ways to Fight the Fight Against AIDS''. She photographed people, both with and without [[AIDS]], each engaged in one of forty activities that might help AIDS victims in their daily life. The photographs were exhibited 1995 at the Lotus Development Corporation in Cambridge, in [[Provincetown]] and in [[New York City]]. The artist donated the costs of producing the photographs for this project.<ref>Hoffmann, K. (1999). Elsa Dorfman: Portraits of Our Time. ''Woman's Art Journal Vol. 20, No. 2'', 1999, 28.</ref>

Dorfman co-starred in the documentary ''[[No Hair Day]]'' (1999) as she WAS taking the portraits of three women undergoing treatment for breast cancer.<ref name="Globe obit"/>

==Personal life and death==
In 1967, Dorfman met Harvey Silverglate, who was representing the defense in a drug trial. Dorfman thought the case could be the subject of a book and talked it over with him, after which Silverglate asked to take a portrait of him and his brother to give to their mother. They married nearly a decade later in 1976.<ref name="Globe obit"/> Together, they had one son, Isaac.<ref name=Whyte/>

Dorfman died on May 30, 2020, at her home in Cambridge. She was 83; according to her husband, she suffered kidney failure.<ref name="Globe obit"/><ref name=Becker/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*{{Official website|http://elsadorfman.com/ }}
*[http://openarchives.umb.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/p15774coll8/id/294/rec/49 Elsa Dorfman photographs, 1957-1970], University Archives and Special Collections, Joseph P. Healey Library, [[University of Massachusetts Boston]]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dorfman, Elsa}}
[[Category:1937 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:Artists from Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:American women photographers]]
[[Category:Instant photography]]
[[Category:Jewish American artists]]
[[Category:Photographers from Massachusetts]]

Abba Kyari

2020-04-20T13:23:35Z

JHunterJ: clean up, typo(s) fixed: ’s → 's, annouced → announced

{{short description|Nigerian politician}}
{{For|the Nigerian Army Brigadier who served as Governor of North-Central State|Abba Kyari (military general)}}
{{pp-blp|small=yes}}
{{Use Nigerian English|date=April 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Abba Kyari
| image = Abba-Kyari2.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1952|9|23|df=y}}
| birth_place = Borno, [[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern Region]], [[British Nigeria]] (now [[Borno State]], Nigeria)
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2020|4|17|1952|9|23|df=y}}
| office1 = [[Chief of Staff to the President (Nigeria)|Chief of Staff to the President]]
| president1 = [[Muhammadu Buhari]]
| term_start1 = 27 August 2015
| term_end1 = 17 April 2020
| predecessor1 = Jones Arogbofa
| alma_mater = [[Nigerian Law School]] [[International Institute for Management Development]]
| education = [[University of Warwick]] [[University of Cambridge]]
| awards = [[Order of the Niger]]
| death_place = [[Lagos]], Nigeria
| honorific_suffix = [[Order of the Niger|OON]]
| spouse = Hajiya Kulu Kyari
| children = 4
}}

'''Abba Kyari''' {{Small|[[Order of the Niger|OON]]}} (23 September 1952 – 17 April 2020)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/388646-exclusive-abba-kyaris-real-date-of-birth-uncovered.html |title=EXCLUSIVE: Abba Kyari's real date of birth uncovered |work=[[Premium Times]] |last=Ogundipe |first=Samuel |date=18 April 2020 |language=en-GB |access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> was [[Chief of Staff to the President (Nigeria)|Chief of Staff to the President of Nigeria]] from August 2015 to April 2020.<ref name="Guardian">{{cite web|last1=Bakare|first1=Tonye|title=Buhari appoints Lawal as SGF, Kyari as CoS|url=http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/2015/08/flash-buhari-appoints-lawal-as-sgf/|website=Guardian Nigeria|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Kyari was born on 23 September 1952, to a [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]] family from [[Borno State|Borno]]. He was educated in St. Paul's College in [[Wusasa]], and later considered joining the [[Nigerian Army]] following advice from [[Mamman Daura]] and [[Ibrahim Tahir]].<ref name="Kyari">{{Cite web|url=https://guardian.ng/opinion/columnists/ibrahim-tahir-a-personal-loss-2/|title=Ibrahim Tahir: A Personal Loss|last=Kyari|first=Abba|date=23 December 2009|website=The Guardian|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> In 1976, he met General [[Muhammadu Buhari]] who was then [[Governor of Borno State]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guardian.ng/features/for-the-record/to-my-friend-mallam-abba-kyari-buhari/|title=To my friend, Mallam Abba Kyari – Buhari|last=Buhari|first=Muhammadu|date=18 April 2020|website=The Guardian|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>

He graduated with a [[bachelor's degree]] in [[sociology]] from the [[University of Warwick]] in 1980, and also obtained a [[law]] degree from the [[University of Cambridge]].<ref name="Exxon-Mobil2">{{cite web|url=http://www.exxonmobil.com.ng/Nigeria-English/PA/products_downstream_directors.aspx|title=Exxon Mobil Nigeria Board of Directors|website=Exxon Mobil|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref> Kyari was called to the [[Nigerian Bar Association|Nigerian Bar]] in 1983 after attending the [[Nigerian Law School]].<ref name="TDLN">{{cite web|last1=Aboyade |first1=Funke |title=From Dublin, Law School Set of ’83 Plans Big |url=http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/from-dublin-law-school-set-of-8217-83-plans-big/127530 |website=This Day Live Nigeria |accessdate=29 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016010128/http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/from-dublin-law-school-set-of-8217-83-plans-big/127530 |archivedate=16 October 2012 }}</ref>

In 1984, he obtained a [[master's degree]] in law from the University of Cambridge.<ref name="Exxon-Mobil">{{cite web|title=Exxon Mobil Nigeria Board of Directors|url=http://www.exxonmobil.com.ng/Nigeria-English/PA/products_downstream_directors.aspx|website=Exxon Mobil|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref> He later attended the [[International Institute for Management Development]] in [[Lausanne]], Switzerland,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-18/nigerian-president-s-chief-of-staff-abba-kyari-dies-of-covid-19 |title=Nigerian President's Chief of Staff Dies After Getting Virus |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=17 April 2020 |accessdate=19 April 2020 |author=Ibukun, Yinka and Alonso Soto}}</ref> and in 1992 and 1994 participated in the [[Harvard Business School]]'s Program for Leadership Development.<ref name=Litany>{{cite web |url=https://guardian.ng/politics/abba-kyari-a-litany-of-controversies/ |title=Abba Kyari: A litany of controversies |work=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)]] |date=19 April 2020 |accessdate=19 April 2020 |author=Olumide, Seye}}</ref>

== Career ==
Kyari worked for the law firm Fani-Kayode and Sowemimo for some time after his return to Nigeria.<ref name="Naij-FFK">{{cite web|last1=Bolashodun|first1=Oluwatobi|title=Fani-Kayode Reacts To Abba Kyari's Appointment|url=https://www.naij.com/532624-read-fani-kayodes-reaction-abba-kyaris-appointment-buharis-cos.html|website=Naij|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref>

From 1988 to 1990, he was Editor with the New Africa Holdings Limited Kaduna. He also served as a Commissioner for Forestry and Animal Resources in [[Borno State]] in the 1990s.<ref name="LN">{{cite web |title=Abba Kyari: The Man, The Mandate And The Mission |url=https://leadership.ng/2020/04/18/abba-kyari-the-man-the-mandate-and-the-mission-leadership-special/ |publisher=Leadership |accessdate=19 April 2020}}</ref>

From 1990 to 1995, Kyari was the secretary to the board of the African International Bank Limited, a subsidiary of [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]].<ref name="LN" />

Kyari was an executive director in charge of management services at the [[United Bank for Africa]], and was later appointed the [[chief executive officer]]. In 2002, he was appointed a board director of [[Unilever Nigeria Plc|Unilever Nigeria]], and later served on the board of [[ExxonMobil|Exxon Mobil]] Nigeria.<ref name=Litany/>

=== Chief of Staff to the President ===
In August 2015, Kyari was appointed [[Chief of Staff to the President (Nigeria)|Chief of Staff]] to [[President of Nigeria|President]] [[Muhammadu Buhari]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infoguideafrica.com/2020/04/Abba-Kyari.html|title=Mallam Abba Kyari Biography, Age, Early Life, Family, Net Worth And More|last=Stanford|first=Igbo|website=Information Guide Africa|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/189095-breaking-buhari-appoints-sgf-chief-of-staff-others.html|title=Buhari appoints SGF, Chief of Staff, others - Premium Times Nigeria|date=27 August 2015|language=en-GB|access-date=12 March 2020}}</ref>

Kyari was an influential figure within the Buhari administration.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://punchng.com/men-of-power-nigerias-most-influential-power-brokers/|title=Men of power: Nigeria’s most influential power brokers|last=Published|website=Punch Newspapers|language=en-US|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> During the administration's first term, he worked mainly [[Éminence grise|behind the scenes]] to implement the president's agenda.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/192601-in-surprise-move-saraki-personally-submits-names-of-ministers-to-buhari.html|title=In surprise move, Saraki personally submits names of ministers to Buhari - Premium Times Nigeria|date=3 November 2015|language=en-GB|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> In [[2019 Nigerian general election|2019]] with Buhari's re-election for a second term, he ordered his [[Cabinet of Nigeria|cabinet]] to channel all requests through Kyari's office.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2019/08/21/go-through-abba-kyari-to-see-me-buhari-directs-ministers/|title=Go through Abba Kyari to see me, Buhari directs ministers - P.M. News|website=www.pmnewsnigeria.com|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> Further enhancing his influence within government circles, and being labelled as the de facto head of government.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://businessday.ng/lead-story/article/abba-kyari-prime-minister-in-a-presidential-system/|title=Abba Kyari: Prime minister in a presidential system|date=25 August 2019|website=Businessday NG|language=en-US|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref>

In 2017, following a leaked memo, Kyari became embroiled in a public argument with the [[Nigerian Civil Service|Head of Civil Service]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.channelstv.com/2017/11/01/oyo-ita-kyari-heated-argument-villa/|title=Oyo-Ita, Kyari In Heated Argument At Presidential Villa|website=Channels Television|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> who was later removed from office and arrested.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/353112-breaking-buhari-sacks-head-of-service-oyo-ita.html|title=Buhari sacks Head of Service, Oyo-Ita - Premium Times Nigeria|date=18 September 2019|language=en-GB|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thenationonlineng.net/alleged-n570m-fraud-ex-head-of-service-oyo-ita-arrested/|title=Alleged N570m fraud: Ex-Head of Service Oyo-Ita arrested|last=Alli|first=Yusuf|date=23 March 2020|website=The Nation|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref> In 2020, in another leaked memo, [[Babagana Monguno]] the [[National Security Advisor (Nigeria)|National Security Adviser]] accused Kyari of meddling in matters of national security.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/377757-updated-exclusive-buharis-team-in-disarray-as-nsa-monguno-declares-war-on-abba-kyari.html|title=UPDATED: EXCLUSIVE: Buhari’s team in disarray as NSA Monguno declares war on Abba Kyari|last=Ogundipe|first=Samuel|date=17 February 2020|language=en-GB|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Kyari was married to the sister-in-law of [[Ibrahim Tahir]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gamji.com/haruna/haruna303.htm|title=Tahir: The Death of a Radical Conservative|last=Haruna|first=Mohammed|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> and had four children.<ref name="Kyari"/>

On 24 March 2020, it was made public that Kyari tested positive for [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] on 23 March, following an official trip to Germany nine days before.<ref name=coronavirus>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/383571-coronavirus-abba-kyari-reportedly-tests-positive-kingibe-others-may-be-tested.html|title=UPDATED: Coronavirus: Abba Kyari reportedly tests positive; Kingibe, others may be tested|last=Owoseye|first=Ayodamola|date=24 March 2020|language=en-GB|access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref> There were reports that he had been flown out of the country for treatment,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://desertherald.com/exclusive-buharis-chief-of-staff-abba-kyari-admitted-at-londons-hospital/|title=EXCLUSIVE: Buhari’s Chief of Staff, Abba Kyari Admitted at London’s Hospital|last=Herald|first=Desert|language=en-US|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> and [[Reuters]] later reported he had "a history of medical complications, including [[diabetes]]".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-nigeria-idUSKBN21B1OT|title=Top Nigerian president aide, state governor test positive for coronavirus|date=24 March 2020|work=Reuters|access-date=18 April 2020|language=en}}</ref> On 29 March 2020, in an official statement, Kyari announced he was being moved from isolation in [[Abuja]] to [[Lagos]] for "preventive treatment".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/covid-19-why-i-moved-to-lagos-after-testing-positive-abba-kyari.html|title=Covid-19: Why I moved to Lagos after testing positive - Abba Kyari|date=29 March 2020|website=Daily Trust|language=en-GB|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>

Kyari died on the evening of 17 April 2020 at age 67.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://m.guardian.ng/breakingnews/buharis-chief-of-staff-abba-kyari-dies//|title=Buhari’s Chief Of Staff Abba Kyari Dies|website=The Guardian Newspapers|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>

== Honours and awards ==
{| class="wikitable"
|[[Order of the Niger|Officer of the Order of the Niger (OON)]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dailypost.ng/2020/04/18/abba-kyari-10-things-to-know-about-buharis-late-chief-of-staff/ |title=Abba Kyari: 10 things to know about Buhari's late Chief of Staff |work=[[Daily Post (Nigeria)|Daily Post]] |date=18 April 2020 |accessdate=19 April 2020 |author=Nseyen, Nsikak}}</ref> [[File:Ribbon bar of the Order of the Niger.gif|frameless|59x59px]]
|National honour in Nigeria
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kyari, Abba}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic in Nigeria]]
[[Category:Nigerian Law School alumni]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Warwick]]
[[Category:International Institute for Management Development alumni]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Niger]]
[[Category:Nigerian lawyers]]
[[Category:Kanuri people]]
[[Category:Nigerian expatriates in the United Kingdom]]

Abba Kyari

2020-04-20T11:17:44Z

JHunterJ: typo

{{pp-blp|small=yes}}
{{For|the Nigerian Army Brigadier who served as Governor of North-Central State|Abba Kyari (military general)}}
{{short description|Nigerian politician}}
{{Use Nigerian English|date=April 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox Officeholder
| name = Abba Kyari
| image = Abba-Kyari2.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1952|09|23|df=y}}
| birth_place = Borno, [[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern Region]], [[British Nigeria]] (now [[Borno State]], Nigeria)
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2020|4|17|1952|09|23|df=y}}
| office1 = [[Chief of Staff to the President (Nigeria)| Chief of Staff to the President]]
| president1 = [[Muhammadu Buhari]]
| term_start1 = 27 August 2015
| term_end1 = 17 April 2020
| predecessor1 = Jones Arogbofa
| alma_mater = [[Nigerian Law School]] [[International Institute for Management Development]]
| education = [[University of Warwick]] [[University of Cambridge]]
| awards = [[Order of the Niger]]
| death_place = [[Lagos]], Nigeria
| honorific_suffix = [[Order of the Niger|OON]]
| spouse = Hajiya Kulu Kyari
| children = 4
}}

'''Abba Kyari''' [[Order of the Niger|OON]] (23 September 1952 – 17 April 2020)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/388646-exclusive-abba-kyaris-real-date-of-birth-uncovered.html |title=EXCLUSIVE: Abba Kyari's real date of birth uncovered |work=[[Premium Times]] |last=Ogundipe |first=Samuel |date=18 April 2020 |language=en-GB |access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> was [[Chief of Staff to the President (Nigeria)|Chief of Staff to the President of Nigeria]] from August 2015 to April 2020.<ref name="Guardian">{{cite web|last1=Bakare|first1=Tonye|title=Buhari appoints Lawal as SGF, Kyari as CoS|url=http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/2015/08/flash-buhari-appoints-lawal-as-sgf/|website=Guardian Nigeria|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Kyari was born on 23 September 1952, to a [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]] family from [[Borno State|Borno]]. He was educated in St. Paul’s College in [[Wusasa]], and later considered joining the [[Nigerian Army]] following advice from [[Mamman Daura]] and [[Ibrahim Tahir]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guardian.ng/opinion/columnists/ibrahim-tahir-a-personal-loss-2/|title=Ibrahim Tahir: A Personal Loss|last=Kyari|first=Abba|date=23 December 2009|website=The Guardian|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> In 1976, he met General [[Muhammadu Buhari]] who was then [[Governor of Borno State]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guardian.ng/features/for-the-record/to-my-friend-mallam-abba-kyari-buhari/|title=To my friend, Mallam Abba Kyari – Buhari|last=Buhari|first=Muhammadu|date=18 April 2020|website=The Guardian|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>

He graduated with a [[bachelor's degree]] in [[sociology]] from the [[University of Warwick]] in 1980, and also obtained a [[law]] degree from the [[University of Cambridge]].<ref name="Exxon-Mobil2">{{cite web|url=http://www.exxonmobil.com.ng/Nigeria-English/PA/products_downstream_directors.aspx|title=Exxon Mobil Nigeria Board of Directors|website=Exxon Mobil|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref> Kyari was called to the [[Nigerian Bar Association|Nigerian Bar]] in 1983 after attending the [[Nigerian Law School]].<ref name="TDLN">{{cite web|last1=Aboyade |first1=Funke |title=From Dublin, Law School Set of ’83 Plans Big |url=http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/from-dublin-law-school-set-of-8217-83-plans-big/127530 |website=This Day Live Nigeria |accessdate=29 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016010128/http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/from-dublin-law-school-set-of-8217-83-plans-big/127530 |archivedate=16 October 2012 }}</ref>

In 1984, he obtained a [[master's degree]] in law from the University of Cambridge.<ref name="Exxon-Mobil">{{cite web|title=Exxon Mobil Nigeria Board of Directors|url=http://www.exxonmobil.com.ng/Nigeria-English/PA/products_downstream_directors.aspx|website=Exxon Mobil|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref> He later attended the [[International Institute for Management Development]] in [[Lausanne]], Switzerland,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-18/nigerian-president-s-chief-of-staff-abba-kyari-dies-of-covid-19 |title=Nigerian President's Chief of Staff Dies After Getting Virus |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=17 April 2020 |accessdate=19 April 2020 |author=Ibukun, Yinka and Alonso Soto}}</ref> and in 1992 and 1994 participated in the [[Harvard Business School]]'s Program for Leadership Development.<ref name=Litany>{{cite web |url=https://guardian.ng/politics/abba-kyari-a-litany-of-controversies/ |title=Abba Kyari: A litany of controversies |work=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)]] |date=19 April 2020 |accessdate=19 April 2020 |author=Olumide, Seye}}</ref>

== Career ==
Kyari worked for the law firm Fani-Kayode and Sowemimo for some time after his return to Nigeria.<ref name="Naij-FFK">{{cite web|last1=Bolashodun|first1=Oluwatobi|title=Fani-Kayode Reacts To Abba Kyari's Appointment|url=https://www.naij.com/532624-read-fani-kayodes-reaction-abba-kyaris-appointment-buharis-cos.html|website=Naij|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref>

From 1988 to 1990, he was Editor with the New Africa Holdings Limited Kaduna. He also served as a Commissioner for Forestry and Animal Resources in [[Borno State]] in 1990s.<ref name="LN">{{cite web |title=Abba Kyari: The Man, The Mandate And The Mission |url=https://leadership.ng/2020/04/18/abba-kyari-the-man-the-mandate-and-the-mission-leadership-special/ |publisher=Leadership |accessdate=19 April 2020}}</ref>

From 1990 to 1995, Kyari was the secretary to the board of African International Bank Limited, a subsidiary of [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]].<ref name="LN" />

Kyari was an executive director in charge of management services at the [[United Bank for Africa]], and was later appointed the [[chief executive officer]]. In 2002, he was appointed a board director of [[Unilever Nigeria Plc|Unilever Nigeria]], and later served on the board of [[ExxonMobil|Exxon Mobil]] Nigeria.<ref name=Litany/>

=== Chief of Staff to the President ===
In August 2015, Kyari was appointed [[Chief of Staff to the President (Nigeria)|Chief of Staff]] to [[President of Nigeria|President]] [[Muhammadu Buhari]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infoguideafrica.com/2020/04/Abba-Kyari.html|title=Mallam Abba Kyari Biography, Age, Early Life, Family, Net Worth And More|last=Stanford|first=Igbo|website=Information Guide Africa|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/189095-breaking-buhari-appoints-sgf-chief-of-staff-others.html|title=Buhari appoints SGF, Chief of Staff, others - Premium Times Nigeria|date=27 August 2015|language=en-GB|access-date=12 March 2020}}</ref>

Kyari was an influential figure within the Buhari administration.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://punchng.com/men-of-power-nigerias-most-influential-power-brokers/|title=Men of power: Nigeria’s most influential power brokers|last=Published|website=Punch Newspapers|language=en-US|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> During the administration's first term, he worked mainly [[Éminence grise|behind the scenes]] to implement the president's agenda.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/192601-in-surprise-move-saraki-personally-submits-names-of-ministers-to-buhari.html|title=In surprise move, Saraki personally submits names of ministers to Buhari - Premium Times Nigeria|date=3 November 2015|language=en-GB|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> In [[2019 Nigerian general election|2019]] with Buhari's re-election for a second term, he ordered his [[Cabinet of Nigeria|cabinet]] to channel all requests through Kyari's office.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2019/08/21/go-through-abba-kyari-to-see-me-buhari-directs-ministers/|title=Go through Abba Kyari to see me, Buhari directs ministers - P.M. News|website=www.pmnewsnigeria.com|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> Further enhancing his influence within government circles, and being labelled as the de facto head of government.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://businessday.ng/lead-story/article/abba-kyari-prime-minister-in-a-presidential-system/|title=Abba Kyari: Prime minister in a presidential system|date=25 August 2019|website=Businessday NG|language=en-US|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref>

In 2017, following a leaked memo, Kyari became embroiled in a public argument with the [[Nigerian Civil Service|Head of Civil Service]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.channelstv.com/2017/11/01/oyo-ita-kyari-heated-argument-villa/|title=Oyo-Ita, Kyari In Heated Argument At Presidential Villa|website=Channels Television|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> who was later removed from office and arrested.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/353112-breaking-buhari-sacks-head-of-service-oyo-ita.html|title=Buhari sacks Head of Service, Oyo-Ita - Premium Times Nigeria|date=18 September 2019|language=en-GB|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thenationonlineng.net/alleged-n570m-fraud-ex-head-of-service-oyo-ita-arrested/|title=Alleged N570m fraud: Ex-Head of Service Oyo-Ita arrested|last=Alli|first=Yusuf|date=23 March 2020|website=The Nation|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref> In 2020, in another leaked memo, [[Babagana Monguno]] the [[National Security Advisor (Nigeria)|National Security Adviser]] accused Kyari of meddling in matters of national security.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/377757-updated-exclusive-buharis-team-in-disarray-as-nsa-monguno-declares-war-on-abba-kyari.html|title=UPDATED: EXCLUSIVE: Buhari’s team in disarray as NSA Monguno declares war on Abba Kyari|last=Ogundipe|first=Samuel|date=17 February 2020|language=en-GB|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Kyari was married to the sister-in-law of [[Ibrahim Tahir]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gamji.com/haruna/haruna303.htm|title=Tahir: The Death of a Radical Conservative|last=Haruna|first=Mohammed|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> and had four children.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guardian.ng/opinion/columnists/ibrahim-tahir-a-personal-loss-2/|title=Ibrahim Tahir: A Personal Loss|last=Kyari|first=Abba|date=23 December 2009|website=The Guardian|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>

On 24 March 2020, it was made public that Kyari tested positive for [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] on 23 March, following an official trip to Germany nine days before.<ref name=coronavirus>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/383571-coronavirus-abba-kyari-reportedly-tests-positive-kingibe-others-may-be-tested.html|title=UPDATED: Coronavirus: Abba Kyari reportedly tests positive; Kingibe, others may be tested|last=Owoseye|first=Ayodamola|date=24 March 2020|language=en-GB|access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref> There were reports that he had been flown out of the country for treatment,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://desertherald.com/exclusive-buharis-chief-of-staff-abba-kyari-admitted-at-londons-hospital/|title=EXCLUSIVE: Buhari’s Chief of Staff, Abba Kyari Admitted at London’s Hospital|last=Herald|first=Desert|language=en-US|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> and [[Reuters]] later reported he had "a history of medical complications, including [[diabetes]]".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-nigeria-idUSKBN21B1OT|title=Top Nigerian president aide, state governor test positive for coronavirus|date=24 March 2020|work=Reuters|access-date=18 April 2020|language=en}}</ref> On 29 March 2020, in an official statement, Kyari annouced he was being moved from isolation in [[Abuja]] to [[Lagos]] for "preventive treatment".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/covid-19-why-i-moved-to-lagos-after-testing-positive-abba-kyari.html|title=Covid-19: Why I moved to Lagos after testing positive - Abba Kyari|date=29 March 2020|website=Daily Trust|language=en-GB|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>

Kyari died on the evening of 17 April 2020 at age 67.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://m.guardian.ng/breakingnews/buharis-chief-of-staff-abba-kyari-dies//|title=Buhari’s Chief Of Staff Abba Kyari Dies|website=The Guardian Newspapers|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>

== Honours and awards ==
{| class="wikitable"
|[[Order of the Niger|Officer of the Order of the Niger (OON)]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dailypost.ng/2020/04/18/abba-kyari-10-things-to-know-about-buharis-late-chief-of-staff/ |title=Abba Kyari: 10 things to know about Buhari's late Chief of Staff |work=[[Daily Post (Nigeria)|Daily Post]] |date=18 April 2020 |accessdate=19 April 2020 |author=Nseyen, Nsikak}}</ref> [[File:Ribbon bar of the Order of the Niger.gif|frameless|59x59px]]
|National honour in Nigeria
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kyari, Abba}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic in Nigeria]]
[[Category:Nigerian Law School alumni]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Warwick]]
[[Category:International Institute for Management Development alumni]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Niger]]
[[Category:Nigerian lawyers]]
[[Category:Kanuri people]]

Abba Kyari

2020-04-20T11:16:07Z

JHunterJ: clean up

{{pp-blp|small=yes}}
{{For|the Nigerian Army Brigadier who served as Governor of North-Central State|Abba Kyari (military general)}}
{{short description|Nigerian politician}}
{{Use Nigerian English|date=April 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox Officeholder
| name = Abba Kyari
| image = Abba-Kyari2.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1952|09|23|df=y}}
| birth_place = Borno, [[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern Region]], [[British Nigeria]] (now [[Borno State]], Nigeria)
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2020|4|17|1952|09|23|df=y}}
| office1 = [[Chief of Staff to the President (Nigeria)| Chief of Staff to the President]]
| president1 = [[Muhammadu Buhari]]
| term_start1 = 27 August 2015
| term_end1 = 17 April 2020
| predecessor1 = Jones Arogbofa
| alma_mater = [[Nigerian Law School]] [[International Institute for Management Development]]
| education = [[University of Warwick]] [[University of Cambridge]]
| awards = [[Order of the Niger]]
| death_place = [[Lagos]], Nigeria
| honorific_suffix = [[Order of the Niger|OON]]
| spouse = Hajiya Kulu Kyari
| children = 4
}}

'''Abba Kyari''' [[Order of the Niger|OON]] (23 September 1952*nbsp;– 17 April 2020)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/388646-exclusive-abba-kyaris-real-date-of-birth-uncovered.html |title=EXCLUSIVE: Abba Kyari's real date of birth uncovered |work=[[Premium Times]] |last=Ogundipe |first=Samuel |date=18 April 2020 |language=en-GB |access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> was [[Chief of Staff to the President (Nigeria)|Chief of Staff to the President of Nigeria]] from August 2015 to April 2020.<ref name="Guardian">{{cite web|last1=Bakare|first1=Tonye|title=Buhari appoints Lawal as SGF, Kyari as CoS|url=http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/2015/08/flash-buhari-appoints-lawal-as-sgf/|website=Guardian Nigeria|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Kyari was born on 23 September 1952, to a [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]] family from [[Borno State|Borno]]. He was educated in St. Paul’s College in [[Wusasa]], and later considered joining the [[Nigerian Army]] following advice from [[Mamman Daura]] and [[Ibrahim Tahir]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guardian.ng/opinion/columnists/ibrahim-tahir-a-personal-loss-2/|title=Ibrahim Tahir: A Personal Loss|last=Kyari|first=Abba|date=23 December 2009|website=The Guardian|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> In 1976, he met General [[Muhammadu Buhari]] who was then [[Governor of Borno State]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guardian.ng/features/for-the-record/to-my-friend-mallam-abba-kyari-buhari/|title=To my friend, Mallam Abba Kyari – Buhari|last=Buhari|first=Muhammadu|date=18 April 2020|website=The Guardian|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>

He graduated with a [[bachelor's degree]] in [[sociology]] from the [[University of Warwick]] in 1980, and also obtained a [[law]] degree from the [[University of Cambridge]].<ref name="Exxon-Mobil2">{{cite web|url=http://www.exxonmobil.com.ng/Nigeria-English/PA/products_downstream_directors.aspx|title=Exxon Mobil Nigeria Board of Directors|website=Exxon Mobil|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref> Kyari was called to the [[Nigerian Bar Association|Nigerian Bar]] in 1983 after attending the [[Nigerian Law School]].<ref name="TDLN">{{cite web|last1=Aboyade |first1=Funke |title=From Dublin, Law School Set of ’83 Plans Big |url=http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/from-dublin-law-school-set-of-8217-83-plans-big/127530 |website=This Day Live Nigeria |accessdate=29 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016010128/http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/from-dublin-law-school-set-of-8217-83-plans-big/127530 |archivedate=16 October 2012 }}</ref>

In 1984, he obtained a [[master's degree]] in law from the University of Cambridge.<ref name="Exxon-Mobil">{{cite web|title=Exxon Mobil Nigeria Board of Directors|url=http://www.exxonmobil.com.ng/Nigeria-English/PA/products_downstream_directors.aspx|website=Exxon Mobil|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref> He later attended the [[International Institute for Management Development]] in [[Lausanne]], Switzerland,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-18/nigerian-president-s-chief-of-staff-abba-kyari-dies-of-covid-19 |title=Nigerian President's Chief of Staff Dies After Getting Virus |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=17 April 2020 |accessdate=19 April 2020 |author=Ibukun, Yinka and Alonso Soto}}</ref> and in 1992 and 1994 participated in the [[Harvard Business School]]'s Program for Leadership Development.<ref name=Litany>{{cite web |url=https://guardian.ng/politics/abba-kyari-a-litany-of-controversies/ |title=Abba Kyari: A litany of controversies |work=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)]] |date=19 April 2020 |accessdate=19 April 2020 |author=Olumide, Seye}}</ref>

== Career ==
Kyari worked for the law firm Fani-Kayode and Sowemimo for some time after his return to Nigeria.<ref name="Naij-FFK">{{cite web|last1=Bolashodun|first1=Oluwatobi|title=Fani-Kayode Reacts To Abba Kyari's Appointment|url=https://www.naij.com/532624-read-fani-kayodes-reaction-abba-kyaris-appointment-buharis-cos.html|website=Naij|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref>

From 1988 to 1990, he was Editor with the New Africa Holdings Limited Kaduna. He also served as a Commissioner for Forestry and Animal Resources in [[Borno State]] in 1990s.<ref name="LN">{{cite web |title=Abba Kyari: The Man, The Mandate And The Mission |url=https://leadership.ng/2020/04/18/abba-kyari-the-man-the-mandate-and-the-mission-leadership-special/ |publisher=Leadership |accessdate=19 April 2020}}</ref>

From 1990 to 1995, Kyari was the secretary to the board of African International Bank Limited, a subsidiary of [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International]].<ref name="LN" />

Kyari was an executive director in charge of management services at the [[United Bank for Africa]], and was later appointed the [[chief executive officer]]. In 2002, he was appointed a board director of [[Unilever Nigeria Plc|Unilever Nigeria]], and later served on the board of [[ExxonMobil|Exxon Mobil]] Nigeria.<ref name=Litany/>

=== Chief of Staff to the President ===
In August 2015, Kyari was appointed [[Chief of Staff to the President (Nigeria)|Chief of Staff]] to [[President of Nigeria|President]] [[Muhammadu Buhari]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infoguideafrica.com/2020/04/Abba-Kyari.html|title=Mallam Abba Kyari Biography, Age, Early Life, Family, Net Worth And More|last=Stanford|first=Igbo|website=Information Guide Africa|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/189095-breaking-buhari-appoints-sgf-chief-of-staff-others.html|title=Buhari appoints SGF, Chief of Staff, others - Premium Times Nigeria|date=27 August 2015|language=en-GB|access-date=12 March 2020}}</ref>

Kyari was an influential figure within the Buhari administration.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://punchng.com/men-of-power-nigerias-most-influential-power-brokers/|title=Men of power: Nigeria’s most influential power brokers|last=Published|website=Punch Newspapers|language=en-US|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> During the administration's first term, he worked mainly [[Éminence grise|behind the scenes]] to implement the president's agenda.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/192601-in-surprise-move-saraki-personally-submits-names-of-ministers-to-buhari.html|title=In surprise move, Saraki personally submits names of ministers to Buhari - Premium Times Nigeria|date=3 November 2015|language=en-GB|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> In [[2019 Nigerian general election|2019]] with Buhari's re-election for a second term, he ordered his [[Cabinet of Nigeria|cabinet]] to channel all requests through Kyari's office.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2019/08/21/go-through-abba-kyari-to-see-me-buhari-directs-ministers/|title=Go through Abba Kyari to see me, Buhari directs ministers - P.M. News|website=www.pmnewsnigeria.com|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> Further enhancing his influence within government circles, and being labelled as the de facto head of government.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://businessday.ng/lead-story/article/abba-kyari-prime-minister-in-a-presidential-system/|title=Abba Kyari: Prime minister in a presidential system|date=25 August 2019|website=Businessday NG|language=en-US|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref>

In 2017, following a leaked memo, Kyari became embroiled in a public argument with the [[Nigerian Civil Service|Head of Civil Service]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.channelstv.com/2017/11/01/oyo-ita-kyari-heated-argument-villa/|title=Oyo-Ita, Kyari In Heated Argument At Presidential Villa|website=Channels Television|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> who was later removed from office and arrested.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/353112-breaking-buhari-sacks-head-of-service-oyo-ita.html|title=Buhari sacks Head of Service, Oyo-Ita - Premium Times Nigeria|date=18 September 2019|language=en-GB|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thenationonlineng.net/alleged-n570m-fraud-ex-head-of-service-oyo-ita-arrested/|title=Alleged N570m fraud: Ex-Head of Service Oyo-Ita arrested|last=Alli|first=Yusuf|date=23 March 2020|website=The Nation|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref> In 2020, in another leaked memo, [[Babagana Monguno]] the [[National Security Advisor (Nigeria)|National Security Adviser]] accused Kyari of meddling in matters of national security.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/377757-updated-exclusive-buharis-team-in-disarray-as-nsa-monguno-declares-war-on-abba-kyari.html|title=UPDATED: EXCLUSIVE: Buhari’s team in disarray as NSA Monguno declares war on Abba Kyari|last=Ogundipe|first=Samuel|date=17 February 2020|language=en-GB|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Kyari was married to the sister-in-law of [[Ibrahim Tahir]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gamji.com/haruna/haruna303.htm|title=Tahir: The Death of a Radical Conservative|last=Haruna|first=Mohammed|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> and had four children.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guardian.ng/opinion/columnists/ibrahim-tahir-a-personal-loss-2/|title=Ibrahim Tahir: A Personal Loss|last=Kyari|first=Abba|date=23 December 2009|website=The Guardian|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>

On 24 March 2020, it was made public that Kyari tested positive for [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] on 23 March, following an official trip to Germany nine days before.<ref name=coronavirus>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/383571-coronavirus-abba-kyari-reportedly-tests-positive-kingibe-others-may-be-tested.html|title=UPDATED: Coronavirus: Abba Kyari reportedly tests positive; Kingibe, others may be tested|last=Owoseye|first=Ayodamola|date=24 March 2020|language=en-GB|access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref> There were reports that he had been flown out of the country for treatment,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://desertherald.com/exclusive-buharis-chief-of-staff-abba-kyari-admitted-at-londons-hospital/|title=EXCLUSIVE: Buhari’s Chief of Staff, Abba Kyari Admitted at London’s Hospital|last=Herald|first=Desert|language=en-US|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> and [[Reuters]] later reported he had "a history of medical complications, including [[diabetes]]".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-nigeria-idUSKBN21B1OT|title=Top Nigerian president aide, state governor test positive for coronavirus|date=24 March 2020|work=Reuters|access-date=18 April 2020|language=en}}</ref> On 29 March 2020, in an official statement, Kyari annouced he was being moved from isolation in [[Abuja]] to [[Lagos]] for "preventive treatment".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/covid-19-why-i-moved-to-lagos-after-testing-positive-abba-kyari.html|title=Covid-19: Why I moved to Lagos after testing positive - Abba Kyari|date=29 March 2020|website=Daily Trust|language=en-GB|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>

Kyari died on the evening of 17 April 2020 at age 67.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://m.guardian.ng/breakingnews/buharis-chief-of-staff-abba-kyari-dies//|title=Buhari’s Chief Of Staff Abba Kyari Dies|website=The Guardian Newspapers|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>

== Honours and awards ==
{| class="wikitable"
|[[Order of the Niger|Officer of the Order of the Niger (OON)]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dailypost.ng/2020/04/18/abba-kyari-10-things-to-know-about-buharis-late-chief-of-staff/ |title=Abba Kyari: 10 things to know about Buhari's late Chief of Staff |work=[[Daily Post (Nigeria)|Daily Post]] |date=18 April 2020 |accessdate=19 April 2020 |author=Nseyen, Nsikak}}</ref> [[File:Ribbon bar of the Order of the Niger.gif|frameless|59x59px]]
|National honour in Nigeria
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kyari, Abba}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic in Nigeria]]
[[Category:Nigerian Law School alumni]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Warwick]]
[[Category:International Institute for Management Development alumni]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Niger]]
[[Category:Nigerian lawyers]]
[[Category:Kanuri people]]

Teone Church

2019-07-12T18:05:50Z

JHunterJ: copy edit and clean up

{{Infobox church
| name = Teone Church
| fullname =
| other name =
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| native_name_lang =
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| coordinates = {{coord|08|31|16|S|179|11|54|E|display=inline,title}}
| iso region =

| osgraw = 
| osgridref = 
| location =[[Vaiaku]]
| country ={{flag|Tuvalu}}
| denomination = [[Roman Catholic Church]]
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}}
The '''Teone Church'''<ref>[http://www.gcatholic.org/churches/oceania/28494.htm Teone Church in Tuvalu]</ref> also alternatively known as the '''Catholic Church of Teone'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mapcarta.com/es/27550978|title=Teone Catholic Church|website=Mapcarta|access-date=2016-05-30}}</ref> or the '''Catholic Center of Teone''',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dfuna.html|title=Funafuti (Mission "Sui Iuris") [Catholic-Hierarchy]|last=Cheney|first=David M.|website=www.catholic-hierarchy.org|access-date=2016-05-30}}</ref> is a religious building in [[Vaiaku]] on the south coast of [[Fongafale]] in the atoll of [[Funafuti]], which is the economic center of [[Tuvalu]] in Oceania.

Despite its small size it is the main Catholic church of the place. It follows the Roman or Latin rite, and it depends on the [[Mission Sui Iuris of Funafuti]] (''Missio sui iuris Funafutina''), affiliated with the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]] and suffragan of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Suva.

It is under the pastoral responsibility of Reynaldo B. Getalado, who is from the [[Philippines]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Teone, Church}}
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches in Tuvalu]]
[[Category:Funafuti]]

{{RC-church-stub}}

Internationaler Schachtag

2019-05-15T16:39:17Z

JHunterJ: copy edit and clean up, remove info about different topic from infobox

{{Infobox holiday
|holiday_name = International Chess Day
|type = International
|image =
|imagesize =
|caption =
|official_name =
|nickname =
|observedby = Various countries
|firsttime = 1966
|litcolor =
|longtype =
|significance =
|date = 20 July
|scheduling =
|duration = 1 day
|frequency = Annual
|celebrations =
|relatedto = [[FIDE]], [[Chess]]
}}

The '''International Chess Day''' is celebrated annually on July 20, the day the [[FIDE|International Chess Federation]] (FIDE) was founded, in 1924.

The idea to celebrate this day as the international chess day was proposed by [[UNESCO]], and it has been celebrated as such since 1966,<ref name="ChessTeacher">{{cite web|url=http://chess-teacher.com/international-chess-day/ |title=History of International Chess Day |publisher=Chess-teacher.com |date= 2012-07-21|accessdate=2015-07-07}}</ref> after it was established by FIDE. FIDE, which has 181 chess federations as its members,<ref name="FIDE">{{cite web|url=https://www.fide.com/fide/fide-world-chess-federation.html |title=FIDE Membership |publisher=FIDE.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-01}}</ref> organizes [[chess]] events and competitions around the world on this day. As recently as 2013, the international chess day was celebrated in 178 countries, according to FIDE President Kirsan Ilyumzhinov.<ref name="Interview">{{cite web|url=http://www.vesti.ru/doc.html?id=1107912&cid=9 |title=Interview by Kirsan Ilyumzhinov - in Russian |publisher=Vesti.ru |date= |accessdate=2015-07-07}}</ref>

The day is celebrated by many of the 605 million regular chess players around the world.<ref name="YouGov">{{cite web|url=http://www.fide.com/component/content/article/1-fide-news/6376-agon-releases-new-chess-player-statistics-from-yougov.html |title=New chess player statistics from Yougov released |publisher=FIDE.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-07}}</ref><ref>
*{{cite web|url=http://www.theweekinchess.com/chessnews/general/plans-for-tv-chess-highlights-for-london-candidates-2013 |title=Number of Chess Players Worldwide |publisher=Theweekinchess.com |date= |accessdate=2013-07-28}}
*{{cite journal|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/112914/can-andrew-paulson-and-magnus-carlsen-make-chess-cool |title=Can Andrew Paulson and Magnus Carlsen Make Chess Cool |journal=The New Republic |date= 2013-05-13|accessdate=2015-07-07}}</ref> A 2012 Yougov poll showed that "a surprisingly stable 70% of the adult population has played chess at some point during their lives".<ref name="YouGov" /> This number holds at approximately the same level in countries as diverse as the US, UK, Germany, Russia, and India.<ref name="YouGov" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Chess}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150708192312/http://www.internationalchessday.com/#main International Chess Day website]

[[Category:Chess]]
[[Category:July observances]]

Quercus stellata

2019-03-15T19:25:20Z

JHunterJ: caps in hatnote

{{Redirect|Post Oak}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Post oak
| image = Houston campsite oak.jpg
| image_caption = The Houston Campsite Oak in Grapevine Springs Preserve, [[Coppell, Texas]]
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/194236/0
| title = Quercus stellata
| date = 2015
| website = iucnredlist.org
| publisher = iucnredlist
| access-date = 3 November 2017
| quote = data}}</ref>
| genus = Quercus
| display_parents = 2
| parent = Quercus sect. Quercus
| species = stellata
| authority = [[Wangenh.]]
| range_map = Quercus stellata range map 1.png
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Quercus stellata''
| synonyms_ref = <ref>{{ThePlantList |id=kew-175243 |taxon=Quercus stellata}}</ref>
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets = true
|''Quercus alba'' var. ''minor'' Marshall
|''Quercus floridana'' Shuttlew. ex A.DC.
|''Quercus fusca'' Raf.
|''Quercus gonoloba'' Raf.
|''Quercus heteroloba'' Raf.
|''Quercus lobulata'' Sol. ex Sm.
|''Quercus minor'' (Marshall) Sarg.
|''Quercus obtusiloba'' Michx.
|''Quercus villosa'' Walter
}}
}}

'''''Quercus stellata''''', the '''post oak''' or '''iron oak''', is a North American species of [[oak]] in the [[white oak]] section. It is a slow-growing oak that lives in dry, poor soils, and is resistant to rot, [[fire]], and [[drought]]. Interbreeding occurs among white oaks, thus many hybrid species combinations occur.

== Introduction ==
''Q. stellata'' is native to the eastern and central [[United States]], and found in all the coastal states from [[Massachusetts]] to [[Texas]], and as far inland as [[Nebraska]].<ref>{{BONAP |genus=Quercus |species=stellata |date=2014}}</ref> It is identifiable by the rounded cross-like shape formed by the leaf lobes and hairy underside of the leaves.

== Description ==
[[File:NAS-005f Quercus stellata.png|thumb|left|1812 illustration<ref>illustration from Histoire des arbres forestiers de l'Amérique septentrionale, considérés principalement sous les rapports de leur usages dans les arts et de leur introduction dans le commerce ... Par F.s André-Michaux. Paris, L. Haussmann,1812-13. François André Michaux (book author), Pierre-Joseph Redouté (illustrator), Renard (engraver)</ref>]]
Post oak is a relatively small [[tree]], typically 10–15 m (33–50 ft) tall and trunk 30–60 cm (1–2 ft) in diameter, though occasional specimens reach 30 m (100 ft) tall and 140 cm (56 in or 4.7 ft) in diameter. The [[Leaf|leaves]] have a very distinctive shape, with three perpendicular terminal lobes, shaped much like a [[Maltese Cross (symbol)|Maltese cross]]. They are leathery, and [[tomentose]] (densely short-hairy) beneath. The branching pattern of this tree often gives it a rugged appearance. The [[acorn]]s are 1.5–2 cm (0.6-0.8 in) long, and are mature in their first summer.<ref name="tanny">{{eFloras|1|233501087|Quercus stellata |family=Fagaceae |first=Kevin C. |last=Nixon}}</ref>

== Taxonomy ==
The specific epithet ''stellata'' is [[Latin]] for "star";<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://latin-dictionary.net/definition/35675/stellatus-stellata-stellatum|title=Latin Definition for: stellatus, stellata, stellatum (ID: 35675) - Latin Dictionary and Grammar Resources - Latdict|last=Mahoney|first=Kevin D.|website=latin-dictionary.net|access-date=2016-11-16}}</ref> it is named this because the [[trichome]] hairs on the bottom of the leaves are stellate<ref name="tanny" /> or star-shaped. Several variants of ''Q. stellata'' were named by American botanist [[Charles Sprague Sargent]]. The variety most recognised by the US Forest Service is ''Q. stellata'' var. ''paludosa'' Sarg (delta post oak)<ref name=":0">Stransky, John J. "Quercus stellata Wangenh.--post oak." [http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654_vol2.pdf ''Silvics of North America'' 2] (1990): 738-743.</ref>

=== Varieties ===
Varieties include:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tropicos.org/namesearch.aspx?name=quercus+stellata|title=Tropicos - quercus stellata Search|last=|first=|date=|website=www.tropicos.org|publisher=|access-date=2016-11-10}}</ref>
* var. ''margarettiae'' (Ashe) Sarg.
* var. ''paludosa'' Sarg.

* var. ''boyntonii'' (Beadle) Sarg.

* var. ''anomala'' Sarg.

* var. ''attenuata'' Sarg.

* var. ''araniosa'' Sarg.

* var. ''palmeri'' Sarg.

* var. ''parviloba'' Sarg.

* var. ''rufescens'' Sarg.

=== Hybrids ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Hybrids<ref name="tanny" />
!Hybrid Name
!''Q''. ''stellata'' x <''sp''.>
|-
|''Q''. × ''stelloides'' E. J. Palmer
|''Q . prinoides''
|-
|''Q''. × ''mahloni'' E. J. Palmer
|''Q . sinuata'' var. ''breviloba''
|-
|''Q''. × ''pseudomargaretta'' Trelease
|''Q . margaretta''
|-
|''Q''. × ''sterretti'' Trelease
|''Q . lyrata''
|-
|''Q''. × ''macnabiana'' Sudworth
|''Q . sinuata''
|-
|''Q''. × ''guadalupensis'' Sargent
|''Q . sinuata''
|-
|''Q'' . × ''fernowi'' Trelease
|''Q . alba''
|-
|''Q.'' × ''bernardensis'' W. Wolf
|Q . montana
|}

=== Similarity to ''Quercus alba'' ===
Both ''Quercus stellata'' and ''Q. alba'' are in a section of ''[[Quercus]]'' called the [[white oak]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nixon|first=KC|date=1993-01-01|title=Infrageneric classification of Quercus (Fagaceae) and typification of sectional names|url=http://www.afs-journal.org/articles/forest/pdf/1993/07/AFS_0003-4312_1993_50_Suppl1_ART0001.pdf|journal=annales des sciences forestières|language=en|volume=50|issue=Supplement|pages=25s–34s|doi=10.1051/forest:19930701|issn=0003-4312}}</ref> In the white oak section, ''Q. stellata'' is a [[Sister group|sister taxon]] with ''[[Quercus alba]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Whittemore|first=A. T.|last2=Schaal|first2=B. A.|date=1991-03-15|title=Interspecific gene flow in sympatric oaks.|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/88/6/2540.full.pdf|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=88|issue=6|pages=2540–2544|doi=10.1073/pnas.88.6.2540|issn=0027-8424|pmid=11607170|pmc=51268}}</ref> ''Q. stellata'' is sold and distributed as white oak. One identifiable difference between the two trees is that ''Q. stellata'' is 'hairy' on the underside of the leaf.<ref name=":1">Stein, John D., Denise Binion, and R. E. Acciavatti. "[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps50943/fieldguide.pdf Field guide to native oak species of eastern North America.]" (2003): 96-97.</ref>

== Distribution and habitat ==
''Q. stellata'' is found in [[Southeastern United States]], in the coast states from [[Massachusetts (state)|Massachusetts]], to [[Texas]], and inland to [[Iowa]]. Normally found at the edge of a forest, it typically grows in dry, sandy areas, deficient of nutrients.<ref name=":1" />

== Uses ==
Because of its ability to grow in dry sites, attractive crown, and strong horizontal branches, it is used in [[urban forestry]]. It is resistant to [[Decomposition|decay]], so it is used for [[railroad tie]]s, [[siding]], [[Plank (wood)|planks]], construction [[Lumber|timbers]], [[stair riser]]s and [[Stair tread|treads]], [[flooring]], [[Pulp (paper)|pulp]], [[Wood veneer|veneer]], [[particle board]], fuel, and its namesake [[Fence|fence posts]]. It is used for wildlife food for [[deer]], [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]]s, [[squirrel]]s, and other [[rodent]]s, but because the [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]] contain [[tannin]], it is toxic to [[cattle]].<ref name=":0" />

== Fire ecology ==
''Q. stellata'' has the ability to survive [[fire]]s by having thicker [[Bark (botany)|bark]]. It is useful for fire surveys where the [[Dendrochronology|tree rings]] are used to get a fire history of an area. A tree ring survey of 36 trees in Illinois provided a 226-year tree ring record that indicated that many ''Q. stellata'' persisted through annual fire return intervals of 1.44 fires/year for over 100 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McClain|first=William E.|last2=Esker|first2=Terry L.|last3=Edgin|first3=Bob R.|last4=Spyreas|first4=Greg|last5=Ebinger|first5=John E.|date=2010-12-01|title=Fire History of a Post Oak (Quercus stellata Wang.) Woodland in Hamilton County, Illinois|url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/854839641?pq-origsite=gscholar|journal=Castanea|volume=75|issue=4|pages=461–474|doi=10.2179/09-007.1|issn=0008-7475}}</ref>

== External links ==
* [http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPlantNameSearch.do;jsessionid=7794FF32600D87DD3CD5DED3B15B49BB?id=216416-2&back_page=%2Fipni%2FeditSimplePlantNameSearch.do%3Bjsessionid%3D7794FF32600D87DD3CD5DED3B15B49BB%3Ffind_wholeName%3DQuercus%2Bstellata%2B%26output_format%3Dnormal IPNI]
* [http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-175243 Kew]
* [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=233501087 Flora of North America]
* [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=QUST Plants.USDA.gov]
* [http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/queste/all.html#INTRODUCTORY US Forest Service]
* [http://herbarium.unc.edu/flora.htm Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States]
* [http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/species/frame/qust.htm ''Q. stellata'' images from Vanderbilt University]
* [http://www.tropicos.org/ImageFullView.aspx?imageid=100310354 photo of herbarium specimen at Missouri Botanical Garden, collected in Missouri in 1939]

==References==
{{Reflist|33em}}

{{Commons category|position=left|Quercus stellata}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q2600501}}

[[Category:Quercus|stellata]]
[[Category:Endemic flora of the United States]]
[[Category:Trees of the Eastern United States]]
[[Category:Trees of the Southern United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the Northeastern United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the Southeastern United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the Plains-Midwest (United States)]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1787]]

Papstwahl 1159

2018-09-07T20:35:23Z

JHunterJ: avoid wikilinks in bold title words

[[File:PopeAdrianIVCameo.jpg|thumb|Pope Adrian IV cameo.]]
The '''papal election of 1159''' (held 4–7 September) followed the death of [[Pope Adrian IV]]. It resulted in a double [[Papal conclave|papal election]]. A majority of the cardinals elected Cardinal Rolando of Siena as [[Pope Alexander III]], but a minority refused to recognize him and elected their own candidate Ottaviano de Monticelli, who took the name [[Antipope Victor IV (1159–1164)|Victor IV]], creating a schism that lasted until 1178.

The schism was a result of the growing tensions inside the [[Sacred College of Cardinals]] concerning the foreign policy of the [[Holy See]]. The [[Papal States]] in the 12th century were a [[Buffer state|buffer]] between the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the Norman [[Kingdom of Sicily]]. After the [[Concordat of Worms]] in 1122, the Papacy allied with the Empire rather than with the Normans, but during the pontificate of Adrian IV (1154–59) this alliance broke up because Emperor [[Frederick I Barbarossa]] did not fulfil the terms of the treaty of Constance (1153) that obliged him to help the Papacy to restore its authority in Rome and in other territories controlled by the king of Sicily.<ref>Robinson, pp. 464–465</ref> In these circumstances Adrian IV decided to break the alliance with the Emperor and to make peace with [[William I of Sicily]] by signing the [[Treaty of Benevento]] (1156). In the following years there were growing tensions between the papacy and Emperor [[Frederick I Barbarossa]] (e.g. a dispute at the [[diet of Besançon]] in 1157). Frederick tried – with significant success – to strengthen his influence on the Church in [[Germany]].<ref>Robinson, pp. 388–391 and 464–471</ref> The change of direction of the papal foreign policy resulted in the division of the Sacred College into supporters and opponents of the new policy, who were unable to achieve a compromise after the death of Adrian IV.

The election of 1159 had also significant legal consequences. Up to that time, the election of the new Pope required unanimity among the electors, which led to the schism when the existence of factions in the Sacred College made the unanimity impossible.<ref>Robinson, p. 57</ref> To avoid the schism in the future, the [[Third Lateran Council]] in 1179 promulgated the decree ''[[Licet de evitanda discordia]]'', which established the rule that the Pope is elected with a majority of two thirds of the cardinals participating in the election.<ref>Robinson, p. 84</ref>

==Death of Adrian IV==
[[Pope Adrian IV]] died on 1 September 1159. Fearing a possible schism, shortly before his death he recommended to the cardinals the election of Cardinal [[Bernard of Porto]] as his successor.<ref>Robinson, pp. 79–80</ref>

==List of participants==
There were thirty one cardinals in September 1159.<ref>Robinson, p. 43 and 83; Brixius, p. 24; Zenker, p. 198.</ref> One of them seems not to have participated in the election, leaving the number of thirty electors:<ref>Brixius, p. 24; and Bolton, Duggan, p. 106. (The latter source gives the number of twenty eight, but it has certainly omitted two cardinal, adding Cardinal Rolando of S. Marco, his 22 supporters and 5 supporters of Ottaviano of S. Cecilia, but not Ottaviano himself; besides, it indicates that Alexander III was supported by 22 cardinals, but the true number is 23, see [http://www.domus-ecclesiae.de/historica/otto-frisingensis/rahewinus.gesta.04.html Rahewin: cap. LXIII])</ref><ref>Salvador Miranda on his website [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/conclave-xii.htm The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church Papal elections of the 12th Century (1100–1198)] has published a slightly different lists of cardinals in this election, taken from the very old opuscle of [[Alphonso Chacón]], ''Vitae et res gestae Pontificum Romanorum et S. R. E. Cardinalium'', Rome 1677. Chacón included two more cardinal-deacons among electors of Victor IV: Gregorio of SS. Vito e Modesto and Guglielmo, archdeacon of Pavia, with unknown deaconry. However, they did not subscribe any papal bulls (Jaffé, p. 616, 653, 659 and 827), their names are not mentioned in the manifest of Imperial party of October 1159 (Bolton, Duggan, pp. 105–106; [http://www.domus-ecclesiae.de/historica/otto-frisingensis/rahewinus.gesta.04.html Rahewin: cap. LXII])), and nothing is known about them except the alleged participation in this election, so it seems doubtful that they were ever promoted to the cardinalate and even that they existed (Cardinal Guglielmo seems to be a “duplicate” of Cardinal Guglielmo Marengo, who had been archdeacon of Pavia before his promotion to the cardinalate and whose attitude at the beginning of the schism was ambiguous. See Robinson, p. 475). Brixius does not mention them in his work.</ref>

{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%"
! width="*" | Elector
! width="*" | Faction
! width="20%" |Cardinalatial title
! width="12%" | Elevated<ref>Dates of promotions according to Zenker, pp. 222–226, and Brixius, ''passim''.</ref>
! width="*" | Elevator
! width="*" | Notes
|- valign="top"
|[[Imar of Tusculum|Imar]], O.S.B. Cluny
|Imperial
|[[Bishop of Tusculum]]
|13 March 1142
|Innocent II
|[[Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals]]
|- valign="top"
|[[Gregorio della Suburra]]
|”Sicilian”
|[[Bishop of Sabina]]
|1 March 1140<ref name="Suburra">For the date of his creation see Zenker, pp. 48 and 51. Brixius, pp. 57, says that he was created by Anastasius IV (1153–54) as cardinal-bishop of Sabina, but Zenker has proven that he is identical to cardinal Gregorio of S. Maria in Trastevere created by Innocent II in 1140.</ref>
|Innocent II<ref name="Suburra"/>
|Sub-dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals
|- valign="top"
|[[Pope Lucius III|Ubaldo Allucingoli]]
|”Sicilian”
|[[Bishop of Ostia e Velletri]]
|16 December 1138
|Innocent II
|Future [[Pope Lucius III]] (1181–85)
|- valign="top"
|[[Giulio of Palestrina|Giulio]]
|neutral
|[[Bishop of Palestrina]]
|19 May 1144
|Lucius II
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Bernard of Porto|Bernard]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|[[Bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina]]
|22 December 1144
|Lucius II
|Archpriest of the [[Vatican Basilica]]; designated by Adrian IV but not elected
|- valign="top"
|[[Walter II of Albano|Walter]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|[[Bishop of Albano]]
|19 December 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Ubaldo Caccianemici]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|Priest of S. Croce in Gerusalemme
|19 May 1144
|Lucius II
|[[Protopriest]] of the Sacred College of Cardinals; [[Cardinal-nephew]] (?)
|- valign="top"
|[[Antipope Victor IV (1159–1164)|Ottaviano de Monticelli]]
|Imperial
|Priest of S. Cecilia
|25 February 1138
|Innocent II
|Elected [[Antipope Victor IV (1159–1164)|Antipope Victor IV]]
|- valign="top"
|[[Astaldo degli Astalli]]
|neutral
|Priest of S. Prisca
|17 December 1143
|Celestine II
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Antipope Paschal III|Guido di Crema]]
|Imperial
|Priest of S. Maria in Trastevere
|21 September 1145
|Eugenius III
|Future [[Antipope Paschal III]] (1164–68)
|- valign="top"
|[[Pope Alexander III|Rolando]]
|”Sicilian”
|Priest of S. Marco and [[Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church]]
|22 September 1150
|Eugenius III
|Elected [[Pope Alexander III]]
|- valign="top"
|[[Giovanni Gaderisio]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|Priest of S. Anastasia
|22 September 1150
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Giovanni da Sutri]]
|neutral
|Priest of SS. Giovanni e Paolo
|21 February 1152
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Enrico Moricotti]], O.Cist.
|neutral
|Priest of SS. Nereo ed Achilleo
|21 February 1152
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Giovanni Morrone]]
|Imperial
|Priest of SS. Silvestro e Martino
|23 May 1152
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Ildebrando Grassi]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|Priest of SS. XII Apostoli
|23 May 1152
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Bonadies de Bonadie]]
|neutral
|Priest of S. Crisogono
|21 December 1156
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Pope Gregory VIII|Alberto di Morra]], Can.Reg.Praem.
|neutral
|Priest of S. Lorenzo in Lucina
|21 December 1156
|Adrian IV
|Future [[Pope Gregory VIII]] (1187)
|- valign="top"
|[[Guglielmo Marengo]], O.Cist.
|Imperial (?)
|Priest of S. Pietro in Vincoli
|14 March 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Odone Bonecase]]
|”Sicilian”
|Deacon of S. Giorgio in Velabro
|4 March 1132
|Innocent II
|[[Protodeacon]] of the Sacred College of Cardinals
|- valign="top"
|[[Rodolfo of S. Lucia|Rodolfo]]
|neutral
|Deacon of S. Lucia in Septisolio
|17 December 1143
|Celestine II
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Pope Celestine III|Giacinto Bobone]]
|neutral
|Deacon of S. Maria in Cosmedin
|22 December 1144
|Lucius II
|Future [[Pope Celestine III]] (1191–98)
|- valign="top"
|[[Ottone da Brescia]]
|”Sicilian”
|Deacon of S. Nicola in Carcere
|21 February 1152
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Ardicio Rivoltella]]
|”Sicilian”
|Deacon of S. Teodoro
|21 December 1156
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Boso Breakspeare|Boso]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|Deacon of SS. Cosma e Damiano
|21 December 1156
|Adrian IV
|[[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church]]; prefect of the Castle Sant’Angelo
|- valign="top"
|[[Simeone Borelli]], O.S.B.Cas.
|Imperial
|Deacon of S. Maria in Domnica
|ca.1157
|Adrian IV
|Abbot of [[Subiaco, Italy|Subiaco]]
|- valign="top"
|[[Cinzio Capellus]]
|Imperial (?)
|Deacon of S. Adriano
|14 March 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Pietro di Miso]]
|”Sicilian”
|Deacon of S. Eustachio
|14 March 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Raymond de Nimes]]
|Imperial
|Deacon of S. Maria in Via Lata
|14 March 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Giovanni Conti da Anagni]]
|neutral
|Deacon of S. Maria in Portico
|19 December 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|}

Five electors were created by [[Pope Innocent II]], two by [[Pope Celestine II]], four by [[Pope Lucius II]], eight by [[Pope Eugenius III]] and eleven by [[Pope Adrian IV]].

==Absentee==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%"
! width="*" | Elector
! width="*" | Faction
! width="*" |Cardinalatial title
! width="*" | Elevated
! width="*" | Elevator
! width="*" | Notes
|- valign="top"
|[[Rainaldo di Collemezzo]],<ref>A. Chacón includes Rainaldo among [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/conclave-xii.htm#1159 participants of the election of Alexander III]. However, it seems unlikely because Cardinal Rainaldo was not a resident of Roman Curia, but of the abbey of Montecassino, where he acted as abbot for 29 years (1137–1166). Fact that he did not subscribe to any papal bulls during his long cardinalate (1140–1166) clearly indicates his permanent absence from the papal court (Jaffé, pp. 559, 609, 616, 653, 658–659). Besides, although he certainly joined the obedience of Alexander III, he does not appear among signatories of the manifest of his electors of October 1159 ([http://www.domus-ecclesiae.de/historica/otto-frisingensis/rahewinus.gesta.04.html Rahewin: cap. LXIII]). For his absence see also Brixius, p. 24.</ref> O.S.B.Cas.
|neutral
|Priest of [[SS. Marcellino e Pietro]]
|ca.1139–1141
|Innocent II
|[[Abbot of Montecassino]] ([[external cardinal]])
|}

==Divisions in the Sacred College==
[[File:Otton I Wittelsbach.jpg|thumb|right|Otto von Wittelsbach, imperial envoy in Rome and alleged ally of the conspiracy of pro-imperial cardinals]]
[[File:William I of Sicily.jpg|thumb|left|upright|King William I of Sicily.]]
The [[College of Cardinals]] was divided into two factions: the so-called "Sicilian" party and the Imperial faction. The "Sicilian" party, led by chancellor Rolando of Siena and Camerlengo Boso, supported the pro-Sicilian policy of Adrian IV. The Imperial faction was led by Ottaviano of S. Cecilia.

It is known that the "Sicilian" party counted thirteen cardinals. They were chancellor Roland of S. Marco, camerlengo Boso of SS. Cosma e Damiano, cardinal-bishops Bernard of Porto, Ubaldo of Ostia, Walter of Albano and Gregorio of Sabina, as well as cardinals Odone of S. Giorgio, Ubaldo of S. Croce, Ottone of S. Nicola, Ardicio of S. Teodoro, Giovanni of S. Anastasia, Ildebrando of SS. Apostoli and Pietro of S. Eustachio.<ref>Robinson, p. 53</ref>

The Imperial party may have counted as many as nine cardinals.<ref>This number is given in the manifest of the electors of Victor IV, dated October 1159. However, this manifest is signed only by five cardinals and is not believed to be reliable; none of the other sources support the number of nine cardinals in favour of Ottaviano-Victor IV (Bolton, Duggan, p. 106). The Victorine party claimed that among these nine cardinals was Gregorio of Sabina, later bribed by Alexandrines (Langen, p. 454), but cardinal Gregorio is known to have been a "Sicilian" (Robinson, p. 53)</ref> but only six can be identified as its members: Ottaviano of S. Cecilia, Giovanni of SS. Silvestro e Martino, Guido of S. Maria in Trastevere, Imar of Tusculum, Raymond of S. Maria in Via Lata and Simeone of S. Maria in Domnica<ref name="Bolton, Duggan, p. 105">Bolton, Duggan, p. 105</ref> Guglielmo of S. Pietro in Vincoli was probably the seventh one.<ref>Langen, p. 454</ref> Perhaps Cardinal Cinzio of S. Adriano also belonged to this faction. The remaining ten cardinals were neutral.<ref name="Robinson, p. 83">Robinson, p. 83</ref>

It is believed that both factions made some preparations to the election in the last months of the pontificate of Adrian IV, although these attempts are known only from the hostile accounts produced for the polemical purposes during the subsequent schism and it is impossible to verify their accuracy. Both sides accused each other of illegal conspiracies. The adherents of Victor IV accused "Sicilians" of receiving the bribes from the king [[William I of Sicily]] and the anti-Imperial cities of [[Brescia]], [[Milan]] and [[Piacenza]]. They ostensibly made an oath not to vote for any candidate outside their circle. On the other hand, "Sicilians" accused imperialists of hatching a plot with the imperial envoy [[Otto I Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria|Otto von Wittelsbach]], who was present at Rome at the time of the election and gave the significant support to Victor IV in taking control over the Patrimony of St. Peter.<ref>Robinson, pp. 79–80</ref> It is known that the secular adherents of Cardinal Ottaviano de Monticelli, who was related to the powerful family of the counts of [[Tusculum]], were prepared for the armed confrontation in Rome.<ref name="Robinson, p. 83"/> Evidently, neither party was prepared for compromise.<ref>Robinson, p. 81</ref>

==Proceedings==

===Election of Alexander III===

[[File:B-Alexander III1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Pope Alexander III]]

The cardinals assembled in the [[Vatican Basilica]] on 4 September, three days after the death of Adrian IV. They had decided that, according to the custom, the election should be unanimous to be valid.<ref name="Robinson, p. 82">Robinson, p. 82</ref> It seems that the candidature of Bernard of Porto, recommended by Adrian as acceptable for both factions, had never been even advanced. Both parties put forward candidates mutually unacceptable: the imperial party proposed Ottaviano de Monticelli, while "Sicilians" proposed chancellor Rolando.<ref>Robinson, p. 79</ref> The cardinals discussed for three days without achieving a compromise. However, the "Sicilian" party was able to join all the neutral cardinals and probably detached also some members of the imperial faction. On the fourth day (7 September), Cardinal Rolando of Siena was proclaimed pope by them and took the name Alexander III, although the unanimity had not been achieved and some cardinals still opposed his candidature.<ref name="Robinson, p. 83"/> According to the manifest of Alexandrine party of October 1159 and an account of Cardinal Boso, on that day Rolando received the votes of all cardinals assembled except three: those of Ottaviano of S. Cecilia, Giovanni of SS. Silvestro e Martino and Guido of S. Maria in Trastevere. Then supporters of Rolando recognized that “It seemed inappropriate that ... the apostolic see ... should remain any longer without a ruler because of the contentiousness of the aforesaid [three] men”.<ref name="Robinson, p. 82"/> On the other hand, the opposite party claimed that Ottaviano had still nine votes, and that the "Sicilian" party, having majority, simply broke the rule that required unanimity for the valid election.<ref>Robinson, pp. 82–83</ref> However, the version of the imperial cardinals is believed to be less reliable than the version of the Alexandrine party, even if the latter may be also not fully accurate; based on the subscriptions of the manifests of both parties issued shortly after the election, it is possible to assume that at least twenty-three electors voted for Rolando, and no more than six opposed him.<ref>Bolton, Duggan, p. 106. These numbers do not include the elect himself.</ref>

===Election of Victor IV===

The electors of Cardinal Rolando, immediately after proclaiming him Pope, attempted to place upon him the purple mantle which symbolized the assumption of the papal office, but then the election entered the tumultuous stage. Cardinal Ottaviano Monticelli snatched the mantle from Alexander’s back and his armed bands burst into the basilica. Alexander III and his supporters fled to the citadel of St. Peter, which was in the hands of Cardinal [[Boso Breakspeare|Boso]]. In their absence, the few cardinals who remained in basilica elected Ottaviano of S. Cecilia to the papacy and enthroned him as Victor IV.<ref name="Robinson, p. 83"/> The exact number of his electors is not known, but there are good reasons to believe that it was six, including Ottaviano himself, since only five cardinals signed the manifest in his favour in the following month.<ref name="Bolton, Duggan, p. 105"/> However, it is possible that some additional cardinals participated in the election of Victor IV but very quickly joined the obedience of Alexander III.<ref>Robinson, p. 83, Bolton, Duggan, p. 106. Perhaps three or four supporters of Alexander III who did not escape to citadel joined the election of Victor IV under the pressure of the armed bands; this would explain why Victorines could have claimed that their faction counted nine cardinals, including “Sicilian” Gregorio of Sabina, and why their numbers dwindled so quickly to five. However, there is no direct evidence to support this hypothesis.</ref>

===Consecration of Alexander III===

[[Pope Alexander III]] remained in the citadel for a week until he was rescued and escorted from Rome by [[Odo Frangipane]], and on September 18 he was eventually bestowed with the purple mantle.<ref name="Robinson, p. 83"/> On 20 September at the small village of Ninfa, south-east of [[Velletri]], he was consecrated bishop of Rome by Cardinal Ubaldo Allucingoli, bishop of Ostia e Velletri, and crowned by Cardinal Odone Bonecase, protodeacon of S. Giorgio in Velabro.<ref>{{cite web |author=Salvador Miranda|url= http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1150.htm#Bandinelli|title= Cardinal Rolando Bandinelli (Pope Alexander III)|accessdate=2008-10-20 |work= The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church|publisher= Florida International University Library |date= 1998–2008}}</ref> On 27 September he excommunicated Victor IV and his adherents.<ref>Robinson, p. 478</ref>

===Consecration of Victor IV===

Victor IV was consecrated on 4 October in the [[abbey of Farfa]] by Cardinal-Bishop [[Imar of Tusculum]], dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals, assisted by the bishops [[Ubaldo of Ferentino]] and [[Riccardo of Melfi]].<ref>Jaffé, p. 828</ref> With the armed assistance of Otto von Wittelsbach and his own armed groups in relatively short time he took control over the City of Rome and the Patrimony of St. Peter, while Alexander III took refuge in the territory of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], and later in [[France]].<ref>Robinson, p. 484</ref>

===Manifests of both factions in October 1159===

Both rivals together with their adherents defended the legality of their elections. In October 1159 cardinals of both obediences produced the manifests to the Emperor Frederick in favour of their elects. The “Alexandrine” manifest was subscribed by twenty three cardinals, while that of Victorine faction only by five.<ref>[http://www.domus-ecclesiae.de/historica/otto-frisingensis/rahewinus.gesta.04.html Rahewin, "Gesta Frederici"] (manifest of Wiktorine party is a cap. LXII, while that of Alexandrine party is the cap. LXIII)</ref> Supporters of Victor IV, admitting that they were in minority, justified their action by the fact that the opposite faction broke the rule of unanimity and – in consequence – the election of Rolando was invalid. The opposite party claimed that the principle of unanimity had been breached by the obstructive conduct of merely three cardinals of the Imperial faction, who stubbornly refused to recognize the candidate desired by the rest of the Sacred College.<ref name="Robinson, p. 82"/>

===Final division of the Sacred College of Cardinals in October 1159===

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%"
! width="*" | Obedience of Alexander III
! width="*" | Obedience of Victor IV<ref>Antipope Victor IV shortly after his consecration in October 1159 appointed unspecified number of new cardinals to strengthen his faction (S. Miranda [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/consistories-xii.htm#AVictorIV Pseudocardinals of Victor IV]). These (pseudo)cardinals are not included in the table</ref>
|- valign="top"
|1. Gregorio della Suburra, bishop of Sabina and sub-dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals 2. Ubaldo Allucingoli, bishop of Ostia e Velletri 3. Giulio, bishop of Palestrina 4. Bernard, Can.Reg., bishop of Porto e S. Rufina and archpriest of the Vatican Basilica 5. Walter, Can.Reg., bishop of Albano 6. Ubaldo Caccianemici, Can.Reg., protopriest of S. Croce in Gerusalemme 7. Rainaldo di Collemezzo, O.S.B.Cas., priest of SS. Marcellino e Pietro and abbot of Montecassino 8. Astaldo degli Astalli, priest of S. Prisca 9. Giovanni da Sutri, priest of SS. Giovanni e Paolo 10. Errico Moricotti, O.Cist., priest of SS. Nereo ed Achilleo 11. Ildebrando Grassi, Can.Reg., priest of SS. XII Apostoli 12. Giovanni Gaderisio, Can.Reg., priest of S. Anastasia 13. Bonadies de Bonadie, priest of S. Crisogono 14. Alberto di Morra, Can.Reg., priest of S. Lorenzo in Lucina 15. Guglielmo Marengo, priest of S. Pietro in Vincoli 16. Odone Bonecase, protodeacon of S. Giorgio in Velabro 17. Rodolfo, deacon of S. Lucia in Septisolio 18. Giacinto Bobone, deacon of S. Maria in Cosmedin 19. Ottone da Brescia, deacon of S. Nicola in Carcere 20. Ardicio Rivoltella, deacon of S. Teodoro 21. Boso, Can.Reg., deacon of SS. Cosma e Damiano 22. Cinzio Capellus, deacon of S. Adriano 23. Pietro di Miso, deacon of S. Eustachio 24. Giovanni Conti da Anagni, deacon of S. Maria in Portico
|1. Imar, O.S.B.Cluny, bishop of Tusculum and dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals 2. Guido di Crema, priest of S. Maria in Trastevere 3. Giovanni Morrone, priest of SS. Silvestro e Martino 4. Raymond de Nimes, deacon of S. Maria in Via Lata 5. Simeone Borelli, O.S.B.Cas., deacon of S. Maria in Domnica and abbot of Subiaco
|}

Simeone Borelli joined the obedience of Alexander III already at the end of 1159.<ref>Zenker, pp. 140–141.</ref> Raymond of S. Maria in Vi Lata did the same between February and April 1160.<ref>Brixius, p. 24.</ref> Besides, at the end of 1159 Victor IV created at least three new cardinal-deacons: Bernard of SS. Sergio e Bacco, Giovanni of S Maria in Aquiro and [[Antipope Innocent III|Lando of S. Angelo]],<ref>Brixius, pp. 67–68</ref> while Alexander III appointed on February 18, 1160 cardinal-deacon Milo of S. Maria in Aquiro.<ref>Brixius, p. 24 and p. 65 no. 20</ref>

==Schism==
Both popes sent their legates to the Catholic kingdoms in order to secure their recognition. At the council of [[Pavia]] in February 1160 Emperor Frederick I declared himself in favour of Victor IV, and the episcopate of the Empire followed him, with the significant exception of [[archbishop of Salzburg]] [[Eberhard of Salzburg|Eberhard I von Hilpolstein-Biburg]] and his suffragans.<ref>Robinson, pp. 474–475</ref> King [[Valdemar I of Denmark]] also gave his support to Victor IV, but the primate of Denmark archbishop [[Eskil of Lund]] became partisan of Alexander III.<ref>Angelo Forte, Richard Oram, Frederik Pedersen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_vEd859jvk0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false Viking empires]'', Cambridge University Press, 2005 {{ISBN|0-521-82992-5}}, p. 382</ref> It seems that [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Poland]] also supported Victor IV.<ref>Polish bishops took part in the schismatic synods in 1160 and 1165 (''Dzieje Kościoła w Polsce'', ed. A. Wiencek, Kraków 2008, p. 75)</ref> The rest of Europe, namely [[Kingdom of France|France]], [[Kingdom of England|England]], [[Medieval Spain|Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]] and the [[Crusader states|Latin territories in Outremer]], recognized Alexander III as true Pope, even if in some of these countries there were a significant Victorine minorities in episcopates or among feudal rulers.<ref>Robinson, pp. 475–476</ref> The papal schism in Europe was now a fact.

The unity of the Church had been restored only after eighteen years, when Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa and Pope Alexander III signed a [[Treaty of Venice]] (1 August 1177); shortly thereafter the pro-imperial pope [[Antipope Callistus III|Callistus III]] (successor of Victor IV) abandoned his claims to the papacy and submitted to Alexander III (29 August 1178).<ref>{{cite web |author=Salvador Miranda|url= http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1164bishops.htm#Struma|title= Antipope Callistus III|accessdate=2008-10-20 |work= The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church|publisher= Florida International University Library |date= 1998–2008}}</ref> Victor IV and his successors [[Antipope Paschal III|Paschal III]] (1164–68) and [[Antipope Callistus III|Callistus III]] (1168–78) are now regarded as [[antipopes]] by the [[Catholic Church]], while Alexander III is recognized as legitimate successor of St. [[Peter the Apostle]].

==Aftermath==
The election of 1159 and the subsequent schism showed the necessity of amending the rules concerning papal elections. The decree ''[[Licet de evitanda discordia]]'' issued by the Third Lateran Council in 1179 abolished the rule of unanimity in favour of the rule of the majority of two thirds. The decree confirmed also that all three orders of the College of Cardinals (bishops, priests and deacons) are equal in the papal elections. Although the practice allowing the participation of cardinal-priests and cardinal-deacons on equal rights with cardinal-bishops had been introduced no later than in the [[papal election, 1118]], the decree [[In Nomine Domini]] (1059) conferring the special electoral rights on the cardinal-bishops had never been formally revoked up to that time.<ref>Robinson, pp. 40–41, 63 and 84</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| last = Ian Stuart Robinson
| first =
| authorlink =
| title = The Papacy 1073–1198. Continuity and Innovation
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| series = Cambridge Medieval Textbooks
| year = 1990
| doi =
| isbn = 0-521-31922-6 }}
* {{cite book
| last = Brenda Bolton
| first = Anne Duggan
| authorlink =
| title = Adrian IV, the English Pope, 1154–1159: Studies and Texts
| publisher = Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
| series =
| year = 2003
| doi =
| isbn = 0-7546-0708-9 }}
* {{cite book
| last = Langen
| first = Joseph
| authorlink =
| title = Geschichte der Römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III
| language = German
| url = http://openlibrary.org/b/OL7174968M
| location = Bonn
| year = 1893}}
* {{cite book
| last = Jaffé
| first = Philipp
| authorlink = Philipp Jaffé
| title = Regesta pontificum Romanorum ab condita Ecclesia ad annum post Christum natum MCXCVIII
| url = http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=70317&dirds=1&tab=
| language = Latin
| location = Berlin
| year = 1851}}
* {{cite book
| last = Brixius
| first = Johannes Matthias
| authorlink =
| title = Die Mitglieder des Kardinalkollegiums von 1130–1181
| publisher = R. Trenkel
| language = German
| location = Berlin
| year = 1912}}
* {{cite book
| last = Zenker
| first = Barbara
| authorlink =
| title = Die Mitglieder des Kardinalkollegiums von 1130 bis 1159
| publisher =
| language = German
| location = Würzburg
| year = 1964}}
* {{cite book
| last = Salvador
| first = Miranda
| title = The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church
| url = http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/conclave-xii.htm
|publisher = Florida International University Library
| year = 1998–2008}}
* {{cite book
| last = Rahewin
| first =
| title = Gesta Friderici
| url = http://www.domus-ecclesiae.de/historica/otto-frisingensis/rahewinus.gesta.04.html
|publisher = Domus Ecclesiae
| year = 2001}}

{{Papal elections and conclaves from 1061|state=collapsed}}
{{good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Papal Election, 1159}}
[[Category:12th-century elections]]
[[Category:1159]]
[[Category:Papal elections|1159]]
[[Category:Schisms in Christianity]]
[[Category:1159 in Europe]]
[[Category:12th-century Roman Catholicism]]
[[Category:Pope Alexander III]]

Katherine Oppenheimer

2018-04-26T15:04:58Z

JHunterJ: nickname used later, need to be introduced

{{Infobox person
|name = Katherine Oppenheimer
|image = Katherine Oppenheimer Los Alamos ID.png
|image_upright=0.9
|caption = Wartime Los Alamos identification badge
|birth_name =
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1910|8|8}}
|birth_place = [[Recklinghausen]], [[Province of Westphalia]], [[German Empire]]
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1972|10|27|1910|8|8}}
|death_place = [[Panama City]], Panama
|body_discovered =
|resting_place = ashes scattered at sea off Carval Rock, near [[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands]]
|resting_place_coordinates = 
|residence =
|nationality =
|ethnicity =
|citizenship =
|other_names = Katherine Oppenheimer
|known_for =
|alma_mater = {{hlist|[[University of Pittsburgh]]|[[University of Pennsylvannia]]}}
|employer =
|occupation =
|years_active =
|home_town =
|title =
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|term =
|predecessor =
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|party = [[Communist Party of America]]
|opponents =
|boards =
|religion =
|spouse = {{ubl|Frank Ramseyer|Joe Dallet|Stewart Harrison|[[Robert Oppenheimer]]}}
|partner =
|children =
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|footnotes =
}}
'''Katherine "Kitty" Vissering Oppenheimer''' ({{nee}} '''Puening'''; August 8, 1910 – October 27, 1972) was a German-American biologist and botanist and a member of the [[Communist Party of America]]. She is best known as the wife of activist Joe Dallet, and then of physicist [[Robert Oppenheimer]], the director of the [[Manhattan Project]]'s [[Los Alamos Laboratory]] during [[World War II]].

==Early life==
Puening was born in [[Recklinghausen]], Germany, on August 8, 1910, the only child of Franz Puening and his wife Käthe Vissering. Although she claimed that her father was a prince and that her mother was related to [[Queen Victoria]], this was untrue. Her mother was a cousin of [[Wilhelm Keitel]], who later became a [[Generalfeldmarschall|field marshal]] in the [[German Army (Wehrmacht)|German Army]] during [[World War II]], and was hanged in 1946.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=154–155}}{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=9–10, 26–27}}

Puening arrived in the United States on May 14, 1913 aboard the [[SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse|SS ''Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse'']]. Her father, a [[metallurgical engineer]], had invented a new kind of [[blast furnace]], and had landed a position with a steel company in [[Pittsburgh]], and the family settled in the suburb of [[Aspinwall, Pennsylvania]]. Although her first language was German, she soon became fluent in English, speaking both languages without accent. Her parents regularly took her with them on summer visits to Germany.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=154–155}}{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=9–10, 26–27}}

After graduating from Aspinwall High School in June 1928, Puening enrolled at the [[University of Pittsburgh]].{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=42–43}} She lived at home and attended [[freshman]] classes in mathematics, biology and chemistry. Her father now worked for [[Koppers]], and held patents for the design of blast furnaces.<ref>{{Patent|US|1542955|Heating method and apparatus}}</ref><ref>{{Patent|US|1799702|Heating apparatus}}</ref>{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=78–79}} Puening convinced her parents that it would be a good idea for her to study in Germany for a time, and she sailed for Europe in March 1930. It is doubtful that she took any classes, but she did meet Frank Ramseyer, an American studying music in Paris under [[Nadia Boulanger]], before sailing for home on 19 May.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=78–79}}

Puening completed the first year of her degree, but married Ramseyer before a [[Justice of the Peace]] in Pittsburgh on 24 December 1932. The couple moved to an apartment near [[Harvard University]], where Ramseyer hoped to pursue a [[master's degree]] in music. However, she re-enrolled at the University of Pittsburgh in January 1933, and returned to her parents' house in Aspinwall. In June 1933 she sailed to Europe again, with her husband. When she returned, she enrolled at the [[University of Wisconsin]], although there is no record of her ever completing any classes. She obtained an [[annulment]] of her marriage from the Superior Court of Wisconsin on 20 December 1933. She later told friends that she had discovered evidence that Ramseyer was a [[homosexual]] and a [[drug addict]]. She also had an [[abortion]].{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=80–82}}

==Communism==
At a New Year's Eve party later that year, Puening met Joseph Dallet, Jr., the son of a wealthy Long Island businessman who had attended [[Dartmouth College]]. He had been radicalized by the 1927 executions of [[Sacco and Vanzetti]], and had joined the [[Communist Party of America]] in 1929. He had been involved in the [[International Unemployment Day]] protest in Chicago on 6 March 1930 that had been brutally repressed by the authorities, and was currently working as a [[union organizer]] with the steel workers in [[Youngstown, Ohio]]. At one point he ran for mayor of Youngstown on the Communist Party ticket, but was not elected.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=156–157}}{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=89–90}}

Puening's parents had moved to [[Claygate]], southwest of London, where her father represented a Chicago-based firm. On returning to the United States on 3 August 1934 after visiting family in Europe, she moved in with Dallet, becoming his [[common-law wife]]. They shared a room in a dilapidated [[boarding house]] that cost $5 per month. [[Gus Hall]] and [[John Gates]] had a room down the hall. They lived on the [[Unemployment benefits|dole]], $12.50 per month each, while Dallet protested against it. As the wife of a party member, Puening was allowed to join the Communist Party, but only after proving her loyalty by hawking copies of the ''[[Daily Worker]]'' on the streets. Her party dues were 10c a week.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=93–94, 97–98}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=156–157}}

They separated in June 1936, and Puening went to live with her parents in Claygate, where she found some work as a German-to-English translator.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=93–94, 97–98}} Months went by without any word from Dallet, until Puening discovered that her mother had been hiding his letters to her. "Her mother," her friend Anne Wilson recalled, "was a real dragon, a very repressive woman. She disappeared one day over the side of a transatlantic ship, and nobody missed her. That says it all."{{sfn|Conant|2005|p=184}}

The last letter from Dallet said that he was heading to Spain on the {{RMS|Queen Mary}} to join the [[International Brigades]] fighting in the [[Spanish Civil War]].{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=93–94, 97–98}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=156–157}} Puening met up with Dallet and his best friend [[Steve Nelson (activist)|Steve Nelson]] in [[Cherbourg]], and they travelled to [[Paris]] together. After a few days there, she returned to London, and they headed south, to cross into Spain{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=104–105}} where he joined the [[Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion]], a unit made up of American and Canadian volunteers.<ref name="Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives">{{cite web |url=http://www.alba-valb.org/volunteers/joseph-jr-dallet |title=Joseph Dallet, Jr. |publisher=Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives |access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref>

Puening wanted to join Dallet in Spain, and finally secured permission to do so; but her trip to Spain was delayed by her hospitalization for an operation on 26 August 1937 for what was initially thought to be [[appendicitis]], but which was determined to be [[ovarian cyst]]s, which were removed by the German doctors. Puening returned to England to recuperate. Before she could set out for Spain, the news arrived that Dallet had been killed in action on 17 October 1937. His letters to her were published as ''Letters from Spain by Joe Dallet, American Volunteer, to his Wife'' (1938).<ref name="Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives"/>{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=111–117}}

Puening went to see Nelson, who was in Paris, having been wounded in August, and they returned to New York, where she stayed with Nelson and his wife Margaret at their home in [[Brooklyn]] for two months. She then headed for Philadelphia to see her friend Zelma Baker, who worked at the Cancer Research Institute at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]. Puening enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania. It was there that she met Richard Stewart Harrison, a medical doctor with degrees from [[Oxford University]], who was completing his internship in the United States. They were married on 23 November 1938.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=119}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=158–161}}

==Romance with Oppenheimer==
Soon after, Harrison left for [[Pasadena]], California, for his residency at the [[California Institute of Technology]] (Caltech), while Puening completed her bachelor's degree in botany at the University of Pennsylvania, and was offered a postgraduate research fellowship at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]].{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=119}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=158–161}} At Caltech, Harrison worked with the physicist [[Charles Lauritsen]]; the [[X-Ray]] laboratory at Caltech used for physics research was also used for experimental cancer therapy research. It was at a garden party thrown by Lauritsen and his wife Sigrid in August 1939 that Puening met [[Robert Oppenheimer]], a physicist who taught at Caltech for part of each year.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=120–121}} Soon after, Puening began an affair with Robert. They were frequently seen about town in his Chrysler coupe.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=161}} Oppenheimer had dated several women since his break up with long-time girlfriend [[Jean Tatlock]], some of them married, like Puening. At Christmas time she went up to Berkeley without her husband, to spend time with Oppenheimer. His friend [[Haakon Chevalier]] met Puening at a holiday dinner party thrown by the pianist Estelle Caen, one of Oppenheimer's ex-girlfriends.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=125–126}}

Oppenheimer invited Harrison and Puening to spend the summer at his New Mexico ranch, ''[[hot dog|Perro Caliente]]''. Harrison declined, as he was engaged in his research, but Puening accepted. [[Robert Serber]] and his wife [[Charlotte Serber|Charlotte]] collected Puening in Pasadena, and drove her to ''Perro Caliente'', where they met up with Robert, his brother [[Frank Oppenheimer]], and his wife Jackie.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=162}} The Serbers had met Puening before, at Charlotte Serber's parents' house in Philadelphia in 1938.{{sfn|Serber|Crease|1998|p=51}} The Oppenheimers loved to ride through the pine and birch forests and floral meadows of the [[Sangre de Cristo Mountains]], camping with minimal food and equipment. Puening impressed them with her riding ability; horsemanship was a normal accomplishment for women of her social class, and she had learned to ride as a girl on the riding trails around Aspinwall. Oppenheimer rode out to stay the night with his friend Katy Page in [[Los Pinos, New Mexico]]. The following day Page rode to ''Perro Caliente'' on her [[Bay (horse)|bay]] horse to return Puening's night gown, which had been left under Robert's pillow.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=128–129}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=162}}

Puening later told Anne Wilson that she got Oppenheimer to marry her the "old-fashioned way"—by getting pregnant.{{sfn|Conant|2005|p=186}} In September 1940, Oppenheimer phoned Harrison with the happy news, and they agreed that the best way forward was for Puening to get a divorce so she could marry Robert. Soon after, Oppenheimer shared a podium with Nelson to raise money for refugees from the Spanish Civil War, and he informed him that he was engaged to Puening. Nelson's wife was also pregnant, and he named his daughter, who was born in November 1940, Josie in memory of Dallet. To obtain a divorce, Puening moved to [[Reno, Nevada]], where she stayed for six weeks to meet the state's residency requirements. The divorce was finalised on November 1, 1940, and Puening married Oppenheimer the following day in a civil ceremony in [[Virginia City, Nevada]], with the court janitor and clerk as witnesses.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=162–163}}

==Manhattan Project==
Their child, a son they called Peter, was born in Pasadena, on May 12, 1941, during Robert Oppenheimer's regular session at Caltech. When they returned to Berkeley, he bought a new house at One Eagle Hill with a view over the [[Golden Gate]]. Kitty Oppenheimer worked at the University of California as a laboratory assistant. They left Peter with the Chevaliers and a German nurse and headed out to ''Perro Caliente'' for the summer. The holiday was marred when Robert was trampled by a horse, and Kitty was injured when she pranged their Cadillac convertible.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=164–165}}{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=138–139}} The United States entered [[World War II]] in December 1941, and Robert began recruiting staff for the [[Manhattan Project]]. Among the first were the Serbers, who moved into the apartment over the garage at One Eagle Hill.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=141–142}}

On March 16, 1943, the couple boarded a train for [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]]. By the end of the month, they had moved to [[Los Alamos, New Mexico]], where they occupied one of the buildings formerly belonging to the [[Los Alamos Ranch School]]. Los Alamos was known to the occupants as "the Hill" and to the Manhattan Project as Site Y. Robert became the director of [[Project Y]].{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=213–214}} Kitty abdicated the role of post commander's wife to Martha Parsons, the wife of Robert's deputy, Navy [[Captain (United States O-6)|Captain]] [[William S. Parsons]].{{sfn|Conant|2005|p=179}} She put her biologist training to use working for the director of the Health Group at Los Alamos, Louis H. Hempelmann, conducting blood tests to assess the danger of radiation.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=51}}

In 1944, Kitty became pregnant again. Her second child, a girl name Katherine after her mother, but called Toni, was born on December 7, 1944. Like other babies born in wartime Los Alamos, Toni's birth certificate gave the place of birth as PO Box 1663.{{sfn|Conant|2005|pp=262–263}} In April 1945, depressed by the isolation of Los Alamos, Kitty left the baby with Pat Sherr, the wife of physicist [[Rubby Sherr]], who had recently had a miscarriage, and returned to [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania]], with Peter to live with her parents. They returned to Los Alamos in July 1945.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=204–211}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=263–264}}

==Later life==
With the end of the war in August 1945, Robert Oppenheimer had become a celebrity, and Kitty Oppenheimer had become an alcoholic. She suffered a series of bone breaks from drunken falls and car crashes.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=207}}{{sfn|Wolverton|2008|p=176}} In November 1945, Oppenheimer left Los Alamos to return to Caltech,{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=333–335}} but he soon found that his heart was no longer in teaching.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=351}} In 1947, he accepted an offer from [[Lewis Strauss]] to take up the directorship of the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]].{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=360–365}} The job came with rent-free accommodation in the director's house, a ten-bedroom 17th-century manor with a cook and [[groundskeeper]], surrounded by {{convert|265|acre}} of woodlands. Robert had a [[greenhouse]] built for Kitty, where she raised [[orchids]]; for her birthdays Robert had rare species flown in from Hawaii.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=369}}{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=234–235}} Olden Manor was sometimes known as "Bourbon Manor";{{sfn|Wolverton|2008|p=270}} Kitty and Robert liked to keep the liquor cabinet well stocked, and like many of their generation, liked to celebrate cocktail hour with [[Martini (cocktail)|martini]]s, [[Manhattan (cocktail)|Manhattan]]s, [[Old Fashioned]]s and [[highball]]s. Both were also fond of smoking,{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=243}} and Kitty's habit of combining too much alcohol with smoking in bed led to a plethora of holes in her bedding and at least one house fire.{{sfn|Wolverton|2008|p=176}} She sometimes took too many pills, and suffered from abdominal pains caused by [[pancreatitis]]. Pain often prompted outbursts of anger.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=276}}

In 1952, Toni came down with [[polio]], and doctors suggested that a warmer climate might help. The family flew down to the Caribbean, where they rented a {{convert|72|ft|adj=on}} [[ketch]]. Robert and Kitty discovered a mutual love of sailing, while Toni soon recovered. Henceforth, the family would spend part of each summer on [[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands|Saint John]] in the [[Virgin Islands]], eventually building a beach house there.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=251}} On January 6, 1967, Robert was diagnosed with inoperable cancer, and he died on February 18, 1967.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=295}} Kitty had his remains [[cremated]] and his ashes were placed into an urn, which she took to St. John and dropped them into the sea off the coast, within sight of the beach house.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=588}} She took up with Robert Serber, whose wife Charlotte had committed suicide in May 1967. She talked him into buying a {{convert|52|ft|adj=on}} [[yawl]], which they sailed from New York to [[Grenada]]. In 1972, they purchased a {{convert|52|ft|adj=on}} ketch, with the intention of sailing through the [[Panama Canal]] and to Japan via the [[Galapagos Islands]] and [[Tahiti]]. They set out, but Kitty became ill, and was taken to [[Gorgas Hospital]], where she died of an [[embolism]] on October 27, 1972. Serber and Toni had her remains cremated, and they scattered her ashes near Robert's.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=301–302}}{{sfn|Serber|Crease|1998|pp=220–221}}<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/10/29/archives/mrs-j-robert-oppenheimer-62i-nuclear-physicists-widow-dies.html |title=Mrs. J. Robert Oppenheimer, 62, Nuclear Physicist's Widow, Dies |newspaper=New York Times |date=October 29, 1972 |access-date=April 17, 2018 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Bird |first=Kai |authorlink=Kai Bird|first2=Martin J. |last2=Sherwin |authorlink2=Martin J. Sherwin |title=[[American Prometheus]]: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer|location=New York|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=2005|isbn=0-375-41202-6 |oclc=56753298 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Conant |first=Jennet |authorlink=Jennet Conant |title=109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the Secret City of Los Alamos |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |year=2005 |isbn= 0-7432-5007-9 |oclc=57475908 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Serber |first1=Robert |author1-link=Robert Serber |last2= Crease |first2=Robert P. |author2link = Robert P. Crease |title=Peace & War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science |year=1998 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-10546-0 |oclc=1014748640 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Streshinsky |first=Shirley |last2=Klaus |first2=Patricia |title=An Atomic Love Story: The Extraordinary Women in Robert Oppenheimer's Life |location=New York |publisher=Turner Publishing |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-61858-019-1 |oclc=849822662 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Wolverton |first=Mark |title=A Life in Twilight: The Final Years of J. Robert Oppenheimer |location= New York |publisher= St. Martin's Press |year= 2008 |isbn= 0-312-37440-2 |oclc=223882887 |ref=harv }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://vault.fbi.gov/Katherine%20Oppenheimer/Katherine%20Oppenheimer%20Part%201%20of%201 Katherine Oppenheimer FBI file]
* [https://archive.org/details/LettersFromSpain ''Letters from Spain by Joe Dallet, American Volunteer, to his Wife'']
{{portal bar|biography|communism|Women's history|World War II}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Oppenheimer, Katherine}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1972 deaths]]
[[Category:American communists]]
[[Category:J. Robert Oppenheimer]]
[[Category:Manhattan Project people]]
[[Category:Members of the Communist Party USA]]
[[Category:People from Recklinghausen]]
[[Category:University of Pittsburgh alumni]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni]]

Katherine Oppenheimer

2018-04-26T12:18:37Z

JHunterJ: copy edit and clean up

{{Infobox person
|name = Katherine Oppenheimer
|image = File:Katherine Oppenheimer Los Alamos ID.png
|image_upright=0.9
|caption = Wartime Los Alamos identification badge
|birth_name =
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1910|8|8}}
|birth_place = [[Recklinghausen]], Germany
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1972|10|27|1910|8|8}}
|death_place = [[Panama City]], Panama
|body_discovered =
|resting_place = ashes scattered at sea off Carval Rock, near [[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands]]
|resting_place_coordinates = 
|residence =
|nationality =
|ethnicity =
|citizenship =
|other_names = Katherine Oppenheimer
|known_for =
|alma_mater = {{hlist|[[University of Pittsburgh]]|[[University of Pennsylvannia]]}}
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|party = [[Communist Party of America]]
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|spouse = {{ubl|Frank Ramseyer|Joe Dallet|Stewart Harrison|[[Robert Oppenheimer]]}}
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}}
'''Katherine "Kitty" Vissering Oppenheimer''' {{nee}} '''Puening''' (August 8, 1910 – October 27, 1972) was a German-American biologist and botanist and a member of the [[Communist Party of America]]. She is best known as the wife of activist Joe Dallet, and then of physicist [[Robert Oppenheimer]], the director of the [[Manhattan Project]]'s [[Los Alamos Laboratory]] during [[World War II]].

==Early life==
Puening was born in [[Recklinghausen]], Germany, on August 8, 1910, the only child of Franz Puening and his wife Kaethe Vissering. Although she claimed that her father was a prince and that her mother was related to [[Queen Victoria]], this was untrue. Her mother was a cousin of [[Wilhelm Keitel]], who later became a [[Generalfeldmarschall|field marshal]] in the [[German Army (Wehrmacht)|German Army]] during [[World War II]], and was hanged in 1946.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=154–155}}{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=9–10, 26–27}}

Puening arrived in the United States in 1913. Her father, a [[metallurgical engineer]], had invented a new kind of [[blast furnace]], and had landed a position with a steel company in [[Pittsburgh]], and the family settled in the suburb of [[Aspinwall, Pennsylvania]]. Although her first language was German, she soon became fluent in English, speaking both languages without accent. Her parents regularly took her with them on summer visits to Germany.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=154–155}}{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=9–10, 26–27}}

After graduating from Aspinwall High School in June 1928, Puening enrolled at the [[University of Pittsburgh]].{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=42–43}} She lived at home and attended [[freshman]] classes in mathematics, biology and chemistry. Her father now worked for [[Koppers]], and held patents for the design of blast furnaces.<ref>{{Patent|US|1542955|Heating method and apparatus}}</ref><ref>{{Patent|US|1799702|Heating apparatus}}</ref>{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=78–79}} Puening convinced her parents that it would be a good idea for her to study in Germany for a time, and she sailed for Europe in March 1930. It is doubtful that she took any classes, but she did meet Frank Ramseyer, an American studying music in Paris under [[Nadia Boulanger]], before sailing for home on 19 May.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=78–79}}

Puening completed the first year of her degree, but married Ramseyer before a [[Justice of the Peace]] in Pittsburgh on 24 December 1932. The couple moved to an apartment near [[Harvard University]], where Ramseyer hoped to pursue a [[master's degree]] in music. However, she re-enrolled at the University of Pittsburgh in January 1933, and returned to her parents' house in Aspinwall. In June 1933 she sailed to Europe again, with her husband. When she returned, she enrolled at the [[University of Wisconsin]], although there is no record of her ever completing any classes. She obtained an [[annulment]] of her marriage from the Superior Court of Wisconsin on 20 December 1933. She later told friends that she had discovered evidence that Ramseyer was a [[homosexual]] and a [[drug addict]]. She also had an [[abortion]].{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=80–82}}

==Communism==
At a New Year's Eve party later that year, Puening met Joseph Dallet, Jr., the son of a wealthy Long Island businessman who had attended [[Dartmouth College]]. He had been radicalized by the 1927 executions of [[Sacco and Vanzetti]], and had joined the [[Communist Party of America]] in 1929. He had been involved in the [[International Unemployment Day]] protest in Chicago on 6 March 1930 that had been brutally repressed by the authorities, and was currently working as a [[union organizer]] with the steel workers in [[Youngstown, Ohio]]. At one point he ran for mayor of Youngstown on the Communist Party ticket, but was not elected.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=156–157}}{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=89–90}}

Puening's parents had moved to [[Claygate]], southwest of London, where her father represented a Chicago-based firm. On returning to the United States on 3 August 1934 after visiting family in Europe, she moved in with Dallet, becoming his [[common-law wife]]. They shared a room in a dilapidated [[boarding house]] that cost $5 per month. [[Gus Hall]] and [[John Gates]] had a room down the hall. They lived on the [[Unemployment benefits|dole]], $12.50 per month each, while Dallet protested against it. As the wife of a party member, Puening was allowed to join the Communist Party, but only after proving her loyalty by hawking copies of the ''[[Daily Worker]]'' on the streets. Her party dues were 10c a week.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=93–94, 97–98}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=156–157}}

They separated in June 1936, and Puening went to live with her parents in Claygate, where she found some work as a German-to-English translator.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=93–94, 97–98}} Months went by without any word from Dallet, until Puening discovered that her mother had been hiding his letters to her. "Her mother," her friend Anne Wilson recalled, "was a real dragon, a very repressive woman. She disappeared one day over the side of a transatlantic ship, and nobody missed her. That says it all."{{sfn|Conant|2005|p=184}}

The last letter from Dallet said that he was heading to Spain on the {{RMS|Queen Mary}} to join the [[International Brigades]] fighting in the [[Spanish Civil War]].{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=93–94, 97–98}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=156–157}} Puening met up with Dallet and his best friend [[Steve Nelson (activist)|Steve Nelson]] in [[Cherbourg]], and they travelled to [[Paris]] together. After a few days there, she returned to London, and they headed south, to cross into Spain{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=104–105}} where he joined the [[Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion]], a unit made up of American and Canadian volunteers.<ref name="Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives">{{cite web |url=http://www.alba-valb.org/volunteers/joseph-jr-dallet |title=Joseph Dallet, Jr. |publisher=Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives |access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref>

Puening wanted to join Dallet in Spain, and finally secured permission to do so; but her trip to Spain was delayed by her hospitalization for an operation on 26 August 1937 for what was initially thought to be [[appendicitis]], but which was determined to be [[ovarian cyst]]s, which were removed by the German doctors. Puening returned to England to recuperate. Before she could set out for Spain, the news arrived that Dallet had been killed in action on 17 October 1937. His letters to her were published as ''Letters from Spain by Joe Dallet, American Volunteer, to his Wife'' (1938).<ref name="Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives"/>{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=111–117}}

Puening went to see Nelson, who was in Paris, having been wounded in August, and they returned to New York, where she stayed with Nelson and his wife Margaret at their home in [[Brooklyn]] for two months. She then headed for Philadelphia to see her friend Zelma Baker, who worked at the Cancer Research Institute at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]. Puening enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania. It was there that she met Richard Stewart Harrison, a medical doctor with degrees from [[Oxford University]], who was completing his internship in the United States. They were married on 23 November 1938.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=119}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=158–161}}

==Romance with Oppenheimer==
Soon after, Harrison left for [[Pasadena]], California, for his residency at the [[California Institute of Technology]] (Caltech), while Puening completed her bachelor's degree in botany at the University of Pennsylvania, and was offered a postgraduate research fellowship at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]].{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=119}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=158–161}} At Caltech, Harrison worked with the physicist [[Charles Lauritsen]]; the [[X-Ray]] laboratory at Caltech used for physics research was also used for experimental cancer therapy research. It was at a garden party thrown by Lauritsen and his wife Sigrid in August 1939 that Puening met [[Robert Oppenheimer]], a physicist who taught at Caltech for part of each year.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=120–121}} Soon after, Puening began an affair with Robert. They were frequently seen about town in his Chrysler coupe.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=161}} Oppenheimer had dated several women since his break up with long-time girlfriend [[Jean Tatlock]], some of them married, like Puening. At Christmas time she went up to Berkeley without her husband, to spend time with Oppenheimer. His friend [[Haakon Chevalier]] met Puening at a holiday dinner party thrown by the pianist Estelle Caen, one of Oppenheimer's ex-girlfriends.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=125–126}}

Oppenheimer invited Harrison and Puening to spend the summer at his New Mexico ranch, ''[[hot dog|Perro Caliente]]''. Harrison declined, as he was engaged in his research, but Puening accepted. [[Robert Serber]] and his wife [[Charlotte Serber|Charlotte]] collected Puening in Pasadena, and drove her to ''Perro Caliente'', where they met up with Robert, his brother [[Frank Oppenheimer]], and his wife Jackie.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=162}} The Serbers had met Puening before, at Charlotte Serber's parents' house in Philadelphia in 1938.{{sfn|Serber|Crease|1998|p=51}} The Oppenheimers loved to ride through the pine and birch forests and floral meadows of the [[Sangre de Cristo Mountains]], camping with minimal food and equipment. Puening impressed them with her riding ability; horsemanship was a normal accomplishment for women of her social class, and she had learned to ride as a girl on the riding trails around Aspinwall. Oppenheimer rode out to stay the night with his friend Katy Page in [[Los Pinos, New Mexico]]. The following day Page rode to ''Perro Caliente'' on her [[Bay (horse)|bay]] horse to return Puening's night gown, which had been left under Robert's pillow.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=128–129}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=162}}

Puening later told Anne Wilson that she got Oppenheimer to marry her the "old-fashioned way"—by getting pregnant.{{sfn|Conant|2005|p=186}} In September 1940, Oppenheimer phoned Harrison with the happy news, and they agreed that the best way forward was for Puening to get a divorce so she could marry Robert. Soon after, Oppenheimer shared a podium with Nelson to raise money for refugees from the Spanish Civil War, and he informed him that he was engaged to Puening. Nelson's wife was also pregnant, and he named his daughter, who was born in November 1940, Josie in memory of Dallet. To obtain a divorce, Puening moved to [[Reno, Nevada]], where she stayed for six weeks to meet the state's residency requirements. The divorce was finalised on November 1, 1940, and Puening married Oppenheimer the following day in a civil ceremony in [[Virginia City, Nevada]], with the court janitor and clerk as witnesses.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=162–163}}

==Manhattan Project==
Their child, a son they called Peter, was born in Pasadena, on May 12, 1941, during Robert Oppenheimer's regular session at Caltech. When they returned to Berkeley, he bought a new house at One Eagle Hill with a view over the [[Golden Gate]]. Kitty Oppenheimer worked at the University of California as a laboratory assistant. They left Peter with the Chevaliers and a German nurse and headed out to ''Perro Caliente'' for the summer. The holiday was marred when Robert was trampled by a horse, and Kitty was injured when she pranged their Cadillac convertible.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=164–165}}{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=138–139}} The United States entered [[World War II]] in December 1941, and Robert began recruiting staff for the [[Manhattan Project]]. Among the first were the Serbers, who moved into the apartment over the garage at One Eagle Hill.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=141–142}}

On March 16, 1943, the couple boarded a train for [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]]. By the end of the month, they had moved to [[Los Alamos, New Mexico]], where they occupied one of the buildings formerly belonging to the [[Los Alamos Ranch School]]. Los Alamos was known to the occupants as "the Hill" and to the Manhattan Project as Site Y. Robert became the director of [[Project Y]].{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=213–214}} Kitty abdicated the role of post commander's wife to Martha Parsons, the wife of Robert's deputy, Navy [[Captain (United States O-6)|Captain]] [[William S. Parsons]].{{sfn|Conant|2005|p=179}} She put her biologist training to use working for the director of the Health Group at Los Alamos, Louis H. Hempelmann, conducting blood tests to assess the danger of radiation.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=51}}

In 1944, Kitty became pregnant again. Her second child, a girl name Katherine after her mother, but called Toni, was born on December 7, 1944. Like other babies born in wartime Los Alamos, Toni's birth certificate gave the place of birth as PO Box 1663.{{sfn|Conant|2005|pp=262–263}} In April 1945, depressed by the isolation of Los Alamos, Kitty left the baby with Pat Sherr, the wife of physicist [[Rubby Sherr]], who had recently had a miscarriage, and returned to [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania]], with Peter to live with her parents. They returned to Los Alamos in July 1945.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=204–211}}{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=263–264}}

==Later life==
With the end of the war in August 1945, Robert Oppenheimer had become a celebrity, and Kitty Oppenheimer had become an alcoholic. She suffered a series of bone breaks from drunken falls and car crashes.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=207}}{{sfn|Wolverton|2008|p=176}} In November 1945, Oppenheimer left Los Alamos to return to Caltech,{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=333–335}} but he soon found that his heart was no longer in teaching.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=351}} In 1947, he accepted an offer from [[Lewis Strauss]] to take up the directorship of the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]].{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|pp=360–365}} The job came with rent-free accommodation in the director's house, a ten-bedroom 17th-century manor with a cook and [[groundskeeper]], surrounded by {{convert|265|acre}} of woodlands. Robert had a [[greenhouse]] built for Kitty, where she raised [[orchids]]; for her birthdays Robert had rare species flown in from Hawaii.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=369}}{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=234–235}} Olden Manor was sometimes known as "Bourbon Manor";{{sfn|Wolverton|2008|p=270}} Kitty and Robert liked to keep the liquor cabinet well stocked, and like many of their generation, liked to celebrate cocktail hour with [[Martini (cocktail)|martini]]s, [[Manhattan (cocktail)|Manhattan]]s, [[Old Fashioned]]s and [[highball]]s. Both were also fond of smoking,{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=243}} and Kitty's habit of combining too much alcohol with smoking in bed led to a plethora of holes in her bedding and at least one house fire.{{sfn|Wolverton|2008|p=176}} She sometimes took too many pills, and suffered from abdominal pains caused by [[pancreatitis]]. Pain often prompted outbursts of anger.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=276}}

In 1952, Toni came down with [[polio]], and doctors suggested that a warmer climate might help. The family flew down to the Caribbean, where they rented a {{convert|72|ft|adj=on}} [[ketch]]. Robert and Kitty discovered a mutual love of sailing, while Toni soon recovered. Henceforth, the family would spend part of each summer on [[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands|Saint John]] in the [[Virgin Islands]], eventually building a beach house there.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=251}} On January 6, 1967, Robert was diagnosed with inoperable cancer, and he died on February 18, 1967.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|p=295}} Kitty had his remains [[cremated]] and his ashes were placed into an urn, which she took to St. John and dropped them into the sea off the coast, within sight of the beach house.{{sfn|Bird|Sherwin|2005|p=588}} She took up with Robert Serber, whose wife Charlotte had committed suicide in May 1967. She talked him into buying a {{convert|52|ft|adj=on}} [[yawl]], which they sailed from New York to [[Grenada]]. In 1972, they purchased a {{convert|52|ft|adj=on}} ketch, with the intention of sailing through the [[Panama Canal]] and to Japan via the [[Galapagos Islands]] and [[Tahiti]]. They set out, but Kitty became ill, and was taken to [[Gorgas Hospital]], where she died of an [[embolism]] on October 27, 1972. Serber and Toni had her remains cremated, and they scattered her ashes near Robert's.{{sfn|Streshinsky|Klaus|2013|pp=301–302}}{{sfn|Serber|Crease|1998|pp=220–221}}<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/10/29/archives/mrs-j-robert-oppenheimer-62i-nuclear-physicists-widow-dies.html |title=Mrs. J. Robert Oppenheimer, 62, Nuclear Physicist's Widow, Dies |newspaper=New York Times |date=October 29, 1972 |access-date=April 17, 2018 }}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Bird |first=Kai |authorlink=Kai Bird|first2=Martin J. |last2=Sherwin |authorlink2=Martin J. Sherwin |title=[[American Prometheus]]: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer|location=New York|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=2005|isbn=0-375-41202-6 |oclc=56753298 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Conant |first=Jennet |authorlink=Jennet Conant |title=109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the Secret City of Los Alamos |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |year=2005 |isbn= 0-7432-5007-9 |oclc=57475908 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Serber |first1=Robert |author1-link=Robert Serber |last2= Crease |first2=Robert P. |author2link = Robert P. Crease |title=Peace & War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science |year=1998 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-10546-0 |oclc=1014748640 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Streshinsky |first=Shirley |last2=Klaus |first2=Patricia |title=An Atomic Love Story: The Extraordinary Women in Robert Oppenheimer's Life |location=New York |publisher=Turner Publishing |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-61858-019-1 |oclc=849822662 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Wolverton |first=Mark |title=A Life in Twilight: The Final Years of J. Robert Oppenheimer |location= New York |publisher= St. Martin's Press |year= 2008 |isbn= 0-312-37440-2 |oclc=223882887 |ref=harv }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://vault.fbi.gov/Katherine%20Oppenheimer/Katherine%20Oppenheimer%20Part%201%20of%201 Katherine Oppenheimer FBI file]
* [https://archive.org/details/LettersFromSpain ''Letters from Spain by Joe Dallet, American Volunteer, to his Wife'']
{{portal bar|biography|communism|Women's history|World War II}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Puening, Katherine}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1972 deaths]]
[[Category:American communists]]
[[Category:J. Robert Oppenheimer]]
[[Category:Manhattan Project people]]
[[Category:Members of the Communist Party USA]]
[[Category:People from Recklinghausen]]
[[Category:University of Pittsburgh alumni]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni]]

Welcome Stranger

2018-02-05T14:03:06Z

JHunterJ: combine hatnotes

{{about||the Blackeyed Susans album|Welcome Stranger (album)|the 1947 film|Welcome Stranger (film)}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}
[[File:Welcome Stranger.jpg|thumb|right|A wood engraving of the Welcome Stranger published in ''The Illustrated Australian News for Home Reader'' on 1 March 1869. The scale bar across the bottom represents {{convert|12|in|cm}}.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/177743
|title=The "Welcome Stranger" (picture).
|publisher=State Library of Victoria search
|accessdate=19 March 2015}}</ref>]]

The '''Welcome Stranger''' is the biggest [[alluvial]] [[gold nugget]] found, which had a calculated refined weight of 3,123 [[Troy ounce|oz]] (214.1 lbs) 6 [[Pennyweight|dwts]] 9 [[Grain (unit)|gr]]<ref name=TFP>Potter, Terry F. (1999) ''The Welcome Stranger: a definitive account of the worlds largest alluvial gold nugget''. {{ISBN|0-646-38709-X}}</ref> (97.14 kg). It measured {{convert|61|by|31|cm|abbr=on}} and was discovered by prospectors John Deason and Richard Oates on 5 February 1869 at [[Moliagul, Victoria]], Australia,<ref name="PP">{{cite news
| url=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=NZTR19081128.2.42
| title=THE WELCOME STRANGER| work=NZ Truth| date=28 November 1908| page=8
| publisher=Papers Past| accessdate=23 August 2011}}</ref> about 9 miles (14.6 kilometres) north-west of [[Dunolly, Victoria|Dunolly]].

==Discovery==
Found only {{convert|3|cm|abbr=on}} below the surface, near the base of a tree on a slope leading to what was then known as Bulldog Gully, its gross weight was {{convert|3523.5|ozt|kg}} (293 1/2 lbs 1 1/2 oz), the trimmed weight was {{convert|2520|ozt|kg}} (210 lbs), and net it weighed {{convert|2315.5|ozt|kg}} (192 lbs 11.5 oz, [almost 193 lbs]).<ref name=TFP />

At the time of the discovery, there were no scales capable of weighing a nugget this large, so it was broken into three pieces on an [[anvil]] by Dunolly-based [[blacksmith]] Archibald Walls.<ref>[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article174572918?searchTerm=%22Robert%20Walls%20of%20dunolly%22&searchLimits=exactPhrase=Robert+Walls+of+dunolly|||anyWords|||notWords|||requestHandler|||dateFrom=1887-12-01|||dateTo=1887-12-01|||sortby "Wills and Bequests"]. ''Melbourne Punch'' (1 December 1887)</ref>

Deason, Oates, and a few friends took the nugget to the London Chartered Bank of Australia, in Dunolly, which advanced them [[Pound sterling|£]]9,000. Deason and Oates were finally paid an estimated [[Pound sterling|£]]9,381 for their nugget, which became known as the "Welcome Stranger". At February 2018 gold prices, it would have been worth [[Australian dollar|$]]3.8 million. It was heavier than the "[[Welcome Nugget]]" of {{convert|2217|ozt|kg}} that had been found in [[Ballarat]] in 1858. The goldfields warden F. K. Orme reported that 2,269 ounces (189 lbs 1 oz) 10 dwt 14 grains (70.5591 kg) of smelted gold had been obtained from it,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.scillonian.com/Welcomestrangermainpage.htm
|title=Report to the Mines Minister by Francis Knox Orme, February 12th 1869
|publisher=Scillonian.com
|accessdate=23 August 2011}}</ref> irrespective of scraps that were given away by the finders, estimated as totalling another 47 ounces (3 lbs 11 oz) 7 dwt.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}
[[File:Moliagul WS inscription.JPG|thumb|The text on the commemorative obelisk in pillared railings]]
The nugget was soon melted down and the gold was sent as ingots to Melbourne for forwarding to the Bank of England. It left the country on board the steamship ''Reigate'' which departed on 21 February.<ref name=KK>{{cite web
|url=http://www.gold-net.com.au/archivemagazines/apr20/85439743.html
|title=The Real Welcome Stranger Story
|publisher=Gold-Net Australia Online |date=April 2000
|last=Knight|first=Katherine
|accessdate=23 August 2011}}</ref>

An obelisk commemorating the discovery of the "Welcome Stranger" was erected near the spot in 1897. A replica of the "Welcome Stranger" is in the City Museum, Treasury Place, [[Melbourne, Victoria]]; another replica is owned by descendants of John Deason.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.scillonian.com/mr_john_deason.htm
|title=Mr John Deason
|publisher=Scillonian.com
|accessdate=23 August 2011}}</ref>
[[File:William Parker, Unearthing the Welcome Stranger Nugget, H13298 original.jpg|thumb|Miners and their wives posing with the finders of the nugget, Richard Oates, John Deason and his wife<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/101139
|title=Unearthing the Welcome Stranger Nugget (picture)
|publisher=State Library of Victoria
|accessdate=19 March 2015}}</ref>]]

[[File:Statue' discovery of Welcome Stranger' Redruth geograph 2991388.jpg|thumb| Statue in Redruth, England, celebrating the find]]

==Discoverers==
John Deason was born in 1829 on the island of [[Tresco, Isles of Scilly|Tresco]], [[Isles of Scilly]], {{convert|45|km|0|abbr=on}} south-west of [[Cornwall]], England, UK. In 1851, he was a tin dresser before becoming a gold miner.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~ricksmith61/scilly/deason/ps06/ps06_023.html
|title=John (John Jenkins) DEASON
|publisher=freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com
|accessdate=23 August 2011}}</ref>

Deason continued with gold mining and workings most of his life and, although he became a store keeper at Moliagul, he lost a substantial proportion of his wealth through poor investments in gold mining. He bought a small farm near Moliagul where he lived until he died in 1915, aged 85 years.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/33597649 | title="Welcome Stranger Nugget": Death of the Discoverer | date=19 October 1915 | work=The Western Argus | access-date=4 February 2018}}</ref>

Richard Oates was born about 1827 at [[Pendeen]] in [[Cornwall]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~ricksmith61/scilly/oates/ps14/ps14_453.html
|title=Richard OATES
|publisher=freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com
|accessdate=23 August 2011}}</ref> After the 1869 find, Oates returned to the UK and married. He returned to Australia with his wife and they had four children. The Oates family, in 1895, purchased {{convert|800|acre|km2}} of land at [[Marong, Victoria]], about {{convert|15|mi|km}} west of [[Bendigo, Victoria]], which Oates farmed until his death in Marong in 1906, aged 79 years.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://moneyweek.com/5-february-1869-worlds-biggest-gold-nugget-is-found/ |title=5 February 1869: World's biggest gold nugget is found |last=Samueli |first=Michael |date=5 February 2015 |work=[[MoneyWeek]] |access-date=4 February 2018 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{wikisource}}
{{commons category|Welcome Stranger}}
{{Refbegin}}
* Deason, Denise (2005). ''Welcome, stranger: The amazing true story of one man's legendary search for gold – at all costs''. Melbourne: Viking / Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0670028762}}.
{{Refend}}

{{coord|36|45.68|S|143|39.14|E|region:AU_type:landmark|display=title}}

[[Category:Gold nuggets]]
[[Category:Australian gold rushes]]
[[Category:Mining in Victoria (Australia)]]
[[Category:History of Victoria (Australia)]]
[[Category:History of Australia (1851–1900)]]
[[Category:1869 in Australia]]
[[Category:Mining in Cornwall]]

Ziryab

2017-10-24T19:04:59Z

JHunterJ: clean up lede

{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Ziryab
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| native_name = "زرياب"
أبو الحسن علي بن نافي
| native_name_lang = [[Arabic]]
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| birth_name = Abu l-Hasan 'Ali Ibn Nafi
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| birth_place = [[Mosul]], [[Abbasid Caliphate]]
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'''Abu l-Hasan 'Ali Ibn Nafi{{'}}''' or '''Ziryab''' (789–857;<ref name="Gill">{{cite book|last=Gill|first=John|title=Andalucia: A Cultural History|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-537610-4|page=81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGY2fSXko5kC&pg=PA81}}</ref> {{lang-ar|أبو الحسن علي ابن نافع, زریاب}}) was a [[singer]], [[oud]] player, [[composer]], [[Islamic poetry|poet]], and teacher who lived and worked in [[Iraq]], [[Northern Africa]], and [[Al-Andalus|Andalusia]] of the medieval Islamic period. He was also known as a [[polymath]], with knowledge in [[astronomy]], [[geography]], [[meteorology]], [[botanics]], [[cosmetics]], [[culinary art]] and [[fashion]]. His nickname Ziryab comes from the Arabic word for jay-bird زرياب,<ref>[http://www.almaany.com/ar/dict/ar-en/%D8%B2%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A8/ definition of زرياب]. almaany.com</ref> pronounced "Ziryab"; he is also known as {{lang|es|''Pájaro Negro''}} (blackbird) in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].<ref name="Gill" /> He was active at the [[Umayyad]] court of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Iberia]]. He first achieved notoriety at the [[Abbasid]] court in [[Baghdad]], Iraq, his birthplace, as a performer and student of the great Iraqi musician and composer, [[Ishaq al-Mawsili]]. The Mawsili family was originally from the city of [[Kufa]], Iraq.

Ziryab was a gifted pupil of Ishaq al-Mawsili, where Ziryab got his first lessons. He left Baghdad during the reign of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun and moved to Córdoba in southern [[Iberian Peninsula]], where he was accepted as [[court musician]] in the court of [[Abd ar-Rahman II]] of the [[Umayyad]] Dynasty.

==Ethnic origin==
Ziryab's career flourished in [[Al-Andalus]], although his origins remain controversial.<ref>{{cite book |last=Monroe |first=James T. |title=Hispano-Arabic poetry: a student anthology |publisher=Gorgias Press LLC |date=Jan 30, 2004 |quote=Modernism had been brought from the court of Harun ar-Rashid by Ziryab, the Persian singer who became an arbiter ...}}</ref> According to [[Encyclopedia of Islam]], he was born around 175/790 into a family of [[mawali]] of the caliph [[al-Mahdi]].<ref name="brill">{{cite web|last1=H.G.|first1=Farmer,|last2=E.|first2=Neubauer,|title=ZIRYĀB|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_8172|website=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|publisher=Brill|accessdate=27 March 2017|language=en|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_sim_8172}}</ref>

The word ''Ziryab'' is translated as 'Blackbird'. Ziryab was well known for his black color and versatile tongue, which inspired his nickname.<ref name="brill" />

==Historical context/early life==
As the Islamic armies conquered more and more territories, their musical culture spread with them, as far as western China in the east and Iberia in the west. After their 8th century conquest of nearly all of [[Hispania]], which they renamed [[Al-Andalus]], the Muslims were a small minority for quite some time, greatly outnumbered by the majority Christians and a smaller community of Jews, who had their own styles of music. With their arrival, the Muslims and Arabs introduced new styles of music, and the main cities of Iberia soon became well known centers for music within the Islamic world.<ref name=Marin/> During the 8th and 9th centuries, many musicians and artists from across the Islamic world flocked to Iberia. While many were talented, Ziryab surpassed them all.<ref name=Menocal/>

There are conflicting tales of the early years of Ziryab. He was born around 789 CE. According to the earliest accounts{{Citation needed|date=February 2014|reason=What accounts?}} we have of him, he was African or a racially mixed African-Arab;{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}} Ziryab was most likely born in Baghdad{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}, though Arab sources<ref>[[:ar:زرياب]]{{Better source|date=January 2017|reason=[[WP:CIRCULAR]]}}</ref> say he was born in Mosul and was trained in the art of music from a young age. During that time, Baghdad was an important center of music in the Muslim world. The sources all agree that the accomplished and talented musician Ishaq al-Mawsili was Ziryab's teacher. There is some debate about how he arrived in al-Andalus, but he may have offended his patron or some powerful figure with his musical talent.<ref name=Constable>{{Citation|title=Medieval Iberia|editor=Constable, Olivia Remie|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|date=1997}}</ref>

One account recorded by [[Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari|al-Maqqari]] says that Ziryab inspired the jealousy of his mentor by giving an impressive performance for the caliph Harun al-Rashid (d. 809), with the result that al-Mawsili told him to leave the city.<ref name=Marin/><ref name=Menocal>{{Citation|title=The Literature of Al-Andalus|editor=Menocal, María Rosa|editor2=Raymond P. Scheindlin|editor3=Michael Anthony Sells|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2000}}</ref> Earlier, more reliable sources indicate that he outlived both Harun and his son al-Amin and left after al-Amin's death in 813.<ref name="Davila?">{{Citation|title=Fixing a Misbegotten Biography: Ziryab in the Mediterranean World|author=Davila, Carl|publisher=Al-Masaq: Islam in the Medieval Mediterranean|number=2|volume=21|date=2009}}</ref>

Ziryab left [[Baghdad]] During the reign of al-Ma'mun some time after the year 813. He then traveled first to ([[Syria]]), then to Ifriqiya ([[Tunisia]]), where he lived at the [[Aghlabid]] court of [[Ziyadat Allah]] (ruled 816–837). Ziryab fell out with Ziyadat Allah but was invited to [[Al-Andalus]] by the Umayyad prince, [[Al-Hakam I]] (ruled 796–822). He found on arrival in 822 that the prince had died, but the prince's son, [[Abd ar-Rahman II]], renewed his father's invitation.<ref name="Davila?"/> Ziryab settled in [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] he was honored a monthly salary of 200 [[Gold]] [[Dinars]], he soon became even more celebrated as the court's aficionado of food, fashion, singing and music. He introduced standards of excellence in all these fields as well as setting new norms for elegant and noble manners. Ziryab became such a prominent cultural figure, and was given a huge salary from Abd al Rahman II.<ref name=Menocal/> He was an intimate companion of the prince and established a school of music that trained singers and musicians which influenced musical performance for at least two generations after him.

Al-Maqqari states in his ''Nafh al-Tib'' (Fragrant Breeze): "There never was, either before or after him (Ziryab), a man of his profession who was more generally beloved and admired".

===Music===
Ziryab is said to have improved the [[Oud]] (or [[Laúd]]) by adding a fifth pair of strings, and using an eagle's beak or quill instead of a wooden pick. Ziryab also dyed the four strings a color to symbolize the Aristotelian humors, and the fifth string to represent the soul.<ref name=Marin/> He is said to have created a unique and influential style of musical performance, and written songs that were performed in Iberia for generations. He was a great influence on Spanish music, and is considered the founder of the [[Andalusian classical music|Andalusian music]] traditions of North Africa.

Ziryab's Baghdadi musical style became very popular in the court of Abd al-Rahman II.<ref name=Constable/> Ziryab also became the example of how a courtier, a person who attended aristocratic courts, should act. According to Ibn Hayyan, in common with erudite men of his time he was well versed in many areas of classical study such as astronomy, history, and geography.

According to al-Tifashi, Ziryab appears to have popularized an early song-sequence, which may have been a precursor to the nawba (originally simply a performer's "turn" to perform for the prince), or [[Andalusi nubah|Nuba]], which is known today as the classical Arabic music of North Africa, though the connections are tenuous at best.

Abd al-Rahman II was a great patron of the arts and Ziryab was given a great deal of freedom. He established one of the first schools of [[music]] in Córdoba. This school incorporated both male and female students, who were very popular amongst the aristocracy of the time.<ref name="Davila?"/> According to Ibn Hayyan, Ziryab developed various tests for them. If a student didn't have a large vocal capacity, for instance, he would put pieces of wood in their jaw to force them to hold their mouth open. Or he would tie a sash tightly around the waist in order to make them breathe in a particular way, and he would test incoming students by having them sing as loudly and as long a note as they possibly could to see whether they had lung capacity.

===Family===
According to the main source, Ibn Hayyan, Ziryab had eight sons and two daughters. Five of the sons and both daughters became musicians of some prominence.<ref name=Menocal/> These children kept their father's music school alive, but the female slave singers he trained also were regarded as reliable sources for his repertoire in the following generation.<ref name="Davila?"/>

===Fashion and hygiene===
Ziryab started a vogue by changing clothes according to the weather and season.<ref name=Menocal/> He suggested different clothing for mornings, afternoons and evenings. Henri Terrasse, a French historian of North Africa, commented that legend attributes winter and summer clothing styles and "the luxurious dress of the Orient" found in Morocco today to Ziryab, but argues that "Without a doubt, a lone man could not achieve this transformation. It is rather a development which shook the Muslim world in general ..."<ref>Terrasse, H. (1958) 'Islam d'Espagne' une rencontre de l'Orient et de l'Occident", Librairie Plon, Paris, pp. 52–53.</ref>

He created a new type of deodorant to get rid of bad odors<ref name=Menocal/> and also promoted morning and evening baths and emphasized the maintenance of personal hygiene. Ziryab is thought to have invented an early [[toothpaste]], which he popularized throughout [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Iberia]].<ref name=Sertima/> The exact ingredients of this toothpaste are not currently known,<ref name=Lebling>{{citation|last=Lebling Jr.|first=Robert W.|title=Flight of the Blackbird|journal=[[Saudi Aramco World]]|date=July–August 2003|pages=24–33|url=http://www.islamicspain.tv/Arts-and-Science/flight_of_the_blackbird.htm|accessdate=28 January 2008}}</ref> but it was reported to have been both "functional and pleasant to taste.".<ref name=Sertima>{{citation|last=van Sertima| first=Ivan| authorlink=Ivan van Sertima |date=1992|title=The Golden Age of the Moor|page=267|publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]]|isbn=1-56000-581-5}}</ref>

According to Al-Maqqari before the arrival of Ziryab, all the people of al-Andalus, in the Cordoban court, wore their long hair parted in the middle and hung down loose down to the shoulders, men and women; Ziryab had his hair cut with bangs down to his eyebrows and straight across his forehead, "new short hairstyles leaving the neck, ears and eyebrows free,".<ref name=Marin>Salma Khadra Jayyusi and Manuela Marin (1994), ''The Legacy of Muslim Spain'', p. 117, Brill Publishers, {{ISBN|90-04-09599-3}}</ref> He popularized [[shaving]] among men and set new [[haircut]] trends. Royalty used to wash their hair with rose water, but Ziryab introduced the use of salt and fragrant oils to improve the hair's condition.<ref name=Lebling/>

Ziryab is alleged by some<ref name=Lebling/> to have opened beauty parlors for women of the Cordoban elite. However, this is not supported by the early sources.

===Cuisine===
He was an arbiter of culinary fashion and taste, who also "revolutionized the local cuisine" by introducing new fruit and vegetables such as [[asparagus]], and by introducing the three-course meal served on leathern tablecloths, insisting that meals should be served in three separate courses consisting of [[soup]], the [[main course]], and [[dessert]].<ref name="ZDF">{{cite AV media |people=Susanne Utzt, Sahar Eslah, Martin Carazo Mendez, Christian Twente |date=2016-10-30 |title=Große Völker 2: Die Araber |trans-title=Great peoples 2: The Arabs |medium=Video documentary |language=German |url=https://www.zdf.de/dokumentation/terra-x/grosse-voelker-die-araber-100.html |access-date=2017-01-13 |archive-url= |archive-date= |time=24:05 min |location=Germany |publisher=Terra X via [[ZDF]]}}</ref> He also introduced the use of [[crystal]] as a container for drinks, which was more effective than metal. This claim is supported by accounts of him cutting large crystal [[Chalice (cup)|goblets]].<ref name=Marin/> Prior to his time, food was served plainly on platters on bare tables, as was the case with the Romans.

==Legacy==
Ziryab revolutionized the court at Córdoba and made it the stylistic capital of its time. Whether introducing new clothes, styles, foods, hygiene products, or music, Ziryab changed al-Andalusian culture forever. The musical contributions of Ziryab alone are staggering, laying the early groundwork for classic Spanish music. Ziryab transcended music and style and became a revolutionary cultural figure in 8th and 9th century Iberia.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
*Titus Burckhardt, "Die Maurische Kultur in Spanien.
*[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200407/flight.of.the.blackbird-.compilation..htm Flight of the Blackbird] Robert W. Lebling Jr., ''Saudi Aramco World'' July/August 2003.

==Other sources==
* Encyclopedia of Islam
* al-Muqtabis by Ibn Hayyan
* The [[Muqaddima]] of [[Ibn Khaldoun]], [http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/Muqaddimah/Chapter5/Ch_5_31.htm Chapter V, part 31, "The craft of singing."]
* Ta'rikh fath al-Andalus by Ibn al-Qutiyya
* al-'Iqd al-farid by [[Ibn Abd Rabbih|Ibn 'Abd Rabbih]]
* Ta'rikh Baghdad by Ibn Tayfur
* Kitab al-Aghani by Abu l-Faraj al-Isfahani
* Tawq al-hamama by Ibn Hazm
* Jawdhat al-Muqtabis by [[Al-Humaydī]]
* Mughrib fi hula l-Maghrib by [[Ibn Said al-Maghribi|Ibn Sa'id]]

==Further reading==
* [http://www.fravahr.org/spip.php?article118 Zaryâb] Article at Fravahr.org
* Titus Burckhardt, "Die Maurische Kultur in Spanien''.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071026075659/http://www.newrozfilms.com/ziryab.htm Newroz films article]
* [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?TaxonomyTypeID=13&TaxonomySubTypeID=-1&TaxonomyThirdLevelID=-1&ArticleID=374 MuslimHeritage.com article.]
* [http://www.elijahwald.com/afrarch.html African music pieces, by Elijah Wald]
* [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200304/flight.of.the.blackbird.htm Flight of the Blackbird], Saudi Aramco World
* [http://lostislamichistory.com/the-cultural-icon-of-al-andalus/ The Cultural Icon of al-Andalus] at Lost Islamic History

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ziryab}}
[[Category:789 births]]
[[Category:857 deaths]]
[[Category:Iranian musicians]]
[[Category:People from Mosul]]
[[Category:People of Al-Andalus]]
[[Category:History of chemistry|Islam]]
[[Category:Travelers]]
[[Category:Geographers of medieval Islam]]
[[Category:Linguists]]
[[Category:Iraqi poets]]
[[Category:Musicians of medieval Islam]]

Papstwahl 1159

2017-09-07T13:09:13Z

JHunterJ: unneeded bolding

[[File:PopeAdrianIVCameo.jpg|thumb|Pope Adrian IV cameo.]]
The [[Papal election]] of 4–7 September 1159 followed the death of [[Pope Adrian IV]]. It resulted in a double election. A majority of the cardinals elected Cardinal Rolando of Siena as [[Pope Alexander III]], but a minority refused to recognize him and elected their own candidate Ottaviano de Monticelli, who took the name [[Antipope Victor IV (1159–1164)|Victor IV]], creating a schism which lasted until 1178.

The schism was a result of the growing tensions inside the Sacred College of Cardinals concerning the foreign policy of the [[Holy See]]. The [[Papal states]] in the 12th century were a [[Buffer state|buffer]] between the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the Norman [[Kingdom of Sicily]]. After [[Concordat of Worms]] in 1122 the Papacy allied with the Empire rather than with the Normans, but during the pontificate of Adrian IV (1154–59) this alliance broke up because Emperor [[Frederick I Barbarossa]] did not fulfil the terms of the treaty of Constance (1153) that obliged him to help the Papacy to restore its authority in Rome, and in other territories controlled by the king of Sicily.<ref>Robinson, p. 464-465</ref> In these circumstances Adrian IV decided to break the alliance with the Emperor and to make peace with [[William I of Sicily]] by signing the [[Treaty of Benevento]] (1156). In the following years there were growing tensions between the papacy and Emperor [[Frederick I Barbarossa]] (e.g. a dispute at the [[diet of Besançon]] in 1157). Frederick tried – with significant success – to strengthen his influence on the Church in [[Germany]].<ref>Robinson, pp. 388–391 and 464–471</ref> The change of the direction of the papal foreign policy resulted with the division of the Sacred College into supporters and opponents of the new policy, who were unable to achieve a compromise after the death of Adrian IV.

The election of 1159 had also significant legal consequences. Up to that time, the election of the new Pope required unanimity among the electors, which led to the schism when the existence of factions in the Sacred College made the unanimity impossible.<ref>Robinson, p. 57</ref> To avoid the schism in the future, [[Third Lateran Council]] in 1179 promulgated the decree ''[[Licet de evitanda discordia]]'', which established the rule that the Pope is elected with the majority of two thirds of the cardinals participating in the election.<ref>Robinson, p. 84</ref>

==Death of Adrian IV==
[[Pope Adrian IV]] died on 1 September 1159. Fearing a possible schism, shortly before his death he recommended to the cardinals the election of Cardinal [[Bernard of Porto]] as his successor.<ref>Robinson, p. 79-80</ref>

==List of participants==
There were thirty one cardinals in September 1159.<ref>Robinson, p. 43 and 83; Brixius, p. 24; Zenker, p. 198.</ref> One of them seem not to have participated in the election, leaving the number of thirty electors.:<ref>Brixius, p. 24; and Bolton, Duggan, p. 106. (The latter source gives the number of twenty eight, but it has certainly omitted two cardinal, adding Cardinal Rolando of S. Marco, his 22 supporters and 5 supporters of Ottaviano of S. Cecilia, but not Ottaviano himself; besides, it indicates that Alexander III was supported by 22 cardinals, but the true number is 23, see [http://www.domus-ecclesiae.de/historica/otto-frisingensis/rahewinus.gesta.04.html Rahewin: cap. LXIII])</ref><ref>Salvador Miranda on his website [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/conclave-xii.htm The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church Papal elections of the 12th Century (1100–1198)] has published a slightly different lists of cardinals in this election, taken from the very old opuscle of [[Alphonso Chacón]], ''Vitae et res gestae Pontificum Romanorum et S. R. E. Cardinalium'', Rome 1677. Chacón included two more cardinal-deacons among electors of Victor IV: Gregorio of SS. Vito e Modesto and Guglielmo, archdeacon of Pavia, with unknown deaconry. However, they did not subscribe any papal bulls (Jaffé, p. 616, 653, 659 and 827), their names are not mentioned in the manifest of Imperial party of October 1159 (Bolton, Duggan, pp. 105–106; [http://www.domus-ecclesiae.de/historica/otto-frisingensis/rahewinus.gesta.04.html Rahewin: cap. LXII])), and nothing is known about them except the alleged participation in this election, so it seems doubtful that they were ever promoted to the cardinalate and even that they existed (Cardinal Guglielmo seems to be a “duplicate” of Cardinal Guglielmo Marengo, who had been archdeacon of Pavia before his promotion to the cardinalate and whose attitude at the beginning of the schism was ambiguous. See Robinson, p. 475). Brixius does not mention them in his work.</ref>

{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%"
! width="*" | Elector
! width="*" | Faction
! width="20%" |Cardinalatial Title
! width="12%" | Elevated<ref>Dates of promotions according to Zenker, p. 222-226, and Brixius, ''passim''.</ref>
! width="*" | Elevator
! width="*" | Notes
|- valign="top"
|[[Imar of Tusculum|Imar]], O.S.B.Cluny
|Imperial
|[[Bishop of Tusculum]]
|13 March 1142
|Innocent II
|[[Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals]]
|- valign="top"
|[[Gregorio della Suburra]]
|”Sicilian”
|[[Bishop of Sabina]]
|1 March 1140<ref name="Suburra">For the date of his creation see Zenker, p. 48 and 51. Brixius, p. 57, says that he was created by Anastasius IV (1153–54) as cardinal-bishop of Sabina, but Zenker has proven that he is identical to cardinal Gregorio of S. Maria in Trastevere created by Innocent II in 1140.</ref>
|Innocent II<ref name="Suburra"/>
|Sub-dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals
|- valign="top"
|[[Pope Lucius III|Ubaldo Allucingoli]]
|”Sicilian”
|[[Bishop of Ostia e Velletri]]
|16 December 1138
|Innocent II
|Future [[Pope Lucius III]] (1181–85)
|- valign="top"
|[[Giulio of Palestrina|Giulio]]
|neutral
|[[Bishop of Palestrina]]
|19 May 1144
|Lucius II
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Bernard of Porto|Bernard]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|[[Bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina]]
|22 December 1144
|Lucius II
|Archpriest of the [[Vatican Basilica]]; designated by Adrian IV but not elected
|- valign="top"
|[[Walter II of Albano|Walter]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|[[Bishop of Albano]]
|19 December 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Ubaldo Caccianemici]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|Priest of S. Croce in Gerusalemme
|19 May 1144
|Lucius II
|[[Protopriest]] of the Sacred College of Cardinals; [[Cardinal-nephew]] (?)
|- valign="top"
|[[Antipope Victor IV (1159–1164)|Ottaviano de Monticelli]]
|Imperial
|Priest of S. Cecilia
|25 February 1138
|Innocent II
|Elected [[Antipope Victor IV (1159–1164)|Antipope Victor IV]]
|- valign="top"
|[[Astaldo degli Astalli]]
|neutral
|Priest of S. Prisca
|17 December 1143
|Celestine II
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Antipope Paschal III|Guido di Crema]]
|Imperial
|Priest of S. Maria in Trastevere
|21 September 1145
|Eugenius III
|Future [[Antipope Paschal III]] (1164–68)
|- valign="top"
|[[Pope Alexander III|Rolando]]
|”Sicilian”
|Priest of S. Marco and [[Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church]]
|22 September 1150
|Eugenius III
|Elected [[Pope Alexander III]]
|- valign="top"
|[[Giovanni Gaderisio]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|Priest of S. Anastasia
|22 September 1150
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Giovanni da Sutri]]
|neutral
|Priest of SS. Giovanni e Paolo
|21 February 1152
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Enrico Moricotti]], O.Cist.
|neutral
|Priest of SS. Nereo ed Achilleo
|21 February 1152
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Giovanni Morrone]]
|Imperial
|Priest of SS. Silvestro e Martino
|23 May 1152
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Ildebrando Grassi]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|Priest of SS. XII Apostoli
|23 May 1152
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Bonadies de Bonadie]]
|neutral
|Priest of S. Crisogono
|21 December 1156
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Pope Gregory VIII|Alberto di Morra]], Can.Reg.Praem.
|neutral
|Priest of S. Lorenzo in Lucina
|21 December 1156
|Adrian IV
|Future [[Pope Gregory VIII]] (1187)
|- valign="top"
|[[Guglielmo Marengo]], O.Cist.
|Imperial (?)
|Priest of S. Pietro in Vincoli
|14 March 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Odone Bonecase]]
|”Sicilian”
|Deacon of S. Giorgio in Velabro
|4 March 1132
|Innocent II
|[[Protodeacon]] of the Sacred College of Cardinals
|- valign="top"
|[[Rodolfo of S. Lucia|Rodolfo]]
|neutral
|Deacon of S. Lucia in Septisolio
|17 December 1143
|Celestine II
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Pope Celestine III|Giacinto Bobone]]
|neutral
|Deacon of S. Maria in Cosmedin
|22 December 1144
|Lucius II
|Future [[Pope Celestine III]] (1191–98)
|- valign="top"
|[[Ottone da Brescia]]
|”Sicilian”
|Deacon of S. Nicola in Carcere
|21 February 1152
|Eugenius III
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Ardicio Rivoltella]]
|”Sicilian”
|Deacon of S. Teodoro
|21 December 1156
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Boso Breakspeare|Boso]], Can.Reg.
|”Sicilian”
|Deacon of SS. Cosma e Damiano
|21 December 1156
|Adrian IV
|[[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church]]; prefect of the Castle Sant’Angelo
|- valign="top"
|[[Simeone Borelli]], O.S.B.Cas.
|Imperial
|Deacon of S. Maria in Domnica
|ca.1157
|Adrian IV
|Abbot of [[Subiaco, Italy|Subiaco]]
|- valign="top"
|[[Cinzio Capellus]]
|Imperial (?)
|Deacon of S. Adriano
|14 March 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Pietro di Miso]]
|”Sicilian”
|Deacon of S. Eustachio
|14 March 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Raymond de Nimes]]
|Imperial
|Deacon of S. Maria in Via Lata
|14 March 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Giovanni Conti da Anagni]]
|neutral
|Deacon of S. Maria in Portico
|19 December 1158
|Adrian IV
|
|}

Five electors were created by [[Pope Innocent II]], two by [[Pope Celestine II]], four by [[Pope Lucius II]], eight by [[Pope Eugenius III]] and eleven by [[Pope Adrian IV]].

==Absentee==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%"
! width="*" | Elector
! width="*" | Faction
! width="*" |Cardinalatial Title
! width="*" | Elevated
! width="*" | Elevator
! width="*" | Notes
|- valign="top"
|[[Rainaldo di Collemezzo]],<ref>A. Chacón includes Rainaldo among [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/conclave-xii.htm#1159 participants of the election of Alexander III]. However, it seems unlikely because Cardinal Rainaldo was not a resident of Roman Curia, but of the abbey of Montecassino, where he acted as abbot for 29 years (1137–1166). Fact that he did not subscribed any papal bulls during his long cardinalate (1140–1166) clearly indicates his permanent absence from the papal court (Jaffé, p. 559, 609, 616, 653, 658–659). Besides, although he certainly joined the obedience of Alexander III, he does not appear among signatories of the manifest of his electors of October 1159 ([http://www.domus-ecclesiae.de/historica/otto-frisingensis/rahewinus.gesta.04.html Rahewin: cap. LXIII]). For his absence see also Brixius, p. 24.</ref> O.S.B.Cas.
|neutral
|Priest of [[SS. Marcellino e Pietro]]
|ca.1139–1141
|Innocent II
|[[Abbot of Montecassino]] ([[external cardinal]])
|}

==Divisions in the Sacred College==
[[File:Otton I Wittelsbach.jpg|thumb|right|Otto von Wittelsbach, imperial envoy in Rome and alleged ally of the conspiracy of pro-imperial cardinals]]
[[File:William I of Sicily.jpg|thumb|left|upright|King William I of Sicily.]]
The [[College of Cardinals]] was divided into two factions: the so-called "Sicilian" party, led by chancellor Rolando of Siena and Camerlengo Boso; they supported pro-Sicilian policy of Adrian IV. The opposite Imperial faction was led by Ottaviano of S. Cecilia.

It is known that Sicilian party counted thirteen cardinals. They were chancellor Roland of S. Marco, camerlengo Boso of SS. Cosma e Damiano, cardinal-bishops Bernard of Porto, Ubaldo of Ostia, Walter of Albano and Gregorio of Sabina, as well as cardinals Odone of S. Giorgio, Ubaldo of S. Croce, Ottone of S. Nicola, Ardicio of S. Teodoro, Giovanni of S. Anastasia, Ildebrando of SS. Apostoli and Pietro of S. Eustachio.<ref>Robinson, p. 53</ref>

The Imperial party may have counted as many as nine cardinals.<ref>This number is given in the manifest of the electors of Victor IV, dated October 1159. However, this manifest is signed only by five cardinals and is not believed to be reliable; none of the other sources support the number of nine cardinals in favour of Ottaviano-Victor IV (Bolton, Duggan, p. 106). The Victorine party claimed that among these nine cardinals was Gregorio of Sabina, later bribed by Alexandrines (Langen, p. 454), but cardinal Gregorio is known to have been a "Sicilian" (Robinson, p. 53)</ref> but only six can be actually identified as its members: Ottaviano of S. Cecilia, Giovanni of SS. Silvestro e Martino, Guido of S. Maria in Trastevere, Imar of Tusculum, Raymond of S. Maria in Via Lata and Simeone of S. Maria in Domnica<ref name="Bolton, Duggan, p. 105">Bolton, Duggan, p. 105</ref> Guglielmo of S. Pietro in Vincoli was probably the seventh one.<ref>Langen, p. 454</ref> Perhaps Cardinal Cinzio of S. Adriano also belonged to this faction. The remaining ten cardinals were neutral.<ref name="Robinson, p. 83">Robinson, p. 83</ref>

It is believed that both factions made some preparations to the election in the last months of the pontificate of Adrian IV, although these attempts are known only from the hostile accounts produced for the polemical purposes during the subsequent schism and it is impossible to verify their factual accuracy. Both sides accused each other of illegal conspiracies. The adherents of Victor IV accused "Sicilians" of receiving the bribes from the king [[William I of Sicily]] and the anti-Imperial cities of [[Brescia]], [[Milan]] and [[Piacenza]]. They ostensibly made an oath not to vote for any candidate outside their circle. On the other hand, "Sicilians" accused imperialists of hatching a plot with the imperial envoy [[Otto I Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria|Otto von Wittelsbach]], who was present at Rome at the time of the election and gave the significant support to Victor IV in taking control over the Patrimony of St. Peter.<ref>Robinson, pp. 79–80</ref> It is known that the secular adherents of Cardinal Ottaviano de Monticelli, who was related to the powerful family of the counts of [[Tusculum]], were prepared for the armed confrontation in Rome.<ref name="Robinson, p. 83"/> Evidently, neither party was prepared for compromise.<ref>Robinson, p. 81</ref>

==Proceedings==

===Election of Alexander III===

[[File:B-Alexander III1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Pope Alexander III]]

The cardinals assembled in the [[Vatican Basilica]] on 4 September, three days after the death of Adrian IV. They had decided that, according to the custom, the election should be unanimous to be valid.<ref name="Robinson, p. 82">Robinson, p. 82</ref> It seems that the candidature of Bernard of Porto, recommended by Adrian as acceptable for both factions, had never been even advanced. Both parties put forward candidates mutually unacceptable: the imperial party proposed Ottaviano de Monticelli, while "Sicilians" proposed chancellor Rolando.<ref>Robinson, p. 79</ref> The cardinals discussed for three days without achieving a compromise. However, the Sicilian party was able to join all the neutral cardinals and probably detached also some members of the imperial faction. On the fourth day (7 September), Cardinal Rolando of Siena was proclaimed pope by them and took the name Alexander III, although the unanimity had not been achieved and some cardinals still opposed his candidature.<ref name="Robinson, p. 83"/> According to the manifest of Alexandrine party of October 1159 and an account of Cardinal Boso, on that day Rolando received the votes of all cardinals assembled except three: those of Ottaviano of S. Cecilia, Giovanni of SS. Silvestro e Martino and Guido of S. Maria in Trastevere. Then supporters of Rolando recognized that “It seemed inappropriate that ... the apostolic see ... should remain any longer without a ruler because of the contentiousness of the aforesaid [three] men”.<ref name="Robinson, p. 82"/> On the other hand, the opposite party claimed that Ottaviano had still nine votes, and that the Sicilian party, having majority, simply broke the rule that required unanimity for the valid election.<ref>Robinson, pp. 82–83</ref> However, the version of the imperial cardinals is believed to be less reliable than the version of the Alexandrine party, even if the latter may be also not fully accurate; based on the subscriptions of the manifests of both parties issued shortly after the election, it is possible to assume that at least twenty-three electors voted for Rolando, and no more than six opposed him.<ref>Bolton, Duggan, p. 106. These numbers do not include the elect himself.</ref>

===Election of Victor IV===

The electors of Cardinal Rolando, immediately after proclaiming him Pope, attempted to place upon him the purple mantle which symbolized the assumption of the papal office, but then the election entered the tumultuous stage. Cardinal Ottaviano Monticelli snatched the mantle from Alexander’s back and his armed bands burst into the basilica. Alexander III and his supporters fled to the citadel of St. Peter, which was in the hands of Cardinal [[Boso Breakspeare|Boso]]. In their absence, the few cardinals who remained in basilica elected Ottaviano of S. Cecilia to the papacy and enthroned him as Victor IV.<ref name="Robinson, p. 83"/> The exact number of his electors is not known, but there are good reasons to believe that it amounted six, including Ottaviano himself, since only five cardinals signed the manifest in his favour in the following month.<ref name="Bolton, Duggan, p. 105"/> However, it is possible that some additional cardinals participated in the election of Victor IV but very quickly joined the obedience Alexander III.<ref>Robinson, p. 83, Bolton, Duggan, p. 106. Perhaps three or four supporters of Alexander III who did not escape to citadel joined the election of Victor IV under the pressure of the armed bands; this would explain why Victorines could have claimed that their faction counted nine cardinals, including “Sicilian” Gregorio of Sabina, and why their numbers dwindled so quickly to five. However, there is no direct evidence to support this hypothesis.</ref>

===Consecration of Alexander III===

[[Pope Alexander III]] remained in the citadel for a week until he was rescued and escorted from Rome by [[Odo Frangipane]], and on September 18 he was eventually bestowed with the purple mantle.<ref name="Robinson, p. 83"/> On 20 September at the small village of Ninfa, south-east of [[Velletri]], he was consecrated bishop of Rome by Cardinal Ubaldo Allucingoli, bishop of Ostia e Velletri, and crowned by Cardinal Odone Bonecase, protodeacon of S. Giorgio in Velabro.<ref>{{cite web |author=Salvador Miranda|url= http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1150.htm#Bandinelli|title= Cardinal Rolando Bandinelli (Pope Alexander III)|accessdate=2008-10-20 |work= The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church|publisher= Florida International University Library |date= 1998–2008}}</ref> On 27 September he excommunicated Victor IV and his adherents.<ref>Robinson, p. 478</ref>

===Consecration of Victor IV===

Victor IV was consecrated on 4 October in the [[abbey of Farfa]] by Cardinal-Bishop [[Imar of Tusculum]], dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals, assisted by the bishops [[Ubaldo of Ferentino]] and [[Riccardo of Melfi]].<ref>Jaffé, p. 828</ref> With the armed assistance of Otto von Wittelsbach and his own armed groups in relatively short time he took control over the City of Rome and the Patrimony of St. Peter, while Alexander III took refuge in the territory of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], and later in [[France]].<ref>Robinson, p. 484</ref>

===Manifests of both factions in October 1159===

Both rivals together with their adherents defended the legality of their elections. In October 1159 cardinals of both obediences produced the manifests to the Emperor Frederick in favour of their elects. The “Alexandrine” manifest was subscribed by twenty three cardinals, while that of Victorine faction only by five.<ref>[http://www.domus-ecclesiae.de/historica/otto-frisingensis/rahewinus.gesta.04.html Rahewin, "Gesta Frederici"] (manifest of Wiktorine party is a cap. LXII, while that of Alexandrine party is the cap. LXIII)</ref> Supporters of Victor IV, admitting that they were in minority, justified their action by the fact that the opposite faction broke the rule of unanimity and – in consequence – the election of Rolando was invalid. The opposite party claimed that the principle of unanimity had been breached by the obstructive conduct of merely three cardinals of the Imperial faction, who stubbornly refused to recognize the candidate desired by the rest of the Sacred College.<ref name="Robinson, p. 82"/>

===Final division of the Sacred College of Cardinals in October 1159===

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%"
! width="*" | Obedience of Alexander III
! width="*" | Obedience of Victor IV<ref>Antipope Victor IV shortly after his consecration in October 1159 appointed unspecified number of new cardinals to strengthen his faction (S. Miranda [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/consistories-xii.htm#AVictorIV Pseudocardinals of Victor IV]). These (pseudo)cardinals are not included in the table</ref>
|- valign="top"
|1. Gregorio della Suburra, bishop of Sabina and sub-dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals 2. Ubaldo Allucingoli, bishop of Ostia e Velletri 3. Giulio, bishop of Palestrina 4. Bernard, Can.Reg., bishop of Porto e S. Rufina and archpriest of the Vatican Basilica 5. Walter, Can.Reg., bishop of Albano 6. Ubaldo Caccianemici, Can.Reg., protopriest of S. Croce in Gerusalemme 7. Rainaldo di Collemezzo, O.S.B.Cas., priest of SS. Marcellino e Pietro and abbot of Montecassino 8. Astaldo degli Astalli, priest of S. Prisca 9. Giovanni da Sutri, priest of SS. Giovanni e Paolo 10. Errico Moricotti, O.Cist., priest of SS. Nereo ed Achilleo 11. Ildebrando Grassi, Can.Reg., priest of SS. XII Apostoli 12. Giovanni Gaderisio, Can.Reg., priest of S. Anastasia 13. Bonadies de Bonadie, priest of S. Crisogono 14. Alberto di Morra, Can.Reg., priest of S. Lorenzo in Lucina 15. Guglielmo Marengo, priest of S. Pietro in Vincoli 16. Odone Bonecase, protodeacon of S. Giorgio in Velabro 17. Rodolfo, deacon of S. Lucia in Septisolio 18. Giacinto Bobone, deacon of S. Maria in Cosmedin 19. Ottone da Brescia, deacon of S. Nicola in Carcere 20. Ardicio Rivoltella, deacon of S. Teodoro 21. Boso, Can.Reg., deacon of SS. Cosma e Damiano 22. Cinzio Capellus, deacon of S. Adriano 23. Pietro di Miso, deacon of S. Eustachio 24. Giovanni Conti da Anagni, deacon of S. Maria in Portico
|1. Imar, O.S.B.Cluny, bishop of Tusculum and dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals 2. Guido di Crema, priest of S. Maria in Trastevere 3. Giovanni Morrone, priest of SS. Silvestro e Martino 4. Raymond de Nimes, deacon of S. Maria in Via Lata 5. Simeone Borelli, O.S.B.Cas., deacon of S. Maria in Domnica and abbot of Subiaco
|}

Simeone Borelli joined the obedience of Alexander III already at the end of 1159.<ref>Zenker, p. 140-141.</ref> Raymond of S. Maria in Vi Lata did the same between February and April 1160.<ref>Brixius, p. 24.</ref> Besides, at the end of 1159 Victor IV created at least three new cardinal-deacons: Bernard of SS. Sergio e Bacco, Giovanni of S Maria in Aquiro and [[Antipope Innocent III|Lando of S. Angelo]],<ref>Brixius, p. 67-68</ref> while Alexander III appointed on February 18, 1160 cardinal-deacon Milo of S. Maria in Aquiro.<ref>Brixius, p. 24 and p. 65 no. 20</ref>

==Schism==
Both popes sent their legates to the catholic kingdoms in order to secure their recognition. At the council of [[Pavia]] in February 1160 Emperor Frederick I declared himself in favour of Victor IV, and the episcopate of the Empire followed him, with the significant exception of [[archbishop of Salzburg]] [[Eberhard of Salzburg|Eberhard I von Hilpolstein-Biburg]] and his suffragans.<ref>Robinson, pp. 474–475</ref> King [[Valdemar I of Denmark]] also gave his support to Victor IV, but the primate of Denmark archbishop [[Eskil of Lund]] became partisan of Alexander III.<ref>Angelo Forte, Richard Oram, Frederik Pedersen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_vEd859jvk0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false Viking empires]'', Cambridge University Press, 2005 {{ISBN|0-521-82992-5}}, p. 382</ref> It seems that [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Poland]] also supported Victor IV.<ref>Polish bishops took part in the schismatic synods in 1160 and 1165 (''Dzieje Kościoła w Polsce'', ed. A. Wiencek, Kraków 2008, p. 75)</ref> The rest of Europe, namely [[Kingdom of France|France]], [[Kingdom of England|England]], [[Medieval Spain|Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]] and the [[Crusader states|Latin territories in Outremer]], recognized Alexander III as true Pope, even if in some of these countries there were a significant Victorine minorities in episcopates or among feudal rulers.<ref>Robinson, pp. 475–476</ref> The papal schism in Europe was now a fact.

The unity of the Church had been restored only after eighteen years, when Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa and Pope Alexander III signed a [[Treaty of Venice]] (1 August 1177); shortly thereafter the pro-imperial pope [[Antipope Callistus III|Callistus III]] (successor of Victor IV) abandoned his claims to the papacy and submitted to Alexander III (29 August 1178).<ref>{{cite web |author=Salvador Miranda|url= http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1164bishops.htm#Struma|title= Antipope Callistus III|accessdate=2008-10-20 |work= The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church|publisher= Florida International University Library |date= 1998–2008}}</ref> Victor IV and his successors [[Antipope Paschal III|Paschal III]] (1164–68) and [[Antipope Callistus III|Callistus III]] (1168–78) are now regarded as antipopes by the [[Catholic Church]], while Alexander III is recognized as legitimate successor of St. [[Peter the Apostle]].

==Aftermath==
The election of 1159 and the subsequent schism shows the necessity of amending the rules concerning papal elections. The decree ''[[Licet de evitanda discordia]]'' issued by the Third Lateran Council in 1179 abolished the rule of unanimity in favour of the rule of the majority of two thirds. The decree confirmed also that all three orders of the College of Cardinals (bishops, priests and deacons) are equal in the papal elections. Although the practice allowing the participation of cardinal-priests and cardinal-deacons on equal rights with cardinal-bishops had been introduced no later than in the [[papal election, 1118]], the decree [[In Nomine Domini]] (1059) conferring the special electoral rights on the cardinal-bishops had never been formally revoked up to that time.<ref>Robinson, pp. 40–41, 63 and 84</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| last = Ian Stuart Robinson
| first =
| authorlink =
| title = The Papacy 1073–1198. Continuity and Innovation
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| series = Cambridge Medieval Textbooks
| year = 1990
| doi =
| isbn = 0-521-31922-6 }}
* {{cite book
| last = Brenda Bolton
| first = Anne Duggan
| authorlink =
| title = Adrian IV, the English Pope, 1154–1159: Studies and Texts
| publisher = Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
| series =
| year = 2003
| doi =
| isbn = 0-7546-0708-9 }}
* {{cite book
| last = Langen
| first = Joseph
| authorlink =
| title = Geschichte der Römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III
| language = German
| url = http://openlibrary.org/b/OL7174968M
| location = Bonn
| year = 1893}}
* {{cite book
| last = Jaffé
| first = Philipp
| authorlink = Philipp Jaffé
| title = Regesta pontificum Romanorum ab condita Ecclesia ad annum post Christum natum MCXCVIII
| url = http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=70317&dirds=1&tab=
| language = Latin
| location = Berlin
| year = 1851}}
* {{cite book
| last = Brixius
| first = Johannes Matthias
| authorlink =
| title = Die Mitglieder des Kardinalkollegiums von 1130–1181
| publisher = R. Trenkel
| language = German
| location = Berlin
| year = 1912}}
* {{cite book
| last = Zenker
| first = Barbara
| authorlink =
| title = Die Mitglieder des Kardinalkollegiums von 1130 bis 1159
| publisher =
| language = German
| location = Würzburg
| year = 1964}}
* {{cite book
| last = Salvador
| first = Miranda
| title = The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church
| url = http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/conclave-xii.htm
|publisher = Florida International University Library
| year = 1998–2008}}
* {{cite book
| last = Rahewin
| first =
| title = Gesta Friderici
| url = http://www.domus-ecclesiae.de/historica/otto-frisingensis/rahewinus.gesta.04.html
|publisher = Domus Ecclesiae
| year = 2001}}

{{Papal elections and conclaves from 1061|state=collapsed}}
{{good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Papal Election, 1159}}
[[Category:1159 elections]]
[[Category:Papal elections|1159]]
[[Category:Schisms in Christianity]]
[[Category:1159 in Europe]]
[[Category:12th-century Roman Catholicism]]
[[Category:Pope Alexander III]]
[[Category:1159 events]]

Tikbalang

2017-01-23T20:00:51Z

JHunterJ: clean up

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2014}}
{{refimprove|date=October 2016}}
{{Infobox Philippine mythology
| image = [[File:Tikbalang The Philippine Demon Horse Commons.jpg|200px]]
| title = Tikbalang the human horse
| description = The Benevolent Horse
| gender = Unknown, most likely male
| region = [[Philippines]]
| equivalent =
}}

'''Tikbalang''' (also '''Tigbalang''', '''Tigbalan''', or '''Tikbalan''' or '''Tigbolan''') is a creature of [[Philippine folklore]] said to lurk in the mountains and forests of the [[Philippines]]. It is described as a tall, bony humanoid creature with disproportionately long limbs, to the point that its knees reach above its head when it squats down.<ref name="Eugenio">{{cite book| last = Eugenio| first = Damiana L.| title = Philippine Folk Literature An Anthology| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LxGongEACAAJ&pg=PA247| accessdate = 2009-05-08| year = 2008| publisher = University of the Philippines Press| isbn = 978-971-542-536-0| page = 247 }}</ref> It has the head and feet of an animal, most commonly a horse. In some versions it is a transformation of an aborted [[fetus]] sent to earth from [[limbo]].<ref name="delosreyes">{{cite book| last = de los Reyes| first = Isabelo| authorlink = Isabelo de los Reyes| title = El Folk-Lore Filipino| year = 1890| publisher = Imprenta de Santa Cruz| language = Spanish| isbn = 978-971-542-038-9| pages = 66–69 }}</ref>

==Origins==
[[File:Hayagreeva.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The image of [[Hayagriva]], is a horse-headed [[avatar]] of the Lord [[Vishnu]] in [[Hinduism]].]]

{{Further information|Hayagriva|History of the Philippines (900–1521)|Religion in pre-colonial Philippines|Hinduism in the Philippines|Buddhism in the Philippines}}

It traces the image of the Tikbalang back 4000 years, finding its roots in [[Hinduism]] and explains how that influence evolved into the mysterious half horse creature we know today.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}

Natives of the ancient concept of monotheism to reduce the uncertainty of the future. This ancient belief is considered animism. They had knowledge and they thought that the world has its own consciousness. They believed that stones, trees, mountains, water, animals, sun, moon and has a hidden power quickened the spirit or 'idol'. Could be good or harm the spirit, but it is believed to control some aspects of life.
in 1589, when the earliest days of the Spanish occupation, documented by Father Juan de Plasencia with long-term tikbalang awareness of indigenous peoples .

[[Hinduism]] began in 3000 BC in India and spread to Southeast Asia in 200 CE. Had developed several routes of trade and cultural influence spread throughout the region. Soon, there was some kind of Buddhism in Asia but remained Hindu influences. This happened before Islam and Christianity in the region , this might have to do with Tikbalang Hayagriva was the avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. The worship of Hayagriva was recorded in 2000 BCE,

The images for giant flying birds, the Tikbalang, and [[Sirena]] are straight out of Hindu imagery. Influence on religion was also prevalent with the concept of a multi-layered world – Heaven and Hell. According to the Hindu Puranas, there are fourteen worlds in the universe – the seven upper and the seven lower. The seven upper worlds are Bhuh, Bhavah, Swah, Mahah, Janah. Tapah, and Satyam; and the seven nether worlds are Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Rasatala, Talatala, Mahatala, and Patala. The region known as Bhuh is the earth where we dwell.

Began its association with Tikbalang 1860 discovery of a statue to [[Cambodia]] since the 10th century. It described the demons that [[Vadavamuka]], the more radical version of the avatar of [[Vishnu]]. Eventually, Buddhism changed the image of Hayagriva a small horse's head floated to crown fire. In [[China]], provided the old image of [[Hayagriva]] face with horses - one of the demons keeper into the [[inferno]]. Probably has the same happened in Tikbalang adapt it to the Filipinos in their beliefs after exacting culture through trade. Nine hundred years before the Spaniards arrived, went to the Chinese merchants in the Philippines and while there they use horses. But there's just started the evolution of Tikbalang.

==Superstitions==
Tikbalangs or Tigbolan scare travelers, lead them astray and play tricks on them such that the travelers keep on returning to an arbitrary path no matter how far they go or turn. This is counteracted by wearing one's shirt inside out. Another countermeasure is to ask permission out loud to pass by or, not to produce too much noise while in the woods in order not to offend or disturb the tikbalang. The "tigbolan" is a ghost which assumes a variety of forms, and sometimes confers a similar gift upon certain favored individuals, in much the same way as the devil was wont to grant extraordinary powers to a few of our adventuresome forefathers. A superstition popular with the [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] of [[Rizal Province]] is that Tikbalangs are benevolent guardians of elemental kingdoms. They are usually found standing at the foot of large trees looking around for anyone who dare to bestow malignancy on their kingdom's territory.

A common saying has it that rain from a clear sky means "''may kinakasal na tikbalang.''"([[Filipino language|Filipino]], "a tikbalang is getting married".) This was potentially connected with a similar [[Spanish folklore|Spanish]] proverb that claimed a [[witch]] was getting married when there was rain on a sunny day, {{citation needed|date=July 2012}} although many cultures have such sayings in which a trickster figure gets married (cp. fox's wedding, bear's wedding, monkey's birthday/wedding).

In some versions, the tikbalang can also [[shapeshifting|transform]] itself into human form or turn invisible to humans. They like to lead travelers astray.<ref name="Eugenio"/>

Tikbalang are generally associated with dark, sparsely populated, foliage-overgrown areas, with [[legend]]s variously identifying their abode as being beneath bridges, in [[bamboo]] clumps or [[banana]] groves, and atop Kalumpang ([[Sterculia|Sterculia foetida]])<ref name="Adarna">{{cite book| last1 = Añouevo| first1 = Victoria| last2 = Dandan-Albano| first2 = Kora| title = Ang Tikbalang Kung Kabilugan ng Buwan| year = 2004| publisher = Adarna House, Inc| location = Quezon City| isbn = 978-971-508-250-1 }}</ref> or Balite ([[Ficus indica]]) trees.

==Taming a tikbalang==
By one account a tikbalang has a mane of sharp spines, with the three thickest of these being of particular importance. A person who obtains one of these spines can use them as an ''[[agimat|anting-anting]]'' ([[Amulet|talisman]]) in order to keep the tikbalang as his servant. The tikbalang must first be subdued, however, by leaping onto it and tying it with a specially-prepared cord. The would-be-tamer must then hang on while the creature flies through the air, fighting madly to dislodge its unwelcome rider, until it is exhausted and acknowledges its defeat.<ref name="delosreyes"/> or you can look on his mane and you will see 3 golden hairs and if you pluck 3 of them before he/she eats you, they will serve you until you die.

==In popular culture==
* ''Tikbalang: The Horse Demon'' was the first episode of the 2015 Creatures Of Philippine Mythology documentary web-series produced by The Aswang Project and High Banks Entertainment Ltd. It traces back the origin of the Tikbalang's image to India, circa 2000BCE, and follows its evolution to modern day.<ref>Clark, Jordan "Tikbalang: The Horse Demon" Episode 01, ''Creatures Of Philippine Mythology'' (2015) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gRUSBSJ39KY</ref>
* A tikbalang named Lusyo features prominently in [[The Mythology Class]], a graphic novel written and illustrated by Filipino comic creator [[Arnold Arre]].<ref name="arnold">{{cite news | publisher=[[FLY Magazine]] | title=Gen X Meets Tikbalang | author = Lourd de Veyra | url=http://www.arnold-arre.com/interviews/genXmeetstik.html | date=4th Quarter, 1999 | accessdate=2006-01-12}}</ref>
* ''Tikbalang Kung Kabilugan ng Buwan'' is a child-friendly telling of the Tikbalang mythos – written by Victoria Añonuevo, illustrated by Kora Dandan-Albano and released by [[Adarna House]] – intended to familiarize young Filipino audiences with Philippine Mythological creatures. In the story, a Tikbalang becomes lonely for lack of a playmate during the full moon, a time when Filipino children of generations past traditionally went out to play in the moonlight. In search for a playmate, the Tikbalang leaves his home in the Kalumpang tree and encounters first a [[Kapre]], then a [[Nuno]], an [[Aswang]], and a [[Tiyanak]], before he finally meets another Tikbalang as a suitable playmate.<ref name="Adarna" />

==See also==
* [[Sihuanaba]]

==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Blair
| first = Emma Helen
| authorlink = Emma Helen Blair
| author2 = Edward Gaylord Bourne, James Alexander Robertson, John Boyd Thacher
| title = The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803
| publisher = The A. H. Clark company
| year = 1905
| pages = 269–270
| id = ASIN B000858BO4 }}<ref>{{cite book| title = the philippine islands 1493–1898| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8-5WFteMRDcC&pg=PA269| year = 1905| publisher = | page = 269 }}</ref>
* {{cite book
| last = Bergaño
| first = Diego
| authorlink = Diego Bergaño
| title = Vocabulario de la lengua Pampangan en romance
| publisher = Ramirez y Giruadier
| year = 1860
| page = 254
| language = Spanish }}<ref>{{cite book| title = Vocabulario de la lengua pampanga| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UySuqETvLcAC| year = 1860| publisher = }}</ref>

==Additional reading==
* {{cite news
| last = Cruz
| first = Neal
| author-link = Neal Cruz
| title = As I See It:Philippine mythological monsters
| newspaper = Philippine Daily Inquirer
| pages =
| date = 31 October 2008
| url =http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/columns/view/20081031-169390/Philippine-mythological-monsters }}

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.keiththompsonart.com/pages/tikbalang.html Keith Thompson's rendition of a tikbalang.]

{{Philippine mythology}}

[[Category:Philippine legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Mythological horses]]
[[Category:Mythological hybrids]]
[[Category:Philippine culture]]
[[Category:Philippine mythology]]

Alternative Fakten

2017-01-23T13:41:57Z

JHunterJ: rearrange lede

{{Article for deletion/dated|page=Alternative facts|timestamp=20170122215645|year=2017|month=January|day=22|substed=yes|help=off}}



{{about|the [[first 100 days of Donald Trump's presidency]]|[[Alternate fact]]s|Counterfactual thinking
|the general topic|Disinformation|and|Fake news}}

'''Alternative facts''' are claims asserted by [[White House Press Secretary]] [[Sean Spicer]] regarding the attendance at [[Donald Trump]]'s [[Inauguration of Donald Trump|inauguration]] as President of the United States as described by [[Counselor to the President]] [[Kellyanne Conway]] during a ''[[Meet the Press]]'' interview.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/01/22/politics/kellyanne-conway-alternative-facts/index.html|title=Conway: Trump White House offered 'alternative facts' on crowd size|last=CNN|first=Eric Bradner|website=CNN|access-date=2017-01-22}}</ref><ref name=Graham>{{cite web | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/the-pointless-needless-lies-of-the-trump-administration/514061/ | title='Alternative Facts': The Needless Lies of the Trump Administration | publisher=[[The Atlantic]] | date=January 22, 2017 | accessdate=January 22, 2017 | last=Graham | first=David}}</ref><ref name=Swaine>{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jan/22/donald-trump-kellyanne-conway-inauguration-alternative-facts | title=Trump presidency begins with defense of false 'alternative facts' | publisher=The Guardian | date=January 22, 2017 | accessdate=January 22, 2017 | last=Swaine | first=Jon}}</ref><ref name=Jaffe>{{cite web | url=http://www.nbcnews.com/meet-the-press/wh-spokesman-gave-alternative-facts-inauguration-crowd-n710466 | title=Kellyanne Conway: WH Spokesman Gave ‘Alternative Facts’ on Inauguration Crowd | publisher=[[NBC News]] | date=January 22, 2017 | accessdate=January 22, 2017 | last=Jaffe | first=Alexandra}}</ref> When pressed during the interview with [[Chuck Todd]] to explain why Spicer "utter[ed] a provable falsehood", Conway said "Don't be so overly dramatic about it, Chuck. You're saying it's a falsehood, and […] our press secretary, Sean Spicer, gave alternative facts to that."<ref name=Blake>{{cite web | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2017/01/22/kellyanne-conway-says-donald-trumps-team-has-alternate-facts-which-pretty-much-says-it-all/ | title=Kellyanne Conway says Donald Trump’s team has ‘alternative facts.’ Which pretty much says it all. | publisher=Washington Post | date=January 22, 2017 | accessdate=January 22, 2017 | last=Blake | first=Aaron}}</ref><ref>[http://nypost.com/2017/01/22/conway-trump-spokesman-gave-alternative-facts-on-inauguration-crowd/ Conway: Trump spokesman gave ‘alternative facts’] ([[New York Post]], 22 January 2017)</ref> Todd responded by saying "Alternative facts are not facts. They are falsehoods."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/kellyanne-conway-cites-alternative-facts-in-tense-interview-with-chuck-todd-over-false-crowd-size-claims-171242433.html|title=Kellyanne Conway cites ‘alternative facts’ in tense interview with Chuck Todd over false crowd size claims|last=Stableford|first=Dylan|date=22 January 2017|work=Yahoo! News|language=en-US|access-date=2017-01-23|via=}}</ref>{{Misinformation}}

==Background==
On January 21, 2017, White House Press Secretary [[Sean Spicer]] held his first press briefing. He accused the media of deliberately underestimating the size of the crowds for [[Inauguration of Donald Trump|President Trump's inaugural ceremony]] and stated that the ceremony had drawn the "largest audience, ever to witness an inauguration, period."<ref name="WaPo press conf"/> According to all available data, Spicer's allegations were false.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/2017/01/21/media/sean-spicer-press-secretary-statement/ |title=White House press secretary attacks media for accurately reporting inauguration crowds |newspaper=[[CNN.com]] |date=January 21, 2017 |access-date=January 21, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Trump’s Inauguration vs. Obama’s: Comparing the Crowds|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/01/20/us/politics/trump-inauguration-crowd.html|publisher=New York Times}}</ref>Aerial images showed that the turnout for Trump's inauguration was lower than the turnout for the 2009 [[First inauguration of Barack Obama|Inauguration of Barack Obama]]. [[Washington metro]] reported 193,000 riders by 11:00 am on the day of Trump's inauguration, considerably less than the 513,000 who rode the subway in the 2009 inauguration.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.haaretz.com/us-news/1.766775 | title='Alt-fact': Trump's White House Threatens War on Media Over 'Unfair Attacks' | publisher=[[Haaretz]] | date=January 22, 2017 | accessdate=January 23, 2017}}</ref><ref name=Fandos>{{cite web | url=http://www.seattletimes.com/news/fact-checking-the-white-house-alternative-facts/ | title=Fact-checking the White House ‘alternative facts’ | publisher=[[Seattle Times]] | date=January 22, 2017 | accessdate=January 23, 2017 | last=Fandos | first=Nicholas}}</ref>[[File:White House Spokesman Spicer Holds News Conference.webm|thumb|left|200px|Spicer at press conference]]

Spicer also gave incorrect information about the use of white floor coverings during the inauguration. He stated that they were used for the first time during the Trump inauguration and were to blame for a visual effect that made the audience look smaller. The white floor coverings, however, had been used in 2013 when Obama was sworn in for the second term.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/salvadorhernandez/president-trumps-spokesman-just-lied-about-the-size-of-the-i?utm_term=.prqEJrEbr#.hygBr5BR5 |title=President Trump’s Spokesman Just Lied About The Size Of The Inauguration Crowd |newspaper=[[buzzfeed.com]] |date=January 22, 2017 |access-date=January 22, 2017}}</ref> Spicer took no questions from the media at the press briefing.<ref name="WaPo press conf">{{cite news|last1=Cillizza|first1=Chris|title=Sean Spicer held a press conference. He didn’t take questions. Or tell the whole truth.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2017/01/21/sean-spicer-held-a-press-conference-he-didnt-take-questions-or-tell-the-whole-truth/?utm_term=.1649e5e30b2d|accessdate=22 January 2017|work=Washington Post|date=January 21, 2017}}</ref> Trump's campaign strategist and counselor, [[Kellyanne Conway]], defended Spicer's statements, telling NBC's [[Chuck Todd]] that the press secretary was simply giving "alternative facts" and that Trump's crowd numbers could not be proved nor quantified.<ref name=Jaffe /><ref name=Bennett>{{cite web | url=http://www.latimes.com/nation/politics/trailguide/la-na-trailguide-updates-inflated-numbers-for-trump-team-defends-1485107769-htmlstory.html | title=Trump aides defend inflated inauguration figures as 'alternative facts' | publisher=[[Los Angeles Times]] | date=January 22, 2017 | accessdate=January 22, 2017 | last=Bennett | first=Brian}}</ref>

In the first few days of the Trump presidency, false information was added to [[whitehouse.gov]], the official [[White House]] website. The website cited statistics to show that crime have increased when actually it has declined since 2008.<ref name=Revesz>{{cite web | url=http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/alternative-facts-white-house-website-donald-trump-fake-crimes-statistics-lgbt-climate-change-pages-a7540841.html | title=Welcome to the White House website, home of 'alternative facts' | publisher=[[The Independent]] | date=January 23, 2017 | accessdate=January 23, 2017 | last=Revesz | first=Rachael}}</ref>

==Reaction==
Spicer's press conference and Conway's follow-up comments drew quick reactions on social media. Journalist [[Dan Rather]] posted a scathing criticism of the incoming U.S. Presidential administration on his Facebook page.<ref name=TBT-170122>{{cite web | url=http://www.tampabay.com/blogs/media/dan-rather-takes-to-facebook-to-blast-president-trumps-alternative-facts/2310462 | title=Dan Rather takes to Facebook to blast President Trump's 'alternative facts' | publisher=[[Tampa Bay Times]] | date=January 22, 2017 | accessdate=January 22, 2017}}</ref><ref name=Calfas>{{cite web | url=http://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/news/315555-dan-rather-on-trump-these-are-not-normal-times | title=Dan Rather on Trump: 'These are not normal times' | publisher=[[The Hill]] | date=January 22, 2017 | accessdate=January 22, 2017 | last=Calfas | first=Jennifer}}</ref> Rather wrote:
<blockquote>These are not normal times. These are extraordinary times. And extraordinary times call for extraordinary measures.

When you have a spokesperson for the president of the United States wrap up a lie in the [[Orwellian]] phrase "alternative facts”…

When you have a press secretary in his first appearance before the White House reporters threaten, bully, lie, and then walk out of the briefing room without the cajones to answer a single question…<ref name=Rather>{{cite web | url=https://m.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=10158087282405716&id=24085780715&__tn__=*s | title=Dan Rather Facebook post | website=Facebook.com | date=January 22, 2017 | accessdate=January 22, 2017 | last=Rather | first=Dan}}</ref>
</blockquote>
he concluded,
<blockquote>
Facts and the truth are not partisan. They are the bedrock of our democracy. And you are either with them, with us, with our Constitution, our history, and the future of our nation, or you are against it. Everyone must answer that question.<ref name=Rather />
</blockquote>

The [[New York Times]] responded with a [[Fact_checking|fact check]] of statements made during Mr. Spicer's press conference.<ref name=Fandos>{{cite web | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/22/us/politics/president-trump-inauguration-crowd-white-house.html | title=White House Pushes Alternative Facts. Here Are the Real Ones | website=nytimes.com | date=January 22, 2017 | accessdate=January 22, 2017 | last=Fandos | first=Nicholas}}</ref> This included a side by side photographic comparison of the crowds from Obama's 2009 inauguration and Trump's.

Journalist and former ''[[New York Times]]'' executive editor [[Jill Abramson]] characterized Conway's comments about alternative facts as "Orwellian newspeak", adding that alternative facts are [[lie]]s.<ref name=Abramson>{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/jan/23/kellyanne-conway-alternative-facts-lies | title=Sorry, Kellyanne Conway. 'Alternative facts' are just lies | publisher=[[The Guardian]] | date=January 23, 2017 | accessdate=January 23, 2017 | last=Abramson | first=Jill}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Bad faith]]
* [[Baghdad Bob]]
* [[Big lie]]
* [[Cognitive dissonance]]
* [[Disinformation]]
* [[Fictive art]]
* [[Gaslighting]]
* [[Post-truth politics]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* [[Self-deception]]
{{Div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VSrEEDQgFc8 Kellyanne Conway ''Meet the Press'' interview with Chuck Todd]
* [https://soundcloud.com/matthewstewartproject/alternative-facts Matthew Stewart Alternative Facts] released on Soundcloud 1/22/17

[[ Category:American political neologisms]]
[[Category:Donald Trump controversies]]
[[Category:Presidency of Donald Trump]]
[[Category:Deception]]

Bacon Peak

2016-12-19T14:12:27Z

JHunterJ: remove hyphens

{{Infobox mountain
| name = Bacon Peak
| photo = Mount Shuksan 8760.JPG
| photo_caption = Bacon Peak (right skyline) and Mount Shuksan (left skyline)
| elevation = {{convert|7070|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| elevation_ref = {{navd88}}<ref name="ngs">{{cite ngs |id=TQ0530 |name=Bacon |accessdate=2011-06-07}}</ref>
| prominence_ft = 2505
| prominence_ref = <ref name="pb">{{cite peakbagger |pid=1644 |name=Bacon Peak, Washington |accessdate=2011-06-07}}</ref>
| location = [[North Cascades National Park]] [[Whatcom County, Washington|Whatcom County]], [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]
| range = [[North Cascades]]
| map = USA Washington
| lat_d = 48.66271154
| long_d = -121.52050258
| region_code = US-WA
| source = ngs
| coordinates_ref = <ref name="ngs"/>
| topo = [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] Bacon Peak
| first_ascent = R.B. Robertson, Eugene Logan (1905, possibly)<ref name="beckey">{{cite book
| last = Beckey
| first = Fred
| title = Cascade Alpine Guide: Rainy Pass to Fraser River
| publisher = The Mountaineers Books
| year = 2009
| page = 83
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5S0EVRXtK6YC&pg=PA83
| isbn = 978-1-59485-136-0}}</ref>
| easiest_route =
}}

'''Bacon Peak''' is a mountain in the [[Cascade range]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]. Its [[glacier]]s cover {{convert|3.2|km2|disp=flip}}; the three main glaciers are [[Diobsud Creek Glacier]] (southeast, {{convert|2.5|km|disp=flip}} wide), [[Green Lake Glacier]] (northeast, {{convert|2.1|km|disp=flip}} wide) and [[Noisy Creek Glacier]] (northwest, {{convert|1.4|km|1|disp=flip}} long).<ref name="beckey"/>

==Nearby peaks==
* Electric Butte
* Mount Watson
* Logger Butte
* [[Canadian Bacon (mountain)|Canadian Bacon]]
* [[Mount Despair (Washington)|Mount Despair]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite gnis |id=1516025 |name=Bacon Peak |accessdate=2011-06-07}}

[[Category:North Cascades National Park]]
[[Category:Mountains of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:North Cascades of Washington (state)|Despair]]
[[Category:Mountains of Whatcom County, Washington]]

{{WhatcomCountyWA-geo-stub}}

Benutzer:Andy king50/Chã das Caldeiras

2016-10-04T16:10:51Z

JHunterJ: copy edit

{{Infobox Cape Verde settlement
| name =
| image_skyline =
| image_caption =
| latd = 14.971
| longd = -24.367
| image_map =
| key = 83102
| area =
}}

'''Chã das Caldeiras''' (“Plain of the Calderas”) is a small community of approximately 1,000 inhabitants within the crater of the volcanic ''[[Pico do Fogo]]'' on the island of [[Fogo, Cape Verde|Fogo]], one of nine inhabited islands comprising [[Cape Verde]]. The village consists of two parts: ''Portela'' is the upper part with the Tourist Information, a school, Catholic Church, Adventist Church and the Cooperative. The lower part is ''Bangaeira''. Though technically in the ''Conselho de Santa Catarina'' with the northern part in ''Conselho do Mosteiros'', the village is functionally independent from outside governance due its isolated location. The municipal boundary runs in the eastern part roughly east. The main organizing body in the village is the ''Associação dos Agricultores de Chã'' (the agricultural cooperative), which holds considerable sway over the local [[economy]]. Chã is the only area in Cape Verde that grows significant quantities of [[grape]]s and produces export-quality [[wine]]s.

There is no [[Tap water|running water]] or [[electricity]] in Chã, though increasingly people use generators at night to light and power their homes. All non-drinking water is collected rain, stored in large cistern tanks for use in the dry season (November to July). Electricity may be introduced to the hamlets of Bangaeira and Portela in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rtc.cv/index.php?paginas=13&id_cod=10741|title=Primeiro-ministro promete energia para Chã das Caldeiras|trans_title=Prime Minister to Promote Energy in Chã das Caldeiras|newspaper=RTC|date=13 June 2011|language=pt}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:BangaeiraAldeia.jpg|thumb|Village of Bangaeira.]]
Fogo was the second island in the archipelago to be populated, after [[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago]] (then São Tiago). Initially, the island's cash crop was cotton, picked by slaves from [[Angola]]. A fiery eruption in 1688 caused a majority of the inhabitants to leave for nearby [[Brava, Cape Verde|Brava]], another of the Cape Verdean islands. From 1785 on, whaling ships from [[Brockton, Massachusetts|Brockton]] and [[New Bedford, Massachusetts|New Bedford]], [[Massachusetts]] (United States) came to replenish their ships and recruit crews. The departure of these ''Americanos'' marks the beginning of the Cape Verdean diaspora. Not everyone left Fogo, however. In 1870, the eccentric Count of Montrond (France) stopped on the island en route to [[Brazil]], or so he thought. He stayed, and brought with him the vines that kicked off wine production in the [[caldera]]. Many of the inhabitants of Chã, with their light skin, blond hair, and blue eyes, trace their ancestry back to the biologically prolific Count.

Pico do Fogo erupted on November 23, 2014 and the lava devastated the sections of Bangaeira, Portela and Dje de Lorna and parts of the village, most of the center, the western part up to 1 km and most of the southern part where the volcano erupted, a 3.5 km stretch the southern basalt paved road that connected São Filipe was covered with lava from around 400 m from the center down to around the 4th kilometer, the road was reduced to a track encircling the previous and current lava flows and rerouted to north of the center.

==Landmarks==
The village once featured a school and had 158 students in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asemana.publ.cv/spip.php?article57358|title=Chã das Caldeiras: 158 alunos recebem kits escolares|newspaper=A Semana|date=23 October 2010|language=pt}}</ref> The recent eruption has recently closed the school.

==Natural setting==

A large crater rim with 1000-meter escarpments, called the ''Bordeira'', encircles the village, which consists of two neighborhoods, Portela and Bangaeira. On the plain is one large volcanic peak (2,829 m from sea level) and several smaller peaks and lava fields from recent eruptions, most notably 1951, 1995 and 2014 (during which the entire population had to be evacuated). The entire caldera, some 67 km², is a protected area as part of the ''Parque Natural do Fogo'', a cooperative effort between the [[Germany|German]] and Cape Verdean governments.

==Endemic plants==

84% of the endemic plants (31 total [[species]]) on Fogo are located in Chã and on the Bordeira. 48% of these are designated as rare and/or threatened on the Ministry of Environment, Agriculture, and Fisheries' (MAAP) “Red List,” which includes the species ''Echium volcanorum'', ''Erysimum caboverdeanum'', and ''Tornabenea bischoffii'' and the genus ''Diplotaxis''. These plants are specifically adapted to the caldera's [[climate]] (periodically Chã receives [[frost]] during the winter months) and volcanic soils. Chã's endemic plants, along with its unique terrain, are under increasing strain due to [[overgrazing]] and to the [[fuel]] and fodder collecting of the local populations.

==Tourism==
[[File:BangaeiraRuaPrincipal.jpg|thumb|Main Street of Bangaeira.]]
[[File:PortelaIgreja.jpg|thumb|Catholic Church of Portela.]]
Chã das Caldeiras is linked by a good road to the island capital [[São Filipe, Cape Verde|São Filipe]]. The area an be reached by ''aluguer'' busses.

An average day can see up to forty tourists, most of whom are European (from Germany, France, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, the UK, and the USA) and come with operators from the islands of [[Sal, Cape Verde|Sal]] and [[Boa Vista, Cape Verde|Boa Vista]] or from the nearby city of [[São Filipe, Cape Verde|São Filipe]].

Some come only for the day, to see the volcano, taste the wine, and tour the Associação. Others spend the night to hike, with hired local guides, the final 1,200 m up the volcano and listen to live ''Talaia Baixo'', the traditional music of Fogo, in the ''Cooperativa'', a local store. Also popular are hikes to the 1995 peak, called the ''Dois de Abril'' (April 2, the day of the 1995 eruption); the interior rim of the Bordeira; the nearby zone ''Montinho''; and down to [[Mosteiros, Cape Verde|Mosteiros]], a city of 5,000 inhabitants on the northern coast of Fogo.

Those spending the night do so in a small hotel, one of four locally-owned hostels, or with families, where tourists can eat the traditional food of Chã, including ''catxupa'', a rich stew of beans, corn, and [[pork]] or [[fish]]; ''cabrito'' (baby [[goat]]); ''manteiga de vaca'', butter from unpasteurized cow's milk; ''feijão Congo'' and ''feijão pedra'' ([[Cajun]] [[peas]] and stone [[bean]]s); ''cuscuz'' ([[corn meal]]) with sweetened, condensed [[milk]]; and fried [[manioc]] ([[cassava]]).

There is a small Tourist Information Office (in Portela) and there are a few small shops in the community. Many houses are built of lava stones. In Bangaeira, even the Main Street is paved with lava.

==Agriculture==
[[File:FogoCafèzeiro.jpg|thumb|Coffee plant near Mosteiros.]]

Chã does have a lot of [[vegetation]] (albeit not in the [[lava]] fields), which grows in the rich volcanic soils adjacent to the crater rim. Because of its altitude (elevation 1,629 m), Chã is blessed with milder temperatures and greater precipitation than surrounding areas.
[[File:Chã das Caldeiras-Pommier (1).JPG|thumb|left|Chã das Caldeiras apples in growth.]]
Products in the caldera include fruits ([[apple]]s, grapes, [[quince]] fruit, [[pomegranate]], [[ficus|fig]]s, [[peach]]es and [[tomato]]es) and vegetables ([[bean]]s, [[Maize|corn]], [[potato]]es, [[Yam (vegetable)|yam]]s, [[Cassava|manioc]], and [[Capsicum|peppers]]) for local consumption and commercial production. The Associação buys excess fruit from the local farmers and turns it into white, red, rosé, and [[passito]] [[wine]] (label “''Chã''”); grape (''grappa''), apple, quince, and peach [[Distilled beverage|spirits]] (label “''Espírito da Caldeira''”); apple, quince, and peach [[marmalade]]; grape, fig, and quince compotes; apple and pomegranate [[Fruit preserves|jelly]]; and pomegranate and grape [[juice]] for commercial sale.

Also famous is house-made [[goat cheese]], ''queijo de cabra''. The Associação also roasts and grinds Fogo [[coffee]], ''Café do Fogo'' (label “''Café das Caldeiras''”), grown on the northern flank of the island. The local economy is based primarily on this speciality agriculture and animal-raising, the majority of which is sold domestically or to tourists. The “Chã” label wines, however, are available outside of the country on a limited basis, especially in Cape Verdean enclaves in Massachusetts, [[Lisbon]], [[Paris]], and [[Rotterdam]].

==Wines==

The “Chã” label wines, made by the Associação (with help from the Italian NGO Cospe and the [[European Union|EU]]), are full-bodied and rich in color and extract. All of the grapes used in the wines are locally-grown by farmers inside the caldera, which has a 120 year wine-making tradition. The first wines made in the crater to be exported were sent to Brazil and [[Guinea-Bissau]], then a Portuguese colony like Cape Verde.

Chã's climate and terrain are optimal for [[viticulture]]. Days are usually hot and dry, nights cool and humid. With sufficient rain, high-quality, semi-sweet grapes grow (1.2 km² total) in the caldera's rich volcanic soils. In 2006, the Associação produced 40,000 cases of wine (12 bottles each) from 100,000 kg of grapes. The percentage of [[alcohol]] in the “Chã” wines (14%) is greater than what is found in wines from the EU or [[California]] (usually between 11.5-12.5%).

The [[red wine]], '''''vinho tinto''''', made from the low-lying Portuguese ''preta tradicional'' variety of grapes, has a dark red color with shades of purple. Odors include tones and flavors of small, dark fruits like the [[Ribes|currant]] or [[blackberry]]. This sensation is enriched with shades of [[Chili pepper|pepper]] and Muscat nut. The wine's rich body, best when served at room temperature (20 °C), combines well with the strength of the alcohol. The soft, velvet [[tannin (wine)|tannin]]s of the wine can be appreciated when it is still young. (Market forces being such, Chã's reds have not yet been aged for any considerable time. The majority of the label is consumed within a year of production.) The red is perfect alone or to accompany any [[meat]] of strong taste.

The [[white wine]], '''''vinho branco''''', made from locally-grown Moscatel grapes, has a fresh taste, unique clarity, and golden shades. Odors include that of semi-sweet citric fruits like the [[grapefruit]]. These characteristics are noticed visually and on the palate, where the wine combines harmoniously with the alcohol content. The white also has a subtle, residual sweetness to be enjoyed with [[appetizer]]s or with [[fish]], [[shellfish]], white meats, or Chã's goat cheese. This elegant wine is best served at a temperature of 10 °C and can be saved for 2–3 years if stored correctly.


The [[rosé wine]], '''''vinho rosé''''', uses a similar variety of dark grapes as the red. It has an elegant rose color with flavors of small, sweet fruits like [[Ribes|currant]]s and [[strawberries]]. Like the white, the rosé is fresh on the palate and is best savored alone or with light meals, again at 10 °C. It too can be enjoyed up to three years.

New to the “Chã” family of wines is the sweet '''''vinho passito''''', made with the same Moscatel variety of grapes as the vinho branco. However, unlike with the white, the grapes used for the passito are first sun-dried, after which these ''uvas passas'', or [[raisin]]s, are put through the regular fermentation and filtration processes. Because dried grapes are used, the alcohol content in the passito is lower, at about 10.6%, than what is found in the other “Chã” wines (14%). The passito has a dark amber color; is slightly more viscous than the white, red, and rosé; and has a pleasant acidity to balance its sweetness. Odors include that of figs and dried fruits like raisins, [[prune]]s and [[Date Palm|dates]]. The passito is ideal between 12° and 14 °C as either a post-dinner or [[dessert wine]] or, simply, as a “wine of meditation.”

===Wine making at the Associação===
[[File:Fogo 17.jpg|thumb|Cooperative (''Associação dos Agricultores de Chã'') in Portela]]
During the wine-making process, much attention is given to the hygienic conditions of the cellar and machines. After arrival, the grapes are cleaned and are either crushed (to make red wine) or [[pressed (wine)|pressed]] (to make white and rosé). This process is done as quickly as possible to prevent contamination and odor. The pulp is then put in specially-designed barrels in the cellar, where the temperature remains cool even during the hottest days, to begin the [[Fermentation (food)|fermentation]] process. This is when the [[sugar]] of the grapes turns to alcohol and where the unique characteristics of the wine begin to develop.

The red wine ferments with the grape skins and is pressed afterwards. Then, the wine is fermented for a second time to eliminate remaining [[bacteria]] and reduce its [[vinegar]]-like [[acidity]]. After the second fermentation, the young wine is filtered and drawn into barrels for conservation. The white and rosé wines, on the other hand, are immediately filtered after the first fermentation to maintain freshness and to avoid bacteria growth. Until the wines are bottled, they remain in barrels (to avoid exposure to sunlight and [[air]]), except for periodic filtrations to improve clarity.

===Manecom===


Chã's best-known wine, however, is called '''''Manecom''''', a traditional, semi-sweet or -dry, house-made wine. (It should not be confused with the “Chã” label red, white, rosé, and passito wines.) Most households make Manecom for commercial production and personal consumption. The wine can either be a red or white, dry or sweet, but the sweet red variety is by far the most popular.

Manecom gets its name, legend has it, from a man named Manuel Montrond, supposedly the first person to live in Chã. ''Manuel Montrond'' in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], took a liking to the strong, sweet red wine he made. Other inhabitants coined Manuel's wine Manecom. The name stuck and remains to this day.

===Vinha Maria Chaves wines===
New since 2012 is the harvesting of grapes and the production of wines by '''"Vinha Maria Chaves"''', a new vineyard created during the last 10 years. The vineyard is about 25 hectares of surface and is located just beneath the crater. Adjoining, there is the newly constructed winery '''"Adega de Monte Barro"''', for the vinification, aging and bottling of the wines. 4 qualities of wines are produced : santaLuzia (white), sanVicente (rosé), sanTiago (red) and sanFilipe (red). These wines are produced with the grapes from the Maria Chaves vineyard and grapes from Chã das Caldeiras . These wines will be mainly exported.
During the festivities of April 30, 2013, the '''"Adega de Monte Barro"''' was inaugurated and the new wines were presented to the President, the prime minister and other officials of Cape Verde.

==Spirits==


After the white wine is fermented, the remnant pulp (Moscatel grapes) is distilled at high temperatures. This process results in a grape spirit, '''''destilado de uva''''' (label “Espírito da Caldeira”), that is bright and clear. (Grape spirits are usually known by their Italian name, [[grappa]].) The spirit's strength enables the drinker to taste, and feel on his/her palate, the flavor of Moscatel grapes. The after taste is smooth and has a hint of sweetness to balance the spirit's high alcohol content (45%).

The quince spirit, '''''destilado de marmelo''''', is produced from well-ripened quince fruit. Odors include that of the sweet, tart fruits of the caldera (like quince, apples, and grapes), flavors which combine nicely with the strength of the spirit's alcohol. The finish of the destilado de marmelo is smooth, gentle, and sweet.

The '''''destilado com ervas digestivas''''', or spirit with herbs, has the unique taste, aroma, potency, and medicinal properties to help with post-dinner digestion. The spirit is a combination of herbs that have been used as a [[traditional medicine]] by the people of Chã for generations.

==Sources==

Else, David; Newton, Alex; Williams, Jeff; Fitzpatrick, Mary; and Roddis, Miles, 1999, ''West Africa''. Lonely Planet: Hawthorn, Australia, 944 p.

Irwin, Aisling; and Wilson, Colum, 2001, ''Cape Verde Islands''. Bradt: Bucks, UK, 278 p.

MAAP de Cabo Verde, and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, 2003, “Endemic Plants and Indigenous Trees of the Cape Verde Islands.” Praia: UNDP, 35 p.

MAAP de Cabo Verde Pamphlet. “Integrated Participatory Ecosystem Management In and Around Protected Areas,” 2004.

“Spirits of Chã das Caldeiras,” Cospe Pamphlet, 2006.

“Wines of Chã das Caldeiras,” Cospe Pamphlet, 1999.

==External links==
* [http://www.vinhamariachaves.eu/vmc/ Vinha Maria Chaves ]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{wikivoyage}}

{{Fogo}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cha Das Caldeiras}}
[[Category:Villages and settlements in Fogo, Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Santa Catarina do Fogo]]
[[Category:Mosteiros, Cape Verde]]

Basilika St. Fidelis

2016-09-30T20:45:48Z

JHunterJ: JHunterJ moved page Basilica of St. Fidelis (Victoria, Kansas) to Basilica of St. Fidelis: WP:PRECISION

{{Infobox NRHP
| name = St. Fidelis Catholic Church
| nrhp_type =
| image = VictoriaKansasCathedralOfThePlainsSide.jpg
| caption = View of the church from the northwest in 1997
| location = [[Victoria, Kansas]], [[United States]]
| lat_degrees = 38
| lat_minutes = 51
| lat_seconds = 24
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 99
| long_minutes = 9
| long_seconds = 1
| long_direction = W
| coord_display = inline,title
| locmapin =
| built = 1908-1911
| architect = [[John T. Comes]], John Marshall
| architecture = [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]]
| added = May 14, 1971
| area = {{convert|3|acre}}
| governing_body = [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Salina]]
| refnum = 71000315<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}}</ref>
}}

The '''Basilica of St. Fidelis''', commonly known as '''The Cathedral of the Plains''', is a [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]]-style [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] [[parish church]] in [[Victoria, Kansas]], [[United States]].<ref name="nris"/> It was raised to the status of a [[Minor Basilica]] in 2014 and is also known as ''The Basilica of the Plains''.

==History==
The church was built from 1908 to 1911. According to the church history, each member of the church who was 12 or older was asked to give $45 a year and six wagonloads of stone to help construct the building. The nickname ''The Cathedral of the Plains'' was bestowed by former presidential candidate [[William Jennings Bryan]] after he visited the town in 1912. Its 48 historic stained-glass windows were installed in 1916, by Munich Studios in Chicago, at a cost of $3,700, and now valued at more than $1 million. The church was added to the National Register in 1971.<ref name="new20131102">[http://www.kansascity.com/2013/11/02/4594107/kansas-cathedral-of-the-plains.html Kansas’ Cathedral of the Plains sprucing up stained-glass windows; The Kansas City Star; November 2, 2013.]</ref>

In 1994, the church began a series of restoration efforts. More than $265,000 was spent on weatherproofing the exterior, replastering and repainting the interior and updating the sound, electrical and heating systems. A marble floor was put in the sanctuary for $60,000, replacing the old carpeting and linoleum floors. The church roof was reshingled in 2006 for $137,000. In 2011, the church replaced the parking lot and sidewalks for $225,000, and spent $70,000 on repairing the plaster ceilings and walls that had cracked with age. A plastic covering was installed in the mid-1980s to protect each stained glass window from Kansas storms. It had grown opaque through the years and replaced with tempered glass in 2013.<ref name="new20131102"/>

After approval by the Vatican in early March 2014, Bishop [[Edward Weisenburger]] of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Salina|Diocese of Salina]] dedicated St. Fidelis Church as a Minor Basilica on Saturday, June 7, 2014.<ref>[http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/1401112.htm Kansas church, dubbed 'Cathedral of the Plains,' named minor basilica; Catholic News; March 17, 2014.]</ref><ref>[http://hdnews.net/news/stfidelis031514 Church named basilica; The Hays Daily News; March 16, 2014.]</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="220px" heights="165px">
Image:Cathdral of the plains victoria ks.jpg|Interior of St. Fidelis Catholic Church in 2011
Image:Marker.jpg|Plaque near the church in 1997
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Cathedral Of The Plains: A History And Pictorial Guide Of St. Fidelis Church, Victoria, Kansas; 1986.
* Historic Churches of the United States; Robert C. Broderick; Wilfred Funk; 1958.
* Pioneer's Death Recalls Building Victoria Church; Ellis County News; March 4, 1948.
* Victoria, the Story of a Western Kansas Town; Fort Hays Kansas State College; 1947.
* Tall Spires on the Prairie; Kansas City Star; August 27, 1911.

==External links==
{{Portal|Kansas}}
* [http://www.stfidelischurch.com/ St. Fidelis Catholic Church]
* [http://www.kshs.org/resource/national_register/nominationsNRDB/Ellis_StFidelisChurchNR.pdf National Register of Historic Places nomination for St. Fidelis Catholic Church]
* [http://specialcollections.wichita.edu/kw/images.asp?xfile_name=kw_victoria_ellis_ks1.jpg Historic photo of St. Fedalis Ceminery]
* [http://www.ksdot.org/burtransplan/maps/city-pdf/victoria.pdf Victoria City Map], KDOT

{{National Register of Historic Places}}
{{Roman Catholic Diocese of Salina}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Saint Fidelis Catholic Church}}
[[Category:Churches in Ellis County, Kansas]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Kansas]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches completed in 1908]]
[[Category:Churches in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salina]]
[[Category:Romanesque Revival churches in Kansas]]
[[Category:Basilica churches in the United States|Fidelis]]
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places in Ellis County, Kansas]]

H. Arthur Brown

2016-09-27T15:31:51Z

JHunterJ: Hine -> H.

'''Hine Arthur Brown''' or '''H. Arthur Brown''' (c. 1906 – May 27, 1992) was an American orchestral conductor. He was born c. 1906 and studied [[music]] at [[Juilliard]] and the [[American Conservatory]] at Fontainebleau. He was conductor at the [[El Paso Symphony Orchestra]], [[Louisville Symphony Orchestra]], [[Tulsa Philharmonic Orchestra]], and [[Austrian Symphony Orchestra]]. With the latter orchestra, he made numerous recordings.

==External links==
* [http://www.soundfountain.org/rem/rembrown.html Profile of H. Arthur Brown]
* [http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0ED3D241B8411C05&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM H. Arthur Brown's obituary]

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Brown, H. Arthur}}
[[Category:Juilliard School alumni]]
[[Category:American Conservatory alumni]]
[[Category:1906 births]]
[[Category:1992 deaths]]

{{US-music-bio-stub}}
{{conductor-stub}}

H. Arthur Brown

2016-09-27T15:30:26Z

JHunterJ: JHunterJ moved page Hine Arthur Brown to H. Arthur Brown over redirect: Common name

'''Hine Arthur Brown''' or '''H. Arthur Brown''' (c. 1906 – May 27, 1992) was an American orchestral conductor. He was born c. 1906 and studied [[music]] at [[Juilliard]] and the [[American Conservatory]] at Fontainebleau. He was conductor at the [[El Paso Symphony Orchestra]], [[Louisville Symphony Orchestra]], [[Tulsa Philharmonic Orchestra]], and [[Austrian Symphony Orchestra]]. With the latter orchestra, he made numerous recordings.

==External links==
* [http://www.soundfountain.org/rem/rembrown.html Profile of Hine Arthur Brown]
* [http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0ED3D241B8411C05&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM Hine Arthur Brown's obituary]

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Brown, Hine Arthur}}
[[Category:Juilliard School alumni]]
[[Category:American Conservatory alumni]]
[[Category:1906 births]]
[[Category:1992 deaths]]

{{US-music-bio-stub}}
{{conductor-stub}}

H. Arthur Brown

2016-09-27T15:30:01Z

JHunterJ: copy edit and clean up

'''Hine Arthur Brown''' or '''H. Arthur Brown''' (c. 1906 – May 27, 1992) was an American orchestral conductor. He was born c. 1906 and studied [[music]] at [[Juilliard]] and the [[American Conservatory]] at Fontainebleau. He was conductor at the [[El Paso Symphony Orchestra]], [[Louisville Symphony Orchestra]], [[Tulsa Philharmonic Orchestra]], and [[Austrian Symphony Orchestra]]. With the latter orchestra, he made numerous recordings.

==External links==
* [http://www.soundfountain.org/rem/rembrown.html Profile of Hine Arthur Brown]
* [http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0ED3D241B8411C05&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM Hine Arthur Brown's obituary]

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Brown, Hine Arthur}}
[[Category:Juilliard School alumni]]
[[Category:American Conservatory alumni]]
[[Category:1906 births]]
[[Category:1992 deaths]]

{{US-music-bio-stub}}
{{conductor-stub}}

Cupar Castle

2015-04-21T16:20:28Z

JHunterJ: copy edit and cleanup

{{coord|56|19|12.43|N|3|0|34.77|W|region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
|name= Cupar Castle
|location=
|coordinates=
|image=
|caption=
|map_type= Scotland Fife
|latitude= 56.32002800
|longitude= -3.01029150
|map_size=
|type=
|built=
|builder=
|controlled by=
|materials=
|height=
|used=
|condition=
|ownership=
|open_to_public=
}}

'''Cupar Castle''' was a royal castle at [[Cupar]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]. No vestiges of the castle remain above ground.

==History==
The castle was built by the [[Earl of Fife|Earls of Fife]] in the 11th century. King [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]]'s wife [[Margaret of England|Margaret]] died at the castle on 26 February 1275.<ref>Ashley (2002), p.492.</ref>

King [[Edward I of England]] captured and stayed at the castle in 1296. In 1306, Scottish forces led by [[Robert Wishart]] attacked the English garrison at the castle and besieged it. Wishart was captured by the [[England|English]] at Cupar. [[William Wallace]] then attacked and captured the castle and put to the sword the English garrison, estimated to be about two hundred men.

In May 1336 English forces, led by [[John de Strivelyn]], relieved the English forces occupying the castle after driving away the Scottish forces, led by [[Sir Andrew Murray]], that were besieging the castle. The castle was surrendered by the English constable Sir William Bullock in 1339.

The court of the Stewart of Fife sat at the castle until 1425.

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*Ashley, Mike (2002). British Kings & Queens. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1104-3.
*[http://www.nls.uk/maps/townplans/background/cupar_1.html Cupar]
*[http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/31565/details/cupar+castle/ RCAHMS - Cupar Castle listing]

[[Category:Castles in Fife]]

Theognostos von Kiew

2014-12-22T15:44:24Z

JHunterJ: +redirect

{{redirect|Theognostus}}
[[File:Photius, Theognostus and Cyprian.jpg|thumb|Metropolitans [[Photius, Metropolitan of Moscow|Photius]], Theognostus and [[Cyprian, Metropolitan of Moscow|Cyprian]]]]
'''Theognostus''' ({{lang-ru|Феогност}}; died March 11, 1353) was [[Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus']].

Theognostus was born in [[Constantinople]] and later in his life became [[Metropolitan Peter|Peter]]'s successor as [[Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus']]. He chose Moscow as his primary seat after he had lived for several years in [[Volodymyr-Volynskyi]] in [[Volynia]].<ref>{{cite book | first=John |last=Meyendorff |title=Byzantium and the Rise of Russia: a Study of Byzantino-Russian Relations in the Fourteenth Century | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1ndUgrTtvbkC&pg=PA84&num=100#v=onepage&q=&f=false |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |year=1989 |isbn=0-88141-079-9 |page=84}}</ref>

It was his lot to reconcile [[Novgorod]] with the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] in times of their mutual animosity. Theognostus managed to save all of the Russian churches' valuables and gave up all his personal property after he had refused to collect tribute from the churches in favor of the [[Golden Horde]]. He was tortured by the Tatars for such audacity. It was the [[Khan (title)|Khan]] who finally gave up and confirmed the existing privileges of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. After a fire swept through Moscow, Theognostus started to restore the churches.

In 1353, feeling that his days were numbered, Theognostus recommended [[Alexius, Metropolitan of Moscow|Alexius]] ([[Bishop]] of [[Vladimir]]) his successor. Theognostus was buried in the [[Cathedral of the Dormition]] in Moscow. He was [[canonize]]d by the Russian Orthodox Church in the 19th century.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-rel | or}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Metropolitan Peter|Peter]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus']] |years=1328–1353}}
{{s-aft | after=[[Alexius, Metropolitan of Moscow|Alexius]] '''(seat in Moscow) '''[[Metropolitan Theodorite|Theodorite]]''' (seat in Kiev)}}
{{s-end}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Theognostus
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Russian Metropolitan and saint
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = March 11, 1353
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
[[Category:Russian saints]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs of the Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Metropolitans of Kiev and all Rus']]
[[Category:Metropolitans and Patriarchs of Moscow]]
[[Category:1353 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Constantinople]]
[[Category:14th-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:14th-century Eastern Orthodox martyrs]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Russian people of Greek descent]]

Magellantaucher

2014-06-19T12:32:18Z

JHunterJ: downcasing and cleanup

{{Taxobox
| name = Great grebe
| image = Podicephorus major -Santa Vitoria do Palmar, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil -swimming-8.jpg
| image_caption=In Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22696596 |title=''Podiceps major'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[grebe|Podicipediformes]]
| familia = [[Podicipedidae]]
| genus = '' [[Podiceps]] ''
| species = '''''P. major'''''
| binomial = ''Podiceps major''
| binomial_authority = ([[Pieter Boddaert|Boddaert]], 1783)
}}

The '''great grebe''' (''Podiceps major'') is the largest species of [[grebe]] in the world. A disjunct population exists in northwestern [[Peru]], while the main distribution is from extreme southeastern [[Brazil]] to [[Patagonia]] and central [[Chile]]. The population from southern Chile is considered a separate subspecies, ''P. m. navasi''.

This species occurs mainly in open waterways. Most birds are seen on low altitude lakes and sluggish rivers (often surrounded by forests), as well as estuarine marshes. While breeding, it frequents the heavily vegetated inlets off of large lakes. Outside of the breeding season, most birds will move to estuaries and bays, usually heavy with [[kelp]] (occasionally, they even are seen on the open sea). Non-breeding birds may live along the coasts all year.
[[File:Podiceps major -Santa Vitoria do Palmar, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil-8.jpg|left|thumb|In Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil]]
This is a very large grebe, with proportions more like a [[goose]] or a [[cormorant]] then a typical grebe. They range in length from 67–80 cm (26-32 inches) and usually weigh about 1600 grams (3.5 lb), but can scale to at least 2 kg (4.4 lb). They are buffy-rufous on the neck and chest, blackish on the back and have a whitish belly. The head is sooty gray with a reddish brown eye. Due to its size and unique coloration, the great grebe is unlikely to be confused with any other bird, including other grebes.

The great grebe lives on a diet mostly of [[fish]], sometimes over 11 cm (4.3 inches) long, but usually smaller. Prey competition can occasionally occur with the [[neotropic cormorant]] over fish, but that species (in spite of smaller body size) usually takes larger fish. Also [[insect]]s, [[crustacean]]s and [[mollusk]]s are taken. The diet can switch to almost half [[crab]]s during the wintertime along the coasts, and these birds can also take the young of other waterbirds, especially [[coot]]s.

After living in groups numbering up to the hundreds, these birds move inland to breed. Most populations lay their eggs from October to January, becoming later further south. In the isolated [[Peru]] population, nesting occurs in September & October, with a possible second clutch in January or February. They are moderately social when breeding, occasionally forming colonies. Three to five eggs (sometimes six) are laid. Two broods, or possibly more, can be raised at the same time.

These birds are widespread and common through most of their range. Much of their native habitat has not been cleared, especially in the southern portions of their range.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal. Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 1 Ostrich to Ducks, ISBN 84-87334-10-5
{{Grebes}}

== External links ==

[[Category:Podiceps]]
[[Category:Podicipedidae]]
[[Category:Birds of South America]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1783]]

Maoritaucher

2014-06-17T18:49:45Z

JHunterJ: downcasing

{{Taxobox
| name = New Zealand grebe
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22696592 |title=''Poliocephalus rufopectus'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| image = NZDabchickZoom X2.JPG
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[grebe|Podicipediformes]]
| familia = [[Podicipedidae]]
| genus = ''[[Poliocephalus (grebe)|Poliocephalus]]''
| species = '''''P. rufopectus'''''
| binomial = ''Poliocephalus rufopectus''
| binomial_authority = ([[George Robert Gray|Gray]], 1843)
}}

The '''New Zealand grebe''', '''New Zealand dabchick''', or '''weweia''' (''Poliocephalus rufopectus'') is a member of the [[grebe]] family [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to [[New Zealand]]. This species was formerly present in the lowland lakes of the [[South Island]],<ref name="WNZB">Andrew Crowe, ''"Which New Zealand Bird?"'', Penguin, 2001</ref> but underwent a rapid decline there (for unknown reasons) in the 19th century- the last certain breeding record for this species in the South Island was in 1941.<ref name="FGNZB">Barrie Heather and Hugh Robertson, ''"The Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand (revised edition)"'', Viking, 2005</ref> In the [[North Island]] it is found on the West coast on coastal lakes from North Cape to Pukekohe and from Southern Taranaki to Paraparaumu, on lakes of the central plateau, Gisborne, Hawkes bay and the Wairarapa.<ref name="FGNZB"/> Their diet consists mostly aquatic insects and their larvae, as well as small mollusks such as freshwater snails.<ref name="WNZB"/> Bigger prey such as fish and freshwater crayfish are sometimes taken.<ref name="FGNZB"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/search/species_search.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3636&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet.]

{{Grebes}}
{{Birds of New Zealand}}
{{Portal bar|Birds|New Zealand}}

[[Category:Birds of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Podicipedidae]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1843]]

{{Podicipediformes-stub}}

Tonga-Großfußhuhn

2014-05-26T15:13:02Z

JHunterJ: downcasing

{{Taxobox
| name = Tongan megapode
| image = MegapodiusPritchardiiBuller.jpg
| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22678625 |title=''Megapodius pritchardii'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| regnum = [[Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Galliformes]]
| familia = [[Megapodiidae]]
| genus = ''[[Megapodius]]''
| species = ''M. pritchardii''
| binomial = ''Megapodius pritchardii''
| binomial_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1864
| synonyms = *''Megapodius stairi''
}}

The '''Tongan megapode''' (''Megapodius pritchardii'') is a species of [[bird]] in the megapode family [[Megapodiidae]], currently [[endemism|endemic]] to [[Tonga]]. The species is also known as the '''Polynesian megapode''', and as the '''Niuafo'ou megapode''' after the island of [[Niuafo'ou]] to which it was restricted for many years. The specific [[epithet]] honours British consul [[William Thomas Pritchard]].

==Distribution and habitat==
The Tongan megapode is the only remaining species of megapode in Tonga out of the four or five species that were present on the islands in prehuman times (as shown through the [[fossil]] record), and indeed the only species of megapode that survives in [[Polynesia]].<ref name = "Steadman">Steadman D, (2006). ''Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds'', University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77142-7 pp. 291–292</ref> Similar extinctions occurred in [[Fiji]] and [[New Caledonia]], which apparently had three species in prehistory. The species itself once had a more widespread distribution, occurring across most of Tonga, [[Samoa]] and [[Niue]].<ref>{{cite journal |author= Steadman, David W.; Worthy, Trevor H.; Anderson, Atholl J.; & Walter, Richard|year=2000|title= New species and records of birds from prehistoric sites on Niue, southwest Pacific|journal=Wilson Bulletin |volume=112 |issue=2 |pages=165–186 |doi= 10.1676/0043-5643(2000)112[0165:NSAROB]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> The cause of all these extinctions and declines was the arrival of humans on the islands, and the associated predation on adults and particularly eggs, as well as predation by [[introduced species]].

On Niuafo'ou the small human population and remoteness of its habitat probably saved the species. The only [[megapode]] to survive human arrival in Western Polynesia, "the megapode nesting grounds were carefully controlled by the ruling chief, thus assuring the continued survival of this population."<ref name=HAP>{{cite book|last=Kirch|first=Patrick Vinton|title=Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge UK|isbn=0 521 78879 X|pages=117|coauthors=Roger C. Green}}</ref>

Its natural [[habitat]] is tropical moist lowland [[forest]]s. On Niuafo'ou it is most common on the central caldera. The Tongan megapode, like all megapodes, does not [[avian incubation|incubate]] its eggs by sitting on them; instead the species buries them in warm volcanic sands and soil and allows them to develop. On islands in former parts of its range without volcanoes it presumably created mounds of rotting vegetation and laid the eggs there.<ref name = "Steadman"/> The young birds are capable of flying immediately after hatching.<ref name = "Weir"/>

==Status and conservation==
[[File:MegapodiusPritchardiiWolf.jpg|thumb|left]]
The Tongan megapode is principally threatened by the same factors that caused its decline in the rest of Polynesia. Its eggs are still harvested by local people in spite of theoretical government protection, and some hunting still occurs. The species is apparently afforded some protection by the difficulty in reaching its habitat.<ref name = "Weir">{{cite journal|author=Weir, D |year=1973|url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/128930 |title=Status and habits of ''Megapodius pritchardii''|jstor=4160299|journal=Wilson Bulletin|volume=85|issue=1|pages= 79–82}}</ref> Because of the vulnerability of the single population an attempt was made to [[Translocation (Wildlife conservation)|translocate]] eggs of this species to new islands, [[Late (Tonga)|Late]] and [[Fonualei (volcano)|Fonualei]]. The translocation was successful on Fonualei and an estimated 350–500 birds now breed there, but surveys of Late subsequently found that the translocation there had failed.<ref>Birdlife International (2004) "[http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2004/08/polynesian_megapode.html Megapode survey too late]" Downloaded 29 July 2008</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=126&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet.]

[[Category:Megapodius]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1864]]
[[Category:Endemic fauna of Tonga]]

Berlepschtinamu

2014-05-13T19:30:34Z

JHunterJ: downcasing and cleanup

{{Taxobox
| name = Berlepsch's tinamou
| image = Crypturellus berlepschi 1897.jpg
| image_caption = Berlepsch's tinamou is the bird in the center. The bird on the left is another species.
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{IUCN|id=22678163 |title=''Crypturellus berlepschi'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Tinamiformes]]
| familia = [[Tinamidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Tinaminae]]
| genus = ''[[Crypturellus]]''
| species = '''''C. berlepschi'''''
| binomial = ''Crypturellus berlepschi''
| binomial_authority = [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Rothschild]] 1897<ref>Brands, S. (2008)</ref>
| range_map = Berlepschs Tinamou.svg|Berlepschs Tinamou
| range_map_width = 250px
}}

The '''Berlepsch's tinamou''' (''Crypturellus berlepschi'') is a type of ground bird found in moist forest<ref name="BLI">BirdLife International (2008)</ref> in northwestern [[Colombia]] and northwestern [[Ecuador]].<ref name="Clements">Clements, J (2007)</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The Berlepsch's tinamou is a monotypic species.<ref name="Clements">Clements, J (2007)</ref> All tinamou are from the family Tinamidae, and in the larger scheme are also [[ratite]]s. Unlike other ratites, tinamous can fly, although in general, they are not strong fliers. All ratites evolved from prehistoric flying birds, and tinamous are the closest living relative of these birds.<ref name="Davies">Davies, S. J. J. F. (2003)</ref> Until the mid 20th century, this species was considered a sub-species of the [[cinereous tinamou]], but due to its bill size, its ratio of toe and tarsus length and the fact that its plumage has conspicuous differences from that of the cinereous tinamou created enough of a question for the new species to be named.<ref name=Cabot>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Cabot| first1=J. |last2= Carboneras| first2= C.| last3= Folch| first3= A. |last4=de Juanca| first4= E. |last5=Llimona|first5=F. |last6=Matheu|first6=E.|year=1992 |editor-first=J.|editor-last=del Hoyo |publisher=Lynx Edicions |location= Barcelona, Spain| volume= I: Ostrich to Ducks| encyclopedia= Handbook of the Birds of the World|title= Tinamiformes}}</ref>

==Etymology==
''Crypturellus'' is formed from three [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] words. ''kruptos'' meaning '''covered''' or '''hidden''', ''oura'' meaning '''tail''', and ''ellus'' meaning '''diminutive'''. Therefore ''Crypturellus'' means small hidden tail.<ref>Gotch, A. F. (1195)</ref> ''berlepschi'' comes from the [[Latin]] form of Berlepsch to commemorate the German ornithologist and collector [[Hans von Berlepsch]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Boelens|first=Bo|title=Whose Bird? Men and Women Commemorated in the Common Names of Birds|year=2003|publisher=Christopher Helm|location=London|page=50|author2=Michael Watkins}}</ref>

==Description==
Berlepsch's tinamou is a medium-sized bird, about {{convert|29.6|-|32|cm|in}}, with the male weighing {{convert|430|-|537|g|oz}} and the female weighing {{convert|512|-|615|g|oz}}.<ref name=Cabot/> The plumage of this bird varies somewhat; however there are some features that can be quantified, such as, in general the color is a brownish black to a deep sooty brown. Also, the head and throat tend to be darker than the rest of the body, with a reddish tinge to its crown and nape. The legs and feet are pink and the bill has a dark upper mandible and a pinkish lower mandible. Its bill is longer and heavier than that of the cinereous tinamou. Finally, its iris is red.<ref name=Cabot/>

The juvenile form of the bird is similar in coloring to the adult; however it does have barring on its under-parts and also on its wings with a cinnamon tinge to them.<ref name=Cabot/>

==Range and habitat==
Its range is extreme northern coastal [[Ecuador]] north into coastal [[Colombia]],<ref name="Clements" /> as far north as [[Utria National Park]] ([[Bahia de Capica]]).<ref name=IUCN/> This tinamou lives in lowland moist forest in sub-tropical to tropical regions, and will also choose to live in a mature secondary forest.<ref name=Cabot/> It has also proven that it can survive in forests that have been logged.<ref name="BLI" /> In Colombia it will choose the coastal lowlands and hills up to {{convert|500|m|ft}}, although it has been found as high as {{convert|900|m|ft}}.<ref name=Cabot/>

The only 2 documented sightings are at Playa de oro reserva de los tigrillos, which is in Ecuador about {{convert|20|km|miles}} north of [[Cotacachi Cayapas Ecological Reserve]] and at [[Milipe Bird Sanctuary]] about {{convert|15|km|miles}} west of [[Maquipucuna]], also in [[Ecuador]].<ref name=eBird>{{cite web|url=http://ebird.org/ebird/map/bertin1?neg=true&env.minX=-83.01161719768254&env.minY=-4.792892862650885&env.maxX=-40.82411719768254&env.maxY=13.48825266723504&zh=true&gp=true&mr=1-12&bmo=1&emo=12&yr=1900-2013&byr=1900&eyr=2013|work=eBird|title = Berlepsch's Tinamou|date=2013-04-13}}</ref>

==Behavior==
The Berlepsch's tinamou is considered a sedentary bird.

===Feeding===
There is little species specific information on Berlepsch's tinamou, so scientists believe that like other members of ''[[Crypturellus]]'' its diet focus is on fleshy fruit, which it prefers to eat off the ground, but will pick it off lower hanging branches. Like other tinamous, the Berlepsch's also eat small amounts of [[invertebrates]], flower buds, tender leaves, seeds, and roots.

===Breeding===
They breed in February in Colombia.<ref name=Cabot/> As a forest species, they would choose the months of plentiful food and that would mean the summer.

The male, like other tinamou, incubates the eggs which may come from as many as 4 different females, and then will raise them until they are ready to be on their own, usually 2–3 weeks. The nest is located on the ground in dense brush or between raised root buttresses.<ref name="Davies" />

==Conservation==
The [[IUCN]] classifies the Berlepshch's tinamou as [[Least Concern]],<ref name=IUCN/> and it has an occurrence range of {{convert|60000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="BLI" />

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite web| url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=19&m=0 | title=Berlepsch's Tinamou - BirdLife Species Factsheet | accessdate=8 Feb 2009 | author=BirdLife International | year=2008| work=Data Zone}}
* {{cite web| url= http://www.taxonomy.nl/Main/Classification/51327.htm | title=Systema Naturae 2000 / Classification, Genus Crypturellus | accessdate=Feb 8, 2009 |last=Brands | first=Sheila | authorlink= | date=Aug 14, 2008 | work=Project: The Taxonomicon }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clements |first1=James |title=The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World |edition=6 |year=2007 |publisher= Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=978-0-8014-4501-9 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Davies |first=S.J.J.F.|editor1-first=Michael |editor1-last= Hutchins|encyclopedia=Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia |title=Tinamous |edition=2 |year=2003 |publisher=Gale Group|volume=8 Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins |location=Farmington Hills, MI|isbn=0-7876-5784-0 |pages=57–59}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gotch |first1=A. F. |title=Latin Names Explained. A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals|year= 1995 |origyear=1979 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York, NY|isbn=0-8160-3377-3|page=183|chapter=Tinamous}}

{{Tinamous}}

[[Category:Crypturellus]]
[[Category:Tinamiformes|*]]
[[Category:South American tinamous]]
[[Category:Birds of Ecuador|Tinamou, Berlepsch's]]
[[Category:Birds of Colombia|Tinamou, Berlepsch's]]

Berlepschtinamu

2014-05-13T13:52:12Z

JHunterJ: JHunterJ moved page Berlepsch's Tinamou to Berlepsch's tinamou: per Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style#Bird common name capitalisation RfC

{{Taxobox
| name = Berlepsch's Tinamou
| image = Crypturellus berlepschi 1897.jpg
| image_caption = Berlepsch's Tinamou is the bird in the center. The bird on the left is another species.
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{IUCN|id=22678163 |title=''Crypturellus berlepschi'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Tinamiformes]]
| familia = [[Tinamidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Tinaminae]]
| genus = ''[[Crypturellus]]''
| species = '''''C. berlepschi'''''
| binomial = ''Crypturellus berlepschi''
| binomial_authority = [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Rothschild]] 1897<ref>Brands, S. (2008)</ref>
| range_map = Berlepschs Tinamou.svg|Berlepschs Tinamou
| range_map_width = 250px
}}

The '''Berlepsch's Tinamou''' (''Crypturellus berlepschi'') is a type of ground bird found in moist forest<ref name="BLI">BirdLife International (2008)</ref> in northwestern [[Colombia]] and northwestern [[Ecuador]].<ref name="Clements">Clements, J (2007)</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The Berlepsch's Tinamou is a monotypic species.<ref name="Clements">Clements, J (2007)</ref> All Tinamou are from the family Tinamidae, and in the larger scheme are also [[Ratite]]s. Unlike other Ratites, Tinamous can fly, although in general, they are not strong fliers. All ratites evolved from prehistoric flying birds, and Tinamous are the closest living relative of these birds.<ref name="Davies">Davies, S. J. J. F. (2003)</ref> Until the mid 20th century, this species was considered a sub-species of the [[Cinereous Tinamou]], but due to its bill size, its ratio of toe and tarsus length and the fact that its plumage has conspicuous differences from that of the Cinereous Tinamou created enough of a question for the new species to be named.<ref name=Cabot>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Cabot| first1=J. |last2= Carboneras| first2= C.| last3= Folch| first3= A. |last4=de Juanca| first4= E. |last5=Llimona|first5=F. |last6=Matheu|first6=E.|year=1992 |editor-first=J.|editor-last=del Hoyo |publisher=Lynx Edicions |location= Barcelona, Spain| volume= I: Ostrich to Ducks| encyclopedia= Handbook of the Birds of the World|title= Tinamiformes}}</ref>

==Etymology==
''Crypturellus'' is formed from three [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] words. ''kruptos'' meaning '''covered''' or '''hidden''', ''oura'' meaning '''tail''', and ''ellus'' meaning '''diminutive'''. Therefore ''Crypturellus'' means small hidden tail.<ref>Gotch, A. F. (1195)</ref> ''berlepschi'' comes from the [[Latin]] form of Berlepsch to commemorate the German ornithologist and collector [[Hans von Berlepsch]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Boelens|first=Bo|title=Whose Bird? Men and Women Commemorated in the Common Names of Birds|year=2003|publisher=Christopher Helm|location=London|page=50|author2=Michael Watkins}}</ref>

==Description==
Berlepsch's Tinamou is a medium sized bird, about {{convert|29.6|-|32|cm|in}}, with the male weighing {{convert|430|-|537|g|oz}} and the female weighing {{convert|512|-|615|g|oz}}.<ref name=Cabot/> The plumage of this bird varies somewhat; however there are some features that can be quantified, such as, in general the color is a brownish black to a deep sooty brown. Also, the head and throat tend to be darker than the rest of the body, with a reddish tinge to its crown and nape. The legs and feet are pink and the bill has a dark upper mandible and a pinkish lower mandible. Its bill is longer and heavier than that of the Cinereous Tinamou. Finally, its iris is red.<ref name=Cabot/>

The juvenile form of the bird is similar in coloring to the adult; however it does have barring on its under-parts and also on its wings with a cinnamon tinge to them.<ref name=Cabot/>

==Range and habitat==
Its range is extrememe northern coastal [[Ecuador]] north into coastal [[Colombia]],<ref name="Clements" /> as far north as [[Utria National Park]] ([[Bahia de Capica]]).<ref name=IUCN/> This Tinamou lives in lowland moist forest in sub-tropical to tropical regions, and will also choose to live in a mature secondary forest.<ref name=Cabot/> It has also proven that it can survive in forests that have been logged.<ref name="BLI" /> In Colombia it will choose the coastal lowlands and hills up to {{convert|500|m|ft}}, although it has been found as high as {{convert|900|m|ft}}.<ref name=Cabot/>

Using [[eBird]].org's website, a website used by bird-watchers to document sightings and by scientists to learn about range, the only 2 documented sightings are at Playa de oro reserva de los tigrillos, which is in Ecuador about {{convert|20|km|miles}} north of [[Cotacachi Cayapas Ecological Reserve]] and at [[Milipe Bird Sanctuary]] about {{convert|15|km|miles}} west of [[Maquipucuna]], also in [[Ecuador]].<ref name=eBird>{{cite web|url=http://ebird.org/ebird/map/bertin1?neg=true&env.minX=-83.01161719768254&env.minY=-4.792892862650885&env.maxX=-40.82411719768254&env.maxY=13.48825266723504&zh=true&gp=true&mr=1-12&bmo=1&emo=12&yr=1900-2013&byr=1900&eyr=2013|work=eBird|title = Berlepsch's Tinamou|date=2013-04-13}}</ref>

==Behavior==
The Berlepsch's Tinamou is considered a sedentary bird.

===Feeding===
There is little species specific information on Berlepsch's Tinamou, so scientists believe that like other members of ''[[Crypturellus]]'' its diet focus is on fleshy fruit, which it prefers to eat off the fround, but will pick it off lower hanging branches. Like other Tinamous, the Berlepsch's also eat small amounts of [[invertebrates]], flower buds, tender leaves, seeds, and roots.

===Breeding===
Again, there are glaring holes in the study of this species in relation to its breeding behavior. However, it is known that they breed in February in Colombia.<ref name=Cabot/> As a forest species, they would choose the months of plentiful food and that would mean the summer.

The male, like other Tinamou, incubates the eggs which may come from as many as 4 different females, and then will raise them until they are ready to be on their own, usually 2–3 weeks. The nest is located on the ground in dense brush or between raised root buttresses.<ref name="Davies" />

==Conservation==
The [[IUCN]] classifies the Berlepshch's Tinamou as [[Least Concern]],<ref name=IUCN/> and it has an occurrence range of {{convert|60000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="BLI" />

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite web| url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=19&m=0 | title=Berlepsch's Tinamou - BirdLife Species Factsheet | accessdate=8 Feb 2009 | author=BirdLife International | year=2008| work=Data Zone}}
* {{cite web| url= http://www.taxonomy.nl/Main/Classification/51327.htm | title=Systema Naturae 2000 / Classification, Genus Crypturellus | accessdate=Feb 8, 2009 |last=Brands | first=Sheila | authorlink= | date=Aug 14, 2008 | work=Project: The Taxonomicon }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clements |first1=James |title=The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World |edition=6 |year=2007 |publisher= Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=978-0-8014-4501-9 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Davies |first=S.J.J.F.|editor1-first=Michael |editor1-last= Hutchins|encyclopedia=Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia |title=Tinamous |edition=2 |year=2003 |publisher=Gale Group|volume=8 Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins |location=Farmington Hills, MI|isbn=0-7876-5784-0 |pages=57–59}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gotch |first1=A. F. |title=Latin Names Explained. A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals|year= 1995 |origyear=1979 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York, NY|isbn=0-8160-3377-3|page=183|chapter=Tinamous}}

{{Tinamous}}

[[Category:Crypturellus]]
[[Category:Tinamiformes|*]]
[[Category:South American tinamous]]
[[Category:Birds of Ecuador|Tinamou, Berlepsch's]]
[[Category:Birds of Colombia|Tinamou, Berlepsch's]]

St.-Helena-Regenpfeifer

2014-05-04T23:15:31Z

JHunterJ: JHunterJ moved page Saint Helena Plover to Saint Helena plover: per Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style#Bird common name capitalisation RfC

{{Taxobox
| name = Saint Helena Plover
| image =Charadrius sanctaehelenae (1).jpg
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22693785 |title=''Charadrius sanctaehelenae'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Charadriiformes]]
| familia = [[Charadriidae]]
| genus = ''[[Charadrius]]''
| species = '''''C. sanctaehelenae'''''
| binomial = ''Charadrius sanctaehelenae''
| binomial_authority = ([[James Edmund Harting|Harting]], 1873)
| range_map = LocationSaintHelena.png
| range_map_width = 250px
| range_map_caption = Location of [[Saint Helena]]
}}

[[Image:wirebird egg.jpg|thumb|right|The Wirebird's nest and egg]]
The '''Saint Helena Plover''' (''Charadrius sanctaehelenae'') locally known as '''Wirebird''' due to its thin legs, is a small [[wader]] endemic to the island of [[Saint Helena]]. [[Kittlitz's Plover]] is the Saint Helena bird's closest relative.<ref>{{cite book|last=Coomber|first=Richard|title=Birds of the World|year=1991|publisher=Colour Library Books Ltd.|location=Godalming, Surrey|isbn=0862838061|pages=97–100|accessdate=25 July 2013|chapter=Charadriiformes: Plovers}}</ref> The Saint Helena Plover is generally larger but not as well-marked as the Kittlitz's Plover, which is native to sub-Saharan Africa.

The bird was first mentioned in 1638, and is the [[national bird]] of Saint Helena, featured on [[Coat of Arms of Saint Helena|the island's coat of arms]] and flag. Some older [[Coins of the Saint Helena pound|local 5 pence coins]] (those issued prior to 1998) have the Wirebird on its reverse.

This [[plover]] is resident all year on the open areas of Saint Helena, and it is thought that the widespread [[deforestation]] on the island, while generally harmful for the island's [[ecosystem]], has in fact benefitted this particular species, since it lives in open clearings in the [[forest]].

==Status and conservation==

Saint Helena Plover numbers have been fluctuating, but in general the trend was downward since at least the 1970s. [[Feral cat]]s and accidentally introduced rats, as well as the introduced [[Common Myna]]s which eat the [[Bird egg|eggs]], are believed to be play a significant role in the decline of this species' population.

A census in 1988/89 recorded 450 adult{{Verify source|date=August 2007}} birds, although it subsequently sharply declined from causes not fully understood and marked short-term fluctuations. Since 1998, its numbers stood at about 340 adult{{Verify source|date=August 2007}} individuals. Classified as Endangered by the [[IUCN]], it was downlisted to Vulnerable in 2004, as its numbers had apparently stabilized.

However, there was another sharp drop in numbers since then, which may be continuing. Only some 200-220 adult birds are believed to remain. The reasons are elusive, although it is noted that there has been an increase in [[off-road vehicle]] use and a decline in removing feral, and [[neutering]] domestic, [[cat]]s in recent years. Construction activity has apparently dispersed some of the smaller [[subpopulation]]s. The planned [[Saint Helena Airport]] at [[Prosperous Bay Plain]] would also destroy one of the major patches of remaining habitat, especially as other grassland is now slated for [[reforestation]] to aid recovery of the island's ecosystem. As a consequence of its dire status and uncertain prospects, the Saint Helena Plover is uplisted to Critically Endangered with extinction in the 2007 [[IUCN Red List]]. There are currently projects underway led by the [[RSPB]] to monitor the birds and try to stop their decline.<ref>See BirdLife International (2007a,b).</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
* BirdLife International (2007a): [ [http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/global_species_programme/whats_new.html 2006-2007 Red List status changes] ]. Retrieved 2007-AUG-26.
* BirdLife International (2007b): [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/search/species_search.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3123&m=0 St. Helena Plover - BirdLife Species Factsheet]. Retrieved 2007-AUG-26.

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Charadrius sanctaehelenae}}
* [http://www.nationaltrust.org.sh St Helena National Trust - leading the conversation of the Wirebird]
* [http://home.swipnet.se/~w-17282/endemic/wibproj.htm Website with information on the bird]

[[Category:Charadrius]]
[[Category:Fauna of Saint Helena Island]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1873]]

Abdullah ibn Chalifa

2014-02-17T14:18:56Z

JHunterJ: avoid wikilinks in bold title words

[[Sayyid]] [[Sir]] '''Abdullah bin Khalifa Al-Said''', [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]], [[Order of St Michael and St George|CMG]] (February 12, 1910 – July 1, 1963) ({{lang-ar|عبد الله بن خليفة}}) was the 10th [[Sultan of Zanzibar]]. He ruled [[Zanzibar]] from October 9, 1960 to July 1, 1963. On his death, he was succeeded as Sultan by his son [[Jamshid bin Abdullah of Zanzibar|Jamshid]].<ref name="Zanzibar">[http://www.royalark.net/Tanzania/zanz6.htm Zanzibar]</ref>

==Titles==
*1910–1936: [[Sayyid]] Abdullah bin Khalifa
*1936–1959: [[Sayyid]] Abdullah bin Khalifa, [[Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George|CMG]]
*1959–1960: [[Sayyid]] [[Sir]] Abdullah bin Khalifa, [[KBE]], [[Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George|CMG]]
*1960–1963: [[His Highness]] [[Sultan]] [[Sayyid]] [[Sir]] Abdullah bin Khalifa, [[Sultan of Zanzibar]], [[KBE]], [[Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George|CMG]]
<ref name="Zanzibar"/>

==Honours==
*[[King George V Silver Jubilee Medal]]-1935
*[[Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George]] (CMG)-1936
*[[Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar]], 1st Class-(1936–1960, then Sovereign to 1963)
*Sultan Khalifa II Silver Jubilee Medal-1937
*[[King George VI Coronation Medal]]-1937
*[[Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal]]-1953
*[[Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] (KBE)-1959

Prince Jamshid Bin Abdulla Bin Khalifa Bin Harub
Princesse Seyyida Sughiya Bint Abdullla Bin Khalifa Bin Harub
Princesse Seyyida Sindiya Bint Abdulla Bin Khalifa Bin Harub
Prince Seyyid Mohd Bin Abdulla Bin Khalifa Bin Harub
Princesse Seyyida Shariffa Bint Abdulla Bin Khalifa Bin Harub
Prince Seyyid Harub Bin Abdulla Bin Khalifa Bin Harub
<ref name="Zanzibar"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[List of Sultans of Zanzibar|Sa'îd dynasty]]|February 12|1910|July 1|1963}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Khalifa bin Harub of Zanzibar|Khalifa bin Harub]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Sultans of Zanzibar|Sultan of Zanzibar]]|years=1960–1963}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Jamshid bin Abdullah of Zanzibar|Jamshid bin Abdullah]]}}
{{end}}
{{ZanzibarSultans}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Abdullah Bin Khalifa Of Zanzibar
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Sultan of Zanzibar
| DATE OF BIRTH = February 12, 1910
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = July 1, 1963
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abdullah Bin Khalifa Of Zanzibar}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1963 deaths]]
[[Category:Sultans of Zanzibar]]
[[Category:Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George]]

{{Zanzibar-bio-stub}}
{{Africa-royal-stub}}

Highwayman (Lied)

2013-12-26T23:29:36Z

JHunterJ: -the title of, replaced: is the title of → is using AWB

'''"Highwayman"''' is a song written by American songwriter [[Jimmy Webb]], about a soul with incarnations in four different places in time and history, a [[highwayman]], a [[sailor]], a construction worker on the [[Hoover Dam]], and finally as a [[Astronaut|starship captain]].<ref name=HurstH-OS-1985-07-21>Hurst, Hawkeye. - "Waylon and Johnny Walk the Straight and Narrow Together". - ''[[Orlando Sentinel]]''. - July 21, 1985.</ref>

==Background==
Webb wrote the song while in a London hotel suite. His suite included a piano, and after he woke up from a dream about being an English [[highwayman]], he went to the piano and started writing the song.<ref>Holmes, Peter. - "Jimmy Webb - The hot seat". - ''[[The Sun-Herald]]''. - September 24, 2000.</ref>

:''"I had a black cape and pistols, and I was definitely a bandit. A highwayman, as it were. I was being chased within an inch of my life by these grenadiers on horseback, and I knew for a fact that if they caught me, they were going to kill me."''
— Jimmy Webb, on the song: "The Highwayman".<ref>Cooper, Peter. - "Webb a master at songwriting". - ''[[The Tennessean]]''. - June 23, 2006.</ref>

He first recorded it for his 1977 album [[El Mirage (Jimmy Webb album)|''El Mirage'']], released that May.

==Glen Campbell version==
Webb then brought the song to [[Glen Campbell]], who recorded it in 1978. But his record label, [[Capitol Records]], wanted him to go in a different direction and record music like the group [[The Knack]].<ref>Burnes, John. - "Campbell is Riding His Success Nicely". - ''[[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]]''. - June 23, 1988.</ref> Campbell wanted to release the song as a single, but Capitol refused.<ref>"The Express: Legend Glen is no punk". - ''[[Daily Express|The Express]]''. - December 29, 2008.</ref> After recording 30 albums for the only record label he had worked with since 1962, Campbell got up and left the main studios of Capitol, never to return. Although he would record three more albums with Capitol, the relationship was at an end.<ref>Hoekstra, Dave. - "Glen Campbell, The Zelig of Roots Music". - ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]''. - July 24, 2005.</ref> After disagreeing with the label, he released the song on his 1979 album ''[[Highwayman (Glen Campbell album)|Highwayman]]'', released in October.

==The Highwaymen version==
{{Infobox single 
| Name = Highwayman
| Cover =
| Artist = [[The Highwaymen (country supergroup)|The Highwaymen]]
| from Album = [[Highwayman (The Highwaymen album)|Highwayman]]
| Released = May 6, 1985
| Format =
| Recorded = 1984
| Genre = [[country music|Country]]
| Length = 3:06
| Label = [[Columbia Records|Columbia]]
| Writer = [[Jimmy Webb]]
| Producer = [[Chips Moman]]
| Certification =
| Last single =
| This single = "'''Highwayman'''" (1985)
| Next single = "[[Desperados Waiting for a Train]]" (1985)
| Misc =
}}
Campbell then played the song for [[Johnny Cash]]. Webb brought the song to [[Waylon Jennings]] in about 1981, but Jennings, having heard the Campbell version, said "I just couldn't see it then".<ref name=HurstH-OS-1985-07-21 /> Cash, Jennings, [[Willie Nelson]] and [[Kris Kristofferson]] were all together in Switzerland doing a television special and decided that they should do a project together.<ref name=CampbellM-AP-1995-06-16>Campbell, Mary. - "High-powered Highwaymen are musical outlaws". - [[Associated Press]]. - (c/o ''[[The Augusta Chronicle]]''). - June 1, 1995.</ref> In 1984, while the four were recording, [[Marty Stuart]] again played the song for Johnny Cash, saying that it would be perfect for them, four verses, four souls, and four of them.<ref name=HurstH-OS-1986-06-15>Hurst, Hawkeye. - "Marty Stuart Has Come a Long Way to Just Now be Arriving". - ''[[Orlando Sentinel]]''. - June 15, 1985.</ref> Campbell then played the song to all four of them, and the quartet had the name for their new [[Supergroup (music)|supergroup]], [[The Highwaymen (country supergroup)|The Highwaymen]], the name of their first album, [[Highwayman (The Highwaymen album)|''Highwayman'']], and the name of their first single. The four thought it was a perfect name for them because they were always on the road and all four had the image of being outlaws in country music.<ref name=CampbellM-AP-1995-06-16 /> In their version of the song, each of the four verses was sung by a different singer: first Nelson, then Kristofferson, Jennings, and finally Cash. Their cover of the Webb song remains the most popular and widely known of The Highwaymen's songs, being their only song to reach number 1 ("Desperados Waiting for a Train" at number 15 is the next closest).<ref>Complied from data from Allmusic - [http://www.allmusic.com/ allmusic.com] and [[Billboard (magazine)|''Billboard'']] - [http://www.billboard.com/ billboard.com].</ref> The version by the quartet entered the [[Hot Country Songs]] [[Billboard (magazine)|''Billboard'']] [[Billboard charts|chart]] on May 18, 1985, rose to number 1, and spent 20 weeks total on the chart.<ref>[http://www.billboard.com/charts/1985-09-28/country-songs "Highwayman"]. - [[Hot Country Songs]]. - [[Billboard (magazine)|''Billboard'']]. - billboard.com.</ref> It finished 1985 as the number 5 country song of the year in terms of airplay.<ref>MacDonald, Patrick. - "Proud Time for Pop". - ''[[The Seattle Times]]''. - December 29, 1985. — "Billboard's Ratings of 1985's Top Pop Music Artists". - ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]''. - January 1, 1986.</ref>

===Chart positions===
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!align="left"|Chart (1985)
!align="center"|Peak position
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''Billboard'' Hot Country Singles
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Canadian ''RPM'' Country Tracks
|align="center"|1
|-
|align="left"|Canadian ''RPM'' Adult Contemporary Tracks
|align="center"|19
|}

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef | before= "[[I'm for Love]]" by [[Hank Williams, Jr.]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Hot Country Songs|Hot Country Singles]] number-one single
| years=August 17, 1985}}
{{s-aft | rows=2 | after= "[[Real Love (Dolly Parton and Kenny Rogers song)|Real Love]]" by [[Dolly Parton]] and [[Kenny Rogers]]}}
{{s-bef | before= "[[40 Hour Week (For a Livin')]]" by [[Alabama (band)|Alabama]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=''[[RPM (magazine)|RPM]]'' Country Tracks number-one single
| years=August 24, 1985}}
{{s-end}}

==Awards==
The version by The Highwaymen earned songwriter Jimmy Webb a [[Grammy Award]] for [[Grammy Awards of 1986|1985]]'s [[Grammy Award for Best Country Song|"Best Country Song"]].<ref>[http://www.grammy.com/GRAMMY_Awards/Winners/Results.aspx?title=Highwayman&winner=&year=0&genreID=0&hp=1 "Highwayman"]. - [[Grammy Awards]]. - c/o grammy.com.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Jimmy Webb}}
{{Highwaymen}}

[[Category:Billboard Hot Country Songs number-one singles]]
[[Category:1985 singles]]
[[Category:Songs written by Jimmy Webb]]
[[Category:Johnny Cash songs]]
[[Category:Waylon Jennings songs]]
[[Category:Kris Kristofferson songs]]
[[Category:Willie Nelson songs]]
[[Category:Song recordings produced by Chips Moman]]
[[Category:RPM Country Tracks number-one singles]]
[[Category:Columbia Records singles]]

Inverugie Castle

2013-11-27T14:26:09Z

JHunterJ: "exasperated" to "exacerbated "

{{Refimprove|date=July 2011}}

{{Infobox military structure
|name=Inverugie Castle
|location=[[Inverugie]], [[Aberdeenshire]], [[Scotland]]
|caption=Inverugie Castle
|map_type = Scotland Aberdeenshire
|latitude= 57.5252
|longitude= -1.8305
|type=motte-and-bailey
|built=12th and 17th centuries
|builder=
|materials=
|height=
|used=
|condition=ruined
|ownership=
|open_to_public=no
}}

'''Inverugie Castle''' or Cheyne's Tower is the ruins of a [[motte-and-bailey]] [[castle]] in [[Aberdeenshire]], [[Scotland]].

== Location ==
Inverugie Castle is located two miles from [[Peterhead]] on the north east coast.<ref>[http://www.scotlandsplaces.gov.uk ScotlandsPlaces]</ref> The [[ruins]] are a small mound only three metres high above the [[River Ugie]].<ref>[http://www.stravaiging.com/history/castle/inverugie-castle Inverugie Castle | castle in St Fergus, Aberdeenshire | Scottish castles | stravaiging around Scotland]</ref> This is all that remains of a wooden [[motte-and-bailey]] castle of Inverugie built by the Cheynne family in the 12th century. The stone ruins date from later than the original building on the site.

== Original structure ==
The location of the [[motte]] relative to the river at Inverugie suggests it was built to protect the [[Ford (crossing)|ford]] at this point and that the bailey ditch ([[moat]]) would have been filled with water from the Ugie for additional defence.

== Later structure ==
In the [[basement]] of the oblong tower house there was the storage area and [[kitchen]]. The next level contained the [[hall]] used for entertaining guests. In the north and south corners of the hall were small turnpike stairs accessing both round towers. On the middle of the west side was a third tower with the main staircase. This faced into the cobbled courtyard with its wall beside the river Ugie.

== History ==
The castle of Inverugie was first raised by the Cheynne family in the 12th century. By the mid-14th century the [[estate (land)|estate]] of Inverugie had passed to the Keith [[Earl Marischal]]s who had their main seat at the coastal fortress of [[Dunnottar Castle]]. They built the current (ruined) stone castle of Inverugie south of the original wooden motte in around 1660. In the 19th century an oak [[heraldry]] shield was found in a local cottage with the arms of [[William Keith, 7th Earl Marischal]] and its date was carved as 1660.

The Keith lands were forfeited after the [[Jacobite_Rebellion_of_1745|Jacobite Rebellion]] and some time after 1745 the Inverugie estate passed from the Keiths to one [[James Ferguson (Scottish politician)|James Ferguson]] the third Laird of [[Pitfour estate|Pitfour]] who kept the building in a perfect state until he died in 1820. However, [[George Ferguson (MP)|the fifth Laird]] stripped the Castle of all the restoration undertaken and his successor exacerbated the neglect even further.<ref name="Buchan119">[[#Buchan2008|Buchan (2008)]]: pp. 119-120</ref>

By 1890, the Castle was in poor condition and was unable to withstand inclement weather. Gales in April 1890 resulted in the collapse of some walls and the stair tower. It was declared unsafe by the Local Authority following further storms on New Years Day 1899. The estate factor, William Ainslie, probably acting under instruction from the Laird at that time, arranged to have much of what was left of the ruins blown up, weakening the remaining structure. Within a fortnight, little remained of the castle.<ref name="Buchan120">[[#Buchan2008|Buchan (2008)]]: p. 120</ref>

[[Charles McKean]] described the castle as "a splendid double-courtyard Renaissance chateau" and also said "It consisted of a four-storey block with circular angle towers and a stair turret".<ref name="McKean1990">[[#McKean1990|McKean (1990)]]:pp.148-149</ref>

[[William Burnes]] or William Burness (1721 – 1784), the father of [[Robert Burns]] the poet, was born at Clochnahill Farm, Dunnottar, and trained as a gardener at Inverugie Castle, before moving to Ayrshire.

== References ==

===Footnotes===

{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===

{{refbegin}}

*{{cite book|author=Alex R. Buchan|title=Pitfour: "The Blenheim of the North"|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YSFZPgAACAAJ|accessdate=2 March 2013|year=2008|publisher=Buchan Field Club|isbn=978-0-9512736-4-7}}
*{{cite book|author=Charles McKean|title=Banff & Buchan: an illustrated architectural guide|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=X5ZMAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=19 March 2013|year=1990|publisher=Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland|isbn=978-1-85158-231-0}}
{{refend}}


[[Category:Castles in Aberdeenshire]]

Colin McComb

2013-03-14T20:39:08Z

JHunterJ: some cites

{{BLPrefimprove|date=April 2011}}

'''Colin McComb''' (born May 1970) is an American writer and [[game designer]] born in [[Evanston, Illinois]]. He is married to musician [[Robin Moulder]]. They currently live in [[Grosse Pointe Park, Michigan]], with their two children. He has a degree in Philosophy from [[Lake Forest College]], from which he graduated in 1991.

==Career history==
Immediately after his commencement, McComb took at a job at [[TSR, Inc.]], where he produced numerous [[role-playing game]] supplements and magazine articles relating to those games. He won an [[Origins Award]] for Best Game Adventure in 1993 for ''[[Dragon Mountain (Dungeons & Dragons)|Dragon Mountain]]'',<ref>http://index.rpg.net/display-entry.phtml?mainid=6156</ref> and another for New Role-Playing Supplement for the ''[[Birthright Campaign Setting]]'' in 1995.<ref>http://index.rpg.net/display-entry.phtml?mainid=5578</ref> He is primarily known for his work on the Planescape line,<ref name=Fitz>{{cite news |url=http://blog2.moebiusadventures.com/2010/07/05/rpg-review-the-kobold-guide-to-game-design-volume-iii-tools-techniques-by-wolfgang-baur-monte-cook-ed-greenwood-rob-heinsoo-and-colin-mccomb/ |work=Blogcritics.org Gaming |date=July 2, 2010 |title=RPG Book Review: The Kobold Guide to Game Design - Volume III: Tools & Techniques by Wolfgang Baur, Monte Cook, Ed Greenwood, Rob Heinsoo, and Colin McComb |author=Fitz}}</ref> for which he and [[Monte Cook]] were the primary designers after the departure of David "Zeb" Cook from TSR.

In 1996, McComb left TSR to take a job at [[Interplay Entertainment]]'s roleplaying division, later called [[Black Isle Studios]]. While there, he had a small role in the design of ''[[Fallout 2]]'' and a far more significant role in the design of ''[[Planescape: Torment]]''.<ref name=Geekosystem>{{cite news |url=http://www.geekosystem.com/planescape-comeback/planescape_torment/ |work=Geekosystem |date=February 11, 2013 |title=No Really, Planescape Could Come Back}}</ref>

McComb left Black Isle in 2000, and moved to [[Detroit, Michigan]] with [[Robin Moulder]], who would become his wife in 2001.

In addition to his gaming work, McComb contributed interviews, album reviews, and concert reviews to the underground magazine [[Outburn]]. In 2004, he reunited with his Planescape cohorts in the [[Malhavoc Press]] book, ''Beyond Countless Doorways'', which received an Honorable Mention for Best Writing at the 2005 [[ENnies|ENnie Awards]]. He and his wife also designed and wrote the manual for the [[MMORPG]] [[Risk Your Life|RYL]] in 2005.

McComb taught at the [[International Academy of Design and Technology]].{{cn|date=August 2012}}

On August 10, 2012, it was announced that McComb joined ''[[Wasteland 2]]'' team as writer, reuniting with his Planescape cohorts once again.<ref>https://twitter.com/BrianFargo/status/233990182448279554</ref>

==Notable work==
===TSR===
*[[Advanced Dungeons & Dragons]]<ref name=Fitz/>
**The Complete Book of Elves
**[[Dragon Mountain (Dungeons & Dragons)|Dragon Mountain]]
*[[Amazing Engine]]
**The Galactos Barrier
**Bughunter (additional design)
*[[Birthright (campaign setting)|Birthright]]
**[[Birthright Campaign Setting]]
**Players Guide to Endier
**[[Sword and Crown]]
*[[Dark Sun]]
**The Complete Gladiators' Handbook
*[[Dragonlance]]
**Taladas: The Minotaurs
**Knight's Sword
**Tales of the Lance
*[[Dungeons & Dragons]]
**Thunder Rift
*[[Planescape]]
**[[Planescape Campaign Setting]] (monster design)
**Planes of Law
**[[Planes of Conflict]]
**Players Primer to the Outlands (Audio CD script)
**Well of Worlds
**[[Hellbound: The Blood War]]
**[[On Hallowed Ground]]
**Faces of Evil: The Fiends
**The Great Modron March
*[[Ravenloft]]
**[[Islands of Terror]]
**Howls in the Night
**Ravenloft Monstrous Compendium III: Creatures of Darkness (additional design)
**Masque of the Red Death and Other Tales

===Black Isle Studios===
*''[[Fallout 2]]''
*''[[Planescape: Torment]]''<ref name=Geekosystem/>
*''[[List of PlayStation games#R|Red Asphalt]]'' (in-game commercial scripting)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://colinmccomb.com/ Colin McComb's official website]
* [http://www.mobygames.com/developer/sheet/view/developerId,13486/ MobyGames entry for Colin McComb]
* [http://www.pen-paper.net/rpgdb.php?op=showcreator&creatorid=908 Pen & Paper RPG Database Bibliography for Colin McComb]
* [http://www.montecook.com/cgi-bin/page.cgi?int_dnd30_Colin A Talk with Colin McComb]
* [http://www.rpgwatch.com/show/article?articleid=55 Tales of Torment, Part 1] — an interview in two parts with [[Chris Avellone]] and Colin McComb
* [http://www.rpgwatch.com/show/article?articleid=56 Tales of Torment, Part 2] — an interview in two parts with [[Chris Avellone]] and Colin McComb

{{Persondata
|NAME=McComb, Colin
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American writer and game designer
|DATE OF BIRTH=May 1970
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Evanston, Illinois]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:McComb, Colin}}
[[Category:1970 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American video game designers]]
[[Category:Dungeons & Dragons game designers]]
[[Category:Lake Forest College alumni]]
[[Category:People from Evanston, Illinois]]
[[Category:Role-playing game designers]]

Woodford Reserve

2013-02-14T22:23:08Z

JHunterJ: copy edit and clean up

{{Infobox Beverage
|name = Woodford Reserve
|bgcolor =
|image = [[File:Woodford Reserve.jpg#file|250px]]
|caption =
|type = [[Bourbon whiskey]]
|abv = 45.20%
|proof = 90.4
|manufacturer = [[Brown-Forman]]
|distributor =
|origin = [[Kentucky]], United States
|introduced =
|discontinued =
|colour =
|flavour =
|variants =
|related = [[Brown-Forman]]
}}
{{Infobox nrhp | name =Woodford Reserve Distillery
| nrhp_type = hd
| nrhp_type2 = nhld
| image =
| caption =
|image_size=100px
| nearest_city= [[Versailles, Kentucky]]
| lat_degrees = 38
| lat_minutes = 6
| lat_seconds = 46
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 84
| long_minutes = 48
| long_seconds = 43
| long_direction = W
| locmapin = Kentucky
| area =
| built =1865
| architect=
| architecture= Mid 19th Century Revival, Late Victorian, Late 19th And 20th Century Revivals
| added = November 7, 1995
| designated_nrhp_type2 = May 15, 2000
| governing_body = Private
| refnum=95001272<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|2008a}}</ref>
}}

{{anchor|#distillery}}'''Woodford Reserve''' is a brand of premium [[small batch]] [[Kentucky]] [[straight whiskey|Straight]] [[Bourbon Whiskey]] produced by the [[Brown-Forman|Brown-Forman Corporation]]. It is distilled at the company's Woodford Reserve Distillery. The distillery is in [[Woodford County, Kentucky|Woodford County]], in central [[Kentucky]]. Formerly known as the Old Oscar Pepper Distillery and later the Labrot & Graham Distillery, it is approximately eight miles from the town of [[Versailles, Kentucky|Versailles]] off [[U.S. Route 60]], between [[Interstate 64]] and Versailles. Each bottle is numbered with a batch number and bottle number. Woodford Reserve's alcohol content is 45.2% [[alcohol by volume]] (90.4 [[Alcohol proof|US Proof]]).

==History==
Distilling on the site began in 1780 and the distillery building itself was erected in 1838, making it the oldest of the nine bourbon distilleries in current operation in Kentucky as of 2010—although the site has not been continuously operational as a distillery during that history. In 1995 the distillery was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]], and in 2000 it was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]].

Originally established by Elijah Pepper, the distillery was passed on to his son and was known as the Oscar Pepper Distillery when Dr. James Crow worked there in the mid-19th century. During this time Dr. Crow went about a series of activities that improved{{Citation needed|date = December 2010}} and codified the understanding of, and quality of, key bourbon-making processes such as [[sour-mash]] fermentation, [[pot still]] distillation and barrel maturation. The Pepper family sold the property to Leopold Labrot and James Graham in 1878, who owned and operated it (except during [[Prohibition]]) until 1941 when it was sold to the [[Brown-Forman Corporation|Brown-Forman]] Corporation. B-F operated it until 1968 and then sold the then-mothballed property in 1971. Brown-Forman re-purchased the property in 1993 and refurbished it to bring it back into operation. The Woodford Reserve brand was introduced to the market in 1996.

Among the expressions of bottlings branded as Woodford Reserve are two variations, one being the parent brand and the other called the ''Masters Collection.'' The Master's Collection is a series of limited-quantity bottlings which are produced using the older [[pot still]] distillation method rather than modern [[column still]] technology.<ref>[http://chuckcowdery.blogspot.com/2008/02/pot-stills-versus-column-stills.html Pot Stills Versus Column Stills], ''The Chuck Cowdery Blog: American Whiskey & Other Stuff'', February 26, 2008. (Access date March 3, 2011.)</ref>

==Limited Edition Collector's Sets==
'''Woodford Reserve Master's Collection'''

In 2005, the company released the first bottling in its series called ''Woodford Reserve Master's Collection''. One expression in the collection series is released every year (usually around November), with limited quantities and locations.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Batch Title !! Proof !! % ABV
|-
| 2005 || Four Grain Batch #1 || 92.4 || 46.2
|-
| 2006 || Four Grain Batch #2 || 92.4 || 46.2
|-
| 2007 || Sonoma Cutrer Finish || 86.4 || 43.2
|-
| 2008 || Sweet Mash 1838 || 86.4 || 43.2
|-
| 2009 || Seasoned Oak Finish || 100.4 || 50.2
|-
| 2010 || Maple Wood Finish || 94 || 47.2
|-
| 2011 || Aged Cask Rye || 92.4 || 46.2
|-
| 2011 || New Cask Rye || 92.4 || 46.2
|-
| 2012 || Four Wood || 94.4 || 47.2
|}

'''Commemorative Bottles'''

The company also releases commemorative Woodford Reserve bottlings annually for the Kentucky Derby and the Breeder's Cup.

==Reviews and accolades==
International [[Spirit ratings]] organizations and liquor review bodies have generally given Woodford Reserve solid scores. At the [[San Francisco World Spirits Competition]], Woodford Reserve's best performance was in 2005, when it won a double gold medal, and it has since won gold (2006–2007, 2011-2012) and silver (2008, 2010) medals at this annual event. The ''Beverage Testing Institute'' has given the Reserve scores of between 90 and 91 and ''Wine Enthusiast'' awarded it a 90-95 point rating.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.proof66.com/whiskey/woodford-reserve-bourbon.html|title=Proof66.com's Summary Page for Woodford Reserve |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2012-10-17}}</ref> Spirits ratings aggregator proof66.com, which averages scores from the San Francisco World Spirits Competition, Wine Enthusiast, the Beverage Testing Institute, and others, ranks Woodford Reserve in its highest ("Tier 1") scoring category.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.proof66.com/whiskey/woodford-reserve-bourbon.html|title=Proof66.com Whiskey Page|publisher= |date= |accessdate=2012-10-17}}</ref>

==Marketing activities==
The Woodford Reserve Distillery offers tours and is part of the [[American Whiskey Trail]] and the [[Kentucky Bourbon Trail]] promotional programs.

In a contract arrangement with [[Churchill Downs]], Woodford Reserve has been declared the "official bourbon of the [[Kentucky Derby]]" and is used in a $1,000 [[mint julep]] cocktail that is sold to patrons on Derby Day. (Although Woodford Reserve is the Derby's "official bourbon", its sister brand [[Early Times]] is the "official drink" and is featured in the more moderately priced juleps served at the event.)

==See also==
* [[List of bourbon brands]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.woodfordreserve.com/ Woodford Reserve (Brown Forman)]
*[http://www.facebook.com/woodfordreserve/ Woodford Reserve Facebook page]
*[http://www.bourbon-central.com/bourbon-reviews/woodford-reserve-review/ Background and a review of Woodford Reserve at Bourbon-Central.com]
*[http://www.whiskyportal.com/distillery.asp?DistilleryID=1101&DistilleryName=The+Woodford+Reserve+Distillery The Whisky Portal]
* [http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=537639159&ResourceType=District National Historic Landmark: Labrot and Graham's Old Oscar Pepper Distillery]

{{Registered Historic Places}}

[[Category:Bourbon whiskey]]
[[Category:Brown-Forman brands]]
[[Category:Distilleries in Kentucky]]
[[Category:Kentucky culture]]
[[Category:Woodford County, Kentucky]]

Teeko

2013-02-11T16:21:48Z

JHunterJ: /* Opera */ clean up

{{primary sources|date=November 2011}}
{{citation style|date=November 2011}}
[[File:Teeko board.jpg|thumb|right|278px|Teeko game board]]
'''Teeko''' is an [[abstract strategy game]] invented by [[John Scarne]] in 1937 and rereleased in refined form in 1952 and again in the 1960s. Teeko was marketed by Scarne's company, [[John Scarne Games Inc.]].

==Gameplay==
The Teeko board consists of twenty-five spaces arranged in a five-by-five grid. There are eight markers in a Teeko game, four black and four red. One player, "Black" plays the black markers, and the other, "Red", plays the red. Black moves first, and places one marker on any space on the board. Red then places a marker on any unoccupied space; black does the same; and so on until all eight markers are on the board. The object of the game is for either player to win by having his markers situated in a straight line (vertical, horizontal, or diagonal) or square of four adjacent spaces. (Adjacency is horizontal, vertical, or diagonal, but does not [[wraparound (video games)|wrap around]] the edges of the board.) If neither player has won after the "drop" (when the eight pieces are put on the board), then it's attempted via the following method: The players alternate moving pieces one at a time, with Black playing first. A piece can only be moved to an adjacent space.

The rules, as summarized above, are very simple, but the strategy is complicated enough to fill a book, ''Scarne on Teeko'', by [[John Scarne|Scarne]] (1955). Nonetheless, [[Guy Steele]] solved the game (i.e., showed what must occur if both players play wisely) via [[computer]] in 1998: he found that neither player can force a win.

==Variations==
There are sixteen variations of Teeko, such as '''Advanced Teeko''', which have slightly different rules. All sixteen are outlined in ''Scarne on Teeko''; the rules above are for "Standard Teeko" (or "Teeko"). Steele showed that Advanced Teeko is a win for Black (assuming, again, that both players play perfectly), as is one other variation, but the other fourteen are draws.

==Opera==
{{unsourced-section|date=February 2013}}
Mark Owen composed a short opera, "Teeko" for tenor, chorus, and piano, based on the game, including songs such as "Teeko Is Rapidly Sweeping the World" and "Why Do You Recommend Teeko for the Sick?" The first (and believed only) performance of Teeko was produced by Alan Sheppard and given on 29 January 1991 in the Old Combination Room, [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], hosted by the Trinity Mathematical Society. The performance lasted 30 minutes (including a 20-minute interval), and was preceded by an interview of composer and producer by David Quest.

==References==
*Scarne, John (1955). ''Scarne on Teeko''. New York: Crown Publishers.
*Steele, Guy (November 23, 1998). ''Re: Teeko, HAKMEM''. E-mail on the math-fun mailing list.

==External links==
*[http://www.gamecabinet.com/letters/TeekoReply.html Game Cabinet]
*[http://www.quinapalus.com/musical.html Teeko the Opera]
*[http://www.blakeeskin.com/?page_id=15 Long Washington Post article about Teeko]
*[http://www.cardsanddominoes.com/html/teeko.html Rules, strategies, printable game board, and free computer game]
[[Category:Abstract strategy games]]

[[fr:Teeko]]
[[zh:結駟棋]]

Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski

2013-01-29T11:59:14Z

JHunterJ: +redirect hatnote

{{redirect|Dostoyevsky|the surname|Dostoyevsky (surname)}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Fyodor Dostoyevsky
| image = Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg
| caption = Portrait of Dostoyevsky in 1872 painted by [[Vasily Perov]]
| birth_name = Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1821|11|11}}
| birth_place = Moscow, [[Russian Empire]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1881|2|9|1821|11|11}}
| death_place = [[Saint Petersburg]], Russian Empire
| occupation =
| nationality = [[Russians|Russian]]
| period = 1846–1881
| genre = Novel, short story, journalism
| subject = Psychology, philosophy, religion
| movement = [[Realist literature|Realism]]
| notableworks =
{{plainlist | style=font-style: italic; |
* [[Notes from Underground]]
* [[Crime and Punishment]]
* [[The Idiot]]
* [[Demons (novel)|Demons]]
* [[The Brothers Karamazov]]
}}
| spouse =
{{plainlist |
* Maria Dmitriyevna Isayevna (1857–1864) [her death]
* [[Anna Grigoryevna Snitkina]] (1867–1881) [his death]
}}
| children = Sonya (1868) [[Lyubov Dostoyevskaya|Lyubov]] (1869–1926) Fyodor (1871–1922) Alexey (1875–1878)
| influences =
{{flatlist |
* [[Honore de Balzac|Balzac]]
* Bible
* [[Charles Dickens|Dickens]]
* [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol]]
* [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]
* [[E.T.A. Hoffmann|Hoffmann]]
* [[Victor Hugo|Hugo]]
* [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]
* [[Plato]]
* [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]]
* [[Realism]]
* [[George Sand|Sand]]
* [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]]
* Socialism (until release)
* [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]
}}
| influenced =
{{flatlist |
* Virtually every Russian writer
* [[Beat movement]]
* [[Albert Camus|Camus]]
* [[Philip K. Dick|Dick]]
* [[Existentialism]]
* [[William Faulkner|Faulkner]]
* [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]
* [[Gabriel García Márquez|García Márquez]]
* [[Knut Hamsun|Hamsun]]
* [[Ernest Hemingway|Hemingway]]
* [[Hermann Hesse|Hesse]]
* [[James Joyce|Joyce]]
* [[Franz Kafka|Kafka]]
* [[Jack Kerouac|Kerouac]]
* [[Thomas Mann|Mann]]
* [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]
* [[Marcel Proust|Proust]]
* [[Ayn Rand|Rand]]
* [[Russian symbolism]]
* [[Ernesto Sabato|Sabato]]
* [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]]
* [[Virginia Woolf|Woolf]]
* [[Émile Zola|Zola]]
}}
| education = [[Military Engineering-Technical University]], St. Petersburg
| signature = Fyodor Dostoyevsky Signature.svg
}}

'''Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky'''{{ref|a|[note]}} ({{lang-rus|Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский|p=ˈfʲodər mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪtɕ dəstɐˈjefskʲɪj|a=ru-Dostoevsky.ogg}}; 11 November 1821 – 9 February 1881{{ref|b|[note]}}), sometimes transliterated '''Dostoevsky''', was a Russian [[novelist]], [[short story]] writer, and [[essay]]ist. Dostoyevsky's literary works explore human psychology in the troubled political, social and spiritual context of 19th-century Russia. Although he began writing in the mid-1840s, his most memorable works—including ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'', ''[[The Idiot]]'' and ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''—are from his later years. His cannon consists of eleven novels, three novellas, seventeen short novels and three essays, and has been judged by many literary critics to be one of the greatest and most prominent psychologists in world literature.<ref>{{cite book|title=Dostoevsky the Thinker: A Philosophical Study|url=http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/23116-dostoevsky-the-thinker/|last=Scanlan|first=James Patrick|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8014-3994-0}}</ref>

Dostoyevsky was born in Moscow. He was introduced to literature at an early age—through fairy tales and legends, but also through books by English, French, German and Russian authors. His mother's sudden death in 1837, when he was in his early teens, devastated him. Around that time, he left school to enter the [[Military Engineering-Technical University|Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute]]. After graduating, he worked as an engineer and briefly enjoyed a liberal lifestyle. He soon began translating books to earn extra money. In the mid-1840s he wrote his first novel, ''[[Poor Folk]]'', which allowed him to join St Petersburg's literary circles. In 1849 he was arrested for his involvement with the [[Petrashevsky Circle]]—a secret society of liberal [[utopians]] as well as a literary discussion group. He and other members were condemned to death, but the penalty proved to be a [[mock execution]] and the sentence was commuted to four years' [[Katorga|hard labour in Siberia]]. After his release, Dostoyevsky was forced to serve as a soldier, but was discharged due to his ill health.

In the following years Dostoyevsky worked as a journalist, publishing and editing several magazines of his own and later a serial, ''[[A Writer's Diary]]''. He began travelling around western Europe, and developed a [[gambling addiction]] which led to financial hardship and an embarrassing period of begging for money. Adding to his woes, he experienced [[epilepsy]] throughout his adult life. But through his indefatigable energy and the sheer volume of his work, he eventually became one of the most widely read and renowned Russian writers. His books have been translated into more than 170 languages and have sold around 15 million copies.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=foreword}} Dostoyevsky has influenced a multitude of writers of varying genres, from [[Anton Chekhov]] and [[James Joyce]] to [[Ernest Hemingway]] and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], among others.

== Early life ==

=== Family background ===
[[File:Wki Dostoyevsky Street 2 Moscow Mariinsky Hospital.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Mariinsky Hospital in Moscow, Dostoyevsky's birthplace]]

Fyodor Dostoyevsky was born on 30 October 1821 (11 November 1821, according to the [[Gregorian Calendar]]), the second child of Mikhail Dostoyevsky and Maria Nechayeva. The Dostoyevskys were a multi-ethnic and multi-denominational [[Lithuanian people|Lithuanian]] noble family from the [[Pinsk]] region with roots dating to the 16th century. Branches of the family included [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and [[Catholic]] members, but Dostoyevsky's immediate ancestors were of the non-monastic clergy class. On his mother's side, Dostoyevsky was descended from Russian merchants.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=1–5}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=6–22}}

Dostoyevsky's paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were priests in the Ukrainian town of [[Bratslav]]. Mikhail was expected to join the clergy, like his father, but instead of going into seminary, he ran away from home and broke with his family permanently. In 1809, when he was twenty years old, Mikhail was admitted to Moscow's Imperial Medical-Surgical Academy. From there, he was assigned to a Moscow hospital where he served as military doctor and in 1818 was appointed to senior physician. In 1819, he married Maria Isayevna. The following year, he resigned from his post to accept a new job at the Mariinsky Hospital for the poor. After the birth of his first two sons, [[Mikhail Dostoyevsky|Mikhail]] and Fyodor, he was promoted to collegiate assessor, a position that raised his legal status to nobility and enabled him to acquire a small estate in Darovoye, a town 150 [[verst]]s (about 150 km or 100 miles) away from Moscow.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=11}} Dostoyevsky's parents subsequently had five more children.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=1–5}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=6–22}}

=== Childhood ===
Dostoyevsky was raised in the family home on the grounds of the Mariinsky Hospital. The family usually spent the summers in their estate in Darovoye when he was a child. At the age of three, Fyodor was introduced to heroic sagas, fairy tales and legends and—influenced by his nannies—developed a deeply ingrained religious piety. His nanny, Alina Frolovna, and a family friend, the [[Serfdom in Russia|serf]] and farmer Marei from Darovoye, were influential figures in his childhood; Marei helped him deal with his [[hallucinations]]. After discovering the hospital garden, which was separated by a large fence from the house private garden, Dostoyevsky would often talk with the patients, even though his parents forbade it. He once encountered a nine-year-old girl who had been raped, an event that traumatised him. Since Dostoyevsky's parents valued education, his mother taught him to read and write, using the Bible, when he was four. He always looked forward to his parents' nightly readings. They introduced him to Russian and world literature at an early age, including national writers [[Nikolay Karamzin|Karamzin]], [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]] and [[Gavrila Derzhavin|Derzhavin]]; gothic literature, such as [[Ann Radcliffe]]; Romantic works of [[Friedrich Schiller]] and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]; heroic tales by [[Cervantes]] and [[Walter Scott]]; and [[Homer]]'s [[epic poetry|epics]].{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=6–11}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=23–54}}

Although Dostoyevsky had a less robust physical constitution and was measured at only 2 [[arshin]]s and 6 [[vershok]]s, approximately 1.60 m or 5'2", shortly before his imprisonment,{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=108}} he had a powerful personality. He was described by his parents as a hot-headed youngster, stubborn and cheeky.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=6}} In 1833, Dostoyevsky's father, a profoundly religious and strict person, sent him to a boarding school which taught in French, and, one year later, to the best private boarding school in Moscow, the "College for Noble Male Children". There several people depicted him as a pale, introverted dreamer and an over-excitable romantic.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=39}} To pay off his school fees, his father had to take out loans and extend his private medical practice. Dostoyevsky felt out of place among his aristocratic classmates at the Moscow school, an experience later reflected in some of his works, notably ''[[The Raw Youth|The Adolescent]]''. A school day, which usually began at six o'clock in the morning and ended nine at night, offered a diverse number of subjects.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=14–5}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=23–54}}

=== Youth ===
[[File:Image dost 01.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky as an engineer]]
On 27 September 1837 Dostoyevsky's mother died of tuberculosis. The previous May his parents had sent Fyodor and his brother Mikhail to St Petersburg to attend the [[Military Engineering-Technical University|Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute]], forcing the brothers to abandon their academic studies at the Moscow college for a military career. On the way to St Petersburg, Dostoyevsky witnessed a violent incident in a post house. He entered the academy in 1838, but only with the help of family members, who—unknown to him—had paid the tuition fees. Mikhail was refused admission on account of his poor health and was sent to the Academy in [[Reval]], Estonia; he was separated from his brother.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=17–23}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=69–90}}

Dostoyevsky did not enjoy the academy, primarily because of his lack of interest in science, mathematics and military engineering and his preference for drawing and architecture. As his friend Konstantin Trutovsky once said, "There was no student in the entire institution with less of a military bearing than F. M. Dostoyevsky. He moved clumsily and jerkily; his uniform hung awkwardly on him; and his knapsack, shako and rifle all looked like some sort of fetter he had been forced to wear for a time and which lay heavily on him."{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=2}} Among his 120 classmates Dostoyevsky's character and interests made him an outsider: in contrast with many of his class fellows, he was brave and had a strong sense of justice, protected newcomers, aligned himself with teachers, criticised corruption among officers and helped poor farmers. Although he was a loner and lived in his own literary world, his classmates respected him. His reclusive way of life and his interest in religion earned him the nickname "Monk [[Photius]]".{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=24–7}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=69–111}}

Dostoyevsky's first [[Epileptic seizure|seizure]] may have occurred after learning of the death of his father on 16 June 1839,{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=59}} although reports of this originated from accounts (now considered unreliable) written by his daughter, which were later expanded by [[Sigmund Freud]]. The father's official cause of death was an [[apoplectic]] stroke, although a neighbour accused the father's serfs of murder. Had the serfs been found guilty and sent to Siberia, the neighbour, Pavel Khotiaintsev, would have been in a position to buy the vacated land. The serfs were found innocent in a criminal trial in [[Tula Oblast|Tula]], but Dostoyevsky's brother Andrei perpetuated the story.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=109}} After his father's death, Dostoyevsky continued with his studies, passed his exams and obtained the rank of engineer cadet, which gave him the right to live away from the academy. After a short visit to his brother Mikhail in Reval, Fyodor frequently went to concerts, operas, plays and ballets. It was during this time that two of his friends initiated him into gambling.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=31–6}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=69–111}}

In August 1843 he took a job as a military draftsman (a job he found "as boring as potatoes"),{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=3}} and lived with Adolph Totleben in an apartment owned by Dr A. Riesenkampf, a friend of his brother Mikhail. The doctor characterized him as "no less-good natured and no less courteous than his brother, but when not in a good mood he often looked at everything through dark glasses, became vexed, forgot good manners, and sometimes was carried away to the point of abusiveness and loss of self-awareness"; but "in the circle of his friends he always seemed lively, untroubled, self-content".{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=114–5}} As he had done when he was a child, Dostoyevsky continued to show concern for the poor and the sick. He earned some badly-needed money by translating works of literature into Russian.{{sfn|Lavrin|1947|pp=10–11}} He graduated from the academy on 19 October 1844 as a lieutenant. Already in financial trouble, Dostoyevsky decided to write his own novel.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=36–7}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=69–111}}

== Career ==

=== Early career ===
[[File:Trutovsky 004.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Dostoyevsky, 1847]]
In 1844, Dostoyevsky shared an apartment with [[Dmitry Grigorovich]], a friend from the academy, and began on his first novel, hoping to obtain a large readership to improve his finances. In a letter to his brother Mikhail he wrote, "It's simply a case of my novel covering all. If I fail in this, I'll hang myself."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/lettersoffyodorm00dostiala/lettersoffyodorm00dostiala_djvu.txt|title=Letters of Fyodor Michailovitch Dostoyevsky to his family and friends|author=Fyodor Dostoyevsky|other=translated by Ethel Golburn Mayne|accessdate=3 October 2012}}</ref> In May 1845 he finished the manuscript, ''[[Poor Folk]]'', and asked Grigorovich to read the novel aloud. Grigorovich was so impressed that the same night he took it to his friend the poet [[Nikolay Nekrasov]], who also became enthusiastic about it and called Dostoyevsky the "New Gogol". The next day, Nekrasov showed the manuscript to [[Vissarion Belinsky]], the most renowned and influential literary critic of the time. Skeptical at first, Belinsky was astonished after reading it, so much that he described it as Russia's first "social novel".{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=73}} ''Poor Folk'' was released on 15 January 1846 in the [[almanac]] ''St Petersburg Collection'' and was an enormous commercial success.{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=113–57}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=42–9}}

Shortly after the publication of ''Poor Folk'', Dostoyevsky wrote his second novel, ''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem|The Double]]''. The book was published in February 1846, although it had already appeared in the journal ''Annals of the Fatherland'' on 30 January. In the 1840s, [[socialism]] began to be more influential in Russia, to the detriment of [[romanticism]] and [[idealism]]. Dostoyevsky, who discovered socialism around 1846, was initially influenced by the French socialists [[Charles Fourier|Fourier]], [[Cabet]], [[Proudhon]] and [[Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon|Saint Simon]]. Through his relationship with Belinsky, Dostoyevsky expanded his knowledge of the philosophy of socialism and was attracted to its logic, its sense of justice and its preoccupation with the destitute and disadvantaged. His relationship with Belinsky became increasingly strained as Belinsky's [[atheism]] and dislike of religion clashed with Dostoyevsky's Orthodox beliefs. Dostoyevsky eventually parted company with him and his associates. In his later books, Dostoyevsky focused on the issues of the existence of God and [[nihilism]], as well as the nature of human coexistence, the requirements of fraternity and the coherence between freedom and fortune.{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=159–82}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=53–5}}

After his second novel received negative reviews, Dostoyevsky's health declined and he had more epileptic seizures, but he continued his prolific writing. From 1846 to 1848 he released a number of short stories in the magazine ''Annals of the Fatherland'', including "[[Mr. Prokharchin]]", "The Landlady", "A Weak Heart" and "[[White Nights (short story)|White Nights]]". Since these stories were unsuccessful, Dostoyevsky found himself in financial trouble yet again and decided to join the [[Utopian Socialism|utopian socialist]] Betekov circle, a tight-knit community that helped him to survive. When the circle dissolved, Dostoyevsky befriended [[Apollon Maykov]] and his brother [[Valerian Maykov|Valerian]]; after Valerian's death, Apollon became an important figure in Dostoyevsky's life. In 1846, on recommendation of the poet [[Aleksey Pleshcheyev]],{{sfn|Mochulsky|1967|pp=115–21}} he joined the [[Christian socialism|socio-Christian]] Petrashevsky Circle, founded by [[Mikhail Petrashevsky]], who had proposed social reforms in Russia. "The first Russian Communist"{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=63}} [[Mikhail Bakunin]] once wrote to [[Alexander Herzen]], that the group was "the most innocent and harmless company" and its members "systematic opponents of all revolutionary goals and means".{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=59}} Dostoyevsky used the circle's library on Saturdays and Sundays, and sometimes participated in their discussions of themes like freedom from censorship and the abolition of serfdom.{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=239–46, 259–346}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=58–69}}

In 1849 the first parts of ''[[Netochka Nezvanova (novel)|Netochka Nezvanova]]'', a novel Dostoyevsky had been planning since 1846, were published in ''Annals of the Fatherland'', but his banishment brought it to an end. Dostoyevsky never tried to complete it and the novel remained unfinished.{{sfn|Mochulsky|1967|pp=99–101}}

=== Exile in Siberia ===
[[File:B pokrovsky kazn 1949.jpg|thumb|Before the attempted execution, the members were split into three-man groups. Dostoyevsky was the third in the second row (not seen on the picture); next to him stood Pleshcheyev and Durov.]]

Dostoyevsky and other members of the Petrashevsky Circle were denounced to [[Ivan Petrovich Liprandi|Liprandi]], an official for the Ministry of International Affairs. Dostoyevsky was accused of reading several works by Belinsky, including ''Correspondence with Gogol'', ''Criminal Letters'' and ''The Soldier's Speech'', and of passing copies of these and other works. Antonelli, the government agent who had reported the group, wrote in his statement that at least one of the papers criticised Russian politics and religion. Dostoyevsky responded to these charges by declaring that he had read the essays only "as a literary monument, neither more nor less" and argued about "personality and human egoism" instead of politics. But even so, he and his companions—deemed to be "conspirators"—were arrested on 22 April 1849 on the request of Count [[Alexey Fyodorovich Orlov|A. Orlov]] and Emperor [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicolas I]], who feared a revolution like the [[Decembrist revolt|Decembrist revolt of 1825]] in Russia and the [[Revolutions of 1848]] in Europe. The members were brought to the well-defended [[Peter and Paul Fortress]], where the most dangerous convicts were sent.{{sfn|Mochulsky|1967|pp=121–33}}{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=6–68}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=72–9}}

[[File:Dostoyevsky in prison.jpg|thumb|left|Dostoyevsky (left) in his cell, 1853]]
The future of the convicts was discussed for four months by an investigative commission headed by the Tsar. It was deliberated over by commander General [[Ivan Nabokov]], senator Count [[Pavel Gagarin]], Count [[Vasily Andreyevich Dolgorukov|Vasili Dolgorukov]], Generals [[Yakov Rostovtsev]] and head of the secret police [[:ru:Дубельт, Леонтий Васильевич|Leonty Dubelt]]. They decided to execute the convicts. On 23 December 1849, the members of the circle were brought to Semyonov Place in St Petersburg. In the last minute, the execution was stayed when a cart came running. The Tsar had wrote a letter to general adjutant Sumarokov in which the people were pardoned. Dostoyevsky's sentence was commuted to four years of [[exile]] with hard labour at a [[katorga]] prison camp in [[Omsk]], [[Siberia]], followed by a term of compulsory military service. After a fourteen-day sleigh ride, they reached [[Tobolsk]] in Siberia, a staying place for Russian prisoners. Despite all the burden, Dostoyevsky netherless stayed calm and knew how to take heart from such situations. He consoled and uplifted other prisoners, such as Ivan Yastrzhembsky, one of the members of the Petrashevsky Circle, who was surprised about his kindness and eventually decided not to commit suicide. In Tobolsk the members received food and clothes from the Decembrist women, and additionally several copies of the New Testament with a ten-ruble banknote inside each ones. Eleven days later, Durov and Dostoyevsky reached Omsk,{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=6–68}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=79–96}} whose barracks he described as follows:
{{quote|In summer, intolerable closeness; in winter, unendurable cold. All the floors were rotten. Filth on the floors an inch thick; one could slip and fall ... We were packed like herrings in a barrel ... There was no room to turn around. From dusk to dawn it was impossible not to behave like pigs ... Fleas, lice, and black beetles by the bushel ... |Fyodor Dostoyevsky|Pisma, I: pp. 135–7.}}

Classified as "one of the most dangerous convicts", Dostoyevsky had his feet and hands permanently chained until his release. He unsuccessfully appealed for the release from the chains. During his imprisonment, he was not allowed to read anything except his New Testament; he would randomly open its pages whenever in doubt. In addition to his epileptic seizures, Dostoyevsky had haemorrhoids and was "burned by some fever, trembling and feeling too hot or too cold every night" and "losing weight". The smell of a privy was distributed throughout the building, and the bathroom was a small room occupying more than 200 people. Sometimes he was sent to the military hospital, where he had the opportunity to read Dickens novels and newspapers. Dostoyevsky was generally respected by the prisoners, but despised by some because of xenophobic statements.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=131}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=96–108}}

=== Release from prison ===
[[File:Valikhanov.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky (right) and the [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] scholar [[Shokan Walikhanuli]] in 1859]]
After his release on 14 February 1854, Dostoyevsky asked his brother Mikhail to help him financially and to send him books by authors such as [[Giambattista Vico|Vico]], [[Guizot]], [[Ranke]], [[Hegel]] and [[Kant]].{{sfn|Frank|1988|pp=8–20}} He also began to write ''[[The House of the Dead (novel)|The House of the Dead]]'', basing it on his experience in prison. It became the first novel about Russian prisons.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|pp=107–21}} Before moving to [[Semy|Semipalatinsk]] in mid-March, where he was forced to serve in the Siberian Army Corps of the Seventh Line Battalion, Dostoyevsky met geographer [[Pyotr Semyonov]] and ethnographer [[Shokan Walikhanuli]]. Around November 1854, he met Baron [[Wrangel family|Alexander Egorovich Wrangel]], an admirer of his books who had attended the mock execution. They both rented houses outside Semipalatinsk, in the "Cossack Garden". Describing his character, "He looked morose. His sickly, pale face was covered with freckles, and his blond hair was cut short. He was a little over average height and looked at me intensively with his sharp, grey-blue eyes. It was as if he were trying to look into my soul and discover what kind of man I was".{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=112–3}}{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=165–267}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=108–13}}

In Semipalatinsk, Dostoyevsky began to work as tutor to several schoolchildren and came into social contact with several upper-class families. This is how he made the acquaintance of Lieutenant-Colonel Belikhov, who used to invite him to read out passages from newspapers and magazines. During a visit to Belikhov, Dostoyevsky met the family of Alexander Ivanovich Isaev and Maria Dmitrievna Isaeva, and soon fell in love with her. Alexander Isaev took a new post in [[Kuznetsk]], where he died in August 1855. Maria then moved with Dostoyevsky to [[Barnaul]]. Dostoyevsky sent a letter through Wrangel to General Eduard Totleben, apologising for his activity in several utopian circles and, as a result, in 1856 he obtained the right to publish books and to marry, but remained under police surveillance for the rest of his life. He married Maria in Semipalatinsk on 7 February 1857. In 1859 Dostoyevsky was released from military service as his health had worsened since his marriage. He was also granted permission to return to Russia, first to [[Tver]]—where he met his brother for the first time in ten years—then to St Petersburg.{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=175–221}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=115–41}}

[[File:Dostoevskij 1863.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Dostoyevsky in Paris (1863)]]

"A Little Hero" (Dostoyevsky's only work completed while in prison) appeared in a journal, while "Uncle's Dream" and "The Village of Stepanchikovo" were not published until 1860. ''[[Notes from the House of the Dead]]'' was released in ''Russky Mir'' ("Russian World") in September 1860; "The Insulted and the Injured", in the new ''[[Vremya]]'' magazine,{{ref|c|[note]}} which had been created with the help of funds from his brother's cigarette factory.{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=290 et seq}}{{sfn|Frank|1988|pp=8–62}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=135–7}}

Dostoyevsky travelled to western Europe for the first time on 7 June 1862. He went to the German cities of Cologne, Berlin, Dresden and Wiesbaden and to Belgium and Paris afterwards. In London he met [[Herzen]], for whom Dostoyevsky was "a naive, not entirely lucid, but very nice person",{{sfn|Frank|2009|p=355}} and visited the [[The Crystal Palace|Crystal Palace]]. He then travelled with Strakhov through Switzerland and several cities in northern Italy, Turin, Livorno and Florence among them. He wrote mainly negative comments about these countries in ''Winter Notes on Summer Impressions'', where he criticised capitalism, [[Modernisation|social modernisation]], [[materialism]], Catholicism and Protestantism.{{sfn|Frank|1988|pp=233–49}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=143–5}}

From August to October 1863 Dostoyevsky made another trip to western Europe. In Paris he met his second love, [[Apollinaria Suslova|Polina Suslova]]. Once again, he lost all his money gambling in Wiesbaden and Baden-Baden. He then wrote a letter to Wrangel, asking for a loan and mentioning his next novel for the first time. In 1864, after the successive deaths of his wife Maria and his brother, Dostoyevsky became the lone parent of his stepson Pasha and, almost immediately afterwards, of Mikhail's family. The failure of [[Epoch (Russian magazine)|''Epokha'']], the magazine he had founded with his brother after the suppression of ''Vremya'', worsened his financial situation. The continued help of his relatives and friends, however, prevented him from going bankrupt.{{sfn|Frank|1988|pp=197–211, 283–94, 248–365}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=151–75}}

=== Travels ===
[[File:Annagrigdost.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Anna Snitkina]]]]
The first two parts of Dostoyevsky's sixth novel, ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'', were published in January and February 1866 in the periodical ''[[The Russian Messenger]]'',{{sfn|Frank|2009|p=462}} bringing the magazine at least 500 new subscribers.{{sfn|Leatherbarrow|2002|p=83}} The complete novel was also a success. A [[detective novel]]{{sfn|Cicovacki|2012|p=80}} it describes [[Rodion Romanovich Raskolnikov|Rodion Raskolnikov]]'s life, from the murder of a pawnbroker, to the spiritual regeneration under a [[hooker with a heart of gold]], Sonya, to his sentence in Siberia. The critic Strakhov, generally satisfied with the novel, remarked that "Only ''Crime and Punishment'' was read in 1866" and said that Dostoyevsky had managed to portray, aptly and realistically, a Russian person.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=183}} Initially, however, the novel received a mixed reception from critics, with most of the negative responses coming from nihilists. [[Grigory Eliseev]] of the radical magazine ''[[The Contemporary]]'' called the novel a "fantasy according to which the entire student body is accused without exception of attempting murder and robbery".{{sfn|Frank|1997|p=45}}

Dostoyevsky returned to St Petersburg in mid-September and promised his editor, Fyodor Stellovsky, that he would complete the novel ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]'' by November, although he had not yet written a single line. Milyukov, one of Dostoyevsky's friends, advised him to hire a secretary. Dostoyevsky contacted [[stenography|stenographers]] Pavel Olkhin from St Petersburg, who recommended his pupil [[Anna Snitkina|Anna Grigoryevna Snitkina]]. After being hired in October 1866, she registered his dictation in shorthand and ''The Gambler'', a short novel focused on gambling, was completed within 26 days on 30 October.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=42–183}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=162–96}} After meeting with him, she remarked, "[Dostoyevsky] was of average height, and he held himself erect. He had light brown, slightly reddish hair, he used some hair conditioner, and he combed his hair in a diligent way. I was struck by his eyes, they were different: one was dark brown; in the other, the pupil was so big that you could not see its color [caused by an injury]. The strangeness of his eyes gave Dostoyevsky some mysterious appearance. His face was pale, and it looked unhealthy ..."{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=178}}
[[File:Casino Bad Homburg 1849.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Gambling "hell" in Bad Homburg]]

On 15 February 1867, Dostoyevsky married Anna Snitkina in the [[Trinity Cathedral, St. Petersburg|Trinity Cathedral]] in St Petersburg. The 7,000 rubles he had earned from ''Crime and Punishment'' did not cover all their debts, forcing Anna to sell things. On 14 April 1867, they began a delayed honeymoon in Germany with the money raised. They stayed in Berlin, and later visited the [[Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister]], where he sought inspiration for his writing. Three weeks later Dostoyevsky travelled to [[Bad Homburg|Homburg]], where he lost all of his wife's money gambling. They continued their trip through Germany, visiting [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]], [[Darmstadt]], [[Heidelberg]] and [[Karlsruhe]], finally staying in [[Geneva]]. In Baden-Baden, Anna became pregnant. Their first child, Sonya was born on 5 March 1868. Three months later the baby died from pneumonia. In September 1868, Dostoyevsky started to work on ''[[The Idiot]]'', managing to complete 100 pages in just 23 days. They left Geneva and moved to [[Vevey]] and then to Milan to complete his novel. After enduring some rainy autumn months in Milan, they travelled to Florence. ''The Idiot'' was completed there in January 1869 and serialised in ''The Russian Messenger''.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=151–363}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=201–37}}

[[File:Fyodor Mikahailovich Dostoyevsky's Study in St Petersburg.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky's study in [[Saint Petersburg]]]]

In Dresden, Anna gave birth to [[Lyubov Dostoyevskaya|Lyubov]] on 26 September 1869. In April 1871 Dostoyevsky made a final visit to a gambling hall in Wiesbaden. According to Anna, Dostoyevsky was cured of his addiction after the birth of their second daughter, but whether or not this is true is open to speculation. Another reason for his abstinence might have been the closure of casinos in Germany in 1872 and 1873.{{ref|d|[note]}} Anna's younger brother, Ivan Snitkin, also visited the couple in autumn 1869. A pupil at the Petrovsky Agricultural Academy in Moscow, Snitkin told them about the unrest among the students there and mentioned a classmate of his, Ivan Ivanov, who was involved in the [[Nihilist movement]], led by [[Sergey Nechayev]]. Nechayev, influenced by [[Bakunin]]'s ''Alliance révolutionnaire européenne'', had formed this terror organisation composed of several five-man groups. As Ivanov eventually left the society, other members, fearing he might turn into an informer, murdered him on 21 November 1869 in the Academy park. After hearing the news of the "Nechayev Affair", as the case was known, Dostoyevksy decided to write a novel about that contemporary revolutionary movement, ''[[Demons (novel)|Demons]]''.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=188, 396}}{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=14–63}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=240–61}}{{sfn|Mochulsky|1967|pp=405–06}}

In 1871, Dostoyevsky and Anna travelled by train to Berlin. During this trip, he burnt numerous manuscripts, including those for ''The Idiot'', because he was worried about problems when going through customs. The family arrived in St Petersburg on 8 July, marking the end of a honeymoon (originally planned to last for three months) that had lasted over four years.{{sfn|Frank|1997|pp=241–363}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=265}}

=== Return to Russia ===
Back in Russia in July 1871, the family was again in financial trouble and had to sell their remaining possessions. Besides, Anna was reaching the final term of her second pregnancy. Their son, Fyodor, was born on 16 July. Soon after the birth, they moved to a different apartment near the [[Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology|Institute of Technology]]. The family hoped to cancel their large debts by selling their house in Peski, but as problems with the tenant resulted in a relatively low selling price, disputes with their creditors continued. Anna proposed that they raise money on her husband's copyrights and negotiated with the creditors to pay off their debts in instalments.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=14–63}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=265–7}}

[[File:Dostoevsky house.jpg|thumb|240px|Dostoyevsky's [[dacha]] in [[Staraya Russa]], bought in 1876]]
Dostoyevsky was able to revive his friendships with Maykov and Strakhov and to find new acquaintances, such as [[Vsevolod Solovyov]], his brother [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Vladimir]], church politician Terty Filipov and [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], future Imperial High Commissioner of the [[Most Holy Synod]], who influenced Dostoyevsky's political progression to conservatism. In early 1872, the art collector [[Pavel Tretyakov]] asked Dostoyevsky to pose for [[Vasily Perov]]. According to Danish critic [[Georg Brandes]], [[:File:Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg|Perov's painting]], one of the most popular portraits of Dostoyevsky, is a depiction "half that of a Russian peasant, half that of a criminal".{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=269}} Around this time, the Dostoyevskys planned their holidays in [[Staraya Russa]], a town known for its [[mineral spa]], where the family spent several months. Shortly afterwards, Anna's sister died from [[typhus]] and Anna developed an abscess on her throat. Dostoyevsky's work on his next novel was consequently delayed.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=14–63}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=268–71}}

[[File:Fyodor Mikahailovich Dostoyevsky 1876.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Dostoyevsky, 1876]]
The family returned to St Petersburg in September 1872. ''Demons'' was finished on 26 November 1872 and released in January by the "Dostoyevsky Press", founded by Dostoyevsky and his wife. Although they only accepted cash payments and the bookshop was their own apartment, the business was successful: about 3,000 copies of ''Demons'' were sold. Anna was in charge of the financing. Dostoyevsky proposed that they establish a new periodical, ''A Writer's Diary'', which would include a collection of essays, but due to lack of money it had to be published in [[Vladimir Meshchersky]]'s ''The Citizen'', beginning on 1 January in return for a salary of 3,000 rubles per year. In the summer of 1873, Anna travelled again with her children to Staraya Russa, while Dostoyevsky stayed in St Petersburg to continue with his ''Diary''.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=38–118}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=269–89}}

In March 1874, Dostoyevsky left ''The Citizen'' because of the stressful nature of the work and interference from the Russian bureaucracy. In his fifteen months with ''The Citizen'', he was brought to court twice: on 11 June 1873, for citing the words of prince Meshchersky without permission, and again on 23 March 1874. Dostoyevsky offered to sell ''The Russian Messenger'' a new novel he had not yet begun to write, but the magazine refused to give him the sum he had asked for. Nikolay Nekrasov suggested that he publish ''A Writer's Diary'' in ''The National Annals''; he would receive 250 rubles for each printer's sheet, 100 more than from ''The Russian Messenger''. Dostoyevsky's health began to decline, and he started to experience the first symptoms of a lung disease. He consulted several doctors in St Petersburg and was advised to take a cure outside Russia. Around July, Dostoyevsky reached Ems but went to a different physician, who diagnosed him with acute [[catarrh]]. During his stay at the health spa he began to work on ''The Adolescent''. In late July he returned to St Petersburg.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=120–47}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=273–95}}

His wife proposed that they spend the winter in Staraya Russa to give him a rest from his work, although doctors had suggested that Dostoyevsky make a second visit to Ems because his health had improved since his last visit. On 10 August 1875, in Staraya Russa, his son Alexey was born. In mid-September the family returned to St Petersburg. Dostoyevsky finished ''The Adolescent'' at the end of 1875, although passages of it had been serialised since January in the ''Annals''. ''The Adolescent'' chronicles the life of a 19-year-old intellectual, Arkady Dolgoruky, the illegitimate child of a controversial and womanising landowner named Versilov and a peasant mother. A main theme in the novel is the recurring conflict between father and son—particularly about different ideologies—representing battles between the conventional way of thinking in the 1840s and the new nihilistic view of the youth of 1860s Russia.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=149–97}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=273–302}}

=== Last years ===
In early 1876 Dostoyevsky continued to work on his ''Diaries''. The book includes his classic works, [[composition book]]s, [[sketch (drawing)|sketch]]es, drafts, letters, autographs and committed thoughts, and encompasses various different social, religious, political and ethical themes. This essay collection sold over twice as much as his previous books. Dostoyevsky received more letters from readers than ever before, and people of all ages and occupations visited him. Thanks to Anna's brother, the family could finally buy a [[dacha]] in Staraya Russa. In the summer of 1876, Dostoyevsky began experiencing breathlessness again. He visited Ems for a third time and was told that he might live for another 15 years should he move to a more healthy climate. When Dostoyevsky returned to Russia, Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] ordered him to visit his palace and to present ''Diaries'' to him, and asked that Dostoyevsky educate his sons, Sergey and Paul. This visit led to the increase of his circle of acquaintances. He was a frequent guest in several salons in St Petersburg and met many famous people, Princess Sofya Tolstaya, the poet [[Yakov Polonsky]], the politician [[Sergei Witte]], the journalist [[Alexey Suvorin]], the musician [[Anton Rubinstein]] and the artist [[Ilya Repin]] among them.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=199–280}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=303–6}}

[[File:Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Last photo of Dostoyevsky, shot 6 months before his death]]
Dostoyevsky's health began to deteriorate further, and in March 1877 he had four epileptic seizures. Instead of going back to Ems he decided to visit Maly Prikol, a manor near [[Kursk]]. On the way back to St Petersburg to finalise his ''Diaries'', Dostoyevsky visited Darovoye, where he had spent much of his childhood. In December he attended Nekrasov's funeral and gave a speech. He was also appointed an honorary member of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]]. In early 1878 he heard a speech about the "God-man" delivered by Vladimir Solovyov, which set him thinking about his next novel. In February 1879 he received an honorary certificate from the academy. He declined the invitation to an international congress about copyright in Paris after his son Alyosha had an extreme epileptic seizure and died on 16 May. The family later moved to the apartment where Dostoyevsky had written his first works. Around this time he was elected to the board of directors of the Slavic Benevolent Society in St Petersburg, and that summer he was elected to the honorary committee of the [[Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale]], which included Victor Hugo, Ivan Turgenev, [[Paul Heyse]], [[Alfred Tennyson]], [[Anthony Trollope]], [[Henry Longfellow]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and Leo Tolstoy. Dostoyevsky made his fourth and final visit to Ems in early August 1879. He was diagnosed as having early-stage [[pulmonary emphysema]]. His doctor believed that although his disease could not be cured, it could be successfully managed.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=320–375}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=307–49}}

At nearly 800 pages, ''The Brothers Karamazov'' is Dostoyevsky's largest literary work. It received both critical and popular acclaim and is often cited as his ''[[magnum opus]]''.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=390–441}} Composed of 12 books, ''The Brothers Karamazov'' tells the story of the three protagonists: the novice [[Alyosha Karamazov]], the non-believer Ivan Karamazov and the soldier Dmitry. First parts of the books introduces the Karamazovs. The main plot is the death of their father Fyodor, while other parts are philosophical and religious argumentations by Father Zosima to Alyosha. The most renowned chapter is "[[The Grand Inquisitor]]", a [[parable]] told by Ivan to Alyosha about [[Second Coming|Christ's Second Coming]] in [[Seville]], Spain, where Christ was imprisoned by and Catholic [[Grand Inquisitor]]. Instead of answering him, Christ gives him a kiss and the Inquisitor subsequently releases him but tells not to return. Critics, such as [[D. H. Lawrence]], misunderstood the tale by stating that Dostoyevsky defended the Inquisitor's actions, while others, such as [[Romano Guardini]], argued that the book's Christ was Ivan's own interpretation of Christ, "the idealistic product of the unbelief". Ivan, however, obviously stated that he is against Christ. Most contemporary critics and scholars agree that Dostoyevsky is particularly attacking Roman Catholicism and socialist atheism. For Dostoyevsky, the [[Donation of Pepin]] around 750 and the [[Spanish Inquisition]] in the 16th century corrupted true Christianity. The first parts of the novel were serialised in ''The Russian Messenger'' from 1 February and the final sections were published in November 1880.{{sfn|Müller|1982|pp=91–103}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=723–803}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–414}}

[[File:Dostoyevsky's funeral.jpg|thumb|upright|left|250px|Dostoyevsky's funeral.]]
On 3 February 1880, Dostoyevsky was chosen as the vice president of the Slavic Benevolent Society, and was invited to speak at the unveiling of the Pushkin memorial in Moscow. Dostoyevsky delivered his speech from memory two days later, inside a large room, giving an impressive performance that had great emotional impact on many in his audience. His speech was met with thunderous applause, and even his long-time rival [[Ivan Turgenev]] embraced him. Dostoyevsky's speech was later attacked by several people. For example, the liberal political scientist Alexander Gradovsky thought that he idolised the people in his speech,{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=170}} and conservative thinker [[Konstantin Leontiev]], in his essay "On Universal Love", compared the speech with French utopian socialism.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=230–31}} [[Konstantin Staniukovich]] praised his speech in his essay "The Pushkin Anniversary and Dostoevsky's Speech" from ''[[:ru:Дело (журнал XIX века)|Business]]'', "the language of Dostoevsky's [Pushkin Speech] really looks like a sermon. He speaks with the tone of a prophet. He makes a sermon like a pastor; it is very deep, sincere, and we understand that he wants to impress the emotions of his listeners."{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=255}} The several attacks on his speech led to a further deterioration of Dostoyevsky's health.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=475–531}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=353–63}}

[[File:Dostoyevsky on his Bier, Kramskoy.jpg|thumb|"He looked as thought he were asleep, gently smiling, as though he could see something beautiful" – Lyubov Dostoyevskaya{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=374}}]]
On 25 January, the Tsar's secret police, while searching for members of the terror organisation [[Narodnaya Volya]] ("The People's Will") who had assassinated Tsar Alexander II, executed a search warrant in the apartment of one of Dostoyevsky's neighbours. Anna denied that this might have been the cause for Dostoyevksy's [[pulmonary haemorrhage]] on 26 January 1881, saying that it occurred after her husband had been searching for a dropped pen holder. The haemorrhage may have also been caused by the heavy disputes with his sister Vera about his aunt Aleksandra Kumanina's estate, which was agreed upon on 30 March and discussed in the St Petersburg City Court on 24 July 1879.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|pp=309–16}}{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=xxxiii}} His wife would later acquire a part of the estate of ca. 185 [[desiatina]] (around 500 [[acre]]s or 202 [[hectare|ha]]) of forest and 92 desiatina (around 250 acres or 101 ha) of farmland.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=223}} Following another haemorrhage Anna called the doctors, who gave a grim prognosis. A third haemorrhage followed shortly afterwards.{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=707–50}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=368–71}}

Among Dostoyevsky's last words was his citation of [[Matthew 3:14]]: "But John forbad him, saying, I have need to be baptised of thee, and comest thou to me? And Jesus answering said unto him, Suffer it to be so now: for thus it becometh us to fulfil all righteousness" and finishing with "Hear now—permit it. Do not restrain me!".{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=371–2}} According to a Russian custom, his body was placed on a table. Dostoyevsky was interred in the [[Tikhvin Cemetery]] at the [[Alexander Nevsky Lavra|Alexander Nevsky Convent]], near his favourite poets [[Karamsin]] and [[Vasily Zhukovsky|Zhukovsky]]. It is not exactly known how many visitors attended his funeral. According to a reporter, more than 100,000 mourners were there, while others state a number between 40,000 and 50,000. His tombstone is inscribed with these words of Christ from the New Testament:{{sfn|Frank|2003|pp=707–50}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=373 et seqq}}

{{quote|Verily, verily, I say unto you, Except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone: but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit.| Jesus|from [[Gospel of John|the Gospel According to John]] 12:24}}

== Personal life ==

=== Affairs ===
Dostoyevsky had his first known affair with Avdotya Yakovlevna. He met her in the Panayev circle in the early 1840s. She was described as educated, interested in literature and a [[femme fatale]].{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=50}} However, Dostoyevsky later admitted that he "fell hopelessly in love with Panayeva, I'm over it now, but I'm not sure".<ref>Robert Payne: ''Dostoyevsky: a human portrait'', Knopf, 1961, p. 51</ref> According to Dostoyevskaya in her memoirs, Dostoyevsky once asked his sister's sister-in-law, Yelena Ivanova, whether she would marry him (as her husband was deathly ill), but she denied his proposal.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=299}}

Another short but intimate affair was with Polina Suslova, which peaked in the winter of 1862–63 and decreased the following years. Suslova's infidelity with a Spaniard in late spring and Dostoyevsky's gambling addiction and age resulted in the end of their relationship. He later described her in a letter to Nadezhda Suslova as a "great egoist. Her egoism and her vanity are colossal. She demands ''everything'' of other people, all the perfections, and does not pardon the slightest imperfection in the light of other qualities that one may possess", and later stated "I still love her, but I do not want to love her any more. She doesn't deserve this love ..."{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=168}} Around this time, his first wife, Maria Dostoyevskaya, née Isayevna, died of tuberculosis. She had previously refused his marriage proposal, stating that they were not meant for each other and that his poor financial situation precluded marriage. When Dostoyevsky later went to Kuznetsk, he discovered that she had had an affair with the 24-year-old schoolmaster Nikolay Vergunov. Despite this, Maria married Dostoyevsky in Semipalatinsk on 7 February 1857. Their family life was unhappy and she found it difficult to cope with his seizures. Describing their relationship, he wrote "Because of her strange, suspicious and fantastic character, we were definitely not happy together, but we could not stop loving each other; and the more unhappy we were, the more attached to each other we became." They mostly lived apart.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=168}}{{sfn|Frank|1987|pp=175–221}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=151–63}}

In 1865, Dostoyevsky met [[Anne Jaclard|Anna Korvin-Krukovskaya]]. Their relationship was not certain: while Anna Dostoyevskaya spoke of a good affair, her sister, the mathematician [[Sofia Kovalevskaya|Sophia]], thought that Anna rejected him after a visit.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=169}} Around 1866, Dostoyevsky fell in love with the stenographer Anna Snitkina, a "very young and rather nice looking twenty-year-old woman with a kind heart ... I noticed that my stenographer loved me sincerely, though she never told me about it. I also liked her more and more". He later "proposed to her and ... got married".{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=169}}

=== Epilepsy ===
It cannot be known for certain when Dostoyevsky's first epileptic seizure occurred. Some have proposed the age of nine, while others have argued that it was in his teens or early adulthood. Dostoyevsky, however, wrote that his first seizure happened after the "psychological torture" of the mock execution. In his notebook he recorded a total of 102 seizures in 20 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/2007/04/16/diagnosing-dostoyevskys-epilepsy/|publisher=Neurophilosophy.com|accessdate=1 May 2012|title=Diagnosing Dostoyevsky's epilepsy|date=16 April 2007}}</ref> Some have thought Dostoyevsky was diagnosed with in adulthood from [[generalised epilepsy]], others [[temporal lobe epilepsy]], and some a combination of these two. While [[Théophile Alajouanine]] stated that he had "partial and secondarily generalised seizures with ecstatic [[Aura (symptom)|aura]]", [[Henri Gastaut]] believed that his seizures were "[[idiopathy|idiopathic]] generalised". P.H.A. Voskuil described "complex partial seizures with secondarily generalised nocturnal seizures and ecstatic auras". According to Rosetti and Bogousslavsky, Dostoyevsky had "temporal lobe epilepsy, most likely left [[mesiotemporal]], with complex partial and secondarily generalised seizures, with a relatively benign course".<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.acnr.co.uk/pdfs/volume6issue1/v6i1history.pdf|format=PDF|title=Dostoevsky and Epilepsy|author=Andrew Larner|publisher=ACNR – Advances in Clinical Neuroscience & Rehabilitation|accessdate=12 May 2012|volume=6|issue=1|date=March/April 2006}}</ref>

Sigmund Freud, the Austrian [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalyst]] who linked epilepsy with hysteria, said the illness was caused by his father's death and suggested an [[Oedipus complex]]. Freud discussed his theory of the link between epilepsy and hysteria in ''Dostoevsky and Parricide'', a 1928 article.

== Beliefs ==

=== Political ===
In his youth, Dostoyevsky enjoyed reading [[Nikolai Karamzin]]'s ''History of the Russian State'', which praised [[conservatism]] and the independence of Russia from other countries, ideas that Dostoyevsky would embrace in his late adulthood. Before his arrest for participating in the [[Petrashevsky circle]] in 1849, Dostoyevsky remarked, "As far as I am concerned, nothing was ever more ridiculous that the idea of a [[Republicanism|republican]] government in Russia". In an 1881 edition of his ''Diaries'', Dostoyevsky  stated that the tsar and the people should form a unity: "For the people, the tsar is not an external power, not the power of some conqueror ... but a power of all the people, an all-unifiying power the people themselves desired".{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=183–89}}

While critical of [[serfdom]], Dostoyevsky was sceptical about the creation of a [[constitutional monarchy|constitution]], a concept he viewed as unrelated to Russia's history, a mere "gentleman's rule", and affirmed that "a constitution would simply enslave the people". He advocated for social change instead, for the forming of a connection between the peasantry and the affluent classes. Dostoyevsky believed in an [[utopia]]n Christianized Russia where "if everyone were actively Christian, not a single social question would come up ... If they were Christians they would settle everything".{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=323–27}} He thought [[democracy]] and [[oligarchy]] poor systems, as exemplified by the French current state of affairs: "the oligarchs are only concerned with the interest of the wealthy; the democrats, only with the interest of the poor; but the interests of society, the interest of all and the future of France as a whole—no one there bothers about these things."{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=323–27}} He maintained that political parties ultimately lead to social discord. In the 1860s he discovered [[Pochvennichestvo]], a movement similar to [[Slavophilism]] in that it rejected [[Anti-Europeanism|Europe]]'s culture and contemporary philosophical movements such as nihilism and materialism. Unlike Slavophilism, however, it did not intend to establish an isolated Russia, but a more open [[Peter the Great]] state.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=323–27}}

In his incomplete article "Socialism and Christianity", Dostoyevsky considered that [[civilisation]] ("the second stage in human history") was degraded, moving towards [[liberalism]] and losing its faith in God. He asserted that the traditional concept of Christianity should therefore be recovered. He felt contemporary western Europe "rejected the single formula for their salvation that came from God and was proclaimed through revelation to humanity, 'Thou shalt love they neighbour as thyself', and replaced it with practical conclusions such as, {{'}}''Chacun pour soi et Dieu pour tous''{{'}} ("Every man for himself and God for all"), or scientific slogans like '[[Survival of the fittest|the struggle for survival]]'".{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=183–89}} This crisis was the consequence of the collision between communal and individual interests, brought about by a decline in religious and moral principles.

Dostoyevsky also differentiated three "enormous world ideas" prevailing in his time:
#[[Catholicism]], which continued the tradition of [[Roman Empire|Imperial Rome]] and had thus become anti-Christian and proto-socialist inasmuch as the Church's interest in political and mundane affairs made it leave behind the idea of Christ. For Dostoyevsky, socialism was "the latest incarnation of the Catholic idea" and its "natural ally"".{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=185}}
#[[Protestantism]], which, while colliding with Catholicism, was none better than it as its doctrine was self-contradictory and would ultimately lose power and spirituality
#the Russian or Slavic idea, grounded in [[Russian Orthodox]]y, which he deemed the ideal Christianity.

During the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]], Dostoyevsky asserted that war may be necessary if salvation were granted. He wanted to eliminate the Muslim [[Ottoman Empire]] and retrieve the Christian [[Byzantian Empire]]. Furthermore, he hoped for the liberation of [[Balkan]] Slavs and its unification with the Russian Empire.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=183–89}}

Dostoyevsky expressed [[antisemitic]] sentiments, some of which are found in his ''Diaries'', but he also stood up for the rights of the Jewish people. In a review of Joseph Frank's book, ''The Mantle of the Prophet'', [[Orlando Figes]] notes that ''A Writer's Diary'' is "filled with politics, literary criticism, and pan-Slav diatribes about the virtues of the Russian Empire, [and] represents a major challenge to the Dostoyevsky fan, not least on account of its frequent expressions of antisemitism."<ref>{{cite news|last=Figes|first=Orlando|title=Dostoevsky's leap of faith|publisher=Sunday Telegraph|page=13|date=29 September 2002|accessdate=17 May 2012}}</ref> Frank, in his foreword for David I. Goldstein's book ''Dostoevsky and the Jews'', attempts to paint Dostoyevsky as a product of his time, noting that Dostoyevsky made antisemitic remarks, but that these views were ones which he was not entirely comfortable with.{{sfn|Goldstein|1981|p=xiv}}

But he supported equal rights of the Russian Jewish population, which was an unpopular position in Russia at the time. Dostoyevsky stated that he did not hate Jewish people and was not antisemitic. He spoke of the potential negative influence of Jewish people, but advised Emperor Alexander II of Russia to allow them positions of influence in Russian society, such as access to professorships at universities. Labelling Dostoyevsky as antisemitic does not take into consideration his expressed desire to reconcile Jews and Christians peacefully in a single universal brotherhood of mankind.{{sfn|Cassedy|2005|pp=67–80}}

=== Religious ===
Dostoyevsky was raised in a "pious Russian family" and knew the Gospel "almost from the cradle".{{sfn|Frank|1979|p=401}} He was introduced to Christianity through the Russian translation of Johannes Hübner's ''One Hundred and Four Sacred Stories from the Old and New Testaments Selected for Children'' (partly a German bible for children and partly a [[catechism]]),{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=8–9}}{{sfn|Frank|1979|p=401}}{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=1}} attended Liturgy every Sunday from an early age and took part in annual pilgrimages to the [[Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius|St Sergius Trinity Monastery]].{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=7–9}} Apart from his spiritual upbringing at home, Dostoyevsky was also educated by a deacon who lived near the hospital.{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=1}} Among his most cherished childhood memories were the prayers he used to say in front of guests and a reading from the [[Book of Job]], which "made an impression on [Dostoyevsky]" when "still almost a child".{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=24, 30}}

According to an officer at the military academy, Dostoyevsky was profoundly religious, followed the precepts of the Orthodox Church and would regularly read the Gospels and [[Heinrich Zschokke]]'s ''Die Stunden der Andacht'' ("Hours of Devotion"), which "preached a sentimental version of Christianity entirely free from [[dogma]]tic content and with a strong emphasis on giving Christian love a social application". This book was, perhaps, what prompted his later interest in Christian socialism.{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=2}} Through the literature of Hoffmann, Balzac, [[Eugène Sue|Sue]] and Goethe, Dostoyevsky created his own belief system, similar to Russian [[sect]]arianism and [[Old Believers|Old Belief]].{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=2}} After his arrest, the mock execution and the subsequent imprisonment in Siberia, he focused intensely on the figure of Christ and the New Testament, the only book allowed in prison.{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=6}} Dostoyevsky wrote in a January 1854 letter to a woman who had sent him the Testament, that he was a "child of unbelief and doubt up to this moment, and I am certain that I shall remain so to the grave." He also told that "even if someone were to prove to me that the truth lay outside Christ, I should choose to remain with Christ rather than with the truth."{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=7}}

In Semipalatinsk, Dostoyevsky revived his trust in God by frequently looking at the star-studded sky. Wrangel said that he was "rather pious, but did not often go to church, and disliked priests, especially the Siberian ones. But he spoke about Christ ecstatically". Both planned to translate Hegel's works and [[Carl Gustav Carus|Carus]]' ''[[Psyche (book)|Psyche]]''. Dostoyevsky explored Islam too, after asking his brother to send him a copy of the [[Quran]]. Two pilgrimages and two works by [[Dimitry of Rostov|Dmitri Rostovsky]], the archbishop who influenced Ukrainian and Russian literature by composing groundbreaking religious plays, strengthened his beliefs.{{sfn|Frank|1979|pp=22–3}} Through his visits to western Europe and discussions with Herzen, [[Apollon Grigoryev|Grigoriev]] and [[Nikolay Strakhov|Strakhov]], Dostoyevsky discovered the Pochvennichestvo movement and the theory that the Catholic Church had adopted the principles of [[rationalism]], [[Legalism (Western philosophy)|legalism]], materialism and [[individualism]] from ancient Rome and passed on its philosophy to Protestantism and consequently to socialism, which becomes atheistic.{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=7-9}}

Dostoyevsky's real beliefs remain nevertheless uncertain, since he never stated his faith explicitly. One exception might be his response, in April 1876, to a question about a suicide in ''Diary of a Writer'', remarking that he was a "philosophical [[deism|deist]]"—this was a quote from ''The Adolescent'', though he did not say that it was. Two months later, however, Dostoyevsky wrote in his ''Diaries'' that his heroine [[George Sand]] "died a ''deisté'', firmly believing in God and in the immortality of the soul". But deists at that time held different [[deism#Beliefs about immortality of the soul|beliefs about the immortality of the soul]]. Besides, his belief in doctrines such as the [[Trinity]]—clearly discussed in ''The Brothers Karamazov'', for example{{sfn|Pattison|Thompson|2001|p=136}}—suggests that he did not thoroughly understand the meaning of this term.{{sfn|Cassedy|2005|p=64}}{{sfn|Frank|2003|p=223}}

Overall, many critics have pointed out that Dostoyevsky's religion is unusual and partially at odds with the Christian dogma. Malcolm V. Jones has found elements of Islam and Buddhism in his religious convictions.{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=68-9}}

== Themes and style ==
[[File:Dostoyevsky The Demons Manuscript.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Manuscript of ''Demons'']]

Dostoyevsky was a representative of [[literary realism]], a genre which depicted contemporary life and society. He saw himself as a "fantastic realist",{{sfn|Terras|1998|p=preface}} while Apollon Grigoryev called him a "sentimental [[Naturalism (literature)|naturalist]]". Dostoyevsky was described as "an explorer of ideas"; his life "coincided with a particularly tumultuous period in Russian history, and was undoubtedly shaped by the sociopolitical happenings he witnessed".{{sfn|Terras|1998|p=59}} Beside his writings on human psychology and religion, Dostoyevsky was known for his frequent use of satire; critic Harold Bloom stated that "satiric parody is the center of Dostoyevsky's art."{{sfn|Bloom|2004|p=10}}

Dostoyevsky's use of space and time were analysed by [[philology|philologist]] [[Vladimir Toporov]], who stated that "the unexpected not only is possible but also always happens".<ref name="Toporov">{{cite book|title=Мив. Ритуал. Симбол. Образ.|trans_title=Myth. Ritual. Symbol. Image|author=Vladimir Toporov|publisher=Прогресс (Progress)|language=Russian|year=1995|pages=193–211|isbn=5-01-003942-7}}</ref> Toporov compares time and space in Dostoyevsky with film scenes: the Russian word ''vdrug'' (suddenly) appears 560 times in the Russian edition of ''Crime and Punishment'', and provides the reader with impressions of tension, inequality and nervousness, all characteristic elements of the structure of his books.<ref name="Toporov"/> Dostoyevsky's works often utilise extremely precise numbers (''at two steps..., two roads to the right''), as well as high and rounded numbers (100, 1000, 10000). Critics such as Donald Fanger<ref>Donald Fanger, ''Dostoevsky and Romantic Realism: A Study of Dostoevsky in Relation to Balzac, Dickens, and Gogol'', Northwestern University Press, 1998, p. 14</ref> and Roman Katsman, writer of ''The Time of Cruel Miracles: Mythopoesis in Dostoevsky and Agnon'', call these elements "mythopoeic".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dissercat.com/content/mifopoetika-snov-v-tvorchestve-f-m-dostoevskogo|title=Мифопоэтика снов в творчестве Ф. М. Достоевского |trans_title=Mythopoetic Dreams in the Creativity of F. M. Dostoyevsy|author=Boris Sergeyevich Kondratiev|accessdate=2 August 2012}}</ref> Dostoyevsky's characters' growth occurs through repetition, events, and memory, despite how painful they may be for the characters.<ref name="Toporov">{{cite web|url=http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/09/101.shtml|title="Мужик Марей" Достоевского|publisher=University of Toronto|author=Vladimir Toporov}}</ref>

Dostoyevsky investigated human nature. According to his good friend, the Russian philosopher Strakhov, "All his attention was directed upon people, and he grasped at only their nature and character", because he was "interested by people, people exclusively, with their state of soul, with the manner of their lives, their feelings and thoughts". Philosopher and Dostoyevsky researcher [[Nikolai Berdyaev]] stated that he "is not a realist as an artist, he is an experimentator, a creator of an experimential metaphysics of human nature". His characters live in an unlimited, irrealistic world, beyond borders and limits. Berdyaev remarks that "Dostoevsky reveals a new mystical science of man", limited to people "which have been drawn into the whirlwind".<ref name="berdyaev">{{cite web|url=http://www.berdyaev.com/berdiaev/berd_lib/1918_294.html|title=The Revelation About Man in the Creativity of Dostoevsky|author=Nikolay Berdyaev|year=1918|accessdate=18 August 2012}}</ref>

Dostoyevsky's works explore irrational dark motifs, dreams, emotions and visions, all typical elements of Gothic fiction. He was an avid reader of the Gothic and enjoyed the works of Radcliffe, [[Balzac]], [[Hoffmann]], [[Charles Maturin]] and [[George Soulié de Morant|Soulié]]. Among his first Gothic works was "The Landlady". The stepfather's demonic fiddle and the mysterious seller in ''Netochka Nezvanova'' are Gothic-like. In ''Humiliated and Insulted'', the villain has a typical demonic appearance. Other roots of this genre can be found in ''Crime and Punishment''; for example the dark and dirty rooms and Raskolnikov's [[Mephistopheles|Mephistophelian]] character, or the vampire-like Nastasia Filippovna in ''The Idiot'' and femme-fatale Katerina Ivanovna in ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=167–170}}

Russian literary critic [[Mikhail Bakhtin]] highlights Dostoyevsky's use of [[Polyphony (literature)|literary polyphony]], where independent, equal voices speak for an individual self, in a context in which they can be heard, flourish and interact together, which he calls "carnivalesque". Many of Dostoyevsky's works have elements of [[menippean satire]], which he most likely revived as a genre, and which combines comedy, fantasy, symbolism and adventure and in which mental attitudes are personified. ''A Writer's Diary'' and "Bobok" are "one of the greatest menippeas in all world literature", but examples can be found in "The Dream of a Ridiculous Man", the first encounter between Raskolnikov and Sonja in ''Crime and Punishment'', which is "an almost perfect Christianised menippea", and in "The Legend of the Grand Inquisitor".<ref name="Bakthin">{{cite web|url=http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/01/031.shtml|title=Bakhtin's View of Dostoevsky: "Polyphony" and "Carnivalesque"|publisher=University of Toronto|author=René Wellek|accessdate=3 June 2012}}</ref>

Suicides are found in several of Dostoyevsky's books. The 1860s–1880s marked a near-epidemic period of suicides in Russia, and many contemporary Russian authors wrote about suicide. Dostoyevsky's suicide victims and murderers are unbelievers or tend towards unbelief: the Underground Man in ''Notes from Underground'', Raskolnikov in ''Crime and Punishment'', Ippolit in ''The Idiot'', Kirillov in ''Demons'', and Ivan Karamazov and Smerdiakov in ''The Brothers Karamazov''. Disbelief in God and immortality and the influence of contemporary philosophies such as [[positivism]] and materialism are seen as important factors in the development of the characters' suicidal tendencies. Dostoyevsky felt that a belief in God and immortality was necessary for human existence.{{sfn|Paperno|1997|pp=123–6}}{{sfn|Lantz|2004|pp=424–8}}

=== Early writing ===
Dostoyevsky's early works were influenced by contemporary writers, including [[Pushkin]], [[Gogol]] and [[E.T.A. Hoffmann|Hoffmann]], which led to accusations of plagiarism. Several critics pointed out similarities in ''The Double'' to Gogol's works ''[[The Overcoat]]'' and ''[[The Nose (Gogol)|The Nose]]''. Parallels have been made between his short story "An Honest Thief" and George Sand's ''François le champi'' and Eugène Sue's ''Mathilde ou Confessions d'une jeune fille'', and between Dostoyevsky's ''Netochka Nezvanova'' and [[Charles Dickens|Charles Dickens']] ''[[Dombey and Son]]''. Like many young writers, he was "not fully convinced of his own creative faculty, yet firmly believed in the correctness of his critical judgement."{{sfn|Terras|1998|pp=14–30}}

[[File:185px Dostoevsky 1859.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Dostoyevsky, 1859]]
Dostoyevsky's translations of Balzac's ''[[Eugénie Grandet]]'' and Sand's ''La dernière Aldini'' differ from standard translations. In his translation of ''Eugénie Grandet'', he often omitted whole passages or paraphrased significantly, perhaps because of his rudimentary knowledge of French or his haste.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=29}} He also used darker words, such as "gloomy" instead of "pale" and "cold", and sensational adjectives, such as "horrible" and "mysterious". The translation of ''La desnière Aldini'' was never completed because someone already published one in 1837.{{sfn|Catteau|1989|pp=12–13}} He also abandonded working on ''Mathilde'' by Sue due to lack of funds.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=419}} Influenced by the plays he watched during this time, he wrote [[verse drama]]s for two plays, ''[[Mary Stuart (play)|Mary Stuart]]'' by [[Schiller]] and ''[[Boris Godunov (play)|Boris Godunov]]'' by Pushkin, which have been lost.{{sfn|Sekirin|1997|p=51}}{{sfn|Carr|1962|p=20}}

Dostoyevsky's debut novel, ''Poor Folk'', describes in the form of an [[epistolary novel]] the relationship between the elderly official Makar Devushkin and the young seamstress Varvara Dobroselova, a remote relative. They write letters to each other and through the tender, sentimental adoration for his relative and her confident, warm friendship with him, they seem to prefer a life in a higher society, although it forced them into poverty. Critic Vissarion Belinsky called the novel "Russia's first social novel",{{sfn|Bloom|2004|p=12}} favourising the depiction of poor and downtrodden people.{{sfn|Lantz|2004|p=334-35}} Dostoyevsky's success would not continue with his next work, ''The Double'', which centres on a shy protagonist Yakov Golyadkin discovering how his [[doppelgänger]], who has achieved the success denied to him, has slowly destroyed his life. The novel was panned by critics and readers alike; Belinsky commented that the work had "no sense, no content and no thoughts", and that the novel was boring due to the protagonist's garrulity, or tendency towards verbal diarrhoea.{{sfn|Belinsky|1847|p=96}} He and other critics stated that the idea for ''The Double'' was brilliant, but that its external form was misconceived and full of multi-clause sentences.{{sfn|Reber|1964|p=22}}{{sfn|Terras|1969|p=224}}

The short stories Dostoyevsky wrote after this period but before prison have similar themes as ''Poor Folk'' and ''The Double''.{{sfn|Frank|2009|p=103}} For example, his short story "White Nights", "features rich nature and music imagery, gentle irony, usually directed at the first-person narrator himself, and a warm pathos that is always ready to turn into self-parody". The first three parts of his unfinished novel ''Netochka Nezvanova'' chronicle the trials and tribulations of Netochka, stepdaughter of a second-class fiddler, and in "[[A Christmas Tree and a Wedding]]", Dostoyevsky switches to social satire.{{sfn|Terras|1998|pp=14–30}}

=== Later years ===
After his release from prison, Dostoyevsky's writing style changed drastically, moving away from the "sentimental naturalism" of ''Poor Folk'' and ''The Insulted and Injured'', towards more psychological and philosophical themes.{{sfn|Catteau|1989|p=197}} Even though he spent four years in prison in poor conditions, Dostoyevsky wrote two humorous books; the novella ''[[Uncle's Dream]]'' and the novel ''[[The Village of Stepanchikovo]]''.{{sfn|Terras|1998|pp=32–50}} The novel ''Notes From the Underground'', which he partially wrote in prison, was his first [[secularism|secular]] book, with few references to religion. Later, he wrote about his reluctance to remove religious themes from the book, stating, "The censor pigs have passed everything where I scoffed at everything and, ''on the face of it'', was sometimes even blasphemous, but have forbidden the parts where I demonstrated the need for belief in Christ from all this".<ref>Pisma, XVIII, 2, 73</ref>

Terras speculated that Dostoyevsky's concern with the downtrodden after the publication of ''Notes from the Underground'' was "motivated not so much by compassion as by an unhealthy curiosity about the darker recesses of the human psyche, ... by a perverse attraction to the diseased states of the human mind, ... or ... by sadistic pleasure in observing human suffering".{{sfn|Terras|1998|p=preface}} ''[[Humiliated and Insulted]]'' was similarly secular; only at the end of the 1860s, beginning with the publication of ''Crime and Punishment'', did Dostoyevsky's religious themes resurface.{{sfn|Bercken|2011|p=23-6}}

''The House of the Dead'' is a [[semi-autobiography|semi-autobiographical]] memoir written while Dostoyevsky was in prison and includes a few religious themes. Characters from the three [[Abrahamic religions]]—Judaism, Islam and Christianity– appear in it, and while the Jewish character Isay Fomich and characters affiliated with the [[Orthodox Church]] and the Old Believers are depicted negatively, the Muslims Nurra and Aley from [[Dagestan]] are depicted positively. Aley is later educated by reading the Bible, and shows a fascination for the [[altruism|altruistic]] message in Christ's [[Sermon on the Mount]], which he views as the ideal philosophy.{{sfn|Bercken|2011|p=23-6}}

Dostoyevsky's later works are also characterised by autobiographical elements. According to [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Slavic studies|Slavist]] and vice president of the International Dostoevsky Association, Geir Kjetsaa, "Dostoyevsky's life is a novel". ''The Idiot'', perhaps Dostoyevsky's most autobiographical work, has many similarities to his life; for example, the viewing of [[Hans Holbein|Holbein's]] painting ''[[The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb]]'', Prince Myshkin's skilled handwriting and similarities between the fictional and real-life characters.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=220–8}}

The works Dostoyevsky published in the 1870s explore human beings' capacity for manipulation. ''[[The Eternal Husband]]'' and "[[The Meek One]]" describe the relationship between a man and woman in marriage, the first chronicling the manipulation of a husband by his wife; the latter the opposite. "[[The Dream of a Ridiculous Man]]" raises this theme of manipulation from the individual to a [[metaphysical]] level.{{sfn|Neuhäuser|1993|pp=94–5}} Philosopher Strakhov agreed that Dostoyevsky "a great thinker and a great visionary ... a dialectician of genius, one of Russia's greatest metaphysicians."{{sfn|Scanlan|2002|p=2}}

=== Philosophy ===
Dostoyevsky's works were often called "philosophical" despite his lack of knowledge about philosophy; he described himself as "weak in philosophy".<ref name="AnnaDostoyevskaya">Anna Dostoyevskaya, ''Polnoe sobranie sochinenii F. M. Dostoevskogo'', St. Petersburg, 1882–83, 1:225</ref> "Fyodor Mikhailovich loved these questions about the essence of things and the limits of knowledge", Strakhov wrote.<ref name="AnnaDostoyevskaya" /> Although theologian [[George Florovsky]] described Dostoyevsky as a "philosophical problem" because it is unknown whether Dostoyevsky believed in what he wrote, many philosophical thoughts are found in books such as ''A Writer's Diary'' and ''The Brothers Karamazov'' because he often wrote in the first person. He might have been critical of rational and logical thinking because he was "more a sage and an artist than a strictly logical, consistent thinker."<ref>Vladimir Solovyov, ''Sobranie sochinenii Vladimira Sergeevicha Solov'eva'', St. Petersburg, Obshchestvennaia Pol'za, 1901–07, 5:382</ref> He represented [[Kierkegaard]]ian [[irrationalism]], in works such as ''House of the Dead'', ''Notes from Underground'', ''Crime and Punishment'' and ''Demons''. His irrationalism is mentioned in [[William Barrett (philosopher)|William Barrett's]] ''[[Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy]]'' and in Walter Kaufmann's ''Existentialisms from Dostoevsky to Sartre''.{{sfn|Scanlan|2002|p=3-6}}

== Legacy ==
[[File:Dresden Dostojewski-Denkmal.JPG|thumb|upright|right|Dostoyevsky monument in [[Dresden]]]]
Together with Leo Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky is often regarded as one of the greatest and most influential novelists of the [[Russian literature#Golden Age|Golden Age of Russian literature]].{{sfn|Lauer|2000|p=364}} Dostoyevsky's works also attracted readers outside Russia. The German translator Wilhelm Wolfsohn published one of the first translations, parts of ''Poor Folk'', in an 1846–1847 magazine,{{sfn|Meier-Gräfe|1988|p=492}} and a French translation followed. The first English translations were provided by Marie von Thilo in 1881, and the first acclaimed translations into English were produced between 1912 and 1920 by [[Constance Garnett]].{{sfn|Jones|Terry|2010|p=216}} [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] called Dostoyevsky "the only psychologist, incidentally, from whom I had something to learn; he ranks among the most beautiful strokes of fortune in my life".{{sfn|Müller|1982|p=7}} [[Hermann Hesse]] enjoyed Dostoyevsky's work and also cautioned against that to read him is like a "glimpse into the havoc".{{sfn|Müller|1982|p=8}} The Norwegian novelist [[Knut Hamsun]] wrote that "no one has analysed the complicated human structure as Dostoyevsky. His psychologic sense is overwhelming and visionary.".{{sfn|Lavrin|1947|p=161}}

In his posthumously published collection of sketches ''[[A Moveable Feast]]'', [[Ernest Hemingway]] stated that in Dostoevsky "there were things believable and not to be believed, but some so true that they changed you as you read them; frailty and madness, wickedness and saintliness, and the insanity of gambling were there to know."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O5kw7ukXZ3gC|title=Hemingway's A Farewell To Arms: a Critical Study|author=Bhim S. Dahiya|publisher=Academic Foundation|year=1992|page=15|isbn=978-81-269-0772-4}}</ref> According to Arthur Power's ''Conversations with James Joyce'', [[James Joyce|the Irishman]] praised Dostoyevsky's prose: "... he is the man more than any other who has created modern prose, and intensified it to its present-day pitch. It was his explosive power which shattered the Victorian novel with its simpering maidens and ordered commonplaces; books which were without imagination or violence."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/05/167.shtml|title=Conversations with James Joyce|author=Arthur Power, James Joyce|publisher=University of Toronto|pages=51–60|isbn=978-1-901866-41-4}}</ref> In her essay ''The Russian Point of View'', [[Virginia Woolf]] said, "Out of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] there is no more exciting reading".<ref>{{cite book|url=http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/w/woolf/virginia/w91c/chapter16.html|chapter=Chapter 16: The Russian Point of View|first=Virginia|last=Woolf|title=The Common Reader|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-15-602778-6}}</ref> [[Franz Kafka]] named Dostoyevsky as his "blood-relative",<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=x2_4TSvSO2gC|title=Kafka: Gothic and Fairytale|author=Patrick Bridgwater|publisher=Rodopi|year=2003|page=9|isbn=978-90-420-1194-6}}</ref> and was heavily influenced by his works, especially ''The Brothers Karamazov'' and ''Crime and Punishment'', both of which had a profound effect on ''[[The Trial]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/02/111.shtml|title=Kafka and Dostoevsky as 'Blood Relatives'|publisher=University of Toronto|author=Roman S. Struc|accessdate=8 June 2012}}</ref> Sigmund Freud called his last work "the most significant novel ever written".<ref>{{cite book|title=Freud, the Mind of the Moralist|author=Rieff, Philip|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1979|edition=3rd|page=132|isbn=978-0-226-71639-8}}</ref> Modern cultural movements such as the [[surrealism|surrealists]], the [[existentialism|existentialist]]s and the [[Beat Generation|Beats]] regard Dostoyevsky as an influence.{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|p=5}} Dostoyevsky is cited as the forerunner of [[Russian symbolism]],{{sfn|Lavrin2|2005|p=38}} existentialism,{{sfn|Bloom|2004|p=108}} [[expressionism]]{{sfn|Burry|2011|p=57}} and psychoanalysis.{{sfn|Breger|2008|p=270}}
[[File:Soviet Union stamp 1971 CPA 4027.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Soviet Union stamp, 1971]]
After the [[1917 Russian Revolution]], Dostoyevsky's books were often censored or banned. His philosophy, especially in ''Demons'', was deemed [[capitalism|capitalistic]] and anti-Communist, leading [[Maxim Gorky]] to nickname the author "our evil genius". Reading Dostoyevsky was forbidden, and those who did not observe this rule were imprisoned. During the Second World War, however, his works were used as propaganda by both the Soviets and the Nazis. After the war, the prohibition law in the [[Soviet Union]] was overturned. Even though the 125th anniversary of his birth was celebrated throughout Russia in 1947, his works were banned again until [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s accession to power ten years later, following [[de-Stalinization]] and a softening of repressive laws.{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|pp=7–8}} In the second half of the twentieth century, his works topped the best-seller lists worldwide. Many of his novels and short stories were filmed and dramatised in the Soviet Union and other countries.{{sfn|Müller|1982|p=8}} Dostoyevsy's fictional characters and his work overall were popularised in [[vaudeville]]s, films and plays.{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|p=4}}

In 1956 an olive-green postage stamp dedicated to Dostoyevsky was released in the Soviet Union with a [[print run]] of 1,000 copies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stamprussia.com/56.htm|publisher=CPA – "Souzpechat" Central Philatelic Agency|title=USSR (Soviet Union) Postage – Stamps: 1956–1960|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref> A [[Dostoevsky Museum]] was opened on 12 November 1971 in the apartment where he wrote his first and last novels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eng.md.spb.ru/museum/|title=Museum|publisher=Fyodor Dostoevsky Literary Memorial Museum|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref> A [[minor planet]] discovered in 1981 by [[Lyudmila Karachkina]] was named [[3453 Dostoevsky]]. Viewers of the TV show ''[[Name of Russia (Russia TV)|Name of Russia]]'' voted him the ninth greatest Russian of all time, behind chemist [[Dmitry Mendeleev]] and ahead of ruler [[Ivan IV]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nameofrussia.ru/rating.html|title=Результаты Интернет голосования|trans_title=Internet voting results|language=Russian|publisher=Name of Russia|accessdate=15 May 2012}}</ref> A [[Moscow Metro]] station on the [[Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line]] was scheduled to open to the public on 15 May 2010, the 75th anniversary of the Moscow Metro. Illustrations on the [[décor]] made by artist [[Ivan Nikolaev]] depicts scenes from his works, such as controversial suicides, which did not hinder the opening of [[Dostoyevskaya (Moscow Metro)|Dostoyevskaya]] on 19 June.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://engl.mosmetro.ru/pages/page_6.php?id_page=561|title=Liublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line|publisher=Moscow Metro|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/news/moscow-metro-station-suicides/|publisher=TV-Novosti|work=[[Russia Today]]|title=Opening delayed for Moscow metro's "station of suicides"|date=15 May 2010|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref> Four of Dostoyevsky's books (''Crime and Punishment'', ''The Possessed'', ''The Idiot'' and ''The Brothers Karamazov'') are on the list of Norwegian Book Club's [[The 100 Best Books of All Time|100 best books of all time]].

Dostoyevsky's work has not always met positive receptions. Several critics, such as [[Nikolay Dobrolyubov]], [[Ivan Bunin]] and [[Vladimir Nabokov]], viewed his writing rather psychological and philosophical than artistical. Others found fault in chaotic and disorganised plots, whereas others, like Turgenev, in "excessive psychologising" or in an overdetailed naturalism. His style was deemed "prolix, repetitious and lacking in polish, balance, restraint and good taste". [[Saltykov-Shchedrin]], [[Tolstoy]], [[Nikolay Mikhaylovsky|Mikhailovsky]] among others criticised his puppet-like characters, most prominently in ''The Idiot'', ''The Possessed'' and ''The Brothers Karamazov''. The [[realism|unrealistic]] puppet-like feature was compared with that of Hoffmann's characters, an author Dostoyevsky admired.{{sfn|Terras|1998|pp=3–4}}

Basing his estimation on a stated criteria of enduring art and individual genius, Nabokov judged Dostoyevsky as "not a great writer, but rather a mediocre one—with flashes of excellent humour but, alas, with wastelands of literary platitudes in between." Compiling a list he demonstrates and complains that the novels are peopled by "neurotics and lunatics" and notes that Dostoyevsky's characters do not develop: "We get them all complete at the beginning of the tale and so they remain." He finds the novels full of contrived "surprises and complications of plot", which when first read are effective. On a second reading, though, and without the shock and benefit of these surprises, the books appear loaded with "glorified cliché".<ref name=Nabokov>{{cite book|last=Nabokov|first=Vladamir|title=Lectures on Russian Literature|year=1981|publisher=Harvest Book/Harcourt|isbn=0-15-602776-3|pages=97–135}}</ref>

== Works ==

Dostoyevsky's works of fiction include 15 novels and novellas, 17 short stories, and 5 translations. Many of his longer novels were first published in [[Serial (literature)|serialised form]] in [[literary magazine]]s and [[journal]]s (see the individual articles). The years given below indicate the year in which the novel's final part or first complete book edition was published. In English many of his novels and stories are known by different titles.

'''Plays'''
* (~1844) ''The Jew Yankel'' (unknown whether finished or not; title based on Gogol's character from ''[[Taras Bulba]]'')
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

'''Novels and novellas'''
* (1846) ''[[Poor Folk]]''
* (1846) ''[[The Double (Fyodor Dostoyevsky novel)|The Double]]''
* (1849) ''[[Netochka Nezvanova (novel)|Netochka Nezvanova]]'' (unfinished)
* (1859) ''[[Uncle's Dream]]''
* (1859) ''[[The Village of Stepanchikovo]]''
* (1861) ''[[Humiliated and Insulted]]''
* (1862) ''[[The House of the Dead (novel)|The House of the Dead]]''
* (1864) ''[[Notes from Underground]]''
* (1866) ''[[Crime and Punishment]]''
* (1867) ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]''
* (1869) ''[[The Idiot]]''
* (1870) ''[[The Eternal Husband]]''
* (1872) ''[[The Possessed (novel)|Demons]]''
* (1875) ''[[The Adolescent]]''
* (1880) ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''
{{col-2}}

'''Short stories'''
* (1846) "[[Mr. Prokharchin]]"
* (1847) "Novel in Nine Letters"
* (1847) "The Landlady"
* (1848) "The Jealous Husband"
* (1848) "A Weak Heart"
* (1848) "Polzunkov"
* (1848) "[[An Honest Thief|The Honest Thief]]"
* (1848) "[[A Christmas Tree and a Wedding|The Christmas Tree and a Wedding]]"
* (1848) "[[White Nights (short story)|White Nights]]"
* (1849) "A Little Hero"
* (1862) "[[A Nasty Story|A Nasty Anecdote]]"
* (1865) "[[The Crocodile (short story)|The Crocodile]]"
* (1873) "[[Bobok]]"
* (1876) "The Heavenly Christmas Tree"
* (1876) "[[A Gentle Creature|The Meek One]]"
* (1876) "[[The Peasant Marey]]"
* (1877) "[[The Dream of a Ridiculous Man]]"
{{col-end}}

'''Essays'''
*''Winter Notes on Summer Impressions'' (1863)
*''[[A Writer's Diary]]'' (1873–1881)
*''Letters'' (collected in English translations in five volumes of ''Complete Letters'')

'''Translations'''
* (1843) ''[[Eugénie Grandet]]'' ([[Honore de Balzac]])
* (1843) ''La dernière Aldini'' ([[George Sand]])
* (1843) ''[[Mary Stuart (play)|Mary Stuart]]'' ([[Friedrich Schiller]])
* (1843) ''[[Boris Godunov (play)|Boris Godunov]]'' ([[Alexander Pushkin]])

== References ==
'''Notes'''
:1.{{note|a}} His name has been variously transcribed into English, his first name sometimes being rendered as Theodore or Fedor. Before the post-revolutionary [[Reforms of Russian orthography#The post-revolution reform|orthographic reform]] which, among other things, replaced the Cyrillic letter Ѳ ('th') with the Cyrillic letter Ф ('f'), Dostoyevsky's name was written Ѳеодоръ (Theodor) Михайловичъ Достоевскій.
:2.{{note|b}} [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style date]] 30 October 1821 – 28 January 1881
:3.{{note|c}}''Time'' magazine was a popular periodical, with more than 4,000 subscribers before it was closed on 24 May 1863, by the Tsarist Regime due to its publication of an essay by [[Nikolay Strakhov]] about the [[January Uprising|Polish revolt in Russia]]. ''Time'' and its 1864 successor ''[[Epoch (Russian magazine)|Epokha]]'' expressed the philosophy of the conservative and [[Slavophile]] movement ''[[Pochvennichestvo]]'', supported by Dostoyevsky during his term of imprisonment and in his post-prison years.{{sfn|Frank|1988|pp=34–64}}
:4.{{note|d}} It was not until the rise of Adolf Hitler that these were reopened.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=245}}

'''Footnotes'''
{{reflist|4}}

'''Bibliography'''
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Belinsky|first=Vissarion|title=Polnoye sobranye|year=1847|volume=10|language=Russian|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Bloshteyn|first=Maria R.|title=The Making of a Counter-Culture Icon: Henry Miller's Dostoevsky|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9NvAaLyYoCwC|year=2007|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-9228-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Breger|first=Louis|title=Dostoevsky: The Author As Psychoanalyst|url=http://books.google.com/?id=vxX2JGsN7PoC|year=2008|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-0843-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Burry|first=Alexander|title=Multi-Mediated Dostoevsky: Transposing Novels Into Opera, Film, and Drama|url=http://books.google.com/?id=lfLnzvLaB-kC|year=2011|publisher=Northwestern University Press|isbn=978-0-8101-2715-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Carr|first=Edward Hallett|title=Dostoevsky 1821–1881|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5dkNAAAAQAAJ|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1962|oclc=319723|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Catteau|first=Jacques|title=Dostoyevsky and the Process of Literary Creation|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=P8thF_jlMWEC|year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-32436-6|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Cicovacki|first=Predrag|title=Dostoevsky and the Affirmation of Life|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6wUX-eI738MC|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4128-4606-6|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Frank|first=Joseph|editor-first=David|editor-last=Goldstein|title=Dostoevsky and the Jews|chapter=Foreword|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=1981|isbn=978-0-292-71528-8|ref={{harvid|Goldstein|1981}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=Malcom V.|last2=Terry|first2=Garth M.|title=New Essays on Dostoyevsky|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UH_VyT6nscwC|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-15531-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Lantz|first=Kenneth A.|title=The Dostoevsky Encyclopedia|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XfDOcmJisn0C|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-30384-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Lauer|first=Reinhard|title=Geschichte der Russischen Literatur: von 1700 bis zur Gegenwart|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VEx1OAAACAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Verlag C.H. Beck|language=German|isbn=978-3-406-50267-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Lavrin|first=Janko|title=Dostoevsky: A Study|url=http://books.google.com/?id=57iTq6YSJbcC|year=2005|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4179-8844-0|ref={{harvid|Lavrin2|2005}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Leatherbarrow|first=William J|title=The Cambridge Companion to Dostoevskii|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4Lf0xf3a6s4C|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-65473-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Meier-Gräfe|first=Julius|title=Dostoevsky: The Man and His Work|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f6AFAQAAIAAJ|year=1988|publisher=insel verlag|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Mochulsky|first=Konstantin|title=Dostoevsky: His Life and Work|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mDKphT8_XLsC|year=1967|origyear=1967|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=0-691-01299-7|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Müller|first=Ludolf|title=Dostojewskij: Sein Leben, Sein Werk, Sein Vermächtnis|year=1982|language=German|publisher=Erich Wewel Verlag|isbn=978-3-87904-100-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Neuhäuser|first=Rudolf|title=F.M. Dostoejevskij: Die Grossen Romane und Erzählungen; Interpretationen und Analysen|year=1993|publisher=Böhlau Verlag|language=German|isbn=978-3-205-98112-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Paperno|first=Irina|title=Suicide As a Cultural Institution in Dostoevsky's Russia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=m3pqf8f-6bMC|year=1997|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-8425-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Reber|first=Natalie|title=Studien zum Motiv des Doppelgängers bei Dostojevskij und E.T.A. Hoffmann|publisher=University of Michigan|year=1964|language=German|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= Scanlan|first=James Patrick|title=Dostoevsky the Thinker|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lbMYxaFTMZAC|year=2002|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-3994-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Sekirin|editor-first=Peter|title=The Dostoevsky Archive: Firsthand Accounts of the Novelist from Contemporaries' Memoirs and Rare Periodicals, Most Translated Into English for the First Time, with a Detailed Lifetime Chronology and Annotated Bibliography|url=http://books.google.com/?id=EExUdTF7iLYC|publisher=McFarland|year=1997|isbn=978-0-7864-0264-9|ref={{harvid|Sekirin|1997}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Terras|first=Victor|title=Reading Dostoevsky|url=http://books.google.com/?id=4nV9o8k9y34C|year=1998|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-16054-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Terras|first=Victor|title=The Young Dostoevsky (1846–1849)|year=1969|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|oclc=63380|ref=harv}}

; Biographies
* {{cite book|last=Bloom|first=Harold|title=Fyodor Dostoevsky|url=http://books.google.com/?id=1C1K-BnFGFIC|year=2004|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-7910-8117-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Frank|first=Joseph|title=Dostoevsky: A Writer in His Time|url=http://books.google.com/?id=lp1RpM8o9BQC|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12819-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=Dostoevsky: The Seeds of Revolt, 1821–1849|last=Frank|first=Joseph|year=1979|origyear=1976|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-01355-8|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pDEAXltygUIC|ref = {{harvid|Frank|1979}}}}
* {{cite book|title=Dostoevsky: The Years of Ordeal, 1850–1859|last=Frank|first=Joseph|year=1987|origyear=1983|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01422-7|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=K98hhw0IEHgC|ref = {{harvid|Frank|1987}}}}
* {{cite book|title=Dostoevsky: The Stir of Liberation, 1860–1865|last=Frank|first=Joseph|year=1988|origyear=1986|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01452-4|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QJj6qb6Rh3AC|ref = {{harvid|Frank|1988}}}}
* {{cite book|title=Dostoevsky: The Miraculous Years, 1865–1871|last=Frank|first=Joseph|year=1997|origyear=1995|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01587-3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iAs4Lz5yog0C|ref = {{harvid|Frank|1997}}}}
* {{cite book|title=Dostoevsky: The Mantle of the Prophet, 1871–1881|last=Frank|first=Joseph|year=2003|origyear=2002|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-11569-6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mQqonU-pweEC|ref = {{harvid|Frank|2003}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Kjetsaa|first=Geir|title=A Writer's Life|year=1989|publisher=Fawcett Columbine|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky.html?id=2lzWAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-449-90334-6|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Lavrin|first=Janko|title=Dostoevksy|year=1947|publisher=New York The Macmillan Company|oclc=646160256|ref=harv}}

; Religion
* {{cite book|last=Bercken|first=Wil van den|title=Christian Fiction and Religious Realism in the Novels of Dostoevsky|url=http://books.google.com/?id=mFFFtwjQnigC|year=2011|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-0-85728-976-6|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Malcolm V.|title=Dostoevsky And the Dynamics of Religious Experience|url=http://books.google.com/?id=L52TNlWprfcC|year=2005|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-205-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= Cassedy |first= Steven|url=http://books.google.com/?id=DI4FUgZJ1kkC|title= Dostoevsky's Religion|year= 2005 |publisher= Stanford University Press |isbn= 0-8047-5137-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Pattison|first1=George|last2=Thompson|first2=Diane Oenning|url=http://books.google.com/?id=GlLm4gbPZdQC|title=Dostoevsky and the Christian tradition|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78278-4|ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==

{{sister project links
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* [http://www.dostojewski.eu Information about Dostoyevsky] {{De icon}}
* [http://www.fyodordostoevsky.com FyodorDostoevsky.com – forum, quotes, essays, photos, bio, ebooks and more]
* [http://ilibrary.ru/author/dostoevski/index.html Complete works] {{Ru icon}}
* [http://www.philolog.ru/fmdost/index.html Complete journalistic works] {{Ru icon}}
* [http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/issues.shtml Dostoyevsky studies]
* [http://www.kiosek.com/dostoevsky/critical_works.html Biographical and Critical Material]
* [http://en.rodovid.org/wk/Person:341394 Dostoyevsky's family tree]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Fyodor+Dostoyevsky|name=Fyodor Dostoyevsky}}
* {{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-29930}}
* {{IBList |type=author|id=96|name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* {{IMDb name|id=0234502|name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* [http://uiuc.libguides.com/aecontent.php?pid=184444 Research Tools on Fedor Mikhailovich Dostoevskii]
* [http://eng.md.spb.ru/ F. M. Dostoevsky Literary Memorial Museum] {{Ru icon}} {{En icon}}
{{Fyodor Dostoyevsky}}
{{The Idiot}}
{{Crime and Punishment}}
{{The Brothers Karamazov}}
{{White Nights}}

{{Authority control|PND=118527053|LCCN=n/79/029930|VIAF=104023256}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Dostoevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich; Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский (Russian)
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Russian writer
| DATE OF BIRTH = 11 November 1821
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Moscow
| DATE OF DEATH = 9 February 1881
| PLACE OF DEATH = Saint Petersburg
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dostoyevsky, Fyodor}}
[[Category:Fyodor Dostoyevsky| ]]
[[Category:1821 births]]
[[Category:1881 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century novelists]]
[[Category:19th-century Russian writers]]
[[Category:Christian existentialists]]
[[Category:Christian novelists]]
[[Category:Christian philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian radicals]]
[[Category:Christian writers]]
[[Category:Conservatism in Russia]]
[[Category:Criticism of atheism]]
[[Category:Deaths from emphysema]]
[[Category:Deaths from epilepsy]]
[[Category:Dostoyevsky family]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox Christians from Russia]]
[[Category:Military Engineering-Technical University alumni]]
[[Category:Corresponding Members of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Magazine editors]]
[[Category:Writers from Moscow]]
[[Category:People with epilepsy]]
[[Category:Russian engineers]]
[[Category:Russian essayists]]
[[Category:Russian-language writers]]
[[Category:Russian monarchists]]
[[Category:Russian nationalists]]
[[Category:Russian novelists]]
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[[Category:Russian people of Belarusian descent]]
[[Category:Russian people of Lithuanian descent]]
[[Category:Russian people of Polish descent]]
[[Category:Russian prisoners and detainees]]
[[Category:Russian short story writers]]
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Dreadnought (Begriffsklärung)

2013-01-24T14:41:37Z

JHunterJ: interwiki

'''Dreadnought''' (engl. etwa „Fürchtenichts“) ist:

* der Name mehrerer Kriegsschiffe der [[Royal Navy]], siehe [[HMS Dreadnought]]
* eine Klasse von Kriegsschiffen zu Anfang des 20. Jh., siehe [[Dreadnought]]
* ein Typ von akustischer Gitarre mit charakteristischer Korpusformgebung, siehe [[Akustische Gitarre]]
* ein Flugzeug des britischen Herstellers Westland Aircraft aus dem Jahre 1924, siehe [[Westland Dreadnought]]

''Siehe auch:''
* [[Einheitslinienschiff|Pre-Dreadnought]]

{{Begriffsklärung}}

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Gender-HCI

2012-12-21T00:49:44Z

JHunterJ: /* History */Typo fixing, typos fixed: each others' → each other's (2) using AWB

'''Gender HCI''' is a subfield of [[human-computer interaction]] that focuses on the design and evaluation of interactive systems for humans, with emphasis on differences in how [[gender|males and females]] interact with [[computer]]s.

==Examples==
Gender HCI research has been conducted in the following areas (among others):
*The effects of confidence and [[self-efficacy]] on both genders’ interactions with software.
*The design of gender-specific software, such as [[video games]] created for females.
*The design of [[computer display|display]] screen sizes and how they affect both genders.
*The design of gender-neutral [[problem-solving]] software.

==Overview==
Gender HCI investigates ways in which attributes of software (or even hardware) can interact with gender differences.
As with all of [[Human-Computer Interaction|HCI]], Gender HCI is a highly interdisciplinary area. Findings from fields such as [[psychology]], [[computer science]], [[marketing]], [[neuroscience]], [[education]], and [[economics]] strongly suggest that males and females problem solve, communicate, and process information differently. Gender HCI investigates whether these differences need to be taken into account in the design of software and hardware.

==History==
The term ''Gender HCI'' was coined in 2004 by Laura Beckwith, a PhD candidate at [[Oregon State University]], and her advisor Margaret Burnett.<ref name = "Beckwith and Burnett 2004">Beckwith, L. and Burnett, M. [ftp://ftp.cs.orst.edu/pub/burnett/vlhcc04.gender.pdf Gender: An important factor in end-user programming environments?], In ''Proc. Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing Languages'', IEEE (2004), 107-114.</ref> They discovered that, although there had been some activity that could be characterized as Gender HCI work, people did not know about each other's work. The relevant research reports were isolated and scattered about various fields. Since that time, they and others have worked to help researchers know about each other's work and practitioners to be aware of the findings, so as to allow this area to mature as a subarea of HCI.

The following are a brief set of milestones in the history of this emerging subarea.
*'''1987''': Games designed as "gender neutral" look like games designed for boys. (Chuck Huff).
*'''1989''': Ethnographic research exploring women, programming, and computers (Sherry Turkle).
*'''1995''': Gender differences in self-efficacy and attitudes toward computers (Tor Busch).
*'''1998''': Gender factors in the design of video games ([[Justine Cassell]]).
*'''2002''': Wider displays more beneficial to all users, especially females (Mary Czerwinski, Desney S. Tan, [[George G. Robertson]]).
*'''2004''': The concept Gender HCI made explicit (Laura Beckwith, Margaret Burnett).
*'''2006''': A research workshop on Gender HCI.<ref>De Angeli, A. and Bianchi-Berthouze, N. [http://www.informatics.manchester.ac.uk/%7Eantonella/gender/papers.htm Proceedings of Gender and Interaction, Real and Virtual Women in a Male World Workshop], Venice, May 23, (2006).</ref>

==Selected Gender HCI Findings==
Here are some results from the Gender HCI research conducted to date - ordered from most to least recent, within categories:
#''Confidence-Related Findings.''
#*For [[spreadsheet]] problem-solving tasks, (1) female end users had significantly lower self-efficacy than males and (2) females with low self-efficacy were significantly less likely to work effectively with problem-solving features available in the software. In contrast, males’ self-efficacy did not impact their effectiveness with these features.<ref name="Beckwith 2005">Beckwith, L. Burnett, M., Wiedenbeck, S., Cook, C., Sorte, S., and Hastings, M. [ftp://ftp.cs.orst.edu/pub/burnett/chi05.gender.pdf Effectiveness of end-user debugging software features: Are there gender issues?] ''ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems'' (2005), 869-878.</ref>
#*In a study of the computer attitudes and self-efficacy of 147 college students, gender differences existed in self-efficacy for complex tasks (such as [[word processing]] and spreadsheet software), but not simpler tasks. Also, male students had more experience working with computers and reported more encouragement from parents and friends.<ref>Busch, T. [http://eusesconsortium.org/twiki/pub/Main/GenderReferenceFiles/GenderDiffSE_Busch.pdf Gender differences in self efficacy and attitudes towards computer], ''Journal of Educational Computing Research 12'',(1995)147-158.</ref>
#''Software Feature Related Findings.''
#*In spreadsheet problem-solving tasks, female end users were significantly slower to try out unfamiliar features.<ref name="Beckwith and Burnett 2004"/><ref name="Beckwith 2005"/> Females significantly more often agreed with the statement, "I was afraid I would take too long to learn the [untaught feature]." Even if they tried it once, females were significantly less likely to adopt new features for repeated use. For females, unlike for males, self-efficacy predicted the amount of effective feature usage. There was no significant difference in the success of the two genders or in learning how the features worked, implying that females’ low self-efficacy about their usage of new features was not an accurate assessment of their problem-solving potential, but rather became a self-fulfilling prophecy.<ref name="Beckwith 2005"/>
#''Behavior Related Findings.''
#*In spreadsheet problem-solving tasks, tinkering (playfully experimenting) with features was adopted by males more often than females. While males were comfortable with this behavior, some did it to excess. For females, the amount of tinkering predicted success. Pauses after any action were predictive of better understanding for both genders.<ref>Beckwith, L. Kissinger, C., Burnett, M., Wiedenbeck, S., Lawrance, J., Blackwell, A., and Cook, C. [ftp://ftp.cs.orst.edu/pub/burnett/chi06-genderTinker.pdf Tinkering and gender in end-user programmers' debugging], ''ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems'', (2006), 231-240.</ref>
#*Males viewed machines as a challenge, something to be mastered, overcome, and be measured against. They were risk-takers, and they demonstrated this by eagerly trying new techniques and approaches. Females rejected the image of the male [[Hacker (hobbyist)|hacker]] as alienating and depersonalizing. Their approach to computers was "soft;" tactile, artistic, and communicative.<ref>Turkle, S. Computational reticence: Why women fear the intimate machine. In ''Technology and Women's Voices'', Cheris Kramerae (ed.), (1988), 41-61.</ref>
#''Hardware Interface Findings.''
#*Larger displays helped reduce the gender gap in navigating virtual environments. With smaller displays, males’ performance was better than females’. With larger displays, females’ performance improved and males’ performance was not negatively affected.<ref>Czerwinski, M., Tan, D., and Robertson, G., [http://research.microsoft.com/users/marycz/chi2002fov.pdf Women take a wider view], In ''Proc. CHI 2002'', ACM Press (2002), 195-202.</ref><ref>Tan, S., Czerwinski, M., and Robertson, G., [http://research.microsoft.com/users/marycz/chi2003flow.pdf Women go with the (optical) flow, In Proc. of CHI 2003], ''Human Factors in Computing Systems'', (2003), 209-215.</ref>
#''Video Games Findings.''
#*Several findings were reported about girls’ interests that relate to video games, with interpretations for the video game software industry.<ref>Gorriz, C. and Medina, C. [http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/330000/323843/p42-gorriz.pdf?key1=323843&key2=6103519801&coll=portal&dl=ACM&CFID=23821858&CFTOKEN=26261732 Engaging girls with computers through software games]. ''Communications of the ACM'', (2000), 42-49.</ref>
#*Several researchers explored what girls seek in [[video game]]s, and implications for video game designers. Among the implications were collaboration vs. competition preferences, and use of non-violent rewards versus death and destruction as rewards. These works argue both sides of the question as to whether or not to design games specifically for girls.<ref>Cassell, J. [http://eusesconsortium.org/twiki/pub/Main/GenderReferenceFiles/gender_.hci.just.pdf Genderizing HCI], ''MIT Media Lab'', (1998).</ref><ref>Cassell, J. and Jenkins, H. (Eds.), [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=3929 From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and Computer Games], Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, (1998).</ref>
#''Other Related Findings About Gender and Computers.''
#*In a study of the way people interacted with conversational software agents in relation to the sex of the agent, the female virtual agent received many more [[violence against women|violent]] and sexual overtures than either the male one or the gender-free one (a robot).<ref>De Angeli, A. and Brahnam, S. [http://www.informatics.manchester.ac.uk/%7Eantonella/gender/files/papers/Sex%20stereotypes%20and%20conversational%20agents.pdf Sex stereotypes and conversational agents]. ''In Proc. of Gender and Interaction'', Real and Virtual Women in a Male World Workshop, (2006).</ref>
#*In the home, where many appliances are programmable to some extent, different categories of appliance were found to be more likely to be programmed by men (e.g. entertainment devices) and by women (e.g. kitchen appliances). There is often one member of a household who assumes responsibility for programming a particular device, with a "domestic economy" accounting for this task.<ref>Rode, J.A., Toye, E.F. and Blackwell, A.F., [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~afb21/publications/2ADfuzzyFelt.pdf The Fuzzy Felt Ethnography - understanding the programming patterns of domestic appliances]. ''Personal and Ubiquitous Computing 8'', (2004), 161-176.</ref>
#*Males and females had different perceptions for whether a web page would be appropriate for his/her home country, and further, females more often than males preferred more information on all web pages viewed during a study.<ref>Simon, S., [http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/510000/506744/p18-simon.pdf?key1=506744&key2=2505548801&coll=portal&dl=ACM&CFID=23486558&CFTOKEN=89848799 The impact of culture and gender on web sites: An empirical study], ''The Data Base for Advances in Information Systems'', 32(1), (2001), 18-37.</ref>
#*Women who entered mathematics, science, and technology careers had high academic and social self-efficacy. Their self-efficacy was based on vicarious experiences and verbal persuasion of significant people around them.<ref>Zeldin, A. and Pajares, F., [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8312(200021)37%3A1%3C215%3AATOSBO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2 Against the odds: Self-efficacy beliefs of women in mathematical, scientific, and technological careers]. ''American Educational Research Journal'', 37, (2000), 215-246.</ref>
#*Factors affecting low retention of women in computer science majors in college included women’s lower previous experience in computing compared to men, their low self-perceived ability, discouragement by the dominant male peer culture, and lack of encouragement from faculty.<ref>Margolis, J., and Fisher, A. [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=9635 Unlocking the Clubhouse: Women and Computing]. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, (2001).</ref>

==See also==
*[[Human-computer interaction]]
*[[Self-efficacy]]
*[[Topics in human-computer interaction]]
*[[Usability]]
*[[Usability engineering]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Beckwith, L. Burnett, M., Grigoreanu, V., and Wiedenbeck, S. [ftp://ftp.cs.orst.edu/pub/burnett/Computer06-GenderHCI-asPrinted.pdf Gender HCI: What about the software?] ''IEEE Computer'', (2006), 97-101.
*Beckwith, L. Sorte, S., Burnett, M., Wiedenbeck, S., Chintakovid, T., and Cook, C. [ftp://ftp.cs.orst.edu/pub/burnett/vlhcc05-genderDesign.pdf Designing features for both genders in end-user software engineering environments], ''IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing'',(2005) 153-160.
*Brewer, J. and Bassoli, A. [http://www.informatics.manchester.ac.uk/%7Eantonella/gender/files/papers/Reflections%20of%20gender,%20reflections%20on%20gender%20Designing%20ubiquitous%20computing%20technologies.pdf Reflections of gender, reflections on gender: Designing ubiquitous computing technologies.] ''In Proc. of Gender and Interaction, Real and Virtual Women in a Male World Workshop'', (2006).
*Cottrell, J. [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=143214&dl=ACM&coll=portal I'm a stranger here myself: A consideration of women in computing.] ''In Proc. ACM SIGUCCS User Services Conference'', (1992), 71-76.
*Fisher, A., Margolis, J., and Miller, F. [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=268085.268127 Undergraduate women in computer science: Experience, motivation, and culture.] ''In Proc. SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education'', ACM Press (1997), 106-110.
*Grigoreanu, V., Beckwith, L., Fern, X., Yang, S., Komireddy, C., Narayanan, V., Cook, C., Burnett, M. [ftp://ftp.cs.orst.edu/pub/burnett/vlhcc06-genderminers.pdf Gender differences in end-user debugging, revisited: What the miners found], ''IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing'', (2006), 19-26.
*Hartzel, K. [http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/910000/903933/p167-hartzel.pdf?key1=903933&key2=3983519801&coll=GUIDE&dl=GUIDE&CFID=23968494&CFTOKEN=70001795 How self-efficacy and gender issues affect software adoption and use.] ''Communications of the ACM'', (2003), 167-171.
*Huff, C. and Cooper, J. Sex bias in educational software: The effect of designers' stereotypes on the software they design. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, (1987), 519-532.
* Kelleher, C. and R. Pausch. [http://csdl2.computer.org/persagen/DLAbsToc.jsp?resourcePath=/dl/proceedings/&toc=comp/proceedings/vlhcc/2006/2586/00/2586toc.xml&DOI=10.1109/VLHCC.2006.30 Lessons Learned from Designing a Programming System to Support Middle School Girls Creating Animated Stories]. ''2006 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing''.

==External links==
*[http://eusesconsortium.org/gender/genderRelated.php Gender HCI publications public resource] for anyone interested in Gender HCI research.
*[http://eusesconsortium.org/gender/gender.php Gender HCI Project page] for EUSES-based work on Gender HCI.
*[http://girlstech.douglass.rutgers.edu/gt1b.html Girls Tech] - Girls, Science, and Technology page.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gender Hci}}
[[Category:Human–computer interaction]]

[[fr:IHM par genre]]

Athanasios IV. Dabbas

2012-12-17T14:02:03Z

JHunterJ: /* Life */Typo fixing, typos fixed: Patriach → Patriarch, a own → an own using AWB

{{About|Athanasius Dabbas who died in 1724|the other Patriarch of Antioch|Athanasius II Dabbas}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
|name=Athanasius III Dabbas
|image=
|church=[[Melkite Church]]
|see=[[Patriarch of Antioch]]
|patriarch_of=[[List of Greek Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch|Patriarch of Antioch]]
|birth_name=Paul Dabbas
|enthroned=
|ended=5 August 1724
|consecration=5 July 1685 (bishop)
|consecrated_by=Leonce of Saidnaya<ref name="Leon"/>
|predecessor=[[Cyril V Zaim]]
|successor=[[Cyril VI Tanas]] and Sylvester
|birth_date=1647
|birth_place=[[Damascus]]
|death_date={{BirthDeathAge||1647|||1724|8|5|yes}}
|death_place=[[Aleppo]]
}}

Patriarch '''Paul Procopius Athanasius III Dabbas''' (1647 – 1724), sometimes known also as '''Athanasius IV''',<ref>He is known as ''Athanasius III'' in the patriarchal lists of Korolevski, and Skaff, as ''Athanasius IV'' in the inaccurate list of Costantius.</ref> was the last [[Patriarch of Antioch|Greek Patriarch of Antioch]] before the 1724 split which divided the [[Melkite Church]] between the [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch]].<ref name="Dick">{{cite book|last=Dick|first=Iganatios|title= Melkites: Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholics of the Patriarchates of Antioch, Alexandria and Jerusalem| publisher= Sophia Press|year= 2004|location= Boston|pages=33–34}}</ref> He was shortly, from 1705 to 1707, also regent [[List of archbishops of Cyprus|Archbishop of Cyprus]].

==Life==
'''Paul Dabbas''' was born in [[Damascus]] in 1647 and studied under the [[Jesuits]]. He entered in the [[Mar Saba monastery]] where at his [[Clergy#Christianity|priestly]] ordination he took the name of ''Procopius''. Later he was appointed [[abbot|superior]] of a monastery in [[Bethlehem]].<ref name="Skaff">{{cite book|last=Skaff|first=Elias|title= The place of the Patriarchs of Antioch in Church History| publisher= Sophia Press|year= 1993|location= Boston|pages=307ss}}</ref> He later moved to [[Syria]] and tried to be appointed bishop of [[Aleppo]], but without success.<ref name="Levenq">{{cite encyclopedia |author=Levenq, G.|title=Athanase III|encyclopedia=[[Dictionnaire d'histoire et de géographie ecclésiastiques]]| volume=4| pages=1369–1376| publisher =Letouzey et Ané|location=Paris|year=1930}}</ref>

The situation of the hierarchy of the Melkite Church was actually unstable in such a time. After the death of Patriarch [[Macarios III Zaim]] in 1672, the patriarchal throne was disputed between his nephew, Constantine Zaim, who was elected Patriarch at the age of 20 (or less) under the name of [[Cyril V Zaim]], and [[Neophytos of Chios]], nephew of previous Patriarch [[Euthymius III of Chios]] and appointed to such position by the [[Ecumenical Patriarch Dionysius IV of Constantinople]]. In 1682 Neophytos of Chios, because of his debts, decided to retire, leaving Cyril V Zaim as the only claimant. This situation lasted not for long: the next contender of the patriarchal throne was actually Paul Dabbas, supported by the [[Franciscan friars]] (who opposed Cyril Zaim, charged of [[simony]]) and by his maternal uncle Michael Khayat, very influential with the [[Sublime Porte]]. In 1685 Michael Khayat succeeded to get from the [[Ottoman Empire]] a [[firman]] that appointed Paul Dabbas as Patriarch of the Melkite Church. Thus on July 5, 1685<ref>on June 25 according to the [[Julian calendar]]</ref> Paul Dabbas was consecrated bishop by Leonce of [[Saidnaya]]<ref name="Leon">Leonce of Saidnaya (died 1686) was in turn consecrated bishop in 1671 by Patriarch [[Macarios III Zaim]] (ref: Zayat, Histoire de Saidnaya)</ref> and other two bishops, and he was enthroned as Patriarch with the name of ''Athanasius III''.<ref name="DhgeAnt">{{cite encyclopedia |author=Korolevsky, Cyril|title=Antioche|encyclopedia=[[Dictionnaire d'histoire et de géographie ecclésiastiques]]| volume=3| page=644| publisher =Letouzey et Ané|location=Paris|year=1924}}</ref> The next nine years were marked by the conflict between him and the previous claiming Patriarch, Cyril V Zaim.

On April 10, 1687, Athanasius III Dabbas made a [[Roman Catholic]] profession of faith, and subsequently on June 16 of the same year the Roman [[Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith]] confirmed his Patriarchal election.<ref name="Levenq"/> The congratulations of [[Pope Innocent XI]] followed on August 10. Since this date the [[Holy See|Vatican]] considered him as the legitimate Patriarch of the Melkite Church.

The fight with Cyril V Zaim ended on October 1694 when the two rivals came to an agreement after the arbitration of Salmon, an Aleppian [[Jew]]. The terms of the agreement were: Athanasius recognized Cyril as Patriarch in change of 13.000 [[Écus]], the appointment to the [[Episcopal See|See]] of Aleppo and the right to succession at Cyril's death.<ref name="Levenq"/> This agreement was judged in 1698 null by the Vatican, which continued to consider Athanasius as Patriarch. From 1700 to 1704 Athanasius Dabbas traveled in Eastern Europe to beg for financial help. He visited in particular the [[Wallachia]] where he got the support of Prince [[Constantin Brâncoveanu]]. At end 1705 [[Patriarch Gabriel III of Constantinople]] had him elected as regent (''[[proedros]]'') [[List of archbishops of Cyprus|Archbishop of Cyprus]], an office Athanasius kept till early 1707.<ref name="Hill">{{cite book | last = Hill | first = George | title = A History of Cyprus, vol 4 | publisher = Cambridge Univ Pr | location = City | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-1-108-02065-7 |pages=342–3 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=h9e2PEGP3yUC&pg=PA343#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> When back to Aleppo, with the help of [[Abdallah Zakher]] he established a [[printing press]].<ref name="Skaff"/>

In 1716 the reigning Patriarch Cyril V Zaim made he too a Roman Catholic profession of faith and was received in [[Full communion|communion]] with Rome on May 9, 1718. After Cyril's decision, Athansius declared himself Orthodox,<ref name="Skaff"/> leading the Orthodox party to which he remained faithful to his own death.

On 16 January 1720<ref>on January 5 according to the [[Julian calendar]]</ref> Cyril V Zaim died and, after a try of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople to appoint an own bishop as Patriarch, Athanasius was finally proclaimed Patriarch of Antioch, winning also over the candidature, in Damascus, of the pro-Catholic [[Euthymios Saifi]], a friend of Cyril Zaim. During his four years of patriarchate, he preferred to live in Aleppo rather than in [[Damascus]] where there was the Patriarchal See. He died in Aleppo on 13 July 1724.<ref>on July 24 according to the Julian calendar</ref>

Athanasius Dabbas’ succession laid bare the divisions in the Melkite Church: between the pro-Catholic and the pro-Orthodox parties, and also between the communities of Damascus (that supported Cyril V Zaim) and of the Aleppo (tied to Athanasius). Athanasius Dabbas on his deathbed chosen as his own successor the priest Sylvester (1696–1766), a fierce supporter of the Aleppine Orthodox party, while the Melkite community in Damascus proceeded with the formal election of the new Patriarch and elected the pro-Catholic [[Cyril VI Tanas]]. Later, the [[Patriarch Jeremias III of Constantinople]] declared Cyril's election to be invalid, excommunicated him, and appointed Sylvester to the patriarchal See of Antioch, consecrating him bishop in [[Istanbul]]. This division marked the split between the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch]] and the [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church]].

==Works==
Athanasius Dabbas was a prolific writer and publisher. His masterwork, ''History of the Patriarchate of Antioch from Saint Peter to 1202'' was written in [[Modern Greek|Greek]] and translated also in [[Latin]]. He edited and published also liturgical texts, as a [[Liturgicon]] in 1701 (which was used by Melkite Greek Catholic Church till 1839) and an [[Horologion]] in 1702.

==See also==
*[[Patriarch of Antioch]]
*[[List of Greek Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch]]
*[[List of Melkite Greek Catholic Patriarchs of Antioch]]
*[[Church of Cyprus]]
*[[List of archbishops of Cyprus]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}


{{Persondata
|NAME= Dabbas, Athanasius III
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Melkite Patriarch of Antioch
|DATE OF BIRTH=1647
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Damascus]]
|DATE OF DEATH=5 August 1724
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Aleppo]]}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dabbas, Athanasius Iii}}
[[Category:1647 births]]
[[Category:1724 deaths]]
[[Category:Patriarchs of Antioch]]

Derbforgaill

2012-12-09T17:34:55Z

JHunterJ: update hatnote

:''For other people named Derbforgaill, see [[Derbforgaill (given name)]]''

'''Dearbhfhorghaill''' (older spelling: '''Derbforgaill''') (1108–1193), anglicized as '''Derval''', was a daughter of [[Murchad Ua Maeleachlainn]], king of Meath, and of his wife Mor (died 1137), daughter of [[Muirchertach Ua Briain]]. She is famously known as the "Helen of Ireland" as her abduction from her husband [[Tigernán Ua Ruairc]] by [[Diarmait Mac Murchada]], king of Leinster, in 1152 played some part in bringing the Anglo-Normans to Irish shores, although this is a role that has often been greatly exaggerated and often misinterpreted.

Unlike many other women, she is mentioned no less than five times in contemporary annals: her abduction by Diarmait in 1152 (Annals of Clonmacnoise), (although by the end of the next year she had left Leinster and returned to her family's lands in Meath, possibly after negotiations with her father's family); her donation to the Cistercian abbey of [[Mellifont]] of altar cloths, a gold chalice, and 60 ounces of gold during the consecration ceremony in 1157 (Annals of the Four Masters); her completion of the Nuns' Church at [[Clonmacnoise]] in 1167 (Annals of the Four Masters); her retirement to Clonmacnoise in 1186 (Annals of Ulster, Annals of Loch Ce); and her death in Clonmacnoise in 1193 (Annals of Ulster, Annals of the Four Masters).

Tigernán Ua Ruairc had three children, Melaghlin (died 1162), Aed, described as crown prince of Breifne, killed by the Anglo-Normans (died 1171) and Dowchawley (died 1171), wife to [[Ruaidri Ua Conchobair]], high king of Ireland, but whether or not Derbforgaill was their mother is less certain.

The abduction episode of 1152 has been variously interpreted. It seems that Derbforgaill went willingly, and that she took her cattle and chattels with her, all at the persuasion of her younger brother Maeleachlainn. It has been suggested that this was an attempt on the part of her paternal family, the royal family of Meath, to forge a new alliance through marriage, with Diarmait Mac Murchada. Formalising treaties through marriage seems to have been standard practice in twelfth-century Ireland, witness Diarmait Mac Murchada's betrothal of his daughter [[Aoife MacMurrough|Aoife]] to [[Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|Strongbow]], while in 1165 the king of Uladh's daughter was taken hostage by the high king presumably just to prevent her father using her cement a new alliance.

Most historians are agreed that there was no romance involved, and that dynastic politics were at the base of the dispute. However, it does seem that Tigernán held the grudge, insisting on claiming legal compensation of 100 ounces of gold from Diarmait in 1167, which was enforced by Ruaidri Ua Conchobair.

==Sources==
*{{Cite AClon |postscript=s.a. 1152, 1167.}}
*Flanagan, Marie-Therese, ''Irish Society, Anglo-Norman Settlers, Angevin Kingship'', Oxford, 1989.
*Ni Ghradaigh, Jenifer, ' 'But what exactly did she give?' Derbforgaill and the Nuns' Church', in ''Clonmacnoise Studies II'', ed. H. King, Dublin, 2003, pp.175-207.

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Derbforgaill
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1108
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1193
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Derbforgaill}}
[[Category:Female royalty]]
[[Category:Women of medieval Ireland]]
[[Category:Medieval Gaels]]
[[Category:12th-century Irish people]]
[[Category:1108 births]]
[[Category:1193 deaths]]

Foots Cray Place

2012-12-05T17:25:29Z

JHunterJ: fix link

'''Foots Cray Place''' was one of the four [[country house]]s built in England in 18th century to a design inspired by [[Palladio]]'s [[Villa Capra]] near [[Vicenza]]. Built in 1754 near [[Sidcup]], [[Kent]], Foots Cray Place was demolished in 1950 after a fire in 1949.<ref>http://lh.matthewbeckett.com/houses/lh_kent_footscrayplace.html</ref> Of the three other houses in England, [[Nuthall Temple]] in Nottinghamshire was built 1757 and demolished in 1929; the other two survive: [[Mereworth Castle]] (completed 1725, also in Kent) and [[Chiswick House]] (completed 1729, in London)<ref>Chiswick House, one of the most notable of England's Palladian houses was partially demolished in the 20th century; only the "''corps de logis''" remains today</ref>, both now Grade 1 [[listed building]]s. A modern fifth example, [[Henbury Hall]], was built near [[Macclesfield]] in the 1980s.<ref>http://www.julianbicknell.co.uk/view-henburyrotunda_cheshire.php, http://www.architecture.com/LibraryDrawingsAndPhotographs/Palladio/PalladianBritain/VillasInBritain/VillaRotondasInfluence/HenburyHall.aspx</ref> Another example of a similar structure in England is the [[Temple of the Four Winds]] at [[Castle Howard]], which is a garden building not a house.

==Earlier houses==
The Kentish manor of [[Foots Cray]] is mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]]. Later, it was acquired by the [[Walsingham (surname)|Walsingham]] family and held for six generations until it was sold around 1676. An [[Elizabethan architecture|Elizabethan]] E-shaped house - also known as Pike Place - was still on the site in the 1680s. The estate passed through several hands before it was purchased by [[Bourchier Cleeve]] in 1752 for £5,450. Cleeve had the old house pulled down and a new one constructed slightly further north in about 1754.

==Palladian mansion==
The design of the new [[Palladian]] mansion has been attributed to the architect [[Isaac Ware]] in ''[[Vitruvius Britannicus]]'' iv (1777, pls. 8-10),<ref>[[Howard Colvin]], ''A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects 1600-1840'', 3rd ed. (Yale University Press), ''s.v.'' "Isaac Ware", under "Doubtful and attributed works".</ref> but it has also been suggested that [[Matthew Brettingham the Younger]] or [[Daniel Garrett]] could have been the designer.<ref name="Brettingham">{{cite web |url= http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-9808(199412)53%3A4%3C428%3AMBTYFC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23 |title= Matthew Brettingham the Younger, Foots Cray Place, and the Secularization of Palladio's Villa Rotonda in England. |author= Stanford Anderson |work= The Journal of the [[Society of Architectural Historians]], Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 428-447 |date= December 1994}}</ref> Following the model of the Villa Capra, it had a large square central block surmounted by a wide dome, with a portico on each face, all constructed in stone. Three of the porticos at Foots Cray Place were filled in to create additional internal space. The central hall was octagonal, with a gallery leading to the upper rooms, lit from above. The service buildings were built in brick a short dictance from the main house. Cleeve accumulated a large collection of paintings, including examples by Rembrandt, Reubens, Van Dyke, Canaletto and Holbein, which he displayed at Foots Cray Place.

The estate was inherited by Cleeve's daughter on his death in 1760; she married Sir [[George Yonge]] in 1767, and the house was sold to Benjamin Harenc in 1772 for £14,500. He had it remodelled in 1792 by the minor London architect [[Henry Hakewill]].<ref>Henry Hakewill (1771-1830), a pupil of [[John Yenn]], became architect to the trustees of [[Rugby School]]; he is buried at [[North Cray]] (Colvin 1995 ''s.v.'' "Henry Hakewill").</ref> Harenc's son sold the house in 1821 to [[Nicholas Vansittart, 1st Baron Bexley|Nicholas Vansittart]], then [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] and soon to become ennobled as [[Baron Bexley]]. Hakewill further remodelled the house in 1823, and more works were carried out for Lord Bexley by another London architect of equally modest reputation, John William Hiort, who also built Bexley's London house in [[Great George Street]], Westminster.<ref>John William Hiortt (1772-1861) was an architect attached to the [[Office of Works]], where he was much employed in designing occasional structures for ceremonies; he designed some ancillary structures at [[Claremont House]], Surrey, for Princess Charlotte, and patented bricks for designing circular chimney flues that were used at [[Buckingham Palace]]. (Colvin 1995, ''s.v.'' "John William Hiort").</ref> The Vansittart family retained the house and estate until it was sold to [[Samuel Waring, 1st Baron Waring|Samuel Waring]] (later [[Baron Waring]]) in the late 19th century.

The house was requisition in 1939 for use by the Royal Navy as [[Thames Nautical Training College]], the [[stone frigate]] [[HMS Worcester|HMS ''Worcester'']]. Lord Waring died in 1940, and after the College vacated the property in 1946, dilapidated after its wartime use, Waring's widow sold the house and grounds to [[Kent County Council]] for use as a museum. A fire in October 1949 caused extensive damage, and the house was demolished in 1950.<ref>Colvin 1995, ''s.v.'' "Henry Hakewell".</ref>

==Foots Cray Meadows==
The stable block remains standing, but the grounds, known as [[Foots Cray Meadows]], provide a valuable public green space in this south-eastern [[suburb]] of London. This 89 hectare park was formed in the early 19th century from two mid-18th-century landscaped parks and is listed by [[English Heritage]] as a Grade II historic park,<ref>An impression of the surviving landscape can be obtained from the [http://www.hidden-london.com/footscray.html Hidden London website]</ref> and it is a [[Local Nature Reserve]].<ref name=GIGL>{{cite web|url=http://www.gigl.org.uk/igigl/siteDetails.aspx?sID=M106&sType=sinc|title=The River Cray|publisher=Greenspace Information for Greater London|year=2006|accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref> The [[London Outer Orbital Path]] passes through Foots Cray Meadows on its way from [[Bexley|Old Bexley]] to Sidcup Place and [[Petts Wood]]. There is some industry in an area next to the meadows and bordering the river.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

==External links==
*[http://lh.matthewbeckett.com/houses/lh_kent_footscrayplace Lost Heritage - Foot's Cray Place]

{{coord|51.427|0.120|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

[[Category:Houses completed in 1754]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures demolished in 1950]]
[[Category:Former country houses in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Country houses in Kent]]
[[Category:Rotundas]]
[[Category:Palladian architecture]]
[[Category:British country houses destroyed in the 20th century]]

Transgender Day of Remembrance

2012-11-20T16:56:41Z

JHunterJ: fold cites

'''Transgender Day of Remembrance''' (TDoR), which occurs annually on [[November 20]], is a day to memorialize those who have been killed as a result of [[transphobia]],<ref>MA Transgender Political Coalition. (2010). Transgender Day of Remembrance. Retrieved from http://www.masstpc.org/dor/</ref> or the hatred or fear of transgender and gender non-conforming people, and acts to bring attention to the continued violence endured by the [[transgender]] community.<ref>Millen, L. (Nov. 20, 2008). North Carolinians mark transgender remembrance day. Retrieved from http://goqnotes.com/1091/north-carolinians-mark-transgender-remembrance-day/</ref>

The Transgender Day of Remembrance was founded in [[1998]] by [[Gwendolyn Ann Smith]], a [[transgender]] graphic designer, columnist, and activist,<ref>Smith, G. (2010). Biography. Retrieved from http://www.gwensmith.com/background/biography.html</ref> to memorialize the murder of [[Rita Hester]] in [[Allston]], [[Massachusetts]].<ref>Jacobs, E. (Nov. 18, 2008). Remembering Rita Hester. Retrieved from http://www.edgeboston.com/index.php?ch=entertainment&sc=music&sc2=features&sc3&id=83392</ref>

Since its inception, TDoR has been held annually on November 20,<ref>The Human Rights Campaign. (2010). Transgender Day of Remembrance. Retrieved from http://www.hrc.org/issues/transgender_day_of_remembrance.asp</ref> and has slowly evolved from the web-based project started by Smith into an international day of action. In 2010, TDoR was observed in over 185 cities throughout more than 20 countries.<ref>St. Pierre, E. (2010). TDoR Events and Locations 2010. Retrieved from http://www.transgenderdor.org/</ref>

Typically, a TDoR memorial includes a reading of the names of those who lost their lives during the previous year<ref>
*Vital. (Nov. 21, 2010). St. Louis marks transgender day of remembrance. Retrieved from http://thevitalvoice.com/node/8792
*BBC News Sussex. (Nov. 21, 2010). Transgender deaths commemorated at Brighton vigil. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-sussex-11805928</ref> and may include other actions, such as candlelight vigils, art shows, food drives, film screenings, marches, among others<ref>
*St. Pierre, E. (2010). TDoR Events and Locations 2010. Retrieved from http://www.transgenderdor.org/
*Gonzalez, Y. (Nov. 18, 2010). Groups recognize transgender remembrance day. Retrieved from http://www.statepress.com/2010/11/18/groups-recognize-transgender-remembrance-day/
*AllMissoula.com. (Nov. 17, 2010). Missoula transgender day of recognition. Retrieved from http://www.allmissoula.com/events/event_details.php?event_ID=5460&title=Missoula%20Transgender%20Day%20of%20Recognition&loc=Missoula,%20MT</ref> The TDoR is the culmination of [[Transgender Awareness Week]].<ref>MA Transgender Political Coalition. (2010). Transgender Awareness Week. Retrieved from http://www.masstpc.org/events/taw/</ref>

The [[Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation|Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD)]] has extensively covered TDoR on its blog over the past few years.<ref>
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=An Introduction to the Transgender Day of Remembrance|publisher=GLAAD|date=17 November 2008|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/17/an-introduction-to-the-transgender-day-of-remembrance/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Transgender Day of Remembrance is Today|publisher=GLAAD|date=20 November 2008|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/20/transgender-day-of-remembrance/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=The 10th Annual Transgender Day of Remembrance|publisher=GLAAD|date=20 November 2008|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/20/speaking-out/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=An Introduction to Transgender Day of Remembrance 2009|publisher=GLAAD|date=16 November 2009|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2009/11/16/an-introduction-to-transgender-day-of-remembrance-2009/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Law & Social Change: The True Significance of the Transgender Day of Remembrance|publisher=GLAAD|date=16 November 2009|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2009/11/16/law-social-change-the-true-significance-of-the-transgender-day-of-remembrance/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Nov 20th - The Eleventh Annual Transgender Day of Remembrance|publisher=GLAAD|date=20 November 2009|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2009/11/20/nov-20th-the-eleventh-annual-transgender-day-of-remembrance/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=The Importance of the Transgender Day of Remembrance|publisher=GLAAD|date=19 November 2010|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2010/11/19/the-importance-of-the-transgender-day-of-remembrance/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Transgender Day of Remembrance: Honoring the Lives Lost|publisher=GLAAD|date=19 November 2010|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2010/11/19/transgender-day-of-remembrance-honoring-the-lives-lost/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Obama Appointee Amanda Simpson Speaks at D.C. Day of Remembrance Event|publisher=GLAAD|date=20 November 2010|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2010/11/20/obama-appointee-amanda-simpson-speaks-at-d-c-day-of-remembrance-event/}}</ref> GLAAD has interviewed numerous transgender advocates,<ref>
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Autumn Sandeen - "What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You?"|publisher=GLAAD|date=18 November 2008|accessdate=03 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/18/what-does-the-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Helen Boyd - "What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You?"|publisher=GLAAD|date=19 November 2008|accessdate=03 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/19/what-does-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you-helen-boyd/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Shannon Garcia - "What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You?"|publisher=GLAAD|date=20 November 2008|accessdate=03 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/20/shannon-garcia-what-does-the-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Elizabeth Rivera - "What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You?"|publisher=GLAAD|date=20 November 2008|accessdate=03 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/20/elizabeth-rivera-what-does-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Jillian Barfield - "What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You?"|publisher=GLAAD|date=21 November 2008|accessdate=03 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/21/jillian-barfield-what-does-the-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Amanda Morgan - "What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You?"|publisher=GLAAD|date=21 November 2008|accessdate=03 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/21/amanda-morgan-what-does-the-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Gael Guevara - "What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You?"|publisher=GLAAD|date=21 November 2008|accessdate=03 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/21/gael-guevera-what-does-the-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Monica Canfield Lenfest - "What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You?"|publisher=GLAAD|date=1 December 2008|accessdate=03 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/12/01/monica-canfield-lenfest-what-does-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You? - Stefanie Rivera|publisher=GLAAD|date=17 November 2009|accessdate=03 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2009/11/17/what-does-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you-stefanie-rivera/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You? -Monica Roberts|publisher=GLAAD|date=18 November 2009|accessdate=03 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2009/11/18/what-does-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you-%e2%80%93-monica-roberts/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You? -Sassafras Lowrey|publisher=GLAAD|date=19 November 2009|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2009/11/19/what-does-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you-sassafras-lowrey/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=What Does Transgender Day of Remembrance Mean to You - Q&A with Ethan St. Pierre|publisher=GLAAD|date=20 November 2009|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2009/11/20/what-does-transgender-day-of-remembrance-mean-to-you-qa-with-ethan-st-pierre/}}</ref> including actress [[Candis Cayne]],<ref>{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Exclusive Video: Candis Cayne Discusses Being Out as Transgender in Hollywood|publisher=GLAAD|date=20 November 2009|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2009/11/20/exclusive-video-candis-cayne-discusses-being-out-as-transgender-in-hollywood/}}</ref> profiled an event at the [[New York City LGBT Community Center]],<ref>{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=New York City's LGBT Center Observes Transgender Day of Remembrance|publisher=GLAAD|date=20 November 2010|accessdate=03 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2010/11/20/new-york-citys-lgbt-center-observes-transgender-day-of-remembrance/}}</ref> and discussed media coverage of TDoR.<ref>
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Transgender Day of Remembrance's International Scope|publisher=GLAAD|date=21 November 2008|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/21/transgender-day-of-remembrances-international-scope/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Media Coverage of Transgender Day of Remembrance Grows, Remains Respectful|publisher=GLAAD|date=24 November 2008|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2008/11/24/media-coverage-of-transgender-day-of-remembrance-grows-remains-respectful/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Remembering the Need for Accurate Reporting on Trans Stories|publisher=GLAAD|date=18 November 2009|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2009/11/18/remembering-the-need-for-accurate-reporting-on-trans-stories/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=Transgender Day of Remembrance: The Role of the Media|publisher=GLAAD|date=19 November 2010|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2010/11/19/transgender-day-of-remembrance-the-role-of-the-media/}}
*{{cite news|author=GLAAD|title=NC Radio Station Corrects Anti-Transgender Coverage|publisher=GLAAD|date=23 November 2010|accessdate=07 Mar 2011|url=http://glaadblog.org/2010/11/23/nc-radio-station-corrects-anti-transgender-coverage/}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Transgender}}
* [[Transgender activism]]
* [[Transgender American history]]
* [[Trans bashing]]
* [[Hate crime]]
* [[List of transgender-rights organizations]]
* [[List of unlawfully killed transgender people]]

==External links==
*[http://www.rememberingourdead.org/index.html# Remembering Our Dead]
*[http://www.transgenderdor.org/ International Transgender Day of Remembrance]
*[http://hrc.org/campaigns/transgender-day-remembrance HRC: Transgender Day of Remembrance]
*[http://tdorarchive.comicdish.com/?page=Project Transgender Day of Remembrance Webcomics Project Archive]
*[http://tdor.weebly.com/index.html Transgender Day of Remembrance Online Art Vigil]
*[http://www.edgeboston.com/index.php?ch=entertainment&sc=music&sc2=features&sc3&id=83392 Remembering Rita Hester]
*[http://www.tdor.org.uk/ UK Trans Day of Remembrance site]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Transgender footer}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Transgender Day Of Remembrance}}
[[Category:Transgender]]
[[Category:Transphobia]]
[[Category:Transphobic violence]]
[[Category:Civil awareness days]]
[[Category:Transgender events]]
[[Category:November observances]]
[[Category:Recurring events established in 1999]]

[[ca:Dia de la Memòria Transgènere]]
[[fr:Journée du souvenir trans]]
[[it:Transgender Day of Remembrance]]
[[la:Dies Memoriae pro Transgenera]]
[[ja:トランスジェンダー追悼の日]]
[[no:Den internasjonale transpersonminnedagen]]
[[ru:День памяти трансгендеров]]
[[uk:День пам'яті трансгендерів]]

Der häßliche Amerikaner

2012-10-10T22:07:05Z

JHunterJ: clean up, replaced: is the title of → is using AWB

{{for|other uses of the term|Ugly American (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox Film
| name = The Ugly American
| image = The Ugly American poster.jpg
|caption = original movie poster
| director = [[George Englund]]
| producer = [[George Englund]]
| writer = [[Stewart Stern]]
| starring = [[Marlon Brando]] [[Sandra Church]] [[Eiji Okada]] [[Pat Hingle]] [[Judson Pratt]] [[Arthur Hill (actor)|Arthur Hill]]
| music =
| cinematography = [[Clifford Stine]] 
| editing = [[Ted J. Kent]]
| distributor = [[Universal Pictures]]
| released = 1963
| runtime = 115 min.
| language =
| budget =
|}}
'''''The Ugly American''''' is a 1958 political novel by [[Eugene Burdick]] and [[William Lederer]] upon which a 1963 movie starring [[Marlon Brando]] was based. The novel became a [[bestseller]], was influential at the time, and is still in print. The book is a quasi-[[roman à clef]]; that is, it presents, in a fictionalized guise, the experience of Americans in Southeast Asia (Vietnam) and allegedly portrays several real people who are represented by pseudonyms.

==1958 novel==
The novel, taking place in a fictional nation called Sarkhan (an imaginary country in Southeast Asia that somewhat resembles [[Burma]] or [[Thailand]], but which is meant to allude to Vietnam) as its setting and includes several real people, most of whose names have been changed. The book describes the United States's losing struggle against [[Communism]]—what was later to be called ''the battle for [[Hearts and Minds (Vietnam)|hearts and minds]]'' in [[Southeast Asia]], because of innate arrogance and the failure to understand the local culture. The title is actually a [[double entendre]], referring both to the physically unattractive hero, Homer Atkins, and to the ugly behavior of the American government employees.

In the novel, a Burmese journalist says "For some reason, the [American] people I meet in my country are not the same as the ones I knew in the United States. A mysterious change seems to come over Americans when they go to a foreign land. They isolate themselves socially. They live pretentiously. They're loud and ostentatious."

The "ugly American" of the book title fundamentally refers to the plain-looking engineer Atkins, who lives with the local people, who comes to understand their needs, and who offers genuinely useful assistance with small-scale projects such as the development of a simple bicycle-powered water pump. It is argued in the book that the Communists are successful because they practice tactics similar to those of Atkins.

According to an article published in ''[[Newsweek]]'' in May 1959, the "real" "Ugly American" was identified as an International Cooperative Agency technician named Otto Hunerwadel, who, with his wife Helen, served in Burma from 1949 until his death in 1952. They lived in the villages, where they taught farming techniques and helped start home canning industries.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Fulbright Difference |last1=Clifford |first1=Robert L. |last2=Hunerwadel |first2=Helen B. |editor1-last=Arndt |editor1-first=Richard T. |editor2-last=David Lee |editor2-first=Rubin |chapter=Chapter 1: Burma Beginnings and Point Four |series=Fulbright Association series |publisher=Transaction Publishers |location=New Brunswick, NJ |year=1996 |origyear=1993 |pages=20–24 |isbn=1-56000-085-6 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LqMwKTUN7f0C&pg=PA20&dq=Hunerwadel#v=onepage&q=Hunerwadel&f=false |accessdate=18 July 2011 }}</ref>

Another of the book's heroes, Colonel Hillandale, appears to have been modeled on the real-life [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] Lieutenant General [[Edward Lansdale]], an expert in [[Counter-insurgency|counter-guerrilla operations]].

After the book had gained wide readership, the term [[Ugly American (epithet)|"Ugly American"]] came to be used to refer to the "loud and ostentatious" type of visitor in another country, rather than the "plain looking folks, who are not afraid to 'get their hands dirty' like Homer Atkins" to whom the book itself referred.

According to British documentary film maker [[Adam Curtis]] "[[John F. Kennedy|John Kennedy]] was gripped by ''The Ugly American''. In 1960 he and five other opinion leaders bought a large advertisement in the [[New York Times]] saying that they had sent copies of the novel to every US senator because its message was so important."<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/adamcurtis/2012/06/how_to_kill_a_rational_peasant.html How to kill a rational peasant]</ref>

== 1963 film ==

The story of this novel was made into a film in 1963 starring [[Marlon Brando]] as Ambassador Harrison Carter MacWhite. Its screenplay was written by [[Stewart Stern]], and the film was produced and directed by [[George Englund]]. The film was shot mainly in Hollywood, with Thailand serving as the inspiration for the background sceneries. Parts of the film were also shot on locations in Bangkok, Thailand, including at [[Chulalongkorn University]], one of the leading institutes of higher learning of the country. Upon release, the film garnered generally positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator [[Rotten Tomatoes]] reports that 80% of critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 6.1/10.

[[Kukrit Pramoj]], a Thai politician and scholar, was hired as a cultural expert/advisor to the film and later played the role of Sarkhan's Prime Minister "Kwen Sai". Later on, in 1975, he really did become the 13th Prime Minister of [[Thailand]]. Probably because of this, the word "Sarkhan" has entered the Thai language as a nickname of Thailand itself, often with a slight self-deprecating or mocking tone.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

=====Cast=====
[[Marlon Brando]] ...
Ambassador Harrison Carter MacWhite 
[[Eiji Okada]] ...
Deong 
[[Sandra Church]] ...
Marion MacWhite 
[[Pat Hingle]] ...
Homer Atkins 
[[Arthur Hill (actor)|Arthur Hill]] ...
Grainger 
[[Jocelyn Brando]] ...
Emma Atkins 
[[Kukrit Pramoj|Mom Rajawongse Kukrit Pramoj]] ...
Prime Minister Kwen Sai 
[[Judson Pratt]] ...
Joe Bing 
[[Reiko Sato]] ...
Rachani, Deong's Wife 
George Shibata ...
Munsang 
Judson Laire ...
Senator Brenner 
[[Philip Ober]] ...
Ambassador Sears 
Yee Tak Yip ...
Sawad, Deong's Assistant 
[[Carl Benton Reid]] ...
Senator at Confirmation Hearing

== Notes ==
<references/>

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0056632|The Ugly American}}



{{DEFAULTSORT:Ugly American, The}}
[[Category:1958 novels]]
[[Category:1963 films]]
[[Category:American novels adapted into films]]
[[Category:American political novels]]
[[Category:Roman à clef novels]]
[[Category:Books about United States foreign relations]]
[[Category:Cold War novels]]
[[Category:Films set in a fictional Asian country]]
[[Category:Cold War films]]

[[fr:Le Vilain Américain]]
[[id:The Ugly American]]
[[it:Missione in Oriente]]
[[pl:Spokojny Amerykanin (film 1963)]]
[[th:อเมริกันอันตราย]]
[[wa:The Ugly American]]

Edward S. Feldman

2012-09-30T18:02:57Z

JHunterJ: dab Forever Young film, replaced: Forever Young (film) → Forever Young (1992 film) using AWB

'''Edward S. Feldman''' (born September 5, 1929) is an American film and television producer.

Born and raised in [[The Bronx]], where he attended [[DeWitt Clinton High School]], Feldman graduated from [[Michigan State University]], after which he was hired by [[20th Century Fox]] to work as a writer in the studio's press book department in its [[Manhattan]] headquarters. He quickly rose within the ranks, becoming the contact for [[fan magazine]]s, then [[trade paper]]s, and finally the [[New York City]] press.<ref>Feldman, Edward S., ''Tell Me How You Love the Picture''. New York: St. Martin's Press 2005. ISBN 0-312-34801-0, pp. 22-23</ref> His employment at Fox was interrupted by a two-year stint with the [[United States Air Force]], during which he was stationed at the [[Dover Air Force Base]] in [[Delaware]]. His commanding officer expected him to use his skills as a [[publicist]] to get him promoted from [[colonel]] to [[general]], a task Feldman completed successfully before he returned to civilian life.<ref>Feldman, pp. 39-42</ref>

In 1959, Feldman left Fox to promote ''[[The World of Suzie Wong (film)|The World of Suzie Wong]]'' and its producer, [[Ray Stark]], for [[Paramount Pictures]]. His assignment began with location shooting in [[Hong Kong]] and ended with the release of the film. He clashed with Stark throughout the production, which prompted him to resign from Paramount and join [[Embassy Pictures]] as the head of advertising and publicity.<ref>Feldman pp. 43-50</ref> Two years later, Stark invited him to join him at [[Seven Arts Productions]], where his first project was the controversial screen adaptation of ''[[Lolita (1962 film)|Lolita]]''. Due to Feldman's intervention, the [[National Legion of Decency|Catholic Legion of Decency]] agreed not to rate the film "condemned" if the studio would enforce a rule banning anyone under the age of eighteen from theaters showing it.<ref>Feldman, pp. 52-53</ref> Once Seven Arts acquired [[Warner Bros.]], Feldman relocated to Hollywood, where he remained with [[Warner Bros.-Seven Arts]] for two years, during which time he became active in film production.<ref>Feldman, p. 87</ref>

Because of his association with Stark, son-in-law of comedienne [[Fanny Brice]], Feldman handled advertising and publicity for the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] production of ''[[Funny Girl (musical)|Funny Girl]]'' throughout its run.<ref>Feldman, pp. 58-65</ref>

Feldman's first credit as a film producer was the 1971 [[melodrama]] ''[[What's the Matter with Helen?]]'' starring [[Debbie Reynolds]] and [[Shelley Winters]]. Additional credits include ''[[Save the Tiger]]'', ''[[The Other Side of the Mountain]]'', ''[[Two-Minute Warning]]'', ''[[The Last Married Couple in America]]'', ''[[Witness (1985 film)|Witness]]'', ''[[The Golden Child]]'', ''[[Wired (film)|Wired]]'', ''[[Green Card (film)|Green Card]]'', ''[[The Doctor (film)|The Doctor]]'', ''[[Forever Young (1992 film)|Forever Young]]'', ''[[Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book]]'', the live-action ''[[101 Dalmatians (1996 film)|101 Dalmatians]]'' and its sequel, ''[[102 Dalmatians]]'', ''[[The Truman Show]]'', and ''[[K-19: The Widowmaker]]''.

For television, Feldman produced several [[television film|films]] and [[miniseries]], including ''[[Moon of the Wolf]]'', ''Charles & Diana: A Royal Love Story'', and ''21 Hours at Munich'' and ''[[King (TV miniseries)|King]]'', both of which earned him [[Primetime Emmy Award|Emmy Award]] nominations. He also was one of the producers of the short-lived series ''[[Flamingo Road (TV series)|Flamingo Road]]''.

Feldman was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] for ''Witness'' and the [[BAFTA Award for Best Film]] for ''Witness'' and ''The Truman Show''. In 2001, the [[Hollywood Film Festival]] honored him for Outstanding Achievement in Producing.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|0271026}}
* [http://www.filmreference.com/film/42/Edward-S-Feldman.html FilmReference.com]

{{Persondata
| NAME = Feldman, Edward S.
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = September 5, 1929
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Feldman, Edward S.}}
[[Category:1929 births]]
[[Category:American film producers]]
[[Category:American television producers]]
[[Category:People from the Bronx]]
[[Category:Michigan State University alumni]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Sulphide Creek

2012-09-21T20:30:10Z

JHunterJ: +for hatnote

{{for|the creek in Ontario, Canada|Sulphide Creek (Hastings County)}}
{{Geobox | River

| name = Sulphide Creek
| category = Creek
| category_hide = 1

| image =
| image_size =
| image_caption =

| etymology = Sulphide is the [[British English]] spelling for [[sulphur]].

| country = United States
| country_flag = 1
| state = [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]]
| district_type = County
| district = [[Skagit County, Washington|Skagit]], [[Whatcom County, Washington|Whatcom]]

| source = [[North Cascades]]
| source_location =
| source_region =
| source_state =
| source_elevation_imperial = 5803
| source_elevation_note = <ref name=ge>Elevation derived from [[Google Earth]]</ref>
| source_length_imperial =
| source_lat_d = 48
| source_lat_m = 48
| source_lat_s = 13
| source_lat_NS = N
| source_long_d = 121
| source_long_m = 34
| source_long_s = 52
| source_long_EW = W
| source_coordinates_note = <ref name=gnis>{{cite gnis|id=1526687|name=Sulphide Creek|accessdate=2009-05-16}}</ref>

| mouth_name = [[Skagit River]]
| mouth_location =
| mouth_district =
| mouth_region =
| mouth_state =
| mouth_country =
| mouth_note =
| mouth_lat_d = 48
| mouth_lat_m = 46
| mouth_lat_s = 36
| mouth_lat_NS = N
| mouth_long_d = 121
| mouth_long_m = 31
| mouth_long_s = 59
| mouth_long_EW = W
| mouth_coordinates_note = <ref name=gnis/>
| mouth_elevation_imperial = 1210
| mouth_elevation_note = <ref name=ge/>

| length_imperial = 2.5
| length_round = 0
| length_note =
| watershed_imperial =
| watershed_round = 0
| watershed_note =
| discharge_location = [[Baker River (Washington)|Baker River]]
| discharge_imperial = 540
| discharge_round = 1
| discharge_note =
| discharge_max_imperial =
| discharge_min_imperial =
| discharge1_location =
| discharge1_note =

| map =
| map_size = 300
| map_caption =
| map1 = Washington Locator Map.PNG
| map1_size = 300
| map1_caption = Location of the mouth of Sulphide Creek in Washington
| map1_locator = Washington

| commons =
}}
'''Sulphide Creek''' is a {{convert|2.5|mi|km|adj=on}} glacial [[tributary]] of the [[Baker River (Washington)|Baker River]] in [[Whatcom County]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]], located within a steep and narrow canyon on the southeast flank of [[Mount Shuksan]], inside [[North Cascades National Park]].<ref name=gnis/> Although called a creek, it is river-like due to its high volume. Its source is found in the "massive"<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.askmen.com/top_10/travel_100/122b_travel_top_ten.html |title=Top 10: North America Waterfall Destinations |publisher=AskMen.com |accessdate=2009-05-17}}</ref> Sulphide and Crystal glaciers at roughly elevation {{convert|5803|ft|m}}, and it runs east collecting several small tributaries before flowing into the Baker River at elevation {{convert|1210|ft|m}}. The creek is known to have a series of very tall waterfalls occurring both on its mainstem and on its tributaries.

==Name==
"Sulphide" is the [[British English]] spelling of [[sulphur]], although the origin of the name is unknown.

==Course==
After exiting the glaciers, Sulphide Creek skips several hundred feet down a series of [[Shuksan greenschist]] cliffs into a small [[tarn (lake)|tarn]], Sulphide Lake, then as it flows out of the lake, drops down [[Sulphide Creek Falls]], one of the tallest waterfalls in North America at {{convert|2182|ft|m}}.<ref name=mainfalls>
{{cite web |url=http://www.world-waterfalls.com/waterfall.php?num=12 |title=Sulphide Creek Falls |publisher=World Waterfall Database |work=Bryan Swan and Dean Goss |accessdate=2009-05-16}}</ref>
From the falls, it enters a steep and narrow glacial valley, often called a canyon, that has been said to have "no record of descent or exploration".<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.canyoneeringnorthwest.com/Canyon/CanyonProspectsNorthCascades.html |title=Canyon Prospects in the North Cascades |publisher=Canyoneering Northwest |accessdate=2009-05-16}}</ref>

Directly at the base of the falls, a tributary stream enters Sulphide Creek. on the right bank. The creek then turns slightly to the northeast, and receives a large tributary on the left bank. This tributary heads in several small snowfields on an east flank of Mount Shuksan, and several streams cascade down into a basin where they join together and flow into Sulphide Creek. [[Mount Shuksan Waterfalls|Four notable waterfalls]] are found in the basin of this stream; these are Seahpo Peak Falls ({{convert|2200|ft|abbr=on|disp=/}}), Cloudcap Falls ({{convert|2400|ft|abbr=on|disp=/}}), Jagged Ridge Falls ({{convert|1500|ft|abbr=on|disp=/}}) and Rockflow Canyon Falls ({{convert|200|ft|abbr=on|disp=/}}).<ref name=otherfalls>
*{{cite web|last=Swan|first=Bryan|url=http://www.waterfallsnorthwest.com/nws/waterfall.php?st=WA&num=1353|title=Seahpo Peak Falls|publisher=Waterfalls of the Pacific Northwest|accessdate=2009-05-17}}
*{{cite web|last=Swan|first=Bryan|url=http://www.waterfallsnorthwest.com/nws/waterfall.php?st=WA&num=1352|title=Cloudcap Falls|publisher=Waterfalls of the Pacific Northwest|accessdate=2009-05-17}}
*{{cite web|last=Swan|first=Bryan|url=http://www.waterfallsnorthwest.com/nws/waterfall.php?st=WA&num=405|title=Jagged Ridge Falls|publisher=Waterfalls of the Pacific Northwest|accessdate=2009-05-17}}
*{{cite web|last=Swan|first=Bryan|url=http://www.waterfallsnorthwest.com/nws/waterfall.php?st=WA&num=406|title=Rockflow Canyon Falls|publisher=Waterfalls of the Pacific Northwest|accessdate=2009-05-17}}
</ref>

The creek then continues generally southeast through forest until it joins the Baker River on its right bank, two drainages upstream from [[Blum Creek]] and several miles upstream from [[Baker Lake (Washington)|Baker Lake]], a reservoir on the Baker River, and [[Shannon Creek]]. At this point, the distance from the confluence to Sulphide Creek Falls is roughly {{convert|2|mi|km}}.<ref name=mainfalls/>

==Volume==
The volume of Sulphide Creek at its mouth is roughly {{convert|540|ft3|m3}} per second on average, taking into account the flow of the mainstem at Sulphide Creek Falls and adding the flow of the tributary that harbors Rockflow Canyon Falls.<ref name=mainfalls/><ref name=otherfalls/>

==See also==
*[[Blum Basin Falls]]
*[[List of rivers of Washington]]
*[[Swift Creek (Washington)|Swift Creek]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Rivers of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:North Cascades of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Landforms of Whatcom County, Washington]]
[[Category:North Cascades National Park]]

[[cs:Sulphide Creek]]

Sulphide Creek Falls

2012-09-21T20:28:50Z

JHunterJ: -hatnote, WP:NAMB

{{Infobox waterfall
| name = Sulphide Creek Falls
| photo =
| photo_width =
| photo_caption =
| location = [[North Cascades National Park]], [[Whatcom County, Washington|Whatcom County]], [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington, USA]]
| coords = {{coord|48.79647|N|121.57563|W|format=dms|region:US-WA_type:landmark}} <ref name="nwwf">{{cite web |title=Sulphide Creek Falls |publisher=Northwest Waterfall Survey |url=http://www.waterfallsnorthwest.com/nws/waterfall.php?num=407 |accessdate=2009-03-09}}</ref>
| elevation =
| type = Tiered
| height = {{convert|2182|ft|m}}
| average_width = {{convert|50|ft|m}}
| average_flow = {{convert|500|cuft/s|m3/s}}
| watercourse = [[Sulphide Creek]]
}}
{{location map |Washington |lat=48.79647 |long=-121.57563 |caption=The location of the falls in Washington state |label=Sulphide Creek Falls}}
'''Sulphide Creek Falls''' is a tall, moderately large volume waterfall within [[North Cascades National Park]] in [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] state. The falls drop from Sulphide Lake on the southeast side of [[Mount Shuksan]] down a narrow flume-like canyon to a broad basin below. Because of the narrow, twisting shape of the canyon the waterfall is exceptionally difficult to see from ground-level perspectives. The total vertical drop of the waterfall is in the range of {{convert|2100|ft|m}} to {{convert|2200|ft|m}} feet, but it has not yet been accurately measured. Foot access to the bottom of the waterfall involves {{convert|2.5|mi|km}} of off-trail travel in extremely brushy terrain and several potentially dangerous fords of a large stream.<ref name="nwwf"/>

==Other waterfalls==
Another waterfall, which is on the opposite side of the valley and joins Sulphide Creek Falls at its base, should not be confused with Sulphide Creek Falls. This falls is much more visible, but only about one-half as high as Sulphide Creek Falls. This falls is sometimes referred to as ''Sulphide Valley Falls''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waterfallsnorthwest.com/nws/waterfall.php?st=WA&num=1354 |title=Sulphide Valley Falls |publisher=Northwest Waterfall Survey |accessdate=2009-03-15}}</ref>
Above Sulphide Lake is a further {{convert|1000|ft|m}} of cascades, informally referred to as ''Sulphide Basin Falls'', flowing from the Sulphide and Crystal [[glaciers]], which provide most of the water that flows over Sulphide Creek Falls. This drop is geographically separate from Sulphide Creek Falls, and should not be confused with it, despite their close proximity and location on the same feeder stream.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waterfallsnorthwest.com/nws/waterfall.php?st=WA&num=52 |title=Sulphide Basin Falls |publisher=Northwest Waterfall Survey |accessdate=2009-03-09}}</ref>

==Access==
There is no trail to Sulphide Creek Falls. The closest trail is the [[Baker River Trail]], which parallels the [[Baker River (Washington)|Baker River]] (which Sulphide Creek flows into). The trail crosses Sulphide Creek at the confluence. From there, one must proceed upstream along the wide, rocky streambed, which continues to within about {{convert|1|mi|km}} of the base of the falls. Thick [[avalanche]] brush prevents further access.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.pbase.com/nolock/sulphcrfalls Sulphide Creek Falls photo gallery at pbase.com]

{{NorthCascadesWaterfalls}}

[[Category:North Cascades of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Waterfalls of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Landforms of Whatcom County, Washington]]
[[Category:North Cascades National Park]]

[[cs:Sulphide Creek Falls]]
[[fa:آبشار سولفید کریک]]
[[mzn:ئوشار سولفید کریک]]
[[tg:Шаршараи Сулфид Крик]]

Johann I. Debranin

2012-07-15T18:42:33Z

JHunterJ: JHunterJ moved page John I Debranin to John of Debar: requested move

'''John of Debar''' ({{lang-bg|Йоан Дебърски}}) was an 11th-century [[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] [[clergy]]man.<ref>Снегаров, Иван. История на Охридската архиепископия, т.1. Второ фототипно издание. София, Академично издателство „Марин Дринов“, 1995, [1924]. с. 195. </ref> He became the first [[Archbishop of Ohrid]] after the fall of the [[First Bulgarian Empire]] to [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]].<ref>Пириватрич, Сърджан. Самуиловата държава. Обхват и характер. София, Издателска група „АГАТА-А“, 2000. ISBN 954-540-020-X, с. 197, 233-234 </ref> According to 17th-century French historian [[Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange|du Cange]] John was born in a village around the town of [[Debar]] in present-day [[Republic of Macedonia]].<ref name='Du Cange'>Du Cange. Familiae augustae Byzantinae, I. 174-175.</ref> When in 1018 Emperor [[Basil II]] managed to [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|conquer Bulgaria]], he decided to abolish the previously autocephalic [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], establishing the [[Archbishopric of Ohrid]] (A resurrection of the [[Archbishopric of Justiniana Prima]]). John was chosen to be the first Archbishop of Ochrid. Prior to this he had been [[hegumen]] in a Debar monastery.<ref name='Du Cange' /> He remained head of the Archbishopric until his death in 1037.

==References and notes==
{{reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = John of Debar
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = John of Dibra
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = First [[Archbishop of Ochrid]]
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Debar
| DATE OF DEATH = 1037
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:John of Debar}}
[[Category:10th-century births]]
[[Category:1037 deaths]]
[[Category:11th-century Bulgarian people]]
[[Category:Archbishops of Ohrid]]
[[Category:People from Debar]]
{{Byzantine-bio-stub}}
{{EasternOrthodoxy-bishop-stub}}

[[bg:Йоан Дебърски]]
[[mk:Јоан Дебарски]]

The Born This Way Ball Tour

2012-04-17T13:52:56Z

JHunterJ: JHunterJ moved page The Born This Way Ball to Born This Way Ball: requested move, usage in references

{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2012}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{Infobox concert tour
| concert_tour_name = The Born This Way Ball
| image = The Born This Way Ball.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| landscape =
| alt =
| image_caption = Promotional poster for the tour
| artist = [[Lady Gaga]]
| album = ''[[Born This Way]]''
| start_date = {{Start date|2012|04|27}}
| end_date = {{End date|2012|10|06}}
| gross =
| number_of_legs = 3
| number_of_shows = 16 in [[Asia]] 17 in [[Oceania]] 22 in [[Europe]] 55 Total
| last_tour = [[The Monster Ball Tour]] (2009–11)
| this_tour = '''The Born This Way Ball''' (2012–13)
}}

'''The Born This Way Ball''' is the upcoming third concert tour by American recording artist [[Lady Gaga]], in support of her second studio album ''[[Born This Way]]'' (2011). The tour will consist of 110 shows in Asia, Australia, and later Europe in August 2012, followed by Latin America towards the end of the year, and then North America beginning in January 2013 and running into March.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/touring/exclusive-info-lady-gaga-s-born-this-way-1006127752.story|title=Exclusive Info: Lady Gaga's 'Born This Way Ball' Tour to Hit Asia, Europe, Latin America This Year; North America in 2013|last=Waddell|first=Ray|date=February 8, 2012|accessdate=February 12, 2012|work=Billboard|publisher=Prometheus Global Media}}</ref>

==Background==
During the launch of her second single from ''[[Born This Way]]'', titled "[[Judas (song)|Judas]]", Lady Gaga confirmed in an interview that she would embark on a [[concert tour]] in 2012, which would visit Latin American countries for the first time, like Brazil, and would return to Mexico.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://virgula.uol.com.br/ver/noticia/musica/2012/01/22/292703-lady-gaga-e-madonna-podem-vir-ao-brasil-em-2012|title=Lady Gaga e Madonna podem vir ao Brasil em 2012
|last=Oliviera|first=Thiago|language=Portuguese|date=January 22, 2012|accessdate=February 11, 2012|work=Virgula}}</ref><ref name="caracol 2">{{cite web|url=http://www.noticiascaracol.com/entretenimiento/musica/video-217515-lady-gaga-revela-detalles-de-su-gira-latinoamerica |title= Lady Gaga revela detalles de su gira por Latinoamérica|date=January 31, 2012|accessdate=February 8, 2012|language=Spanish|work=[[Noticias Caracol]]}}</ref> In November 2011, producer DJ White Shadow asserted that Gaga was "doing [preparations] for the next round of touring", adding that the singer's main objective in the following year was "going to be prepping up for the show, touring new songs for the record."<ref name=mtv>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1675019/lady-gaga-next-album-tour.jhtml|title=Lady Gaga 'Doing Prep' For Tour, Next Album|first=Jocelyn|last=Vena|publisher=[[MTV News]]. [[MTV Networks]]|date=November 28, 2011|accessdate=February 4, 2012}}</ref> [[Fernando Garibay]], who began collaborating with Gaga in ''[[The Fame Monster]]'' (2009), felt that ''Born This Way'' was one of his most personal moments. He opined, "This album was the most personal [because of] the amount of detail that went into this record, the amount of passion [and] emotion from her and the team. Every song was a story towards the [[Born This Way (song)|Born This Way]] theme. We're excited now, putting that into the tour and expressing that on a live performance level."<ref name=mtv2>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1675649/lady-gaga-born-this-way-tour.jhtml|title=Lady Gaga's Born This Way Tour Will Be 'Exaggerated'|first=Jocelyn|last=Vena|publisher=MTV News. MTV Networks|date=December 8, 2011|accessdate=February 4, 2012}}</ref> In contrast to her previous tour, Garibay affirmed that the shows of The Born This Way Ball would be more exaggerated.<ref name=mtv2/>

A promotional poster of the tour was released on February 7, 2012, which was described by ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]''{{'s}} Ray Waddell as a "bizarre poster that portrays the ball as a campy, medieval-meets-the-80's kingdom."<ref name=bill>{{cite news|url=http://www.billboard.com/events/lady-gaga-announces-born-this-way-ball-tour-1006127552.story#/events/lady-gaga-announces-born-this-way-ball-tour-1006127552.story|title=Lady Gaga Announces 'Born This Way Ball' Tour|work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|publisher=[[Prometheus Global Media]]|last=Waddell|first=Ray|date=February 8, 2012|accessdate=February 9, 2012}}</ref> It features Gaga's face hovering over dark clouds looking down from the sky, and includes touches of neon purple and turquoise coloring. She is also fused into a [[keytar]], standing near her dancers in front of a medieval castle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1678750/lady-gaga-tour-poster.jhtml|title=Lady Gaga Drops Tour Poster, Fashion Film
|first=Jocelyn|last=Vena|publisher=MTV News. MTV Networks|date=February 8, 2011|accessdate=February 12, 2012}}</ref><ref name=bill/> The first and second legs for The Born This Way Ball were announced the following day, revealing that Gaga would perform concerts in countries such as South Korea, [[Hong Kong SAR]], and Singapore.<ref name=bill/> Additional dates as part of the Oceania leg were added on February 15, 2012.<ref name=bris/> Live Nation Global Touring CEO Arthur Fogel and his team will steer around the tour, as they did the bulk of the Monster Ball tour of 2010–11.<ref name=bill/> Fogel explained that "The last tour established [Gaga] as a major act worldwide and I believe this tour will be an extension of that, particularly considering we're going to territories she's never been in, like Southeast Asia and Latin America."<ref name=bill/>

A European leg was announced in March 2012, which consisted of twenty-one dates over a period of two months, initiating in Bulgaria while concluding in Spain.<ref name=digi2/><ref name=billzz>{{cite news|url=http://www.billboard.com/events/lady-gaga-announces-european-born-this-way-1006714552.story#/events/lady-gaga-announces-european-born-this-way-1006714552.story|title=Lady Gaga Announces European 'Born This Way' Tour Dates|work=Billboard|publisher=Prometheus Global Media|last=Maloy|first=Sarah|date=April 10, 2012|accessdate=April 10, 2012}}</ref> Subsequently, while German [[electronic music|electronic]] musician [[Zedd]] was declared as an opening act for the Asian leg of the tour,<ref name=beltour>{{cite web|url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/news/lady-gaga-confirms-tour-dates-16142976.html|title=Lady Gaga confirms tour dates|last=|first=|work=[[The Belfast Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Independent News & Media]]|date=April 10, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref> while longtime collaborator Lady Starlight and British [[glam rock]] band [[The Darkness (band)|The Darkness]] were approached as opening acts for the European portion of The Born This Way Ball.<ref name=billzz/> In their website, the band stated that they were "honoured to announce their addition to the bill as main support for Lady Gaga's Born This Way Ball tour 2012."<ref name=mtv222>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1682800/lady-gaga-born-this-way-ball-europe.jhtml|title=Lady Gaga Taps The Darkness To Open Born This Way Ball|first=James|last=Montgomery|publisher=MTV News. MTV Networks|date=April 10, 2012|accessdate=April 10, 2012}}</ref>

==Development==
Lady Gaga sought inspiration from her previous performances in support of ''Born This Way'', as well as [[The Monster Ball Tour]]. In an interview with [[MTV News]], Gaga said that the tour's concept is "sort of a continuation of this junkyard motorcycle gang mixed with a dark Christmas."<ref name=mtv2/> She further evaluated the tour as an "electro-metal pop-opera"; "the tale of the Beginning, the genesis of the Kingdom of Fame. How we were birthed and how we will die celebrating."<ref name=bris/> Dance rehearsals occurred for approximately one month.<ref name=billzz/> In February 2012, she revealed that she would release stage designs for The Born This Way Ball via Twitter.<ref name=mtv3>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1678472/lady-gaga-born-this-way-tour-stage.jhtml|title=Lady Gaga To Reveal Born This Way Tour Stage Design|first=Jocelyn|last=Vena|publisher=MTV News. MTV Networks|date=February 3, 2012|accessdate=February 4, 2012}}</ref> Gaga unveiled a sketch of the stage design, which was designed by the singer herself and her creative team [[Haus of Gaga]].<ref name=mtv4/> Gaga tweeted: "I'm so excited. The Haus has been working so hard, we can't wait for you to see it!! Love you Little Monsters, have the time of your life."<ref name=mtv4/> The stage was completed over a period of a few months,<ref name=bris/> and was modeled after a medieval [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] [[castle]], featuring viewing towers, intricate carvings and a large catwalk to interact with the audience.<ref name=mtv4>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1678676/lady-gaga-born-this-way-stage.jhtml|title=Lady Gaga Unveils Elaborate Born This Way Stage|first=Jocelyn|last=Vena|publisher=MTV News. MTV Networks|date=February 8, 2012|accessdate=February 7, 2012}}</ref> The area enclosed by the catwalk was described by Gaga as "The Monster Pit".<ref name=sun/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/lady-gaga-reveals-born-this-way-ball-tour-design-20120207|title=Lady Gaga Reveals 'Born This Way Ball' Tour Design|date=February 7, 2012|accessdate=February 8, 2012|work=[[Rolling Stone]]|publisher=[[Jann Wenner]]}}</ref> "The Monster Pit is General Admission only, and Little Monsters [...] unlock it when they arrive to the arena or stadium. Entry to The Monster Pit is relegated [...] to the fans who have arrived first, waited all night, [...] dressed to 'Ball.' Every night Haus of Gaga will choose fans from The Monster Pit to come back stage and meet me! These tickets are not more expensive. No dress code requirement. Born This Way means anything goes."<ref name=sun>{{cite web|url=http://www.torontosun.com/2012/02/07/lady-gaga-reveals-tour-plans|title=Lady Gaga reveals tour plans|work=[[Toronto Sun]]|publisher=[[Sun Media]]|date=February 7, 2012|accessdate=February 8, 2012}}</ref>

==Commercial reception==
===Ticket sales===
The Born This Way Ball tickets ignited tremendous commercial success in several Asian and Australian markets. Tickets for the Oceania leg of The Born This Way Ball became available on February 17, 2012 through [[Ticketek]] and [[Ticketmaster]].<ref name=bris>{{cite web|url=http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/entertainment/music/lady-gaga-announces-more-dates-20120214-1t4fq.html|title=Lady Gaga announces more dates|first=Giles|last=Hardie|work=[[Brisbane Times]]|publisher=[[Fairfax Media]]|date=February 15, 2012|accessdate=February 17, 2012}}</ref> Shortly after availability, tickets for the initial two Auckland shows were sold out.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.3news.co.nz/Lady-Gagas-New-Zealand-shows-sell-out/tabid/418/articleID/243237/Default.aspx|title=Lady Gaga's New Zealand shows sell out|date=February 17, 2012|publisher=[[3 News]]|accessdate=February 17, 2012}}</ref> In response to positive ticket sales in New Zealand and Australia, nine additional concerts were scheduled as part of the Oceania leg.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/entertainment/confidential/extra-show-for-lady-gaga/story-e6frf96o-1226278931314|title=Extra show for Lady Gaga|last=Adams|first=Cameron|date=February 23, 2012|work=[[Herald Sun]] |location=Australia|publisher=[[The Herald and Weekly Times]]|accessdate=February 24, 2012}}</ref> In Hong Kong, an estimated 6,000 presale tickets became available on February 24. Tickets were sold out within three hours, prompting Live Nation to add a second concert in the city the same day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-02-24/lady-gaga-hong-kong-pre-sale-tickets-sold-in-hours-scmp-reports.html|title=Lady Gaga Hong Kong Pre-Sale Tickets Sold in Hours, SCMP Reports|first=Sandra|last=Liu|date=February 24, 2012|work=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]]|publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]]|accessdate=February 24, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scmp.com/portal/site/SCMP/menuitem.2c913216495213d5df646910cba0a0a0/?vgnextoid=fa8adb7489ea5310VgnVCM100000360a0a0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=teaser&ss=Hong+Kong&s=News|title=Gaga to stage second show|first=Vivienne|last=Chow|work=[[South China Morning Post]]|publisher=[[SCMP Group]]|date=February 25, 2012|accessdate=February 24, 2012}}</ref> Additional sellouts and positive commercial results were reported for the successive performances in Hong Kong,<Ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mtvasia.com/news/lady-gagas-born-this-way-ball-confirms-third-show-in-hk/ |title=LADY GAGA'S BORN THIS WAY BALL CONFIRMS THIRD SHOW IN HONG KONG |author=News Desk |date=March 1 2012|publisher=[[MTV Southeast Asia]] ([[MTV Networks Asia Pacific]])|accessdate=April 8, 2012|archiveurl=http://www.freezepage.com/1333959770JFPWMVMOLF |archivedate=April 8, 2012}}</ref> as well as in Taipei,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/ShowNews/WebNews_Detail.aspx?Type=aALL&ID=201203240011|title=Lady Gaga tickets sell like hot cakes in Taipei|first=Amy, Scully|last=Huang, Hsiao|publisher=Focus Taiwan|date=March 24, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref> Bangkok,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tuoitrenews.vn/cmlink/tuoitrenews/lifestyle/vietnam-fans-flock-to-thailand-for-gaga-s-concert-1.65874|title=Vietnam fans flock to Thailand for Gaga’s concert|work=[[Tuổi Trẻ]]|date=March 22, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref> Singapore,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mtvasia.com/news/lady-gaga-announces-third-and-final-show-in-sg/|title=LADY GAGA ANNOUNCES THIRD AND FINAL SHOW IN SINGAPORE|date=March 30 2012|publisher=MTV Southeast Asia (MTV Networks Asia Pacific)|accessdate=April 8, 2012|archiveurl=http://www.freezepage.com/1333959931RZXLHROYBG|archivedate=April 8, 2012}}</ref> Seoul,<ref name=wallz>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.wsj.com/scene/2012/03/30/no-little-monsters-at-lady-gagas-seoul-show/|title=No Little Monsters at Lady Gaga’s Seoul Show|first=Evan|last=Ramstad|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|publisher=[[Dow Jones & Company]]|Date=March 30, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref> and Jakarta, with the latter having sold out within two hours.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/news/lawmaker-brushes-off-muis-stance-on-lady-gaga-concert/505929|title=Lawmaker Brushes Off MUI’s Stance on Lady Gaga Concert|first=Markus|last=Sihaloho|work=Jakarta Globe |publisher=PT Jakarta Globe Media|date=March 20, 2012|accessdate=April 1, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/lifeandtimes/breaking-news-lady-gaga-to-perform-jakarta-concert/501109|title=Little Monsters Await the Landing of Lady Gaga in Jakarta|work=Jakarta Globe |publisher=PT Jakarta Globe Media|date=February 28, 2012|accessdate=February 29, 2012}}</ref> In response to the tour's early success, several socially conservative commentators have spoken out against The Born This Way Ball. Cholil Ridwan, chairman of the Islam clerical body [[Indonesian Ulema Council]], proclaimed Gaga's performances to be [[haraam]], adding that she intended to "to destroy the nation's morality".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/lady-gagas-jakarta-concert-is-haram-declares-mui-chairman/505557|title=Lady Gaga's Jakarta Concert Is Haram, Declares MUI Chairman|first=Anita, Arientha|last=Rachman, Primanita|work=Jakarta Globe |publisher=PT Jakarta Globe Media|date=March 18, 2012|accessdate=April 1, 2012}}</ref> Similar actions commenced in South Korea, where the state agency [[Korea Media Rating Board]] adjusted the minimum age rating for the concert to eighteen, which resulted in the event organizer having to refund approximately 280 out of the 38,000 tickets for the Seoul date.<ref name=wallz/><ref>{{cite web|title=Lady Gaga’s Bad Romance With Korean Rating Board|url=http://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2012/03/30/lady-gagas-bad-romance-with-korean-rating-board/|first=Evan|last=Ramstad|work=The Wall Street Journal|publisher=Dow Jones & Company|date=March 30, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=South Korea bars under-18s from Lady Gaga concert|url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/entertainment/31-Mar-2012/south-korea-bars-under-18s-from-lady-gaga-concert|accessdate=April 1, 2012|newspaper=The Nation|date=March 31, 2012}}</ref> This made Lady Gaga the fourth American musician to have age-oriented restrictions enforced at their concerts, and the first one in six years.<Ref name=korea>{{cite web|url=http://www.koreaherald.com/national/Detail.jsp?newsMLId=20120330000975|title=Lady Gaga’s Seoul concert banned for teenagers|first=Claire|last=Lee|work=[[The Korea Herald]]|publisher=Herald Media Inc.|date=April 2, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref><ref name=nytimes/> Various Christian organizations applauded such initiatives; "We are relieved," touted Sim Man-sup of the Korean Association of Church Communications, "that at least the show won't be able to influence young people. Gaga’s performance and lyrics are very eccentric in many ways. We are not against her show just for religious reasons. We don’t think her musical performance, which involves so much sexual connotations and unusual costumes, is appropriate for youngsters’ emotional development."<ref name=nytimes>{{cite web|url=http://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/04/11/little-monsters-in-south-korea-are-not-amused/|title=‘Little Monsters’ in South Korea Are Not Amused|first=Mark|last=MacDonald|work=[[The New York Times]]|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]|date=April 11, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref><ref name=korea/>

Similar successes were echoed in European markets. Several British publications indicated that presale tickets in the United Kingdom were selling beyond the demand.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/lifestyle/going-out/music/lady-gaga-uk-tour-tickets-787523|title=Lady Gaga Born This Way Ball tickets selling fast ahead of UK general sale - get 'em here|first=Roland|last=Ellison|work=[[Daily Mirror]]|publisher=[[Trinity Mirror]]|date=April 11, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsquod.com/645885/lady-gaga-tickets-on-sale-now/|title=LADY GAGA TICKETS ON SALE NOW|first=James|last=Buckley|work=Newsquod|date=April 13, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref> Industry analysts suggested that based off of internet searches that an estimated two million people could attempt to purchase a ticket out of the 75,000 that were issued for the London and Manchester dates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalspy.com/music/news/a375915/lady-gaga-born-this-way-ball-uk-tour-tickets-wont-meet-demand.html|title=Lady GaGa 'Born This Way Ball' UK tour tickets 'won't meet demand'|first=Lewis|last=Corner|publisher=Digital Spy|date=April 11, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref> Tickets became available for general sale on April 13, 2012; the London event sold out within 60 seconds,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Music/Lady-Gaga-fans-irked-as-80-UK-gig-tickets-go-for-1100/Article1-840560.aspx|title=Lady Gaga fans irked as £80 UK gig tickets go for £1100|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|publisher=[[HT Media Ltd]]|date=April 13, 2012|accessdate=April 14, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/music/news-and-interviews/Lady-Gaga-fans-swindled/articleshow/12664271.cms|title=Lady Gaga fans swindled|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=[[The Times Group]]|date=April 13, 2012|accessdate=April 14, 2012}}</ref> while the Manchester concert sold out under ten minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.entertainmentwise.com/news/73535/Lady-Gaga-Born-This-Way-Ball-Tickets-Sell-Out-In-Record-Time-|title=Lady Gaga 'Born This Way Ball' Tickets Sell Out In Record Time|first=Holly|last=Firth|publisher=Entertainment Wise|date=April 13, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stereoboard.com/content/view/171894/9|title=LADY GAGA TICKETS FOR BORN THIS WAY BALL UK DATES SELL-OUT WITHIN MINUTES|first=Jon|last=Strickler|publisher=Stereoboard|Date=April 13, 2012|accessdate=April 13, 2012}}</ref>

==Opening acts==
* [[Zedd (producer)|Zedd]] – (Asian Leg)<ref name=beltour/>
* [[The Darkness (band)|The Darkness]] – (European Leg)<ref name=billzz/>
* [[Lady Starlight]] – (European Leg) (selected dates)<ref name=billzz/>

==Tour dates==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!width="150"|Date
!width="150"|City
!width="150"|Country
!width="300"|Venue
|-
|- style="background:#ddd;"
|colspan="4"|'''Asia'''<ref>Sources for dates in Asia:
*{{cite web |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/295338/20120208/lady-gaga-tour-dates-2012-born-way.htm |title=Lady Gaga Tour Dates 2012: 'Born This Way' Ball to Have 110 Shows |date=February 8, 2012 |publisher=[[International Business Times]] |publisher=The International Business Times Inc.|accessdate=April 8, 2012|archiveurl=http://www.freezepage.com/1333959513VZGQBNBIJQ |archivedate=April 8, 2012}}
*{{cite web |url=http://ph.omg.yahoo.com/news/confirmed--lady-gaga%E2%80%99s-born-this-way-ball-tour-live-in-manila-on-may-21--.html |title=CONFIRMED! Lady Gaga’s Born This Way Ball Tour live in Manila on May 21! |author=Rodriguez, Ces |date=March 30, 2012 |publisher=Yahoo! |accessdate=April 8, 2012|archiveurl=http://www.freezepage.com/1333960007LJXXIBUFQS |archivedate=April 8, 2012}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2012/03/31/2003529130 |title=Pop Stop |author=Yi, Ho |date=March 31, 2012 |work=The Taipei Times |publisher=The Liberty Times Group |accessdate=April 8, 2012|archiveurl=http://www.freezepage.com/1333960206UDVTMHQJOY |archivedate=April 8, 2012}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/asia/286707/gaga-a-no-go-for-under-18s|title=Gaga a no-go for under-18s|date=March 30, 2012 |work=[[Bangkok Post]] |publisher=Post Publishing Public Co. Ltd. |accessdate=April 8, 2012|archiveurl=http://www.freezepage.com/1333960624AOJAOOKHQP |archivedate=April 8, 2012}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/entertainment/ticket-sales-set-to-begin-for-lady-gaga-concert-in-jakarta/503411 |title=Ticket Sales Set to Begin for Lady Gaga Concert in Jakarta |author=Siregar, Lisa |date=March 8, 2012 |work=Jakarta Globe |publisher=PT Jakarta Globe Media |accessdate=April 8, 2012|archiveurl=http://www.freezepage.com/1333960880SVTMYUBKDO |archivedate=April 8, 2012}}</ref>
|-
|April 27, 2012
|[[Seoul]]
|[[South Korea]]
|[[Olympic Stadium (Seoul)|Olympic Stadium]]
|-
|May 2, 2012
|rowspan="4"|[[Hong Kong]]
|rowspan="4"|[[China]]
|rowspan="4"|[[AsiaWorld-Arena]]
|-
|May 3, 2012
|-
|May 5, 2012
|-
|May 7, 2012
|-
|May 10, 2012
|rowspan="3"|[[Tokyo]]
|rowspan="3"|[[Japan]]
|rowspan="3"|[[Saitama Super Arena]]
|-
|May 12, 2012
|-
|May 13, 2012
|-
|May 17, 2012
|rowspan="2"|[[Taipei]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Taiwan]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Taipei World Trade Center Nangang Exhibition Hall]]
|-
|May 18, 2012
|-
|May 21, 2012
|[[Manila]]
|[[Philippines]]
|[[Mall of Asia Arena]]
|-
|May 25, 2012
|[[Bangkok]]
|[[Thailand]]
|[[Rajamangala Stadium|Rajamangala National Stadium]]
|-
|May 28, 2012
|rowspan="3"|[[Singapore]]
|rowspan="3"|[[Singapore]]
|rowspan="3"|[[Singapore Indoor Stadium]]
|-
|May 29, 2012
|-
|May 31, 2012
|-
|June 3, 2012
|[[Jakarta]]
|[[Indonesia]]
|[[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]]
|-
|- style="background:#ddd;"
|colspan="4"|'''Oceania'''<ref>Sources for dates in Oceania: *{{cite web |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/music/6466383/Third-Lady-Gaga-show-confirmed |title=Third Lady Gaga show confirmed |author=Jones, Bridget |date=February 23, 2012 |work=[[Stuff.co.nz]] |publisher=[[Fairfax New Zealand]] |accessdate=April 8, 2012|archiveurl=http://www.freezepage.com/1333958965TDKQQTKEWB |archivedate=April 8, 2012}}
*{{cite web |url=http://au.tv.yahoo.com/sunrise/factsheets/article/-/12904539/new-lady-gaga-tour-dates-2012/ |title=New Lady Gaga Tour Dates 2012! |date=February 2012 |work=[[Yahoo!7|Yahoo!7 TV]] |publisher=[[Seven West Media]] / [[Yahoo!]] |accessdate=April 8, 2012|archiveurl=http://www.freezepage.com/1333959097APJFHPHLCS |archivedate=April 8, 2012}}</ref>
|-
|June 7, 2012
|rowspan="3"|[[Auckland]]
|rowspan="3"|[[New Zealand]]
|rowspan="3"|[[Vector Arena]]
|-
|June 8, 2012
|-
|June 10, 2012
|-
|June 13, 2012
|rowspan="3"|[[Brisbane]]
|rowspan="14"|[[Australia]]
|rowspan="3"|[[Brisbane Entertainment Centre]]
|-
|June 14, 2012
|-
|June 16, 2012
|-
|June 20, 2012
|rowspan="4"|[[Sydney]]
|rowspan="4"|[[Sydney Super Dome|Allphones Arena]]
|-
|June 21, 2012
|-
|June 23, 2012
|-
|June 24, 2012
|-
|June 27, 2012
|rowspan="5"|[[Melbourne]]
|rowspan="5"|[[Rod Laver Arena]]
|-
|June 28, 2012
|-
|June 30, 2012
|-
|July 1, 2012
|-
|July 3, 2012
|-
|July 7, 2012
|rowspan="2"|[[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Burswood Entertainment Complex#Burswood Dome|Burswood Dome]]
|-
|July 8, 2012
|-
|- style="background:#ddd;"
|colspan="4"|'''Europe'''<ref name=digi2>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.com/music/news/a375595/lady-gaga-uk-tour-dates-confirmed-for-london-manchester.html|title=Lady GaGa UK tour dates confirmed for London, Manchester|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|date=April 10, 2012|accessdate=April 10, 2012}}</ref>
|-
|August 14, 2012
|[[Sofia]]
|[[Bulgaria]]
|[[Vasil Levski National Stadium]]
|-
|August 16, 2012
|[[Bucharest]]
|[[Romania]]
|[[Arena Națională]]
|-
|August 18, 2012
|[[Vienna]]
|[[Austria]]
|[[Wiener Stadthalle]]
|-
|August 21, 2012
|[[Vilnius]]
|[[Lithuania]]
|[[Vingis Park]]
|-
|August 23, 2012
|[[Riga]]
|[[Latvia]]
|[[Mežaparks|Mežaparks Grand Stage]]
|-
|August 25, 2012
|[[Tallinn]]
|[[Estonia]]
|[[Tallinn Song Festival Grounds]]
|-
|August 27, 2012
|[[Helsinki]]
|[[Finland]]
|[[Hartwall Areena]]
|-
|August 30, 2012
|[[Stockholm]]
|[[Sweden]]
|[[Ericsson Globe]]
|-
|September 2, 2012
|[[Copenhagen]]
|[[Denmark]]
|[[Parken Stadium]]
|-
|September 4, 2012
|rowspan|[[Cologne]]
|rowspan|[[Germany]]
|rowspan|[[Lanxess Arena]]
|-
|September 8, 2012
|rowspan="2"|[[London]]
|rowspan="3"|[[England]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Twickenham Stadium]]
|-
|September 9, 2012
|-
|September 11, 2012
|[[Manchester]]
|[[Manchester Arena]]
|-
|September 15, 2012
|[[Dublin]]
|[[Ireland]]
|[[Aviva Stadium]]
|-
|September 17, 2012
|[[Amsterdam]]
|[[Netherlands]]
|[[Ziggo Dome]]
|-
|September 22, 2012
|[[Paris]]
|[[France]]
|[[Stade de France]]
|-
|September 24, 2012
|[[Hanover]]
|Germany
|[[TUI Arena]]
|-
|September 26, 2012
|[[Zurich]]
|[[Switzerland]]
||[[Hallenstadion]]
|-
|September 29, 2012
|[[Antwerp]]
|[[Belgium]]
|[[Sportpaleis]]
|-
|October 2, 2012
|[[Milan]]
|[[Italy]]
|[[Mediolanum Forum]]
|-
|October 4, 2012
|[[Nice]]
|[[France]]
|[[Stade Charles-Ehrmann]]
|-
|October 6, 2012
|[[Barcelona]]
|[[Spain]]
|[[Palau Sant Jordi]]
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Lady Gaga}}

[[Category:2012 concert tours]]
[[Category:Lady Gaga concert tours]]

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