Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Merchants of Doubt

2019-05-08T19:25:42Z

InverseHypercube: /* See also */ I don't see how this book is relevant

{{About|the book|the film based on the book|Merchants of Doubt (film)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming
| image = Merchants of DOUBT.jpg
| image_size = 197px
| caption =
| author = [[Naomi Oreskes]], [[Erik M. Conway]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country =
| series =
| subject = Scientists—Professional Ethics Science news—Moral and ethical aspects
| published = June 3, 2010 [[Bloomsbury Press]]
| media_type =
| pages = 355 pp.
| isbn = 978-1-59691-610-4
| oclc = 461631066
| dewey = 174.95
| congress = Q147 .O74 2010
}}

'''''Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming''''' is a 2010 non-fiction book by American [[History of science|historians of science]] [[Naomi Oreskes]] and [[Erik M. Conway]]. It identifies parallels between the [[global warming controversy]] and earlier controversies over [[tobacco smoking]], [[acid rain]], [[DDT]], and the [[ozone depletion|hole in the ozone layer]]. Oreskes and Conway write that in each case "keeping the controversy alive" by spreading doubt and confusion after a scientific consensus had been reached was the basic strategy of those opposing action.<ref name = stek>{{cite news |author=Steketee, Mike |title=Some sceptics make it a habit to be wrong |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/some-sceptics-make-it-a-habit-to-be-wrong/story-fn59niix-1225956414538 |newspaper=[[The Australian]] |date=November 20, 2010 }}</ref> In particular, they say that [[Fred Seitz]], [[Fred Singer]], and a few other [[contrarian]] scientists joined forces with conservative [[think tank]]s and private corporations to challenge the scientific consensus on many contemporary issues.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Naomi |last1=Oreskes |first2=Erik M. |last2=Conway |title=Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpMh3nh3JI0C&pg=PP4 |year=2010 |publisher=Bloomsbury Press |isbn=978-1-59691-610-4 |page=6 |ref=harv}} [http://www.merchantsofdoubt.org/index.html merchantsofdoubt.org]</ref>

The [[George C. Marshall Institute]] and Fred Singer, two of the subjects, have been critical of the book, but most reviewers received it favorably. One reviewer said that ''Merchants of Doubt'' is exhaustively researched and documented, and may be one of the most important books of 2010. Another reviewer saw the book as his choice for best [[science book]] of the year.<ref name=Mckie8/> It was made into a film, ''[[Merchants of Doubt (film)|Merchants of Doubt]]'', directed by [[Robert Kenner]], released in 2014.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://sonyclassics.com/merchantsofdoubt/ | title=Merchants of Doubt | publisher=Sony Pictures Classics | accessdate=March 8, 2015}}</ref>

==Themes==
[[File:S Fred Singer 2011.jpg |thumb|right |[[Fred Singer]] (2011), a prominent opponent of greenhouse gas regulation.]]
Oreskes and Conway write that a handful of [[Conservatism in the United States|politically conservative]] scientists, with strong ties to particular industries, have "played a disproportionate role in debates about controversial questions".<ref name=pk/> The authors write that this has resulted in "deliberate obfuscation" of the issues which has had an influence on [[Public opinion on climate change|public opinion]] and [[Climate change policy of the United States|policy-making]].<ref name=pk>{{cite journal |author=Kitcher, Philip |authorlink=Philip Kitcher |title=The Climate Change Debates |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=328 |issue=5983 |pages=1231–2 |date=June 4, 2010 |doi=10.1126/science.1189312 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/328/5983/1230-a }}</ref>

The book criticizes the so-called Merchants of Doubt, some predominantly American science key players, above all [[William Nierenberg|Bill Nierenberg]], [[Fred Seitz]], and [[Fred Singer]]. All three are physicists: Singer was a space and satellite researcher, whereas Nierenberg and Seitz worked on the atomic bomb.<ref name=sb>{{cite news |author=Brown, Seth |title='Merchants of Doubt' delves into contrarian scientists |url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/books/reviews/2010-06-01-deathmerchants01_ST_N.htm |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |date=May 31, 2010 }}</ref> They have been active on topics like acid rain, tobacco smoking, global warming and pesticides. The book claims that these scientists have challenged and diluted the [[scientific consensus]] in the various fields, as of the [[dangers of smoking]], the effects of acid rain, the existence of the ozone hole, and the existence of [[anthropogenic climate change]].<ref name=pk/> Seitz and Singer have been involved with institutions such as [[The Heritage Foundation]], [[Competitive Enterprise Institute]] and [[George C. Marshall Institute]] in the United States. Funded by [[corporation]]s and conservative [[Foundation (United States law)|foundations]], these organizations have opposed many forms of [[Economic interventionism|state intervention]] or regulation of U.S. citizens. The book lists similar tactics in each case: "discredit the science, disseminate false information, spread confusion, and promote doubt".<ref name=rm/>

The book states that Seitz, Singer, Nierenberg and [[Robert Jastrow]] were all fiercely [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] and they viewed government regulation as a step towards [[socialism]] and [[communism]]. The authors argue that, with the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]], they looked for another great threat to free market capitalism and found it in environmentalism. They feared that an over-reaction to environmental problems would lead to heavy-handed government intervention in the marketplace and intrusion into people's lives.<ref name=ocmerch/> Oreskes and Conway state that the longer the delay the worse these problems get, and the more likely it is that governments will need to take the draconian measures that conservatives and [[market fundamentalism|market fundamentalists]] most fear. They say that Seitz, Singer, Nierenberg and Jastrow denied the scientific evidence, contributed to a strategy of delay, and thereby helped to bring about the situation they most dreaded.<ref name=ocmerch>{{harvnb|Oreskes|Conway|2010|pp=248–255}}</ref> The authors have a strong doubt about the ability of the media to differentiate between false truth and the actual science in question; however, they stop short of endorsing censorship in the name of science.<ref name ="RG" /> The journalistic norm of balanced reporting has helped, according to the authors, to amplify the misleading messages of the contrarians. Oreskes and Conway state: "small numbers of people can have large, negative impacts, especially if they are organised, determined and have access to power".<ref name=rm>{{cite news |author=McKie, Robin |title=A dark ideology is driving those who deny climate change |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/aug/01/climate-change-robin-mckie |newspaper=The Guardian |date=August 1, 2010 }}</ref>

The main conclusion of the book is that there would have been more progress in policymaking, if not for the influence of the contrarian "experts", which tried for ideological reasons to undermine trust in the science base for regulation.<ref name="RG">{{cite journal|last1=Grundmann|first1=Reiner|title=Debunking sceptical propaganda|journal=BioSocieties|date=29 August 2013|volume=8|issue=3|pages=370–374|doi=10.1057/biosoc.2013.15|url=https://www.academia.edu/4754580/Debunking_skeptical_propaganda_Book_review_of_Oreskes_Conway_Merchants_of_Doubt}}</ref> Similar conclusions were already drawn, among others on [[Frederick Seitz]] and [[William Nierenberg]] in the book ''[[Requiem for a Species|Requiem for a Species: Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change]]'' (2010) by Australian academic [[Clive Hamilton]].

==Reception==
Most reviewers received "Merchants of Doubt" "enthusiastically".<ref>Christian Rohr, ''Die Machiavellis der Wissenschaft. Das Netzwerk des Leugnens.'' In: ''Physik in unserer Zeit'' 46, Issue 2, 2015, p. 100, {{DOI|10.1002/piuz.201590021}}.</ref>

[[Philip Kitcher]] in ''[[Science (magazine)|Science]]'' says that Naomi Oreskes and Erik Conway are "two outstanding historians".<ref name=pk/> He calls ''Merchants of Doubt'' a "fascinating and important study". Kitcher says that the apparently harsh claims against Nierenberg, Seitz, and Singer are "justified through a powerful dissection of the ways in which prominent climate scientists, such as [[Roger Revelle]] and [[Ben Santer]], were exploited or viciously attacked in the press".<ref name=pk/>

In ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'', Will Buchanan says that ''Merchants of Doubt'' is exhaustively researched and documented, and may be one of the most important books of 2010. Oreskes and Conway are seen to demonstrate that the doubt merchants are not "objective scientists" as the term is popularly understood. Instead, they are "science-speaking mercenaries" hired by corporations to process numbers to prove that the corporations' products are safe and useful. Buchanan says they are salesmen, not scientists.<ref>Buchanan, Will (June 22, 2010). [http://www.csmonitor.com/Books/Book-Reviews/2010/0622/Merchants-of-Doubt Merchants of Doubt: How "scientific" misinformation campaigns sold untruths to consumers] ''The Christian Science Monitor''.</ref>

Bud Ward published a review of the book in ''The Yale Forum on Climate and the Media''. He wrote that Oreskes and Conway use a combination of thorough scholarly research combined with writing reminiscent of the best investigative journalism, to "unravel deep common links to past environmental and public health controversies".<ref name="Ward">Ward, Bud (July 8, 2010). [http://www.yaleclimatemediaforum.org/2010/07/merchants-of-doubt/ Reviews: Leaving No Doubt on Tobacco, Acid Rain, Climate Change], ''The Yale Forum on Climate and the Media''.</ref> In terms of climate science, the authors' leave "little doubt about their disdain for what they regard as the misuse and abuse of science by a small cabal of scientists they see as largely lacking in requisite climate science expertise".<ref name="Ward" />

Phil England writes in ''[[The Ecologist]]'' that the strength of the book is the rigour of the research and the detailed focus on key incidents. He said, however, that the climate change chapter is only 50 pages long, and recommends several other books for readers who want to get a broader picture of this aspect: [[Jim Hoggan]]'s ''Climate Cover-Up'', [[George Monbiot]]'s ''Heat: How to Stop the Planet Burning'' and [[Ross Gelbspan]]'s ''The Heat is On'' and ''Boiling Point''. England also said that there is little coverage about the millions of dollars which [[Exxon Mobil]] has put into funding groups actively involved in promoting [[climate change denial]] and doubt.<ref>England, Phil (September 10, 2010). [http://www.theecologist.org/reviews/books/592288/merchants_of_doubt.html Merchants of Doubt] ''[[The Ecologist]]''.</ref>

A review in ''[[The Economist]]'' calls this a powerful book which articulates the politics involved and the degree to which scientists have sometimes manufactured and exaggerated environmental uncertainties, but opines that the authors fail to fully explain how environmental action has still often proved possible despite countervailing factors.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/node/16374460 All guns blazing: A question of dodgy science], (June 17, 2010), ''[[The Economist]]''.</ref>

[[Robert N. Proctor]], who coined the term "[[agnotology]]" to describe the study of culturally induced ignorance or doubt, wrote in ''[[American Scientist]]'' that ''Merchants of Doubt'' is a detailed and artfully written book. He set it in the context of other books which cover the "history of manufactured ignorance":<ref name="Proctor">Proctor, Robert (September–October 2010). [http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/manufactured-ignorance Book Review: Manufactured Ignorance], ''[[American Scientist]]''.</ref> [[David Michaels (epidemiologist)|David Michaels]]'s ''[[Doubt is their Product]]'' (2008), [[Chris Mooney (journalist)|Chris Mooney]]'s ''[[The Republican War on Science]]'' (2009), [[David Rosner]] and Gerald Markowitz's ''[[Deceit and Denial]]'' (2002), and his own book ''[[Cancer Wars]]'' (1995).<ref name="Proctor" />

Robin McKie in ''[[The Guardian]]'' states that Oreskes and Conway deserve considerable praise for exposing the influence of a small group of [[Cold War]] ideologues. Their tactic of spreading doubt has confused the public about a series of key scientific issues such as global warming, even though scientists have actually become more certain about their research results. McKie says that ''Merchants of Doubt'' includes detailed notes on all sources used, is carefully paced, and is "my runaway contender for best science book of the year".<ref name=Mckie8>McKie, Robin (August 8, 2010). [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2010/aug/08/merchants-of-doubt-oreskes-conway "Merchants of Doubt by Naomi Oreskes and Erik M Conway".] ''The Guardian''.</ref>

Sociologist [[Reiner Grundmann]]'s review in ''[[BioSocieties]]'' journal, acknowledges that the book is well researched and factually based, but criticizes the book as being written in a black and white manner whereas historians should write a more nuanced description. The book depicts special interests and contrarians misleading the public as being mainly responsible for stopping action on policy. He says this shows a lack of basic understanding of the political process and the mechanisms of [[knowledge policy]], because the authors assume that public policy would follow on from an understanding of the science. While the book provides ''all the (formal) hallmarks of science'', Grundmann sees it less as a scholarly work than a passionate attack and overall as a problematic book.<ref name="RG" />

William O'Keefe and Jeff Kueter from the [[George C. Marshall Institute]], which was founded by Seitz,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Begley|first1=Sharon|title=Global Warming Deniers: A Well-Funded Machine|url=http://www.newsweek.com/global-warming-deniers-well-funded-machine-99295|website=Newsweek|date=4 August 2007|quote=...a central cog in the denial machine: the George C. Marshall Institute, a conservative think tank.}}</ref> say that although ''Merchants of Doubt'' has the appearance of a scholarly work, it discredits and undermines the reputations of people who in their lifetime contributed greatly to the American nation. They say that it does this by questioning their integrity, impugning their character, and questioning their judgement.<ref>{{cite web | last=O'Keefe | first= William |last2= Kueter| first2=Jeff | date=June 2010 | url=http://marshall.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/OKeefe-and-Kueter-Clouding-the-Truth-A-Critique-of-Merchants-of-Doubt.pdf |title=Clouding the Truth: A Critique of Merchants of Doubt |publisher=[[George C. Marshall Institute]] |work=Policy Outlook | quote=Although cloaked in the appearance of scholarly work, the book constitutes an effort to discredit and undermine the reputations of three deceased scientists who contributed greatly to our nation... This book questions their integrity, impugns their character, and questions their judgment on the basis of little more than faulty logic and preconceived opinion}}</ref>

==Authors==
[[File:Naomi Oreskes 2nd European TA conference in Berlin 2015 (cropped to collar).JPG |thumb|right |[[Naomi Oreskes]] (2015), co-author of ''Merchants of Doubt''.]]
Naomi Oreskes is Professor of History and Science Studies at Harvard University. She has degrees in geological science and a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[Geological]] Research and the History of Science. Her work came to public attention in 2004 with the publication of "The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change," in ''Science'', in which she wrote that there was no significant disagreement in the scientific community about the reality of global warming from human causes.<ref name=collins>[http://www.marcovigevani.com/upload/london_2008/Collins_Literary_London_2008_Rights_List.pdf Collins Literary Agency Rights Guide/March 2008]</ref> Erik M. Conway is the historian at [[NASA]]'s [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] at the [[California Institute of Technology]] in [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]].<ref name=collins/>

==See also==
* [[Climate change controversy]]
* [[Climate change policy of the United States]]
* [[Fear, uncertainty and doubt]]
* [[Greenhouse Mafia]]
* [[Health effects of tobacco]]
* [[List of books about the politics of science]]
* [[List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming]] in contrast with [[Scientific opinion on climate change]]
* [[Manufactured controversy]]
* [[Media coverage of climate change]]
* [[Scientific consensus]]
* [[Tobacco control movement]]
* [[Tobacco politics]]

=== Other books on the same theme ===
* ''[[Doubt Is Their Product: How Industry's Assault on Science Threatens Your Health]]'' (2008) by [[David Michaels (epidemiologist)|David Michaels]]
* ''Climate Cover-Up: The Crusade to Deny Global Warming'' (2009) by James Hoggan and Richard Littlemore
* ''[[Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand]]'' (2011) by Haydn Washington and John Cook

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{official website|http://www.merchantsofdoubt.org/index.html}}
* [http://www.abc.net.au/rn/scienceshow/stories/2011/3101369.htm Merchants of Doubt], Public Lecture (2010), [[University of NSW]], ''The Science Show'', [[ABC Radio National]], January 8, 2011.

{{Portal bar|Global warming|Environment}}

[[Category:2010 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:2010 in the environment]]
[[Category:21st-century history books]]
[[Category:History books about science]]
[[Category:History books about politics]]
[[Category:Climate change books]]
[[Category:Climate change skepticism and denial]]
[[Category:Environmental non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Political books]]
[[Category:Books about the politics of science]]
[[Category:Books adapted into films]]
[[Category:Professional ethics]]
[[Category:Doubt]]

Floridastrom

2017-12-12T08:32:30Z

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[[File:Florida Current map.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
Der '''Floridastrom''' ist eine warme [[Meeresströmung]] entlang der Südostküste des US-Bundesstaates [[Florida]].

Er ist die Fortsetzung der [[Karibische Strömung|Karibischen Strömung]], durchfließt die [[Floridastraße]] zwischen Florida und [[Kuba]] in östliche Richtung und biegt dann zwischen Florida und den [[Bahamas]] nach Nordosten ab. Nördlich der Bahamas vereinigt er sich mit dem [[Antillenstrom]] zum [[Golfstrom]].

Er ist Teil des großen atlantischen Stromrings bestehend aus dem Portugalstrom, dem Kanarenstrom, dem Nordäquatorialstrom, dem Antillenstrom, dem Floridastrom, dem Golfstrom und dem Nordostatlantischen Strom. <ref>Schultz et al., Sporthochseeschifferschein, Delius Klasing, ISBN 978-3-7688-1820-9 </ref>

Der Floridastrom befördert etwa 32·106 [[Kubikmeter|m3]] Wasser pro Sekunde (32 [[Sverdrup (Einheit)|sv]]), bei einer Geschwindigkeit von 1,8 m/s.

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

==Siehe auch==
* [[Globales Förderband]]
* [[Müllstrudel]]

==Weblinks==
*[http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/floridacurrent/ Messung des Floridastroms in der Floridastraße]

[[Kategorie:Meeresströmung]]

Milagro Sala

2017-07-11T23:49:28Z

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{{Infobox person
| name = Milagro Sala
| image = Milagro Sala (cropped).jpg
| caption =
| image_size = 200px
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1964|1|27}}
| birth_place = [[San Salvador de Jujuy]], Argentina
| nationality = Argentine
| alma_mater =
| occupation = President of the Tupac Amaru Neighborhood Association
| networth =
| religion =
| spouse =
| children =
| residence =
| salary =
}}
'''Milagro Amalia Ángela Sala''' (born January 27, 1964) is a leader of the Tupac Amaru neighborhood association,<ref name=we>[http://www.we-magazine.net/we-volume-03/milagro/ ''We Magazine''] “Milagro” is Spanish for “miracle” which is what many think Milagro Sala has accomplished. Like other jobless groups in Argentina her organization, Tupac Amaru (named after a revolutionary 18th century Inca), received money from the government. But unlike most of them, the organization of this diminutive Indigenous woman has gained the love and respect of her people.</ref> part of the Association of State Workers (ATE) of [[Jujuy Province|Jujuy]], and a leading figure in the ''Movimiento [[piquetero]]'' of [[Argentina]].

On January 16, 2016, Sala was arrested on charges of fraud and criminal conspiracy in with her alleged embezzlement of [[Argentine peso|ARS]] $30,000,000 intended by the government to help the poor.<ref>[http://www.infobae.com/2016/01/19/1784011-ampliaron-la-denuncia-contra-milagro-sala-y-ex-funcionarios-asociacion-ilicita ''Ampliaron la denuncia contra Milagro Sala y exfuncionarios por "asociación ilícita"''], ''Infobae'' 19 Jan. 2016 (Buenos Aires) (in Spanish).</ref>

Several human rights organizations, like [[Amnesty International]], denounced Argentina's government at the [[Working Group on Arbitrary Detention]] (GAD) of the [[United Nations]], alleging the illegal detention of Milagro Sala. On October 28th 2016 the GAD decided that the detention of Milagro Sala was arbitrary and ordered Argentina's government to free her immediately.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/un-panel-tells-argentina-to-release-activist-milagro-sala/2016/10/28/7d2403f4-9d6d-11e6-b552-b1f85e484086_story.html|website=The Washington Post|title=UN panel tells Argentina to release activist Milagro Sala|date=28 de octubre de 2016|first=Luis Andrés |last=Henao}}</ref> The Argentina government considered that the GAD decision was not mandatory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telam.com.ar/notas/201610/168703-onu-milagro-sala.html|website=telam|title=DDHH
El Gobierno y el CELS hacen distintas lecturas de la resolución del organismo de la ONU sobre Milagro Sala|date=October 28 2016}}</ref>

==Early life==
Sala was born in the Lower Azopardo neighborhood of [[San Salvador de Jujuy]].<ref name=p12>[http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/contratapa/13-139694-2010-02-06.html ''Página 12''] "Milagro también es peronista desde niña. Su madre adoptiva, de quien estuvo distanciada muchos años pero a quien siempre amó mucho, y sigue haciéndolo, le escribió una vez una carta a Evita y tuvo respuesta. Le llegó una de aquellas máquinas de coser de las que habla la leyenda. A Jujuy llegó aquella Singer. A Jujuy nunca había llegado nada."</ref> At 15 years old she discovered that she was adopted and that her biological mother had abandoned her in a cardboard box in front of a hospital. She left the house where she was raised. She lived for years among hustlers, drug dealers, thieves and prostitutes. She was a [[shoe shine]]r, robbed with her friends, and abused [[narcotics]]; at age 18 she was caught and jailed. There, she organized a hunger [[hunger strike|strike]] that resulted in her being allowed to cook for her fellow female prisoners, with better food at equal cost. She spent eight months in prison, and counseled other Lower Azopardo prostitutes toward changing their situation and leaving that environment.

Sala subsequently joined the [[Argentine Workers' Center]] (CTA). She gained nationwide notoriety for the power she obtained in the Province of Jujuy through the ''Asociacion barrial'' Tupac Amaru (Tupac Amaru neighborhood association).<ref name=we/> This [[NGO]] manages a 200 million [[Argentine peso|peso]] (us$50 million) budget, at least 40 vehicles, and over 300 firearms registered in RENAR.<ref>[http://edant.clarin.com/diario/2009/10/25/um/m-02026579.htm Milagro Sala: Una comandante K...]</ref> Its influence led to conflict with conservative political figures in Jujuy, however, and following a series of exchanged accusations. She’s also had charges filed for death threats and destruction of property by Senator [[Gerardo Morales (politician)|Gerardo Morales]].<ref>[http://www.clarin.com/politica/Procesan-piquetera-Milagro-Sala-amenazas_0_348565326.html Procesan a la piquetera Milagro Sala por amenazas y daños 06/10/10 - 10:04]</ref><ref>[http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1312198 La Nacion Newspaper article]</ref> She denied involvement in a 2009 incident in which two youths attacked Morales, asserting that the accusations are politically motivated and without proof.<ref name=punto>{{cite web|url=http://www.insurrectasypunto.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2628:argentina-violencia-mediatica-odio-de-clase-y-genero-contra-milagro-salas&catid=4:notas&Itemid=4|title=Violencia mediática, odio de clase y género contra Milagro Salas|publisher=''Insurrectas y Punto''}}</ref>

She is the mother of two children, and the adoptive mother of twelve.<ref name=p12/>

==''Asociacion barrial'' Tupac Amaru==
[[File:Tupac amaru ii 01.png|thumb|150px|[[Tupac Amaru]], symbol and namesake of the Tupac Amaru association founded by Milagro Sala]]

Tupac Amaru receives 7.9 million pesos (us$1.9 million) per month for [[public housing]] construction subsidies from the National Government.<ref>[http://momento24.com/en/2009/10/25/milagros-sala-the-governor-of-a-parallel-state/ milagros-sala-the-governor-of-a-parallel-state (EN)]</ref> It includes 70,000 affiliates, whose membership is requisite in keeping their children in school, where applicable. Members form [[housing cooperative]]s through which government subsidies are channeled, and which completed 3,000 housing units by the end of 2009.<ref name=punto/> The organization also manages six factories employing 5,000 workers in the [[construction material]], [[tool and die]], and [[textile]] industries. It maintains two schools and a clinic equipped with a [[MRI scanner]].<ref name=punto/>

The political ideology of the Tupac Amaru organization is represented by the historical figures of [[Tupac Amaru]], [[Che Guevara]] and [[Eva Perón]].<ref>[http://artepolitica.com/comunidad/entrevista-con-milagro-sala-conductora-de-la-organizacion-tupac-amaru-en-jujuy/ ''Arte Politica''] Túpac Amaru es el que representa a nuestros antepasados y también Evita y el Che Guevara.</ref> They consider themselves ''[[Indigenism|indigienista]]'', proclaiming the government of [[Bolivia]]n President [[Evo Morales]] as a political model.<ref>[http://www.elojodigital.com/politica/2009/10/11/1782.html ''El Ojo Digital''] El vertiginoso desarrollo de Tupac Amaru en 17 provincias tiene que ver con una característica original: es la única organización social que capta políticamente a las comunidades indígenas. Sala lidera los reclamos de tres comunidades, los guaraníes, los coyas y los mapuches, siendo los dos últimos los más activos. Pese a ser una dirigente promocionada por la Casa Rosada, su terminal política no es Kirchner sino Evo Morales. En la ceremonia del Tiwanako del año pasado, Sala se sentó a pocos metros del mandatario boliviano para festejar el "renacimiento de los pueblos originarios."</ref>

Sala attributes many of the accusations against the group and herself to [[Racism in Argentina|racism]], affirming that ''"we will be investigated, while there was corruption among companies. I am dark skinned, and a [[Kolla people|Kolla]], but I´m not stupid."'' <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buenosairesherald.com/article/70547/milagro-sala-defends-her-housing-programme-|title=Milagro Sala defends her housing programme|publisher=Buenos Aires Herald''}}</ref>

Tupac Amaru established branches elsewhere in Argentina, including [[Salta]], [[Tucumán]], [[Santiago del Estero]], [[Buenos Aires]] (the [[villa miseria|Villa 31]]), and [[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]]; these new chapters total 16 organizations.<ref>[http://www.tupacamaru.org.ar/nota.asp?wVarID=65 Tupac Amaru] Ya estamos avanzando, en Salta tenemos Tupac Amaru, en Tucumán, en Santiago del Estero, también estamos teniendo Tupac Amaru; en Capital Federal, en la Villa 31; trece, quince, dieciséis, también en Mendoza. Estamos avanzando despacio, la idea es tratar de instalarnos en todos los lugares y pelearla. Mirá, una manera de no ser egoísta: Mendoza, por ejemplo, nosotros conseguimos doscientas viviendas para los mendocinos de la Tupac. Ahora, si nosotros hubiésemos tenido una mentalidad cerrada, de decir todo para nosotros, hubiésemos dicho, por qué tenemos que conseguirle doscientas viviendas a Mendoza, cuando podía haber traído esas doscientas viviendas a Jujuy; por qué tenemos que conseguirle ciento veinte viviendas a Salta, en lugar de traerlas para acá.</ref>

[[Gerardo Morales (politician)|Gerardo Morales]] was elected governor in 2015, and denounced that Sala may have committed financial fraud and a discretional use of the money. Morales ordered that the organizations trusted with the payment of subsidies should do so through bank accounts, so that the money can be traced. Most organizations agreed with the proposal, breaking up the ''Tupac Amaru'' organization. Sala, who started a demonstration in the main plaza of Jujuy when Morales took office, refused to do so. She also refused to leave the plaza after a month of staying there. She was eventually detained, accused of public disorder.<ref>[http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1862937-tension-en-jujuy-detuvieron-a-milagro-sala-pero-mantienen-el-acampe-contra-morales Tensión en Jujuy: detuvieron a Milagro Sala, pero mantienen el acampe contra Morales] {{es}}</ref>

Amnesty International considers “that Milagro Sala is being criminalized for peacefully exercising her rights to freedom of expression and protest” and, along with other human rights groups, have called for the granting of precautionary measures to guarantee the liberty of Milagro Sala, along with the exercise of freedom of expression and the right to social protest in Argentina. <ref>https://docs.google.com/document/d/1fWKNz5ehGAQWjXSsapl4fde0vHgeIjLWAY6svyh7u-I/edit</ref><ref>http://www.amnestyusa.org/sites/default/files/uaa01316_0.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.cels.org.ar/comunicacion/?info=detalleDoc&ids=4&lang=es&ss=46&idc=2026 http://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/24/opinion/what-obama-should-know-about-macris-argentina.html?_r=0</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [http://www.tupacamaru.org.ar/ Official page of Tupac Amaru]
* [http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/subnotas/134056-43247-2009-10-25.html [[Horacio Verbitsky]] review of Milagro Sala]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sala, Milagro}}
[[Category:1964 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Argentine people of Quechua descent]]
[[Category:People from Jujuy Province]]
[[Category:Cooperative organisers]]
[[Category:Argentine activists]]
[[Category:Indigenous activists of the Americas]]
[[Category:Kirchnerism]]
[[Category:Prisoners and detainees of Argentina]]
[[Category:Argentine women in politics]]

John Ioannidis

2015-05-04T00:40:06Z

InverseHypercube: /* Research findings */ This was conflating two distinct 2005 papers. I separated them.

'''John P. A. Ioannidis''' (born August 21, 1965 in New York City) is a Professor of Health Research and Policy at [[Stanford School of Medicine]], the University's Rehnborg Chair in Disease Prevention and director of its Prevention Research Center, and co-director, along with Steven Goodman, of the [[Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford]] (METRICS).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://med.stanford.edu/profiles/john-ioannidis|title = John P. A. Ioannidis|publisher = [[Stanford School of Medicine]] CAP Profiles|accessdate = May 24, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://prevention.stanford.edu/|title = Prevention Research Center |publisher= [[Stanford School of Medicine]]|accessdate = May 24, 2014}}</ref> He was chairman at the Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, [[University of Ioannina]] School of Medicine as well as [[adjunct professor]] at [[Tufts University School of Medicine]].<ref>{{Cite web
| title = John P. A. Ioannidis
| url = http://users.uoi.gr/hyepilab/people.php
| publisher = Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, [[University of Ioannina School of Medicine]]
| accessdate = 2008-12-31
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|last=Ioannidis
|first=John P.A.
|title=Curriculum Vitae
|url=http://www.dhe.med.uoi.gr/data/cv/CV102010D.pdf
|accessdate=4 November 2010
}}</ref> He is best known for his research and published papers on scientific studies, particularly the 2005 paper "Why Most Published Research Findings Are False".

==Biography==
[[File:Ioannidis (2005) Why Most Published Research Findings Are False..pdf|thumb|Ioannidis (2005) Why Most Published Research Findings Are False.<ref name=Ioannidis2005/>]]
Born in New York City in 1965, Ioannidis was raised in [[Athens]], [[Greece]].<ref>[http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/john-ioannidis/ John Ioannidis] Harvard School of Public Health</ref> He was [[Valedictorian]] of his class at [[Athens College]], graduating in 1984. He also graduated first in his class at the [[University of Athens Medical School]], then attended [[Harvard University]] for his [[medical residency]] in [[internal medicine]]. He did a [[fellowship (medicine)|fellowship]] at [[Tufts University]] for [[infectious disease]].<ref name=wrong>{{cite book |author=[[David H. Freedman]] |coauthors= |title=Wrong: Why Experts Keep Failing Us|year=2010 |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |page= |quote=Born in 1965 in the United States to parents who were both physicians, he was raised in Athens, where he showed unusual aptitude in mathematics and snagged Greece's top student math prize. ... |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XS4TQgAACAAJ&dq |isbn=0-316-02378-7 }}</ref>

==Research findings==

Ioannidis's 2005 paper "Why Most Published Research Findings Are False"<ref name=Ioannidis2005>{{cite doi|10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124}}</ref>
has been the most downloaded technical paper from the journal ''[[PLoS Medicine]]''.<ref>{{Cite news
| author = [[Robert Lee Hotz]]
| title = Most Science Studies Appear to Be Tainted By Sloppy Analysis
| url = http://online.wsj.com/public/article_print/SB118972683557627104.html
| work = Science Journal WSJ.com
| publisher = Dow Jones & Company
| date = 2007-09-14
}}</ref> A profile of his work in this area appears in the November 2010 issue of ''[[The Atlantic]]''.<ref>David H. Freedman (November 2010) ''[http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/print/2010/11/lies-damned-lies-and-medical-science/8269 Lies, Damned Lies, and Medical Science]'', [[The Atlantic]]</ref> Statisticians Goodman and Greenland agreed that "many medical research findings are less definitive than readers suspect" but disputed his headline claims as unsupportable by the methods used.<ref>{{Cite web
| author = Steven Goodman and Sander Greenland
| title = Assessing the unreliability of the medical literature: A response to "Why most published research findings are false"
| url = http://www.bepress.com/jhubiostat/paper135
| publisher = Johns Hopkins University, Department of Biostatistics
| year = 2007
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite doi|10.1371/journal.pmed.0040168}}</ref> Ioannidis responded to this critique.<ref>{{Cite doi | 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040215}}</ref>

In another 2005 paper, Ioannidis analyzed "49 of the most highly regarded research findings in medicine over the previous 13 years". In the paper Ioannidis compared the 45 studies that claimed to have uncovered effective interventions with data from subsequent studies with larger sample sizes: 7 (16%) of the studies were contradicted, 7 (16%) the effects were smaller than in the initial study, 20 (44%) were replicated and 11 (24%) of the studies remained largely unchallenged.<ref name="Ioannidis2005">{{cite pmid| 16014596}}</ref>

He coined the term [[Proteus phenomenon]] for the tendency of replication studies to refute their parent.

==See also==
* [[Reproducibility]]
* [[Publication bias]]
* [[Meta-analysis]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://prevention.stanford.edu/ Prevention Research Center] Stanford School of Medicine
*[https://med.stanford.edu/profiles/john-ioannidis?tab=publications Publications of John Ioannidis] Stanford University Profile
* [http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(13)62227-8/fulltext Increasing value and reducing waste in research design, conduct, and analysis] The Lancet, Volume 383, Issue 9912, Pages 166 - 175, 11 January 2014 John P A Ioannidis, Sander Greenland, Mark A Hlatky, Muin J Khoury, Malcolm R Macleod, David Moher, Kenneth F Schulzand Robert Tibshirani
* ''[http://www.szgene.org/ Szgene.org]'', meta-analytic database of schizophrenia gene studies of which Dr. Ioannidis helped create.

{{Authority control}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Ioannidis, John P. A.
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Greek epidemiologist
| DATE OF BIRTH = August 21, 1965
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ioannidis, John P. A.}}
[[Category:Criticism of science]]
[[Category:Greek physicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Epidemiologists]]
[[Category:Stanford University School of Medicine faculty]]

Rückwärtsniesen

2015-01-11T21:32:50Z

InverseHypercube:

[[File:Pug reverse sneezing after a bath.ogv|thumb|Rückwärtsniesen]]
Das '''Rückwärtsniesen''' (auch „Rückwärtshusten“, engl. ''reverse sneezing'') ist ein gelegentlich bei [[Haushund|Hunden]] auftretendes Phänomen, bei dem das Tier mit gestrecktem [[Hals]] und abgespreizten [[Ellbogen]] anfallsartig röchelnd Luft durch die [[Nase]] ansaugt. Das dabei entstehende Geräusch erinnert an das Hochziehen von [[Nasensekret]] beim Menschen. Nach einer solchen, mehrere Sekunden (selten bis zu wenigen Minuten) dauernden Attacke erscheint das Tier wieder gesund und munter.

== Vorkommen ==
Häufiger wird dies bei Junghunden, kleinen und kurzköpfigen ([[Brachycephalie|brachycephalen]]) Hunderassen beobachtet. Es tritt für gewöhnlich dann auf, wenn die Tiere in einer ausgelassenen Stimmung sind, zum Beispiel nach dem Essen, Trinken oder beim Herumtoben.

== Ursache ==
Die Ursache für diese Störung ist bislang nicht eindeutig geklärt. Eventuell ist ein etwas zu langes [[Gaumensegel]] der Auslöser, welches sich am [[Kehldeckel]] verfängt. Auch leichte Entzündungen im [[Rachen]] ([[Pharyngitis]]) oder der [[Tonsilla palatina|Gaumenmandel]] ([[Tonsillitis]]), die mit einer Schwellung der [[Schleimhaut]] und damit einer Einengung einhergehen, oder Krämpfe der Rachenmuskulatur können die Ursache sein.

== Behandlung ==
Die Störung wirkt auf den Hundebesitzer meist erschreckend, ähnlich einem [[Asthma]]anfall scheint das Tier keine Luft zu bekommen. Sie ist aber für den Hund harmlos und ruft keine Allgemeinstörungen hervor.

Die Attacken verschwinden, wenn man einen [[Schluckreflex]] auslöst, zum Beispiel durch kurzes Nasezuhalten, sanfte Massage des [[Kehlkopf]]s, kräftiges Beklopfen der Vorderbrust oder das Geben eines [[Leckerli]]s.

Bei Nichtverschwinden bei den oben erwähnten Maßnahmen, übermäßigem Auftreten des Phänomens, weiteren Atemproblemen oder Störungen des Allgemeinbefindens sollte sofort ein Tierarzt aufgesucht werden.

== Differentialdiagnosen ==
Als weitere Ursachen für röchelnde Atemnotsattacken kommen Infektionen ([[Zwingerhusten]]), [[Allergie|allergische Reaktionen]], [[Fremdkörper]] im Nasen-Rachen-Raum, Herzerkrankungen, [[Trachealkollaps]] oder entzündete Zahnwurzeln in Frage. Diese bedürfen der tierärztlichen Behandlung.

Des Weiteren kann ein Milbenbefall mit ''[[Pneumonyssoides caninum]]'' vorliegen, der unter tierärztlicher Aufsicht mit [[Selamectin]] behandelt werden kann.

== Literatur ==
Deinert, M.: ''Rückwärtsniesen beim Hund – ein klinisch häufig fehlinterpretiertes Symptom?''. Tierärztliche Praxis Kleintiere 1, 2002, S. 79.

== Weblinks ==
*Stephen Glass: [http://www.papillonclub.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=72 Something about Collapsed Trachea and Reverse Sneezing] (engl.) Auf der Website des Papillon Club of America

{{Gesundheitshinweis}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ruckwartsniesen}}
[[Kategorie:Hundekrankheit]]

The Paranoid Style in American Politics

2014-06-16T07:31:30Z

InverseHypercube: /* top */ essays not italicized

"'''The Paranoid Style in American Politics'''"<ref name="Paranoid">{{cite web |first=Richard |last=Hofstadter |authorlink=Richard Hofstadter |url=http://harpers.org/archive/1964/11/the-paranoid-style-in-american-politics/ |title=The Paranoid Style in American Politics |work=[[Harper's Magazine]] |date=November 1964 |accessdate=November 27, 2012}}</ref> is an essay by American historian [[Richard J. Hofstadter]], first published in ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'' in November 1964; it served as the title essay of a book by the author in the same year. Written at a time when [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Barry Goldwater]] had won the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Presidential nomination over the more moderate [[Nelson A. Rockefeller]], Hofstadter's article explores the influence of [[conspiracy theory]] and "movements of suspicious discontent" throughout [[American history]].

==Background==
The essay was adapted from a [[Herbert Spencer]] Lecture Hofstadter delivered at Oxford University on November 21, 1963. It was first published in the November 1964 issue of ''Harper's Magazine'', and was published as the titular essay in the book ''The Paranoid Style in American Politics, and Other Essays'' (1964). The essay was originally presented when the conservatives, led by Arizona Senator [[Barry Goldwater]] (1909–1998), were on the verge of taking control of the [[History of the Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]].<ref name="Paranoid" />

==Historical themes==

===Recurring paranoia in American politics===
In developing the subject, the historian [[Richard J. Hofstadter]] initially establishes that, in coining the term “paranoid style”, he is borrowing the clinical, [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] term “[[Paranoia|paranoid]]” to describe a ''political personality'', and acknowledges that the term is pejorative:
<blockquote>
American politics has often been an arena for angry minds. In recent years, we have seen angry minds at work, mainly among [[Far right|extreme right-wingers]], who have now demonstrated, in the Goldwater movement, how much political leverage can be got out of the animosities and passions of a small minority. But, behind this, I believe, there is a style of mind that is far from new, and that is not necessarily [[right-wing]]. I call it the paranoid style, simply because no other word adequately evokes the sense of heated exaggeration, suspiciousness, and conspiratorial fantasy that I have in mind.<ref name="Paranoid"/>
</blockquote>

The background U.S. history details political paranoia against [[Illuminism]] ([[Intellectualism|intellectual]] subversion), [[freemasonry]] (corporate subversion), and the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] (religious subversion), then progresses through [[U.S. politics]] to its contemporary (1950s–60s) modern incarnations of [[McCarthyism]] and the [[John Birch Society]].

===The paranoid style===
Given that the world is [[Manicheanism|manichean]], such politics requires a politician who, as:
<blockquote>
The paranoid spokesman, sees the fate of conspiracy in [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] terms — he traffics in the birth and death of whole worlds, whole political orders, whole systems of human values. He is always manning the barricades of civilization... he does not see social conflict as something to be mediated and compromised, in the manner of the working politician. Since what is at stake is always a [[Manicheanism|conflict]] between absolute good and absolute evil, what is necessary is not compromise but the will to fight things out to a finish. Since the enemy is thought of as being totally evil and totally unappeasable, he must be totally eliminated — if not from the world, at least from the theatre of operations to which the paranoid directs his attention. This demand for total triumph leads to the formulation of hopelessly unrealistic goals, and since these goals are not even remotely attainable, failure constantly heightens the paranoid’s sense of frustration. Even partial success leaves him with the same feeling of powerlessness with which he began, and this in turn only strengthens his awareness of the vast and terrifying quality of the enemy he opposes.<ref name="Paranoid"/>
</blockquote>

===The Enemy reified===
In the politics of paranoia:
<blockquote>
The enemy is clearly delineated: he is a perfect model of malice, a kind of amoral superman — sinister, ubiquitous, powerful, cruel, [[Hedonism|sensual]], luxury-loving. Unlike the rest of us, the enemy is not caught in the toils of the vast mechanism of history, himself a victim of his past, his desires, his limitations. He wills, indeed, he manufactures, the mechanism of history, or tries to deflect the normal course of history in an evil way. He makes crises, starts runs on banks, causes depressions, manufactures disasters, and then enjoys and profits from the misery he has produced. The paranoid’s interpretation of history is distinctly personal: decisive events are not taken as part of the stream of history, but as the consequences of someone’s will. Very often, the enemy is held to possess some especially effective source of power: he controls the [[Newspaper|press]]; he has unlimited funds; he has a new secret for influencing the mind ([[Mind control|brainwashing]]); he has a special technique for seduction (the Catholic confessional).<ref name="Paranoid"/>
</blockquote>

===Emulating the enemy===
[[Psychological projection]] is essential to the paranoid style of U.S. politics:

<blockquote>
It is hard to resist the conclusion that this enemy is, on many counts, the [[Psychological projection|projection]] of the [[Id, ego and super-ego#Ego|self]]; both the ideal and the unacceptable aspects of the self are attributed to him. The enemy may be the cosmopolitan [[intellectual]], but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus of [[Scholasticism|scholarship]], even of [[pedant]]ry. Secret organizations, set up to combat secret organizations, give the same flattery. The [[Ku Klux Klan]] imitated [[Catholicism]] to the point of donning priestly vestments, developing an elaborate ritual and an equally elaborate hierarchy. The [[John Birch Society]] emulates [[Communism|Communist]] cells and quasi-secret operation through “front” groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very similar to those it finds in the Communist enemy. Spokesmen of the various [[Fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] [[Anti-communism|anti-Communist]] “[[crusade]]s” openly express their admiration for the dedication and discipline the Communist cause calls forth.<ref name="Paranoid"/>
</blockquote>

In the personal realm, the paranoid politician usually ascribes “[[Libertine|sexual freedom]]” as a personal vice of his enemy, yet Hofstadter reports that “very often, the fantasies of true believers reveal strong [[Sado-masochism|sadomasochistic]] outlets, vividly expressed, for example, in the delight of anti-Masons with the cruelty of [[Masonic]] punishments”.

==Historical applications==
Two different approaches to the [[Radical Right]] were taken by social scientists in the 1950s and 1960s. Hofstadter sought to identify the characteristics of the groups. Hofstadter defined politically paranoid individuals as feeling persecuted, fearing conspiracy, and acting over-aggressive yet socialized. Hofstadter and other scholars in the 1950s argued that the major left-wing movement of the 1890s, the Populists, showed what Hofstadter said was "paranoid delusions of conspiracy by the Money Power."<ref>{{cite journal |first1=George B. |last1=Tindall |title=Populism: A Semantic Identity Crisis |journal=[[Virginia Quarterly Review]] |date=October 1972 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=501–18}}</ref> Historians have also applied the paranoid category to other political movements, such as the conservative [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]] of 1860.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=John |last1=Mering |title=The Constitutional Union Campaign of 1860: An Example of the Paranoid Style |journal=Mid America |year=1978 |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=95–106}}</ref> Hofstadter's approach was later applied to the rise of new right-wing groups, including the Christian Right and the Patriot Movement.<ref>{{cite book |last=D. J. |first=Mulloy |title=American Extremism: History, Politics and the Militia Movement |year=2004 |pages=17–34 |chapter=Approaching extremism: theoretical perspectives on the far right in American history |chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=aaBKyuLRjR0C&pg=PA17 |isbn=978-0-415-32674-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The infantile style in American politics |first=Gary |last=Kamiya |date=December 5, 2011 |work=Salon |url=http://www.salon.com/2011/12/05/the_infantile_style_in_american_politics/singleton/}}</ref>

==Legacy==

In a 2007 article in ''Harper's'', Scott Horton wrote that ''The Paranoid Style in American Politics'' was "one of the most important and most influential articles published in the 155 year history of the magazine."<ref>{{cite web |authorlink=Scott Horton (lawyer) |first=Scott |last=Horton |url=http://www.harpers.org/archive/2007/08/hbc-90000908 |title=The Paranoid Style in American Politics |work=Harper's Magazine |date=August 16, 2007}}</ref>

Laura Miller writes in [[Salon.com]] that "'The Paranoid Style in American Politics' reads like a playbook for the career of [[Glenn Beck]], right down to the paranoid's 'quality of pedantry' and 'heroic strivings for 'evidence'..."<ref>{{cite web |first=Laura |last=Miller |title=The paranoid style in American punditry |work=Salon |date=September 15, 2010 |url=http://www.salon.com/books/laura_miller/2010/09/15/hofstadter |accessdate=February 1, 2011}}</ref>

== See also ==
* ''[[Among the Truthers]]''

==References==
<references/>


{{DEFAULTSORT:Paranoid Style in American Politics, The}}
[[Category:Political science books]]
[[Category:Political history of the United States]]
[[Category:Books about the far right]]
[[Category:Books about politics of the United States]]
[[Category:Harper's Magazine articles]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories in the United States]]

Richtungen des Zionismus

2014-02-18T22:37:33Z

InverseHypercube: /* top */

{{refimprove|date=September 2009}}
[[File:Leon Pinsker2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Leon Pinsker]] espoused '[[Practical Zionism]]']]
The '''[[Zionism|Zionist Movement]]''' was produced by various philosophers representing different approaches concerning the objective and path that Zionism should follow. The principal common goal was the aspiration to establish a national home for the Jewish people. However, the method of action needed was in dispute. There were two main approaches to the modus operandi:

*'''Political Zionism''' – led by [[Theodor Herzl]] and [[Max Nordau]] in Russia. This [[World Zionist Organization|Zionist Organization]] approach espoused at the [[First Zionist Congress]] aimed at establishing for the Jewish people a publicly and legally assured home in [[Palestine]] because it inhabited an area of Jewish religious culture,<ref>[Cleveland, William L. A History of the Modern Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2004. Print. p.222]</ref> which among other items, included initial steps to obtain governmental grants from the established powers that controlled the area.<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Zionism/First_Cong_&_Basel_Program.html Jewish Virtual Library: The First Zionist Congress and the Basel Program]</ref>
*'''Practical Zionism''' – led by [[Moshe Leib Lilienblum]] and [[Leon Pinsker]] and molded by the [[Hovevei Zion]] organization. This approach opined that firstly there is a need in practical terms to implement Jewish immigration to the Land of Israel, [[Aliyah]], and settlement of the land, as soon as possible, even if a charter over the Land is not obtained.

Later on a combination of these two main approaches was produced:
*'''Synthetic Zionism''' – led by [[Chaim Weizmann]], [[Leo Motzkin]] and [[Nahum Sokolow]], an approach that advocated a combination of the preceding two approaches.

Another division between these generic types of Zionism derives from ideological differences that do not necessarily have to do with Zionism itself, but rather a comprehensive world view held by the people of these different groups regarding the character of the future Jewish State:
[[File:Ber Borochov.jpg|120px|thumb|right|[[Ber Borochov|Dov Ber Borochov]], one of the leaders of [[Labor Zionism]]]]
* '''[[Labor Zionism]]''' – led by [[Nachman Syrkin]], [[Ber Borochov]], [[Haim Arlosoroff]], and [[Berl Katznelson]]: As opposed to Practical and Political Zionism, Labor Zionism desired to establish an agriculturist society not on the basis of a private-bourgeoisie society, but rather on the basis of moral equality.
*'''[[Revisionist Zionism]]''' – led by [[Ze'ev Jabotinsky]]: Revisionist Zionism was initially led by Ze'ev Jabotinsky and later by his successor [[Menachem Begin]] (later [[Prime Minister of Israel]]), and emphasized the romantic elements of Jewish nationality, and the historical heritage of the Jewish people in the Land of Israel as the constituent basis for the Zionist national idea and the establishment of the Jewish State. They supported [[Liberalism]] and particularly [[Economic liberalism]], and opposed Labor Zionism and the establishing of a communist society in the Land of Israel. Revisionist Zionism opposed any containment of Arab terror and supported firm military action against the Arab gangs that had attacked the Jewish Community in the Land of Israel. Due to that position, a faction of the Revisionist leadership split from that movement in order to establish the underground [[Irgun]]. This stream is also categorized as supporters of [[Greater Israel]].
*'''[[Cultural Zionism]]''' – led by [[Ahad Ha'am|Ahad Ha'am (Asher Zvi Hirsch Ginsberg)]]: Cultural Zionism opined that the fulfillment of the [[Romantic nationalism|national revival]] of the Jewish People should be achieved by creating a cultural center in the Land of Israel and an educative center to the [[Jewish Diaspora]], which together will be a bulwark against the danger of assimilation that threatens the existence of the Jewish People.
*'''Revolutionary Zionism''' – led by [[Avraham Stern]], [[Israel Eldad]] and [[Uri Zvi Greenberg]]: Revolutionary Zionism viewed Zionism as a revolutionary struggle to ingather the Jewish exiles from the Diaspora, revive the Hebrew language as a spoken vernacular and reestablish a Jewish kingdom in the Land of Israel.<ref>Israel Eldad, ''The Jewish Revolution'', pp. 47–49</ref> As members of [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]] during the 1940s, many adherents of Revolutionary Zionism engaged in [[guerilla warfare]] against the British administration in an effort to end the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] and pave the way for Jewish political independence. Following the State of Israel's establishment leading figures of this stream argued that the creation of the state of Israel was never the goal of Zionism but rather a tool to be used in realizing the goal of Zionism, which they called ''Malkhut Yisrael'' (the Kingdom of Israel).<ref>Israel Eldad, ''The Jewish Revolution'', pp. 45</ref> Revolutionary Zionists are often mistakenly included among Revisionist Zionists but differ ideologically in several areas. While Revisionists were for the most part secular nationalists who hoped to achieve a Jewish state that would exist as a commonwealth within the British Empire, Revolutionary Zionists advocated a form of national-messianism that aspired towards a vast Jewish kingdom with a rebuilt [[Temple in Jerusalem]].<ref>Israel Eldad, ''Israel: The Road to Full Redemption'', p. 37 (Hebrew) and Israel Eldad, [http://www.saveisrael.com/eldad/saveisraeleldad.htm "Temple Mount in Ruins"]</ref> Revolutionary Zionism generally espoused [[anti-imperialist]] political views and included both [[Right-wing]] and [[Left-wing nationalism|Left-wing nationalists]] among its adherents. This stream is also categorized as supporters of [[Greater Israel]].
*'''[[Religious Zionism]]''' – led by [[Yitzchak Yaacov Reines]], founder of [[Mizrachi (religious Zionism)]] and by [[Abraham Isaac Kook]]: Religious Zionism maintained that Jewish nationality and the establishment of the State of Israel is a religious duty derived from the [[Torah]]. As opposed to some parts of the Jewish non-secular community that claimed that the redemption of the Land of Israel will occur only after the coming of the [[Jewish messianism|messiah]], who will fulfill this aspiration, they maintained that human acts of redeeming the Land will bring about the messiah, as their slogan states: ''The land of Israel for the people of Israel according to the Torah of Israel'' ({{lang-he|'''עם ישראל, תורת ישראל וארץ ישראל'''}}). Today they are commonly referred as the "Religious Nationalists" or the "[[Israeli settlement|settlers]]", and are also categorized as supporters of [[Greater Israel]].

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Zionism/Political_Zionism.html Political Zionism], [[Jewish Virtual Library]]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Zionism/Practical_Zionism.html Practical Zionism], [[Jewish Virtual Library]]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Zionism/Synthetic_Zionism.html Synthetic Zionism], [[Jewish Virtual Library]]

{{Zionism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Streams Of Zionism}}
[[Category:Zionism]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Types of Zionism| ]]
[[Category:Jewish history]]

Aeon (Magazin)

2013-08-20T18:51:37Z

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{{Infobox website
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'''Aeon Magazine''' is a digital magazine of ideas and culture, founded in the UK by Paul Hains (managing director) and Brigid Hains (editor) in September, 2012.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.journalism.co.uk/news/long-form-digital-magazine-hopes-to-delve-behind-the-news/s2/a550370/ | title=journalism.co.uk, Sept 17, 2012}}</ref> It publishes an essay every weekday. Aeon claims to have "a cosmopolitan outlook, open to diverse perspectives and committed to progressive social change. It has a high regard for science and other empirical knowledge, but also for imagination and personal experience."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aeonmagazine.com/about/ | title=About Aeon magazine}}</ref> Contributors have included [[Julian Baggini]], [[Tim Footman]], [[A.L. Kennedy]], [[Marek Kohn]], [[Tim Lott]], [[Sara Maitland]], [[Ruth Padel]], [[Steven Poole]], [[John Quiggin]], [[Roger Scruton]] and [[Dava Sobel]].

==Longform==

Aeon is considered a leading site in the recent clutch of so called 'longform'<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.journalism.co.uk/news/pioneers-of-long-form-digital-journalism-three-projects-rewriting-the-rules-/s2/a551213/ | title=journalism.co.uk longform, Nov 15, 2012}}</ref> websites, dedicated to bringing longer, more substantial reading material to the web. Other platforms with a similar mission include the recently founded Matter and Narratively.

==Structure and content==

Every weekday, Aeon publishes an original essay in one of its five sections. Each section focuses on broadly different subject matter, allowing the magazine to cover a wide breadth of ideas. Aeon describes its sections as follows:
* World Views takes on contemporary culture clashes, ancient philosophical conundra and the many ways in which our beliefs shape experience.
* Nature & Cosmos looks through the eyes of cutting-edge scientists, explorers and other attentive observers to bring the universe’s myriad patterns into focus.
* Being Human puts our own nature under the microscope, comparing insights from psychology, anatomy, evolutionary theory and simple introspection.
* Living Together searches for fresh lessons and hopeful developments in the greatest and most complicated of human projects, co-existence.
* [[Oceanic Feeling]] explores ritual, play, recreation and imagination: whatever it takes to get beyond the everyday world. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aeonmagazine.com/about/ | title=Aeon Magazine 'About' section}}</ref>

==Reception==

Since launch, Aeon has received attention from several leading digital outlets. [[Boing Boing]] <ref>{{cite news|url=http://boingboing.net/2012/11/09/erik-davis-reports-on-the-late.html | title=Boing Boing}}</ref> quoted contributor [[Erik Davis]] regarding Aeon as 'A new ... outfit that is charting a very interesting zone between science, religion, culture, and good writing.' [[The Browser]], another popular aggregator, wrote of the magazine, 'Let nobody say that Aeon ducks the big questions.'

[[Arts & Letters Daily]], a site that collates high quality essays and articles from around the [[web]], have featured several of Aeon's pieces and recently added Aeon to their notable links section.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aldaily.com.| title=Arts & Letters Daily}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.aeonmagazine.com/ Aeon website]
* [https://www.facebook.com/AeonMagazine/ Aeon on Facebook]
* [https://twitter.com/aeonmag/ Aeon on Twitter]

[[Category:English-language magazines]]
[[Category:Online magazines]]

Effektiver Altruismus

2013-07-25T06:57:17Z

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'''Effective altruism''' is a philosophy and [[social movement]]<ref name="blog.ted.com">http://blog.ted.com/2013/03/01/effective-altruism-peter-singer-at-ted2013/</ref> which applies evidence and reason to working out the most effective ways to improve the world. Effective altruists consider all causes and actions, and then act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, often defined as maximizing net [[utility]].<ref>http://effective-altruism.com</ref><ref>http://www.thelifeyoucansave.org/ReadAboutUs/Organization.aspx</ref> It is this broad evidence-based approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional [[altruism]] or [[Charity (practice)|charity]]. Effective altruism sometimes involves taking actions that are less intuitive or emotionally salient. The philosopher [[Peter Singer]] is a notable supporter of effective altruism.<ref name="blog.ted.com"/>

==Principles==

===Cost-effectiveness===
Applied to charitable interventions, [[cost-effectiveness analysis|cost-effectiveness]] refers to the amount of good achieved per dollar spent. For example, the cost-effectiveness of health interventions can be measured in [[quality-adjusted life year]]s.
[[Effective giving]] is an important component of effective altruism because some charities are far more effective than others.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.givewell.org/giving101/Funding-the-Right-Program | publisher = GiveWell | title = Your dollar goes further when you fund the right program }}</ref> Some charities simply fail to achieve their goals.<ref>{{cite web | title = Giving 101: The basics | url = http://www.givewell.org/giving101/Accomplishing-Nothing | publisher = GiveWell | accessdate = 2013-02-28}}</ref> Of those that do succeed, some achieve far greater results with less money.<ref>{{cite web | title = Your dollar goes further overseas | url = http://www.givewell.org/giving101/Your-dollar-goes-further-overseas | publisher = GiveWell | accessdate = 2013-02-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://blog.givewell.org/2009/11/26/hunger-here-vs-hunger-there/ | title = Hunger here vs. hunger there | first = Holden | last = Karnofsky | accessdate = 2013-02-28 | publisher = GiveWell}}</ref> [[Toby Ord]] has calculated that some charities are hundreds or thousands of times more effective than others.<ref name=":5" />

Though cost-effectiveness is a newer concept in charity, it is commonly used by economists. Many effective altruists have backgrounds in philosophy, economics, or mathematics, fields that involve rational and quantitative thinking.<ref name=":5">{{cite web|last=Singer|first=Peter|title=The Why and How of Effective Altruism|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/peter_singer_the_why_and_how_of_effective_altruism.html|work=TED|publisher=TED Conferences, LLC|accessdate=17 July 2013}}</ref>

===Cause selection===
Though there is a growing emphasis on effectiveness and evidence among nonprofits, this is usually done within a single cause, such as education. It is uncommon for the cause itself to be critically analyzed.<ref>{{cite web|last=Karnofsky|first=Holden|title=Strategic Cause Selection|url=http://blog.givewell.org/2012/05/02/strategic-cause-selection/|work=The GiveWell Blog|publisher=GiveWell|accessdate=22 June 2013}}</ref> Effective altruists attempt to choose the most effective causes based on broad values such as preventing suffering and donate to organizations that pursue these goals efficiently. Many effective altruists see cause selection as central to the movement.<ref>{{cite web|last=MacAskill|first=William|title=What Is Effective Altruism?|url=http://effective-altruism.com/what-effective-altruism|work=Effective Altruism|accessdate=17 July 2013}}</ref> Several organizations are doing research on cause selection.<ref>{{cite web|title=Causes|url=http://80000hours.org/causes|work=80,000 Hours|publisher=Centre for Effective Altruism|accessdate=22 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=GiveWell Labs Overview|url=http://www.givewell.org/about/labs|publisher=GiveWell}}</ref> Most effective altruists think that poverty in the [[developing country|developing world]], the suffering of animals on [[factory farming|factory farms]], and [[risks to civilization, humans, and planet Earth|humanity's long term future]] are the most important causes. <ref>{{cite web|last=MacAskill|first=William|title=What Is Effective Altruism?|url=http://effective-altruism.com/what-effective-altruism|work=Effective Altruism|accessdate=17 July 2013}}</ref>

===Impartiality===
Effective altruists reject the view that some lives are intrinsically more valuable than others. For example, they believe that a person in a developing country has equal value to a person in one's own community. As [[Peter Singer]] notes:

<blockquote>It makes no difference whether the person I can help is a neighbour's child ten yards away from me or a Bengali whose name I shall never know, ten thousand miles away. [...] The moral point of view requires us to look beyond the interests of our own society. Previously [...], this may hardly have been feasible, but it is quite feasible now. From the moral point of view, the prevention of the starvation of millions of people outside our society must be considered at least as pressing as the upholding of property norms within our society.<ref>Singer 1972, pp. 231-232, 237.</ref></blockquote>

In addition, many effective altruists think that future generations have equal moral value to currently existing people, so they focus on reducing [[Risks to civilization, humans, and planet Earth|existential risks to humanity]]. Others recognize that the interests of non-human animals should be accorded the same moral weight than similar interests of humans, and work to prevent the suffering of animals, such as those raised in factory farms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Effective Animal Activism |url=http://www.effectiveanimalactivism.org/}}</ref>

[[Thomas Pogge]] argues against this view, saying, "What matters morally is not merely how we affect people, but how we treat them through the rules we impose."<ref>{{cite doi | 10.1111/j.1747-7093.2002.tb00398.x}}</ref> [[Thomas Nagel]] makes a similar point, referring to [[Derek Parfit|Derek Parfit's]] terminology of "agent-neutral" and "agent-relative" reasons.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nagel |first=Thomas |title=The Limits of Objectivity |year=1979 |series=The Tanner Lectures on Human Values |url=http://tannerlectures.utah.edu/lectures/documents/nagel80.pdf}}</ref>

===Counterfactual reasoning===

Effective altruists argue that [[Counterfactual conditional|counterfactual]] reasoning is important to determine which course of action maximizes positive impact. Many people assume that the best way to help people is through direct methods, such as working for a charity or providing social services.<ref>{{cite web | title = Best jobs for saving the world | first1 = Donna | last1 = Rosato | first2 = Grace | last2 = Wong | date = November 2011 | url = http://money.cnn.com/magazines/moneymag/best-jobs/2011/jobs-helping-others/1.html | accessdate = 2013-02-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = 10 "helping" professions and how to train for them | first = Aimee | last = Hosler | date = 14 June 2011 | publisher = Schools.com | url = http://www.schools.com/articles/10-helping-professions-and-how-to-train-for-them.html | accessdate = 2013-02-28}}</ref> Since charities and social-service providers usually can find people willing to work for them, effective altruists compare the amount of good somebody does in a conventional altruistic career to how much good would have been done had the next-best candidate been hired for the position. According to this reasoning, the impact of choosing a conventional altruistic career may be smaller than it appears.<ref>{{cite web|last=Todd|first=Benjamin J.|title=Just What Is 'Making a Difference'? - Counterfactuals and Career Choice|url=http://80000hours.org/blog/18-just-what-is-making-a-difference-counterfactuals-and-career-choice|work=80,000 Hours|publisher=Centre for Effective Altruism|accessdate=17 July 2013}}</ref>

Careers that some may regard as unethical may offer high salaries that would allow one to make large donations to charities. Effective altruists argue that the marginal impact of one's potentially unethical actions in that career would be small, since someone else would have done them regardless, while the impact of donations would be large. <ref name="btodd">{{cite thesis | title=Which ethical careers make a difference? | type=Master's thesis | first=Benjamin | last = Todd | url = http://www.academia.edu/1807196/Which_Ethical_Careers_Make_a_Difference_The_Replaceability_Issue_in_the_Ethics_of_Career_Choice}}</ref><ref name="macaskill">{{Cite news | author = William MacAskill | title = Replaceability, Career Choice, and Making a Difference | year = 2013 | journal = Ethical Theory and Moral Practice}}</ref>

Some, however, dispute this principle. For example, [[Bernard Williams]] uses a similar example about a job at a chemical weapons factory to argue against [[utilitarianism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Bernard |title=Utilitarianism: For and against |chapter=A critique of utilitarianism |pages=97–99 |publisher=Cambridge University |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1973}}</ref> According to Williams, [[act utilitarianism]] unreasonably requires that people act in ways that violate their own integrity.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cox |first1=Damian |last2=La Caze |first2=Marguerite |last3=Levine |first3=Michael |title=Integrity |publisher=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2013/entries/integrity/ |year=2013 |accessdate=2013-03-07}}</ref>

==Notable proponents==

===Peter Singer===
{{Main|Peter Singer}}
The philosopher [[Peter Singer]] has written several works on effective altruism, including ''[[The Life You Can Save]]'' (in which he argues that people should use [[charity evaluators]] to determine how to make their donations most effective,<ref name=LYCS>{{cite book |last=Singer |first=Peter |year=2009 |title=The Life You Can Save: Acting now to end world poverty |publisher=Random House |location=New York}}</ref>) and his paper "[[Famine, Affluence and Morality]]" (in which he argues that we have an obligation to help those in need):

<blockquote>If it is in our power to prevent something bad from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything of comparable moral importance, then we ought, morally, to do it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fringer.org/wp-content/writings/famine.pdf |title=Famine, Affluence, and Morality |format=PDF |year=1972 |page=231 |accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref></blockquote>

He founded a nonprofit, also called The Life You Can Save, which promotes giving to effective charities. He is a member of [[Giving What We Can]], an effective-altruist organization, and gives 25% of his income to charity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.givingwhatwecan.org/about-us/our-members/list-of-members |title=List of Members |accessdate=2012-11-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~psinger/faq.html |title=FAQ on Singer's webpage at Princeton |publisher=Princeton.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

===Toby Ord===
{{Main|Toby Ord}}
Toby Ord is an ethicist at Oxford University. He promotes consequentialist ethics and is concerned with global poverty and catastrophic risks.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ord|first=Toby|title=Academic Site|url=http://www.amirrorclear.net/academic/index.html|work=A Mirror Clear|accessdate=2 March 2013}}</ref> He founded the organization Giving What We Can, which encourages people to pledge ten percent of their income to charity. He lives on £18,000 ($27,000) per year and donates the remainder of his income to the treatment of [[schistosomiasis]] in the developing world.<ref>{{cite news|last=Geoghegan|first=Tom|title=Toby Ord: Why I'm giving £1m to charity|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-11950843|accessdate=2 March 2013|newspaper=BBC News|date=13 December 2010}}</ref>

===Thomas Pogge===
{{Main|Thomas Pogge}}
A student of [[John Rawls]], Pogge approaches effective altruism from a less consequentialist viewpoint. Pogge is a member of [[Giving What We Can]], as well as the [[Health Impact Fund]], which seeks to make advanced medicines available at low cost to those living in poverty,<ref>
{{cite AV media |people=Pogge, Thomas |date=September 2011 |title=Medicine for the 99 percent |url=http://www.ted.com/talks/thomas_pogge_medicine_for_the_99_percent.html}}
</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book | last1=Pogge | first1 = Thomas
|last2 = Hollis | first2=Aidan
|title = The Health Impact Fund: Making New Medicines Accessible for All
|publisher = Incentives for Global Health
| year = 2008}}
</ref> and [[Academics Stand Against Poverty]], an organization that helps academics have a greater positive impact on world poverty.

Pogge's book ''[[World Poverty and Human Rights]]'' argues that people in wealthy democracies are actively hurting those in the developing world: "Most of us do not merely let people starve, but also participate in starving them."<ref>{{cite isbn | 0745641431}}</ref> Therefore, unlike Singer and Unger who argue that we should help those in need because of [[positive obligations]], Pogge believes that the responsibility to help the world's poor comes from the fact that people in the first world, by lending money to corrupt governments, are actively harming people.<ref>{{cite doi | 10.1023/B:ETTA.0000004700.20750.0d }}</ref>

===Peter Unger===
{{Main|Peter Unger}}
In his book ''[[Living High and Letting Die]]'', [[Peter Unger|Unger]] presents several arguments that people in the developed world have a strong moral obligation to others.<ref name="unger">{{cite isbn | 0195108590 }}</ref> An example [[thought experiment]] is "The Vintage Sedan":

<blockquote>Not truly rich, your one luxury in life is a vintage Mercedes sedan that, with much time, attention, and money, you've restored to mint condition... One day, you stop at the intersection of two small country roads, both lightly traveled. Hearing a voice screaming for help, you get out and see a man who's wounded and covered with a lot of his blood. Assuring you that his wound is confined to one of his legs, the man also informs you that he was a medical student for two full years. And, despite his expulsion for cheating on his second year final exams, which explains his indigent status since, he's knowledgeably tied his shirt near the wound as to stop the flow. So, there's no urgent danger of losing his life, you're informed, but there's great danger of losing his limb. This can be prevented, however, if you drive him to a rural hospital fifty miles away. "How did the wound occur?" you ask. An avid bird-watcher, he admits that he trespassed on a nearby field and, in carelessly leaving, cut himself on rusty barbed wire. Now, if you'd aid this trespasser, you must lay him across your fine back seat. But, then, your fine upholstery will be soaked through with blood, and restoring the car will cost over five thousand dollars. So, you drive away. Picked up the next day by another driver, he survives but loses the wounded leg.</blockquote>

Unger points out that most people have the response that this behavior is morally reprehensible, and you should be willing to accept the steep monetary cost of re-upholstering your car if it will save the man's life. He contrasts this with our responses to "The Envelope":

<blockquote>In your mailbox, there's something from (the U.S. Committee for) [[UNICEF]]. After reading it through, you correctly believe that, unless you soon send in a check for $100, then, instead of each living many more years, over thirty more children will die soon.</blockquote>

Unger argues that to react differently to this thought experiment is to be morally inconsistent, and hence our obligation to donate to UNICEF is as strong as our obligation to the hypothetical trespasser in "The Vintage Sedan." Unger says that a relatively affluent person, "like you and me, must contribute to vitally effective groups, like Oxfam and Unicef, most of the money and property she now has, and most of what comes her way for the foreseeable future."<ref name="unger"/><ref>{{cite news |title=If Oxfam ran the world |author=Martha Nussbaum |url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v19/n17/martha-nussbaum/if-oxfam-ran-the-world |newspaper=London Review of Books |date=9/4/1997 |accessdate=7 March 2013}}</ref>

===Shelly Kagan===
{{Main|Shelly Kagan}}
Shelly Kagan argues in ''The Limits of Morality'' that people do not have moral options to act in a way that will produce a suboptimal outcome. He opens the book with the claim that "Morality requires that you perform—of those acts not otherwise forbidden—that act which can reasonably be expected to lead the best consequences overall."<ref name=":0">{{cite doi | 10.1093/0198239165.001.0001}}</ref> He attempts to defend this claim with a detailed analysis of different possible views about moral options and moral constraints, and how these might be defended. He observes that there is a connection between a belief in the existence of moral options and a belief in the existence of moral constraints; a person who believes that there are options to act suboptimally will almost certainly also endorse some constraints on how we may behave.

==Lifestyle==
The principles of effective altruism imply significant lifestyle changes.<ref name="unger" /> Many effective altruists attempt to live frugally by [[Western world|Western]] standards so that they can donate more. An effective altruist couple profiled by the ''[[Washington Post]]'' lived on $10,000 in 2012. In an average month, they spent less than $200 on groceries and about $300 on non-essential purchases. They began living with the husband's parents to further save money.<ref name=":1">Matthews, Dylan. "Join Wall Street. Save the World." ''Washington Post'', May 31, 2013. http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/05/31/join-wall-street-save-the-world/</ref> Some effective altruists also pursue high-earning careers in order to have more money to donate.<ref name=":4">"Earning to Give." ''80,000 Hours. ''http://80000hours.org/earning-to-give </ref> Another effective altruist profiled by the ''Washington Post'' works as a [[quantitative analyst]] for a financial firm and donates half his salary.<ref name=":1" />

==Organizations==

A number of organizations have grown up that consider themselves to be part of the effective altruist movement. These organizations are:

*[[Giving What We Can]], an international society for the promotion of the most cost-effective poverty relief charitites. It researches the most cost effective charities, encourages intelligent giving and is building up a community of people who give a significant proportion of their income to the most cost-effective causes.<ref>http://givingwhatwecan.org/</ref>

*[[80,000 Hours]], an ethical careers advice service for people who want to use their careers to have a positive impact in the world.<ref>http://80000hours.org/about-us</ref>

*Effective Animal Activism, an organization that researches the most cost-effective charities that work to reduce animal suffering.<ref>http://www.effectiveanimalactivism.org</ref>

*The Life You Can Save, a movement which advocates fighting extreme poverty by donating to highly effective charities. It was started by the philosopher [[Peter Singer]] following the publication of his book ''[[The Life You Can Save]]''.<ref>http://thelifeyoucansave.com/idea</ref>

*The High Impact Network, an organization that spreads effective altruist ideas by starting local meetup groups.<ref>http://www.thehighimpactnetwork.org/about</ref>

*Instituto Ética, Racionalidade e Futuro da Humanidade, a Brazillian organization that encourages effective giving and investigates how technology can help future generations.<ref>http://www.ierfh.org/br/Objetivos.html</ref>

Peter Singer considers the following to be effective charitable organizations:<ref>{{cite web|last=Singer|first=Peter|title=The why and how of effective altruism|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/peter_singer_the_why_and_how_of_effective_altruism.html|publisher=TED|accessdate=2013-05-21}}</ref>
*[[GiveWell]]
*[[Against Malaria Foundation]]
*[[Schistosomiasis Control Initiative]]
*[[Vegan Outreach]]
*[http://www.thehumaneleague.com/ The Humane League]
*[[Future of Humanity Institute]]

==Responses==
Much of the controversy about effective altruism is due to the idea that it can be ethical to take a high-earning career in a potentially unethical industry if this allows one to donate more money. [[David Brooks (journalist)|David Brooks]], a columnist for ''[[The New York Times]]'', criticized effective altruists who take high-earning careers in order to have more money to donate. He believes that most people who work in finance and other high-paying industries value money for selfish reasons and that being surrounded by these people will cause effective altruists to become less altruistic.<ref name=":3">Brooks, David. "The Way to Produce a Person." ''New York Times.'' June 3, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/04/opinion/brooks-the-way-to-produce-a-person.html?_r=0</ref> Some effective altruists also mention this possibility, and online communities and public pledges are partly intended to reduce this risk.<ref>"FAQ." ''80,000 Hours''. http://80000hours.org/faq#faq-what-is-earning-to-give</ref> He also questions whether children in distant countries should be treated as having equal moral value to nearby children. He claims that morality should be "internally ennobling", a position similar to [[virtue ethics]].<ref name=":3" />

In a response to criticism of this aspect of effective altruism, the ''[[National Review]]'' questioned whether industries commonly believed to be unethical, such as finance or corporations, are actually unethical. The writer claimed that often these industries produce more benefits than harm.<ref>{{cite web|last=Salam|first=Reihan|title=The Rise of the Singerians|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/agenda/349841/rise-singerians-reihan-salam|work=National Review|publisher=National Review Online|accessdate=17 July 2013}}</ref> The business magazine ''[[Euromoney]]'' has praised effective altruism for its emphasis on individual charitable action.<ref>{{cite web|last=Saigal|first=Kanika|title=Impact Investing: The Big Business of Small Donors|url=http://www.euromoney.com/Article/3044777/Impact-investing-the-big-business-of-small-donors.html|work=Euromoney|publisher=Euromoney Institutional Investor PLC|accessdate=16 July 2013}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Effective giving]]
*[[High impact philanthropy]]
*[[Charity (practice)]]
*[[Earning to give]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [[Peter Unger]] (1996). ''[[Living High and Letting Die|Living High and Letting Die: Our Illusion of Innocence]]''. ISBN 978-0195108590
* [[Shelly Kagan]] (1991). ''The Limits of Morality''. ISBN 978-0198239161
* [[Peter Singer]] (2009). ''[[The Life You Can Save: Acting Now to End World Poverty]]''. ISBN 978-1-4000-6710-7

==External links==
* [http://www.givingwhatwecan.org/ Giving What We Can]
* [http://80000hours.org/ 80,000 Hours]
* [http://thelifeyoucansave.com/ The Life You Can Save]
* [http://www.GiveWell.org GiveWell]
* [http://www.thehighimpactnetwork.org/ The High Impact Network]
* [http://www.effectiveanimalactivism.org/ Effective Animal Activism]
* [http://effective-altruism.com/ Effective Altruism blog]
* [http://www.ted.com/talks/peter_singer_the_why_and_how_of_effective_altruism.html Peter Singer's TED talk]
* [http://effective-altruism.com/ An introduction to effective altruism]

{{Charity}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Effective Giving}}
[[Category:Altruism]]
[[Category:Employment]]
[[Category:Giving]]
[[Category:Consequentialism]]

Effektiver Altruismus

2013-07-25T06:55:41Z

InverseHypercube: misc. fixes

'''Effective altruism''' is a philosophy and [[social movement]]<ref name="blog.ted.com">http://blog.ted.com/2013/03/01/effective-altruism-peter-singer-at-ted2013/</ref> which applies evidence and reason to working out the most effective ways to improve the world. Effective altruists consider all causes and actions, and then act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, often defined as maximizing net [[utility|utility]].<ref>http://effective-altruism.com</ref><ref>http://www.thelifeyoucansave.org/ReadAboutUs/Organization.aspx</ref> It is this broad evidence-based approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional [[altruism]] or [[Charity (practice)|charity]]. Effective altruism sometimes involves taking actions that are less intuitive or emotionally salient. The philosopher [[Peter Singer]] is a notable supporter of effective altruism.<ref name="blog.ted.com"/>

== Principles ==

===Cost-effectiveness===
Applied to charitable interventions, [[cost-effectiveness analysis|cost-effectiveness]] refers to the amount of good achieved per dollar spent. For example, the cost-effectiveness of health interventions can be measured in [[quality-adjusted life year]]s.
[[Effective giving]] is an important component of effective altruism because some charities are far more effective than others.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.givewell.org/giving101/Funding-the-Right-Program | publisher = GiveWell | title = Your dollar goes further when you fund the right program }}</ref> Some charities simply fail to achieve their goals.<ref>{{cite web | title = Giving 101: The basics | url = http://www.givewell.org/giving101/Accomplishing-Nothing | publisher = GiveWell | accessdate = 2013-02-28}}</ref> Of those that do succeed, some achieve far greater results with less money.<ref>{{cite web | title = Your dollar goes further overseas | url = http://www.givewell.org/giving101/Your-dollar-goes-further-overseas | publisher = GiveWell | accessdate = 2013-02-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://blog.givewell.org/2009/11/26/hunger-here-vs-hunger-there/ | title = Hunger here vs. hunger there | first = Holden | last = Karnofsky | accessdate = 2013-02-28 | publisher = GiveWell}}</ref> [[Toby Ord]] has calculated that some charities are hundreds or thousands of times more effective than others.<ref name=":5" />

Though cost-effectiveness is a newer concept in charity, it is commonly used by economists. Many effective altruists have backgrounds in philosophy, economics, or mathematics, fields that involve rational and quantitative thinking.<ref name=":5">{{cite web|last=Singer|first=Peter|title=The Why and How of Effective Altruism|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/peter_singer_the_why_and_how_of_effective_altruism.html|work=TED|publisher=TED Conferences, LLC|accessdate=17 July 2013}}</ref>

===Cause selection===
Though there is a growing emphasis on effectiveness and evidence among nonprofits, this is usually done within a single cause, such as education. It is uncommon for the cause itself to be critically analyzed.<ref>{{cite web|last=Karnofsky|first=Holden|title=Strategic Cause Selection|url=http://blog.givewell.org/2012/05/02/strategic-cause-selection/|work=The GiveWell Blog|publisher=GiveWell|accessdate=22 June 2013}}</ref> Effective altruists attempt to choose the most effective causes based on broad values such as preventing suffering and donate to organizations that pursue these goals efficiently. Many effective altruists see cause selection as central to the movement.<ref>{{cite web|last=MacAskill|first=William|title=What Is Effective Altruism?|url=http://effective-altruism.com/what-effective-altruism|work=Effective Altruism|accessdate=17 July 2013}}</ref> Several organizations are doing research on cause selection.<ref>{{cite web|title=Causes|url=http://80000hours.org/causes|work=80,000 Hours|publisher=Centre for Effective Altruism|accessdate=22 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=GiveWell Labs Overview|url=http://www.givewell.org/about/labs|publisher=GiveWell}}</ref> Most effective altruists think that poverty in the [[developing country|developing world]], the suffering of animals on [[factory farming|factory farms]], and [[risks to civilization, humans, and planet Earth|humanity's long term future]] are the most important causes. <ref>{{cite web|last=MacAskill|first=William|title=What Is Effective Altruism?|url=http://effective-altruism.com/what-effective-altruism|work=Effective Altruism|accessdate=17 July 2013}}</ref>

===Impartiality===
Effective altruists reject the view that some lives are intrinsically more valuable than others. For example, they believe that a person in a developing country has equal value to a person in one's own community. As [[Peter Singer]] notes:

<blockquote>It makes no difference whether the person I can help is a neighbour's child ten yards away from me or a Bengali whose name I shall never know, ten thousand miles away. [...] The moral point of view requires us to look beyond the interests of our own society. Previously [...], this may hardly have been feasible, but it is quite feasible now. From the moral point of view, the prevention of the starvation of millions of people outside our society must be considered at least as pressing as the upholding of property norms within our society.<ref>Singer 1972, pp. 231-232, 237.</ref></blockquote>

In addition, many effective altruists think that future generations have equal moral value to currently existing people, so they focus on reducing [[Risks to civilization, humans, and planet Earth|existential risks to humanity]]. Others recognize that the interests of non-human animals should be accorded the same moral weight than similar interests of humans, and work to prevent the suffering of animals, such as those raised in factory farms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Effective Animal Activism |url=http://www.effectiveanimalactivism.org/}}</ref>

[[Thomas Pogge]] argues against this view, saying, "What matters morally is not merely how we affect people, but how we treat them through the rules we impose."<ref>{{cite doi | 10.1111/j.1747-7093.2002.tb00398.x}}</ref> [[Thomas Nagel]] makes a similar point, referring to [[Derek Parfit|Derek Parfit's]] terminology of "agent-neutral" and "agent-relative" reasons.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nagel |first=Thomas |title=The Limits of Objectivity |year=1979 |series=The Tanner Lectures on Human Values |url=http://tannerlectures.utah.edu/lectures/documents/nagel80.pdf}}</ref>

=== Counterfactual reasoning ===

Effective altruists argue that [[Counterfactual conditional|counterfactual]] reasoning is important to determine which course of action maximizes positive impact. Many people assume that the best way to help people is through direct methods, such as working for a charity or providing social services.<ref>{{cite web | title = Best jobs for saving the world | first1 = Donna | last1 = Rosato | first2 = Grace | last2 = Wong | date = November 2011 | url = http://money.cnn.com/magazines/moneymag/best-jobs/2011/jobs-helping-others/1.html | accessdate = 2013-02-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = 10 "helping" professions and how to train for them | first = Aimee | last = Hosler | date = 14 June 2011 | publisher = Schools.com | url = http://www.schools.com/articles/10-helping-professions-and-how-to-train-for-them.html | accessdate = 2013-02-28}}</ref> Since charities and social-service providers usually can find people willing to work for them, effective altruists compare the amount of good somebody does in a conventional altruistic career to how much good would have been done had the next-best candidate been hired for the position. According to this reasoning, the impact of choosing a conventional altruistic career may be smaller than it appears.<ref>{{cite web|last=Todd|first=Benjamin J.|title=Just What Is 'Making a Difference'? - Counterfactuals and Career Choice|url=http://80000hours.org/blog/18-just-what-is-making-a-difference-counterfactuals-and-career-choice|work=80,000 Hours|publisher=Centre for Effective Altruism|accessdate=17 July 2013}}</ref>

Careers that some may regard as unethical may offer high salaries that would allow one to make large donations to charities. Effective altruists argue that the marginal impact of one's potentially unethical actions in that career would be small, since someone else would have done them regardless, while the impact of donations would be large. <ref name="btodd">{{cite thesis | title=Which ethical careers make a difference? | type=Master's thesis | first=Benjamin | last = Todd | url = http://www.academia.edu/1807196/Which_Ethical_Careers_Make_a_Difference_The_Replaceability_Issue_in_the_Ethics_of_Career_Choice}}</ref><ref name="macaskill">{{Cite news | author = William MacAskill | title = Replaceability, Career Choice, and Making a Difference | year = 2013 | journal = Ethical Theory and Moral Practice}}</ref>

Some, however, dispute this principle. For example, [[Bernard Williams]] uses a similar example about a job at a chemical weapons factory to argue against [[utilitarianism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Bernard |title=Utilitarianism: For and against |chapter=A critique of utilitarianism |pages=97–99 |publisher=Cambridge University |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1973}}</ref> According to Williams, [[act utilitarianism]] unreasonably requires that people act in ways that violate their own integrity.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cox |first1=Damian |last2=La Caze |first2=Marguerite |last3=Levine |first3=Michael |title=Integrity |publisher=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2013/entries/integrity/ |year=2013 |accessdate=2013-03-07}}</ref>

==Notable proponents==

===Peter Singer===
{{Main|Peter Singer}}
The philosopher [[Peter Singer]] has written several works on effective altruism, including ''[[The Life You Can Save]]'' (in which he argues that people should use [[charity evaluators]] to determine how to make their donations most effective,<ref name=LYCS>{{cite book |last=Singer |first=Peter |year=2009 |title=The Life You Can Save: Acting now to end world poverty |publisher=Random House |location=New York}}</ref>) and his paper "[[Famine, Affluence and Morality]]" (in which he argues that we have an obligation to help those in need):

<blockquote>If it is in our power to prevent something bad from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything of comparable moral importance, then we ought, morally, to do it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fringer.org/wp-content/writings/famine.pdf |title=Famine, Affluence, and Morality |format=PDF |year=1972 |page=231 |accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref></blockquote>

He founded a nonprofit, also called The Life You Can Save, which promotes giving to effective charities. He is a member of [[Giving What We Can]], an effective-altruist organization, and gives 25% of his income to charity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.givingwhatwecan.org/about-us/our-members/list-of-members |title=List of Members |accessdate=2012-11-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~psinger/faq.html |title=FAQ on Singer's webpage at Princeton |publisher=Princeton.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

===Toby Ord===
{{Main|Toby Ord}}
Toby Ord is an ethicist at Oxford University. He promotes consequentialist ethics and is concerned with global poverty and catastrophic risks.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ord|first=Toby|title=Academic Site|url=http://www.amirrorclear.net/academic/index.html|work=A Mirror Clear|accessdate=2 March 2013}}</ref> He founded the organization Giving What We Can, which encourages people to pledge ten percent of their income to charity. He lives on £18,000 ($27,000) per year and donates the remainder of his income to the treatment of [[schistosomiasis]] in the developing world.<ref>{{cite news|last=Geoghegan|first=Tom|title=Toby Ord: Why I'm giving £1m to charity|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-11950843|accessdate=2 March 2013|newspaper=BBC News|date=13 December 2010}}</ref>

===Thomas Pogge===
{{Main|Thomas Pogge}}
A student of [[John Rawls]], Pogge approaches effective altruism from a less consequentialist viewpoint. Pogge is a member of [[Giving What We Can]], as well as the [[Health Impact Fund]], which seeks to make advanced medicines available at low cost to those living in poverty,<ref>
{{cite AV media |people=Pogge, Thomas |date=September 2011 |title=Medicine for the 99 percent |url=http://www.ted.com/talks/thomas_pogge_medicine_for_the_99_percent.html}}
</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book | last1=Pogge | first1 = Thomas
|last2 = Hollis | first2=Aidan
|title = The Health Impact Fund: Making New Medicines Accessible for All
|publisher = Incentives for Global Health
| year = 2008}}
</ref> and [[Academics Stand Against Poverty]], an organization that helps academics have a greater positive impact on world poverty.

Pogge's book ''[[World Poverty and Human Rights]]'' argues that people in wealthy democracies are actively hurting those in the developing world: "Most of us do not merely let people starve, but also participate in starving them."<ref>{{cite isbn | 0745641431}}</ref> Therefore, unlike Singer and Unger who argue that we should help those in need because of [[positive obligations]], Pogge believes that the responsibility to help the world's poor comes from the fact that people in the first world, by lending money to corrupt governments, are actively harming people.<ref>{{cite doi | 10.1023/B:ETTA.0000004700.20750.0d }}</ref>

===Peter Unger===
{{Main|Peter Unger}}
In his book ''[[Living High and Letting Die]]'', [[Peter Unger|Unger]] presents several arguments that people in the developed world have a strong moral obligation to others.<ref name="unger">{{cite isbn | 0195108590 }}</ref> An example [[thought experiment]] is "The Vintage Sedan":

<blockquote>Not truly rich, your one luxury in life is a vintage Mercedes sedan that, with much time, attention, and money, you've restored to mint condition... One day, you stop at the intersection of two small country roads, both lightly traveled. Hearing a voice screaming for help, you get out and see a man who's wounded and covered with a lot of his blood. Assuring you that his wound is confined to one of his legs, the man also informs you that he was a medical student for two full years. And, despite his expulsion for cheating on his second year final exams, which explains his indigent status since, he's knowledgeably tied his shirt near the wound as to stop the flow. So, there's no urgent danger of losing his life, you're informed, but there's great danger of losing his limb. This can be prevented, however, if you drive him to a rural hospital fifty miles away. "How did the wound occur?" you ask. An avid bird-watcher, he admits that he trespassed on a nearby field and, in carelessly leaving, cut himself on rusty barbed wire. Now, if you'd aid this trespasser, you must lay him across your fine back seat. But, then, your fine upholstery will be soaked through with blood, and restoring the car will cost over five thousand dollars. So, you drive away. Picked up the next day by another driver, he survives but loses the wounded leg.</blockquote>

Unger points out that most people have the response that this behavior is morally reprehensible, and you should be willing to accept the steep monetary cost of re-upholstering your car if it will save the man's life. He contrasts this with our responses to "The Envelope":

<blockquote>In your mailbox, there's something from (the U.S. Committee for) [[UNICEF]]. After reading it through, you correctly believe that, unless you soon send in a check for $100, then, instead of each living many more years, over thirty more children will die soon.</blockquote>

Unger argues that to react differently to this thought experiment is to be morally inconsistent, and hence our obligation to donate to UNICEF is as strong as our obligation to the hypothetical trespasser in "The Vintage Sedan." Unger says that a relatively affluent person, "like you and me, must contribute to vitally effective groups, like Oxfam and Unicef, most of the money and property she now has, and most of what comes her way for the foreseeable future."<ref name="unger"/><ref>{{cite news |title=If Oxfam ran the world |author=Martha Nussbaum |url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v19/n17/martha-nussbaum/if-oxfam-ran-the-world |newspaper=London Review of Books |date=9/4/1997 |accessdate=7 March 2013}}</ref>

===Shelly Kagan===
{{Main|Shelly Kagan}}
Shelly Kagan argues in ''The Limits of Morality'' that people do not have moral options to act in a way that will produce a suboptimal outcome. He opens the book with the claim that "Morality requires that you perform—of those acts not otherwise forbidden—that act which can reasonably be expected to lead the best consequences overall."<ref name=":0">{{cite doi | 10.1093/0198239165.001.0001}}</ref> He attempts to defend this claim with a detailed analysis of different possible views about moral options and moral constraints, and how these might be defended. He observes that there is a connection between a belief in the existence of moral options and a belief in the existence of moral constraints; a person who believes that there are options to act suboptimally will almost certainly also endorse some constraints on how we may behave.

==Lifestyle==
The principles of effective altruism imply significant lifestyle changes.<ref name="unger" /> Many effective altruists attempt to live frugally by [[Western world|Western]] standards so that they can donate more. An effective altruist couple profiled by the ''[[Washington Post]]'' lived on $10,000 in 2012. In an average month, they spent less than $200 on groceries and about $300 on non-essential purchases. They began living with the husband's parents to further save money.<ref name=":1">Matthews, Dylan. "Join Wall Street. Save the World." ''Washington Post'', May 31, 2013. http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/05/31/join-wall-street-save-the-world/</ref> Some effective altruists also pursue high-earning careers in order to have more money to donate.<ref name=":4">"Earning to Give." ''80,000 Hours. ''http://80000hours.org/earning-to-give </ref> Another effective altruist profiled by the ''Washington Post'' works as a [[quantitative analyst]] for a financial firm and donates half his salary.<ref name=":1" />

==Organizations==

A number of organizations have grown up that consider themselves to be part of the effective altruist movement. These organizations are:

*[[Giving What We Can]], an international society for the promotion of the most cost-effective poverty relief charitites. It researches the most cost effective charities, encourages intelligent giving and is building up a community of people who give a significant proportion of their income to the most cost-effective causes.<ref>http://givingwhatwecan.org/</ref>

*[[80,000 Hours]], an ethical careers advice service for people who want to use their careers to have a positive impact in the world.<ref>http://80000hours.org/about-us</ref>

*Effective Animal Activism, an organization that researches the most cost-effective charities that work to reduce animal suffering.<ref>http://www.effectiveanimalactivism.org</ref>

*The Life You Can Save, a movement which advocates fighting extreme poverty by donating to highly effective charities. It was started by the philosopher [[Peter Singer]] following the publication of his book ''[[The Life You Can Save]]''.<ref>http://thelifeyoucansave.com/idea</ref>

*The High Impact Network, an organization that spreads effective altruist ideas by starting local meetup groups.<ref>http://www.thehighimpactnetwork.org/about</ref>

*Instituto Ética, Racionalidade e Futuro da Humanidade, a Brazillian organization that encourages effective giving and investigates how technology can help future generations.<ref>http://www.ierfh.org/br/Objetivos.html</ref>

Peter Singer considers the following to be effective charitable organizations:<ref>{{cite web|last=Singer|first=Peter|title=The why and how of effective altruism|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/peter_singer_the_why_and_how_of_effective_altruism.html|publisher=TED|accessdate=2013-05-21}}</ref>
*[[GiveWell]]
*[[Against Malaria Foundation]]
*[[Schistosomiasis Control Initiative]]
*[[Vegan Outreach]]
*[http://www.thehumaneleague.com/ The Humane League]
*[[Future of Humanity Institute]]

==Responses==
Much of the controversy about effective altruism is due to the idea that it can be ethical to take a high-earning career in a potentially unethical industry if this allows one to donate more money. [[David Brooks (journalist)|David Brooks]], a columnist for ''[[The New York Times]]'', criticized effective altruists who take high-earning careers in order to have more money to donate. He believes that most people who work in finance and other high-paying industries value money for selfish reasons and that being surrounded by these people will cause effective altruists to become less altruistic.<ref name=":3">Brooks, David. "The Way to Produce a Person." ''New York Times.'' June 3, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/04/opinion/brooks-the-way-to-produce-a-person.html?_r=0</ref> Some effective altruists also mention this possibility, and online communities and public pledges are partly intended to reduce this risk.<ref>"FAQ." ''80,000 Hours''. http://80000hours.org/faq#faq-what-is-earning-to-give</ref> He also questions whether children in distant countries should be treated as having equal moral value to nearby children. He claims that morality should be "internally ennobling", a position similar to [[virtue ethics]].<ref name=":3" />

In a response to criticism of this aspect of effective altruism, the ''[[National Review]]'' questioned whether industries commonly believed to be unethical, such as finance or corporations, are actually unethical. The writer claimed that often these industries produce more benefits than harm.<ref>{{cite web|last=Salam|first=Reihan|title=The Rise of the Singerians|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/agenda/349841/rise-singerians-reihan-salam|work=National Review|publisher=National Review Online|accessdate=17 July 2013}}</ref> The business magazine ''[[Euromoney]]'' has praised effective altruism for its emphasis on individual charitable action.<ref>{{cite web|last=Saigal|first=Kanika|title=Impact Investing: The Big Business of Small Donors|url=http://www.euromoney.com/Article/3044777/Impact-investing-the-big-business-of-small-donors.html|work=Euromoney|publisher=Euromoney Institutional Investor PLC|accessdate=16 July 2013}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Effective giving]]
*[[High impact philanthropy]]
*[[Charity (practice)]]
*[[Earning to give]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [[Peter Unger]] (1996). ''[[Living High and Letting Die|Living High and Letting Die: Our Illusion of Innocence]]''. ISBN 978-0195108590
* [[Shelly Kagan]] (1991). ''The Limits of Morality''. ISBN 978-0198239161
* [[Peter Singer]] (2009). ''[[The Life You Can Save: Acting Now to End World Poverty]]''. ISBN 978-1-4000-6710-7

== External links ==
* [http://www.givingwhatwecan.org/ Giving What We Can]
* [http://80000hours.org/ 80,000 Hours]
* [http://thelifeyoucansave.com/ The Life You Can Save]
* [http://www.GiveWell.org GiveWell]
* [http://www.thehighimpactnetwork.org/ The High Impact Network]
* [http://www.effectiveanimalactivism.org/ Effective Animal Activism]
* [http://effective-altruism.com/ Effective Altruism blog]
* [http://www.ted.com/talks/peter_singer_the_why_and_how_of_effective_altruism.html Peter Singer's TED talk]
* [http://effective-altruism.com/ An introduction to effective altruism]

{{Charity}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Effective Giving}}
[[Category:Altruism]]
[[Category:Employment]]
[[Category:Giving]]
[[Category:Consequentialism]]

GNU Guile

2013-07-12T20:11:08Z

InverseHypercube: SVG

{{Infobox Software
| Name = GNU Guile
| Logo = [[Bild:GNU Guile logo.svg|120px]]
| Entwickler = [[GNU-Projekt]]
| AktuelleVersion = 2.0.9 <ref name="latestversion">FSF. [http://www.gnu.org/software/guile/news.html What's the latest news?]</ref>
| AktuelleVersionFreigabeDatum = 10. April 2013
| AktuelleVorabVersion =
| Betriebssystem = [[GNU]]
| Kategorie = [[Programmiersprache]]
| Lizenz = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
| Website = [http://www.gnu.org/software/guile/ gnu.org: guile]
}}

'''Guile''', ein [[Akronym]] für ''GNU Ubiquitous Intelligent Language for Extensions'', ist die offizielle [[Skriptsprache|Erweiterungssprache]] für das Betriebssystem [[GNU]] und wird im Rahmen des [[GNU-Projekt]] entwickelt. Guile ist ein [[Interpreter]] für die [[Programmiersprache]] [[Scheme]], einem [[LISP]]-Dialekt. Die Compiler-Infrastruktur, Bibliotheken und dynamische Programmierumgebung machen Guile zu einer mächtigen Sprache zum Schreiben von Anwendungen. Guile wird als [[Programmbibliothek]] implementiert, die in andere Programme eingebunden werden kann, um deren Erweiterbarkeit zu fördern. Noch längst nicht alle GNU-Projekte unterstützen Guile und der Script-FU von [[GIMP]] setzt [noch] auf die „Konkurrenz“ [[TinyScheme]].

In Zukunft soll Guile auch andere Skriptsprachen wie [[Perl (Programmiersprache)|Perl]] und [[PHP]] unterstützen. Zurzeit wird jedoch CTAX unterstützt, eine C-ähnliche Sprache.
Eines der zukünftigen Ziele von Guile ist es, aus jeder beliebigen anderen Sprache nach Scheme „übersetzen“ und aus diesen [[Portabilität (Informatik)|portablen]] [[Bytecode]] erzeugen zu können; Guile wäre dann eine sprachneutrale Laufzeitumgebung.

Guile unterstützt [[Extensible Markup Language|XML]], [[XPath]], und [[XSLT]], die ''Forms'' von [[SXML]], [[SXPath]] und [[SXSLT]]. Die [[S-expression]]-basierte XML Verarbeitung wird ebenfalls unterstützt.

== Geschichte ==
Die Ursprünge von Guile liegen in einer Diskussion, die von [[Richard Stallman]] gestartet wurde und die später unter dem Namen „the Tcl [[Flame War|wars]]“ bekannt geworden ist: Stallman behauptete, dass [[Tcl]] nicht leistungsfähig genug sei, um als Erweiterungsprache zu dienen. Aus diesem Grund startete er das Guile-Projekt.<ref name = "Varderburg">[http://www.vanderburg.org/OldPages/Tcl/war/ Tcl war]</ref> Damals existierte zwar die Scheme-Definition, aber es gab noch keinen Interpreter, so wurde mit Guile der erste einigermaßen standardkonforme Interpreter geschaffen. Zu nennen ist [[Tom Lord (Programmierer)|Tom Lord]], einer der Hauptprogrammierer, der damals bei [[Cygnus Solutions]] (später [[Red Hat]]) beschäftigt war.

Die ersten Versionen wurden vor 1995<ref>
„Here is a very, very brief history of this interpreter. I hope that people involved in its past will contribute more to this document. SIOD: George Carrette wrote SIOD, the earliest version. Although most of this code as been rewritten or replaced over time, the garbage collector from SIOD is still an important part of Guile. SIOD is still actively developed and freely available (search for ‚siod‘). It has a very small footprint.“ – „Eine sehr, sehr zusammenfassende Historie: Ich hoffe dass Leute, die sich mit diesem Thema in Zukunft auseinandersetzten dieses Dokument lesen. SIOD: George Carrette schrieb die erste Version von SIOD. Der größte Teil wurde bereits neu geschrieben oder ersetzt, aber der garbage collector von SIOD ist immer noch ein Hauptbestandteil von Guile. SIOD wird auch immer noch weiterentwickelt und ist frei. (Suchen sie einfach nach ‚siod‘). Es ist sehr klein.“ Guile Scheme 1995.</ref> von SIOD („Scheme in One Defun“<ref name = "SIOD">[http://www.cs.indiana.edu/scheme-repository/imp/siod.html SIOD].</ref>) und dem [[SCM (Scheme)|SCM]]-Interpreter<ref name = "Bader">
„It's hard to determine just who designed Guile. A large share of the credit surely belongs to Aubrey Jaffer whose excellent Scheme interpreter, SCM, forms the core of the implementation. The module system was designed and built by Miles Bader…“ – „Wer Guile entworfen hat, lässt sich eigentlich nicht sagen. Allerdings hat Aubrey Jaffer mit seinem sehr guten Scheme-Interpreter SCM, der später zur Basis der Projektes wurde, einen großen Beitrag geleistet. Das Modulsystem stammt von Miles Bader.“

„An Anatomy of Guile, The Interface to Tcl/Tk“, 1995
</ref> [[Abspaltung (Softwareentwicklung)|abgespalten]].

== Eigenschaften des Guile-Interpreters ==
Der Guile-Interpreter erweitert Scheme unter anderem um folgende Fähigkeiten:

* Ein erweitertes Modulsystem
* Vollen Zugriff auf [[POSIX]]-Systemaufrufe
* [[Rechnernetz|Netzwerk]]unterstützung
* [[Thread (Informatik)|Multithread]]ing
* Dynamisches [[Linker (Computerprogramm)|Linken]]
* Eine [[Schnittstelle]] zur Ausführung Scheme-fremder [[Funktionsaufruf]]e
* Verbesserte Verarbeitung von [[Zeichenkette]]n
* Objektorientierung durch das Modul ''goops'', ähnlich zum [[Common Lisp Object System]]

Es gibt auch noch zwei grundsätzliche Unterschiede zur Scheme Definition(<nowiki>[Clinger]</nowiki>):

* Guile ist [[Case sensitivity|case sensitive]]

== Programme, die Guile unterstützen ==
* [[GEDA (Software)|gEDA]]
* [[GNU Anubis]]
* [[GnuCash]]
* [[GNU MDK]]
* [[GNU Robots]]
* [[GNU Serveez]]
* [[GNU TeXmacs]]
* [[GnoTime]]
* [[Lilypond]]
* [[Scwm]]
* [[Taxbird]]

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.gnu.org/software/guile/ Offizieller Guile-Webauftritt]
* [http://www.vanderburg.org/OldPages/Tcl/war/ Archives of the Tcl Wars]
* [http://www.usenix.org/publications/library/proceedings/tcl95/full_papers/lord.ps „An Anatomy of Guile, The Interface to Tcl/Tk“] (1995)
* [http://pingus.seul.org/~grumbel/tmp/guile-1.6.0/guile-tut_2.html Guile Tutorial]

== Literatur ==
* Jim Blandy, „Guile: An Interpreter Core for Complete Applications“, ''Handbook of Programming Languages, Volume IV: Functional and Logic Programming Languages'', Peter H. Salus (Herausgeber). 1998 (erste Auflage), Macmillian Technical Publishing; ISBN 1-57870-011-6, S. 87–104.

== Referenzen ==
<references/>


{{DEFAULTSORT:Gnu Guile}}
[[Kategorie:Skriptsprache]]
[[Kategorie:GNU]]
[[Kategorie:Lisp]]

Große Chinesische Hungersnot

2013-07-06T19:52:20Z

InverseHypercube: straightening quot. marks and parenthesis

{{Infobox famine
| famine_name = 
| famine_name_in_local = 三年自然灾害
| image_1 =
| image_title_1 =
| image_width_1 = 250
| image_2 = 
| image_title_2 = 
| image_width_2 = 
| country = {{flagicon|People's Republic of China|1958}} [[People's Republic of China]]
| location = [[Mainland China]]
| coordinates = 
| period = 1958–1961
| excess_mortality= 
| from_disease = 
| total_deaths = 15 million excess deaths (government statistics) 20 and 43 million (scholarly estimates) at least 45 million (Dikötter)
| death_rate = 
| observations = Considered China's most devastating catastrophe by [[Frank Dikötter]]. A part of the [[Great Leap Forward]] movement.
| theory =
| relief = [[Four Pests Campaign]] (worsened the famine). Increase in food export to other [[socialist state]]s.
| food_situation =
| demographics = 
| consequences = Termination of the [[Great Leap Forward]] movement
| memorial = 
| preceded =
| succeeded =
| footnotes = 
}}
The '''four Years of Great Chinese Famine''' ({{zh|s=三年大饥荒|t=三年大饑荒|p=Sānnián dà jīhuāng}}), referred to by the [[Communist Party of China]] as the '''Three Years of Natural Disasters''' or '''Three Years of Difficult Period''' ({{zh|s=三年自然灾害|t=三年自然災害|p=Sānnián zìrán zāihài}} or {{zh|s=三年困难时期|t=三年困難時期|p=Sānnián kùnnán shíqī}}) by the government, was the period in the [[People's Republic of China]] between the years 1958 and 1961 characterized by widespread famine. Drought, poor weather, and the policies of the Communist Party of China contributed to the famine, although the relative weights of the contributions are disputed due to the [[Great Leap Forward]].

According to government statistics, there were 15 million excess deaths in this period.<ref>Ó Gráda, Famine: A Short History, p.95</ref> Unofficial estimates vary, but scholars have estimated the number of famine victims to be between 20 and 43 million.<ref name="xiz">Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces," ''Population and Development Review'' 13, no. 4 (1987), 639-70. For a summary of other estimates, please refer to ''Necrometrics'' [http://necrometrics.com/20c5m.htm]</ref> Historian [[Frank Dikötter]], having been granted special access to Chinese archival materials, estimates that there were at least 45 million premature deaths from 1958 to 1962.<ref name="indepedent">{{Cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/maos-great-leap-forward-killed-45-million-in-four-years-2081630.html |title=Mao's Great Leap Forward 'killed 45 million in four years' |last=Akbar |first=Arifa |date=17 September 2010 |accessdate=20 September 2010 |location=London |work=The Independent}}</ref><ref name="Dikotter333">Dikötter, Frank. ''Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62.'' Walker & Company, 2010. p. 333. ISBN 0-8027-7768-6</ref> Chinese journalist [[Yang Jisheng]] concluded there were 36 million deaths due to starvation, while another 40 million others failed to be born, so that "China's total population loss during the Great Famine then comes to 76 million."<ref name=nyt>{{cite news|last=Mirsky|first=Jonathan|title=Unnatural Disaster: ‘Tombstone: The Great Chinese Famine, 1958-1962,’ by Yang Jisheng|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/books/review/tombstone-the-great-chinese-famine-1958-1962-by-yang-jisheng.html?nl=books&emc=edit_bk_20121207|accessdate=December 7, 2012|newspaper=The New York Times Sunday Book Review|date=December 9, 2012|pages=BR22}}</ref> The phrase "Three Bitter Years" is often used by Chinese peasants to describe this period.<ref>{{cite web|language =Chinese|url=http://www.gmw.cn/content/2007-05/22/content_610656.htm|title=Different Life of Scientist Yuan Longping|publisher=[[Guangming Daily(China)|Guangming Daily]]|date=22 May 2007|accessdate=16 March 2012 }}</ref>

==Causes==

The great Chinese famine was caused by social pressure, economic mismanagement, and radical changes in agriculture. [[Mao Zedong]], chairman of the Chinese communist party, introduced drastic changes in farming which prohibited farm ownership. Failure to abide by the policies lead to persecution. The social pressure imposed on the citizens in terms of farming and business, which the government controlled, lead to state instability. Due to the laws passed during the period and [[Great Leap Forward]] during 1958-1962, according to government statistics, about 36 million people died in this period.<ref>Jisheng, Yang "Tombstone:The Great Chinese Famine,1958-1962"Book Review.New York Times.Dec,2012.March 3,2013.http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/books/review/tombstone-the-great-chinese-famine-1958-1962-by-yang-jisheng.html </ref> Until the early 1980s, the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|Chinese government]]'s stance, reflected by the name "Three Years of Natural Disasters", was that the famine was largely a result of a series of natural disasters compounded by several planning errors. Researchers outside China argued that massive institutional and policy changes which accompanied the [[Great Leap Forward]] were the key factors in the famine, or at least worsened nature-induced disasters.<ref>{{cite video | people =Sue Williams (director), Howard Sharp (editor), [[Will Lyman]] (narrator) | title = China: A Century of Revolution | publisher =WinStar Home Entertainment | date =1997}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | contribution =Famine in China | year =2003 | title =Encyclopedia of Population | editor-last =Demeny | editor-first =Paul |editor2-last =McNicoll|editor2-first=Geoffrey | volume =1 | pages =388–390 | place =New York | publisher =Macmillan Reference USA}}</ref> Since the 1980s there has been greater official Chinese recognition of the importance of policy mistakes in causing the disaster, claiming that the disaster was 30% due to natural causes and 70% by mismanagement.{{fact|date=May 2013}}

During the [[Great Leap Forward]], farming was organized into [[People's commune|communes]] and the cultivation of private plots forbidden. Iron and steel production was identified as a key requirement for economic advancement. Millions of peasants were ordered away from agricultural work to join the iron and steel production workforce.

[[Yang Jisheng]] would summarize the effect of the focus on production targets in 2008:
<blockquote>In Xinyang, people starved at the doors of the grain warehouses. As they died, they shouted, "Communist Party, Chairman Mao, save us". If the granaries of [[Henan]] and [[Hebei]] had been opened, no one need have died. As people were dying in large numbers around them, officials did not think to save them. Their only concern was how to fulfill the delivery of grain.<ref name=trans>Translation from [http://en.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid=18328 "A hunger for the truth: A new book, banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine."], chinaelections.org, 7 July 2008 of content from [[Yang Jisheng]], ''墓碑－－中國六十年代大饑荒紀實 (Mu Bei - - Zhong Guo Liu Shi Nian Dai Da Ji Huang Ji Shi)'', Hong Kong: Cosmos Books (Tian Di Tu Shu), 2008, ISBN 9789882119093{{zh icon}}</ref></blockquote>

Along with collectivisation, the central Government decreed several changes in agricultural techniques based on the ideas of Soviet pseudoscientist [[Trofim Lysenko]].<ref>{{cite book | title =The People's Republic of China 1949-76 | edition=second | first = Michael |last =Lynch | location=London | publisher =Hodder Education | year = 2008 | page = 57}}</ref> One of these ideas was close planting, whereby the density of seedlings was at first tripled and then doubled again. The theory was that plants of the same species would not compete with each other. In practice they did, which stunted growth and resulted in lower yields. Another policy was based on the ideas of Lysenko's colleague Teventy Maltsev, who encouraged peasants across China to [[plowing|plow]] deeply into the soil (up to 1 or 2 meters). They believed the most fertile soil was deep in the earth, allowing extra strong root growth. However, in shallow soil, useless rocks, soil, and sand were driven up instead, burying the topsoil.

These radical changes in farming organization coincided with adverse weather patterns, including droughts and floods. In July 1959, the [[Yellow River]] flooded in [[East China]]. According to the Disaster Center, the flood directly killed, either through starvation from crop failure or drowning, an estimated 2 million people, while other areas were affected in other ways as well.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.disastercenter.com/disaster/TOP100K.html | title = The Most Deadly 100 Natural Disasters of the 20th Century}}</ref> It could be ranked as one of the deadliest natural disasters of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://listverse.com/2007/09/07/top-10-deadliest-natural-disasters/ | date = 7 September 2007 | title = Top 10 Deadliest Natural Disasters }}</ref>

In 1960, an estimated 60% of agricultural land in northern China received no rain at all.<ref name="Atimes">{{cite news | url =http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FD01Ad04.html | publisher =[[Asia Times]] online | title = Part 2: The Great Leap Forward not all bad | first =Henry C K | last =Liu | date = 1 April 2004}}</ref> The [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] yearbooks from 1958 to 1962 also reported abnormal weather, followed by droughts and floods. This included {{convert|760|mm|in}} of rain in Hong Kong across five days in June 1959, part of a pattern that hit all of [[Southern China]].

As a result of these factors, year over year grain production dropped in China. The harvest was down by 15% in 1959. By 1960, it was at 70% of its 1958 level. There was no recovery until 1962, after the Great Leap Forward ended.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Lin|first1= Justin Yifu|last2= Yang|first2= Dennis Tao|year= 2000|title= Food Availability, Entitlements and the Chinese Famine of 1959–61|journal= [[The Economic Journal]]|volume= 110|issue= 460|pages= 136{{endash}}158|publisher= [[Royal Economic Society]]|doi= 10.1111/1468-0297.00494|url= |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref>

According to the work of [[Nobel prize]] winning economist and expert on famines [[Amartya Sen]], most famines do not result just from lower food production, but also from an inappropriate or inefficient distribution of the food, often compounded by lack of information and indeed misinformation as to the extent of the problem. In the case of these Chinese famines,{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} the urban population had protected legal rights for certain amounts of grain consumption. Local officials in the countryside competed to over-report the levels of production that their communes had achieved in response to the new economic organisation, and thus local peasants were left with a much reduced residue.

==Outcome==

According to the China Statistical Yearbook (1984), crop production decreased from 200 million tons (1958) to 143.5 million tons (1960). Due to lack of food and incentive to marry at that point in time, the population was about 658,590,000 in 1961, about 13,480,000 less than the population of 1959. Birth rate decreased from 2.922% (1958) to 2.086% (1960) and death rate increased from 1.198% (1958) to 2.543% (1960), while the average numbers for 1962–1965 are about 4% and 1%, respectively.

The officially reported death rates show much more dramatic increases in a number of provinces and counties. In [[Sichuan province]], the most populous province in China, for example, the government reported 11 million deaths out of the average population of about 70 million during 1958–1961, one death in every seven people.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} In [[Huaibin County]], [[Henan province]], the government reported 102 thousand deaths out of a population of 378 thousand in 1960. On the national level, the official statistics imply about 15 million so-called "excess deaths" or "abnormal deaths", most of them resulting from starvation.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

Yu Dehong, the secretary of a party official in [[Xinyang]] in 1959 and 1960, stated,
<blockquote>I went to one village and saw 100 corpses, then another village and another 100 corpses. No one paid attention to them. People said that dogs were eating the bodies. Not true, I said. The dogs had long ago been eaten by the people.<ref name=trans/></blockquote>

It is widely believed that the government seriously under-reported death tolls: Lu Baoguo, a [[Xinhua]] reporter in Xinyang, told [[Yang Jisheng]] of why he never reported on his experience:
<blockquote>In the second half of 1959, I took a long-distance bus from Xinyang to [[Luoshan]] and [[Gushi]]. Out of the window, I saw one corpse after another in the ditches. On the bus, no one dared to mention the dead. In one county, [[Guangshan]], one-third of the people had died. Although there were dead people everywhere, the local leaders enjoyed good meals and fine liquor. ... I had seen people who had told the truth being destroyed. Did I dare to write it?<ref name=trans/></blockquote>

Some Western analysts, such as [[Patricia Buckley Ebrey]], estimate that about 20-40 million people had died of starvation caused by bad government policy and natural disasters. J. Banister estimates this number is about 23 million. Li Chengrui, a former minister of the [[National Bureau of Statistics of China]], estimated 22 million (1998). His estimation was based on [[Ansley J. Coale]] and Jiang Zhenghua's estimation of 17 million. Cao Shuji estimated 32.5 million. The aforementioned [[Yang Jisheng]] (2008) estimated the death toll at 36 million.<ref name=hunger>[http://en.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid=18328 "A hunger for the truth: A new book, banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine."], chinaelections.org, 7 July 2008</ref>

Hong Kong based historian Frank Dikötter (2010) estimates that, at minimum, 45 million people died from starvation, overwork and state violence during the Great Leap, claiming his findings to be based on access to recently opened local and provincial party archives.<ref name="Dikotter333"/> However, his approach to the documents, as well has his claim to be the first author to use them, have been questioned by other scholars.<ref>Dillon, Michael. "Collective Responsibility“ "The Times Literary Supplement" January 7 (2011), p. 13.</ref> Dikötter's study also stresses that state violence exacerbated the death toll. Dikötter claims that least 2.5 million of the victims were beaten or tortured to death.<ref>Dikötter, Frank. ''Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62.'' Walker & Company, 2010. p. 298. ISBN 0-8027-7768-6</ref> He provides a graphic example of what happened to a family after one member was caught stealing some food:

<blockquote>Liu Desheng, guilty of poaching a sweet potato, was covered in urine ... He, his wife, and his son were also forced into a heap of excrement. Then tongs were used to prise his mouth open after he refused to swallow excrement. He died three weeks later.<ref>Issac Stone Fish. [http://www.newsweek.com/2010/09/26/mao-s-great-famine.html Greeting Misery With Violence]. [[Newsweek]]. 26 September 2010.</ref></blockquote>

There are widespread oral reports, and some official documentation, of [[cannibalism]] being practiced in various forms, as a result of the famine.<ref name="bern97">{{cite news |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0CE3D71E3DF936A35751C0A961958260 |title=Horror of a Hidden Chinese Famine |publisher=[[New York Times]] | first=Richard | last=Bernstein |date= February 5, 1997}}</ref><ref name="becker">{{cite book |title=Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine |first=Jasper |last=Becker |pages=352 |isbn=978-0-68483457-3 |publisher=Free Press |postscript=, title is a reference to [[Hungry ghosts in Chinese religion]] |year=1997}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–1962 |first=Frank |last=Dikötter |year=2010 |chapter=36. Cannibalism |pages=320–323 |isbn = 978-0-80277768-3 }}</ref> Due to the scale of the famine, the resulting cannibalism has been described as "on a scale unprecedented in the history of the 20th century".<ref name="bern97" /><ref name="becker" />

==Political Movement==
The [[Great Leap Forward]] was initiated in 1958, after the [[Five-year plans of the People's Republic of China|First Five Year Plan]] had been declared successfully completed. One point of the Great Leap was starting to set up [[People's Commune]]s in the countryside. However, the Party had optimistically over-estimated the country's productivity during the First Five Year Plan. In reality, farming activity had gone down due to the All-Canteen.

Some activists went against the [[Great Leap Forward]] movement, but they were seen as the opponents of Mao and were silenced in the purges of the following "[[Anti-Rightist Movement]]".

After the Famine, then-Chairman of the People's Republic of China [[Liu Shaoqi]] concluded that the reason for the calamity was "30% natural disaster, 70% policy". In the later [[Cultural Revolution]], Liu was denounced as a traitor and an enemy agent going against the [[Three Red Banners]].

==Further perspectives==
{{History of the People's Republic of China}}
Some argue that the famines in the [[Republic of China|Republican Era]] caused a death rate of about five millions/year, the same as in the Great Famine. The famine in northern China in 1920–1921, for example, caused 10 million deaths.<ref>Ren Bumei, Reconsideration before a Disaster: Restate the Catastrophism (《在一场大灾变前的反思——重申“灾变论”》)</ref>

Famine scholar [[Cormac Ó Gráda]] noted that even prior to the Great Chinese Famine, famines were "recurrent features of Chinese history during the previous century or so". He noted the "apocalyptic" nature of such famines, including Great North China Famine of 1876–79, which was estimated to have caused between 9.5 and 13 million deaths. Citing Yang Jisheng, Ó Gráda also noted that between 1920 and 1936, 18.36 million people died due to famines caused by crop failures, while the 1942 Henan famine "produced its own catalogue of atrocities".<ref name="cograda">{{cite news | url=http://chinastudygroup.net/2011/03/o-grada-review-of-dikotter/ | title=Great Leap into Famine? – Ó Gráda’s review of Dikötter book | author=Ó Gráda, Cormac | publisher=China Study Group | date=15 March 2011}}</ref>

Former Chinese [[dissident]] and political prisoner, [[Minqi Li]], a Professor of Economics at the [[University of Utah]], and a supporter of Maoist policies,<ref>{{Cite news | title = The New Left in China - Interview with Minqi Li | url = http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/2008/li220808.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | title = The Rise of the Working Class and the Future of the Chinese Revolution | url = http://monthlyreview.org/2011/06/01/the-rise-of-the-working-class-and-the-future-of-the-chinese-revolution }}</ref> has produced data showing that even the peak death rates during the Great Leap Forward were in fact quite typical in pre-Communist China. Li (2008) argues that based on the average death rate over the three years of the Great Leap Forward, there were several million fewer lives lost during this period than would have been the case under normal mortality conditions before 1949.<ref>{{cite book |author=Li. Minqi |year=2008 |title=The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy |publisher=[[Monthly Review Press]] |isbn=978-1-58367-182-5}}</ref>

[[Nobel Prize]] winner economist [[Amartya Sen]] puts this famine in a global context. His book ''[[Development as Freedom]]'' argues that lack of democracy is the major culprit: "Indeed, no substantial famine has ever occurred in a democratic country—no matter how poor." He adds that it is "hard to imagine that anything like this could have happened in a country that goes to the polls regularly and that has an independent press. During that terrible calamity the government faced no pressure from newspapers, which were controlled, and none from opposition parties, which were absent."<ref name="Sen1999">{{cite book|author=Amartya Kumar Sen|title=Development as freedom|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Qm8HtpFHYecC|accessdate=14 April 2011|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-289330-7}}</ref> Nevertheless, in his work ''Hunger and Public Action'' (co-author [[Jean Drèze]]), Sen also noted that "despite the gigantic size of excess mortality in the Chinese famine, the extra mortality in India from regular deprivation in normal times vastly overshadows the former."<ref name="DrezeSen">{{cite book|author=Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen|title=Hunger and public action|url=http://www.polsci.ucsb.edu/faculty/glasgow/ps15/DrezeSen.pdf|page=215|accessdate=14 January 2013|year=1989|publisher=Clarendon Press}}</ref> This view was also reflected by [[Noam Chomsky]] in ''Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs''<ref>[[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky, Noam]] (2000): ''Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=4ErRaUQhb-8C&pg=PA178&dq=the+democratic+capitalist+%22experiment%22+since+1947+has+caused+more+deaths+than+in+the+entire+history&hl=en&ei=HQf-TN6sIcKXccae5JoG&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=the%20democratic%20capitalist%20%22experiment%22%20since%201947%20has%20caused%20more%20deaths%20than%20in%20the%20entire%20history&f=false pp. 177–78], Pluto Press, ISBN 978-0-7453-1708-3.</ref>

==See also==
* ''[[Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62]]''
* [[Yang Jisheng]]
* [[Four Pests Campaign]]
* [[Holodomor]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Ashton, Basil, Kenneth Hill, Alan Piazza, Robin Zeitz, "Famine in China, 1958-61", ''Population and Development Review,'' Vol. 10, No. 4. (Dec., 1984), pp. 613–645.
* Banister, J. "Analysis of recent data on the population of China", ''Population and Development,'' Vol.10, No.2, 1984.
* [[Jasper Becker|Becker, Jasper]] (1998). ''Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine.'' [[Holt Paperbacks]]. ISBN 0-8050-5668-8
* Cao Shuji, The deaths of China's population and its contributing factors during 1959-1961. China's Population Science (Jan.2005) (In Chinese)
* China Statistical Yearbook (1984), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Publishing House, 1984.Page 83,141,190
* China Statistical Yearbook (1991), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Publishing House, 1991.
* China Population Statistical Yearbook (1985), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Bureau Publishing House, 1985.
* [[Ansley J. Coale|Coale, Ansley J.]], Rapid population change in China, 1952–1982, [[National Academy Press]], Washington, D.C., 1984.
* [[Frank Dikötter|Dikötter, Frank]]. ''[[Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62]]''. [[Walker & Company]], 2010. ISBN 0-8027-7768-6
* Gao. Mobo (2007). ''Gao Village: Rural life in modern China''. [[University of Hawaii Press]]. ISBN 978-0-8248-3192-9
* Gao. Mobo (2008). ''The Battle for China's Past''. [[Pluto Press]]. ISBN 978-0-7453-2780-8
* Jiang Zhenghua (蒋正华)，Method and Result of China Population Dynamic Estimation, Academic Report of Xi'a University, 1986(3). pp46,84
* Li Chengrui(李成瑞): Population Change Caused by The Great Leap Movement, Demographic Study, No.1, 1998 pp. 97–111
* Li. Minqi (2008). ''The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy''. [[Monthly Review Press]]. ISBN 978-1-58367-182-5
* Peng Xizhe, "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces", ''Population and Development Review,'' Vol. 13, No.4. (Dec., 1987), pp. 639–670
* Thaxton. Ralph A. Jr (2008). ''Catastrophe and Contention in Rural China: Mao's Great Leap Forward Famine and the Origins of Righteous Resistance in Da Fo Village''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-72230-6
* Yang, Dali. ''Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine''. Stanford University Press, 1996.
* [[Yang Jisheng]]. ''Tombstone (Mu Bei - Zhong Guo Liu Shi Nian Dai Da Ji Huang Ji Shi).'' Cosmos Books (Tian Di Tu Shu), [[Hong Kong]] 2008.
* [[Yang Jisheng]]. "Tombstone: An Account of Chinese Famine in the 1960s" (墓碑－中國六十年代大饑荒紀實 (Mubei – Zhongguo Liushi Niandai Da Jihuang Jishi), Hong Kong: Cosmos Books (Tiandi Tushu), 2008, ISBN 978-988-211-909-3 {{zh icon}}. By 2010, it was appearing under the title: 墓碑: 一九五八-一九六二年中國大饑荒紀實 (Mubei: Yi Jiu Wu Ba – Yi Jiu Liu Er Nian Zhongguo Da Jihuang Shiji) ("Tombstone: An Account of Chinese Famine From 1958–1962").
* [[Yang Jisheng]]. Tombstone: The Untold Story of Mao's Great Famine, Yang Jisheng, Translators: Stacy Mosher, Guo Jian, Publisher: Allen Lane (30 Oct 2012), ISBN 978-184-614-518-6 (English Translation of the above work)
** Translated into English and abridged. Yang Jisheng, ''Tombstone: The Great Chinese Famine, 1958-1962'', Farrar, Straus and Giroux (October 30, 2012), hardcover, 656 pages, ISBN 0374277931, ISBN 978-0374277932
* Official Chinese statistics, shown as a graph.{{Citation
| title =
| url = http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/ChinaFood/data/pop/pop_10.htm
| publisher = [[International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis]] (IIASA)
| work = Land Use Systems Group (LUC)[http://webarchive.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/]
| location = [[Austria]]
| date =
| accessdate =
}}{{dead-link|date=February 2013}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}

{{coord missing|China}}

[[Category:1959 disasters]]
[[Category:1960 disasters]]
[[Category:1961 disasters]]
[[Category:Famines in China]]
[[Category:Incidents of cannibalism]]
[[Category:1959 in China]]
[[Category:1960 in China]]
[[Category:1961 in China]]

Robert Parry (Journalist)

2013-06-24T04:23:08Z

InverseHypercube: rm period

{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2011}}
''' Robert Parry''' is an American [[investigative journalist]]. He was awarded the [[George Polk Awards|George Polk Award]] for National Reporting in 1984 for his work with the [[Associated Press]] on the [[Iran-Contra]] story and uncovered [[Oliver North]]'s involvement in it as a Washington-based correspondent for ''[[Newsweek]]''.<ref>[http://www.salon.com/media/media960611.html Parry's Thrust].Dan Kennedy, [[Salon.com]]</ref><ref>[http://www.brooklyn.liu.edu/polk/prev/prev80.html Polk Award Winners]. Brooklyn.liu.edu. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> In 1995, he established ''Consortium News'' as an online [[ezine]] dedicated to investigative journalism. From 2000 to 2004, he also worked for the financial wire service [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]].<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/2004/122104.html A Brief History of Consortium News] ConsortiumNews.com</ref>

Major subjects of Parry's articles and reports on ''Consortium News'' include the presidency of [[George W. Bush]],<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/bush-3.html Bush End Game '07–'08]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> the career of Army general and Bush Secretary of State [[Colin Powell]] (with [[Norman Solomon]]),<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/powell.html Behind Colin Powell's Legend]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> the [[October Surprise]] controversy of the 1980 election,<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/xfile.html The October Surprise Mystery]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> the Nicaraguan contra-cocaine investigation,<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/crack.html Contra Crack Series]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> the efforts to impeach President [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]],<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/clinton.html Clinton Scandals]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> right-wing terrorism in Latin America,<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/nazi.html Nazi Echoes]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> the political influence of [[Sun Myung Moon]],<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/moon.html The Dark Side of Rev. Sun Myung Moon]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> mainstream American [[Media bias|media imbalance]],<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/media.html Media in Crisis]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> United States Secretary of Defense [[Robert Gates]],<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/gates.html Who is Robert Gates?]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> the presidency of [[Barack Obama]],<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/ageofobama.html Age of Obama]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> the influence of [[Sarah Palin]],<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/sarahpalin.html The Sarah Palin Chronicles]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> efforts to [[Historical revisionism (negationism)|rewrite history]]<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/lost.html America's Lost History]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref> as well as international stories.<ref>[http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/international.html International]. Consortium News. Retrieved on November 23, 2011.</ref>

Parry has written several books, including ''Lost History: Contras, Cocaine, the Press & "Project Truth"'' (1999) and ''Secrecy & Privilege: Rise of the Bush Dynasty from Watergate to Iraq'' (2004).

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.consortiumnews.com '''''Consortium News''''']

{{Persondata
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| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American investigative journalist
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
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}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Parry, Robert}}
[[Category:American alternative journalists]]
[[Category:American investigative journalists]]
[[Category:American reporters and correspondents]]
[[Category:Critics of the Unification Church]]
[[Category:George Polk Award recipients]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Tri-City News

2013-06-14T20:06:12Z

InverseHypercube: misc. fixes

{{Infobox_Newspaper |
name = Tri-City News |
image = |
type = Bi-Weekly [[newspaper]] |
format = [[Tabloid (newspaper format)|Tabloid]] |
foundation = 1985 |
price = |
owners = [[Black Press]] |
publisher = Nigel Lark |
editor = Richard Dal Monte |
language = [[English language|English]] |
circulation = 53,859<ref>Combase: [http://www.communitynews.ca/database/details.asp?ID=651 Circulation Information]</ref> |
headquarters = [[Port Coquitlam]], [[British Columbia|BC]] |
website = [http://www.tricitynews.com/ TriCityNews.com/] |
}}

The '''''Tri-City News''''' is a bi-weekly community newspaper, based in [[Port Coquitlam]] and published by [[Black Press]], and has been serving the [[Tri-Cities (British Columbia)|Tri-Cities]] region of [[British Columbia]]'s [[Lower Mainland]] since 1985. The ''Tri-City News'' has more than 190,000 readers each week, and with the sister website logging more than 22,000 visits per month.<ref>[http://www.bclocalnews.com/tri_city_maple_ridge/tricitynews/news/36958089.html Tri-City News To Resume Publishing Two Days Week]</ref>

In the 2008 Better Newspapers Competition from the Canadian Community Newspapers Association, the Tri-City News took second place in "Best All-Round Newspaper" for large circulation newspapers, and won the "Best Front Page" category.<ref>CCNA: [http://www.inkandbeyond.ca/186/2008-better-newspapers-competition-winners/en/ 2008 BNC Award Winners]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.tricitynews.com/ Official website]

[[Category:Anmore]]
[[Category:Belcarra]]
[[Category:Black Press]]
[[Category:Media in Coquitlam]]
[[Category:Newspapers published in British Columbia]]
[[Category:Port Coquitlam]]
[[Category:Port Moody]]

Geoffrey Hinton

2013-06-04T01:28:12Z

InverseHypercube:

[[File:Geoffrey Hinton at UBC.jpg|thumb|Geoffrey Hinton]]
'''Geoffrey E. Hinton''' (* [[6. Dezember]] [[1947]] in [[Wimbledon (London)|Wimbledon]], [[Vereinigtes Königreich|Großbritannien]]) ist ein britischer Wissenschaftler, der vor allem für seine Beiträge zur Theorie [[Künstliches neuronales Netz|Künstlicher neuronaler Netze]] bekannt ist.

== Leben ==
Geoffrey Hinton studierte 1967 bis 1970 [[Psychologie|Experimentalpsychologie]] an der [[Universität Cambridge]] ([[England]]) und erhielt 1978 seinen [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] in [[Künstliche Intelligenz|Künstlicher Intelligenz]] von der [[Universität Edinburgh]] ([[Schottland]]). Nach Aufenthalten an der [[Universität Sussex]] (England), der [[University of California, San Diego]] ([[USA]]) und der [[Carnegie-Mellon Universität]] ([[Pittsburgh]], USA) wurde er 1987 [[Professor]] am ''Computer Science Department'' der [[Universität Toronto]] ([[Kanada]]). Von 1998 bis 2001 entstand unter seiner Leitung die ''Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit'' am [[University College London]], seitdem arbeitet er weiter als Professor an der Universität Toronto. Seit März 2013 arbeitet Hinton neben seiner Arbeit an der Universität Toronto bei Google<ref name="google">[http://www.wired.com/wiredenterprise/2013/03/google_hinton/ Wired: Google Hires Brains that Helped Supercharge Machine Learning]</ref>.

== Leistungen ==
Geoffrey Hinton untersucht die Anwendung von künstlichen neuronalen Netzten in den Bereichen [[Lernen]], [[Gedächtnis]], [[Wahrnehmung]] und [[Symbolverarbeitung]]. Er gehörte zu den Wissenschaftlern, die den [[Backpropagation]]-[[Algorithmus]] einführten (in einem Nature Aufsatz von 1986 mit [[David Rumelhart]] und Ronald Williams) und entwickelte unter anderem die Konzepte der [[Boltzmann-Maschine]] und der [[Helmholtz-Maschine]]. Leicht verständliche Einführungen in seine wissenschaftliche Arbeit finden sich in seinen Artikeln im [[Scientific American]] von 1992 und 1993.

2001 erhielt er den ersten [[Rumelhart-Preis]].

== Werke ==
* ''How neural networks learn from experience''. In: ''Scientific American''. 9/1992
* mit D. C. Plaut und T. Shallice: ''Simulating brain damage''. In: ''Scientific American''. 10/1993

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

== Weblinks ==
[http://www.cs.toronto.edu/~hinton/ Hintons Internetseite an der Universität Toronto]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hinton, Geoffrey}}
[[Kategorie:Informatiker]]
[[Kategorie:Mitglied der Royal Society]]
[[Kategorie:Brite]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1947]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

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|GEBURTSORT=[[Wimbledon (London)|Wimbledon]], Großbritannien
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

Bryan Birch

2013-05-10T19:46:25Z

InverseHypercube:

[[File:Bryan Birch 2011.png|thumb|Bryan Birch]]
'''Bryan John Birch''' (* [[25. September]] [[1931]] in [[Burton-upon-Trent]]) ist ein britischer Mathematiker, der sich mit [[Zahlentheorie]] beschäftigt. Er ist Professor an der [[Universität Oxford]].

Birch promovierte 1958 bei [[John Cassels]] in [[Cambridge]] (''The geometry of numbers''). Er arbeitete damals vor allem als Schüler von [[Harold Davenport]], wobei er wichtige Resultate mit der Hardy-Littlewood-[[Kreismethode]] der analytischen Zahlentheorie erzielte (Birchs Theorem, Formen ungeraden Grades in den rationalen Zahlen haben für eine genügend große Anzahl von Variablen Nullstellen). Bekannt ist er vor allem für die [[Vermutung von Birch und Swinnerton-Dyer]] der 1960er Jahre mit [[Peter Swinnerton-Dyer]] über die arithmetischen Informationen, die sich aus dem Verhalten der Zetafunktion elliptischer Kurven an einer ihrer Nullstellen ergeben. Birch und Swinnerton-Dyer unterstützten ihre Vermutung durch umfangreiche Computerberechnungen. Die Vermutung ist bis heute offen und ein wichtiger Motor in der Entwicklung der arithmetischen algebraischen Geometrie. Birch arbeitete auch über Heegner-Punkte elliptischer Kurven und algebraische [[K-Theorie]] (Birch-[[John T. Tate|Tate]]-Vermutung).

Birch ist seit 1972 Fellow der [[Royal Society]]. 1993 erhielt er den [[Senior-Berwick-Preis]] und 2007 die [[De-Morgan-Medaille]] der [[London Mathematical Society]]. 1966 war er Invited Speaker auf dem [[Internationaler Mathematikerkongress|Internationalen Mathematikerkongress]] in [[Moskau]] (Rationale Punkte auf elliptischen Kurven).

Er gab 1977 die gesammelten Werke von Harold Davenport heraus.

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.maths.ox.ac.uk/contact/details/birch Professor Bryan Birch FRS] – Homepage an der University of Oxford

{{Normdaten|PND=117708216|VIAF=45087194}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Birch, Bryan}}
[[Kategorie:Mathematiker (20. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Hochschullehrer (Oxford)]]
[[Kategorie:Brite]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1931]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]
[[Kategorie:Mitglied der Royal Society]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Birch, Bryan
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Birch, Bryan John
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=britischer Mathematiker
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|GEBURTSORT=[[Burton-upon-Trent]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

Bertrand-Paradoxon (Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie)

2013-01-28T08:09:25Z

InverseHypercube: /* Physical experiments */ rm space

The '''Bertrand paradox''' is a problem within the [[classical interpretation]] of [[probability theory]]. [[Joseph Bertrand]] introduced it in his work ''[[Calcul des probabilités]]'' (1888) as an example to show that probabilities may not be well defined if the ''mechanism'' or ''method'' that produces the random variable is not clearly defined.

==Bertrand's formulation of the problem==
The Bertrand paradox goes as follows: Consider an equilateral [[triangle]] inscribed in a [[circle]]. Suppose a [[chord (geometry)|chord]] of the circle is chosen at random. What is the probability that the chord is longer than a side of the triangle?

Bertrand gave three arguments, all apparently valid, yet yielding different results.

# [[File:bertrand1-figure.svg|right|frame|Random chords, selection method 1; red = longer than triangle side, blue = shorter]] The "random endpoints" method: Choose two random points on the circumference of the circle and draw the chord joining them. To calculate the probability in question imagine the triangle rotated so its vertex coincides with one of the chord endpoints. Observe that if the other chord endpoint lies on the arc between the endpoints of the triangle side opposite the first point, the chord is longer than a side of the triangle. The length of the arc is one third of the circumference of the circle, therefore the probability that a random chord is longer than a side of the inscribed triangle is 1/3. 
# [[File:bertrand2-figure.svg|right|frame|Random chords, selection method 2]] The "random radius" method: Choose a radius of the circle, choose a point on the radius and construct the chord through this point and perpendicular to the radius. To calculate the probability in question imagine the triangle rotated so a side is perpendicular to the radius. The chord is longer than a side of the triangle if the chosen point is nearer the center of the circle than the point where the side of the triangle intersects the radius. The side of the triangle bisects the radius, therefore the probability a random chord is longer than a side of the inscribed triangle is 1/2. 
# [[File:bertrand3-figure.svg|right|frame|Random chords, selection method 3]] The "random midpoint" method: Choose a point anywhere within the circle and construct a chord with the chosen point as its midpoint. The chord is longer than a side of the inscribed triangle if the chosen point falls within a concentric circle of radius 1/2 the radius of the larger circle. The area of the smaller circle is one fourth the area of the larger circle, therefore the probability a random chord is longer than a side of the inscribed triangle is 1/4. 

The selection methods can also be visualized as follows. A chord is uniquely identified by its midpoint. Each of the three selection methods presented above yields a different distribution of midpoints. Methods 1 and 2 yield two different nonuniform distributions, while method 3 yields a uniform distribution. On the other hand, if one looks at the images of the chords below, the chords of method 2 give the circle a homogeneously shaded look, while method 1 and 3 do not.

<center>
{|
|-----
|
[[File:bertrand1-scatterplot.svg|left|thumb|168px|Midpoints of chords chosen at random, method 1]]
| [[File:bertrand2-scatterplot.svg|left|thumb|168px|Midpoints of chords chosen at random, method 2]]
| [[File:bertrand3-scatterplot.svg|left|thumb|168px|Midpoints of chords chosen at random, method 3]]
|-----
|
[[File:bertrand1-chords.svg|left|thumb|168px|Chords chosen at random, method 1]]
| [[File:bertrand2-chords.svg|left|thumb|168px|Chords chosen at random, method 2]]
| [[File:bertrand3-chords.svg|left|thumb|168px|Chords chosen at random, method 3]]
|}
</center>

Other distributions can easily be imagined, many of which will yield a different proportion of chords which are longer than a side of the inscribed triangle.

==Classical solution==
The problem's classical solution thus hinges on the method by which a chord is chosen "at random". It turns out that if, and only if, the method of random selection is specified, the problem has a well-defined solution. There is no unique selection method, so there cannot be a unique solution. The three solutions presented by Bertrand correspond to different selection methods, and in the absence of further information there is no reason to prefer one over another.

This and other paradoxes of the classical interpretation of probability justified more stringent formulations, including [[frequency probability]] and subjectivist [[Bayesian probability]].

==Jaynes' solution using the "maximum ignorance" principle==

In his 1973 paper ''The Well-Posed Problem'',<ref>{{Citation
|last=Jaynes
|first=E. T.
|authorlink=Edwin Jaynes
|title=The Well-Posed Problem
|journal=Foundations of Physics
|volume=3
|year=1973
|pages=477–493
|url=http://bayes.wustl.edu/etj/articles/well.pdf |format=PDF
|doi=10.1007/BF00709116}}</ref> [[Edwin Jaynes]] proposed a solution to Bertrand's paradox, based on the principle of "maximum ignorance"—that we should not use any information that is not given in the statement of the problem. Jaynes pointed out that Bertrand's problem does not specify the position or size of the circle, and argued that therefore any definite and objective solution must be "indifferent" to size and position. In other words: the solution must be both scale invariant and translation invariant.

To illustrate: assume that chords are laid at random onto a circle with a diameter of 2, for example by throwing straws onto it from far away. Now another circle with a smaller diameter (e.g., 1.1) is laid into the larger circle. Then the distribution of the chords on that smaller circle needs to be the same as on the larger circle. If the smaller circle is moved around within the larger circle, the probability must not change either. It can be seen very easily that there would be a change for method 3: the chord distribution on the small red circle looks qualitatively different from the distribution on the large circle:

<center>
[[File:Bertrand3-translate ru.svg|center|thumb|320px]]
</center>

The same occurs for method 1, though it is harder to see in a graphical representation. Method 2 is the only one that is both scale invariant and translation invariant; method 3 is just scale invariant, method 1 is neither.

However, Jaynes did not just use invariances to accept or reject given methods: this would leave the possibility that there is another not yet described method that would meet his common-sense criteria. Jaynes used the integral equations describing the invariances to directly determine the probability distribution. In this problem, the integral equations indeed have a unique solution, and it is precisely what was called "method 2" above, the ''random radius'' method.

==Physical experiments==
"Method 2" is the only solution that fulfills the transformation invariants that are present in certain physical systems—such as in statistical mechanics and gas physics—as well as in Jaynes's proposed experiment of throwing straws from a distance onto a small circle. Nevertheless, one can design other practical experiments that give answers according to the other methods. For example, in order to arrive at the solution of "method 1", the ''random endpoints'' method, one can affix a spinner to the center of the circle, and let the results of two independent spins mark the endpoints of the chord. In order to arrive at the solution of "method 3", one could cover the circle with molasses and mark the first point that a fly lands on as the midpoint of the chord.<ref>{{Citation
|last=Gardner
|first=Martin
|authorlink=Martin Gardner
|title=The Second Scientific American Book of Mathematical Puzzles and Diversions
|publisher=The University of Chicago Press
|year=1987
|pages=223–226
|isbn=978-0-226-28253-4 }}
</ref> Several observers have designed experiments in order to obtain the different solutions and verified the results empirically.<ref>{{Citation
|last=Tissler
|first=P.E.
|title=Bertrand's Paradox
|journal=[[The Mathematical Gazette]]
|publisher=The Mathematical Association
|volume=68
|issue=443
|date=March 1984
|pages=15–19
|doi=10.2307/3615385 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|last=Kac
|first=Mark
|authorlink=Mark Kac
|title=Marginalia: more on randomness
|journal=[[American Scientist]]
|volume=72
|issue=3
|date=May–June 1984
|pages=282–283 }}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*Michael Clark. ''Paradoxes from A to Z''. London: Routledge, 2002.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bertrand Paradox (Probability)}}
[[Category:Probability theory paradoxes]]

[[de:Bertrand-Paradoxon]]
[[es:Paradoja de Bertrand]]
[[fr:Paradoxe de Bertrand]]
[[ko:베르트랑의 역설 (확률)]]
[[it:Paradosso di Bertrand]]
[[he:הפרדוקס של ברטראן]]
[[lt:Bertrano paradoksas]]
[[nl:Paradox van Bertrand (kansrekening)]]
[[ja:ベルトランの逆説]]
[[pl:Paradoks Bertranda]]
[[ru:Парадокс Бертрана (вероятность)]]
[[uk:Парадокс Бертрана (теорія ймовірностей)]]
[[zh:伯特蘭悖論 (概率論)]]

D-Wave Systems

2013-01-05T23:00:56Z

InverseHypercube: /* Notable alumni and collaborators */ + space

{{Infobox company
| company_name = D-Wave Systems Inc.
| company_logo = [[File:logo dwave.png|240px|D-Wave logo]]
| company_type = [[Private company|Private]]
| foundation = 1999
| location_city = Burnaby, British Columbia
| location_country = Canada
| key_people = Vern Brownell, CEO [http://dwave.wordpress.com Geordie Rose], CTO [http://www.dwavesys.com/index.php?page=board V. Paul Lee], Chair
| industry = [[Computer hardware]]
| products = [http://www.dwavesys.com/en/products-services.html D-Wave One][http://apps.dwavesys.com/docs/orion/rest/latest/html/ Orion Web Services]
| revenue = N/A
| net_income = N/A
| num_employees = approx. 60
| subsid = None
| homepage = [http://www.dwavesys.com/ www.dwavesys.com]
| footnotes =
}}
{{expert-subject|badly needs updating|date=December 2012}}
'''D-Wave Systems, Inc.''' is a [[quantum computing]] company, based in [[Burnaby]], [[British Columbia]]. On May 11, 2011, D-Wave System announced '''''D-Wave One''''', labeled "the world's first commercially available quantum computer," and also referred to it as an [[adiabatic]] quantum computer using [[quantum annealing]] to solve optimization problems operating on an 128 [[qubit]] chip-set.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v473/n7346/full/nature10012.html Quantum annealing with manufactured spins(Nature)]</ref>

The D-Wave One was built on early prototypes such as D-Wave's Orion Quantum Computer.
The prototype was a 16-[[qubit]] [[Adiabatic process (quantum mechanics)|adiabatic]] quantum computer, demonstrated on February 13, 2007 at the [[Computer History Museum]] in [[Mountain View, California]].<ref name=announcement /> D-Wave demonstrated what they claimed to be a 28-qubit adiabatic quantum computer on November 12, 2007.<ref>[http://www.dwavesys.com/index.php?mact=News,cntnt01,detail,0&cntnt01articleid=9&cntnt01origid=15&cntnt01returnid=21 D-Wave Systems: News]</ref> The chip was fabricated at [[NASA|NASA's]] [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|Jet Propulsion Lab's]] microdevices lab in Pasadena, California.<ref>[http://dwave.wordpress.com/2007/11/09/a-picture-of-the-demo-chip/ A picture of the demo chip « rose.blog]</ref>

== Technology description ==
[[File:DWave 128chip.jpg|thumb|Photograph of a chip constructed by D-Wave Systems Inc., designed to operate as a 128-[[qubit]] [[superconductivity|superconducting]] [[adiabatic quantum computation|adiabatic quantum optimization]] processor, mounted in a sample holder.]]

As of June 2010, it has been published that a D-Wave processor comprises a programmable<ref>M. W. Johnson et al., "A scalable control system for a superconducting adiabatic quantum optimization processor," [http://iopscience.iop.org/0953-2048/23/6/065004/ Supercond. Sci. Technol. 23, 065004 (2010)]; preprint available: [http://arxiv.org/abs/0907.3757 arXiv:0907.3757]</ref> [[superconductivity|superconducting]] [[integrated circuit]] with up to 128 pair-wise coupled<ref>R. Harris et al., "Compound Josephson-junction coupler for flux qubits with minimal crosstalk," [http://prb.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v80/i5/e052506 Phys. Rev. B 80, 052506 (2009)]; preprint available: [http://arxiv.org/abs/0904.3784 arXiv:0904.3784]</ref> superconducting [[flux qubit]]s.<ref>R. Harris et al., "Experimental demonstration of a robust and scalable flux qubit," [http://prb.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v81/i13/e134510 Phys. Rev. B 81, 134510 (2010)]; preprint available: [http://arxiv.org/abs/0909.4321 arXiv:0909.4321]</ref><ref>Next Big Future: Robust and Scalable Flux Qubit, [http://nextbigfuture.com/2009/09/robust-and-scalable-flux-qubit.html], September 23, 2009</ref><ref>Next Big Future: Dwave Systems Adiabatic Quantum Computer [http://nextbigfuture.com/2009/10/dwave-systems-adiabatic-quantum.html], October 23, 2009</ref> The processor is designed to implement a special-purpose [[adiabatic quantum computation|adiabatic quantum optimization algorithm]]<ref>Edward Farhi et al., "A Quantum Adiabatic Evolution Algorithm Applied to Random Instances of an NP-Complete Problem," [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/short/292/5516/472 Science 92, 5516, p.472 (2001)]</ref><ref>Next Big Future: Dwave Publishes Experiments Consistents with Quantum Computing and Support Claim of At Least Quantum Annealing, [http://nextbigfuture.com/2010/04/dwave-publishes-experiments-consistents.html], April 09, 2010</ref> as opposed to being operated as a universal [[quantum circuit|gate-model quantum computer]].

D-Wave maintains a list of peer-reviewed technical publications on their website.<ref>[http://www.dwavesys.com/en/publications.html Publications]</ref>

== History ==
D-Wave was founded by Haig Farris (former chair of board), Geordie Rose (CTO and former CEO), Bob Wiens (former CFO), and [http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/physics/staff/dr-alexandre-zagoskin.html Alexandre Zagoskin] (former VP Research and Chief Scientist). Farris taught an entrepreneurship course at UBC (University of British Columbia), where Rose obtained his [[Ph.D.]] and Zagoskin was a [[postdoctoral fellow]]. The company name refers to their first qubit designs, which used [[High-temperature superconductor|d-wave]] superconductors.

D-Wave operated as an offshoot from UBC, while maintaining ties with the [http://www.physics.ubc.ca Department of Physics and Astronomy]. It funded academic research in [[quantum computing]], thus building a collaborative network of research scientists. The company collaborated with several universities and institutions, including UBC, [[IPHT Jena]], [[Université de Sherbrooke]], [[University of Toronto]], [[University of Twente]], [[Chalmers University of Technology]], [[University of Erlangen]], and [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]. These researchers worked with D-Wave scientists and engineers. Some of D-Wave's peer-reviewed technical publications come from this period. Some publications have D-Wave employees as authors, while others include employees of their partners as well or only. As of 2005, these partnerships were no longer listed on D-Wave's website.<ref name="WayBackMachine2002">{{cite web|url=http://dwavesys.com/ |title=D-Wave Systems at the Way Back Machine|date=2002-11-23|accessdate=2007-02-17 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20021123181006/http://dwavesys.com/ |archivedate = 2002-11-23}}</ref><ref name="WayBackMachine2005">{{cite web|url=http://dwavesys.com/ |title=D-Wave Systems at the Way Back Machine|date=2005-03-24|accessdate=2007-02-17 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20050324003119/http://dwavesys.com/ |archivedate = 2005-03-24}}</ref>

D-Wave operated from various locations in Vancouver, Canada, and laboratory spaces at UBC before moving to its current location in the neighboring suburb of [[Burnaby]].

=== Orion ===
On February 13, 2007, D-Wave demonstrated the Orion system, running three different applications at the [[Computer History Museum|Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California]]. This marked the first public demonstration of, supposedly, a quantum computer and associated service.

The first application, an example of [[pattern matching]], performed a search for a similar compound to a known drug within a database of [[molecules]]. The next application computed a seating arrangement for an event subject to compatibilities and incompatibilities between guests. The last involved solving a [[Sudoku]] puzzle.

The processors at the heart of D-Wave's "Orion quantum computing system" are hardware accelerators designed to solve a particular [[NP-complete]] problem related to the two dimensional [[Ising model]] in a [[magnetic field]].<ref name=announcement>{{cite web|url=http://dwave.wordpress.com/2007/01/19/quantum-computing-demo-announcement/|title=Quantum Computing Demo Announcement|date=2007-01-19|accessdate=2007-02-11}}</ref> D-Wave terms the device a 16-[[qubit]] [[superconducting]] [[Adiabatic process (quantum mechanics)|adiabatic]] [[quantum computer]] processor.<ref name=adiabatic>{{cite journal|format=PDF|title=Scalable Architecture for Adiabatic Quantum Computing of NP-Hard Problems|coauthors = William M. Kaminsky and Seth Lloyd|date=2002-11-23|author1=Kaminsky|journal=Quantum Computing & Quantum Bits in Mesoscopic Systems (Kluwer Academic|arxiv=quant-ph/0211152}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Meglicki | first = Zdzislaw | authorlink = Zdzislaw Meglicki | title = Quantum Computing Without Magic: Devices | publisher = [[MIT Press]] | year = 2008 | pages = 390–391 | isbn = 0-262-13506-X}}</ref>

According to the company, a conventional front end running an application that requires the solution of an NP-complete problem, such as [[pattern matching]], passes the problem to the Orion system. However, the company does not make the claim its systems can solve NP-complete problems in polynomial time.

According to Dr. Geordie Rose, Founder and Chief Technology Officer of D-Wave, NP-complete problems "are probably not exactly solvable, no matter how big, fast or advanced computers get" so the adiabatic quantum computer used by the Orion system is intended to quickly compute an approximate solution.<ref name=NP>{{cite web|url=http://dwave.wordpress.com/2006/08/27/yeah-but-how-fast-is-it-part-3-or-some-thoughts-about-adiabatic-qc/|title=Yeah but how fast is it? Part 3. OR some thoughts about adiabatic QC|date=2006-08-27|accessdate=2007-02-11 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061119143401/http://dwave.wordpress.com/2006/08/27/yeah-but-how-fast-is-it-part-3-or-some-thoughts-about-adiabatic-qc/  |archivedate = 2006-11-19}}</ref>

=== 2009 Google demonstration ===
On Tuesday, December 8, 2009 at the Neural Information Processing Systems ([[NIPS]]) conference, a [[Google]] research team led by [[Hartmut Neven]] used D-Wave's processor to train a binary image classifier.

=== D-Wave One quantum computer system ===
On May 11, 2011, D-Wave Systems announced the D-Wave One, an integrated quantum computer system running on a 128 qubit processor. The processor used in the D-Wave One code-named "Rainier", performs a single mathematical operation named [[Discrete optimization]]. Rainier uses a process called [[quantum annealing]] to solve optimization problems. The D-Wave One is claimed to be the world's first commercially available quantum computer system.<ref>{{cite web|title=Learning to program the D-Wave One|url=http://dwave.wordpress.com/2011/05/11/learning-to-program-the-d-wave-one/|accessdate=11 May 2011}}</ref>
May 20, 2011, D-Wave Systems is marketing a $10,000,000 Quantum Computer named "D-Wave One" with a 128-qubit (quantum bit) chipset that performs just a single task—discrete optimization.<ref>{{cite web|title=First Ever Commercial Quantum Computer Now Available for $10 Million|url=http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,2845,2385665,00.asp|accessdate=25 May 2011}}</ref>

=== Lockheed Martin and D-Wave collaboration ===
On May 25, 2011, [[Lockheed Martin]] signed a multi-year contract with D-Wave Systems to realize the benefits based upon a [[quantum annealing]] processor applied to some of Lockheed's most challenging computation problems. The contract also includes maintenance, associated professional services, and the purchase of the ''D-Wave One'' Quantum Computer System.<ref name="Lockheed Martin">{{cite web|title=Lockheed Martin Signs Contract with D-Wave Systems|url=http://www.nanotech-now.com/news.cgi?story_id=42543}}Retrieved 2011-05-25</ref>

=== Vesuvius ===
In early 2012, D-Wave Systems revealed a 512-qubit code named Vesuvius,<ref>[http://www.wired.com/wiredenterprise/2012/02/dwave-quantum-cloud/all/1 D-Wave Defies World of Critics With 'First Quantum Cloud' | Wired Enterprise | Wired.com]</ref> which it expects to launch before the end of 2012.<ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/canada-competes/the-black-box-that-could-change-the-world/article5327613/?page=1 The black box that could change the world - The Globe and Mail]</ref>

=== Optimization problem solving in protein structure determination ===
In August 2012, a team of Harvard University researchers presented results of the largest protein folding problem solved to date using a quantum computer. The researchers solved instances of a lattice protein folding model, known as the Miyazawa-Jernigan model, on a D-Wave One quantum computer.<ref>[http://blogs.nature.com/news/2012/08/d-wave-quantum-computer-solves-protein-folding-problem.html D-Wave quantum computer solves protein folding problem : Nature News Blog]</ref><ref>[http://phys.org/news/2012-08-d-wave-quantum-method-protein-problem.html D-Wave uses quantum method to solve protein folding problem]</ref>

== Criticism ==

D-Wave was originally criticized by some scientists in the quantum computing field, but this criticism has softened since D-Wave published a paper in the May 12, 2011 edition of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' giving details which critical academics said prove that the company's chips do have some of the quantum mechanical properties needed for quantum computing.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v473/n7346/full/nature10012.html Quantum annealing with manufactured spins] ''Nature'' 473, 194–198, 12 May 2011</ref><ref>[http://www.technologyreview.com/news/429429/the-cia-and-jeff-bezos-bet-on-quantum-computing/ The CIA and Jeff Bezos Bet on Quantum Computing] ''Technology Review'' October 4, 2012 by Tom Simonite</ref> Prior to the 2011 ''Nature'' paper, D-Wave was criticized for lacking proof that its computer was in fact a quantum computer. Nevertheless, questions remain due to the lack of conclusive experimental proof of quantum entanglement inside D-Wave devices.<ref name="sandwich">[http://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=954 My visit to D-wave: Beyond the Roast Beef Sandwich 21 February 2012]</ref>

In 2007 [[Umesh Vazirani]], a professor at UC Berkeley and one of the founders of quantum complexity theory, made the following criticism:<ref name=Aaronson-and-Vazirani-on-Orion>{{cite web|url=http://scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=225|title=Shtetl-Optimized: D-Wave Easter Spectacular|date=2007-04-07|accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref>

{{bquote|Their claimed speedup over classical algorithms appears to be based on a misunderstanding of a paper my colleagues van Dam, [[Michele Mosca|Mosca]] and I wrote on "The power of adiabatic quantum computing." That speed up unfortunately does not hold in the setting at hand, and therefore D-Wave's "quantum computer" even if it turns out to be a true quantum computer, and even if it can be scaled to thousands of qubits, would likely not be more powerful than a cell phone.}}

Wim van Dam, a professor at UC Santa Barbara, summarized the scientific community consensus as of 2008 in the journal ''Nature'':<ref name=van-Dam-Nature>{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/nphys/journal/v3/n4/full/nphys585.html|title=Quantum computing: In the 'death zone'?|date=2007-04-07|accessdate=2008-12-23}}</ref>

{{bquote|At the moment it is impossible to say if D-Wave's quantum computer is intrinsically equivalent to a classical computer or not. So until more is known about their error rates, [[caveat emptor]] is the least one can say.}}

[[MIT]] professor [[Scott Aaronson]], self-described "Chief D-Wave Skeptic", originally said that D-Wave's demonstrations did not prove anything about the workings of the computer. He said that a useful quantum computer would require a huge breakthrough in physics, which has not been published or shared with the physics community.<ref name=Aaronson-Orion-Anti-Hype-FAQ>{{cite web|url=http://scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=198|title=Shtetl-Optimized: The Orion Quantum Computer Anti-Hype FAQ|date=2007-02-09|accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> Dr. Aaronson has since updated his views on his blog, announcing that he was "retiring as Chief D-wave Skeptic" in 2011,<ref>[http://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=639 Quantum-Effect-Demonstrating Beef May 25 2011]</ref> and reporting his "skeptical but positive" views based on a visit to D-Wave in February 2012.<ref name="sandwich" /><ref name=Latest-Criticisms-from-Aaronson-to-D-Wave>{{cite web|url=http://scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=291#comments|title=Shtetl-Optimized: Thanksgiving Special: D-Wave at MIT|date=2007-11-22|accessdate=2007-12-03}}</ref><ref name=In-Defence-Of-D-Wave>{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/pontiff/2009/12/in_defense_of_d-wave.php|title = In Defence of D-Wave}}</ref>

== Notable alumni and collaborators ==

D-Wave has employed or hired on a contract basis several key members of the scientific community as well as several notable business consultants. A partial list includes:

* Aspuru-Guzik<ref>[http://aspuru.unix.fas.harvard.edu/Sponsors/ Our sponsors] Aspuru-Guzik research group, Harvard University</ref> (Harvard)
* Dmitri V. Averin (Stony Brook) {{citation needed|date=December 2011}}
* [[Seth Lloyd]] (MIT)
* Alexandre Zagoskin<ref>[http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/ph/staff/amz.html]</ref> (Loughborough University)

== See also ==
*[[AQUA@home]]
*[[Adiabatic quantum computation]]
*[[Analog computer]]
*[[Flux qubit]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{Official website|http://www.dwavesys.com/}}
*[http://dwave.wordpress.com/2007/01/19/quantum-computing-demo-announcement/ Announcement of the 16-qubit quantum computer demonstration]
*''IEEE Spectrum'': [http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/feb07/comments/1710 Prototype Commercial Quantum Computer Demo'ed], 13 February 2007
*''Google Tech Talks: [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I56UugZ_8DI Quantum Computing Day 2: Image Recognition with an Adiabatic Quantum Computer]
* Theoretical performance of a D-Wave processor: [http://arxiv.org/abs/1006.4147 Investigating the Performance of an Adiabatic Quantum Optimization Processor]

[[Category:Computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Technology companies]]
[[Category:Quantum information science]]
[[Category:Companies based in Burnaby]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1999]]

D-Wave Systems

2013-01-05T22:53:43Z

InverseHypercube: /* Criticism */

{{Infobox company
| company_name = D-Wave Systems Inc.
| company_logo = [[File:logo dwave.png|240px|D-Wave logo]]
| company_type = [[Private company|Private]]
| foundation = 1999
| location_city = Burnaby, British Columbia
| location_country = Canada
| key_people = Vern Brownell, CEO [http://dwave.wordpress.com Geordie Rose], CTO [http://www.dwavesys.com/index.php?page=board V. Paul Lee], Chair
| industry = [[Computer hardware]]
| products = [http://www.dwavesys.com/en/products-services.html D-Wave One][http://apps.dwavesys.com/docs/orion/rest/latest/html/ Orion Web Services]
| revenue = N/A
| net_income = N/A
| num_employees = approx. 60
| subsid = None
| homepage = [http://www.dwavesys.com/ www.dwavesys.com]
| footnotes =
}}
{{expert-subject|badly needs updating|date=December 2012}}
'''D-Wave Systems, Inc.''' is a [[quantum computing]] company, based in [[Burnaby]], [[British Columbia]]. On May 11, 2011, D-Wave System announced '''''D-Wave One''''', labeled "the world's first commercially available quantum computer," and also referred to it as an [[adiabatic]] quantum computer using [[quantum annealing]] to solve optimization problems operating on an 128 [[qubit]] chip-set.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v473/n7346/full/nature10012.html Quantum annealing with manufactured spins(Nature)]</ref>

The D-Wave One was built on early prototypes such as D-Wave's Orion Quantum Computer.
The prototype was a 16-[[qubit]] [[Adiabatic process (quantum mechanics)|adiabatic]] quantum computer, demonstrated on February 13, 2007 at the [[Computer History Museum]] in [[Mountain View, California]].<ref name=announcement /> D-Wave demonstrated what they claimed to be a 28-qubit adiabatic quantum computer on November 12, 2007.<ref>[http://www.dwavesys.com/index.php?mact=News,cntnt01,detail,0&cntnt01articleid=9&cntnt01origid=15&cntnt01returnid=21 D-Wave Systems: News]</ref> The chip was fabricated at [[NASA|NASA's]] [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|Jet Propulsion Lab's]] microdevices lab in Pasadena, California.<ref>[http://dwave.wordpress.com/2007/11/09/a-picture-of-the-demo-chip/ A picture of the demo chip « rose.blog]</ref>

== Technology description ==
[[File:DWave 128chip.jpg|thumb|Photograph of a chip constructed by D-Wave Systems Inc., designed to operate as a 128-[[qubit]] [[superconductivity|superconducting]] [[adiabatic quantum computation|adiabatic quantum optimization]] processor, mounted in a sample holder.]]

As of June 2010, it has been published that a D-Wave processor comprises a programmable<ref>M. W. Johnson et al., "A scalable control system for a superconducting adiabatic quantum optimization processor," [http://iopscience.iop.org/0953-2048/23/6/065004/ Supercond. Sci. Technol. 23, 065004 (2010)]; preprint available: [http://arxiv.org/abs/0907.3757 arXiv:0907.3757]</ref> [[superconductivity|superconducting]] [[integrated circuit]] with up to 128 pair-wise coupled<ref>R. Harris et al., "Compound Josephson-junction coupler for flux qubits with minimal crosstalk," [http://prb.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v80/i5/e052506 Phys. Rev. B 80, 052506 (2009)]; preprint available: [http://arxiv.org/abs/0904.3784 arXiv:0904.3784]</ref> superconducting [[flux qubit]]s.<ref>R. Harris et al., "Experimental demonstration of a robust and scalable flux qubit," [http://prb.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v81/i13/e134510 Phys. Rev. B 81, 134510 (2010)]; preprint available: [http://arxiv.org/abs/0909.4321 arXiv:0909.4321]</ref><ref>Next Big Future: Robust and Scalable Flux Qubit, [http://nextbigfuture.com/2009/09/robust-and-scalable-flux-qubit.html], September 23, 2009</ref><ref>Next Big Future: Dwave Systems Adiabatic Quantum Computer [http://nextbigfuture.com/2009/10/dwave-systems-adiabatic-quantum.html], October 23, 2009</ref> The processor is designed to implement a special-purpose [[adiabatic quantum computation|adiabatic quantum optimization algorithm]]<ref>Edward Farhi et al., "A Quantum Adiabatic Evolution Algorithm Applied to Random Instances of an NP-Complete Problem," [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/short/292/5516/472 Science 92, 5516, p.472 (2001)]</ref><ref>Next Big Future: Dwave Publishes Experiments Consistents with Quantum Computing and Support Claim of At Least Quantum Annealing, [http://nextbigfuture.com/2010/04/dwave-publishes-experiments-consistents.html], April 09, 2010</ref> as opposed to being operated as a universal [[quantum circuit|gate-model quantum computer]].

D-Wave maintains a list of peer-reviewed technical publications on their website.<ref>[http://www.dwavesys.com/en/publications.html Publications]</ref>

== History ==
D-Wave was founded by Haig Farris (former chair of board), Geordie Rose (CTO and former CEO), Bob Wiens (former CFO), and [http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/physics/staff/dr-alexandre-zagoskin.html Alexandre Zagoskin] (former VP Research and Chief Scientist). Farris taught an entrepreneurship course at UBC (University of British Columbia), where Rose obtained his [[Ph.D.]] and Zagoskin was a [[postdoctoral fellow]]. The company name refers to their first qubit designs, which used [[High-temperature superconductor|d-wave]] superconductors.

D-Wave operated as an offshoot from UBC, while maintaining ties with the [http://www.physics.ubc.ca Department of Physics and Astronomy]. It funded academic research in [[quantum computing]], thus building a collaborative network of research scientists. The company collaborated with several universities and institutions, including UBC, [[IPHT Jena]], [[Université de Sherbrooke]], [[University of Toronto]], [[University of Twente]], [[Chalmers University of Technology]], [[University of Erlangen]], and [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]. These researchers worked with D-Wave scientists and engineers. Some of D-Wave's peer-reviewed technical publications come from this period. Some publications have D-Wave employees as authors, while others include employees of their partners as well or only. As of 2005, these partnerships were no longer listed on D-Wave's website.<ref name="WayBackMachine2002">{{cite web|url=http://dwavesys.com/ |title=D-Wave Systems at the Way Back Machine|date=2002-11-23|accessdate=2007-02-17 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20021123181006/http://dwavesys.com/ |archivedate = 2002-11-23}}</ref><ref name="WayBackMachine2005">{{cite web|url=http://dwavesys.com/ |title=D-Wave Systems at the Way Back Machine|date=2005-03-24|accessdate=2007-02-17 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20050324003119/http://dwavesys.com/ |archivedate = 2005-03-24}}</ref>

D-Wave operated from various locations in Vancouver, Canada, and laboratory spaces at UBC before moving to its current location in the neighboring suburb of [[Burnaby]].

=== Orion ===
On February 13, 2007, D-Wave demonstrated the Orion system, running three different applications at the [[Computer History Museum|Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California]]. This marked the first public demonstration of, supposedly, a quantum computer and associated service.

The first application, an example of [[pattern matching]], performed a search for a similar compound to a known drug within a database of [[molecules]]. The next application computed a seating arrangement for an event subject to compatibilities and incompatibilities between guests. The last involved solving a [[Sudoku]] puzzle.

The processors at the heart of D-Wave's "Orion quantum computing system" are hardware accelerators designed to solve a particular [[NP-complete]] problem related to the two dimensional [[Ising model]] in a [[magnetic field]].<ref name=announcement>{{cite web|url=http://dwave.wordpress.com/2007/01/19/quantum-computing-demo-announcement/|title=Quantum Computing Demo Announcement|date=2007-01-19|accessdate=2007-02-11}}</ref> D-Wave terms the device a 16-[[qubit]] [[superconducting]] [[Adiabatic process (quantum mechanics)|adiabatic]] [[quantum computer]] processor.<ref name=adiabatic>{{cite journal|format=PDF|title=Scalable Architecture for Adiabatic Quantum Computing of NP-Hard Problems|coauthors = William M. Kaminsky and Seth Lloyd|date=2002-11-23|author1=Kaminsky|journal=Quantum Computing & Quantum Bits in Mesoscopic Systems (Kluwer Academic|arxiv=quant-ph/0211152}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Meglicki | first = Zdzislaw | authorlink = Zdzislaw Meglicki | title = Quantum Computing Without Magic: Devices | publisher = [[MIT Press]] | year = 2008 | pages = 390–391 | isbn = 0-262-13506-X}}</ref>

According to the company, a conventional front end running an application that requires the solution of an NP-complete problem, such as [[pattern matching]], passes the problem to the Orion system. However, the company does not make the claim its systems can solve NP-complete problems in polynomial time.

According to Dr. Geordie Rose, Founder and Chief Technology Officer of D-Wave, NP-complete problems "are probably not exactly solvable, no matter how big, fast or advanced computers get" so the adiabatic quantum computer used by the Orion system is intended to quickly compute an approximate solution.<ref name=NP>{{cite web|url=http://dwave.wordpress.com/2006/08/27/yeah-but-how-fast-is-it-part-3-or-some-thoughts-about-adiabatic-qc/|title=Yeah but how fast is it? Part 3. OR some thoughts about adiabatic QC|date=2006-08-27|accessdate=2007-02-11 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061119143401/http://dwave.wordpress.com/2006/08/27/yeah-but-how-fast-is-it-part-3-or-some-thoughts-about-adiabatic-qc/  |archivedate = 2006-11-19}}</ref>

=== 2009 Google demonstration ===
On Tuesday, December 8, 2009 at the Neural Information Processing Systems ([[NIPS]]) conference, a [[Google]] research team led by [[Hartmut Neven]] used D-Wave's processor to train a binary image classifier.

=== D-Wave One quantum computer system ===
On May 11, 2011, D-Wave Systems announced the D-Wave One, an integrated quantum computer system running on a 128 qubit processor. The processor used in the D-Wave One code-named "Rainier", performs a single mathematical operation named [[Discrete optimization]]. Rainier uses a process called [[quantum annealing]] to solve optimization problems. The D-Wave One is claimed to be the world's first commercially available quantum computer system.<ref>{{cite web|title=Learning to program the D-Wave One|url=http://dwave.wordpress.com/2011/05/11/learning-to-program-the-d-wave-one/|accessdate=11 May 2011}}</ref>
May 20, 2011, D-Wave Systems is marketing a $10,000,000 Quantum Computer named "D-Wave One" with a 128-qubit (quantum bit) chipset that performs just a single task—discrete optimization.<ref>{{cite web|title=First Ever Commercial Quantum Computer Now Available for $10 Million|url=http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,2845,2385665,00.asp|accessdate=25 May 2011}}</ref>

=== Lockheed Martin and D-Wave collaboration ===
On May 25, 2011, [[Lockheed Martin]] signed a multi-year contract with D-Wave Systems to realize the benefits based upon a [[quantum annealing]] processor applied to some of Lockheed's most challenging computation problems. The contract also includes maintenance, associated professional services, and the purchase of the ''D-Wave One'' Quantum Computer System.<ref name="Lockheed Martin">{{cite web|title=Lockheed Martin Signs Contract with D-Wave Systems|url=http://www.nanotech-now.com/news.cgi?story_id=42543}}Retrieved 2011-05-25</ref>

=== Vesuvius ===
In early 2012, D-Wave Systems revealed a 512-qubit code named Vesuvius,<ref>[http://www.wired.com/wiredenterprise/2012/02/dwave-quantum-cloud/all/1 D-Wave Defies World of Critics With 'First Quantum Cloud' | Wired Enterprise | Wired.com]</ref> which it expects to launch before the end of 2012.<ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/canada-competes/the-black-box-that-could-change-the-world/article5327613/?page=1 The black box that could change the world - The Globe and Mail]</ref>

=== Optimization problem solving in protein structure determination ===
In August 2012, a team of Harvard University researchers presented results of the largest protein folding problem solved to date using a quantum computer. The researchers solved instances of a lattice protein folding model, known as the Miyazawa-Jernigan model, on a D-Wave One quantum computer.<ref>[http://blogs.nature.com/news/2012/08/d-wave-quantum-computer-solves-protein-folding-problem.html D-Wave quantum computer solves protein folding problem : Nature News Blog]</ref><ref>[http://phys.org/news/2012-08-d-wave-quantum-method-protein-problem.html D-Wave uses quantum method to solve protein folding problem]</ref>

== Criticism ==

D-Wave was originally criticized by some scientists in the quantum computing field, but this criticism has softened since D-Wave published a paper in the May 12, 2011 edition of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' giving details which critical academics said prove that the company's chips do have some of the quantum mechanical properties needed for quantum computing.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v473/n7346/full/nature10012.html Quantum annealing with manufactured spins] ''Nature'' 473, 194–198, 12 May 2011</ref><ref>[http://www.technologyreview.com/news/429429/the-cia-and-jeff-bezos-bet-on-quantum-computing/ The CIA and Jeff Bezos Bet on Quantum Computing] ''Technology Review'' October 4, 2012 by Tom Simonite</ref> Prior to the 2011 ''Nature'' paper, D-Wave was criticized for lacking proof that its computer was in fact a quantum computer. Nevertheless, questions remain due to the lack of conclusive experimental proof of quantum entanglement inside D-Wave devices.<ref name="sandwich">[http://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=954 My visit to D-wave: Beyond the Roast Beef Sandwich 21 February 2012]</ref>

In 2007 [[Umesh Vazirani]], a professor at UC Berkeley and one of the founders of quantum complexity theory, made the following criticism:<ref name=Aaronson-and-Vazirani-on-Orion>{{cite web|url=http://scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=225|title=Shtetl-Optimized: D-Wave Easter Spectacular|date=2007-04-07|accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref>

{{bquote|Their claimed speedup over classical algorithms appears to be based on a misunderstanding of a paper my colleagues van Dam, [[Michele Mosca|Mosca]] and I wrote on "The power of adiabatic quantum computing." That speed up unfortunately does not hold in the setting at hand, and therefore D-Wave's "quantum computer" even if it turns out to be a true quantum computer, and even if it can be scaled to thousands of qubits, would likely not be more powerful than a cell phone.}}

Wim van Dam, a professor at UC Santa Barbara, summarized the scientific community consensus as of 2008 in the journal ''Nature'':<ref name=van-Dam-Nature>{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/nphys/journal/v3/n4/full/nphys585.html|title=Quantum computing: In the 'death zone'?|date=2007-04-07|accessdate=2008-12-23}}</ref>

{{bquote|At the moment it is impossible to say if D-Wave's quantum computer is intrinsically equivalent to a classical computer or not. So until more is known about their error rates, [[caveat emptor]] is the least one can say.}}

[[MIT]] professor [[Scott Aaronson]], self-described "Chief D-Wave Skeptic", originally said that D-Wave's demonstrations did not prove anything about the workings of the computer. He said that a useful quantum computer would require a huge breakthrough in physics, which has not been published or shared with the physics community.<ref name=Aaronson-Orion-Anti-Hype-FAQ>{{cite web|url=http://scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=198|title=Shtetl-Optimized: The Orion Quantum Computer Anti-Hype FAQ|date=2007-02-09|accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> Dr. Aaronson has since updated his views on his blog, announcing that he was "retiring as Chief D-wave Skeptic" in 2011,<ref>[http://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=639 Quantum-Effect-Demonstrating Beef May 25 2011]</ref> and reporting his "skeptical but positive" views based on a visit to D-Wave in February 2012.<ref name="sandwich" /><ref name=Latest-Criticisms-from-Aaronson-to-D-Wave>{{cite web|url=http://scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=291#comments|title=Shtetl-Optimized: Thanksgiving Special: D-Wave at MIT|date=2007-11-22|accessdate=2007-12-03}}</ref><ref name=In-Defence-Of-D-Wave>{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/pontiff/2009/12/in_defense_of_d-wave.php|title = In Defence of D-Wave}}</ref>

== Notable alumni and collaborators ==

D-Wave has employed or hired on a contract basis several key members of the scientific community as well as several notable business consultants. A partial list includes:

* Aspuru-Guzik<ref>[http://aspuru.unix.fas.harvard.edu/Sponsors/ Our sponsors] Aspuru-Guzik research group, Harvard University</ref> (Harvard)
* Dmitri V. Averin (Stony Brook) {{citation needed|date=December 2011}}
* [[Seth Lloyd]] (MIT)
* Alexandre Zagoskin<ref>[http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/ph/staff/amz.html]</ref>(Loughborough University)

== See also ==
*[[AQUA@home]]
*[[Adiabatic quantum computation]]
*[[Analog computer]]
*[[Flux qubit]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{Official website|http://www.dwavesys.com/}}
*[http://dwave.wordpress.com/2007/01/19/quantum-computing-demo-announcement/ Announcement of the 16-qubit quantum computer demonstration]
*''IEEE Spectrum'': [http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/feb07/comments/1710 Prototype Commercial Quantum Computer Demo'ed], 13 February 2007
*''Google Tech Talks: [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I56UugZ_8DI Quantum Computing Day 2: Image Recognition with an Adiabatic Quantum Computer]
* Theoretical performance of a D-Wave processor: [http://arxiv.org/abs/1006.4147 Investigating the Performance of an Adiabatic Quantum Optimization Processor]

[[Category:Computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Technology companies]]
[[Category:Quantum information science]]
[[Category:Companies based in Burnaby]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1999]]

D-Wave Systems

2013-01-05T22:47:55Z

InverseHypercube: cap. 'department'

{{Infobox company
| company_name = D-Wave Systems Inc.
| company_logo = [[File:logo dwave.png|240px|D-Wave logo]]
| company_type = [[Private company|Private]]
| foundation = 1999
| location_city = Burnaby, British Columbia
| location_country = Canada
| key_people = Vern Brownell, CEO [http://dwave.wordpress.com Geordie Rose], CTO [http://www.dwavesys.com/index.php?page=board V. Paul Lee], Chair
| industry = [[Computer hardware]]
| products = [http://www.dwavesys.com/en/products-services.html D-Wave One][http://apps.dwavesys.com/docs/orion/rest/latest/html/ Orion Web Services]
| revenue = N/A
| net_income = N/A
| num_employees = approx. 60
| subsid = None
| homepage = [http://www.dwavesys.com/ www.dwavesys.com]
| footnotes =
}}
{{expert-subject|badly needs updating|date=December 2012}}
'''D-Wave Systems, Inc.''' is a [[quantum computing]] company, based in [[Burnaby]], [[British Columbia]]. On May 11, 2011, D-Wave System announced '''''D-Wave One''''', labeled "the world's first commercially available quantum computer," and also referred to it as an [[adiabatic]] quantum computer using [[quantum annealing]] to solve optimization problems operating on an 128 [[qubit]] chip-set.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v473/n7346/full/nature10012.html Quantum annealing with manufactured spins(Nature)]</ref>

The D-Wave One was built on early prototypes such as D-Wave's Orion Quantum Computer.
The prototype was a 16-[[qubit]] [[Adiabatic process (quantum mechanics)|adiabatic]] quantum computer, demonstrated on February 13, 2007 at the [[Computer History Museum]] in [[Mountain View, California]].<ref name=announcement /> D-Wave demonstrated what they claimed to be a 28-qubit adiabatic quantum computer on November 12, 2007.<ref>[http://www.dwavesys.com/index.php?mact=News,cntnt01,detail,0&cntnt01articleid=9&cntnt01origid=15&cntnt01returnid=21 D-Wave Systems: News]</ref> The chip was fabricated at [[NASA|NASA's]] [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|Jet Propulsion Lab's]] microdevices lab in Pasadena, California.<ref>[http://dwave.wordpress.com/2007/11/09/a-picture-of-the-demo-chip/ A picture of the demo chip « rose.blog]</ref>

== Technology description ==
[[File:DWave 128chip.jpg|thumb|Photograph of a chip constructed by D-Wave Systems Inc., designed to operate as a 128-[[qubit]] [[superconductivity|superconducting]] [[adiabatic quantum computation|adiabatic quantum optimization]] processor, mounted in a sample holder.]]

As of June 2010, it has been published that a D-Wave processor comprises a programmable<ref>M. W. Johnson et al., "A scalable control system for a superconducting adiabatic quantum optimization processor," [http://iopscience.iop.org/0953-2048/23/6/065004/ Supercond. Sci. Technol. 23, 065004 (2010)]; preprint available: [http://arxiv.org/abs/0907.3757 arXiv:0907.3757]</ref> [[superconductivity|superconducting]] [[integrated circuit]] with up to 128 pair-wise coupled<ref>R. Harris et al., "Compound Josephson-junction coupler for flux qubits with minimal crosstalk," [http://prb.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v80/i5/e052506 Phys. Rev. B 80, 052506 (2009)]; preprint available: [http://arxiv.org/abs/0904.3784 arXiv:0904.3784]</ref> superconducting [[flux qubit]]s.<ref>R. Harris et al., "Experimental demonstration of a robust and scalable flux qubit," [http://prb.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v81/i13/e134510 Phys. Rev. B 81, 134510 (2010)]; preprint available: [http://arxiv.org/abs/0909.4321 arXiv:0909.4321]</ref><ref>Next Big Future: Robust and Scalable Flux Qubit, [http://nextbigfuture.com/2009/09/robust-and-scalable-flux-qubit.html], September 23, 2009</ref><ref>Next Big Future: Dwave Systems Adiabatic Quantum Computer [http://nextbigfuture.com/2009/10/dwave-systems-adiabatic-quantum.html], October 23, 2009</ref> The processor is designed to implement a special-purpose [[adiabatic quantum computation|adiabatic quantum optimization algorithm]]<ref>Edward Farhi et al., "A Quantum Adiabatic Evolution Algorithm Applied to Random Instances of an NP-Complete Problem," [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/short/292/5516/472 Science 92, 5516, p.472 (2001)]</ref><ref>Next Big Future: Dwave Publishes Experiments Consistents with Quantum Computing and Support Claim of At Least Quantum Annealing, [http://nextbigfuture.com/2010/04/dwave-publishes-experiments-consistents.html], April 09, 2010</ref> as opposed to being operated as a universal [[quantum circuit|gate-model quantum computer]].

D-Wave maintains a list of peer-reviewed technical publications on their website.<ref>[http://www.dwavesys.com/en/publications.html Publications]</ref>

== History ==
D-Wave was founded by Haig Farris (former chair of board), Geordie Rose (CTO and former CEO), Bob Wiens (former CFO), and [http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/physics/staff/dr-alexandre-zagoskin.html Alexandre Zagoskin] (former VP Research and Chief Scientist). Farris taught an entrepreneurship course at UBC (University of British Columbia), where Rose obtained his [[Ph.D.]] and Zagoskin was a [[postdoctoral fellow]]. The company name refers to their first qubit designs, which used [[High-temperature superconductor|d-wave]] superconductors.

D-Wave operated as an offshoot from UBC, while maintaining ties with the [http://www.physics.ubc.ca Department of Physics and Astronomy]. It funded academic research in [[quantum computing]], thus building a collaborative network of research scientists. The company collaborated with several universities and institutions, including UBC, [[IPHT Jena]], [[Université de Sherbrooke]], [[University of Toronto]], [[University of Twente]], [[Chalmers University of Technology]], [[University of Erlangen]], and [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]. These researchers worked with D-Wave scientists and engineers. Some of D-Wave's peer-reviewed technical publications come from this period. Some publications have D-Wave employees as authors, while others include employees of their partners as well or only. As of 2005, these partnerships were no longer listed on D-Wave's website.<ref name="WayBackMachine2002">{{cite web|url=http://dwavesys.com/ |title=D-Wave Systems at the Way Back Machine|date=2002-11-23|accessdate=2007-02-17 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20021123181006/http://dwavesys.com/ |archivedate = 2002-11-23}}</ref><ref name="WayBackMachine2005">{{cite web|url=http://dwavesys.com/ |title=D-Wave Systems at the Way Back Machine|date=2005-03-24|accessdate=2007-02-17 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20050324003119/http://dwavesys.com/ |archivedate = 2005-03-24}}</ref>

D-Wave operated from various locations in Vancouver, Canada, and laboratory spaces at UBC before moving to its current location in the neighboring suburb of [[Burnaby]].

=== Orion ===
On February 13, 2007, D-Wave demonstrated the Orion system, running three different applications at the [[Computer History Museum|Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California]]. This marked the first public demonstration of, supposedly, a quantum computer and associated service.

The first application, an example of [[pattern matching]], performed a search for a similar compound to a known drug within a database of [[molecules]]. The next application computed a seating arrangement for an event subject to compatibilities and incompatibilities between guests. The last involved solving a [[Sudoku]] puzzle.

The processors at the heart of D-Wave's "Orion quantum computing system" are hardware accelerators designed to solve a particular [[NP-complete]] problem related to the two dimensional [[Ising model]] in a [[magnetic field]].<ref name=announcement>{{cite web|url=http://dwave.wordpress.com/2007/01/19/quantum-computing-demo-announcement/|title=Quantum Computing Demo Announcement|date=2007-01-19|accessdate=2007-02-11}}</ref> D-Wave terms the device a 16-[[qubit]] [[superconducting]] [[Adiabatic process (quantum mechanics)|adiabatic]] [[quantum computer]] processor.<ref name=adiabatic>{{cite journal|format=PDF|title=Scalable Architecture for Adiabatic Quantum Computing of NP-Hard Problems|coauthors = William M. Kaminsky and Seth Lloyd|date=2002-11-23|author1=Kaminsky|journal=Quantum Computing & Quantum Bits in Mesoscopic Systems (Kluwer Academic|arxiv=quant-ph/0211152}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Meglicki | first = Zdzislaw | authorlink = Zdzislaw Meglicki | title = Quantum Computing Without Magic: Devices | publisher = [[MIT Press]] | year = 2008 | pages = 390–391 | isbn = 0-262-13506-X}}</ref>

According to the company, a conventional front end running an application that requires the solution of an NP-complete problem, such as [[pattern matching]], passes the problem to the Orion system. However, the company does not make the claim its systems can solve NP-complete problems in polynomial time.

According to Dr. Geordie Rose, Founder and Chief Technology Officer of D-Wave, NP-complete problems "are probably not exactly solvable, no matter how big, fast or advanced computers get" so the adiabatic quantum computer used by the Orion system is intended to quickly compute an approximate solution.<ref name=NP>{{cite web|url=http://dwave.wordpress.com/2006/08/27/yeah-but-how-fast-is-it-part-3-or-some-thoughts-about-adiabatic-qc/|title=Yeah but how fast is it? Part 3. OR some thoughts about adiabatic QC|date=2006-08-27|accessdate=2007-02-11 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061119143401/http://dwave.wordpress.com/2006/08/27/yeah-but-how-fast-is-it-part-3-or-some-thoughts-about-adiabatic-qc/  |archivedate = 2006-11-19}}</ref>

=== 2009 Google demonstration ===
On Tuesday, December 8, 2009 at the Neural Information Processing Systems ([[NIPS]]) conference, a [[Google]] research team led by [[Hartmut Neven]] used D-Wave's processor to train a binary image classifier.

=== D-Wave One quantum computer system ===
On May 11, 2011, D-Wave Systems announced the D-Wave One, an integrated quantum computer system running on a 128 qubit processor. The processor used in the D-Wave One code-named "Rainier", performs a single mathematical operation named [[Discrete optimization]]. Rainier uses a process called [[quantum annealing]] to solve optimization problems. The D-Wave One is claimed to be the world's first commercially available quantum computer system.<ref>{{cite web|title=Learning to program the D-Wave One|url=http://dwave.wordpress.com/2011/05/11/learning-to-program-the-d-wave-one/|accessdate=11 May 2011}}</ref>
May 20, 2011, D-Wave Systems is marketing a $10,000,000 Quantum Computer named "D-Wave One" with a 128-qubit (quantum bit) chipset that performs just a single task—discrete optimization.<ref>{{cite web|title=First Ever Commercial Quantum Computer Now Available for $10 Million|url=http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,2845,2385665,00.asp|accessdate=25 May 2011}}</ref>

=== Lockheed Martin and D-Wave collaboration ===
On May 25, 2011, [[Lockheed Martin]] signed a multi-year contract with D-Wave Systems to realize the benefits based upon a [[quantum annealing]] processor applied to some of Lockheed's most challenging computation problems. The contract also includes maintenance, associated professional services, and the purchase of the ''D-Wave One'' Quantum Computer System.<ref name="Lockheed Martin">{{cite web|title=Lockheed Martin Signs Contract with D-Wave Systems|url=http://www.nanotech-now.com/news.cgi?story_id=42543}}Retrieved 2011-05-25</ref>

=== Vesuvius ===
In early 2012, D-Wave Systems revealed a 512-qubit code named Vesuvius,<ref>[http://www.wired.com/wiredenterprise/2012/02/dwave-quantum-cloud/all/1 D-Wave Defies World of Critics With 'First Quantum Cloud' | Wired Enterprise | Wired.com]</ref> which it expects to launch before the end of 2012.<ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/canada-competes/the-black-box-that-could-change-the-world/article5327613/?page=1 The black box that could change the world - The Globe and Mail]</ref>

=== Optimization problem solving in protein structure determination ===
In August 2012, a team of Harvard University researchers presented results of the largest protein folding problem solved to date using a quantum computer. The researchers solved instances of a lattice protein folding model, known as the Miyazawa-Jernigan model, on a D-Wave One quantum computer.<ref>[http://blogs.nature.com/news/2012/08/d-wave-quantum-computer-solves-protein-folding-problem.html D-Wave quantum computer solves protein folding problem : Nature News Blog]</ref><ref>[http://phys.org/news/2012-08-d-wave-quantum-method-protein-problem.html D-Wave uses quantum method to solve protein folding problem]</ref>

== Criticism ==

D-Wave was originally criticized by some scientists in the quantum computing field, but this criticism has softened since D-Wave published a paper in the May 12, 2011 edition of [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] giving details which critical academics said prove that the company's chips do have some of the quantum mechanical properties needed for quantum computing.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v473/n7346/full/nature10012.html Quantum annealing with manufactured spins] ''Nature'' 473, 194–198, 12 May 2011</ref><ref>[http://www.technologyreview.com/news/429429/the-cia-and-jeff-bezos-bet-on-quantum-computing/ The CIA and Jeff Bezos Bet on Quantum Computing] ''Technology Review'' October 4, 2012 by Tom Simonite</ref> Prior to the 2011 ''Nature'' paper, D-Wave was criticized for lacking proof that its computer was in fact a quantum computer. Nevertheless, questions remain due to the lack of conclusive experimental proof of quantum entanglement inside D-Wave devices.<ref name="sandwich">[http://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=954 My visit to D-wave: Beyond the Roast Beef Sandwich 21 February 2012]</ref>

In 2007 [[Umesh Vazirani]], a professor at UC Berkeley and one of the founders of quantum complexity theory, made the following criticism:<ref name=Aaronson-and-Vazirani-on-Orion>{{cite web|url=http://scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=225|title=Shtetl-Optimized: D-Wave Easter Spectacular|date=2007-04-07|accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref>

{{bquote|"Their claimed speedup over classical algorithms appears to be based on a misunderstanding of a paper my colleagues van Dam, [[Michele Mosca|Mosca]] and I wrote on "The power of adiabatic quantum computing." That speed up unfortunately does not hold in the setting at hand, and therefore D-Wave's "quantum computer" even if it turns out to be a true quantum computer, and even if it can be scaled to thousands of qubits, would likely not be more powerful than a cell phone."}}

Wim van Dam, a professor at UC Santa Barbara, summarized the scientific community consensus as of 2008 in the journal Nature:<ref name=van-Dam-Nature>{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/nphys/journal/v3/n4/full/nphys585.html|title=Quantum computing: In the 'death zone'?|date=2007-04-07|accessdate=2008-12-23}}</ref>

{{bquote|"At the moment it is impossible to say if D-Wave's quantum computer is intrinsically equivalent to a classical computer or not. So until more is known about their error rates, [[caveat emptor]] is the least one can say."}}

[[MIT]] professor [[Scott Aaronson]], self-described "Chief D-Wave Skeptic," originally said that D-Wave's demonstrations did not prove anything about the workings of the computer. He said that a useful quantum computer would require a huge breakthrough in physics, which has not been published or shared with the physics community.<ref name=Aaronson-Orion-Anti-Hype-FAQ>{{cite web|url=http://scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=198|title=Shtetl-Optimized: The Orion Quantum Computer Anti-Hype FAQ|date=2007-02-09|accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> Dr. Aaronson has since updated his views on his blog, announcing that he was "retiring as Chief D-wave Skeptic" in 2011,<ref>[http://www.scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=639 Quantum-Effect-Demonstrating Beef May 25 2011]</ref> and reporting his "skeptical but positive" views based on a visit to D-Wave in February 2012.<ref name="sandwich" /><ref name=Latest-Criticisms-from-Aaronson-to-D-Wave>{{cite web|url=http://scottaaronson.com/blog/?p=291#comments|title=Shtetl-Optimized: Thanksgiving Special: D-Wave at MIT|date=2007-11-22|accessdate=2007-12-03}}</ref><ref name=In-Defence-Of-D-Wave>{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/pontiff/2009/12/in_defense_of_d-wave.php|title = In Defence of D-Wave}}</ref>

== Notable alumni and collaborators ==

D-Wave has employed or hired on a contract basis several key members of the scientific community as well as several notable business consultants. A partial list includes:

* Aspuru-Guzik<ref>[http://aspuru.unix.fas.harvard.edu/Sponsors/ Our sponsors] Aspuru-Guzik research group, Harvard University</ref> (Harvard)
* Dmitri V. Averin (Stony Brook) {{citation needed|date=December 2011}}
* [[Seth Lloyd]] (MIT)
* Alexandre Zagoskin<ref>[http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/ph/staff/amz.html]</ref>(Loughborough University)

== See also ==
*[[AQUA@home]]
*[[Adiabatic quantum computation]]
*[[Analog computer]]
*[[Flux qubit]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{Official website|http://www.dwavesys.com/}}
*[http://dwave.wordpress.com/2007/01/19/quantum-computing-demo-announcement/ Announcement of the 16-qubit quantum computer demonstration]
*''IEEE Spectrum'': [http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/feb07/comments/1710 Prototype Commercial Quantum Computer Demo'ed], 13 February 2007
*''Google Tech Talks: [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I56UugZ_8DI Quantum Computing Day 2: Image Recognition with an Adiabatic Quantum Computer]
* Theoretical performance of a D-Wave processor: [http://arxiv.org/abs/1006.4147 Investigating the Performance of an Adiabatic Quantum Optimization Processor]

[[Category:Computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Technology companies]]
[[Category:Quantum information science]]
[[Category:Companies based in Burnaby]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1999]]

Schwarze Hebräer

2012-11-04T20:01:34Z

InverseHypercube: /* Commandment Keepers */ rm period from caption

{{African American topics sidebar|right}}
'''Black Hebrew Israelites''' (also '''Black Hebrews''', '''African Hebrew Israelites''', and '''Hebrew Israelites''') are groups of people mostly of [[Black people|Black African]] ancestry situated mainly in the [[United States]] who believe they are descendants of the ancient [[Israelite]]s. Black Hebrews adhere in varying degrees to the religious beliefs and practices of mainstream [[Judaism]]. They are generally not accepted as [[Jew]]s by the greater Jewish community, and many Black Hebrews consider themselves—and not mainstream Jews—to be the only authentic descendants of the ancient [[Israelites]]. Many choose to self-identify as Hebrew Israelites or Black Hebrews rather than as Jews.<ref>Ben-Jochannan, p. 306.</ref><ref name="JVL">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/blackjews.html |title=The Black Jewish or Hebrew Israelite Community |accessdate=2007-12-15 |last=Ben Levy |first=Sholomo |publisher=[[Jewish Virtual Library]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Johannes P. Schade |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Religions |title=Black Hebrews |year=2006 |publisher=Foreign Media Group |location=Franklin Park, N.J. |isbn=1-60136-000-2 }}</ref><ref name="NYT">{{cite news |first=Tara |last=Bahrampour |title=They're Jewish, With a Gospel Accent |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D07E3DD1230F935A15755C0A9669C8B63 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=June 26, 2000 |accessdate=2008-01-19 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080403082701/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D07E3DD1230F935A15755C0A9669C8B63 |archivedate = April 3, 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

Dozens of Black Hebrew groups were founded during the late 19th and the early 20th centuries.<ref name=Chireau21/> In the mid-1980s, the number of Black Hebrews in the United States was between 25,000 and 40,000.<ref name=Sundquist118>Sundquist, p. 118.</ref> In the 1990s, the [[Alliance of Black Jews]] estimated that there were 200,000 African-American Jews, this estimate was based on a 1990 survey conducted by the Council of Jewish Federations and was mostly used to ascertain the number of african-americans who practiced mainstream judaism.<ref name=Gelbwasser>{{cite web |url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/8029/organization-for-black-jews-claims-200-000-in-u-s/ |title=Organization for black Jews claims 200,000 in U.S. |accessdate=2010-08-02 |author=Michael Gelbwasser |date=1998-04-10 |publisher=''[[j.]]'' }}</ref> The exact number of Black Hebrews within that surveyed group remains unspecified.

== Overview ==
While [[Black Christians]] traditionally have identified spiritually with the [[Children of Israel]], they never claimed to be descendants of the [[Israelites]].<ref name=Chireau18>Chireau, p. 18.</ref> In the late 19th century among some African-Americans, an identification ''with'' the ancient Hebrews developed into an identification ''as'' ancient Hebrews.<ref name=Chireau21>Chireau, p. 21.</ref> One of the first groups of Black Hebrews, the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]], was founded in 1896.<ref name=Chireau21/> During the following decades, many more Black Hebrew congregations were established. These groups claimed descent from the ancient Israelites. They selected elements of Judaism and adapted them within a structure similar to that of the [[Black church]].<ref name=Chireau21/>

The beliefs and practices of Black Hebrew groups vary considerably. The differences are so great that historian [[James Tinney]] has suggested the classification of the organizations into three groups: Black Jews, who maintain a Christological perspective and adopt Jewish rituals; Black Hebrews, who are more traditional in their practice of Judaism; and Black Israelites, who are most [[Black nationalism|nationalistic]] and furthest from traditional Judaism.<ref name=Tinney>{{cite journal |last=Tinney |first=James |date=December 7, 1973 |title=Black Jews: A House Divided |journal=[[Christianity Today]] |pages=52–54 }}, cited at Chireau, p. 29.</ref>

Nevertheless, Black Hebrew organizations have certain common characteristics. Anthropologist James E. Landing, author of ''Black Judaism'', distinguishes the Black Hebrew movement, which he refers to as Black Judaism, from normative Judaism practiced by people who are Black (black Judaism):

<blockquote>Black Judaism is ... a form of institutionalized (congregational) religious expression in which black persons identify themselves as Jews, Israelites, or Hebrews...in a manner that seems unacceptable to the "whites" of the world's Jewish community, primarily because Jews take issue with the various justifications set forth by Black Jews in establishing this identity. Thus "Black Judaism," as defined here, stands distinctly apart from "black Judaism," or that Judaic expression found among black persons that would be acceptable to the world's Jewish community, such as conversion or birth to a recognized Jewish mother. "Black Judaism" has been a social movement; "black Judaism" has been an isolated social phenomenon.<ref name=Landing10>Landing, p. 10, quoted in Walter, p. 520.</ref></blockquote>

Landing's definition, and its underlying assumptions about race and normative Judaism, have been criticized,<ref name=Isaac>Isaac, pp. 512–542.</ref> but it provides a helpful framework for understanding some of the common traits that various Black Hebrew organizations share.

== Groups ==
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, dozens of Black Hebrew organizations were established.<ref name=Chireau21/> In [[Harlem]] alone, at least eight such groups were founded between 1919 and 1931.<ref name=Parfitt96>Parfitt, p. 96.</ref> The Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations is the oldest known Black Hebrew group<ref name=Singer57/> and the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] is one of the largest Black Hebrew organizations.<ref name="Africana"/> The [[Commandment Keepers]] are noted for their adherence to traditional Judaism<ref name=Moses537/> and the [[African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem]] are widely known for having moved from the United States to [[Israel]].<ref name=Shipler/><ref name=Haas/><ref name=MFA/>

=== Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations ===
The oldest known Black Hebrew organization is the Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations.<ref name=Singer57>Singer, p. 57.</ref><ref name=Chireau3031>Chireau, pp. 30–31. "The founding dates of the earliest black-Jewish congregations are in dispute. Shapiro notes that F.S. Cherry's Church of God was organized in Tennessee in 1886, but other sources do not confirm this date. Another group, the Moorish Zion Temple, founded in 1899 by a Rabbi Richlieu of Brooklyn, New York, was one of the earliest black Jewish congregations that did not combine Jewish and Christian beliefs, as did the Church of God and the Saints of Christ."</ref> The group was founded by [[F. S. Cherry]] in [[Chattanooga, Tennessee|Chattanooga]], [[Tennessee]], in 1886, and later moved to [[Philadelphia]].<ref name=Singer57-58>Singer, pp. 57–58.</ref> Theologically, the Church of the Living God mixed elements of Judaism and Christianity, counting the [[Bible]] — including the [[New Testament]] — and the [[Talmud]] as essential scriptures.<ref name=Fauset34>Fauset, p. 34.</ref> The rituals of Cherry’s flock incorporated many Jewish practices and prohibitions alongside some Christian traditions.<ref name=Fauset36-40>Fauset, pp. 36–40.</ref> For example, during prayer the men wore [[Kippah|skullcaps]] and congregants [[Mizrah|faced east]]. In addition, members of the Church were not permitted to eat pork.<ref name=Fauset36-40/> Prayers were accompanied by musical instruments and [[Gospel music|gospel singing]].<ref name=Fauset36-37>Fauset, pp. 36–37.</ref> After Cherry's death, members of the church believed he had left temporarily and would reappear soon in spirit to lead the church through his son.<ref name="Africana">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hudson |first=Peter |editor=[[Kwame Anthony Appiah]] and [[Henry Louis Gates, Jr.]] |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Africana|Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience]] |title=Black Jews |year=1999 |publisher=Basic Civitas Books |location=New York |pages=1050 }}</ref>

=== Church of God and Saints of Christ ===
{{main|Church of God and Saints of Christ}}
[[File:First Tabernacle - Washington, D.C..jpg|thumb|Former headquarters of the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] The building is now known as First Tabernacle Beth El and is listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].]]
The Church of God and Saints of Christ was established in [[Lawrence, Kansas|Lawrence]], [[Kansas]], in 1896 by [[William Saunders Crowdy]].<ref name=Fox>{{cite news |url=http://www.brown.edu/Students/INDY/archives/2005-09-29/articles/arts-fox_israelite.php |title=Sons of Abraham |accessdate=2007-10-20 |last=Fox |first=Andrew |date=September 29, 2005 |work=[[The College Hill Independent]] }} {{Dead link|date=April 2012|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The group established its headquarters in Philadelphia in 1899, and Crowdy later relocated to [[Washington, D.C.]], in 1903. After Crowdy's death in 1908, the church continued to grow under the leadership of William Henry Plummer, who moved the organization's headquarters to its permanent location in [[Belleville, Virginia|Belleville]], [[Virginia]], in 1921.<ref name=Wynia31-34>Wynia, pp. 31–34.</ref> In 1936, the Church of God and Saints of Christ had more than 200 "tabernacles" (congregations) and 37,000 members.<ref name="Africana"/><ref name=Wynia>Wynia, n.p. </ref> [[Howard Z. Plummer|Howard Zebulun Plummer]] succeeded his father and became head of the organization in 1931.<ref>Greene, p. 42.</ref> His son, Levi Solomon Plummer, became the church's leader in 1975.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/history/index.html |title=Historical Timeline |accessdate=2008-02-09 |publisher=[[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] }}</ref> Since 2001, the Church of God and Saints of Christ has been led by [[Jehu August Crowdy, Jr.|Rabbi Jehu A. Crowdy, Jr.]], a great-grandson of William Saunders Crowdy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/leaders/jacrowdy.html |title=Rabbi Jehu August Crowdy, Jr. |accessdate=2008-02-09 |publisher=[[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] }}</ref> As of 2005, it had fifty tabernacles in the United States and dozens in Africa.<ref name=Fox/>

The Church of God and Saints of Christ describes itself as "the oldest African-American congregation in the United States that adheres to the tenets of Judaism".<ref name=Chireau3031/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/main.html |title=Church of God and Saints of Christ |accessdate=2008-02-09 }}</ref> It teaches that all Jews had been black originally, and that African-Americans are descendants of the [[Ten Lost Tribes|lost tribes of Israel]].<ref name=Kidd>Kidd, p. 59.</ref><ref name=Singer59>Singer, p. 59.</ref> Members believe that [[Jesus]] was neither God nor the son of God, but rather an adherent to Judaism and a prophet. They also consider William Saunders Crowdy to be a prophet.<ref name="gallagher">Gallagher, p. 146.</ref>

The Church of God and Saints of Christ synthesizes rituals from both Judaism and Christianity. They have adopted rites drawn from both the [[Old Testament]] and New Testament. Its Jewish observances include [[Brit milah|circumcision]] of newborn boys, use of the [[Hebrew calendar]], wearing of [[Kippah|yarmulkes]], observance of Saturday as the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]], and celebration of [[Passover]]. Its New Testament rites include [[baptism]] (immersion) and [[footwashing]], both of which have Old Testament origins.<ref name=Kidd/><ref name=Singer59/>

{{Jews and Judaism sidebar}}

=== Commandment Keepers ===
{{main|Commandment Keepers}}
[[Wentworth Arthur Matthew]] founded the Commandment Keepers Congregation in Harlem in 1919.<ref name="JVL"/> Matthew was influenced by the non-black Jews he met and by [[Marcus Garvey]] and the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association]]. Garvey used the Biblical Jews in exile as a metaphor for black people in North America. One of the accomplishments of Garvey's movement was to strengthen the connection between black Americans and Africa, [[Ethiopia]] in particular, and when Matthew learned about the [[Beta Israel]] — Ethiopian Jews — he identified with them.<ref name=Chireau25>Chireau, p. 25.</ref>

The Commandment Keepers follow traditional Jewish practice and observe Jewish holidays.<ref name=Moses537>Moses, p. 537.</ref> Members observe [[Kashrut|Jewish dietary laws]], circumcise newborn boys and celebrate [[Bar and Bat Mitzvah|bar mitzvah]], and their synagogue has a [[Mechitza|partition]] to separate men and woman during worship.<ref name="Jewish Week">{{cite news |first=Eric |last=Herschthal |title=Decline Of A Black Synagogue |url=http://joi.org/bloglinks/black%20synagogue%20Jewish%20Week.htm |work=[[The Jewish Week]] |date=July 6, 2007 |accessdate=2008-02-09 }}</ref>

[[File:RabbiMatthewHoldingTorah.jpg|thumb|left|[[Wentworth Arthur Matthew]] holding a [[Sefer Torah|Torah scroll]]]]
The Commandment Keepers believe they are descendants of [[Solomon|King Solomon]] and the [[Queen of Sheba]].<ref name=Parfitt95>Parfitt, p. 95.</ref> Matthew taught that "the Black man is a Jew" and "all genuine Jews are Black men",<ref name=Sundquist116>Sundquist, p. 116.</ref> but he valued non-black Jews as those who had preserved Judaism over the centuries.<ref name="JVL"/> Matthew maintained cordial ties with non-black Jewish leaders in New York and frequently invited them to worship at his synagogue.<ref name=Wolfson48>Wolfson, p. 48.</ref>

Matthew established the Ethiopian Hebrew Rabbinical College (later renamed the Israelite Rabbinical Academy). He ordained more than 20 rabbis, who went on to lead congregations throughout the United States and the Caribbean.<ref name=Sundquist116/><ref name=Wolfson48/> He remained the leader of the Commandment Keepers in Harlem, and in 1962 the congregation moved to a landmark building on 123rd Street.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nyc-architecture.com/HAR/HAR025.htm |title=Commandment Keepers Ethiopian Hebrew Congregation |accessdate=2008-02-01 |publisher=New York Architecture }}</ref>

Matthew died in 1973, sparking an internal conflict over who would succeed him as head of the Harlem congregation. Shortly before his death Matthew named his grandson, David Matthew Doré, the new spiritual leader. Doré was 16 years old at the time. In 1975, the synagogue's board elected Rabbi Willie White to be its leader. Rabbi Doré occasionally conducted services at the synagogue until the early 1980s, when White had Doré and some other members locked out of the building. Membership declined throughout the 1990s and by 2004 only a few dozen people belonged to the synagogue. In 2007 the Commandment Keepers sold the building that housed their synagogue while various factions among former members sued one another.<ref name="Jewish Week"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackjews.org/Essays/DestructionofCommandmentKeepers.html |title=The Destruction of Commandment Keepers, Inc. 1919-2007 |accessdate=2008-02-10 |last=Ben Levy |first=Sholomo |work=BlackJews.org |publisher=International Israelite Board of Rabbis }}</ref>

Beside the Harlem group, there are eight or ten Commandment Keeper congregations in the New York area and others throughout North America and in [[Israel]].<ref>Goldschmidt, p. 221.</ref> Since 2000, seven rabbis have graduated from the Israelite Rabbinical Academy founded by Matthew.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackjews.org/IsraeliteAcademy.html |title=Israelite Academy |accessdate=2008-02-10 |work=BlackJews.org |publisher=International Israelite Board of Rabbis }}</ref>

=== African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem ===
{{main|African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem}}
[[File:Black hebrews Dimona visit1.jpg|thumb|African Hebrew Israelites speak to visitors in [[Dimona]].]]
[[Ben Ammi|Ben Ammi Ben Israel]] established the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], in 1966. In 1969, after a sojourn in [[Liberia]], Ben Ammi and about 30 Hebrew Israelites moved to [[Israel]].<ref name=Haas>{{cite news |last=Haas |first=Danielle |title=Black Hebrews fight for citizenship in Israel |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/11/15/MN144395.DTL |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |date=November 15, 2002 |accessdate=2008-05-25 }}</ref> Over the next 20 years nearly 600 more members left the United States for Israel. As of 2006, about 2,500 Hebrew Israelites live in [[Dimona]] and two other towns in the [[Negev]] region of Israel, where they are widely referred to as Black Hebrews.<ref name=CBS>{{cite news |author=[[Associated Press]] |title=Music Earns Black Hebrews Some Acceptance |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/04/05/ap/world/mainD8GPUNGG8.shtml |work=[[CBS News]] |date=April 5, 2006 |accessdate=2008-05-25 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060507212849/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/04/05/ap/world/mainD8GPUNGG8.shtml |archivedate = May 7, 2006|deadurl=yes}}</ref> In addition, there are Hebrew Israelite communities in several major American cities, including Chicago, [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], and Washington, D.C.<ref name=Michaeli75>Michaeli, p. 75.</ref>

The Black Hebrews believe they are descended from members of the [[Tribe of Judah]] who were exiled from the [[Land of Israel]] after the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] destroyed the [[Second Temple]] in 70 CE.<ref name=CBS/><ref name=OurStory>{{cite web |url=http://www.kingdomofyah.com/our_story.htm |title=Our Story |accessdate=2008-05-25 |publisher=The African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem }}</ref> The group incorporates elements of [[African American culture]] into their interpretation of the Bible,<ref name=Michaeli75/> and they do not recognize rabbinical Jewish interpretations such as the [[Talmud]].<ref name=CBS/> The Black Hebrews observe [[Shabbat]] and biblically ordained [[Jewish holiday]]s such as [[Yom Kippur]] and [[Passover]].<ref name=Michaeli76>Michaeli, p. 76.</ref> Men wear ''[[tzitzit]]'' on their African print shirts, women follow the [[Niddah|biblical laws concerning menstruation]],<ref name=Michaeli75/> and newborn boys are circumcised.<ref name=Haas/> In accordance with their interpretation of the Bible, the Black Hebrews follow a strictly [[vegan]] diet and wear only natural fabrics.<ref name=Haas/><ref name=OurStory/> Most men have more than one wife, and [[birth control]] is not permitted.<ref name=CBS/>

When the first Black Hebrews arrived in Israel in 1969, they claimed citizenship under the [[Law of Return]], which gives eligible Jews immediate citizenship.<ref>Michaeli, pp. 73–74.</ref> The Israeli government ruled in 1973 that the group did not qualify for automatic citizenship, and the Black Hebrews were denied [[work permit]]s and state benefits. The group responded by accusing the Israeli government of [[Racism|racist discrimination]].<ref name=Michaeli74>Michaeli, p. 74.</ref> In 1981, a group of American civil rights activist led by [[Bayard Rustin]] investigated and concluded that racism was not the cause of Black Hebrews' situation.<ref name=Shipler>{{cite news |last=Shipler |first=David K. |title=Israelis Urged To Act Over Black Hebrew Cult |url=http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F4071FFA395F0C738FDDA80894D9484D81 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 30, 1981 |accessdate=2008-05-28 }}</ref> No official action was taken to return the Black Hebrews to the United States, but some individual members were [[Deportation|deported]] for working illegally. Some Black Hebrews [[Renunciation of citizenship|renounced]] their American citizenship to try to prevent more deportations. In 1990, Illinois legislators helped negotiate an agreement that resolved the Black Hebrews' legal status in Israel. Members of the group are permitted to work and have access to housing and social services. The Black Hebrews reclaimed their American citizenship and have received aid from the U.S. government that helped them build a school and additional housing.<ref name=Michaeli74/> In 2003 the agreement was revised, and the Black Hebrews were granted [[Permanent residency|permanent resident]] status.<ref name=MFA>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/people/the%20black%20hebrews |title=The Hebrew Israelite Community |accessdate=2008-05-26 |date=September 29, 2006 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs }}</ref><ref name=Kaufman>{{cite news |last=Kaufman |first=David |title=Quest for a Homeland Gains a World Stage |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/fashion/sundaystyles/16BUTLER.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 16, 2006 |accessdate=2008-05-28 }}</ref>

In 2009, Elyakim Ben-Israel became the first Black Hebrew to receive Israeli citizenship. The Israeli government said that more Black Hebrews may be granted citizenship.<ref>{{cite news |last=Alush |first=Zvi |title=First Black Hebrew Gets Israeli Citizenship |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3665976,00.html |work=[[Ynetnews]] |date=February 2, 2009 |accessdate=2009-02-02 }}</ref>

The Black Hebrews have become well known for their [[Gospel music|gospel choir]], which tours throughout Israel and the United States. The group owns restaurants in several Israeli cities.<ref name=Michaeli74/> In 2003 the Black Hebrews garnered much public attention when singer [[Whitney Houston]] visited them in Dimona.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel retreat for Houston |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/2940042.stm |publisher=[[BBC News Online]] |date=May 27, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=[[Associated Press]] |title=Whitney Houston visits Israel for Christmas album inspiration |url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/music/news/2003-05-27-houston-israel_x.htm |work=[[USA Today]] |date=May 28, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Palti |first=Michal |title=Whitney does Dimona |url=http://www.rickross.com/reference/black_hebrews/black_hebrews6.html |work=[[Haaretz]] |date=May 29, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref> In 2006, [[Eddie Butler (singer)|Eddie Butler]], a Black Hebrew, was chosen by the Israeli public to [[Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006|represent Israel]] in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2006|Eurovision Song Contest]].<ref name=CBS/><ref name=Kaufman/>

== Allegations of black supremacy and racism ==
In late 2008, the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] (SPLC) described as [[Black supremacy|black supremacist]] what it called "the extremist fringe of the Hebrew Israelite movement". It wrote that the members of such groups "believe that Jews are devilish impostors and ... openly condemn whites as evil personified, deserving only death or slavery". The SPLC also said that "most Hebrew Israelites are neither explicitly racist nor anti-Semitic and do not advocate violence".<ref name=Ready>{{cite web |url=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=941 |title='Ready for War' |accessdate=2008-11-22 |date=Fall 2008 |work=Intelligence Report |publisher=[[Southern Poverty Law Center]] }}</ref>

The Black Hebrew groups characterized as black supremacist by the SPLC include the [[Nation of Yahweh]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2001/winter/popularity-and-populism |title=Popularity and Populism |accessdate=2011-11-16 |last=Potok |first=Mark |date=Winter 2001 |work=Intelligence Report |publisher=[[Southern Poverty Law Center]] }}</ref> and the [[Israelite Church of God in Jesus Christ]].<ref name=Ready/> Also, the [[Anti-Defamation League]] has written that the "12 Tribes of Israel" website, maintained by a Black Hebrew group, promotes black supremacy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adl.org/poisoning_web/black_bigots.asp |title=Poisoning the Web: African-American Anti-Semitism |accessdate=2008-11-22 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]] }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|African American|Israel|Judaism}}
* [[African-American – Jewish relations#Blacks as the chosen people]]
* [[Afro-American religion]]
* [[Alliance of Black Jews]]
* [[Groups claiming an affiliation with the ancient Israelites]]
* [[Jews and Judaism in the African diaspora]]
* [[List of Jews in the African diaspora]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book |last=Ben-Jochannan |first=Yosef A. A. |authorlink=Yosef Ben-Jochannan |title=We, the Black Jews: Witness to the "White Jewish Race" Myth |origyear=1983 |year=1993 |publisher=Black Classic Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=0-933121-40-7 }}
* {{cite book |last=Chireau |first=Yvonne |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-511257-1 |chapter=Black Culture and Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism, 1790–1930, an Overview }}
* {{cite book |last=Fauset |first=Arthur Huff |authorlink=Arthur Fauset |title=Black Gods of the Metropolis: Negro Religious Cults of the Urban North |origyear=1944 |year=2002 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-8122-1001-8 }}
* {{cite book |title=The New Religious Movements Experience in America |last=Gallagher |first=Eugene V. |year=2004 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=0-313-32807-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Goldschmidt |first=Henry |title=Race and Religion Among the Chosen Peoples of Crown Heights |year=2006 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brunswick, N.J. |isbn=0-8135-3897-1 }}
* {{cite book |title=Selling Black History for Carter G. Woodson: A Diary, 1930–1933 |last=Greene |first=Lorenzo Johnston |authorlink=Lorenzo Greene |coauthors=Arvarh E. Strickland, ed. |year=1996 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |location=Columbia, Mo. |isbn=0-8262-1068-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Isaac |first=Walter |editor=[[Lewis Gordon|Lewis R. Gordon]], Jane Anna Gordon, eds. |title=A Companion to African-American Studies |year=2006 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, Mass. |isbn=0-631-23516-7 |chapter=Locating African-American Judaism: A Critique of White Normativity }}
* {{cite book |title=The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600-2000 |last=Kidd |first=Colin |authorlink=Colin Kidd |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-79324-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Landing |first=James E. |title=Black Judaism: Story of an American Movement |year=2002 |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |location=Durham, N. C. |isbn=0-89089-820-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Michaeli |first=Ethan |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-511257-1 |chapter=Another Exodus: The Hebrew Israelites from Chicago to Dimona }}
* {{cite book |last=Moses |first=Wilson Jeremiah |editor=[[Cornel West]], Eddie S. Glaude, Jr., eds. |title=African American Religious Thought: An Anthology |year=2003 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Louisville, Ky. |isbn=0-664-22459-8 |chapter=Chosen Peoples of the Metropolis: Black Muslims, Black Jews, and Others }}
* {{cite book |last=Parfitt |first=Tudor |coauthors=Emanuela Trevisan Semi |title=Judaising Movements: Studies in the Margins of Judaism in Modern Times |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-7007-1515-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Singer |first=Merrill |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-511257-1 |chapter=Symbolic Identity Formation in an African American Religious Sect: The Black Hebrew Israelites }}
* {{cite book |last=Sundquist |first=Eric J. |title=Strangers in the Land: Blacks, Jews, Post-Holocaust America |year=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=0-674-01942-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wolfson |first=Bernard J. |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-511257-1 |chapter=African American Jews: Dispelling Myths, Bridging the Divide }}
* {{cite book |last=Wynia |first=Elly M. |title=The Church of God and Saints of Christ: The Rise of Black Jews |year=1994 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-8153-1136-2 }}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite web
| url=http://www.villagevoice.com/2011-03-30/news/black-hebrew-israelites-new-york-s-most-obnoxious-prophets/
| title=Black Hebrew Israelites: New York's Most Obnoxious Prophets
| author=Steven Thrasher
| date=March 30, 2011
| publisher=''[[The Village Voice]]''}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Black Hebrews}}
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/bhi.htm Black Hebrew Israelites—ReligousTolerance.org]
* [http://www.blackapologetics.com/bhifaq.html Black Hebrew Israelite FAQ—Black Apologetics Ministry]
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/Black_Hebrews.html The Black Hebrews], [[Jewish Virtual Library]]

{{Jews and Judaism}}
{{good article}}

[[Category:Black Hebrew Israelites| ]]
[[Category:African-American culture]]
[[Category:Jews in the African diaspora]]
[[Category:Groups claiming Jewish descent]]
[[Category:African and Black nationalism]]

[[be:Чорныя ізраільцяне]]
[[bg:Черни евреи]]
[[ca:Hebreus africans]]
[[es:Israelitas negros]]
[[fr:Hébreux noirs]]
[[nl:Afrikaanse Hebreeërs]]
[[ja:ブラック・ジュー]]
[[pt:Israelitas negros]]
[[ru:Чёрные евреи]]

Schwarze Hebräer

2012-11-04T20:00:07Z

InverseHypercube: unspacing em dashes

{{African American topics sidebar|right}}
'''Black Hebrew Israelites''' (also '''Black Hebrews''', '''African Hebrew Israelites''', and '''Hebrew Israelites''') are groups of people mostly of [[Black people|Black African]] ancestry situated mainly in the [[United States]] who believe they are descendants of the ancient [[Israelite]]s. Black Hebrews adhere in varying degrees to the religious beliefs and practices of mainstream [[Judaism]]. They are generally not accepted as [[Jew]]s by the greater Jewish community, and many Black Hebrews consider themselves—and not mainstream Jews—to be the only authentic descendants of the ancient [[Israelites]]. Many choose to self-identify as Hebrew Israelites or Black Hebrews rather than as Jews.<ref>Ben-Jochannan, p. 306.</ref><ref name="JVL">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/blackjews.html |title=The Black Jewish or Hebrew Israelite Community |accessdate=2007-12-15 |last=Ben Levy |first=Sholomo |publisher=[[Jewish Virtual Library]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Johannes P. Schade |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Religions |title=Black Hebrews |year=2006 |publisher=Foreign Media Group |location=Franklin Park, N.J. |isbn=1-60136-000-2 }}</ref><ref name="NYT">{{cite news |first=Tara |last=Bahrampour |title=They're Jewish, With a Gospel Accent |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D07E3DD1230F935A15755C0A9669C8B63 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=June 26, 2000 |accessdate=2008-01-19 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080403082701/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D07E3DD1230F935A15755C0A9669C8B63 |archivedate = April 3, 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

Dozens of Black Hebrew groups were founded during the late 19th and the early 20th centuries.<ref name=Chireau21/> In the mid-1980s, the number of Black Hebrews in the United States was between 25,000 and 40,000.<ref name=Sundquist118>Sundquist, p. 118.</ref> In the 1990s, the [[Alliance of Black Jews]] estimated that there were 200,000 African-American Jews, this estimate was based on a 1990 survey conducted by the Council of Jewish Federations and was mostly used to ascertain the number of african-americans who practiced mainstream judaism.<ref name=Gelbwasser>{{cite web |url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/8029/organization-for-black-jews-claims-200-000-in-u-s/ |title=Organization for black Jews claims 200,000 in U.S. |accessdate=2010-08-02 |author=Michael Gelbwasser |date=1998-04-10 |publisher=''[[j.]]'' }}</ref> The exact number of Black Hebrews within that surveyed group remains unspecified.

== Overview ==
While [[Black Christians]] traditionally have identified spiritually with the [[Children of Israel]], they never claimed to be descendants of the [[Israelites]].<ref name=Chireau18>Chireau, p. 18.</ref> In the late 19th century among some African-Americans, an identification ''with'' the ancient Hebrews developed into an identification ''as'' ancient Hebrews.<ref name=Chireau21>Chireau, p. 21.</ref> One of the first groups of Black Hebrews, the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]], was founded in 1896.<ref name=Chireau21/> During the following decades, many more Black Hebrew congregations were established. These groups claimed descent from the ancient Israelites. They selected elements of Judaism and adapted them within a structure similar to that of the [[Black church]].<ref name=Chireau21/>

The beliefs and practices of Black Hebrew groups vary considerably. The differences are so great that historian [[James Tinney]] has suggested the classification of the organizations into three groups: Black Jews, who maintain a Christological perspective and adopt Jewish rituals; Black Hebrews, who are more traditional in their practice of Judaism; and Black Israelites, who are most [[Black nationalism|nationalistic]] and furthest from traditional Judaism.<ref name=Tinney>{{cite journal |last=Tinney |first=James |date=December 7, 1973 |title=Black Jews: A House Divided |journal=[[Christianity Today]] |pages=52–54 }}, cited at Chireau, p. 29.</ref>

Nevertheless, Black Hebrew organizations have certain common characteristics. Anthropologist James E. Landing, author of ''Black Judaism'', distinguishes the Black Hebrew movement, which he refers to as Black Judaism, from normative Judaism practiced by people who are Black (black Judaism):

<blockquote>Black Judaism is ... a form of institutionalized (congregational) religious expression in which black persons identify themselves as Jews, Israelites, or Hebrews...in a manner that seems unacceptable to the "whites" of the world's Jewish community, primarily because Jews take issue with the various justifications set forth by Black Jews in establishing this identity. Thus "Black Judaism," as defined here, stands distinctly apart from "black Judaism," or that Judaic expression found among black persons that would be acceptable to the world's Jewish community, such as conversion or birth to a recognized Jewish mother. "Black Judaism" has been a social movement; "black Judaism" has been an isolated social phenomenon.<ref name=Landing10>Landing, p. 10, quoted in Walter, p. 520.</ref></blockquote>

Landing's definition, and its underlying assumptions about race and normative Judaism, have been criticized,<ref name=Isaac>Isaac, pp. 512–542.</ref> but it provides a helpful framework for understanding some of the common traits that various Black Hebrew organizations share.

== Groups ==
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, dozens of Black Hebrew organizations were established.<ref name=Chireau21/> In [[Harlem]] alone, at least eight such groups were founded between 1919 and 1931.<ref name=Parfitt96>Parfitt, p. 96.</ref> The Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations is the oldest known Black Hebrew group<ref name=Singer57/> and the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] is one of the largest Black Hebrew organizations.<ref name="Africana"/> The [[Commandment Keepers]] are noted for their adherence to traditional Judaism<ref name=Moses537/> and the [[African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem]] are widely known for having moved from the United States to [[Israel]].<ref name=Shipler/><ref name=Haas/><ref name=MFA/>

=== Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations ===
The oldest known Black Hebrew organization is the Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations.<ref name=Singer57>Singer, p. 57.</ref><ref name=Chireau3031>Chireau, pp. 30–31. "The founding dates of the earliest black-Jewish congregations are in dispute. Shapiro notes that F.S. Cherry's Church of God was organized in Tennessee in 1886, but other sources do not confirm this date. Another group, the Moorish Zion Temple, founded in 1899 by a Rabbi Richlieu of Brooklyn, New York, was one of the earliest black Jewish congregations that did not combine Jewish and Christian beliefs, as did the Church of God and the Saints of Christ."</ref> The group was founded by [[F. S. Cherry]] in [[Chattanooga, Tennessee|Chattanooga]], [[Tennessee]], in 1886, and later moved to [[Philadelphia]].<ref name=Singer57-58>Singer, pp. 57–58.</ref> Theologically, the Church of the Living God mixed elements of Judaism and Christianity, counting the [[Bible]] — including the [[New Testament]] — and the [[Talmud]] as essential scriptures.<ref name=Fauset34>Fauset, p. 34.</ref> The rituals of Cherry’s flock incorporated many Jewish practices and prohibitions alongside some Christian traditions.<ref name=Fauset36-40>Fauset, pp. 36–40.</ref> For example, during prayer the men wore [[Kippah|skullcaps]] and congregants [[Mizrah|faced east]]. In addition, members of the Church were not permitted to eat pork.<ref name=Fauset36-40/> Prayers were accompanied by musical instruments and [[Gospel music|gospel singing]].<ref name=Fauset36-37>Fauset, pp. 36–37.</ref> After Cherry's death, members of the church believed he had left temporarily and would reappear soon in spirit to lead the church through his son.<ref name="Africana">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hudson |first=Peter |editor=[[Kwame Anthony Appiah]] and [[Henry Louis Gates, Jr.]] |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Africana|Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience]] |title=Black Jews |year=1999 |publisher=Basic Civitas Books |location=New York |pages=1050 }}</ref>

=== Church of God and Saints of Christ ===
{{main|Church of God and Saints of Christ}}
[[File:First Tabernacle - Washington, D.C..jpg|thumb|Former headquarters of the [[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] The building is now known as First Tabernacle Beth El and is listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].]]
The Church of God and Saints of Christ was established in [[Lawrence, Kansas|Lawrence]], [[Kansas]], in 1896 by [[William Saunders Crowdy]].<ref name=Fox>{{cite news |url=http://www.brown.edu/Students/INDY/archives/2005-09-29/articles/arts-fox_israelite.php |title=Sons of Abraham |accessdate=2007-10-20 |last=Fox |first=Andrew |date=September 29, 2005 |work=[[The College Hill Independent]] }} {{Dead link|date=April 2012|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The group established its headquarters in Philadelphia in 1899, and Crowdy later relocated to [[Washington, D.C.]], in 1903. After Crowdy's death in 1908, the church continued to grow under the leadership of William Henry Plummer, who moved the organization's headquarters to its permanent location in [[Belleville, Virginia|Belleville]], [[Virginia]], in 1921.<ref name=Wynia31-34>Wynia, pp. 31–34.</ref> In 1936, the Church of God and Saints of Christ had more than 200 "tabernacles" (congregations) and 37,000 members.<ref name="Africana"/><ref name=Wynia>Wynia, n.p. </ref> [[Howard Z. Plummer|Howard Zebulun Plummer]] succeeded his father and became head of the organization in 1931.<ref>Greene, p. 42.</ref> His son, Levi Solomon Plummer, became the church's leader in 1975.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/history/index.html |title=Historical Timeline |accessdate=2008-02-09 |publisher=[[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] }}</ref> Since 2001, the Church of God and Saints of Christ has been led by [[Jehu August Crowdy, Jr.|Rabbi Jehu A. Crowdy, Jr.]], a great-grandson of William Saunders Crowdy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/leaders/jacrowdy.html |title=Rabbi Jehu August Crowdy, Jr. |accessdate=2008-02-09 |publisher=[[Church of God and Saints of Christ]] }}</ref> As of 2005, it had fifty tabernacles in the United States and dozens in Africa.<ref name=Fox/>

The Church of God and Saints of Christ describes itself as "the oldest African-American congregation in the United States that adheres to the tenets of Judaism".<ref name=Chireau3031/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogasoc.org/main.html |title=Church of God and Saints of Christ |accessdate=2008-02-09 }}</ref> It teaches that all Jews had been black originally, and that African-Americans are descendants of the [[Ten Lost Tribes|lost tribes of Israel]].<ref name=Kidd>Kidd, p. 59.</ref><ref name=Singer59>Singer, p. 59.</ref> Members believe that [[Jesus]] was neither God nor the son of God, but rather an adherent to Judaism and a prophet. They also consider William Saunders Crowdy to be a prophet.<ref name="gallagher">Gallagher, p. 146.</ref>

The Church of God and Saints of Christ synthesizes rituals from both Judaism and Christianity. They have adopted rites drawn from both the [[Old Testament]] and New Testament. Its Jewish observances include [[Brit milah|circumcision]] of newborn boys, use of the [[Hebrew calendar]], wearing of [[Kippah|yarmulkes]], observance of Saturday as the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]], and celebration of [[Passover]]. Its New Testament rites include [[baptism]] (immersion) and [[footwashing]], both of which have Old Testament origins.<ref name=Kidd/><ref name=Singer59/>

{{Jews and Judaism sidebar}}

=== Commandment Keepers ===
{{main|Commandment Keepers}}
[[Wentworth Arthur Matthew]] founded the Commandment Keepers Congregation in Harlem in 1919.<ref name="JVL"/> Matthew was influenced by the non-black Jews he met and by [[Marcus Garvey]] and the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association]]. Garvey used the Biblical Jews in exile as a metaphor for black people in North America. One of the accomplishments of Garvey's movement was to strengthen the connection between black Americans and Africa, [[Ethiopia]] in particular, and when Matthew learned about the [[Beta Israel]] — Ethiopian Jews — he identified with them.<ref name=Chireau25>Chireau, p. 25.</ref>

The Commandment Keepers follow traditional Jewish practice and observe Jewish holidays.<ref name=Moses537>Moses, p. 537.</ref> Members observe [[Kashrut|Jewish dietary laws]], circumcise newborn boys and celebrate [[Bar and Bat Mitzvah|bar mitzvah]], and their synagogue has a [[Mechitza|partition]] to separate men and woman during worship.<ref name="Jewish Week">{{cite news |first=Eric |last=Herschthal |title=Decline Of A Black Synagogue |url=http://joi.org/bloglinks/black%20synagogue%20Jewish%20Week.htm |work=[[The Jewish Week]] |date=July 6, 2007 |accessdate=2008-02-09 }}</ref>

[[File:RabbiMatthewHoldingTorah.jpg|thumb|left|[[Wentworth Arthur Matthew]] holding a [[Sefer Torah|Torah scroll]].]]
The Commandment Keepers believe they are descendants of [[Solomon|King Solomon]] and the [[Queen of Sheba]].<ref name=Parfitt95>Parfitt, p. 95.</ref> Matthew taught that "the Black man is a Jew" and "all genuine Jews are Black men",<ref name=Sundquist116>Sundquist, p. 116.</ref> but he valued non-black Jews as those who had preserved Judaism over the centuries.<ref name="JVL"/> Matthew maintained cordial ties with non-black Jewish leaders in New York and frequently invited them to worship at his synagogue.<ref name=Wolfson48>Wolfson, p. 48.</ref>

Matthew established the Ethiopian Hebrew Rabbinical College (later renamed the Israelite Rabbinical Academy). He ordained more than 20 rabbis, who went on to lead congregations throughout the United States and the Caribbean.<ref name=Sundquist116/><ref name=Wolfson48/> He remained the leader of the Commandment Keepers in Harlem, and in 1962 the congregation moved to a landmark building on 123rd Street.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nyc-architecture.com/HAR/HAR025.htm |title=Commandment Keepers Ethiopian Hebrew Congregation |accessdate=2008-02-01 |publisher=New York Architecture }}</ref>

Matthew died in 1973, sparking an internal conflict over who would succeed him as head of the Harlem congregation. Shortly before his death Matthew named his grandson, David Matthew Doré, the new spiritual leader. Doré was 16 years old at the time. In 1975, the synagogue's board elected Rabbi Willie White to be its leader. Rabbi Doré occasionally conducted services at the synagogue until the early 1980s, when White had Doré and some other members locked out of the building. Membership declined throughout the 1990s and by 2004 only a few dozen people belonged to the synagogue. In 2007 the Commandment Keepers sold the building that housed their synagogue while various factions among former members sued one another.<ref name="Jewish Week"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackjews.org/Essays/DestructionofCommandmentKeepers.html |title=The Destruction of Commandment Keepers, Inc. 1919-2007 |accessdate=2008-02-10 |last=Ben Levy |first=Sholomo |work=BlackJews.org |publisher=International Israelite Board of Rabbis }}</ref>

Beside the Harlem group, there are eight or ten Commandment Keeper congregations in the New York area and others throughout North America and in [[Israel]].<ref>Goldschmidt, p. 221.</ref> Since 2000, seven rabbis have graduated from the Israelite Rabbinical Academy founded by Matthew.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blackjews.org/IsraeliteAcademy.html |title=Israelite Academy |accessdate=2008-02-10 |work=BlackJews.org |publisher=International Israelite Board of Rabbis }}</ref>

=== African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem ===
{{main|African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem}}
[[File:Black hebrews Dimona visit1.jpg|thumb|African Hebrew Israelites speak to visitors in [[Dimona]].]]
[[Ben Ammi|Ben Ammi Ben Israel]] established the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], in 1966. In 1969, after a sojourn in [[Liberia]], Ben Ammi and about 30 Hebrew Israelites moved to [[Israel]].<ref name=Haas>{{cite news |last=Haas |first=Danielle |title=Black Hebrews fight for citizenship in Israel |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/11/15/MN144395.DTL |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |date=November 15, 2002 |accessdate=2008-05-25 }}</ref> Over the next 20 years nearly 600 more members left the United States for Israel. As of 2006, about 2,500 Hebrew Israelites live in [[Dimona]] and two other towns in the [[Negev]] region of Israel, where they are widely referred to as Black Hebrews.<ref name=CBS>{{cite news |author=[[Associated Press]] |title=Music Earns Black Hebrews Some Acceptance |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/04/05/ap/world/mainD8GPUNGG8.shtml |work=[[CBS News]] |date=April 5, 2006 |accessdate=2008-05-25 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060507212849/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/04/05/ap/world/mainD8GPUNGG8.shtml |archivedate = May 7, 2006|deadurl=yes}}</ref> In addition, there are Hebrew Israelite communities in several major American cities, including Chicago, [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], and Washington, D.C.<ref name=Michaeli75>Michaeli, p. 75.</ref>

The Black Hebrews believe they are descended from members of the [[Tribe of Judah]] who were exiled from the [[Land of Israel]] after the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] destroyed the [[Second Temple]] in 70 CE.<ref name=CBS/><ref name=OurStory>{{cite web |url=http://www.kingdomofyah.com/our_story.htm |title=Our Story |accessdate=2008-05-25 |publisher=The African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem }}</ref> The group incorporates elements of [[African American culture]] into their interpretation of the Bible,<ref name=Michaeli75/> and they do not recognize rabbinical Jewish interpretations such as the [[Talmud]].<ref name=CBS/> The Black Hebrews observe [[Shabbat]] and biblically ordained [[Jewish holiday]]s such as [[Yom Kippur]] and [[Passover]].<ref name=Michaeli76>Michaeli, p. 76.</ref> Men wear ''[[tzitzit]]'' on their African print shirts, women follow the [[Niddah|biblical laws concerning menstruation]],<ref name=Michaeli75/> and newborn boys are circumcised.<ref name=Haas/> In accordance with their interpretation of the Bible, the Black Hebrews follow a strictly [[vegan]] diet and wear only natural fabrics.<ref name=Haas/><ref name=OurStory/> Most men have more than one wife, and [[birth control]] is not permitted.<ref name=CBS/>

When the first Black Hebrews arrived in Israel in 1969, they claimed citizenship under the [[Law of Return]], which gives eligible Jews immediate citizenship.<ref>Michaeli, pp. 73–74.</ref> The Israeli government ruled in 1973 that the group did not qualify for automatic citizenship, and the Black Hebrews were denied [[work permit]]s and state benefits. The group responded by accusing the Israeli government of [[Racism|racist discrimination]].<ref name=Michaeli74>Michaeli, p. 74.</ref> In 1981, a group of American civil rights activist led by [[Bayard Rustin]] investigated and concluded that racism was not the cause of Black Hebrews' situation.<ref name=Shipler>{{cite news |last=Shipler |first=David K. |title=Israelis Urged To Act Over Black Hebrew Cult |url=http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F4071FFA395F0C738FDDA80894D9484D81 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 30, 1981 |accessdate=2008-05-28 }}</ref> No official action was taken to return the Black Hebrews to the United States, but some individual members were [[Deportation|deported]] for working illegally. Some Black Hebrews [[Renunciation of citizenship|renounced]] their American citizenship to try to prevent more deportations. In 1990, Illinois legislators helped negotiate an agreement that resolved the Black Hebrews' legal status in Israel. Members of the group are permitted to work and have access to housing and social services. The Black Hebrews reclaimed their American citizenship and have received aid from the U.S. government that helped them build a school and additional housing.<ref name=Michaeli74/> In 2003 the agreement was revised, and the Black Hebrews were granted [[Permanent residency|permanent resident]] status.<ref name=MFA>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/people/the%20black%20hebrews |title=The Hebrew Israelite Community |accessdate=2008-05-26 |date=September 29, 2006 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs }}</ref><ref name=Kaufman>{{cite news |last=Kaufman |first=David |title=Quest for a Homeland Gains a World Stage |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/fashion/sundaystyles/16BUTLER.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 16, 2006 |accessdate=2008-05-28 }}</ref>

In 2009, Elyakim Ben-Israel became the first Black Hebrew to receive Israeli citizenship. The Israeli government said that more Black Hebrews may be granted citizenship.<ref>{{cite news |last=Alush |first=Zvi |title=First Black Hebrew Gets Israeli Citizenship |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3665976,00.html |work=[[Ynetnews]] |date=February 2, 2009 |accessdate=2009-02-02 }}</ref>

The Black Hebrews have become well known for their [[Gospel music|gospel choir]], which tours throughout Israel and the United States. The group owns restaurants in several Israeli cities.<ref name=Michaeli74/> In 2003 the Black Hebrews garnered much public attention when singer [[Whitney Houston]] visited them in Dimona.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel retreat for Houston |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/2940042.stm |publisher=[[BBC News Online]] |date=May 27, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=[[Associated Press]] |title=Whitney Houston visits Israel for Christmas album inspiration |url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/music/news/2003-05-27-houston-israel_x.htm |work=[[USA Today]] |date=May 28, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Palti |first=Michal |title=Whitney does Dimona |url=http://www.rickross.com/reference/black_hebrews/black_hebrews6.html |work=[[Haaretz]] |date=May 29, 2003 |accessdate=2008-05-26 }}</ref> In 2006, [[Eddie Butler (singer)|Eddie Butler]], a Black Hebrew, was chosen by the Israeli public to [[Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006|represent Israel]] in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2006|Eurovision Song Contest]].<ref name=CBS/><ref name=Kaufman/>

== Allegations of black supremacy and racism ==
In late 2008, the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] (SPLC) described as [[Black supremacy|black supremacist]] what it called "the extremist fringe of the Hebrew Israelite movement". It wrote that the members of such groups "believe that Jews are devilish impostors and ... openly condemn whites as evil personified, deserving only death or slavery". The SPLC also said that "most Hebrew Israelites are neither explicitly racist nor anti-Semitic and do not advocate violence".<ref name=Ready>{{cite web |url=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=941 |title='Ready for War' |accessdate=2008-11-22 |date=Fall 2008 |work=Intelligence Report |publisher=[[Southern Poverty Law Center]] }}</ref>

The Black Hebrew groups characterized as black supremacist by the SPLC include the [[Nation of Yahweh]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2001/winter/popularity-and-populism |title=Popularity and Populism |accessdate=2011-11-16 |last=Potok |first=Mark |date=Winter 2001 |work=Intelligence Report |publisher=[[Southern Poverty Law Center]] }}</ref> and the [[Israelite Church of God in Jesus Christ]].<ref name=Ready/> Also, the [[Anti-Defamation League]] has written that the "12 Tribes of Israel" website, maintained by a Black Hebrew group, promotes black supremacy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adl.org/poisoning_web/black_bigots.asp |title=Poisoning the Web: African-American Anti-Semitism |accessdate=2008-11-22 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]] }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|African American|Israel|Judaism}}
* [[African-American – Jewish relations#Blacks as the chosen people]]
* [[Afro-American religion]]
* [[Alliance of Black Jews]]
* [[Groups claiming an affiliation with the ancient Israelites]]
* [[Jews and Judaism in the African diaspora]]
* [[List of Jews in the African diaspora]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book |last=Ben-Jochannan |first=Yosef A. A. |authorlink=Yosef Ben-Jochannan |title=We, the Black Jews: Witness to the "White Jewish Race" Myth |origyear=1983 |year=1993 |publisher=Black Classic Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=0-933121-40-7 }}
* {{cite book |last=Chireau |first=Yvonne |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-511257-1 |chapter=Black Culture and Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism, 1790–1930, an Overview }}
* {{cite book |last=Fauset |first=Arthur Huff |authorlink=Arthur Fauset |title=Black Gods of the Metropolis: Negro Religious Cults of the Urban North |origyear=1944 |year=2002 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-8122-1001-8 }}
* {{cite book |title=The New Religious Movements Experience in America |last=Gallagher |first=Eugene V. |year=2004 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=0-313-32807-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Goldschmidt |first=Henry |title=Race and Religion Among the Chosen Peoples of Crown Heights |year=2006 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brunswick, N.J. |isbn=0-8135-3897-1 }}
* {{cite book |title=Selling Black History for Carter G. Woodson: A Diary, 1930–1933 |last=Greene |first=Lorenzo Johnston |authorlink=Lorenzo Greene |coauthors=Arvarh E. Strickland, ed. |year=1996 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |location=Columbia, Mo. |isbn=0-8262-1068-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Isaac |first=Walter |editor=[[Lewis Gordon|Lewis R. Gordon]], Jane Anna Gordon, eds. |title=A Companion to African-American Studies |year=2006 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, Mass. |isbn=0-631-23516-7 |chapter=Locating African-American Judaism: A Critique of White Normativity }}
* {{cite book |title=The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600-2000 |last=Kidd |first=Colin |authorlink=Colin Kidd |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-79324-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Landing |first=James E. |title=Black Judaism: Story of an American Movement |year=2002 |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |location=Durham, N. C. |isbn=0-89089-820-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Michaeli |first=Ethan |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-511257-1 |chapter=Another Exodus: The Hebrew Israelites from Chicago to Dimona }}
* {{cite book |last=Moses |first=Wilson Jeremiah |editor=[[Cornel West]], Eddie S. Glaude, Jr., eds. |title=African American Religious Thought: An Anthology |year=2003 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Louisville, Ky. |isbn=0-664-22459-8 |chapter=Chosen Peoples of the Metropolis: Black Muslims, Black Jews, and Others }}
* {{cite book |last=Parfitt |first=Tudor |coauthors=Emanuela Trevisan Semi |title=Judaising Movements: Studies in the Margins of Judaism in Modern Times |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-7007-1515-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Singer |first=Merrill |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-511257-1 |chapter=Symbolic Identity Formation in an African American Religious Sect: The Black Hebrew Israelites }}
* {{cite book |last=Sundquist |first=Eric J. |title=Strangers in the Land: Blacks, Jews, Post-Holocaust America |year=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=0-674-01942-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wolfson |first=Bernard J. |editor=Yvonne Patricia Chireau, [[Nathaniel Deutsch]], eds. |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-511257-1 |chapter=African American Jews: Dispelling Myths, Bridging the Divide }}
* {{cite book |last=Wynia |first=Elly M. |title=The Church of God and Saints of Christ: The Rise of Black Jews |year=1994 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=0-8153-1136-2 }}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite web
| url=http://www.villagevoice.com/2011-03-30/news/black-hebrew-israelites-new-york-s-most-obnoxious-prophets/
| title=Black Hebrew Israelites: New York's Most Obnoxious Prophets
| author=Steven Thrasher
| date=March 30, 2011
| publisher=''[[The Village Voice]]''}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Black Hebrews}}
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/bhi.htm Black Hebrew Israelites—ReligousTolerance.org]
* [http://www.blackapologetics.com/bhifaq.html Black Hebrew Israelite FAQ—Black Apologetics Ministry]
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/Black_Hebrews.html The Black Hebrews], [[Jewish Virtual Library]]

{{Jews and Judaism}}
{{good article}}

[[Category:Black Hebrew Israelites| ]]
[[Category:African-American culture]]
[[Category:Jews in the African diaspora]]
[[Category:Groups claiming Jewish descent]]
[[Category:African and Black nationalism]]

[[be:Чорныя ізраільцяне]]
[[bg:Черни евреи]]
[[ca:Hebreus africans]]
[[es:Israelitas negros]]
[[fr:Hébreux noirs]]
[[nl:Afrikaanse Hebreeërs]]
[[ja:ブラック・ジュー]]
[[pt:Israelitas negros]]
[[ru:Чёрные евреи]]

Smith-Normalform

2012-10-24T06:51:48Z

InverseHypercube: /* Algorithm */ fixing section titles

In mathematics, the '''Smith normal form''' is a [[Canonical form|normal form]] that can be defined for any matrix (not necessarily square) with entries in a [[principal ideal domain]] (PID). The Smith normal form of a matrix is [[Diagonal matrix|diagonal]], and can be obtained from the original matrix by multiplying on the left and right by [[invertible]] square matrices. In particular, the integers are a PID, so one can always calculate the Smith normal form of an integer matrix. The Smith normal form is very useful for working with finitely generated modules over a PID, and in particular for deducing the structure of a quotient of a [[free module]].

==Definition==

Let ''A'' be a nonzero ''m''×''n'' matrix over a [[principal ideal domain]] ''R''. There exist invertible <math>m \times m</math> and <math>n \times n</math>-matrices ''S, T'' so that the product ''S A T'' is

:<math>
\begin{pmatrix}
\alpha_1 & 0 & 0 & & \cdots & & 0 \\
0 & \alpha_2 & 0 & & \cdots & & 0 \\
0 & 0 & \ddots & & & & 0\\
\vdots & & & \alpha_r & & & \vdots \\
& & & & 0 & & \\
& & & & & \ddots & \\
0 & & & \cdots & & & 0
\end{pmatrix}.
</math>

and the diagonal elements <math>\alpha_i</math> satisfy <math>\alpha_i \mid \alpha_{i+1}\;\forall\;1 \le i < r</math>. This is the Smith normal form of the matrix ''A''. The elements <math>\alpha_i</math> are unique [[up to]] multiplication by a [[Unit (ring theory)|unit]] and are called the ''elementary divisors'', ''invariants'', or ''invariant factors''. They can be computed (up to multiplication by a unit) as
: <math>\alpha_i = \frac{d_i(A)}{d_{i-1}(A)},</math>
where <math>d_i(A)</math> (called ''i''-th ''determinant divisor'') equals the [[greatest common divisor]] of all <math>i\times i</math> [[Minor (linear algebra)|minors]] of the matrix ''A''.

== Algorithm ==
Our first goal will be to find invertible square matrices ''S'' and ''T'' such that the product ''S A T'' is diagonal. This is the hardest part of the algorithm and once we have achieved diagonality it becomes relatively easy to put the matrix in Smith normal form. Phrased more abstractly, the goal is to show that, thinking of ''A'' as a map from <math>R^n</math> (the free ''R''-[[Module (mathematics)|module]] of rank ''n'') to <math>R^m</math> (the free ''R''-[[Module (mathematics)|module]] of rank ''m''), there are isomorphisms <math>S:R^m \to R^m</math> and <math>T:R^n \to R^n</math> such that <math>S \cdot A \cdot T</math> has the simple form of a [[diagonal matrix]]. The matrices ''S'' and ''T'' can be found by starting out with identity matrices of the appropriate size, and modifying ''S'' each time a row operation is performed on ''A'' in the algorithm by the same row operation, and similarly modifying ''T'' for each column operation performed. Since row operations are left-multiplications and column operations are right-multiplications, this preserves the invariant <math>A'=S'\cdot A\cdot T'</math> where <math>A',S',T'</math> denote current values and ''A'' denotes the original matrix; eventually the matrices in this invariant become diagonal. Only invertible row and column operations are performed, which ensures that ''S'' and ''T'' remain invertible matrices.

For ''a'' in ''R'' \ {0}, write δ(''a'') for the number of prime factors of ''a'' (these exist and are unique since any PID is also a [[unique factorization domain]]). In particular, ''R'' is also a [[Bézout domain]], so it is a [[gcd domain]] and the gcd of any two elements satisfies a [[Bézout's identity]].

To put a matrix into Smith normal form, one can repeatedly apply the following, where ''t'' loops from 1 to ''m''.

===Step I: Choosing a pivot===
Choose ''j''''t'' to be the smallest column index of ''A'' with a non-zero entry, starting the search at column index ''j''''t''-1+1 if ''t'' > 1.

We wish to have <math>a_{t,j_t}\neq0</math>; if this is the case this step is complete, otherwise there is by assumption some ''k'' with <math>a_{k,j_t} \neq 0</math>, and we can exchange rows <math>t</math> and ''k'', thereby obtaining <math>a_{t,j_t}\neq0</math>.

Our chosen pivot is now at position (''t'', ''j''''t'').

===Step II: Improving the pivot===
If there is an entry at position (''k'',''j''''t'') such that <math>a_{t,j_t} \nmid a_{k,j_t}</math>, then, letting <math>\beta =\gcd\left(a_{t,j_t}, a_{k,j_t}\right)</math>, we know by the Bézout property that there exist σ, τ in ''R'' such that

:<math>
a_{t,j_t} \cdot \sigma + a_{k,j_t} \cdot \tau=\beta.
</math>

By left-multiplication with an appropriate invertible matrix ''L'', it can be achieved that row ''t'' of the matrix product is the sum of σ times the original row ''t'' and τ times the original row ''k'', that row ''k'' of the product is another linear combination of those original rows, and that all other rows are unchanged. Explicitly, if σ and τ satisfy the above equation, then for <math>\alpha=a_{t,j_t}/\beta</math> and <math>\gamma=a_{k,j_t}/\beta</math> (which divisions are possible by the definition of β) one has

:<math>
\sigma\cdot \alpha + \tau \cdot \gamma=1,
</math>

so that the matrix

:<math> L_0=
\begin{pmatrix}
\sigma & \tau \\
-\gamma & \alpha \\
\end{pmatrix}
</math>

is invertible, with inverse

:<math>
\begin{pmatrix}
\alpha & -\tau \\
\gamma & \sigma \\
\end{pmatrix}
.</math>

Now ''L'' can be obtained by fitting <math>L_0</math> into rows and columns ''t'' and ''k'' of the identity matrix. By construction the matrix obtained after left-multiplying by ''L'' has entry β at position (''t'',''j''''t'') (and due to our choice of α and γ it also has an entry 0 at position (''k'',''j''''t''), which is useful though not essential for the algorithm). This new entry β divides the entry <math>a_{t,j_t}</math> that was there before, and so in particular <math>\delta(\beta) < \delta(a_{t,j_t})</math>; therefore repeating these steps must eventually terminate. One ends up with a matrix having an entry at position (''t'',''j''''t'') that divides all entries in column ''j''''t''.

===Step III: Eliminating entries===
Finally, adding appropriate multiples of row ''t'', it can be achieved that all entries in column ''j''''t'' except for that at position (''t'',''j''''t'') are zero. This can be achieved by left-multiplication with an appropriate matrix. However, to make the matrix fully diagonal we need to eliminate nonzero entries on the row of position (''t'',''j''''t'') as well. This can be achieved by repeating the steps in Step II for columns instead of rows, and using multiplication on the right. In general this will result in the zero entries from the prior application of Step III becoming nonzero again.

However, notice that the [[ideal (ring theory)|ideals]] generated by the elements at position (''t'',''j''''t'') form an [[ascending chain condition|ascending chain]], because entries from a later step always divide entries from a previous step. Therefore, since ''R'' is a [[Noetherian ring]] (it is a [[principal ideal domain|PID]]), the ideals eventually become stationary and do not change. This means that at some stage after Step II has been applied, the entry at (''t'',''j''''t'') will divide all nonzero row or column entries before applying any more steps in Step II. Then we can eliminate entries in the row or column with nonzero entries while preserving the zeros in the already-zero row or column. At this point, only the block of ''A'' to the lower right of (''t'',''j''''t'') needs to be diagonalized, and conceptually the algorithm can be applied recursively, treating this block as a separate matrix. In other words, we can increment ''t'' by one and go back to Step I.

===Final step===
Applying the steps described above to the remaining non-zero columns of the resulting matrix (if any), we get an <math>m \times n</math>-matrix with column indices <math>j_1 < \ldots < j_r</math> where <math>r \le \min(m,n)</math>. The matrix entries <math>(l,j_l)</math> are non-zero, and every other entry is zero.

Now we can move the null columns of this matrix to the right, so that the nonzero entries are on positions <math>(i,i)</math> for <math>1 \le i\le r</math>. For short, set <math>\alpha_i</math> for the element at position <math>(i,i)</math>.

The condition of divisibility of diagonal entries might not be satisfied. For any index <math>i<r</math> for which <math>\alpha_i\nmid\alpha_{i+1}</math>, one can repair this shortcoming by operations on rows and columns <math>i</math> and <math>i+1</math> only: first add column <math>i+1</math> to column <math>i</math> to get an entry <math>\alpha_{i+1}</math> in column ''i'' without disturbing the entry <math>\alpha_i</math> at position <math>(i,i)</math>, and then apply a row operation to make the entry at position <math>(i,i)</math> equal to <math>\beta=\gcd(\alpha_i,\alpha_{i+1})</math> as in Step II; finally proceed as in Step III to make the matrix diagonal again. Since the new entry at position <math>(i+1,i+1)</math> is a linear combination of the original <math>\alpha_i,\alpha_{i+1}</math>, it is divisible by β.

The value <math>\delta(\alpha_1)+\cdots+\delta(\alpha_r)</math> does not change by the above operation (it is δ of the determinant of the upper <math>r\times r</math> submatrix), whence that operation does diminish (by moving prime factors to the right) the value of
:<math>\sum_{j=1}^r(r-j)\delta(\alpha_j).</math>
So after finitely many applications of this operation no further application is possible, which means that we have obtained <math>\alpha_1\mid\alpha_2\mid\cdots\mid\alpha_r</math> as desired.

Since all row and column manipulations involved in the process are invertible, this shows that there exist invertible <math>m \times m</math> and <math>n \times n</math>-matrices ''S, T'' so that the product ''S A T'' satisfies the definition of a Smith normal form. In particular, this shows that the Smith normal form exists, which was assumed without proof in the definition.

== Applications ==

The Smith normal form is useful for computing the [[homology (mathematics)|homology]] of a [[chain complex]] when the chain modules of the chain complex are [[finitely generated]]. For instance, in [[topology]], it can be used to compute the homology of a [[simplicial complex]] or [[CW complex]] over the integers, because the boundary maps in such a complex are just integer matrices. It can also be used to prove the well known [[structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain]].

== Example ==
As an example, we will find the Smith normal form of the following matrix over the integers.

:<math>
\begin{pmatrix}
2 & 4 & 4 \\
-6 & 6 & 12 \\
10 & -4 & -16
\end{pmatrix}
</math>

The following matrices are the intermediate steps as the algorithm is applied to the above matrix.

:<math>
\to
\begin{pmatrix}
2 & 0 & 0 \\
-6 & 18 & 24 \\
10 & -24& -36
\end{pmatrix}
\to
\begin{pmatrix}
2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 18 & 24 \\
0 & -24& -36
\end{pmatrix}
</math>

:<math>
\to
\begin{pmatrix}
2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 18 & 24 \\
0 & -6 & -12
\end{pmatrix}
\to
\begin{pmatrix}
2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 6 & 12 \\
0 & 18 & 24
\end{pmatrix}
</math>

:<math>
\to
\begin{pmatrix}
2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 6 & 12 \\
0 & 0 & -12
\end{pmatrix}
\to
\begin{pmatrix}
2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 6 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 12
\end{pmatrix}
</math>

So the Smith normal form is

:<math>
\begin{pmatrix}
2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 6 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 12
\end{pmatrix}
</math>

and the elementary divisors are 2, 6 and 12.

== Similarity ==
The Smith normal form can be used to determine whether or not matrices with entries over a common field are [[similar (linear algebra)|similar]]. Specifically two matrices ''A'' and ''B'' are similar if and only if the [[characteristic matrix|characteristic matrices]] <math>xI-A \mbox{ and } xI-B</math> have the same Smith normal form.

For example, with
:<math>
\begin{align}
A & {} =\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 2 \\
0 & 1
\end{bmatrix}, & & \mbox{SNF}(xI-A) =\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 \\
0 & (x-1)^2
\end{bmatrix} \\
B & {} =\begin{bmatrix}
3 & -4 \\
1 & -1
\end{bmatrix}, & & \mbox{SNF}(xI-B) =\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 \\
0 & (x-1)^2
\end{bmatrix} \\
C & {} =\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 \\
1 & 2
\end{bmatrix}, & & \mbox{SNF}(xI-C) =\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 \\
0 & (x-1)(x-2)
\end{bmatrix}.
\end{align}
</math>

''A'' and ''B'' are similar because the Smith normal form of their characteristic matrices match, but are not similar to ''C'' because the Smith normal form of the characteristic matrices do not match.

== See also ==
* [[Canonical form]]
* [[Elementary divisors]]
* [[Frobenius normal form]]
* [[Hermite normal form]]
* [[Invariant factor]]
* [[Henry John Stephen Smith]] (1826–1883), [[eponym]] of the Smith normal form
* [[Structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain]]

==References==
* {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Henry J. Stephen |authorlink=Henry John Stephen Smith |year=1861 |title=On systems of linear indeterminate equations and congruences |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.]] |volume=151 |issue=1 |pages=293–326 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/108738 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1861.0016 }} Reprinted (pp. [http://archive.org/stream/collectedmathema01smituoft#page/366/mode/2up 367–409]) in [http://archive.org/details/collectedmathema01smituoft ''The Collected Mathematical Papers of Henry John Stephen Smith'', Vol. I], edited by [[James Whitbread Lee Glaisher|J. W. L. Glaisher]]. Oxford: Clarendon Press (1894), ''xcv''+603 pp.
* {{PlanetMath |urlname=GausssAlgorithmForPrincipalIdealDomains |title=Smith normal form}}
* {{PlanetMath |urlname=ExampleOfSmithNormalForm |title=Example of Smith normal form}}
* K. R. Matthews, [http://www.numbertheory.org/courses/MP274/smith.pdf Smith normal form]. MP274: Linear Algebra, Lecture Notes, University of Queensland, 1991.

[[Category:Matrix theory]]
[[Category:Matrix normal forms]]

Neil Turok

2012-10-17T06:28:44Z

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[[Datei:Neil Turok AIMS.jpg|miniatur|Neil Turok]]
[[Datei:NeilTurok1990.jpg|miniatur|Neil Turok (1990)]]
'''Neil Geoffrey Turok''' (* [[1958]] in [[Johannesburg]]) ist ein [[Südafrika|südafrikanischer]] theoretischer Physiker und Astrophysiker.

Turoks Eltern waren Anti-[[Apartheid]]-Aktivisten. Turok studiert am Churchill College in [[Cambridge]] und wurde am [[Imperial College]] in [[London]] bei [[David Olive]] promoviert. Danach war er an der [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] und am [[Fermilab]] bei [[Chicago]]. 1994 wurde er Professor an der [[Princeton University]]. Ab 1997 war er Professor für mathematische Physik in Cambridge (England). 2008 wurde er Executive Director des [[Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics]] in [[Ontario]] ([[Kanada]]).

Turok beschäftigte sich vor allem mit [[Kosmologie]], wo er u.a. 1996 mit Robert Crittenden bei Existenz einer großen [[Kosmologische Konstante|kosmologischen Konstante]] Korrelationen in der [[Kosmische Hintergrundstrahlung|kosmischen Hintergrundstrahlung]] (CMB) vorhersagte.<ref>Crittenden, Turok „Looking for a Cosmological Constant with the Rees-Sciama Effect“, Physical Review Letters, Bd. 76, 1996, S. 575-578</ref>, was durch [[WMAP]]-Präzisions-Messungen der Anisotropien des CMB 2005 bestätigt wurde.

Turok wurde in den 1980er Jahren durch Vermutungen bekannt, dass [[Topologie (Mathematik)|topologische]] Defekte (wie [[Kosmischer String|kosmische String]]s), sogenannte Texturen, als Erklärung für die Galaxienentstehung herhalten könnten<ref>Spergel, Turok Texturen des Universums, Spektrum der Wissenschaft, Mai 1992</ref>. Das wurde aber zunächst 1997 durch ihn und Mitarbeiter selbst aus den [[COBE]]-Beobachtungen widerlegt.<ref> Ue-Li Pen, Uros Seljak, Turok „Power spectra in global defect theories of cosmic structure formation“, Physical Review Letters, Bd. 79, 1997, S.1611, [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9704165 Online]</ref> 2007 wurde diese Möglichkeit jedoch durch die Entdeckung eines „cold spot“ (einer Region von etwa 5 Grad räumlicher Ausdehnung – groß im Vergleich zu den typischen Fluktuationen von 1 Grad – und etwa 70 Mikrokelvin kälter als die mittlere CMB-Temperatur) in den WMAP-Daten neu belebt.<ref>New Scientist, 13. Juli 2007, [http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19526123.900-cosmologists-spot-a-knot-in-spacetime.html Online], Turok u.a. Science „A cosmic microwave background feature consistent with a cosmic texture“, Bd. 318, 2007, S.1612</ref> Es kommen dafür aber auch andere Erklärungen in Frage.

Turok ist einer der Urheber der Theorie der offenen Inflation<ref> Alfred Goldhaber, Martin Bucher, Turok, An open universe from inflation, Physical Review D, Bd. 52, 1995, 3124</ref>, in der ein inflationäres, offenes Universum im Inneren von “Blasen”<ref>Die Wände der Blasen expandieren mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit, das Universum in der Blase ist offen, mit einer anfangs inflationären Expansionsphase.</ref> aus dem Zerfall eines „falschen“ (metastabilen) Vakuums entsteht.<ref>vorher wurde dieser Mechanismus schon in den 1980er Jahren von [[Sidney Coleman]] und de Lucchia untersucht, die entsprechende Tunnel-Lösung wird Coleman-de Lucchia Instanton genannt.</ref> Auf Vorschlag von [[Stephen Hawking]] untersuchte er 1998 die Entstehung offener inflationärer Universen auch in der „No-Boundary“-Beschreibung der Quantenkosmologie von James Hartle und Hawking, was zur Einführung der Hawking-Turok-Instanton-Lösungen (Tunneleffekt-Lösungen) führte, die die Geburt von inflationären offenen Universen beschreiben können, ohne die Hypothese eines falschen Vakuums.<ref> Hawking, Turok Open inflation, the 4 form and the cosmological constant, Physical Review Letters, 1998. [http://www.hawking.org.uk/lectures/inflate.html Hawking dazu 1998], [http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/qg_qc.html Beschreibung auf Seiten der Universität Cambridge]</ref> Mit [[Paul Steinhardt]] entwickelte er später die Theorie zyklischer Universen aus einer Kollision von [[Brane]]s in erweiterten [[Stringtheorie]]n ([[Ekpyrotisches Universum]]). Innerhalb diese Modells lässt sich nach Turok und Steinhardt auch die Entwicklung einer sehr kleinen kosmologischen Konstante verstehen.

2003 gründete er das „African Institute for Mathematical Sciences“ (AIMS) in [[Muizenberg]], das Doktoranden in Mathematik und theoretischer Physik aus ganz Afrika ausbilden soll. 2008 erhielt er den [[TED (Konferenz)|TED]] Preis.

== Schriften ==
* Steinhardt, Turok „Endless Universe- Beyond the Big Bang“, Random House 2007 (populärwissenschaftliches Buch über ihre Theorie eines zyklischen Universums)
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0403020 Turok, Steinhardt „Beyond inflation – a cyclic universe scenario“, Nobel Symposium 2003]
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0204479 Turok, Steinhardt „The cyclic universe – an informal introduction“, 2002]
* Crittenden, Turok (Herausgeber) ''Structure Formation in the Universe'', NATO Science Series C, Band 565, 2001

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/ngt1000/ Homepage]
* [http://media.radiosai.org/Journals/Vol_06/01JAN08/04-musings.htm Biographie]
* [http://www.aims.ac.za African Institute for Mathematical Sciences]

== Anmerkungen ==
<references />

{{Normdaten|PND=|LCCN=nr/97/44042|VIAF=24777273}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Turok, Neil}}
[[Kategorie:Physiker (20. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Sachbuchautor (Physik)]]
[[Kategorie:Südafrikaner]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1958]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Turok, Neil
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Turok, Neil Geoffrey (vollständiger Name)
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=südafrikanischer theoretischer Physiker und Astrophysiker
|GEBURTSDATUM=1958
|GEBURTSORT=[[Johannesburg]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[cs:Neil Turok]]
[[en:Neil Turok]]
[[fr:Neil Turok]]
[[it:Neil Turok]]
[[sv:Neil Turok]]

In the Flesh (Pink-Floyd-Lied)

2012-08-23T18:43:57Z

InverseHypercube: /* Film Version */ misc. fixes

{{About|the twenty-first song on ''[[The Wall]]'' by [[Pink Floyd]]|the first song on the album|In the Flesh?|other uses|In the Flesh (disambiguation)}}
{{Song infobox|
| Name = In the Flesh
| Cover =
| Artist = [[Pink Floyd]]
| Album = [[The Wall]]
| Published = Pink Floyd Music Publishers Ltd
| Released = 30 November 1979 (UK) 8 December 1979 (US)
| track_no = 8 of disc 2
| Recorded = April–November 1979
| Genre = [[Progressive rock]], [[hard rock]]
| Length = 4:15
| Writer = [[Roger Waters]]
| Label = [[Harvest Records]] (UK) [[Columbia Records]] (US)/[[Capitol Records]] (US)
| Producer = [[Bob Ezrin]], [[David Gilmour]], [[James Guthrie (record producer)|James Guthrie]] and [[Roger Waters]]
| Tracks = {{The Wall tracks}}
}}
"'''In the Flesh'''" (working title "'''The Show'''") is a song by [[England|English]] [[progressive rock]] band [[Pink Floyd]].<ref name="mabbett">{{Cite book
| last = Mabbett
| first = Andy
| title = The Complete Guide to the Music of Pink Floyd
| publisher = [[Omnibus Press]]
| location = London
| isbn = 0-7119-4301-X
| date = 1995
}}</ref> It appears on their [[1979 in music|1979]] album ''[[The Wall]]''.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Strong
| first = Martin C.
| title = The Great Rock Discography
| publisher = [[Canongate Books]]
| location = Edinburgh
| isbn = 1-84195-551-5
| page = 1177
| date = 2004
| edition = 7th
}}</ref>

==Composition==
The song is rather loud and dynamic. The introduction of the song features the same explosive organ sequence heard in the introduction to "[[In the Flesh?]]". Following this, the song then moves into a slightly quieter choir chorus, before the lyrical section. The end of the song features another organ sequence, and the song fades out to the chanting of "Pink! Floyd! Pink! Floyd!".

==Plot==
As with the other songs on ''The Wall'', "In the Flesh" tells a segment of the story of Pink, the story's protagonist. This song marks the first of a series of songs in which Pink, in a drug-induced hallucination, believes himself to be a [[Fascism|fascist]] [[dictator]], crowing over his faithful audience; this particular song is his hallucination that his concerts can be likened to a political rally. He begins exhorting his fans to show their devotion to him by throwing undesirables such as "[[Homosexuality|queers]]", [[Jews]], and "[[Black people|coons]]", "up against the wall". He punctuates the end of the song with "If I had my way I'd have all of you shot!". The iconic hammers represent the audience's oppression. The incited crowd then chant Pink's name as the song segues into "[[Run Like Hell]]".

==Film version==

The film version of the song picks up shortly after Pink's transformation into the Dictator. The song is one of the most radically changed out of all of the movie versions, having been converted to an orchestral piece.

As with the Dictator's first appearance in "In the Flesh", the Dictator questions the loyalty of the fans, while setting his dogs against the "queers" and "coons" he singles out. As the song ends, the crowd's chant of "Pink Floyd!" is replaced with "Hammer", invoking the film motif of hammers. In addition, both Pink and the crowd display the "Hammer" salute, arms crossed in front of the chest at the wrists like a pair of crossed hammers. In addition, the "Crossed Hammer" logo can be seen everywhere. The song immediately segues into "[[Run Like Hell]]".

As with "[[In The Flesh?]]", this version of the song is also performed by [[Bob Geldof]]. Reportedly bassist [[Roger Waters]] was displeased with Geldof's sneering delivery of the lyrics.{{cn}}

==Personnel==
*[[David Gilmour]] — ARP quadra sequencer, guitars<ref name="history">Fitch, Vernon and Mahon, Richard, ''Comfortably Numb — A History of The Wall 1978–1981'', 2006, p. 104.</ref>
*[[Nick Mason]] — drums<ref>Fitch, Vernon and Mahon, Richard, p. 143.</ref>
*[[Roger Waters]] — lead vocals, bass, [[EMS VCS 3]]<ref name="history"/>
*[[Bruce Johnston]] — backing vocals<ref name="history"/>
*[[James Guthrie (record producer)|James Guthrie]] — ARP quadra sequencer<ref name="history"/>
*[[Fred Mandel]] — organ<ref name="history"/>
*[[Bob Ezrin]] — [[Sequential Circuits Prophet-5|Prophet-5 synthesiser]]<ref name="history"/>
*[[Joe Chemay]] — backing vocals<ref name="history"/>
*[[Stan Farber]] — backing vocals<ref name="history"/>
*[[Jim Haas]] — backing vocals<ref name="history"/>
*[[John Joyce (musician)|John Joyce]] — backing vocals<ref name="history"/>
*[[Toni Tennille]] — backing vocals<ref name="history"/>

==Further reading==
* Fitch, Vernon. ''The Pink Floyd Encyclopedia'' (3rd edition), 2005. ISBN 1-894959-24-8.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{The Wall}}
{{Pink Floyd}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:In The Flesh}}
[[Category:Pink Floyd songs]]
[[Category:1979 songs]]
[[Category:Songs about drugs]]
[[Category:Songs against racism and xenophobia]]
[[Category:Hard rock songs]]
[[Category:Rock ballads]]
[[Category:Songs written by Roger Waters]]
[[Category:The Wall (rock opera)]]
[[Category:Songs produced by Bob Ezrin]]
[[Category:Songs produced by David Gilmour]]
[[Category:Songs produced by Roger Waters]]

[[cs:In the Flesh]]
[[de:In the Flesh]]
[[es:In the Flesh]]
[[fr:In the Flesh (chanson de Pink Floyd)]]
[[it:In the Flesh]]
[[ka:In the Flesh]]
[[nn:In the Flesh]]
[[pl:In the Flesh]]
[[pt:In the Flesh]]

Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media

2012-08-22T03:37:59Z

InverseHypercube:

{{lead too short|date=June 2012}}
{{Infobox Book
| name = Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Manugactorinconsent2.jpg|200px]]
| author = [[Edward S. Herman]], [[Noam Chomsky]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = United States
| language = English
| series =
| subject =
| genre = [[Politics]]
| publisher = [[Pantheon Books]]
| pub_date = 1988
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover]], [[Paperback]])
| pages =
| isbn = 0-375-71449-9
| dewey= 381/.4530223 21
| congress= P96.E25 H47 2002
| oclc= 47971712
| preceded_by = [[The Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel, and the Palestinians]]
| followed_by = [[Necessary Illusions]]
}}{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media''}}
{{other|Manufacturing Consent (disambiguation)}}
'''''Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media''''' (1988), by [[Edward S. Herman]] and [[Noam Chomsky]], is an analysis of the [[News media (United States)|news media]], arguing that the mass media of the United States "are effective and powerful ideological institutions that carry out a system-supportive propaganda function by reliance on market forces, internalized assumptions, and [[self-censorship]], and without overt coercion".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Herman|first1=Edward S.|last2=Chomsky|first2=Noam|title=Manufacturing Consent|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|page=306}}</ref>

The title derives from the phrase "the manufacture of consent" that essayist–editor [[Walter Lippmann]] (1889–1974) employed in the book ''[[Public Opinion (book)|Public Opinion]]'' (1922).<ref>p. 13, Noam Chomsky, ''Letters from Lexington: Reflections on Propaganda'', Paradigm Publishers 2004.</ref> Chomsky has said that Australian social psychologist [[Alex Carey]], to whom the book was dedicated, was in large part the impetus of his and Herman's work.<ref>Noam Chomsky, ''Class Warfare'', Pluto Press 1996, p. 29: "Ed Herman and I dedicated our book, ''Manufacturing Consent'', to him. He had just died. It was not intended as just a symbolic gesture. He got both of us started in a lot of this work."</ref> The book introduced the [[propaganda model]] of the media.

==The propaganda model==
Using the [[propaganda model]], ''Manufacturing Consent'' posits that [[corporation|corporate]]-owned [[journalism|news]] [[mass media|mass communication media]]—print, radio, television—are businesses subject to commercial competition for advertising revenue and [[profit (economics)|profit]]. As such, their distortion (editorial bias) of news reportage—i.e. what types of news, which items, and how they are reported—is a consequence of the profit motive that requires establishing a stable, profitable business; therefore, news businesses favoring profit over the [[public interest]] succeed, while those favoring reportorial accuracy over profits fail, and are relegated to the margins of their markets (low sales and ratings).{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}

==Government and news media==
Editorial distortion is aggravated by the news media’s dependence upon private and [[government]]al news sources. If a given newspaper, television station, magazine, etc., incurs governmental disfavor, it is subtly excluded from access to information. Consequently, it loses readers or viewers, and ultimately, advertisers. To minimize such financial danger, news media businesses editorially distort their reporting to favor government and corporate policies in order to stay in business.

==Editorial bias: five filters==

Herman and Chomsky's "propaganda model" describes five editorially distorting filters applied to news reporting in mass media:

# '''Size, Ownership, and Profit Orientation:''' The dominant mass-media outlets are large firms which are run for profit. Therefore they must cater to the financial interest of their owners - often corporations or particular controlling investors. The size of the firms is a necessary consequence of the capital requirements for the technology to reach a mass audience.
# '''The Advertising License to Do Business:''' Since the majority of the revenue of major media outlets derives from advertising (not from sales or subscriptions), advertisers have acquired a "de-facto licensing authority".<ref>James Curran and Jean Seaton, ''Power without responsibility : the press and broadcasting in Britain'' (First edition 1981, with many subsequent editions).</ref> Media outlets are not commercially viable without the support of advertisers. News media must therefore cater to the political prejudices and economic desires of their advertisers. This has weakened the working-class press, for example, and also helps explain the [[attrition]] in the number of newspapers.
# '''Sourcing Mass Media News:''' Herman and Chomsky argue that “the large bureaucracies of the powerful ''subsidize'' the mass media, and gain special access [to the news], by their contribution to reducing the media’s costs of acquiring [...] and producing, news. The large entities that provide this subsidy become 'routine' news sources and have privileged access to the gates. Non-routine sources must struggle for access, and may be ignored by the arbitrary decision of the gatekeepers.”<ref name = MC>Herman and Chomsky, ''Manufacturing Consent''.</ref>
# '''Flak and the Enforcers:''' "Flak" refers to negative responses to a media statement or program (e.g. letters, complaints, lawsuits, or legislative actions). Flak can be expensive to the media, either due to loss of advertising revenue, or due to the costs of legal defense or defense of the media outlet's public image. Flak can be organized by powerful, private influence groups (e.g. [[think tank]]s). The prospect of eliciting flak can be a deterrent to the reporting of certain kinds of facts or opinions.<ref name = MC/>
# '''Anti-Communism:''' This was included as a filter in the original 1988 edition of the book, but Chomsky argues that since the end of the [[Cold War]] (1945–91), [[anticommunism]] was replaced by the "[[War on Terror]]", as the major social control mechanism.<ref>Noam Chomsky, ''Media Control, the Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda'' (1997).</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Chomsky/Journalist_Mars.html|title=The Journalist from Mars|author=Noam Chomsky|year=2002|publisher=Third World Traveler|accessdate=2009-11-08}}, pp. 69–100</ref>

==Recent developments==
* In 1993, the documentary film ''[[Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media]]'' (1992), directed by [[Mark Achbar]] and [[Peter Wintonick]], partly based upon the book, presents the propaganda model and its arguments, and a biography of Chomsky.

* In 2006, the Turkish government prosecuted Fatih Tas, owner of the Aram editorial house, two editors and the translator of the revised (2001) edition of ''Manufacturing Consent'' for "stirring hatred among the public" (per Article 216 of the Turkish Penal Code) and for "denigrating the national identity" of Turkey (per [[Article 301 (Turkish penal code)|Article 301]]), because that edition’s introduction addresses the Turkish news media’s reportage of governmental suppression of the Kurdish populace in the 1990s; they were acquitted.<ref>{{cite web|last=Butler|first=Daren|date=2006-07-04|url=http://www.kurdishaspect.com/doc75101.html|title=Turkish publisher faces prosecution over Chomsky book|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=2006-07-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2006-12-20|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/europe/6198021.stm|title=Turks acquitted over Chomsky book|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2006-12-20 | location=London}}</ref>

* In 2007, at the ''20 Years of Propaganda?: Critical Discussions & Evidence on the Ongoing Relevance of the Herman & Chomsky Propaganda Model'' (15–17 May 2007) [http://www.uwindsor.ca/propaganda conference] at the [[University of Windsor]], Canada, [[Edward S. Herman|Herman]] and [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]] summarized developments to the [[propaganda model]], followed by the publication of the proceedings of a commemoration of the twentieth publication anniversary of ''Manufacturing Consent'' in 2008.

* In 2008, Chomsky replied to questions concerning the ways internet [[blog]]s and self-generated news reportage conform to and differ from the propaganda model. He also explained how access to information is not enough, because a framework of understanding is required.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rnLWSC5p1XE#t=27m38s
|title=Authors@Google: Noam Chomsky
|date=2008-05-02
}}</ref>

== Criticisms ==
The book ''[[The Anti-Chomsky Reader]]'' is one example of criticism of the propaganda model.

== See also ==
* [[Media imperialism]]
* [[Nicaraguan general election, 1984]] (US media coverage of these is the subject of Chapter 3)
* [[Politico-media complex]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* "[[The Engineering of Consent]]"

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Herman%20/Manufac_Consent_Prop_Model.html Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (Excerpt)]
* [http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/198901--.htm Synopsis with Herman interview]
* [http://www.westminster.ac.uk/schools/media/camri/wpcc/the-herman-chomsky-propaganda-model-twenty-years-on The Herman-Chomsky Propaganda Model Twenty Years On] ''Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture'' 6(2), 2009
{{Noam Chomsky}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy Of The Mass Media}}
[[Category:1988 books]]
[[Category:Books by Noam Chomsky]]
[[Category:Books about media bias]]
[[Category:Books about propaganda]]
[[Category:Books about public opinion]]
[[Category:Books about politics of the United States]]

[[es:Los guardianes de la libertad]]
[[it:La fabbrica del consenso: l'economia politica dei mass media]]
[[nl:Manufacturing Consent]]

Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media

2012-08-22T03:37:33Z

InverseHypercube: more accurate description of what the book is about, with a quotation

{{lead too short|date=June 2012}}
{{Infobox Book
| name = Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Manugactorinconsent2.jpg|200px]]
| author = [[Edward S. Herman]], [[Noam Chomsky]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = United States
| language = English
| series =
| subject =
| genre = [[Politics]]
| publisher = [[Pantheon Books]]
| pub_date = 1988
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover]], [[Paperback]])
| pages =
| isbn = 0-375-71449-9
| dewey= 381/.4530223 21
| congress= P96.E25 H47 2002
| oclc= 47971712
| preceded_by = [[The Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel, and the Palestinians]]
| followed_by = [[Necessary Illusions]]
}}{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media''}}
{{other|Manufacturing Consent (disambiguation)}}
'''''Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media''''' (1988), by [[Edward S. Herman]] and [[Noam Chomsky]], is an analysis of the [[News media (United States)|news media]], arguing that the mass media of the United States "are effective and powerful ideological institutions that carry out a system-supportive propaganda function by reliance on market forces, internalized assumptions, and [[self-censorship]], and without overt coercion".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Herman|first1=Edward S.|last2=Chomsky|first2=Noam|title=Manufacturing Consent|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|pages=306}}</ref>

The title derives from the phrase "the manufacture of consent" that essayist–editor [[Walter Lippmann]] (1889–1974) employed in the book ''[[Public Opinion (book)|Public Opinion]]'' (1922).<ref>p. 13, Noam Chomsky, ''Letters from Lexington: Reflections on Propaganda'', Paradigm Publishers 2004.</ref> Chomsky has said that Australian social psychologist [[Alex Carey]], to whom the book was dedicated, was in large part the impetus of his and Herman's work.<ref>Noam Chomsky, ''Class Warfare'', Pluto Press 1996, p. 29: "Ed Herman and I dedicated our book, ''Manufacturing Consent'', to him. He had just died. It was not intended as just a symbolic gesture. He got both of us started in a lot of this work."</ref> The book introduced the [[propaganda model]] of the media.

==The propaganda model==
Using the [[propaganda model]], ''Manufacturing Consent'' posits that [[corporation|corporate]]-owned [[journalism|news]] [[mass media|mass communication media]]—print, radio, television—are businesses subject to commercial competition for advertising revenue and [[profit (economics)|profit]]. As such, their distortion (editorial bias) of news reportage—i.e. what types of news, which items, and how they are reported—is a consequence of the profit motive that requires establishing a stable, profitable business; therefore, news businesses favoring profit over the [[public interest]] succeed, while those favoring reportorial accuracy over profits fail, and are relegated to the margins of their markets (low sales and ratings).{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}

==Government and news media==
Editorial distortion is aggravated by the news media’s dependence upon private and [[government]]al news sources. If a given newspaper, television station, magazine, etc., incurs governmental disfavor, it is subtly excluded from access to information. Consequently, it loses readers or viewers, and ultimately, advertisers. To minimize such financial danger, news media businesses editorially distort their reporting to favor government and corporate policies in order to stay in business.

==Editorial bias: five filters==

Herman and Chomsky's "propaganda model" describes five editorially distorting filters applied to news reporting in mass media:

# '''Size, Ownership, and Profit Orientation:''' The dominant mass-media outlets are large firms which are run for profit. Therefore they must cater to the financial interest of their owners - often corporations or particular controlling investors. The size of the firms is a necessary consequence of the capital requirements for the technology to reach a mass audience.
# '''The Advertising License to Do Business:''' Since the majority of the revenue of major media outlets derives from advertising (not from sales or subscriptions), advertisers have acquired a "de-facto licensing authority".<ref>James Curran and Jean Seaton, ''Power without responsibility : the press and broadcasting in Britain'' (First edition 1981, with many subsequent editions).</ref> Media outlets are not commercially viable without the support of advertisers. News media must therefore cater to the political prejudices and economic desires of their advertisers. This has weakened the working-class press, for example, and also helps explain the [[attrition]] in the number of newspapers.
# '''Sourcing Mass Media News:''' Herman and Chomsky argue that “the large bureaucracies of the powerful ''subsidize'' the mass media, and gain special access [to the news], by their contribution to reducing the media’s costs of acquiring [...] and producing, news. The large entities that provide this subsidy become 'routine' news sources and have privileged access to the gates. Non-routine sources must struggle for access, and may be ignored by the arbitrary decision of the gatekeepers.”<ref name = MC>Herman and Chomsky, ''Manufacturing Consent''.</ref>
# '''Flak and the Enforcers:''' "Flak" refers to negative responses to a media statement or program (e.g. letters, complaints, lawsuits, or legislative actions). Flak can be expensive to the media, either due to loss of advertising revenue, or due to the costs of legal defense or defense of the media outlet's public image. Flak can be organized by powerful, private influence groups (e.g. [[think tank]]s). The prospect of eliciting flak can be a deterrent to the reporting of certain kinds of facts or opinions.<ref name = MC/>
# '''Anti-Communism:''' This was included as a filter in the original 1988 edition of the book, but Chomsky argues that since the end of the [[Cold War]] (1945–91), [[anticommunism]] was replaced by the "[[War on Terror]]", as the major social control mechanism.<ref>Noam Chomsky, ''Media Control, the Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda'' (1997).</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Chomsky/Journalist_Mars.html|title=The Journalist from Mars|author=Noam Chomsky|year=2002|publisher=Third World Traveler|accessdate=2009-11-08}}, pp. 69–100</ref>

==Recent developments==
* In 1993, the documentary film ''[[Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media]]'' (1992), directed by [[Mark Achbar]] and [[Peter Wintonick]], partly based upon the book, presents the propaganda model and its arguments, and a biography of Chomsky.

* In 2006, the Turkish government prosecuted Fatih Tas, owner of the Aram editorial house, two editors and the translator of the revised (2001) edition of ''Manufacturing Consent'' for "stirring hatred among the public" (per Article 216 of the Turkish Penal Code) and for "denigrating the national identity" of Turkey (per [[Article 301 (Turkish penal code)|Article 301]]), because that edition’s introduction addresses the Turkish news media’s reportage of governmental suppression of the Kurdish populace in the 1990s; they were acquitted.<ref>{{cite web|last=Butler|first=Daren|date=2006-07-04|url=http://www.kurdishaspect.com/doc75101.html|title=Turkish publisher faces prosecution over Chomsky book|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=2006-07-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2006-12-20|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/europe/6198021.stm|title=Turks acquitted over Chomsky book|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2006-12-20 | location=London}}</ref>

* In 2007, at the ''20 Years of Propaganda?: Critical Discussions & Evidence on the Ongoing Relevance of the Herman & Chomsky Propaganda Model'' (15–17 May 2007) [http://www.uwindsor.ca/propaganda conference] at the [[University of Windsor]], Canada, [[Edward S. Herman|Herman]] and [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]] summarized developments to the [[propaganda model]], followed by the publication of the proceedings of a commemoration of the twentieth publication anniversary of ''Manufacturing Consent'' in 2008.

* In 2008, Chomsky replied to questions concerning the ways internet [[blog]]s and self-generated news reportage conform to and differ from the propaganda model. He also explained how access to information is not enough, because a framework of understanding is required.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rnLWSC5p1XE#t=27m38s
|title=Authors@Google: Noam Chomsky
|date=2008-05-02
}}</ref>

== Criticisms ==
The book ''[[The Anti-Chomsky Reader]]'' is one example of criticism of the propaganda model.

== See also ==
* [[Media imperialism]]
* [[Nicaraguan general election, 1984]] (US media coverage of these is the subject of Chapter 3)
* [[Politico-media complex]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* "[[The Engineering of Consent]]"

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Herman%20/Manufac_Consent_Prop_Model.html Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (Excerpt)]
* [http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/198901--.htm Synopsis with Herman interview]
* [http://www.westminster.ac.uk/schools/media/camri/wpcc/the-herman-chomsky-propaganda-model-twenty-years-on The Herman-Chomsky Propaganda Model Twenty Years On] ''Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture'' 6(2), 2009
{{Noam Chomsky}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy Of The Mass Media}}
[[Category:1988 books]]
[[Category:Books by Noam Chomsky]]
[[Category:Books about media bias]]
[[Category:Books about propaganda]]
[[Category:Books about public opinion]]
[[Category:Books about politics of the United States]]

[[es:Los guardianes de la libertad]]
[[it:La fabbrica del consenso: l'economia politica dei mass media]]
[[nl:Manufacturing Consent]]

Vancouver-Murmeltier

2012-08-19T17:41:15Z

InverseHypercube:

{{Taxobox
| Taxon_Name = Vancouver-Murmeltier
| Taxon_WissName = Marmota vancouverensis
| Taxon_Rang = Art
| Taxon_Autor = [[Harry Schelwald Swarth|Swarth]], 1911
| Taxon2_Name = Murmeltiere
| Taxon2_WissName = Marmota
| Taxon2_Rang = Gattung
| Taxon3_Name = Echte Erdhörnchen
| Taxon3_WissName = Marmotini
| Taxon3_Rang = Tribus
| Taxon4_Name = Erdhörnchen
| Taxon4_WissName = Xerinae
| Taxon4_Rang = Unterfamilie
| Taxon5_Name = Hörnchen
| Taxon5_WissName = Sciuridae
| Taxon5_Rang = Familie
| Taxon6_Name = Hörnchenverwandte
| Taxon6_WissName = Sciuromorpha
| Taxon6_Rang = Unterordnung
| Bild = Marmota vancouverensis at the Beaty Biodiversity Museum.JPG
| Bildbeschreibung =
}}

Das '''Vancouver-Murmeltier''' (''Marmota vancouverensis'') ist eine Art aus der [[Familie (Biologie)|Familie]] der [[Hörnchen]], das lediglich auf [[Vancouver Island]] beheimatet ist. Innerhalb der [[Gattung (Biologie)|Gattung]] der [[Murmeltiere]] gilt das Vancouver-Murmeltier als die am ehesten durch Aussterben bedrohte Art. Bestandsgefährdend wirken sich auf diese Art Habitatverluste sowie eine genetische Verarmung aus. Zu massiven Bestandseinbrüchen kam es vor allem in den 1990er Jahren, was dazu führte, dass ein intensives Programm zur Erhaltung dieser Art in die Wege geleitet wurde. Dazu gehören ein Zuchtprogramm mit in Gefangenschaft gehaltenen Tieren und die Wiedereinführung von erhaltungsfähigen Populationszahlen in geeigneten Gebieten.

== Erscheinungsbild ==
Das Vancouver-Murmeltier zählt zu den größten Vertretern innerhalb der Gattung der Murmeltiere. Das Gewicht der Tiere schwankt sehr stark in Abhängigkeit von der Jahreszeit. Im September, kurz vor Beginn des Winterschlafes, wiegen sie bis zu 6 Kilogramm. Nach Beendigung des Winterschlafes beträgt ihr Körpergewicht häufig nur noch drei Kilogramm.

Die Fellfarbe des Vancouver-Murmeltieres ist überwiegend ein dunkles schokoladenbraun. An der Körperunterseite sowie um die Schnauze finden sich vereinzelte weiße Stellen. Auch auf der Stirnseite des Kopfes gibt es vereinzelte weiße Fellpartien.

Neben diesen weißer Scheckung weist das Vancouver-Murmeltier auch vereinzelt hellbraune oder ockerfarbene Stellen auf.

== Verbreitungsgebiet ==
[[Datei:Vancouver-island-relief.jpg|thumb|Vancouver Island]]
Vancouver-Murmeltiere sind in ihrer Verbreitung auf die vor der kanadischen Westküste liegende [[Vancouver Island]] beschränkt. Diese Insel ist mit 32.000 Quadratkilometern die größte Insel vor der Westküste [[Nordamerika]]s. Die Insel weist eine sehr gebirgige Struktur auf. Die höchsten Erhebungen liegen 2.200 Meter über [[Normalnull|NN]]. Kolonien des Vancouver-Murmeltieres fanden sich entlang der gesamten, vom Nordwesten nach Südosten verlaufenden Gebirgskette. Das heute besiedelte Gebiet ist wesentlich kleiner. Es gibt eine isolierte Kolonie am [[Mount Washington (British Columbia)|Mount Washington]] sowie ein 150 Quadratkilometer großes, südöstlich von [[Mount McQuillan]] und [[Mount Arrowsmith]] liegendes Gebiet, in der noch mehrere Kolonien existieren <ref> Kruckenhauser et al, S. 160 </ref>.

Vancouver-Murmeltiere besiedeln bevorzugt südlich oder westlich ausgerichtete Gebirgshänge und präferieren dabei Höhenlagen zwischen 1000 und 1400 Meter <ref> Kruckenhauser et al., S. 161 </ref>. Bedingt durch regelmäßige Lawinenabgänge kommt hier kein Baum oder Strauchbewuchs auf. Erst dadurch entstehen für die Murmeltiere die notwendigen baumlosen Wiesen, auf denen sie ausreichend Äsung finden.

== Bestand und Ursachen des Bestandsrückgangs ==
In der Mitte der 1980er Jahre wurde die Anzahl der noch in freier Wildbahn vorkommenden Vancouver-Murmeltiere auf etwa 350 Individuen geschätzt. Bei einer erneuten Zählung im Jahre 1998 wurden insgesamt 71 Vancouver-Murmeltiere gezählt und der Gesamtbestand auf 85 bis 95 geschätzt. Von insgesamt 25 bekannten Kolonien kommen nur in 13 noch Jungtiere zur Welt <ref> Kruckenhauser et al. S. 160 </ref>. Die Art gilt daher als extrem bedroht. Als Ursache des Bestandseinflusses gilt vor allem Habitatverlust in Folge von Holzeinschlag sowie Auswirkungen von Klimaschwankungen.

Die Murmeltiere scheinen zunächst vom Holzeinschlag zu profitieren. Von bestehenden Kolonien aus begründen abwandernde Jungtiere neue Kolonien in diesen Regionen. Diese Kolonien scheitern jedoch innerhalb weniger Jahren, wenn die fehlenden Lawinenabgänge dafür sorgen, dass hier sehr rasch eine dichte Vegetation entsteht, in der bereits die ersten Bäume wieder hochkommen. Die Murmeltiere finden in diesen Gebieten nicht die geeigneten Nahrungspflanzen, mit deren Hilfe sie ausreichend Fettreserven anlegen können, um die Zeit des Winterschlafes zu überstehen. Vom Alpenmurmeltier weiß man, dass sie im Sommer, wenn ihnen ein reichhaltiges Nahrungsangebot zur Verfügung steht, bevorzugt die jungen Triebe solcher Pflanzen fressen, die besonders reich an [[Fettsäure#Ges.C3.A4ttigte und unges.C3.A4ttigte Fetts.C3.A4uren|mehrfach ungesättigter Fettsäure]] sind. Diese Inhaltsstoffe können vom Säugetierorganismus nicht selbständig generiert werden. Eine hohe Konzentration von essentiellen Fettsäuren im weißen Fettgewebe von Winterschläfern befähigt diese aber, während des Winterschlafes auch tiefere Körpertemperaturen zu tolerieren <ref>Bruns et al.,: ''Nahrungsökologie des Alpenmurmeltieres (Marmota marmota) und die Bedeutung essentieller Fettsäuren'', in Preleuthner und Aubrecht (Hrsg), 1999, S. 57 – 66 </ref>. Beim Fehlen geeigneter Nahrungspflanzen steigt für Murmeltier das Risiko, das sie das Winterhalbjahr wegen eines Mangels an wärmenden Fettreserven nicht überleben. Je geringer die Fettreserven sind, desto geringer ist auch die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass die Weibchen im nächsten Jahr Jungtiere austragen werden. Diese zwei Wirkmechanismen sorgen sehr schnell dafür, dass Kolonien in nicht geeigneten Lebensräumen wieder erlöschen.

Als weitere Ursache für einen Bestandsrückgang wird diskutiert, dass sich die Vegetation auf Vancouver Island durch einen Temperaturanstieg so verändert hat, dass die Tiere ebenfalls nicht mehr ausreichend Pflanzen der Arten finden, die sie für den Aufbau der Fettreserven benötigen <ref> Kruckenhauser et al., S. 163 </ref>.

== Systematik ==
Das Vancouver-Murmeltier ist eng verwandt mit dem [[Olympmurmeltier]] sowie dem [[Eisgraues Murmeltier|Eisgrauen Murmeltier]] (''. caligata''). Das Verbreitungsgebiet des Olympmurmeltieres ist die [[Olympic Peninsula]] südlich von Vancouver Island. Das Eisgraue Murmeltier dagegen ist in nordamerikanischen Hochgebirgsregionen beheimatet. Es ist eine relativ junge Art, die möglicherweise erst während der letzten Eiszeit entstand, als Eisbarrieren einen Individuenaustausch verhinderten.

== Mensch und Vancouver-Murmeltier ==
In den letzten Jahren sind unterschiedliche Maßnahmen ergriffen worden, damit das Vancouver-Murmeltier als Art weiterhin besteht. Zu den Maßnahmen zählt die Gefangenschaftshaltung in den [[Toronto|Zoos von Toronto]] und [[Calgary]]. Nachzuchten in Zoos sollen sicherstellen, dass eine ausreichende Anzahl von Tieren zur Verfügung stehen, um gegebenenfalls für Wiederansiedelungsprogramme eine ausreichende Anzahl von Tieren zur Verfügung zu haben.

Auf Vancouver Island wird versucht, innerhalb eines unter Schutz stehenden Gebietes die Anzahl der dort lebenden Tiere zu erhöhen und zu stabilisieren. Sowohl bei der Nachzucht in Gefangenschaft als auch bei den beobachteten Kolonien in Freiland soll sichergestellt werden, dass es nicht zu [[Inzuchtdepression]]en kommt. Genetische Untersuchungen haben bewiesen, dass die Zahl der Allele sowie der Heterozygotiegrad beim Vancouver-Murmeltier im Vergleich zum Alpenmurmeltier deutlich geringer ist <ref> Kruckenhauser et al. S. 165 und 166 </ref>. Neben dem Mangel an geeigneten Habitaten stellt die Verarmung des Genpools eine weitere Bedrohung für diese Art dar.

Eines der [[Maskottchen]] der [[Olympische Winterspiele 2010|Olympischen Winterspiele 2010]], ''Mukmuk'', stellt ein Vancouver-Murmeltier dar.<ref>{{Literatur | Autor= | Herausgeber= | Titel='Cute' Olympic mascot is endangered | TitelErg=Environmentalists accuse governments of failing to protect marmot's natural habitat | Sammelwerk=[[Vancouver Sun]] | Verlag=[[Canwest Publishing]] | Ort=[[Vancouver]] | Jahr=2010 | Monat=Februar | Tag=13 | Online=[http://www.vancouversun.com/technology/Cute+Olympic+mascot+endangered/2559861/story.html] }}</ref>

== Quellen ==
=== Einzelnachweise ===
<references />

=== Literatur ===
* L. Kruckenhauser, W. Pinsker und A. A. Bryant: ''Die Murmeltiere auf Vancouver Island (Marmota vancouverensis, Rodentia Sciuridae): Bedrohung einer seltenen Art durch Habitatverlust und genetische Verarmung. '' in Preleuthner und Aubrecht (Hrsg), 1999
* Monika Preleuthner, Gerhard Aubrecht (Hrsg): ''Murmeltiere'', Stapfia 63, Oberösterreichisches Landesmuseum, Linz 1999, ISBN 3-85474-044-1

[[Kategorie:Hörnchen]]
[[Kategorie:Vancouver Island]]

[[als:Vancouver-Murmeltier]]
[[az:Vankuver marmotu]]
[[en:Vancouver Island marmot]]
[[es:Marmota vancouverensis]]
[[eu:Marmota vancouverensis]]
[[fr:Marmotte de l'île de Vancouver]]
[[hu:Vancouveri mormota]]
[[nl:Vancouvermarmot]]
[[pl:Świstak z Vancouver]]
[[ru:Ванкуверский сурок]]
[[sr:Ванкуверски мрмот]]

Jane C. Goodale

2012-08-15T20:46:44Z

InverseHypercube: misc. fixes

{{distinguish|Jane Goodall}}
'''Jane Carter Goodale''' (1926–2008) was an American anthropologist, author, photographer, and professor who worked to bring attention to the roles of women in [[Oceania]] and [[Australia]] through her extensive research in the field of [[ethnography]]. Having wrote and co-wrote numerous books and articles, the most notable being ''Tiwi Wives'' (1971), ''To Sing with Pigs Is Human'' (1995), ''The Two-Party Line'' (1996), Goodale's achievements and contributions to her field continue to have major importance in the sociological role of women as well as in continuing the field of ethnography today. Goodale received her BA and MA from [[Radcliffe College]] and later her PhD from the [[University of Pennsylvania]] and held teaching positions at [[Barnard College]], the [[University of Pennsylvania]], and at the Darwin Institute of Technology. Goodale worked to bring attention and notability to the ethnographic research, dedicating her work and encouraging her students in the collection of facts and information on other cultures during a time when many felt the practice was outdated and ineffective.<ref>University of Illinois Press http://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/74kpd2km9780252032677.html</ref>

==Early life and education==
Jane Carter Goodale was born in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] in 1926. The daughter of Susan Bainbridge Sturgis and Robert Lincoln Goodale, a prominent New England physician, Goodale grew up in a highly intellectual environment that greatly contributed to her interests, abilities, and later, to her career.<ref>http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1548-1433.2010.01241.x/full</ref> Goodale’s interest in genealogy, which was later emphasized in her work with the [[Tiwi]], began at an early age within her own family lineage. Able to trace her family history back to the early 1630s in the [[New England]] area, Goodale was proud of her ancestors’ adventurous spirits and attributed her own ambitious nature to them.<ref>http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1548-1433.2010.01241.x/full</ref> Her uncle, Eddie Goodale,<ref>Laura Zimmer-Tamakoshi and Jeanette Dickerson-Putnam (2008) Pulling the Right Threads</ref> journeyed with [[Admiral Byrd]], the revolutionary American naval officer, explorer and aviator on his expeditions to the South Pole, which in part inspired Goodale’s desire for travel and adventure . Goodale also noted the importance of other “illustrious ancestors”<ref>http://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/74kpd2km9780252032677.html</ref> who influenced her ideas and ambitions early on in life such as [[Lucy Goodale Thurston]], a missionary relative who travelled to Hawai’i in the early 1880s.<ref>Laura Zimmer-Tamakoshi and Jeanette Dickerson-Putnam (2008) Pulling the Right Threads</ref> The field of anthropology allowed Goodale to travel in a time when many women were not given such opportunities.<ref>Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania http://www.asao.org/pacific/honoraryf/goodale.htm</ref>

The skills Goodale acquired from her parents growing up were further encouraged and cultivated at [[Oldfields School]], an all-girls school in Maryland where she graduated from in 1944. During her time at Oldfields, Goodale struggled as a student due to undiagnosed dyslexia. Her struggles at Oldfields greatly prepared Goodale for her future education, career, and especially mentorship she would face latter on in life. Goodale was able to get through her years at Oldfields with the help of her teacher Miss Anderson<ref>University of Illinois Press http://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/74kpd2km9780252032677.html</ref> who acted as Goodale’s mentor during
her time in school. The mentoring Miss Anderson was able to provide for Goodale at Oldfields prepared her not only for her undergraduate and Master’s degrees<ref>Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania http://www.asao.org/pacific/honoraryf/goodale.htm</ref> but also when Goodale herself became mentor to her own students.

Goodale received her B.A in 1948 and M.A in 1951 from Radcliffe College. When she
first started her undergraduate studies at Radcliffe University she intended to study medicine or
Geography.<ref>Laura Zimmer-Tamakoshi,Jane Carter Goodale (1926–2008). American Anthropologist, 19
MAY 2010 DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-1433.2010.01241.x. Volume 112, Issue 2, pages 344–347</ref> She was encouraged by classmate [[Carleton S. Coon]] who was also a Harvard Anthropologist and in her sophomore year she enrolled in Anthropology, a move that changed her life tremendously.<ref>Laura Zimmer-Tamakoshi,Jane Carter Goodale (1926–2008). American Anthropologist, 19
MAY 2010 DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-1433.2010.01241.x. Volume 112, Issue 2, pages 344–347</ref> While still at Radcliffe University she cofounded the Harvard-Radcliffe Anthropology club with Robert Dyson and served as its first president.

Goodale received her Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1959. While still a student in the University of Pennsylvania she served as the newsletter editor for the venerable Philadelphia Anthropological Society and she would later on help found and
then presided over the Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania (ASAO), the premier organization of Pacific anthropologists.Before receiving her Ph. D Goodale worked as Carleton Coon’s assistant.When Coon declined Charles Mountford's invitation to join his National Geographic Society expedition, and go to Melville Island to study the Australian Aboriginal population Goodale took his place. She began her ten month doctoral research in Australia in 1954 and she got her Ph.D in 1959.<ref>Laura Zimmer-Tamakoshi,Jane Carter Goodale (1926–2008). American Anthropologist, 19 MAY 2010 DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-1433.2010.01241.x. Volume 112, Issue 2, pages 344–347</ref>

==Publications==
Goodale published a variety of articles and texts during her career. The publishing of “Tiwi Wives,” allowed Goodale to develop her reputation and was one of her major works that demonstrated her research <ref>Zimmer-Tamakoshi, Laura; Dickerson-Putman, Jeanette. 2008. “Pulling the Right Threads: The Ethnographic Life and Legacy of Jane C. Goodale” University of Illinois Press</ref> Goodale discusses the lives of Tiwi Women concerning the rituals throughout their lifetime <ref>Goodale, Jane C. 1994. “Tiwi Wives: A Study of the Women of Melville Island, North Australia” Waveland Pr Inc.</ref> Important rites of passage are discussed throughout the text and detailed material describing marriage and death traditions are mentioned <ref>Goodale, Jane C. 1994. “Tiwi Wives: A Study of the Women of Melville Island, North Australia” Waveland Pr Inc.</ref> This text has become relevant throughout anthropology; this work is often referenced as support in a variety of academic articles regarding traditions involving Northern Australian women when researched on academic search engines. “Two Sing with Pigs is Human: The Concept of Person in Paupa New Guinea” is another publication surrounding the research that Goodale undertook. The finding that Goodale discovers, when researching in New Guinea, is the importance of everything in the development of the recognition of human beings within the particular culture of the Kaulong.<ref>Goodale, Jane C. 1995 “To Sing With Pigs is Human: The Concept of Person in Papua New Guinea” University of Washington Press.</ref> Every event, relationship, and transaction is considered to be important in the eyes of the Kaulong; Goodale researches to understand what makes an individual human.<ref>Goodale, Jane C. 1995 “To Sing With Pigs is Human: The Concept of Person in Papua New Guinea” University of Washington Press.</ref> The Kaulong concerns, surrounding the identity of an individual, caused the creation of a continuum that ranges from non-human to the most respected level of humanity <ref>Goodale, Jane C. 1995 “To Sing With Pigs is Human: The Concept of Person in Papua New Guinea” University of Washington Press.</ref> To achieve a greater placement on the scale, an individual must obtain higher knowledge <ref>Goodale, Jane C. 1995 “To Sing With Pigs is Human: The Concept of Person in Papua New Guinea” University of Washington Press.</ref> Goodale researches this system through rituals such as song and dance explored in an ethnographic manner <ref>Goodale, Jane C. 1995 “To Sing With Pigs is Human: The Concept of Person in Papua New Guinea” University of Washington Press.</ref> “The Two Party Line, Conversations in the Field” is another publication completed by Goodale along with the co-author Ann Chowning. This text repeats the theme of ethnographic research that has been so relevant in the career of Goodale. The importance of ethnographic data is presented throughout the publication. The book describes the details of learning about a specific culture through participant observation and interactive discourse.<ref>Goodale, Jane C; Chowning, Ann, 1996. “Two-Party line: Conversations in the Field” Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc.</ref> The text discusses the different occasions in which Goodale participated in research with other members of the anthropology society and gives details on her time spent in both Australia and New Guinea. Richard Scaglion, in association with the American Anthropologist describes the text as unique and capable of stimulating discussion on a vast array of topics among a contemporary audience.<ref>http://www.amazon.com/The-Two-Party-Line-Jane-Goodale/dp/0847682641</ref>

==Influence==
Goodale died on November 5, 2008 after suffering from complications due to pulmonary hypertension. Continuing her research until the day she died, Goodale had been living in hospice care while maintaining her work on Tiwi genealogies with the help of her assistant.<ref>Concord Funeral Home http://hosting-6450.tributes.com/show/Jane-Carter-Goodale-84952313</ref> After having taught and helped in establishing anthropology departments in various institutions across the US, Goodale’s contribution to the field of ethnography was of considerable significance.
Pulling the Right Threads was published later in 2008 and edited by Laura Zimmer-Tamakoshi. Written and contributed to by former students and colleagues of Goodale’s, the final publication was meant as a collection of Goodale’s ethnographic work and mentoring methods.<ref>Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania http://www.asao.org/pacific/honoraryf/goodale.htm</ref> The title came from Goodale’s own explanation on how to best solve ethnographic and cultural questions. Pulling the Right Threads acts to commemorate Goodale’s work as well as delve further into ethnographic work quoting:
:As striking as Jane’s considerable body of writings on her research in Australia and Papua New Guinea (PNG) have been her generous commitment of time and ideas to students and colleagues and her evident empathy for the people she studies. The writers in this volume recognize and build on these seminal aspects of Jane’s work. They investigate the ways Jane has helped shape ethnographic and theoretical contributions in such fields as gender studies, the anthropology of aging, Pacific ethnography, and applied and development anthropology.<ref>Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania http://www.asao.org/pacific/honoraryf/goodale.htm</ref>

Goodale’s personal interests and work in the area of gender studies brought attention to the changing roles of women, as well as having a long-lasting influence in the discipline of anthropology. This influence has been continued on by Goodale’s students focusing on the importance of accurate ethnographic data.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Goodale, Jane Carter
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American anthropologist
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1926
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 2008
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Goodale, Jane Carter}}
[[Category:American anthropologists]]
[[Category:Women anthropologists]]
[[Category:American anthropology writers]]
[[Category:Ethnographers]]
[[Category:1926 births]]
[[Category:2008 deaths]]
[[Category:People associated with the Tiwi Islands]]

Michael Sandel

2012-08-06T17:20:51Z

InverseHypercube:

[[File:Michael Sandel Me Judice.png|thumb|Michael J. Sandel]]
'''Michael J. Sandel''' (* [[5. März]] [[1953]] in [[Minneapolis]]) ist ein [[Vereinigte Staaten|US-amerikanischer]] [[Philosophie|Philosoph]]. Bekannt wurde er vor allem als Mitbegründer der [[Kommunitarismus|kommunitaristischen]] Strömung.

Er studierte und promovierte an der [[University of Oxford|Universität zu Oxford]] bei [[Charles Taylor (Philosoph)|Charles Taylor]]. Seit 1980 lehrt er [[Politische Philosophie]] an der [[Harvard University]], wo er ''Anne T. and Robert M. Bass Professor of Government'' ist. Berühmt wurde er vor allem durch den Kurs ''Justice with Michael Sandel.''<ref>[[Martin Spiewak]]: ''[http://www.zeit.de/2008/10/P-M-Sandel USA: Bildung von der Bühne].'' In: ''[[Die Zeit]].'' Nr. 10, 28. Februar 2008</ref><ref>Anna Gielas: ''[http://www.spiegel.de/unispiegel/studium/0,1518,665896,00.html Moral lernen in Harvard. Wann darf ich meinen Bruder verraten?]'' In: ''[[Spiegel Online]].'' 5. Januar 2010</ref>

== Werk ==

Mit seinem Werk ''Liberalism and the Limits of Justice,'' das 1982 erschien, gab er eine kritische Antwort auf [[John Rawls]] ''[[A Theory of Justice|Theorie der Gerechtigkeit]].''

Im Gegensatz zu der [[Libertarismus|libertären]] Kritik (beispielsweise von [[Robert Nozick]]) beanstandet er jedoch das Fehlen von [[Partikularismus|partikularen]] und sozialen Werten innerhalb Rawls’ Theorie. Das von Sandel so genannte „ungebundene Selbst“, wie es der Liberalismus verteidige, gebe es nur auf Kosten seiner Loyalitäten und Überzeugungen; jeder Mensch sei sozialisiert und von Gruppen, Traditionen, Gemeinschaften geprägt. Daher sei auch das Gedankenexperiment Rawls’, der [[A Theory of Justice#Konzeption des Urzustandes („original position“)|Urzustand]], durch welchen Rawls seine Theorie begründet, [[Utopie|utopisch]]: Ein [[Schleier des Nichtwissens]] sei irreal.

Die höchste Priorität innerhalb der Gesellschaft solle daher nicht die Freiheit des Menschen haben, sondern der Nutzen bzw. das „Gute“ des Menschen und der Gemeinschaft, in welcher er lebt.

Sandel ist, unter anderem neben Charles Taylor und [[Michael Walzer]], einer der Wegbereiter der kommunitaristischen Kritik am „philosophischen Liberalismus“. In seinen 1995 auf Deutsch veröffentlichten Vorlesungen behandelt er die politische Kultur in der [[Demokratie]]. Gegen einen werte-neutralen Liberalismus will Sandel nachweisen, dass es nicht möglich ist, die Verankerung von [[Freiheitsrechte]]n von bestimmten Wertorientierungen bzw. Vorstellungen des Guten zu trennen. Diese Diagnose hat Konsequenzen für die Beurteilung wertegeladener Traditionen heute. Für Sandel stellt der [[Republikanismus]], der in der US-Gründerzeit eine große Rolle gespielt hat, auch weiterhin ein Ziel dar. Ohne einen aktiven Bürgersinn werde es nicht gelingen, entgegen dem moralischen Zerfall der Gesellschaft und der jetzigen Politikverdrossenheit ein künftiges freies Gemeinwesens zu verwirklichen. Er kritisiert in diesem Zusammenhang eine vorrangig wirtschaftliche Sicht der Welt, bei der der Mensch sich selbst als [[Verbraucher]] sieht statt als Teil einer [[Zivilgesellschaft]] und z. B. danach strebt, im Stadion im VIP-Bereich (engl. ''Sky box'') zu sitzen. Er nennt die „skyboxification“ das Grundübel der gegenwärtigen US-Gesellschaft.<ref>Michael Fitzgerald: ''Everyone’s Got a Price.'' In: ''[[Newsweek]].'' 23. April 2012, S. 15 ([http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/04/15/what-money-can-t-buy-michael-sandel-on-market-moralism-run-amok.html online] in ''The Daily Beast'')</ref>

== Schriften ==

* ''Liberalism and the Limits of Justice.'' 1985; 2. Ausgabe: Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0-521-56741-1
* ''Liberalismus oder Republikanismus. Von der Notwendigkeit der Bürgertugend.'' Passagen-Verlag, Wien 1995, ISBN 3-85165-159-6
* ''Democracy’s Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy.'' Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0-674-19745-9
* ''Freundschaft & Gerechtigkeit.'' In: [[Klaus-Dieter Eichler]] (Hrsg.): ''Philosophie der Freundschaft.'' Reclam, Leipzig 1999 ISBN 3-379-01669-1, S. 206–215
* ''Ethik des Liberalismus.'' In: ''Concordia.'' Nr. 47, Materialis, Biberach 2006, ISBN 3-88535-405-5
* ''Public Philosophy: Essays on Morality in Politics.'' Harvard University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-674-02365-9
* ''The Case against Perfection: Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering.'' Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-674-03638-3
** ''Plädoyer gegen die Perfektion. Ethik im Zeitalter der genetischen Technik.'' Mit einem Vorwort von [[Jürgen Habermas]]. Berlin University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-3-940432-14-8
* ''Justice: A Reader.'' Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-533512-5
* ''Justice. What’s the Right Thing to Do?'' Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York 2009, ISBN=978-0-374-53250-5
* ''What Money Can’t Buy: The Moral Limits of Markets, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2012, ISBN 978-0-374-20303-0
** ''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/may/27/michael-sandel-reason-values-bodies Michael Sandel: „We need to reason about how to value our bodies, human dignity, teaching and learning“],'' Interview von Decca Aitkenhead im ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]],'' 27. Mai 2012

== Weblinks ==
* {{DNB-Portal|121615812}}
* [http://www.gov.harvard.edu/people/faculty/michael-sandel Michael Sandel] auf der Website der Harvard University
* ''[http://www.justiceharvard.org/ Justice with Michael Sandel],'' Koproduction von ''WGBH Boston'' und der Harvard University
* [http://www.artoftheory.com/12-questions-with-michael-sandel/ Interview] mit Jonathan Bruno & Jason Swadley in ''The Art of Theory''

== Fußnoten ==

<references/>

{{Normdaten|PND=121615812|LCCN=n/82/45976|VIAF=56671734}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Sandel, Michael}}
[[Kategorie:Philosoph (20. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Philosoph (21. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Politischer Philosoph]]
[[Kategorie:US-Amerikaner]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1953]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Sandel, Michael
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Sandel, Michael J.
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=politischer Philosoph
|GEBURTSDATUM=5. März 1953
|GEBURTSORT=[[Minneapolis]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[ar:مايكل ساندل]]
[[bat-smg:Michael Sandel]]
[[en:Michael Sandel]]
[[es:Michael Sandel]]
[[fr:Michael Sandel]]
[[he:מייקל סנדל]]
[[is:Michael Sandel]]
[[it:Michael Sandel]]
[[ja:マイケル・サンデル]]
[[ko:마이클 샌델]]
[[nl:Michael Sandel]]
[[vi:Michael Sandel]]
[[zh:迈克尔·桑德尔]]

Ana Kasparian

2012-08-04T03:09:14Z

InverseHypercube: rm period from caption

{{Infobox person
| name = Ana Kasparian
| image = Ana Kasparian by Gage Skidmore.jpg
| caption = Kasparian in June 2012
| birth_name = Anahit Misak Kasparian
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1986|07|07}}
| birth_place = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States]]
| residence = Los Angeles
| occupation = Political pundit Internet/radio talk show host/producer Entertainment correspondent 
| alma_mater = {{nowrap|[[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]])}} {{nowrap|[[Columbia University]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])}}
| alma_mater = [[California State University, Northridge]] [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism|(B.A.J.]])/([[Master of Arts in Political Science|M.A.]])
| citizenship = United States
| education = [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism]] (B.A.J.) [[Master of Arts in Political Science]] (M.A.)
| employer =''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''
| movement = [[Progressivism|Progressive]]
| ethnicity = [[Armenian American]]<ref name=armenian/>
| religion = None ([[Agnosticism|agnostic]])
| television = ''[[The Young Turks with Cenk Uygur]]''
| credits = ''The Young Turks''
| URL = {{url|http://www.tytnetwork.com}}
}}

'''Anahit Misak Kasparian'''<ref name=armenian>{{cite web |url=http://www.theyoungturks.com/story/2007/10/26/124637/27/news/The-Young-Turks-From-an-Armenian-s-Perspective |title=The Young Turks...From an Armenian's Perspective. |author=Kasparian, Ana |date=26 October 2007 |publisher=The Young Turks |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> ([[Western Armenian language|Western]] {{lang-hy|Անահիտ Միսաք Գասպարյան}}; [[Western Armenian language|Western]] {{IPA-hy|ɑnɑˈhid miˈsɑkʰ kʰɑsbɑˈɾjɑn}});<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asbarez.com/arm/72679/ |title=ԼՈՒՍԱՐՁԱԿ- Երիտհայուհին |author=ՄԱՆՈՅԵԱՆ, ԳԷՈՐԳ |date=30 April 2005 |accessdate=25 March 2012 |language=Armenian |trans_title=Lusardzak - Yerithayuhin}}</ref> born July 7, 1986) is the [[United States|American]] co-host and producer for the online [[news show]] ''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''. Kasparian began working as a fill-in producer for ''The Young Turks'' in 2007.<ref name=userprofile/> She also appears on the TV version of the show that airs on [[Current TV]].

==Biography==
Ana was born on July 7, 1986 in [[Los Angeles, California]]. She is the daughter of [[Armenian]] immigrant parents and was raised in [[Reseda, California]]. Kasparian graduated from [[California State University, Northridge]] in 2007 with a [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism]] (BAJ). Kasparian has worked with [[AOL News]], [[YouTube]], [[TidalTv]] and ''[[On Point]]''. She also worked in news production at CBS radio affiliate [[KNX (AM)]] in Los Angeles.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} In addition to being the host of ''[[The Young Turks]]'', Ana Kasparian appears frequently on the [[English language|English]] version of the [[Russia|Russian]]-based channel [[RT (TV network)|RT]] and [[RT America]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} In 2007, Kasparian became the producer and co-host of the [[progressivism|progressive]] [[talk radio]] on [[Sirius XM Radio|Sirius XM Satellite Radio]] and now [[internet show]]/[[TV show]] ''The Young Turks''/''The Young Turks with Cenk Uygur''.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} She completed her [[Master of Political Science]] in [[political science]] in 2010.<ref name=userprofile>{{cite web |url=http://www.theyoungturks.com/user/AnaKasparian |title=AnaKasparian |author=Kasparian, Ana |publisher=The Young Turks |date=2007 |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links |wikt=no |commons=Ana Kasparian |b=no |n=no |q=no |s=no |v=no |species=no |display=Ana Kasparian}}
*[http://www.tytnetwork.com ''TYT Network'']
*{{Facebook|id=Ana-Kasparian/192784994077318|name=Ana Kasparian}}
*{{twitter|AnaKasparian|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{youtube|channel=AnaKasparian|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{google+|100466593818997778958|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{imdb name|3742811|Ana Kasparian}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Kasparian, Ana
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Kasparian, Anahit
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American political commentator; journalist
| DATE OF BIRTH = July 7, 1986
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States|U.S.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kasparian, Ana}}
[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:Air America (radio network)]]
[[Category:American agnostics]]
[[Category:American Internet personalities]]
[[Category:American people of Armenian descent]]
[[Category:American political pundits]]
[[Category:American radio producers]]
[[Category:American talk radio hosts]]
[[Category:California State University, Northridge alumni]]
[[Category:Current TV]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles, California]]
[[Category:The Young Turks (talk show)]]

[[tr:Ana Kasparian]]

Massaker an der Merkas HaRaw Kook

2012-07-30T07:37:06Z

InverseHypercube: unitalicizing proper noun

{{Infobox terrorist attack
|title=Mercaz HaRav Massacre
|image=
|caption=
|map=<div style="width:250px; float:none; clear:none;"><div style="position:relative; padding:0; width:250px;">[[File:Israel outline jerusalem.png|250px]]
 <div style="position: absolute; z-index: 2; top: 37%; left: 85.2%; height: 0; width: 0; margin: 0; padding: 0;"><div style="position: relative; text-align: center; left: -4px; top: -4px; width: 8px; font-size: 8px; z-index:100;">[[File:Red pog.svg|7px]]</div><div style="font-size:90%; line-height: 110%; z-index:90; position: relative; top: -1.5em; width: 6em; right: 6.5em; text-align: center;">The attack site</div></div></div></div>
|location=The [[Mercaz HaRav]] Yeshiva at [[Kiryat Moshe]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Israel]]
|target=
|date=March 6, 2008
|time-begin=8:36 pm<ref name="Israel10">
{{cite web
|url=http://news.nana10.co.il/Article/?ArticleID=542247&sid=126
|title=Twenty minutes of fire until terrorist killed| Israel 10
|publisher=[http://news.nana10.co.il Nana 10]
|accessdate=2008-03-09
|last=
|first=
}}{{he icon}}</ref>
|coordinates = {{coord|31|47|16.15|N|35|11|48.54|E|display=inline}}
|time-end=8:56pm
|timezone=[[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]]+2
|type=[[Mass murder]] [[Massacre]] [[School shooting]]
|fatalities=8 Israeli civilians<ref name="Jpost2">
{{cite web
|url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1204546422275&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull
|title=Mercaz Harav hit by worst terror attack since April 2006 | Jerusalem Post
|publisher=www.jpost.com
|accessdate=2008-03-07
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref> (+ 1 attacker)
|injuries=11 Israeli civilians<ref name="Jpost2"/>
|perp=Lone Palestinian assailant (Alaa Abu Dhein)<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1204546426120&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull
| title=Terrorist was a driver for the Yeshiva| Jerusalem Post
|publisher=www.jpost.com
|accessdate=2008-03-07
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>
|weapons=[[AK-47]]
|dfens = Yitzhak Dadon and David Shapira
}}
The '''Mercaz HaRav massacre''', also called the '''Mercaz HaRav shooting''', was an attack that occurred on 6 March 2008, in which a lone [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] gunman shot multiple students at the [[Mercaz HaRav]] [[yeshiva]], a religious school in [[Jerusalem]], [[Israel]], after which the gunman himself was shot dead. Eight students and the perpetrator were killed. Eleven more were wounded, five of them placed in serious to critical condition.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7282269.stm Eight killed at Jerusalem school]", BBC News Online, March 6, 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.nationalterroralert.com/updates/2008/03/06/terror-attack-at-jerusalem-seminary-merkaz-harav-yeshiva-8-dead/ Terror Attack At Jerusalem Seminary - Merkaz HaRav Yeshiva - 8 Dead] National Terror Alert Response Center, 6 March 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.upi.com/NewsTrack/Top_News/2008/03/06/jerusalem_seminary_attacked/8267/ Jerusalem seminary attacked] UPI, 6 March 2008</ref>

The attack began at 8:36 p.m. local time and ended about twenty minutes later. According to survivor Mijael Mendelson, the attack lasted about 14 minutes. Mendelson reports he saw the time before the shooting started and shortly after knowing the gunman was dead.<ref name="Israel10"/> The attacker was stopped by two [[Israel Defense Forces]] officers who were former Mercaz HaRav students themselves: Yitzchak Dadon and Captain David Shapira, who both dealt the fatal blow to the attacker with their personal firearms.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1066542.html One year on, horror of yeshiva terror attack still fresh] Haaretz, 24 FEbruary 2009</ref>{{Clarify| reason=This line is worded awkwardly. "Dealt the fatal blow" generally means someone was struck not shot. Is that correct?| date=July 2011}}

The [[massacre]] was praised by [[Hamas]] and, according to a subsequent poll, was supported by 84 percent of the Palestinian population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1205420730237&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull|title=Poll: 84% of Palestinians back yeshiva attack|date=19 March 2008|publisher=Jerusalem Post|accessdate=18 March 2011|archiveurl=http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20080321034710/http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1205420730237&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull|archivedate=21 March 2008}}</ref> It was condemned in official statements by various countries around the world.

==The shooting==
The attacker, Alaa Abu Dhein, age 26, from the [[Arab]] neighborhood of [[Jabel Mukaber]] in [[East Jerusalem]], who reportedly had worked as a driver at the yeshiva<ref name=Kershner>{{cite news
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/08/world/middleeast/08mideast.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin
|title=8 Burials for Jerusalem Seminary’s Dead
|publisher=The New York Times
|first=Isabel
|last=Kershner
|coauthors=Steven Erlanger
|date=2008-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/world/gunman+was+seminary+driver++police/1728547 |title=Peace talks must go on, says Abbas |publisher=Channel 4 |date= |accessdate=2011-03-06}}</ref> entered the building carrying a box concealing an [[AKM]] along with several [[Magazine (firearms)|magazine]]s, later firing as many as 500-600 rounds.<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |author= |coauthors= |title= Gunmen 'Terrorist fired 500-600 bullets before he was killed'|url= http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1204546422275&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |work= |publisher= [[Jerusalem Post]] |location= Jerusalem |id= |pages= |page= |date= |accessdate=2008-03-06 |language= |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref> About twenty minutes after he started shooting, the attacker was shot by a part-time student, Yitzhak Dadon, and by Capt. David Shapira, an officer in the [[Israel Defense Force]], and shortly thereafter confirmed dead at the scene.<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |author= |coauthors= |title= Gunmen open fire in Jerusalem Jewish seminary |url= http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/03/06/mideast/index.html|work= |publisher= CNN |location= |id= |pages= |page= |date= 2008-03-07|accessdate=2008-03-06 |language= |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref> A police patrolman who arrived at the scene before Yitzhak Dadon and David Shapira, remained outside in an effort to "freeze the situation" by preventing civilians from entering instead of making contact and stopping the shooting.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/966056.html Jerusalem police chief: Cop on duty should have stopped yeshiva attacker ]</ref>

===Timeline===
[[Image:Yeshivat Mercaz haRav.jpg|thumb|right|250px|One of the yeshiva buildings]]
* 8:36pm - First call received by a [[Magen David Adom]] operator from a yeshiva student inside the building requesting emergency services
* 8:37pm - First ambulances dispatched
* 8:40pm - The first police car arrives at the scene, does not enter.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/966056.html J'lem police chief: Cop on duty should've stopped yeshiva attacker] Haaretz, 19 March 2008</ref>
* 8:41pm - First paramedic on site reports of one wounded
* 8:42pm - Shapira enters the yeshiva.
* 8:45pm - Two Detectives arrive on the scene
* 8:45pm - Dadon and Shapira exchange fire with the attacker.
* 8:51pm - 'A.R.A.N.' declared (multiple wounded event)
* 8:57pm - MADA operator reports 'end of shooting' and orders paramedics into yeshiva.<ref name="Israel10"/>

===Victims===
[[File:Mercaz HaRav massacre.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Aftermath of the terrorist attack.]]
'''Fatalities '''<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3516126,00.html
|title=Yeshiva head: This is continuation of 1929 massacre
|publisher=www.ynetnews.com
|accessdate=2008-03-07
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Name!!Age!!From!!Studied at
|-
|Neria Cohen
|15
|[[Jerusalem]]
|[[Yashlatz]]
|-
|Segev Pniel Avihail
|15
|[[Neve Daniel]]
|[[Yashlatz]]
|-
|Avraham David Moses
|16
|[[Efrat]]
|[[Yashlatz]]
|-
|Yehonatan Yitzhak Eldar
|16
|[[Shilo (village)|Shilo]]
|[[Yashlatz]]
|-
|Ro'i Roth
|18
|[[Elkana]]
|[[Mercaz Harav]]
|-
|Yohai Lipshitz
|18
|[[Jerusalem]]
|[[Yashlatz]]
|-
|Yonadav Chaim Hirshfeld
|18
|[[Kokhav HaShahar]]
|[[Mercaz Harav]]
|-
|Doron Mahareta
|26
|[[Ashdod]]
|[[Mercaz Harav]]
|}

'''Wounded''' 
In addition to those who were shot to death, ten other students were wounded, three seriously.

==Perpetrator==
[[Image:Alaa Abu Dhein.jpg|thumb|130px|The perpetrator, Alaa Abu Dhein]]

The gunman responsible, Alaa Abu Dhein, a resident of Jerusalem, was according to his family a driver who had delivered goods to the seminary.<ref>[http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/world/peace%20talks%20must%20go%20on%20says%20abbas/1728547 Gunman was seminary driver - police]. Channel 4, UK.</ref> This was denied by the head of the yeshiva.
Abu Dhein's family said he was an intensely religious [[Muslim]] but was not a member of any militant group.

Abu Dhein, like other Arab residents of east Jerusalem who choose not to have Israeli citizenship, carried an Israeli identity card that granted him freedom of movement and travel throughout Israel.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/03/08/israel.school.massacre/ | work=CNN | title=Eight arrested in probe of Jewish seminary attack - CNN.com | date=2008-03-08 | accessdate=2010-05-12}}</ref><ref>[http://canadianpress.google.com/article/ALeqM5gR05SnUNy43Ik8d7oPKwWD_15A1Q The Canadian Press: Shooting in Jewish seminary threatens Jerusalem's delicate coexistence]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}</ref>{{Dead link|date=July 2008}} On January 5, 2009, Israeli High Court of Justice authorized the demolition of his family's house, despite appeals by his father not to do so.<ref>{{cite news|title=Demolition of Mercaz Harav terrorist's home authorized |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3650679,00.html}}</ref>

===Motive===
{{see also|Operation Hot Winter}}
Although Abu Dhaim left behind no statement describing his motive, his sister, Iman Abu Dhaim, told ''[[The Associated Press]]'' that he had been transfixed by the violence in [[Gaza]], where 126 Palestinians were killed by Israeli forces from Wednesday through Monday,<ref name=Kershner/> in response to rocket fire from Palestinian terrorist groups based in Gaza.<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=88008096 Attacks Mar Israeli-Palestinian Talks : NPR]</ref><ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/23515835/ Israel signals it’ll talk despite attack - Israel-Palestinians - MSNBC.com]</ref>

According to [[Ian Black (journalist)|Ian Black]], the attack seemed intended to send the message that Israeli attacks on its enemies, either in Gaza, [[Lebanon]] or [[Syria]] would not go unanswered. The seminary is identified with the spiritual leadership of the [[Israeli settlements|Jewish settlement movement]] in the West Bank, and especially with [[Gush Emunim]]. Jerusalem may have been chosen since there were no attacks in the city during 2007.<ref>Black, Ian.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/mar/07/israelandthepalestinians1 A double act of revenge: carefully planned atrocity strikes at Israel's spiritual heart]</ref>

===Claims of responsibility===
[[Hezbollah]] television network [[Al-Manar]] reported that a group calling itself Galilee Liberators Brigades — the Martyrs of Imad Mughniyeh has claimed responsibility for the attack, raising the possibility that the shooting was in retaliation for the assassination of [[Imad Mughniyeh]]. Israel had previously denied responsibility for that assassination.<ref>{{cite news | first = Jonathan| last = Lis | authorlink= |author= |coauthors= Yair Ettinger and Amos Harel |title= Eight killed in terrorist attack at Jerusalem yeshiva |url= http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/961696.html| work = |publisher= [[Ha'aretz]] |location= Jerusalem |id= |pages= |page= |date= |accessdate=2008-03-06 |language= |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref>

[[Hamas]] praised the attack on Thursday but did not claim responsibility for it. On Friday an anonymous phone call to the ''[[Reuters]]'' news agency took responsibility on Hamas's behalf. However, [[Fawzi Barhoum]], a senior Hamas spokesman in Gaza, said that no claim was official unless made in a written statement signed by the military wing of Hamas.<ref name=Kershner/>

==Reaction==
===Israeli===
[[Ehud Olmert]], [[Prime Minister of Israel|Israel's Prime Minister]], called the attack "horrible".<ref>Copans, Laurie. [http://www.forbes.com/feeds/ap/2008/03/08/ap4749391.html Israel Say Peace Talks to Continue]</ref>{{Dead link|date=July 2008}} Olmert also said that the Mercaz Harav yeshiva had produced, "the finest soldiers for many generations; people who have realized the [[Zionist]] faith. This yeshiva — which was founded by Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] — has educated and nurtured tradition and legacy, as part of Israel's resilience."<ref name = Vered>Vered, Luvitch. [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3516876,00.html Education minister verbally attacked at Mercaz Harav yeshiva]</ref> A spokesman for Olmert said Israel would act after proper investigation and deliberation, and he condemned those, like Hamas, who celebrated the killings with parades in Gaza. "That Hamas calls this a heroic act, and praises it, this exposes them for what they are," the Olmert spokesman said.<ref name=Kershner/>

[[Avigdor Lieberman]] of [[Yisrael Beiteinu]] blamed [[Arab citizens of Israel|Arab]] [[Knesset]] members maintaining that the "attack can not be disconnected from the Arab MKs incitement, which we hear daily in the Knesset." [[Women in Green]] called for the establishment of eight new settlements in the [[West Bank]] in memory of the eight students killed.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/961964.html Lieberman: Jerusalem attack is product of Arab MK incitement]. ''[[Haaretz]]''.</ref>

[[Dalia Itzik]] of the ruling [[Kadima]] party, Speaker of the [[Knesset]] and acting president while [[Shimon Peres]] is overseas, called for the demolition of the mourning tent for the killer and the demolition of his family's home.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/962839.html Knesset speaker calls for demolition of Jerusalem yeshiva terrorist's home] ''[[Haaretz]]''.</ref>

Thousands in Israel mourned the deaths of those killed, observing [[Bereavement in Judaism|Jewish traditions of mourning]], with the murdered victims buried on Friday.<ref>McCarthy, Ron.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/mar/07/israelandthepalestinians3?gusrc=rss&feed=networkfront]. [[The Guardian]].</ref><ref>[http://ukpress.google.com/article/ALeqM5iSeBy09cwJcXJFYZezVX8i87uRTQ Eight die in Jerusalem gun attack]{{Dead link|date=July 2008}}. The Press Association.</ref>

A [[Channel 1 (Israel)|Channel 1]] report that three alumni of the yeshiva were planning a revenge attack against a senior Arab official affiliated with a mosque on Jerusalem's [[Temple Mount]], allegedly with permission from several rabbis, was dismissed by Public Security Minister [[Avi Dichter]] and the [[Shin Bet]] as baseless following their investigation. [[National Religious Party]]'s MK [[Zevulun Orlev]] said he suspected the allegations were an attempt to "blemish [[religious Zionism]]."<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/963518.html 'Rightist rabbis urge Jews to avenge enemies 'measure for measure'.' [[Haaretz]] 12/03/2008]</ref><ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/963261.html Report: Yeshiva graduates plan revenge attack against Arab figure]</ref><ref>[http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1205420738286&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull Yeshiva students warned against Shin Bet agent, Jerusalem Post]</ref>

[[Yuli Tamir]], [[Education Minister of Israel|Israel's Education Minister]], who made a condolence visit to the yeshiva two days after the shooting, was forced to leave after she was kicked in the back twice, spat at, and verbally attacked by dozens of youths outside building, who called her a "murderer" and said that "the [[Israeli peace camp|Left]] is to blame for everything."<ref name= Sela>{{cite web|title=Itzik: Destroy mourning' tent, home of Jerusalem terrorist|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3517507,00.html|date=10 March 2008|accessdate=2008-03-10}}</ref> She said: "This reminded me of the days before (former Prime Minister Yitzhak) [[Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin|Rabin's murder]]. It's unfortunate that there is a public which cannot put limits form{{sic}} itself. I only came to pay my respect to the murdered, not to engage in politics."<ref name=Vered/> The next morning Yuli Tamir threatened to cut of funding for the yeshiva, claiming it did not have "democratic values."<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.imra.org.il/story.php3?id=38529 | publisher = IMRA | date = Monday, March 10, 2008 | title = Yuli Tamir threatens to ultimately cut funding of Mercaz Harav}}</ref> The yeshiva told Ehud Olmert that he was not welcome, saying it wanted to "save him and us the embarrassment."<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/962317.html Stricken J'lem yeshiva: PM not welcome to visit] Haaretz, 10 March 2008</ref>

The [[Israel Football Association]] called for a [[Moment of silence|minute's silence]] prior to the weekend's football matches, though it was marred in [[Sakhnin]] where some supporters of the Arab team of [[Bnei Sakhnin F.C.|Bnei Sakhnin]] [[Booing|booed]]. Sakhnin spokesman Mundar Haleileh said his club honored the moment of silence, "but we don't have full control over all fans. The association made the decision, and perhaps mixing politics with soccer is a matter to be discussed."<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/962037.html Moment of silence marred in Sakhnin] Haaretz, 10 March 2008</ref>

On March 17, hundreds of right-wing activists attacked Arab homes in the [[east Jerusalem]] neighborhood Jebl Mukaber in an attempt to raze the house of the family of the gunman. For three hours, the activists chanted "revenge, revenge", vandalized property of the Arab village (which the police tried to prevent), and clashed with the police, whom they accused of "guarding the murderers." Many of the protesters were part of the settler movement and carried signs with slogans such as "Expel the Arab Enemy" and "The Land of Israel for the Jewish People" while others shouted "kill the Arabs". Despite a heavy police blockade at the entrance to Jebl Mukaber and a massive deployment of security forces in the area, the marchers managed to enter the village, stone residents' homes and damage a couple of cars belonging to villagers. The police declared the demonstration illegal, and finally forced the protesters to leave.<ref>{{cite news |first=Shelly |last = Paz | title=22 nabbed in right-wing Jebl Mukaber protest|url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1205420699147 |work=Jeruslam Post date=2008-03-16 |accessdate=2008-04-03 }}</ref>

At an event one month after the attack, former Sephardi Chief Rabbi [[Mordechai Eliyahu]] told some 1,000 attendants that in retribution for the massacre the government should establish a yeshiva or Jewish township for every one of the lives lost that evening. He went on to explain,

{{quote|Even when we seek revenge, it is important to make one thing clear, the life of one yeshiva boy is worth more than the lives of 1,000 Arabs.}}

However, other National Religious voices were more moderate. In the same one-month commemoration event, the Chief Rabbi of Ramat Gan, Rabbi Yaacov Ariel, reminded his audience that,

{{quote|We do not seek revenge, only retaliation… we are against killing innocent people or harming children.<ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3527410,00.html YNet: Rabbi Eliyahu: Life of one yeshiva boy worth more than 1,000 Arabs]</ref>}}

The Israeli [[human rights]] group [[B'Tselem]] released a statement condemning the attack which read: ''"B'Tselem severely condemns the Palestinian terror attack that took place in a yeshiva (religious school) in Jerusalem, in which 8 Israeli civilians, including 4 minors were killed and many other persons were injured. Attacks aimed at civilians are immoral, inhuman, and illegal."''<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.btselem.org/english/Israeli_Civilians/20080307.asp | publisher = B'Tselem | date = 7 March. 8 | title = 8 Israeli civilian including 4 minors killed by Palestinians in Jerusalem}}</ref>

[[File:MerkazHarav victims.jpg|thumb|Released images of the 14-25 year old victims.]]
===Palestinian===
[[Mahmoud Abbas]], [[President of the Palestinian National Authority]], stated "We condemn all attacks against civilians, be they Palestinian or Israeli."<ref name="AFP">{{cite web|url=http://www.afp.com/english/news/stories/newsmlmmd.141bc65a0c3d7202766ea46f73a8a6aa.941.html|title=Eight teens killed in Jerusalem attack|publisher=www.AFP.com|accessdate=2008-03-06}}</ref> However, the [[Palestinian National Authority]] daily newspaper, [[Al-Hayat al-Jadida]], honored the shooter with the status of "martyr." The paper also prominently placed a picture of the gunman on the front page, with the caption, "The Martyr Alaa Abu Dheim." In a front-page article on the killings, his act is again defined as a "martyrdom-achieving" action.<ref>[http://www.pmw.org.il/Bulletins_mar2008.html PMW Bulletins Feb. 2008]</ref>

[[Hamas]] spokesman [[Sami Abu Zuhri]] stated that "This heroic attack in Jerusalem is a normal response to the crimes of the occupier and its murder of civilians".<ref>
{{cite news
|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/World/Gunman_kills_8_in_Jerusalem_school/articleshow/2843918.cms
|title=8 shot at Jerusalem school
|publisher=timesofindia.com
|accessdate=2008-03-07
|date=2008-03-07
}}
</ref>

In a poll taken two weeks later, 84 percent of Palestinians supported the attack on the Mercaz Harav yeshiva. The pollster, Mr. Shikaki was "shocked" and said the result was the single highest support for an act of violence in his 15 years of polling.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/19/world/middleeast/19mideast.html?_r=2&oref=slogin&oref=slogin | work=The New York Times | title=Poll Shows Most Palestinians Favor Violence Over Talks | first=Ethan | last=Bronner | date=2008-03-19 | accessdate=2010-05-12}}</ref>

=== Supranational ===
* {{Flagu|United Nations}}: The [[United Nations Security Council]] failed to agree on a condemnation of the attack because of opposition from [[Libya]] who wished to link the condemnation to a resolution calling for censure of Israel over its assault on the Gaza Strip in the previous week.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.nasdaq.com/aspxcontent/NewsStory.aspx?cpath=20080306%5cACQDJON200803062101DOWJONESDJONLINE001186.htm&&mypage=newsheadlines&title=Libya%20Blocks%20UN%20Council%20Condemnation%20Of%20Jerusalem%20Attack%20-AFP| title = Libya Blocks UN Council Condemnation Of Jerusalem Attack| date=2008-03-06| publisher = AFP via Nasdaq.com}}</ref>

===International===
*{{flagicon|OIC}} The [[Organisation of the Islamic Conference]] condemned the killings, saying it abhorred violence anywhere in the world.<ref>Mar’i, Mohammed. "[http://www.arabnews.com/?page=4&section=0&article=107613&d=8&m=3&y=2008 Annan, Carter to Launch Mideast Peace Mission]", 8 March 2008. [[ArabNews]].</ref>
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Sweden)|Minister for Foreign Affairs]] [[Carl Bildt]], described the incident as "an unacceptable terrorist attack."<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.swedenabroad.com/News____11023.aspx?slaveid=72298
|title=Embassy of Sweden - News
|publisher=www.swedenabroad.com
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>

*{{flagicon|USA}} [[United States]] [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]] condemned the attack, and expressed his solidarity with the families of the victims and the people of Israel.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2008/03/20080306-5.html
|title=President Bush Condemns Terrorist Attack in Israel
|publisher=www.whitehouse.gov
|accessdate=2008-03-07
}}
</ref> [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Condoleezza Rice]] expressed her condolences on the attack. She also wrote that "The United States condemns tonight's act of terror and depravity."<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2008/03/101845.htm
|title=Condolences on Attack against Rabbinical Students
|publisher=www.state.gov
|accessdate=2008-03-07
|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080306222840/http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2008/03/101845.htm  |archivedate = 2008-03-06}}
</ref> [[United States]] Democratic presidential candidate Senator [[Barack Obama]] (IL) phoned Israeli foreign minister [[Tzipi Livni]] while she was visiting the US. Obama expressed his condolences to the Israeli people and to the bereaved families in the wake of the terror attack in the Mercaz Harav Yeshiva. He also stressed Israel's right to defend itself and made it clear that both the US and Israel were interested in ensuring that Iran will not be acquiring nuclear weapons.<ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3517989,00.html Obama calls Livni, back's Israel's right for self-defense - Israel News, Ynetnews]</ref><ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/963286.html Livni, in U.S., speaks to Obama by phone, pressing Iran issue - Haaretz - Israel News]</ref> [[United States]] Senator [[Hillary Clinton]] (D, NY), at the time a leading presidential candidate, said "My thoughts and prayers are with the victims and families who are suffering the loss and horror of this despicable act of terrorism. The United States and the international community must make clear that such deplorable acts of terrorism will not be tolerated and we must continue to stand with Israel in its fight against terror.”<ref>[http://clinton.senate.gov/news/statements/details.cfm?id=294384&& Hillary Rodham Clinton, Senator for New York: Statement of Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton on Terrorist Attack in Jerusalem]</ref>

*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Argentina]]'s [[Foreign Ministry]] said: "Argentina's Government expresses our deep concern at the escalation of tensions and violence in the region and condemns the attack [...]" "Argentina urges for the cessation of violence... this way will allow the negotiation process for a fair, global and durable peace"<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=993585
|title=El Gobierno condenó el atentado en Jerusalén
|publisher=www.lanacion.com.ar
|accessdate=2008-03-07
}} {{es icon}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|Canada}} [[Canada]]'s [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Canada)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]] [[Maxime Bernier]] stated that "Canada condemns this terrorist act in the strongest possible terms. <nowiki>The attack</nowiki> does nothing to advance the Palestinian cause."<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://w01.international.gc.ca/MinPub/Publication.aspx?isRedirect=True&Language=E&publication_id=385917&docnumber=52
|title=Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada
|publisher=w01.international.gc.ca
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|China}} [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] [[Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China|Foreign Ministry Spokesperson]] [[Qin Gang]] condemned the attack and expressed hope for the lessening of tensions in the Middle East.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.chinaembassy.org.il/eng/fyrth/t412855.htm
|title=Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Qin Gang's Remarks on the Attack at a Jewish School in Jerusalem
|publisher=www.chinaembassy.org.il
|accessdate=2008-03-07
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|Slovenia}} [[Slovenia]], which held the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]], issued a statement condemning the attack, and stating that "terrorist acts are unacceptable."<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.delisr.ec.europa.eu/English/whatsnew.asp?id=972
|title=EU Presidency condemns Jerusalem terror attack
|publisher=www.delisr.ec.europa.eu
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|France}} [[France]]'s [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (France)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]] [[Bernard Kouchner]] condemned the attack, and called for peace talks to continue despite the attack.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://194.90.243.96/spip.php?article5118
|title=Attentat contre une école talmudique à Jérusalem - Mon site SPIP
|publisher=194.90.243.96
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
}} {{fr icon}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Germany]]'s [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Germany)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]] [[Frank-Walter Steinmeier]] said that the attack horrified him, and expressed his sympathy to the families.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tel-aviv.diplo.de/Vertretung/telaviv/de/Startseite.html
|title=- Startseite
|publisher=www.tel-aviv.diplo.de
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
}} {{de icon}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tel-aviv.diplo.de/Vertretung/telaviv/he/Startseite.html
|title=- עמוד פתיחה
|publisher=www.tel-aviv.diplo.de
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
}} {{he icon}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|Georgia}} The [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] strongly condemned the attack, and expressed its profound condolences to the families.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=461&info_id=6076
|title=Ministry Of Foreign Affairs Of Georgia - News
|publisher=www.mfa.gov.ge
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|India}} The [[India]]n [[Ministry for External Affairs]] condemned "the mindless terrorist attack" in which "eight young innocent Israeli lives were lost" and called for dialogue to end the "current cycle of violence".<ref>
{{cite news
|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/India_condemns_attack_on_Israeli_seminary/articleshow/2848806.cms
|title=India condemns attack on Israel seminary
|publisher=[[Times of India]]
|accessdate=2008-04-02
|last=
|first=
|date=2008-03-09
}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|Ireland}} [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]'s [[Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade|Foreign Minister]] [[Dermot Ahern]] "strongly condemned the terrorist attack" and urged "all parties to end the spiral of violence."<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://dfa.ie/home/index.aspx?id=43527
|title=Department of Foreign Affairs - Minister Ahern condemns killing of Israeli religious students in Jerusalem
|publisher=dfa.ie
|accessdate=2008-03-07
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|Japan}} [[Masahiko Kōmura]], the [[Japan]]ese [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Japan)|Minister for Foreign Affairs]], said that "Japan expresses its condolences to the bereaved families as well as deepest sympathy for the people who were injured. Terrorism cannot be justified for any reason, and any attempt to justify it is unacceptable."<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2008/3/1178471_990.html
|title=MOFA: Statement by Foreign Minister Koumura on the terrorist shooting attack in Jerusalem
|publisher=www.mofa.go.jp
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|Jordan}} [[Jordan]]ian police dismantled a mourning tent erected outside the home of relatives of the shooter.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.jta.org/cgi-bin/iowa/breaking/107408.html
|title=JTA, Jewish & Israel News
|publisher=www.jta.org
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080314181424/http://www.jta.org/cgi-bin/iowa/breaking/107408.html| archivedate = March 14, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1204546430941&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull
|title=Jordan stops public mourning of gunman | Jerusalem Post
|publisher=www.jpost.com
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|Norway}} [[Norway]]'s [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Norway)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]] [[Jonas Gahr Støre]] condemned the attack and expressed his sympathies to the families.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/ud/press/News/2008/jerusalem_attack.html?id=503073
|title=Norway condemns terrorist attack in Jerusalem - regjeringen.no
|publisher=www.regjeringen.no
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>
*{{flagicon|UK}} [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Gordon Brown]] condemned the attack, saying that is was "an attempt to strike a blow at the very heart of the peace process."<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.britemb.org.il/News/2008/Brown070308.htm
|title=British Embassy Tel Aviv, News: PM Brown condemns Jerusalem terror attack
|publisher=www.britemb.org.il
|accessdate=2008-03-08
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref> [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs]] [[David Miliband]] condemned the attack and expressed his hope for a peaceful Middle East.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029391638&a=KArticle&aid=1203948577072
|title=Press Releases Foreign & Commonwealth Office
|publisher=www.fco.gov.uk
|accessdate=2008-03-07
}}{{Dead link|date=July 2008}}
</ref>

==Praise For Terrorism==

In March 2008, Abdul Al Bari-Atwan Editor-In-Chief of Arab language newspapers, as well a London based Pan-Arab paper said the murder of 15 year old students "was justified." and that the celebrations in Gaza following the murders symbolized "the courage of the Palestinian nation" and "marks Israel's destruction" <ref>http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=95074</ref>. Conversely in his English language appearances on BBC Dateline and Dutch television, and in his book which was partially ghost written "We have to learn to live together in peace and co-operation in a multi-cultural society in one democratic secular state for two people. One state for both peoples governed by a representative democracy and on an equal footing. We manage it here in London, it is working in South Africa, and there is enough room for everyone in Palestine. I respect the Jewish people and their religion. I do not want to destroy Israel but I do want to end racism and the current Apartheid system." <ref>A Country of Words,p.280. Saqi books, London, 2008. ISBN 978-0-86356-621-9.</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of school-related attacks]]
* [[Ma'alot massacre]]
* [[Hebrew University massacre]]
* [[Avivim school bus massacre]]
* [[Jerusalem bulldozer attack]]
* [[Jerusalem BMW attack]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/03/07/idUSL07359144 Gunman kills 8 in Jerusalem Jewish college] - published on [[Reuters]] on March 6, 2008‎
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/06/world/middleeast/06cnd-mideast.html Gunman Kills 8 in Attack on School in Jerusalem] - published on [[The New York Times]] on March 6, 2008‎
* [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1720222,00.html Death Comes for Israel's Seminarians] - published on [[TIME]] on March 6, 2008‎
* [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+since+2000/Terror+shooting+at+Mercaz+Harav+Yeshiva+in+Jerusalem+6-Mar-2008.htm Terror shooting at Mercaz Harav Kook Yeshiva in Jerusalem] - published at the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Terrorist attacks against Israelis in the 2000s}}
{{Palestinian militancy attacks in the 2000s}}
{{Israeli-Palestinian Conflict}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mercaz Harav Massacre}}
[[Category:Terrorist incidents in Israel in 2008]]
[[Category:Islamic terrorism]]
[[Category:Massacres in Israel during the Israeli–Palestinian conflict]]
[[Category:School killings in Israel]]
[[Category:Terrorism in Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Terrorist incidents in 2008]]
[[Category:History of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Article Feedback 5]]
[[Category:Murdered Israeli children]]
[[Category:Mass murder in 2008]]
[[Category:Massacres in Israel]]

[[es:Masacre de Mercaz HaRav]]
[[he:הפיגוע בישיבת מרכז הרב]]
[[no:Terrorangrepet i Jerusalem 6. mars 2008]]
[[pl:Strzelanina w jesziwie Mercaz HaRav]]
[[ru:Теракт в йешиве «Мерказ ха-Рав»]]
[[yi:ישיבה מרכז הרב שחיטה]]

Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media

2012-07-21T23:53:11Z

InverseHypercube: misc. fixes

{{lead too short|date=June 2012}}
{{Infobox Book
| name = Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Manugactorinconsent2.jpg|200px]]
| author = [[Edward S. Herman]], [[Noam Chomsky]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = United States
| language = English
| series =
| subject =
| genre = [[Politics]]
| publisher = [[Pantheon Books]]
| pub_date = 1988
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover]], [[Paperback]])
| pages =
| isbn = 0-375-71449-9
| dewey= 381/.4530223 21
| congress= P96.E25 H47 2002
| oclc= 47971712
| preceded_by = [[The Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel, and the Palestinians]]
| followed_by = [[Necessary Illusions]]
}}{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media''}}
{{other|Manufacturing Consent (disambiguation)}}
'''''Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media''''' (1988), by [[Edward S. Herman]] and [[Noam Chomsky]], is an analysis of the news media as [[business]]. The title derives from the phrase "the manufacture of consent" that essayist–editor [[Walter Lippmann]] (1889–1974) employed in the book ''[[Public Opinion (book)|Public Opinion]]'' (1922).<ref>p. 13, Noam Chomsky, ''Letters from Lexington: Reflections on Propaganda'', Paradigm Publishers 2004.</ref> Chomsky has said that Australian social psychologist [[Alex Carey]], to whom the book was dedicated, was in large part the impetus of his and Herman's work.<ref>Noam Chomsky, ''Class Warfare'', Pluto Press 1996, p. 29: "Ed Herman and I dedicated our book, ''Manufacturing Consent'', to him. He had just died. It was not intended as just a symbolic gesture. He got both of us started in a lot of this work."</ref> The book introduced the [[propaganda model]] of the media.

==The propaganda model==
Using the [[propaganda model]], ''Manufacturing Consent'' posits that [[corporation|corporate]]-owned [[journalism|news]] [[mass media|mass communication media]]—print, radio, television—are businesses subject to commercial competition for advertising revenue and [[profit (economics)|profit]]. As such, their distortion (editorial bias) of news reportage—i.e. what types of news, which items, and how they are reported—is a consequence of the profit motive that requires establishing a stable, profitable business; therefore, news businesses favoring profit over the [[public interest]] succeed, while those favoring reportorial accuracy over profits fail, and are relegated to the margins of their markets (low sales and ratings).{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}

==Government and news media==
Editorial distortion is aggravated by the news media’s dependence upon private and [[government]]al news sources. If a given newspaper, television station, magazine, etc., incurs governmental disfavor, it is subtly excluded from access to information. Consequently, it loses readers or viewers, and ultimately, advertisers. To minimize such financial danger, news media businesses editorially distort their reporting to favor government and corporate policies in order to stay in business.

==Editorial bias: five filters==

Herman and Chomsky's "propaganda model" describes five editorially-distorting filters applied to news reporting in mass media:

# '''Size, Ownership, and Profit Orientation:''' The dominant mass-media outlets are large firms which are run for profit. Therefore they must cater to the financial interest of their owners - often corporations or particular controlling investors. The size of the firms is a necessary consequence of the capital requirements for the technology to reach a mass audience.
# '''The Advertising License to Do Business:''' Since the majority of the revenue of major media outlets derives from advertising (not from sales or subscriptions), advertisers have acquired a "de-facto licensing authority".<ref>James Curran and Jean Seaton, ''Power without responsibility : the press and broadcasting in Britain'' (First edition 1981, with many subsequent editions).</ref> Media outlets are not commercially viable without the support of advertisers. News media must therefore cater to the political prejudices and economic desires of their advertisers. This has weakened the working-class press, for example, and also helps explain the [[attrition]] in the number of newspapers.
# '''Sourcing Mass Media News:''' Herman and Chomsky argue that “the large bureaucracies of the powerful ''subsidize'' the mass media, and gain special access [to the news], by their contribution to reducing the media’s costs of acquiring [...] and producing, news. The large entities that provide this subsidy become 'routine' news sources and have privileged access to the gates. Non-routine sources must struggle for access, and may be ignored by the arbitrary decision of the gatekeepers.”<ref name = MC>Herman and Chomsky, ''Manufacturing Consent''.</ref>
# '''Flak and the Enforcers:''' "Flak" refers to negative responses to a media statement or program (e.g. letters, complaints, lawsuits, or legislative actions). Flak can be expensive to the media, either due to loss of advertising revenue, or due to the costs of legal defense or defense of the media outlet's public image. Flak can be organized by powerful, private influence groups (e.g. [[think tank]]s). The prospect of eliciting flak can be a deterrent to the reporting of certain kinds of facts or opinions.<ref name = MC/>
# '''Anti-Communism:''' This was included as a filter in the original 1988 edition of the book, but Chomsky argues that since the end of the [[Cold War]] (1945–91), [[anticommunism]] was replaced by the "[[War on Terror]]", as the major social control mechanism.<ref>Noam Chomsky, ''Media Control, the Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda'' (1997).</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Chomsky/Journalist_Mars.html|title=The Journalist from Mars|author=Noam Chomsky|year=2002|publisher=Third World Traveler|accessdate=2009-11-08}}, pp. 69–100</ref>

==Recent developments==
* In 1993, the documentary film ''[[Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media]]'' (1992), directed by [[Mark Achbar]] and [[Peter Wintonick]], partly based upon the book, presents the propaganda model and its arguments, and a biography of Chomsky.

* In 2006, the Turkish government prosecuted Fatih Tas, owner of the Aram editorial house, two editors and the translator of the revised (2001) edition of ''Manufacturing Consent'' for "stirring hatred among the public" (per Article 216 of the Turkish Penal Code) and for "denigrating the national identity" of Turkey (per [[Article 301 (Turkish penal code)|Article 301]]), because that edition’s introduction addresses the Turkish news media’s reportage of governmental suppression of the Kurdish populace in the 1990s; they were acquitted.<ref>{{cite web|last=Butler|first=Daren|date=2006-07-04|url=http://www.kurdishaspect.com/doc75101.html|title=Turkish publisher faces prosecution over Chomsky book|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=2006-07-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2006-12-20|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/europe/6198021.stm|title=Turks acquitted over Chomsky book|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2006-12-20 | location=London}}</ref>

* In 2007, at the ''20 Years of Propaganda?: Critical Discussions & Evidence on the Ongoing Relevance of the Herman & Chomsky Propaganda Model'' (15–17 May 2007) [http://www.uwindsor.ca/propaganda conference] at the [[University of Windsor]], Canada, [[Edward S. Herman|Herman]] and [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]] summarized developments to the [[propaganda model]], followed by the publication of the proceedings of a commemoration of the twentieth publication anniversary of ''Manufacturing Consent'' in 2008.

* In 2008, Chomsky replied to questions concerning the ways internet [[blog]]s and self-generated news reportage conform to and differ from the propaganda model. He also explained how access to information is not enough, because a framework of understanding is required.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rnLWSC5p1XE#t=27m38s
|title=Authors@Google: Noam Chomsky
|date=2008-05-02
}}</ref>

== Criticisms ==
The book ''[[The Anti-Chomsky Reader]]'' is one example of criticism of the propaganda model.

== See also ==
* [[Media imperialism]]
* [[Nicaraguan general election, 1984]] (US media coverage of these is the subject of Chapter 3)
* [[Politico-media complex]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* "[[The Engineering of Consent]]"

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Herman%20/Manufac_Consent_Prop_Model.html Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (Excerpt)]
* [http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/198901--.htm Synopsis with Herman interview]
* [http://www.westminster.ac.uk/schools/media/camri/wpcc/the-herman-chomsky-propaganda-model-twenty-years-on The Herman-Chomsky Propaganda Model Twenty Years On] ''Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture'' 6(2), 2009
{{Noam Chomsky}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy Of The Mass Media}}
[[Category:1988 books]]
[[Category:Books by Noam Chomsky]]
[[Category:Books about media bias]]
[[Category:Books about propaganda]]
[[Category:Books about public opinion]]
[[Category:Books about politics of the United States]]

[[es:Los guardianes de la libertad]]
[[it:La fabbrica del consenso: l'economia politica dei mass media]]
[[nl:Manufacturing Consent]]

Kate Middletons Brautkleid

2012-07-14T17:46:10Z

InverseHypercube: /* Reception and influence */ misc. fixes

{{Use British English|date=May 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2011}}
{{Infobox clothing item
|image_file = William and Kate wedding.jpg
|designer = [[Sarah Burton]] for [[Alexander McQueen (brand)|Alexander McQueen]], [[Royal School of Needlework]]
|year = {{start date|df=yes|2011}}
|type = Lace [[applique]] [[bodice]]
}}

The '''wedding dress of Kate Middleton''' was the [[Wedding dress|bridal gown]] worn by [[Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge]], at her [[wedding of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Catherine Middleton|wedding to Prince William, Duke of Cambridge]], on 29 April 2011. The dress was designed by English designer [[Sarah Burton]] at [[Alexander McQueen (brand)|Alexander McQueen]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/Royal-Wedding/ROYAL-WEDDING-Kate-Middletons-Dress-Designed-By-Sarah-Burton/Article/201104415981854?lpos=Royal_Wedding_Top_Stories_Header_1&lid=ARTICLE_15981854_ROYAL_WEDDING_Kate_Middletons_Dress_Designed_By_Sarah_Burton|title=Kate Middleton's bridal dress designed by Sarah Burton|publisher=Sky News|date=29 April 2011|accessdate=29 April 2011}}</ref>

The dress and its maker were not formally announced until the bride stepped from her car to enter [[Westminster Abbey]] just prior to the service.<ref name=bbc/> Noted for its design, symbolism, and expected influence on [[Western Hemisphere|Western]] bridal gown trends, the dress was widely anticipated and generated much comment in the media. Replicas of the garment were produced and sold, and the original dress is on display at [[Buckingham Palace]].

==Pre-wedding speculation==
Before the day, there was much speculation as to what Middleton would choose for her dress. On 6 March, ''[[The Sunday Times]]'' reported on speculation that Middleton had chosen McQueen designer Sarah Burton. Their report stated: "A fashion source said that the dress will be a combination of Middleton's own design ideas and Burton's deep knowledge and understanding of high fashion." The label and Burton both denied any involvement.<ref>{{cite news|title=Middleton to wear McQueen wedding dress: report|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/03/07/3156517.htm?section=justin|accessdate=29 April 2011|newspaper=ABC News|date=7 March 2011|agency=AAP|location=Sydney NSW}}</ref> Burton's work came to the notice of Middleton in 2005 when she attended the wedding of [[Tom Parker Bowles]], the son of the [[Duchess of Cornwall]]. Burton had designed the bridal gown for his bride, fashion journalist Sara Buys.<ref name=TMG8364610>{{cite news|url=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news-features/TMG8364610/Sarah-Burton-of-Alexander-McQueen-to-design-Kate-Middletons-wedding-dress.html|title=Sarah Burton of Alexander McQueen to design Kate Middleton's wedding dress?|author=Heidi Blake|work=Daily Telegraph|date=6 March 2011|accessdate=29 April 2011|location=London}}</ref> Also suggested were [[Victoria Beckham]],<ref name=latimes-spec>{{cite news|author=27 April 2011  |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/alltherage/2011/04/handicapping-kate-middletons-wedding-gown-designer-the-high-fashion-favorites.html |title=Royal Wedding: Handicapping Kate Middleton's wedding gown designer: The high-fashion favorites |work=Los Angeles Times |date=16 July 2008 |accessdate=30 April 2011|unused_data=  7:30 am}}</ref> [[Sophie Cranston]]'s [[Libelula]],<ref>{{cite news|author=Imogen Fox |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/apr/22/speculation-royal-wedding-dress |title=Speculation over royal wedding dress reaches fever pitch, UK news |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date= 22 April 2011|accessdate=30 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/columns/belinda-white/TMG8456677/Kate-Middletons-wedding-dress-latest-Sophie-Cranston-of-Libelula-chosen-as-designer.html |title=Kate Middleton's wedding dress latest: Sophie Cranston of Libelula chosen as designer? | Telegraph |publisher=Fashion.telegraph.co.uk |date=2011-4=17 |accessdate=2011-11-18 |location=London |first=Belinda |last=White}}</ref> [[Jasper Conran]],<ref name=Xinhua /><ref name=star-muchado>{{cite news|url=http://www.thestar.com/news/world/royalfamily/royalwedding/article/974349--much-ado-about-kate-middleton-s-bridal-dress |title=Much ado about Kate Middleton’s bridal dress |work=Toronto Star |date=14 April 2011 |accessdate=30 April 2011}}</ref> [[Elizabeth Emanuel]],<ref name=latimes-trad>{{cite news|author=26 April 2011  |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/alltherage/2011/04/handicapping-kate-middletons-wedding-gown-designer-the-traditionalists.html |title=Handicapping Kate Middleton's wedding gown designer: The traditionalists |work=Los Angeles Times |date=26 April 2011 |accessdate=30 April 2011}}</ref> [[Engagement announcement dress of Kate Middleton|Daniella Issa Helayel]],<ref name=Xinhua /> [[Marchesa (brand)|Marchesa]] by [[Keren Craig]] and [[Georgina Chapman]],<ref name=latimes-spec /> [[Stella McCartney]],<ref name=latimes-spec /> [[Bruce Oldfield]],<ref name=latimes-trad/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elleuk.com/news/fashion-news/bruce-oldfield-exits-dress-race-packham-enters/(gid)/761516 |title=Elle News, Bruce Oldfield Exits Dress Race, Packham Enters |publisher=Elleuk.com |date= |accessdate=30 April 2011}}</ref><ref name=star-muchado /> and [[Catherine Walker (fashion designer)|Catherine Walker]].<ref name=latimes-trad/>

Burton emerged as the [[odds|odds-on favourite]] to create the dress amongst [[bookmaker]]s, so much so that the English bookmaker [[William Hill (bookmaker)|William Hill]] stopped taking wagers weeks before the event. [[David Emanuel (fashion designer)|David Emanuel]], co-designer of Princess Diana's wedding dress, commented to the Canadian fashion journalist [[Jeanne Beker]] that "McQueen is owned by [[Gucci]], an Italian company. If Kate's gone that route, it would be the first time a British-owned house wasn't chosen. And the Italians would have a field day with that."<ref>[http://www.thestar.com/living/article/980094--a-bet-on-the-train-of-events A bet on the train of events]. thestar.com (26 April 2011). Retrieved on 1 May 2011.</ref>

According to Joanna Marschner, Senior Curator of the Historic Royal Palaces, "the dresses have had to grow as the media expectation has grown. Television cameras in Westminster Abbey have meant that those dresses are going to have to live up to those venues and indeed be of a design excellence to bear infinite scrutiny."<ref name=Xinhua>{{cite news|title=Who is designing Kate's wedding dress?|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/video/2011-04/24/c_13843597.htm|accessdate=29 April 2011|publisher=Xinhua|date=24 April 2011}}</ref>

==Design==
[[File:Kate Middleton dress replica.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A replica of the dress outside a shop in Belfast]]
Official statements noted that Middleton wished to combine tradition and modernity, "with the artistic vision that characterises Alexander McQueen's work." She and Burton worked closely together in formulating the dress design.<ref name=timeless>{{cite news|title=Kate's dress 'timeless'|url=http://lifestyle.iafrica.com/royal-weddings/724784.html|accessdate=29 April 2011|newspaper=iafrica.com|date=29 April 2011|agency=AFP}}</ref>

It has a lace [[applique]] [[bodice]] with detailing symbolising the nations of the United Kingdom. It was made of satin and featured a lace applique bodice and skirt. The lace bodice design was handmade using a technique that originated in Ireland in the 1820s called [[carrickmacross lace|Carrickmacross]], which involved cutting out rose detailing (symbolising [[Symbols of England#Flora and fauna|England]]), thistles ([[Thistle#Heraldry|Scotland]]), daffodils ([[National symbols of Wales#Other symbols|Wales]]), and shamrocks ([[Shamrock#Badge of Ireland|Ireland]]),<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1381944/Royal-Wedding-cake-Kate-Middleton-requested-8-tiers-decorated-900-flowers.html |title=Royal Wedding cake: Kate Middleton requested 8-tiers decorated with 900 flowers |work=The Daily Mail |location=UK |date= 1 May 2011|accessdate=30 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13235599 |title=BBC News – Kate Middleton's bridal dress designed by Sarah Burton |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date= 29 April 2011|accessdate=30 April 2011}}</ref> individually applying them to the ivory silk tulle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.life.com/gallery/59741/kates-wedding-dress-up-close#index/1|title=Kate's Wedding Dress Up Close|publisher=LIFE.com|date=29 April 2011|accessdate=29 April 2011}}</ref> These lace appliques were handmade by the [[Royal School of Needlework]], based at Hampton Court Palace.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://shoppingblog.dallasnews.com/archives/2011/04/live-royal-wedding-fashion-blo-1.html|title=Royal wedding fashion blog: More details on Kate's dress|publisher=Dallas Morning News|date=29 April 2011|accessdate=29 April 2011}}</ref> The [[dressmaker]]s used fresh needles every three hours, and washed their hands every half an hour to avoid marking the fabric.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Video, Royal Wedding: Kate Middleton's Dress Designed By Sarah Burton For Alexander McQueen
| accessdate = 30 April 2011
| url = http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/Royal-Wedding/Video-Royal-Wedding-Kate-Middletons-Dress-Designed-By-Sarah-Burton-For-Alexander-McQueen/Article/200901415981854?lpos=Royal_Wedding_Second_UK_News_Article_Teaser_Region_2&lid=ARTICLE_15981854_Video%2C_Royal_Wedding%3A_Kate_Middletons_Dress_Designed_By_Sarah_Burton_For_Alexander_McQueen
| unused_data = Royal Wedding|Sky News
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| title = Royal wedding dress under the microscope
| accessdate = 30 April 2011
| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/apr/30/royal-wedding-dress-microscope
| unused_data = UK news|guardian.co.uk
| location=London
| work=The Guardian
| first=Imogen
| last=Fox
| date=30 April 2011
}}</ref>

The bridal train measured {{convert|270|cm|abbr=on}}. Hand-cut English lace and French [[Chantilly lace]] was used throughout the bodice, skirt, and the underskirt trim. With laces coming from different sources, much care was taken to ensure that each flower was the same colour. The whole process was overseen and put together by hand by Ms Burton and her team. The "ivory satin bodice is padded slightly at the hips and narrowed at the waist, and was inspired by the Victorian tradition of corsetry that is a particular Alexander McQueen hallmark. On the back are 58 buttons of [[gazar]] and [[organza]], which fasten by means of Rouleau loops. The underskirt is made of English [[Cluny lace]] over silk [[tulle netting|tulle]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.officialroyalwedding2011.org/blog/2011/April/29/The-Wedding-Dress--Bridesmaids--Dresses-and-Pages--Uniforms |title=The Wedding Dress, Bridesmaids' Dresses and Pages' Uniforms |publisher=Officialroyalwedding2011.org |date=26 April 2011 |accessdate=30 April 2011}}</ref>

The main body of the dress was made in ivory and white satin gazar, using UK fabrics which had been specially sourced by Sarah Burton, with a long, full skirt designed to echo an opening flower, with soft pleats which unfolded to the floor, forming a Victorian-style semi-bustle at the back, and finishing in a short train measuring just under three metres in length.<ref name=Hilary>{{cite news|url=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/columns/hilary-alexander/TMG8477689/Kate-Middleton-wedding-dress-is-Sarah-Burton-for-Alexander-McQueen.html |title=Kate Middleton wedding dress is Sarah Burton for Alexander McQueen|work=Daily Telegraph |location=UK |date=29 April 2011 |accessdate=1 May 2011}}</ref>

To partially fulfill the "[[Wedding customs by country#British customs|something blue]]" portion of the British wedding tradition, a blue ribbon was sewn inside the dress. The design for the bodice of the dress featuring Carrickmacross craftsmanship was the "something old".<ref name=ribbon>{{cite news|title=Royal wedding: Kate Middleton wears Queen's tiara|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/royal-wedding/8483330/Royal-wedding-Kate-Middleton-wears-Queens-tiara.html|work=The Telegraph|date=29 April 2011|accessdate=1 May 2011|location=London}}</ref>

The British tabloid ''[[The News of the World]]'' reported that to maintain secrecy, the embroiderers at the Royal School of Needlework were initially told that the dress was intended to be used in a television costume drama and that cost was no object.<ref name=NOW>{{cite news|last=Latchem |first=Tom|title=Sew secret: The £250k dress|url=http://www.newsoftheworld.co.uk/notw/_news/wills_and_kate/1287203/Sew-secret-The-250k-dress.html|accessdate=29 April 2011|publisher=News of the World|date=1 May 2011}}</ref> As a result, it had been widely reported that the dress cost £250,000,<ref name=NOW/><ref name=scotsman>{{cite news|last=Bradley |first=Jane|title=Kate's wedding dress to go on public display|url=http://news.scotsman.com/royal-weddings/Kate39s-wedding-dress--to.6760973.jp|accessdate=29 April 2011|work=The Scotsman |location=UK |date=2 May 2011}}</ref> although a [[Clarence House]] spokesperson dismissed that claim.<ref name=sky>{{cite news|title=Honeymoon Delay 'Was Royal Couple's Choice'|url=http://news.sky.com/skynews/Article/201105115983115|accessdate=1 May 2011|publisher=Sky News|date=1 May 2011}}</ref>

==Reception and influence==
The dress generated much comment in the media from fashion experts and was very well received. It was noted that the design was largely traditional and inspired by dresses from the 1950s. [[Karl Lagerfeld]] wrote "the dress is classic and goes very well in the Westminster decor. It almost reminds me of Elizabeth's wedding, the royal weddings in the [19]50s. The proportion of the train is good. The lace is very pretty. I like the veil a lot."<ref name=Reuters-wows>{{cite news|last=Falloon|first=Matt|title=Kate Middleton wows crowd in McQueen designer's dress|url=http://www.canada.com/life/Kate+Middleton+wows+crowd+McQueen+designer+dress/4696060/story.html|accessdate=29 April 2011|newspaper=canada.com|date=29 April 2011|agency=Reuters}}</ref> Antonio Marras, of [[Kenzo (brand)|Kenzo]], stated, "the choice of the label and the style of the dress was a very clever mix between edgy fashion and tradition — all in a very British way. You could see references to [[Wedding dress of Grace Kelly|Grace Kelly]] or [[Wedding dress of Princess Elizabeth|Queen Elizabeth]]'s dresses, but in a simpler, more modern way."<ref name=Reuters-wows /> It was noted that the lace bodice of Middleton's dress echoed that worn by Grace Kelly for her marriage to [[Rainier III, Prince of Monaco]] in 1956.<ref name=bbc>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13236617|title = Royal wedding: What are they saying about the dress?|publisher=BBC News | date=29 April 2011}}</ref> Comparisons were also drawn with [[Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon|Princess Margaret]]'s [[Wedding dress of Princess Margaret|wedding dress]].<ref name=Hilary/> Mark Badgley of [[Badgley Mischka]] wrote that "it's the kind of gown that will stand the test of time. Not all gowns do. Any bride across the world will want to wear it. It's got a touch of vintage, a classic 1950s ball gown, so timeless that her daughter would look gorgeous in this gown 30 years from now."<ref name=nyt-reacts>[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/01/fashion/01RUNWAY.html Simplicity Wears the Crown], The New York times, 29 April 2011</ref> Meanwhile [[Oscar de la Renta]] stated that it was "a very traditional dress for a very traditional wedding...not ostentatious. There was not 50 meters of train, and it was not overembroidered. It was just a very traditional dress for a ravishing girl who doesn't need a lot."<ref name=nyt-reacts />

Comparisons were also made to [[Wedding dress of Lady Diana Spencer|the dress worn]] by Prince William's mother, [[Diana, Princess of Wales]]. [[Vera Wang]] said "Diana's dress had a sense of innocence, whimsy, almost storybook romance. In contrast Catherine's gown was about way more than simply the dress. Sarah Burton channelled a new take on classicism for a modern-day bride who will one day be queen."<ref name=nyt-reacts /> Diana's wedding dress maker, [[Elizabeth Emanuel]], has suggested: "Exactly as it happened in 1981, there are going to be people watching as she walks down the aisle with their sketch pads, with the machinists and pattern cutters all ready and waiting. By the next morning you'll see copies in High Street."<ref name=timeless /> Emanuel says the dress would fit many body shapes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/Royal-Wedding/Video-Royal-Wedding-Kate-Middletons-Dress-Designed-By-Sarah-Burton-For-Alexander-McQueen/Article/201104415981854?lpos=Royal_Wedding_First_Home_Article_Teaser_Region_0&lid=ARTICLE_15981854_Video%2C_Royal_Wedding%3A_Kate_Middletons_Dress_Designed_By_Sarah_Burton_For_Alexander_McQueen |title=Video, Royal Wedding: Kate Middleton's Dress Designed By Sarah Burton For Alexander McQueen |publisher=Sky News |date= |accessdate=30 April 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Kate Middleton Royal Dress Replica - Full Front.jpg|thumb|200px|Chinese replica of the dress offered for sale to the public four weeks after the Royal Wedding]]
There were many suggestions that the style of the dress would influence wedding fashion for the next few years. Alison McGill, the editor-in-chief of ''Weddingbells Magazine'': "I think her choice to wear long sleeves signals a big goodbye to strapless wedding gowns."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ottawa.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20110429/royal-wedding-dress-110429/20110429/?hub=OttawaHome |title=CTV Ottawa- Lace McQueen wedding gown gets rave reviews – CTV News |publisher=Ottawa.ctv.ca |date=31 December 2007 |accessdate=30 April 2011}}</ref> Meanwhile Veronica Di Santo-Abramowicz, of the Toronto-based Ines Di Santo label opined "Kate's dress will influence so much of the bridal style that we will see over the next few years. It always happens that when a person of royalty or high stature gets married, this sets trends for several years. For example, Princess Diana's gown and [[Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy|Carolyn Bessette]]'s gown are two noteworthy brides that come to mind."<ref>{{cite web|author=nurun.com |url=http://www.torontosun.com/2011/04/28/canadian-wedding-gown-designers-predict-kates-look--and-explain-why-it-matters |title=Canadian wedding gown designers predict Kate's look – and explain why it matters |work=Toronto Sun |date= |accessdate=30 April 2011}}</ref>

One British firm's replica, commissioned by ''[[The Times]]'' as a contest prize, was completed less than five hours after Middleton began her car ride to the Abbey. The firm received numerous inquiries within a day, but expressed that it would have to consult lawyers before replicas could be sold.<ref>{{cite news|title=Kate's wedding dress recreated in just five hours|url=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/breaking-news/kates-wedding-dress-recreated-in-just-five-hours/story-e6frf7jx-1226047668734|accessdate=30 April 2011|newspaper=The Herald Sun|date=1 May 2011|agency=AFP}}</ref> New Zealand couturist Jane Yeh worked through the night after the wedding to create another copy of the dress.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.nzherald.co.nz/new-zealand/news/article.cfm?l_id=71&objectid=10722667 |title=Kiwi creates copy of that dress |first=Celeste |last=Antiss |publisher=[[New Zealand Herald]] |date=1 May 2011 |accessdate=1 May 2011}}</ref> Chinese dressmakers told news reporters they expected to have [[knock-off]]s of the dress available one week from the event; one expressed frustration that it was not leaked in advance so that they could have stock prepared earlier. Another suggested a £70 to £90 retail price.<ref>{{cite news|last=Moore|first=Malcolm|title=Royal wedding: Chinese tailors rush to copy Kate Middleton's dress|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/royal-wedding/8485272/Royal-wedding-Chinese-tailors-rush-to-copy-Kate-Middletons-dress.html|accessdate=30 April 2011|newspaper=Telegraph|date=30 April 2011|location=London}}</ref>

The choice of a dress from the fashion house of [[Alexander McQueen]], who had committed suicide in 2010, led [[Hubert de Givenchy]] to state "It's a lovely thought, a nice tribute."<ref name=Reuters-wows />

The dress along with other items pertaining to the Royal Wedding were exhibited at Buckingham Palace from 23 July 2011 until 3 October 2011.<ref name=horrid>{{cite news|url=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/article/TMG8655222/Kate-Middletons-dress-display-is-horrid-cries-Queen.html|title=Duchess of Cambridge's dress display is horrid, cries Queen|newspaper=Daily Telegraph|date=23 July 2011|location=London}} </ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Witchell|first=Nicholas|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14257114|title=Queen overheard criticising Duchess wedding dress display|newspaper=bbc.co.uk|date=23 July 2011}}</ref> The method of displaying the dress and tiara (on a headless [[mannequin]] lit by white lighting) was reported to have been described as "horrible" by the Queen during a private tour of the exhibition with the Duchess of Cambridge in July 2011.<ref name=horrid/> A microphone overheard the Queen remarking to the Duchess "It's made to look very creepy" while Catherine responded that it had a "3D effect".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5juNjIDWTOWkSZZozaIb2VyInTWvg?docId=CNG.12b3e2d8c5a021ba35421e540e77eecd.331 |title=Queen spooked by Catherine's wedding dress display|newspaper=Associated Press|accessdate=23 July 2011}}</ref>

The dress helped attract a record number of visitors to Buckingham Palace in the summer months of 2011. It was also reported to have helped raise around eight million pounds towards Kate Middleton's own charity fund as well as palace renovations.<ref>{{cite news|author=Christopher Wilson |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2035701/A-tale-dresses-Kates-wedding-gown-raises-8m-display-Buckingham-Palace-Dianas-outfit-carted-globe.html |title=A tale of two dresses: Kate's wedding gown raises £8m on display at Buckingham Palace while Diana's outfit is carted around the globe | Mail Online |publisher=Dailymail.co.uk |date= 9 September 2011|accessdate=2011-11-18 |location=London}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Engagement announcement dress of Kate Middleton]]
* [[Wedding dress of Lady Diana Spencer]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Wedding of Prince William of Wales and Kate Middleton|Wedding of Prince William of Wales and Kate Middleton}}
* [http://www.royalweddingdress.org/ Royal Wedding Dress | Sarah Burton at Alexander McQueen]
* [http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/newsandgallery/gallery/the_wedding_of_prince_william_and_catherine_middleton_1988728899_831725321.html Official wedding photographs]
* [http://www.life.com/gallery/59741/kates-wedding-dress-up-close#index/1/ Photos: Kate Middleton's Wedding Dress Up Close] {{dead link|date=July 2012}}
{{British Royal wedding dresses}}

[[Category:2010s fashion]]
[[Category:2011 in England]]
[[Category:British royal attire]]
[[Category:Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge]]
[[Category:English fashion]]
[[Category:Marriage, unions and partnerships in England]]
[[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Middleton Kate]]

[[fr:Robe de mariée de Catherine Middleton]]
[[hu:Kate Middleton esküvői ruhája]]
[[tr:Kate Middleton'ın gelinliği]]

Ana Kasparian

2012-06-11T19:31:38Z

InverseHypercube: rm redundant link

{{Infobox person
| name = Ana Kasparian
| image = Ana Kasparian The Alyona Show.png
| birth_name = Anahit Misak Kasparian
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1986|07|07}}
| birth_place = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States]]
| residence = Los Angeles
| occupation = Political pundit Internet/radio talk show host/producer Entertainment correspondent 
| alma_mater = {{nowrap|[[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]])}} {{nowrap|[[Columbia University]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])}}
| alma_mater = [[California State University, Northridge]] [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism|(B.A.J.]])/([[Master of Arts in Political Science|M.A.]])
| citizenship = United States
| education = [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism]] (B.A.J.) [[Master of Arts in Political Science]] (M.A.)
| employer =''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''
| movement = [[Progressivism|Progressive]]
| ethnicity = [[Armenian American]]<ref name=armenian/>
| religion = None ([[Agnosticism|agnostic]])
| television = ''[[The Young Turks with Cenk Uygur]]''
| credits = ''[[The Young Turks]]''
| URL = {{url|http://www.theyoungturks.com/}}
}}

'''Anahit Misak "Ana" Kasparian'''<ref name=armenian>{{cite web |url=http://www.theyoungturks.com/story/2007/10/26/124637/27/news/The-Young-Turks-From-an-Armenian-s-Perspective |title=The Young Turks...From an Armenian's Perspective. |author=Kasparian, Ana |date=26 October 2007 |publisher=The Young Turks |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> ([[Western Armenian language|Western]] {{lang-hy|Անահիտ Միսաք Գասպարյան}}; [[Western Armenian language|Western]] {{IPA-hy|ɑnɑˈhid miˈsɑkʰ kʰɑsbɑˈɾjɑn}});<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asbarez.com/arm/72679/ |title=ԼՈՒՍԱՐՁԱԿ- Երիտհայուհին |author=ՄԱՆՈՅԵԱՆ, ԳԷՈՐԳ |date=30 April 2005 |accessdate=25 March 2012 |language=Armenian |trans_title=Lusardzak - Yerithayuhin}}</ref> born July 7, 1986) is an [[Armenian American]] co-host and producer for the online [[news show]] ''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''. Kasparian began working as a fill-in producer for ''The Young Turks'' in 2007.<ref name=userprofile/> She also appears as on the TV version of the show ''The Young Turks'' that airs on the Current TV Network.

==Biography==
Ana was born on July 7, 1986 the daughter of [[Western Armenia]] immigrant parents. Kasparian graduated from [[California State University, Northridge]] in 2007 with a [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism]] (BAJ). Kasparian has worked with [[AOL News]], [[YouTube]], [[TidalTv]] and ''[[On Point]]''. She also worked in news production at CBS radio affiliate [[KNX (AM)]] in Los Angeles.<ref>{{Facebook|id=Ana-Kasparian/192784994077318?sk{{=}}info|name=Ana Kasparian}}</ref> In addition to being the host of ''[[The Young Turks]]'', Ana Kasparian appears frequently on the [[English language|English]] version of the [[Russia|Russian]]-based channel [[RT (TV network)|RT]] and [[RT America]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Search: Ana Kasparian — RT |url=http://rt.com/search/?q=Ana+Kasparian |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> In 2007, Kasparian became the producer and co-host of the [[progressivism|progressive]] [[talk radio]] on [[Sirius XM Radio|Sirius XM Satellite Radio]] and now [[internet show]]/[[TV show]] ''The Young Turks''/''The Young Turks with Cenk Uygur''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.linkedin.com/pub/dir/ana/kasparian |title=Ana Kasparian |author=Kasparian, Ana |publisher=LinkedIn |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> She completed her [[Master of Political Science]] in [[political science]] in 2010.<ref name=userprofile>{{cite web |url=http://www.theyoungturks.com/user/AnaKasparian |title=AnaKasparian |author=Kasparian, Ana |publisher=The Young Turks |date=2007 |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.theyoungturks.com ''The Young Turks'']
*{{Facebook|id=Ana-Kasparian/192784994077318|name=Ana Kasparian}}
*{{twitter|AnaKasparian|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{youtube|channel=AnaKasparian|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{google+|100466593818997778958|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{imdb name|3742811|Ana Kasparian}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Kasparian, Ana
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Kasparian, Anahit
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American political commentator; journalist
| DATE OF BIRTH = July 7, 1986
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States|U.S.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kasparian, Ana}}

[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:Air America (radio network)]]
[[Category:American agnostics]]
[[Category:American Internet personalities]]
[[Category:American people of Armenian descent]]
[[Category:American political pundits]]
[[Category:American radio producers]]
[[Category:American talk radio hosts]]
[[Category:California State University, Northridge alumni]]
[[Category:Current TV]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles, California]]
[[Category:The Young Turks (talk show)]]

[[tr:Ana Kasparian]]

Ana Kasparian

2012-06-11T19:29:29Z

InverseHypercube: adding image

{{Infobox person
| name = Ana Kasparian
| image = Ana Kasparian The Alyona Show.png
| birth_name = Anahit Misak Kasparian
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1986|07|07}}
| birth_place = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States]]
| residence = Los Angeles
| occupation = Political pundit Internet/radio talk show host/producer Entertainment correspondent 
| alma_mater = {{nowrap|[[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]])}} {{nowrap|[[Columbia University]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])}}
| alma_mater = [[California State University, Northridge]] [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism|(B.A.J.]])/([[Master of Arts in Political Science|M.A.]])
| citizenship = United States
| education = [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism]] (B.A.J.) [[Master of Arts in Political Science]] (M.A.)
| employer =''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''
| movement = [[Progressivism|Progressive]]
| ethnicity = [[Armenian American]]<ref name=armenian/>
| religion = None ([[Agnosticism|agnostic]])
| television = ''[[The Young Turks with Cenk Uygur]]''
| credits = ''[[The Young Turks]]''
| URL = {{url|http://www.theyoungturks.com/}}
}}

'''Anahit Misak "Ana" Kasparian'''<ref name=armenian>{{cite web |url=http://www.theyoungturks.com/story/2007/10/26/124637/27/news/The-Young-Turks-From-an-Armenian-s-Perspective |title=The Young Turks...From an Armenian's Perspective. |author=Kasparian, Ana |date=26 October 2007 |publisher=The Young Turks |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> ([[Western Armenian language|Western]] {{lang-hy|Անահիտ Միսաք Գասպարյան}}; [[Western Armenian language|Western]] {{IPA-hy|ɑnɑˈhid miˈsɑkʰ kʰɑsbɑˈɾjɑn}});<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asbarez.com/arm/72679/ |title=ԼՈՒՍԱՐՁԱԿ- Երիտհայուհին |author=ՄԱՆՈՅԵԱՆ, ԳԷՈՐԳ |date=30 April 2005 |accessdate=25 March 2012 |language=Armenian |trans_title=Lusardzak - Yerithayuhin}}</ref> born July 7, 1986) is an [[Armenian American]] co-host and producer for the online [[news show]] ''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''. Kasparian began working as a fill-in producer for ''The Young Turks'' in 2007.<ref name=userprofile/> She also appears as on the TV version of the show ''The Young Turks'' that airs on the Current TV Network.

==Biography==
Ana was born on July 7, 1986 the daughter of [[Western Armenia]] immigrant parents. Kasparian graduated from [[California State University, Northridge]] in 2007 with a [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism]] (BAJ). Kasparian has worked with [[AOL News]], [[YouTube]], [[TidalTv]] and ''[[On Point]]''. She also worked in news production at CBS radio affiliate [[KNX (AM)]] in Los Angeles.<ref>{{Facebook|id=Ana-Kasparian/192784994077318?sk{{=}}info|name=Ana Kasparian}}</ref> In addition to being the host of ''[[The Young Turks]]'', Ana Kasparian appears frequently on the [[English language|English]] version of the [[Russia|Russian]]-based channel [[RT (TV network)|RT]] and [[RT America]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Search: Ana Kasparian — RT |url=http://rt.com/search/?q=Ana+Kasparian |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> In 2007, Kasparian became the producer and co-host of the [[progressivism|progressive]] [[talk radio]] on [[Sirius XM Radio|Sirius XM Satellite Radio]] and now [[internet show]]/[[TV Show]] ''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''/''The Young Turks with Cenk Uygur.'' <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.linkedin.com/pub/dir/ana/kasparian |title=Ana Kasparian |author=Kasparian, Ana |publisher=LinkedIn |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> She completed her [[Master of Political Science]] in [[political science]] in 2010.<ref name=userprofile>{{cite web |url=http://www.theyoungturks.com/user/AnaKasparian |title=AnaKasparian |author=Kasparian, Ana |publisher=The Young Turks |date=2007 |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.theyoungturks.com ''The Young Turks'']
*{{Facebook|id=Ana-Kasparian/192784994077318|name=Ana Kasparian}}
*{{twitter|AnaKasparian|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{youtube|channel=AnaKasparian|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{google+|100466593818997778958|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{imdb name|3742811|Ana Kasparian}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Kasparian, Ana
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Kasparian, Anahit
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American political commentator; journalist
| DATE OF BIRTH = July 7, 1986
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States|U.S.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kasparian, Ana}}

[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:Air America (radio network)]]
[[Category:American agnostics]]
[[Category:American Internet personalities]]
[[Category:American people of Armenian descent]]
[[Category:American political pundits]]
[[Category:American radio producers]]
[[Category:American talk radio hosts]]
[[Category:California State University, Northridge alumni]]
[[Category:Current TV]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles, California]]
[[Category:The Young Turks (talk show)]]

[[tr:Ana Kasparian]]

Ana Kasparian

2012-06-11T19:01:44Z

InverseHypercube: notability has already been established through a deletion request

{{Infobox person
| name = Ana Kasparian
| birth_name = Anahit Misak Kasparian
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1986|07|07}}
| birth_place = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States]]
| residence = Los Angeles
| occupation = Political pundit Internet/radio talk show host/producer Entertainment correspondent 
| alma_mater = {{nowrap|[[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]])}} {{nowrap|[[Columbia University]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])}}
| alma_mater = [[California State University, Northridge]] [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism|(B.A.J.]])/([[Master of Arts in Political Science|M.A.]])
| citizenship = United States
| education = [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism]] (B.A.J.) [[Master of Arts in Political Science]] (M.A.)
| employer =''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''
| movement = [[Progressivism|Progressive]]
| ethnicity = [[Armenian American]]<ref name=armenian/>
| religion = None ([[Agnosticism|agnostic]])
| television = ''[[The Young Turks with Cenk Uygur]]''
| credits = ''[[The Young Turks]]''
| URL = {{url|http://www.theyoungturks.com/}}
}}

'''Anahit Misak "Ana" Kasparian'''<ref name=armenian>{{cite web |url=http://www.theyoungturks.com/story/2007/10/26/124637/27/news/The-Young-Turks-From-an-Armenian-s-Perspective |title=The Young Turks...From an Armenian's Perspective. |author=Kasparian, Ana |date=26 October 2007 |publisher=The Young Turks |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> ([[Western Armenian language|Western]] {{lang-hy|Անահիտ Միսաք Գասպարյան}}; [[Western Armenian language|Western]] {{IPA-hy|ɑnɑˈhid miˈsɑkʰ kʰɑsbɑˈɾjɑn}});<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asbarez.com/arm/72679/ |title=ԼՈՒՍԱՐՁԱԿ- Երիտհայուհին |author=ՄԱՆՈՅԵԱՆ, ԳԷՈՐԳ |date=30 April 2005 |accessdate=25 March 2012 |language=Armenian |trans_title=Lusardzak - Yerithayuhin}}</ref> born July 7, 1986) is an [[Armenian American]] co-host and producer for the online [[news show]] ''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''. Kasparian began working as a fill-in producer for The Young Turks in 2007.<ref name=userprofile/> She also appears as on the TV version of the show The Young Turks that airs on the Current TV Network.

==Biography==
Ana was born on July 7, 1986 the daughter of [[Western Armenia]] immigrant parents. Kasparian graduated from [[California State University, Northridge]] in 2007 with a [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism]] (BAJ). Kasparian has worked with [[AOL News]], [[YouTube]], [[TidalTv]] and ''[[On Point]]''. She also worked in news production at CBS radio affiliate [[KNX (AM)]] in Los Angeles.<ref>{{Facebook|id=Ana-Kasparian/192784994077318?sk{{=}}info|name=Ana Kasparian}}</ref> In addition to being the host of ''[[The Young Turks]]'', Ana Kasparian appears frequently on the [[English language|English]] version of the [[Russia|Russian]]-based channel [[RT (TV network)|RT]] and [[RT America]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Search: Ana Kasparian — RT |url=http://rt.com/search/?q=Ana+Kasparian |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> In 2007, Kasparian became the producer and co-host of the [[progressivism|progressive]] [[talk radio]] on [[Sirius XM Radio|Sirius XM Satellite Radio]] and now [[internet show]]/[[TV Show]] ''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''/''The Young Turks with Cenk Uygur.'' <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.linkedin.com/pub/dir/ana/kasparian |title=Ana Kasparian |author=Kasparian, Ana |publisher=LinkedIn |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> She completed her [[Master of Political Science]] in [[political science]] in 2010.<ref name=userprofile>{{cite web |url=http://www.theyoungturks.com/user/AnaKasparian |title=AnaKasparian |author=Kasparian, Ana |publisher=The Young Turks |date=2007 |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.theyoungturks.com ''The Young Turks'']
*{{Facebook|id=Ana-Kasparian/192784994077318|name=Ana Kasparian}}
*{{twitter|AnaKasparian|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{youtube|channel=AnaKasparian|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{google+|100466593818997778958|Ana Kasparian}}
*{{imdb name|3742811|Ana Kasparian}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Kasparian, Ana
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Kasparian, Anahit
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American political commentator; journalist
| DATE OF BIRTH = July 7, 1986
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States|U.S.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kasparian, Ana}}

[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:Air America (radio network)]]
[[Category:American agnostics]]
[[Category:American Internet personalities]]
[[Category:American people of Armenian descent]]
[[Category:American political pundits]]
[[Category:American radio producers]]
[[Category:American talk radio hosts]]
[[Category:California State University, Northridge alumni]]
[[Category:Current TV]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles, California]]
[[Category:The Young Turks (talk show)]]

[[tr:Ana Kasparian]]

Palästinensische Vertreibung aus Lydda und Ramle 1948

2012-06-10T17:33:36Z

InverseHypercube: /* Expulsion orders */ comma outside quot. marks

{{Infobox historical event
| Image_Name = Israeli fighter accepts cigarette from an Arab resident, Lydda, July 1948.png
| Imagesize = 300
| Image_Alt = Photograph
| Image_Caption = An Israeli soldier accepts a cigarette from an Arab resident in Lydda after the fall of the city
| AKA = Lydda death march
| Participants = [[Israel Defense Forces]], [[Arab Legion]], Arab residents of [[Lod|Lydda]] and [[Ramle]]
| Location = Lydda, Ramle, and surrounding villages, then part of the [[Mandate for Palestine]], now part of [[Israel]]
| Date = July 1948
| Result = 50,000–70,000 residents fled from, or were expelled by, the IDF
| URL =
}}
The '''1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle''' was the flight or expulsion of 50,000–70,000 Palestinian Arabs when [[Israel]]i troops captured the towns in July that year. The military action occurred within the context of the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]. The towns, which were predominately Arab areas in [[Palestine]] at the time, and which the UN partition resolution had designated to be in the Arab nation, became predominantly Jewish areas in the new State of Israel, known as [[Lod]] and [[Ramla]].<ref>For population figures, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA425 Morris 2004, p. 425], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 434]. He writes that, in July 1948 before the invasion, Lydda and Ramle had a population of 50,000–70,000, 20,000 of whom were refugees from Jaffa and the surrounding area (p. 425). All were expelled, except for a few elderly or sick people, some Christians, and some who were retained to work; others managed to sneak back in, so that by mid-October 1948 there were around 2,000 Arabs living in both towns (p. 434).
*For the name change, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA29 Yacobi 2009, p. 29]. Yacobi writes that Lod was Lydda's biblical name.
*The Arabs called Lydda al-Ludd. Lydda was the Latin form of its name, which it was widely known by. See [http://books.google.com/books?id=jJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA801&lpg=PA798 Sharon 1983, p. 798].
*Ramle can also be written as Ramleh; it known as Ramla by the Israelis, and should not be confused with [[Ramallah]], the administrative center of the [[Palestinian National Authority]].</ref>

Ramle surrendered immediately, but the conquest of Lydda took longer and led to an unknown number of deaths; Israeli historian [[Benny Morris]] suggests up to 450 Arabs and 9–10 Israeli soldiers died.<ref>The death toll in Lydda:
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426]: '''11 July'''—Six dead and 21 wounded on the Israeli side, and "dozens of Arabs (perhaps as many as 200)".
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 452], footnote 68: Third Battalion intelligence puts the figure at 40 Arabs dead, but perhaps referring only to the numbers they had killed themselves.
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 428]: '''12 July'''—Israeli troops were ordered to shoot at anyone seen on the streets: during that incident, 3–4 Israelis were killed and around a dozen wounded. On the Arab side, 250 dead and many wounded, according to the IDF.</ref> Once the Israelis were in control of the towns, an expulsion order signed by [[Yitzhak Rabin]] was issued to the [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF) stating, "1. The inhabitants of Lydda must be expelled quickly without attention to age.…",<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Morris
| first = Benny
| authorlink = Benny Morris
| title = The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| series = Cambridge Middle East Library
| year = 1987
| location = Cambridge, United Kingdom
| page = 207
| isbn = 0 521 33889 }}
</ref>
Ramle's residents were bussed out, while the people of Lydda were forced to walk miles during a summer heat wave to the Arab front lines, where the [[Arab Legion]], [[Transjordan]]'s British-led army, tried to provide shelter and supplies.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, pp. 432–434].
*Also see Gilbert 2008, pp. 218–219.</ref> The harsh conditions of the exodus for the refugees from Lydda caused deaths, mostly from exhaustion and dehydration, with estimates ranging from a handful to 350; it became known as the ''Lydda death march''. From the Israeli perspective, the conquest of the towns averted an Arab threat to [[Tel Aviv]], thwarted an Arab Legion advance by clogging the roads with refugees, and helped demoralize nearby Arab cities.<ref>For the use of the term "Lydda death march," see, for example, [http://www.google.com/books?id=ro8YAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Lydda+death+march%22&dq=%22Lydda+death+march%22&ei=XJICSou0KaP2yAS1zdHeAg&pgis=1 Fraser 2001], p. 64.
*For the number of refugees who died during the march:
*Morris 1989, pp. 204–211: "Quite a few refugees died – from exhaustion, dehydration and disease."
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA177 Morris 2003, p. 177]: "a handful, and perhaps dozens, died of dehydration and exhaustion."
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, p. 433]: "Quite a few refugees died on the road east," attributing a figure of 335 dead to [[Nimr al-Khatib|Muhammad Nimr al Khatib]], who Morris writes was working from hearsay.
*[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Khalidi 1998], pp. 80–98: 350 dead, citing an estimate from [[Aref al-Aref]].
*[http://books.google.com/books?ei=oa_tTNj_C82NnQfNivn8CQ&ct=result&id=aIJtAAAAMAAJ&dq=The+Politics+of+Denial%3A+Israel+and+the+Palestinian+Refugee+Problem&q=350#search_anchor Nur Masalha 2003, p. 47] writes that 350 died.
*For the IDF and Ben-Gurion's analysis of the effect of the conquest of the towns and the expulsions, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, pp. 433–434].</ref>

The events in Lydda and Ramle accounted for one-tenth of the overall Arab [[1948 Palestinian exodus|exodus from Palestine]], known in the Arab world as ''al-Nakba'' ("the catastrophe"). Many Jews who came to Israel between 1948 and 1951 settled in the refugees' empty homes, both because of a housing shortage and as a matter of policy to prevent former residents from reclaiming them. One of the key issues of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] is whether the refugees and their descendants ought to have either compensation for their loses or the [[Palestinian right of return|right of return]], a concession that would threaten Israel's identity as a [[Jewish state]].<ref>That it was one-tenth of the overall exodus, see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 82.
*That most of the immigrants to Lydda and Ramle were from Asia and North Africa, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Golan 2003].
*That refugees were settled in the empty homes to stop them from being reclaimed, see Morris 2008, p. 308, and [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA45 Yacobi 2009, p. 45].</ref>

Until the late 1970s Israel's historians, many of whom had fought in the 1948 war, maintained that the refugees had simply fled, or had been ordered to leave by their Arab leaders. They saw the creation of Israel as inextricably linked to the [[Holocaust]] and the survival of the Jewish people, and they censored material that might blacken the new state's name. Throughout the 1980s Israeli government documents were released that showed there had been expulsions, which triggered a reassessment of Israel's early history by a younger generation of Israeli scholars known as the [[New Historians]].<ref name=Shapira1995p9>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], pp. 9ff, 12–13, 16–17.</ref> These were not pre-mediated but attributed to a complex and ill-conducted battle.<ref name="case">{{cite journal | title=Myths and Historiography of the 1948 Palestine War Revisited: The Case of Lydda | author=Avraham Sela, Alon Kadish | journal=The Middle East Journal | year=2005 | month=Autumn | volume=59 | issue=4 | pages=617}}</ref>

==Background==
===Israel's declaration of independence===
[[File:Palestine-20-48.png|right|thumb|160px|[[Palestine]] in 1947, showing Lydda and Ramle|alt=map]]
Palestine was under [[British Mandate of Palestine|British rule]] from 1917 to 1948. On 30 November 1947, after 30 years of conflict between the country's Jews and Arabs, the United Nations [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|voted to divide it]] into a Jewish and an Arab state, with Lydda and Ramle to form part of the latter. The proposal was welcomed by Palestine's Jewish community but rejected by the Arabs, and [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] broke out between the communities. The British decided to pull out of the area, and the day British rule ended on 14 May 1948, the State of Israel [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|declared its independence]]. Five Arab states—Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Transjordan, and Lebanon—launched an attack on the new state the next day, triggering the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.<ref>Morris 2008, p. 37ff.</ref>

===Strategic importance of Lydda and Ramle===
Lydda (Arabic: Al-Ludd اَلْلُدّْ) dates back to at least 5600–5250 BCE. Ramle (ar-Ramlah الرملة), three kilometers away, was founded in the 8th century CE. Both towns were strategically important because they sat at the intersection of Palestine's main north–south and east–west roads. Palestine's main railway junction and its airport (now [[Ben Gurion International Airport]]) were in Lydda, and the main source of Jerusalem's water supply was 15 kilometers away.<ref>For Lydda's age, see Schwartz 1991, p. 39.
*According to Christian legend, Lydda was the birth place and burial ground of [[Saint George]] (ca. 270–303 BCE), the patron saint of England; see [http://books.google.com/books?id=jJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA801&lpg=PA798 Sharon 1983, p. 799]. Sharon (p. 798) writes that the town may date back to King Thutmos III of Egypt. Also see [http://books.google.com/books?ei=6OLuTOf0IYiynwff9qDYCg&ct=result&id=RltCAAAAIAAJ&dq=saint+george+born+lydda&q=born+at+lydda#search_anchor Gordon 1907, p. 3].
*For Ramle, see [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-111203784.html Golan 2003].</ref> Jewish and Arab fighters had been attacking each other on roads near the towns since hostilities broke out in December 1947. Israeli geographer Arnon Golan writes that the Arabs had [[Siege of Jerusalem (1948)|blocked Jewish transport to Jerusalem]] at Ramle, forcing the Israelis to build a bypass called the [[Burma Road (Israel)|Burma Road]]. Israel had launched several ground or air attacks on Ramle in May 1948, and Israel's prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, developed what Benny Morris calls an obsession with the towns; he wrote in his diary that they had to be destroyed, and on 16 June referred to them during an Israeli cabinet meeting as the "two thorns".<ref>For Golan's article about Ramle being a focal point, see [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-111203784.html Golan 2003].
*For the siege of Jerusalem, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=UcSUgrDsD_sC&pg=PA145 Gelber 2006, p. 145].
*See [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30D1EFD3D54157B93C0A8178DD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=Jerusalem+siege&st=p Schmidt, 12 June 1948] for the temporary lifting of the siege. The siege was also broken by the opening in June of the [[Burma Road (Israel)|Burma Road]].
*For the attacks on Ramle and Lydda, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA424 Morris 2004, p. 424].
*For Ben-Gurion and the two thorns, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA424 Morris 2004, pp. 424–425], and [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/php/art.php?aid=94940&showEventsBefore=2450729 Segev 2000]. Segev writes that, just after Ben-Gurion's "two thorns" statement to the cabinet, six lines have been erased from the transcript. Segev interprets this to mean that expulsions were discussed.
*For the primary source, see Ben-Gurion 1982, "16 June 1948," p. 525.</ref>
Lydda's local Arab authority that was officially subordinated to the Arab Higher Committee assumed local civic and military powers. The records of Lydda's military command discuss military training, constructing obstacles and trenches, requisitioning vehicles and assembling armored cars armed with machine-guns, and attempts at arms procurement. In April 1948, Lydda had become an arms supply center, and a provided military training and security coordination for the neighboring villagers.<ref name="case"/>

===Operation Dani===
Israel subsequently launched [[Operation Dani]] to secure the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem road and neutralize any threat to Tel Aviv from the Arab Legion, which was stationed in Ramallah and Latrun, with a number of men in Lydda.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA423 Morris 2004, pp. 423–424].</ref> On 7 July the IDF appointed [[Yigal Allon]] to head the operation, and [[Yitzhak Rabin]], who became Israel's prime minister in 1974, as his operations officer; both had served in the [[Palmach]], an elite fighting force of the pre-Israel [[Yishuv|Jewish community]] in Palestine. The operation was carried out between 9 July 1948, the end of the first truce in the Arab-Israeli war, and 18 July, the start of the second truce, a period known in Israeli historiography as the Ten Days. Morris writes that the IDF assembled its largest force ever: the [[Yiftah]] brigade; the [[8th Armored Brigade (Israel)|Eighth Armored Brigade]]'s 82nd and 89th Battalions; three battalions of Kiryati and Alexandroni infantry men; an estimated 6,000 men with around 30 artillery pieces.<ref>Kimche, Jon and David (1960) ''A Clash of Destinies. The Arab-Jewish War and the Founding of the State of Israel.'' Frederick A. Praeger. Library of Congress number 60-6996. Page 225. (number of men).</ref><ref>For the launching of Operation Dani and the forces assembled, see Morris 2008, p. 286.
*For the hiring of Allon and Rabin, see [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979].
*For the period known as the Ten Days, see Morris 2008, p. 273ff.</ref>

===Lydda's defenses===
[[File:St Georges Church Lydda.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Lydda in 1920 with St. George's Church in the background|alt=Ancient buildings, several with domed roofs, a church in the background, and palm trees.]]
In July 1948 Lydda and Ramle had a joint population of 50,000–70,000 Arabs, 20,000 of them refugees from [[Jaffa]] and elsewhere.<ref name=Morris2004p425/> Several Arab towns had already fallen to Jewish or Israeli advances since April, but Lydda and Ramle had held out. There are differing views as to how well-defended the towns were. In January 1948, [[John Bagot Glubb]], the British commander of Transjordan's Arab Legion, had toured Arab towns, including Lydda and Ramle, urging them to prepare to defend themselves. The Legion had distributed barbed wire and as many weapons as could be spared.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA118 Morris 2003, p. 118].</ref> Israeli historians Alon Kadish and [[Avraham Sela]] write that the Arab National Committee—a local emergency Arab authority that answered to the [[Arab Higher Committee]] run by the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]]—had assumed civic and military control of Lydda, and had acquired arms, conducted training, constructed trenches, requisitioned vehicles, and organized medical services. By the time of the Israeli attack, they say the militia in Lydda numbered 1,000 men equipped with rifles, submachine guns, 15 machine guns, five heavy machine guns, 25 anti-tank launchers, six or seven light field-guns, two or three heavy ones, and armored cars with machine guns. They argue that the deaths in Lydda occurred during a military battle for the town, not because of a massacre.<ref name=KadishSela>[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref>

[[File:King Abdullah of Jordan and John Glubb Bagot.jpg|right|thumb|210px|alt=photograph|King Abdullah of Jordan (1882–1951) with [[John Bagot Glubb]] (1897–1986), the British commander of the [[Arab Legion]]]]
Against this view, Palestinian historian [[Walid Khalidi]] writes that just 125 Legionnaires from the Fifth Infantry Company were in Lydda—the Arab Legion numbered 6,000 in all—and that the rest of the town's defense consisted of civilian residents acting under the command of a retired Arab Legion sergeant.<ref name=Khalidi>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Khalidi 1998], p. 81.</ref> According to Morris, a number of Arab Legion soldiers, including 200–300 Bedouin volunteers, had arrived in Lydda and Ramle in April, and a company-sized force had set itself up in the old British police stations in Lydda and on the Lydda-Ramle road, with armored cars and other weapons. He writes that there were 150 Legionnaires in the town in June, though the Israelis believed there were up to 1,500. An Arab Legion officer was appointed military governor of both towns, signaling the desire of [[Abdullah I of Jordan]] to stake a claim in the parts of Palestine allotted by the UN to an Arab-Palestinian state, but Glubb advised him that the Legion was overstretched and could not hold the towns. As a result, Abdullah ordered the Legion to assume a defensive position only, and most of the Legionnaires in Lydda withdrew during the night of 11–12 July.<ref>Morris 2008, pp. 286, 289.
*That the IDF ignored that the Legion was "on a defensive footing," see Gelber 2006, p. 158.</ref>

Kadish and Sela write that the National Committee stopped women and children from leaving, because their departure had acted elsewhere as a catalyst for the men to leave too. They say it was common for Arabs to leave their homes under threat of Israeli invasion, in part because they feared atrocities, particularly rape, and in part because of a reluctance to live under Jewish rule. In Lydda's case, they argue, the fears were more particular: a few days before the city fell, a Jew found in Lydda's train station had been publicly executed and his body mutilated by residents, who, according to Kadish and Sela, now feared Jewish reprisals.<ref name=KadishSela/>

==Fall of the cities==
===Air attacks and surrender of Ramle===
[[File:Capture of Lydda airport, July 1948.JPG|thumb|left|230px|alt=photograph|The IDF took control of Lydda airport on 10 July.]]
The Israeli air force began bombing the towns on the night of 9–10 July, intending to induce civilian flight, and it seemed to work in Ramle: at 11:30 hours on 10 July, Operation Dani headquarters (Dani HQ) told the IDF that there was a "general and serious flight from Ramla." That afternoon, Dani HQ told one of its brigades to facilitate the flight from Ramle of women, children, and the elderly, but to detain men of military age.<ref name=Morris2004p425>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA425 Morris 2004, p. 425].</ref> On the same day, the IDF took control of Lydda airport.<ref name="gelber">[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA159 Gelber 2006, p. 159].</ref> The Israeli air force dropped leaflets over both towns on 11 July telling residents to surrender.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 86: The leaflets said: "You have no chance of receiving help. We intend to conquer the towns. We have no intention of harming persons or property. [But] whoever attempts to oppose us—will die. He who prefers to live must surrender.</ref> Ramle's community leaders, along with three prominent Arab family representatives, agreed to surrender, after which the Israelis mortared the city and imposed a curfew. ''The New York Times'' reported at the time that the capture of the city was seen as the high point of Israel's brief existence.<ref>Formal surrender discussed in a telephone message from Dani HQ, 12 July 1948, 10:30 am, cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].
*For the ''New York Times'' account of the surrender, see [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30713FA385F167B93C1A8178CD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=&st=p Currivan, ''The New York Times'', 12 July 1948].</ref>

Two different images emerged of Ramle under occupation. [[Khalil Wazir]], who later joined the [[PLO]] and became known as Abu Jihad, was evicted from the town with his family, who owned a grocer's store there, when he was 12 years old. He said there was fear of a massacre, as there had been at [[Deir Yassin massacre|Deir Yassin]], and that there were bodies scattered in the streets and between the houses, including the bodies of women and children.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?ei=DjDuTMXIO8SknQfUmOCyCw&ct=result&id=4Qm7AAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Palestinians&q=terribly+frightened#search_anchor Dimbleby and McCullin 1980, pp. 88–89]. He said: "The whole village went to the church. ... I remember the archbishop standing in front of the church. He was holding a white flag. ... Afterwards we came out and the picture will never be erased from my mind. There were bodies scattered on the road and between the houses and the side streets. No one, not even women or children, had been spared if they were out in the street. ..."</ref> Against this, the writer [[Arthur Koestler]] (1905–1983), working for ''The Times'', visited Ramle a few hours after the invasion, and said people were hanging around in the streets as usual. A few hundred young men had been placed in a barbed wire cage, and were being taken in lorries to an internment camp. Women were bringing them food and water, he wrote, arguing with the Jewish guards and seemingly unafraid. He said the prevailing feeling seemed to be relief that the war was over.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=XEqTMSzQYUIC&pg=PA270 Koestler 1949, pp. 270–271]. He wrote: "The Arabs were hanging about in the streets much as usual, except for a few hundred youths of military age who have been put into a barbed wire cage and were taken off in lorries to an internment camp. Their veiled mothers and wives were carrying food and water to the cage, arguing with the Jewish sentries and pulling their sleeves, obviously quite unafraid. ... Groups of Arabs came marching down the main street with their arms above their heads, grinning broadly, without any guards, to give themselves up. The one prevailing feeling among all seemed to be that as far as Ramleh was concerned the war was over, and thank God for it."</ref>

===Moshe Dayan raid on Lydda===
[[File:Mosche Dajan.jpg|right|thumb|130px|alt=photograph|[[Moshe Dayan]] (1915–1981) led a raid on Lydda "blasting at everything that moved."<ref name=Bilby43/>]]
During the afternoon of 11 July, Israel's 89th (armored) Battalion, led by Lt. Col. [[Moshe Dayan]], moved into Lydda. Israeli historian [[Anita Shapira]] writes that the raid was carried out on Dayan's initiative without coordinating it with his commander. Using a column of jeeps led by a Marmon Harrington armored vehicle with a cannon—taken from the Arab Legion the day before—he launched the attack in daylight,<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA225 Shapira 2007, p. 225].</ref> driving through the town from east to west machine-gunning anything that moved, according to Morris, then along the Lydda-Ramle road firing at militia posts until they reached the train station in Ramle.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426].</ref> Kadish and Sela write that the troops faced heavy fire from the Arab Legion in the police stations in Lydda and on the Lydda-Ramle road.<ref name=KadishSela/> A contemporaneous account from Gene Currivan for ''The New York Times'' also said the firing met with heavy resistance.<ref name=Currivan>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30713FA385F167B93C1A8178CD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=&st=p Currivan, ''The New York Times'', 12 July 1948].</ref>

[[Kenneth Bilby]], a correspondent for the ''New York Herald Tribune'' was in the city at the time. He wrote: "[The Israeli jeep column] raced into Lydda with rifles, Stens, and sub-machine guns blazing. It coursed through the main streets, blasting at everything that moved ... the corpses of Arab men, women, and even children were strewn about the streets in the wake of this ruthlessly brilliant charge."<ref name=Bilby43>[http://books.google.com/books?ei=PSnuTIuAL8TMngfJmYXyCg&ct=result&id=-gkcAAAAMAAJ&dq=New+Star+in+the+Near+East&q=coursed#search_anchor Bilby 1950, p. 43].</ref> The raid lasted 47 minutes, leaving 100–150 Arabs dead, according to Dayan's 89th Battalion. Six died and 21 were wounded on the Israeli side.<ref>The casualty figures vary widely. The figure from Dayan is cited in [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*There were dozens dead and wounded, "perhaps as many as 200," according to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426] and [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 p. 452], footnote 68, citing Kadish, Sela, and Golan 2000, p. 36.
*"[A]bout 40 dead and a large number of wounded," according to Third Battalion intelligence, though it is not clear whether they meant 40 killed by the Third Battalion alone; see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 452], footnote 68.
*Six died and 21 were wounded on the Israeli side, according to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426], again citing Kadish, Sela, and Golan 2000, p. 36.</ref> Kadish and Sela write that the high casualty rate was caused by confusion over who Dayan's troops were. The IDF were wearing ''[[keffiyeh]]''s and were led by an armored car seized from the Arab Legion. Residents may have believed the Arab Legion had arrived, only to encounter Dayan's forces shooting at everything as they ran from their homes.<ref name=KadishSela/>

===Unexpected shooting in Lydda===
No formal surrender was announced in Lydda, though people gathered in the streets waving white flags. On the evening of 11 July, 300–400 Israeli soldiers entered the town. Not long afterwards, the Arab Legion forces on the Lydda–Ramle road withdrew, though a small number of Legionnaires remained in the Lydda police station. More Israeli troops arrived at dawn on 12 July. According to a contemporaneous IDF account: "Groups of old and young, women and children streamed down the streets in a great display of submissiveness, bearing white flags, and entered of their own free will the detention compounds we arranged in the mosque and church—Muslims and Christians separately." The buildings soon filled up, and women and children were released, leaving several thousand men inside, including 4,000 in one of the mosque compounds.<ref>For the IDF quote, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].
*For the 4,000 in the Great Mosque, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref>

Israeli historian [[Yoav Gelber]] writes that the Legionnaires still in the police station were panicking, and had been sending frantic messages to their HQ in Ramallah: "Have you no God in your hearts? Don't you feel any compassion? Hasten aid!"<ref name="gelber"/> They were about to surrender, but were told by HQ to wait to be rescued.<ref>Gelber 2004, p. 23.</ref> On 12 July, at 11:30 hours, two or three Arab Legion armored cars entered the city, led by Lt. Hamadallah al-Abdullah from the Jordanian 1st Brigade. The Arab Legion armored cars opened fire on the Israeli soldiers combing the old city. The exchange of gunfire led residents to believe the Legion had arrived in force, and those still armed started firing at the Israelis too. Kadish and Sela write that, according to the Third Battalion's commander, [[Moshe Kelman]], the Israelis came under heavy fire from thousands of weapons from every house, roof and window. Morris argues against this that only a few dozen townspeople took part in what turned out to be a brief firefight. Brief or not, the Israeli soldiers were unnerved by it: there were only 300–400 of them to quell tens of thousands of residents, and they had been under the impression the locals had surrendered, albeit informally.<ref>[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 Morris 2004, footnote 78, p. 453].</ref>

===Massacre in Lydda===
[[File:LyddaDahmashMosque.png|200px|thumb|alt=photograph|The Dahmash mosque just after occupation]]
Gelber describes what followed as probably the bloodiest massacre of the Arab–Israeli war. Shapira writes that the Israelis had no experience of governing civilians and panicked.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA162 Gelber 2006, p. 162].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA227 Shapira 2007, p. 227].
*{{citation | url = http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf | last = Khalidi | year = 1998 | format = [[PDF]]}} calls it "an orgy of indiscriminate killing."
*[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005] call it "an intense battle where the demarcation between civilians, irregular combatants and regular army units hardly existed."</ref> Kelman ordered troops to shoot at any clear target, including at anyone seen on the streets.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].</ref> He said he had no choice; there was no chance of immediate reinforcements, and no indication of where the attacks were coming from.<ref name=KadishSela/> Israeli soldiers threw grenades into houses they suspected snipers were hiding in. Residents ran out of their homes in panic and were shot. Yeruham Cohen, an IDF intelligence officer, said around 250 died between 11:30 and 14:00 hours.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 87.</ref>

Palestinian historian [[Aref al-Aref]] placed the death toll at 426, including 179 he said were later killed in one of the mosques, during a confusing incident that sources variously refer to as a massacre or a battle.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA428 Morris 2004, p. 428], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 453, footnote 81]. For more casualty figures, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref> Thousands of male Muslim detainees had been taken to two of the mosques the day before. Christian detainees had been taken to the church or a nearby Greek Orthodox monastery, leaving the Muslims in fear of a massacre.<ref>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Munayyer 1998], pp. 93–4.</ref> Morris writes that some of them tried to break out, thinking they were about to be killed, and in response the IDF threw grenades and fired anti-tank rockets into one of the mosque compounds. Kadish and Sela say it was a firefight that broke out between armed militiamen inside the mosque and Israeli soldiers outside; they say the Israelis fired an anti-tank shell into it, then stormed it, killing 30 inside. According to Morris, dozens died, including unarmed men, women and children; an eyewitness published a memoir in 1998 saying he had removed 95 bodies from one of the mosques.<ref>For a discussion about which mosque this happened in, and for the 95 bodies, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005], particularly footnote 40.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA428 Morris 2004, p. 428]: "dozens" were shot and killed
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 Morris 2004, p. 453], footnote 81, cites Kadish, Sela and Golan's ''The Conquest'', who say it was a battle that took place in the mosque, not a massacre. He adds that Kadish et al acknowledge that women, children, and unarmed older men were among the dead.
*An eyewitness, Fayeq Abu Mana, 20 years old at the time, told an Israeli group in 2003 that he had been involved in removing the bodies; see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=365 Zochrot 2003].</ref>

When the shooting was over, bodies lay in the streets and houses in Lydda, and on the Lydda–Ramle road; Morris writes that there were hundreds. The Red Cross was due to visit the area, but the new Israeli military governor of Ramle issued an order to have the visit delayed. The visit was rescheduled for 14 July; Dani HQ ordered Israeli troops to remove the bodies by then, but the order seems not to have been carried out. Dr. Klaus Dreyer of the IDF Medical Corps complained on 15 July that there were still corpses lying in and around Lydda, which constituted a health hazard and a "moral and aesthetic issue." He asked that trucks and Arab residents be organized to deal with them.<ref name=Morris2004p434>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 Morris 2004, p. 434].</ref>

==Exodus==
===Expulsion orders===
Benny Morris writes that David Ben-Gurion and the IDF were largely left to their own devices to decide how Arab residents were to be treated, without the involvement of the Cabinet and other ministers. As a result, their policy was haphazard and circumstantial, depending in part on the location, but also on the religion and ethnicity of the town. The Arabs of Western and Lower [[Galilee]], mainly Christian and Druze, were allowed to stay in place, but Lydda and Ramle, mainly Muslim, were almost completely emptied.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA415 Morris 2004, p. 415].</ref> There was no official policy to expel the Palestinian population, he writes, but the idea of [[Transfer Committee|transfer]] was "in the air", and the leadership understood this.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080515210330/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=380986&contrassID=2 Shavit 2004].</ref>

[[File:Yitzhak Rabin (1986) cropped.jpg|thumb|left|130px|alt=photograph|[[Yitzhak Rabin]] (1922–95) signed the expulsion order.<ref name=Morris2004p429/>]]
As the shooting in Lydda continued, a meeting was held on 12 July at Operation Dani headquarters between Ben-Gurion, [[Yigael Yadin]] and Zvi Ayalon, generals in the IDF, and [[Yisrael Galili]], formerly of the [[Haganah]], the pre-IDF army. Also present were Yigal Allon, commanding officer of Operation Dani, and Yitzhak Rabin.<ref name=Shipler1>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979].</ref> At one point Ben-Gurion, Allon, and Rabin left the room. Rabin has offered two accounts of what happened next. In a 1977 interview with [[Michael Bar-Zohar]], Rabin said Allon asked what was to be done with the residents; in response, Ben-Gurion had waved his hand and said, "''garesh otam''"—"expel them."<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986, p. 90, footnote 31.]</ref> In the manuscript of his memoirs in 1979, Rabin wrote that Ben-Gurion had not spoken, but had only waved his hand, and that Rabin had understand this to mean "drive them out."<ref name=Shipler1/> The expulsion order for Lydda was issued at 13:30 hours on 12 July, signed by Rabin.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].
*The orders for Lydda were from Dani HQ to Yiftah Brigade HQ and 8th Brigade HQ, and to Kiryati Brigade at around the same time.
*"1. The inhabitants of Lydda must be expelled quickly without attention to age. They should be directed towards Beit Nabala. Yiftah [Brigade HQ] must determined the method and inform Dani HQ and 8th Brigade HQ.
*"2. Implement immediately (Prior 1999, p. 205).
*The IDF archives holds two nearly identical copies of the expulsion order. According to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 89, Yigal Allon denied in 1979 that there had been such an order, or an expulsion, saying that the order to evacuate the civilian population of Lydda and Ramle came from the Arab Legion.
*A telegram from Kiryati Brigade HQ to Zvi Aurback, its officer in charge of Ramle, read:
*1. In light of the deployment of 42nd Battalion out of Ramle – you must take [over responsibility] for the defence of the town, the transfer of prisoners [to PoW camps] and the emptying of the town of its inhabitants.
*2. You must continue the sorting out of the inhabitants, and send the army-age males to a prisoner of war camp. The old, women and children will be transported by vehicle to al Qubab and will be moved across the lines – [and] from there continue on foot.." (Kiryati HQ to Aurbach, Tel Aviv District HQ (Mishmar) etc., 14:50 hours, 13 July 1948, Haganah Archive, Tel Aviv), cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].</ref>

In his memoirs Rabin wrote: "'Driving out' is a term with a harsh ring. Psychologically, this was one of the most difficult actions we undertook. The population of Lod did not leave willingly. There was no way of avoiding the use of force and warning shots in order to make the inhabitants march the 10 to 15 miles to the point where they met up with the legion." An [[Censorship in Israel|Israeli censorship board]] removed this section from his manuscript, but Peretz Kidron, the Israeli journalist who translated the memoirs into English, passed the censored text to David Shipler of ''The New York Times'', who published it on 23 October 1979.<ref name=Shipler1/>

In an interview with ''The New York Times'' two days later, Yigal Allon took issue with Rabin's version of events. "With all my high esteem for Rabin during the war of independence, I was his commander and my knowledge of the facts is therefore more accurate," he told Shipler. "I did not ask the late Ben-Gurion for permission to expel the population of Lydda. I did not receive such permission and did not give such orders." He said the residents left in part because they were told to by the Arab Legion, so the latter could recapture Lydda at a later date, and in part because they were panic-stricken.<ref name=Shipler2>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B12FE3C5C12728DDDAC0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=2&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 25 October 1979].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA232 Shapira 2007, p. 232]: Allon gave a lecture on the war in 1950, during which [[Anita Shapira]] writes that he was uncharacteristically frank. He said he blamed the Palestinian exodus on three factors. First, they fled because they were [[Psychological projection|projecting]]: the Arabs imagined that the Jews would do to them what they would do to the Jews if positions were reversed. Second, Arab and British leaders encouraged people to leave their towns so as not to be taken hostage, so they could return to fight another day. Third, there were some cases of expulsion, though these were not the norm. In Lydda and Ramle, the Arab Legion continued to attack Israeli outposts in the hope of reconnecting with their troops in Lydda, he said. When the expulsions started, the attacks died down. To leave the towns' hostile populations in place would be to risk their use by the Legion to coordinate further attacks. Allon said he had no regrets: "War is war." Allon described it elsewhere as a "provoked exodus," rather than an expulsion; see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*Also see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 89.</ref> Yoav Gelber also takes issue with Rabin's account. He writes that Ben-Gurion was in the habit of expressing his orders clearly, whether verbally or in writing, and would not have issued an order by waving his hand; he adds that there is no record of any meetings before the invasion that indicate expulsion was discussed. He attributes the expulsions to Allon, who he says was known for his [[scorched earth]] policy. Wherever Allon was in charge of Israeli troops, Gelber writes, no Palestinians remained.<ref name=Gelber2006p162>[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA162 Gelber 2006, pp. 162–163].</ref>

===Shitrit/Shertok intervention===
The Israeli cabinet reportedly knew nothing about the expulsion plan until [[Bechor Shitrit]], Minister for Minority Affairs, appeared unannounced in Ramle on 12 July. He was shocked when he realized troops were organizing expulsions. He returned to Tel Aviv for a meeting with Foreign Minister [[Moshe Shertok]], who met with Ben Gurion to agree on guidelines for the treatment of the residents, though Morris writes that Ben Gurion apparently failed to tell Shitrit or Shertok that he himself was the source of the expulsion orders. Gelber disagrees with Morris's analysis, arguing that Ben-Gurion's agreement with Shitrit and Shertok is evidence that expulsion was not his intention, rather than evidence of his duplicity, as Morris implies.<ref name=Gelber2006p162/> The men agreed the townspeople should be told that anyone who wanted to leave could do so, but that anyone who stayed was responsible for himself and would not be given food. Women, children, the old, and the sick were not to be forced to leave, and the monasteries and churches must not be damaged, though no mention was made of the mosques. Ben-Gurion passed the order to the IDF General Staff, who passed it to Dani HQ at 23:30 hours on 12 July, ten hours after the expulsion orders were issued; Morris writes that there was an ambiguity in the instruction that women, children and the sick were not to be forced to go: the word "''lalechet''" can mean either "go" or "walk". Satisfied that the order had been passed on, Shertok believed he had managed to avert the expulsions, not realizing that, even as he was discussing them in Tel Aviv, they had already begun.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA430 Morris 2004, p. 430].
*Also see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 92.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA161 Gelber 2006, pp. 161–162], also says the residents were already on their way out when this order was given.</ref>

===The exodus===
Thousands of Ramle residents began moving out of the town on foot, or in trucks and buses, between 10 July and 12 July. The IDF used its own vehicles and confiscated Arab ones to move them.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].
*That the Ramle residents were supplied buses by the Kiryati brigade, see [http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].</ref> Morris writes that, by 13 July, the wishes of the IDF and those of the residents in Lydda had dovetailed. Over the past three days, the townspeople had undergone aerial bombardment, ground invasion, had seen grenades thrown into their homes and hundreds of residents killed, had been living under a curfew, had been abandoned by the Arab Legion, and the able-bodied men had been rounded up. Morris writes they had concluded that living under Israeli rule was not sustainable.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA431 Morris 2004, p. 431].</ref> Spiro Munayyer, an eyewitness, wrote that the important thing was to get out of the city.<ref>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Munayyer 1998], p. 94.</ref> A deal was reached with an IDF intelligence officer, Shmarya Guttman, normally an archeologist, that the residents would leave in exchange for the release of the prisoners; according to Guttman, he went to the mosque himself and told the men they were free to join their families.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], pp. 93–4. Morris finds Guttman's account subjective and impressionistic (p. 94, footnote 39). Guttman later wrote about Lydda under the pseudonym "Avi-Yiftah".</ref> Town criers and soldiers walked or drove around the town instructing residents where to gather for departure.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, p. 432].</ref>

Notwithstanding that an agreement may have been reached, Morris writes that the troops understood that what followed was an act of deportation, not a voluntary exodus. While the residents were still in the town, IDF radio traffic had already started calling them "refugees" (''plitim'').<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA455 Morris 2004, p. 455], footnote 96.</ref> Operation Dani HQ told the IDF General Staff/Operations at noon on 13 July that "[the troops in Lydda] are busy expelling the inhabitants [''oskim begeirush hatoshavim'']," and told the HQs of Kiryati, 8th and Yiftah brigades at the same time that, "enemy resistance in Ramle and Lydda has ended. The eviction [''pinui'']" of the inhabitants... has begun."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, p. 432]: At 18:15 hours that day, Dani HQ asked Yiftah Brigade: "Has the removal of the population [''hotza'at ha'ochlosiah''] of Lydda been completed?"</ref>

===The march===
[[File:Refugees from Lydda.jpg|left|thumb|280px|alt=photograph||Refugees from Lydda and Ramle after the three-day exodus<ref>Glubb 1957, plate 8, between pp. 159 and 161. The caption says: "Arab refugee women and children from Lydda and Ramle, resting after their arrival in the Arab area."</ref>]]
Lydda's residents began moving out on the morning of 13 July. They were made to walk, perhaps because of their earlier resistance, or simply because there were no vehicles left. They walked six to seven kilometers to [[Beit Nabala]], then 10–12 more to [[Barfiliya]], along dusty roads in temperatures of 30–35°C, carrying their children and portable possessions in carts pulled by animals or on their backs.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], pp. 93–4; see p. 97 for the temperature.</ref> According to Shmarya Guttman, an IDF soldier, warning shots were occasionally fired.<ref name=Morris2004p433>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, pp. 433–4].</ref> Some were stripped of their valuables en route by Israeli soldiers at checkpoints.<ref name=Morris2004p433/> Another IDF soldier described how possessions and people were slowly abandoned as the refugees grew tired or collapsed: "To begin with [jettisoning] utensils and furniture, and in the end, bodies of men, women, and children, scattered along the way."<ref name=Morris2004p433/>

Haj As'ad Hassouneh, a survivor of the death march, shared his recollection in 1996: <blockquote>The Jews came and they called among the people: "You must go." "Where shall we go?" "Go to Barfilia." ... the spot you were standing on determined what if any family or possession you could get; any to the west of you could not be retrieved. You had to immediately begin walking and it had to be to the east. ... The people were fatigued even before they began their journey or could attempt to reach any destination. No one knew where Barfilia was or its distance from Jordan. ... The people were also fasting due to [[Ramadan]] because they were people of serious belief. There was no water. People began to die of thirst. Some women died and their babies nursed from their dead bodies. Many of the elderly died on the way. ... Many buried their dead in the leaves of corn.<ref name=Jawadp71>[http://books.google.ca/books?id=bWCN0OUiTJkC&pg=PA100&dq=lydda+%22death+march%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HEVTT-bJBcKY8gOXuo3wBQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=lydda%20%22death%20march%22&f=false Abdel Jawad in Benvenisti et al. 2007]</ref></blockquote>

After three days of walking, the refugees were picked up by the Arab Legion and driven to Ramallah.<ref>Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref> Reports vary regarding how many died. Many were elderly people and young children who died from the heat and exhaustion.<ref name =Shipler1/> Morris has written that it was a "handful and perhaps dozens."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA177 Morris 2003, p. 177].</ref> Glubb wrote that "nobody will ever know how many children died."<ref name=Morris2004p433/> [[Nimr al Khatib]] estimated that 335 died based on hearsay.<ref name=Morris2004p433/> Walid Khalidi gives a figure of 350, citing Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref.<ref>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Khalidi 1998, pp. 80–98].</ref> The expulsions clogged the roads eastward. Morris writes that IDF thinking was simple and cogent. They had just taken two major objectives and were out of steam. The Arab Legion had been expected to counter-attack, but the expulsions thwarted it: the roads were now cluttered, and the Legion was suddenly responsible for the welfare of an additional tens of thousands of people.<ref name=Morris2004p433/>

===Looting of refugees and the towns===
[[File:George Habash.jpg|thumb|130px|alt=photograph|[[George Habash]] (1926–2008) who later led the [[PFLP]], was among those expelled from Lydda.]]
The Sharett-Ben Gurion guidelines to the IDF had specified there was to be no robbery, but numerous sources spoke of widespread looting. ''The Economist'' wrote on 21 August that year: "The Arab refugees were systematically stripped of all their belongings before they were sent on their trek to the frontier. Household belongings, stores, clothing, all had to be left behind."<ref>Pappé 2006, p. 168.</ref> Aharon Cohen, director of Mapam's Arab Department, complained to Yigal Allon months after the deportations that troops had been told to remove jewellery and money from residents so that they would arrive at the Arab Legion without resources, thereby increasing the burden of looking after them. Allon replied that he knew of no such order, but conceded it as a possibility.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 97.</ref>

[[George Habash]], who later founded the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]], was born in Lydda to a Greek Orthodox family. He was in his second year at medical school in Beirut at the time, but returned to Lydda when he heard the Israelis had arrived in Jaffa, and was subsequently one of those expelled. Recalling the events of 1948 in 1990, he said that the Israelis took watches, jewellery, gold, and wallets from the refugees, and that he witnessed a neighbor of his shot and killed because he refused to be searched; he said the man's sister, who also saw what happened, died during the march from the shock, exposure and thirst.<ref name=Brandabur>[http://www.peuplesmonde.com/spip.php?article680 Brandabur 1990]. Habash said: "The Israelis were rounding everyone up and searching us. People were driven from every quarter and subjected to complete and rough body searches. You can’t imagine the savagery with which people were treated. Everything was taken—watches, jewelery, wedding rings, wallets, gold. One young neighbor of ours, a man in his late twenties, not more, Amin Hanhan, had secreted some money in his shirt to care for his family on the journey. The soldier who searched him demanded that he surrender the money and he resisted. He was shot dead in front of us. One of his sisters, a young married woman, also a neighbor of our family, was present: she saw her brother shot dead before her eyes. She was so shocked that, as we made our way toward Birzeit, she died of shock, exposure, and lack of water on the way."</ref>

As the residents left, the sacking of the cities began. The Yiftah brigade commander, Lt. Col. Schmuel "Mula" Cohen, wrote of Lydda that, "the cruelty of the war here reached its zenith."<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 88.</ref> Bechor Sheetrit, the Minister for Minority Affairs, said the army removed 1,800 truckloads of property from Lydda alone. Dov Shafrir was appointed Israel's Custodian of Absentee Property, supposedly charged to protect and redistribute Palestinian property, but his staff were inexperienced and unable to control the situation.<ref>Segev 1986, pp. 69–71</ref> The looting was so extensive that the 3rd Battalion had to be withdrawn from Lydda during the night of 13–14 July, and sent for a day to [[Ben Shemen]] for ''kinus heshbon nefesh'', a conference to encourage soul-searching. Cohen forced them to hand over their loot, which was thrown onto a bonfire and destroyed, but the situation continued when they returned to town. Some were later prosecuted.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 86.</ref>

There were also allegations that Israeli soldiers had raped Palestinian women. Ben-Gurion referred to them in his diary entry for 15 July 1948: "The bitter question has arisen regarding acts of robbery and rape [''o'nes'' ("אונס")] in the conquered towns ..."<ref>Ben-Gurion, Volume 2, p. 589.</ref> Israeli writer [[Amos Kenan]], who served as a platoon commander of the 82d Regiment of the Israeli Army brigade that conquered Lydda told ''The Nation'' on 6 February 1989: "At night, those of us who couldn't restrain ourselves would go into the prison compounds to fuck Arab women. I want very much to assume, and perhaps even can, that those who couldn't restrain themselves did what they thought the Arabs would have done to them had they won the war."<ref name=Kenan>[http://www.thenation.com/archive/four-decades-blood-vengeance Kenan 1989]; [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0059831.html courtesy link].</ref> Kenan said he heard of only one woman who complained. A court-martial was arranged, he said, but in court, the accused ran the back of his hand across his throat, and the woman decided not to proceed.<ref name=Kenan/> The allegations were given little consideration by the Israeli government. Agriculture Minister [[Aharon Zisling]] told the Cabinet on 21 July: "It has been said that there were cases of rape in Ramle. I could forgive acts of rape but I won't forgive other deeds, which appear to me much graver. When a town is entered and rings are forcibly removed from fingers and jewellery from necks—that is a very grave matter."<ref name=Zisling>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986, p. 105].
*See also Segev 1986, pp. 71–72.
*For a discussion of Ben-Gurion's concern, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=dL29_RBATv0C&pg=PA313 Tal 2004, p. 311].</ref>

Stuart Cohen writes that central control over the Jewish fighters was weak. Only Yigal Allon, commander of the IDF, made it standard practice to issue written orders to commanders, including that violations of the laws of war would be punished. Otherwise, trust was placed, and sometimes misplaced, in what Cohen calls intuitive troop decency. He adds that, despite the alleged war crimes, the majority of the IDF behaved with decency and civility.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVV4i-KbzoAC&pg=PA139 Cohen 2008, p. 139].</ref> Yitzhak Rabin wrote in his memoirs that some refused to take part in the evictions.<ref>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979]. Rabin wrote: "Great suffering was inflicted upon the men taking part in the eviction action. Soldiers of the Yiftach brigade included youth movement graduates, who had been inculcated with values such as international fraternity and humaneness. The eviction action went beyond the concepts they were used to. There were some fellows who refused to take part in the expulsion action. Prolonged propaganda activities were required after the action, to remove the bitterness of these youth movement groups, and explain why we were obliged to undertake such harsh and cruel action."</ref>

==Aftermath==
===In Ramallah, Amman, and elsewhere===
[[File:Glubb Pasha 1940.jpg|right|thumb|220px|alt=photograph|[[John Bagot Glubb]], British commander of the Arab Legion, was spat on as he drove through the [[West Bank]] for having handed Lydda and Ramle to the Jews.]]
Tens of thousands of Palestinians from Lydda and Ramle poured into Ramallah. For the most part, they had no money, property, food, or water, and represented a health risk, not only to themselves. The Ramallah city council asked King Abdullah to remove them.<ref>IDF Intelligence Service/Arab Department, 21 July 1948, cited in Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref> Some of the refugees reached Amman, the Gaza Strip, Lebanon, and the Upper Galilee, and all over the area there were angry demonstrations against Abdullah and the Arab Legion for their failure to defend the cities. People spat at Glubb, the British commander of the Arab Legion, as he drove through the [[West Bank]], and wives and parents of Arab Legion soldiers tried to break into King Abdullah's palace.<ref name=Morris2008p290>Morris 2008, pp. 290–291.</ref> [[Alec Kirkbride]], the British ambassador in Amman, described one protest in the city on 18 July:

<blockquote>A couple of thousand Palestinian men swept up the hill toward the main [palace] entrance ... screaming abuse and demanding that the lost towns should be reconquered at once ... The King appeared at the top of the main steps of the building; he was a short, dignified figure wearing white robes and headdress. He paused for a moment, surveying the seething mob before, [then walked] down the steps to push his way through the line of guardsmen into the thick of the demonstrators. He went up to a prominent individual, who was shouting at the top of his voice, and dealt him a violent blow to the side of the head with the flat of his hand. The recipient of the blow stopped yelling ... the King could be heard roaring: so, you want to fight the Jews, do you? Very well, there is a recruiting office for the army at the back of my house ... go there and enlist. The rest of you, get the hell down the hillside!" Most of the crowd got the hell down the hillside.<ref>Kirkbride 1976, p. 48, cited in Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref></blockquote>

Morris writes that, during a meeting in Amman on 12–13 July of the Political Committee of the [[Arab League]], delegates—particularly from Syria and Iraq—accused Glubb of serving British, or even Jewish, interests, with his excuses about troop and ammunition shortages. Egyptian journalists said he had handed Lydda and Ramle to the Jews. Perie-Gordon, Britain's acting minister in Amman, told the Foreign Office there was a suspicion that Glubb, on behalf of the British government, had lost Lydda and Ramle deliberately to ensure that Transjordan accept a truce. King Abdullah indicated that he wanted Glubb to leave, without actually asking him to—particularly after Iraqi officers alleged that the entire [[Hashemite]] house was in the pay of the British—but London asked him to stay on. Britain's popularity with the Arabs reached an all-time low.<ref>Morris 2008, pp. 291–292.
*For Perie-Gordon, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=D30D_GzUKfMC&pg=PA208 Abu Nowar 2002, p. 208].</ref> The United Nations Security Council called for a ceasefire to begin no later than 18 July, with sanctions to be levelled against transgressors. The Arabs were outraged: "No justice, no logic, no equity, no understanding, but blind submission to everything that is Zionist," ''Al-Hayat'' responded, though Morris writes that cooler heads in the Arab world were privately pleased that they were required not to fight, given Israel's obvious military superiority.<ref>Morris 2008, p. 295.</ref>

===Situation of the refugees===
Morris writes that the situation of the 400,000 Arabs who became refugees that summer—not only those from Lydda and Ramle—was dire, camping in public buildings, abandoned barracks, and under trees.<ref name=Morris2008p309>Morris 2008, p. 309ff.</ref> [[Count Folke Bernadotte]], the United Nations mediator in Palestine, visited a [[Palestinian refugee camps|refugee camp]] in Ramallah and said he had never seen a more ghastly sight.<ref>Sayigh 2007, p. 84.</ref> Morris writes that the Arab governments did little for them, and most of the aid that did reach them came from the West through the Red Cross and Quakers. A new UN body was set up to get things moving, which in December 1949 became the [[United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East]] (UNRWA), which many of the refugees and their descendants, now standing at four million, still depend on.<ref name=Morris2008p309/> Bernadotte's mediation efforts—which resulted in a proposal to split Palestine between Israel and Jordan, and to hand Lydda and Ramle to King Abdullah—ended on 17 September 1948, when he was assassinated by four Israeli gunmen from [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]], an extremist Zionist faction.<ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jfouAAAAIBAJ&sjid=HNwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6344,4611106&dq=bernadotte+assassination&hl=en "Bernadotte Murder Stuns Whole World"], ''Ottawa Citizen'', 18 September 1948.</ref> The United Nations convened the [[Lausanne Conference, 1949|Lausanne Conference]] from April to September 1949 in part to resolve the refugee question. Israel offered to allow 100,000 to return in exchange for peace, including 25,000 who had already returned illegally. Ben-Gurion opposed it, and the Americans felt it too low: they wanted to see 250,000 refugees re-absorbed. The issue became moot because the Arabs rejected the proposal. They maintained that there were one million refugees overall, and that the Israeli offer was "less than token."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA573 Morris 2004, pp. 573–577].</ref>

===Resettlement of the cities===
{{further|Absentees' Property Laws|Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim lands}}
[[File:Transfer of control from the military governor to the first mayor, Pesach Lev, Lod, April 1949.jpg|right|thumb|230px|alt=photograph|Power is handed from the military governor of Lydda, now called Lod, to the first mayor, Pesach Lev, April 1949.]]
On 14 July 1948 the IDF told Ben-Gurion that "not one Arab inhabitant" remained in Ramla or Lod, as they were now called. In fact, several hundred remained, including the elderly, the ill and some Christians, and others managed to sneak back in over the following months. In October 1948 the Israeli military governor of Ramla-Lod reported that 960 Palestinians were living in Ramla, and 1,030 in Lod. Military rule in the towns ended in April 1949.<ref>For "not one inhabitant," and the hundreds remaining, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 Morris 2004, p. 434].
*For the numbers in October 1948, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA455 Morris 2004, p. 455], footnote 110.
*For military rule ending, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA39 Yacobi 2009, p. 39].</ref>

Nearly 700,000 Jews [[Aliyah|immigrated to Israel]] between May 1948 and December 1951 from Europe, Asia and Africa, doubling the state's Jewish population; in 1950 Israel passed the [[Law of Return]], offering Jews automatic citizenship.<ref name=Yacobi2009p42>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA42 Yacobi 2009, p. 42].</ref> The immigrants were assigned Palestinian homes—in part because of the inevitable housing shortage, but also as a matter of policy to make it harder for former residents to reclaim them—and could buy refugees' furniture from the Custodian for Absentees' Property.<ref name=MorrisYacobi>Morris 2008, p. 308, for a general discussion of the issue.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA45 Yacobi 2009, p. 45], for specific mention of this in relation to Lydda.</ref> Jewish families were occasionally placed in houses belonging to Palestinians who still lived in Israel, the so-called "[[present absentees]]," regarded as physically present but legally absent, with no legal standing to reclaim their property.<ref name=Yacobi2009p42/> By March 1950 there were 8,600 Jews and 1,300 Palestinian Arabs living in Ramla, and 8,400 Jews and 1,000 Palestinians in Lod. Most of the Jews who settled in the towns were from Asia or North Africa.<ref>For the figures, and that most were from Asia and North Africa, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Golan 2003].
*Also see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA39 Yacobi 2009, p. 39].</ref>

The Palestinian workers allowed to remain in the cities were confined to ghettos. The military administrator split the region into three zones—Ramla, Lod, and Rakevet, a neighborhood in Lod established by the British for rail workers—and declared the Arab areas within them "closed," with each closed zone run by a committee of three to five members.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA33 Yacobi 2009, p. 33.]</ref> Many of the town's essential workers were Palestinians. The military administrators did satisfy some of their needs, such as building a school, supplying medical aid, allocating them 50 dunams for growing vegetables, and renovating the interior of the Dahmash mosque, but it appears the refugees felt like prisoners; Palestinian train workers, for example, were subject to a curfew from evening until morning, with periodic searches to make sure they had no guns.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA34 Yacobi 2009, p. 34.]</ref> One wrote an open letter in March 1949 to the ''Al Youm'' newspaper on behalf of 460 Muslim and Christian train workers: "Since the occupation, we continued to work and our salaries have still not been paid to this day. Then our work was taken from us and now we are unemployed. The curfew is still valid ... [W]e are not allowed to go to Lod or Ramla, as we are prisoners. No one is allowed to look for a job but with the mediation of the members of the Local Committee ... we are like slaves. I am asking you to cancel the restrictions and to let us live freely in the state of Israel.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA35 Yacobi 2009, pp. 35–36].</ref>

===Artistic reception===
[[File:Ismail Shammout's Where to ....JPG|right|thumb|150px|alt=photograph|[[Ismail Shammout]]'s ''Where to ..?'' (1953)]]
The [[Palestinian art]]ist [[Ismail Shammout]] (1930–2006) was 19 years old when he was expelled from Lydda. He created a series of oil paintings about the march, the best known of which is ''Where to ..?'' (1953), which enjoys iconic status among Palestinians. A life-size image of a man dressed in rags holds a walking stick in one hand, the wrist of a child in the other, a toddler on his shoulder, with a third child behind him, crying and alone. There is a withered tree behind him, and in the distance the skyline of an Arab town with a [[minaret]]. [[Gannit Ankori]] writes that the absent mother is the lost homeland, the children its orphans.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=X_Q6FX0YFVwC&pg=PA48 Ankori 2006, pp. 48–50].
*For the image on Shammout's website: [http://www.shammout.com/oilbig13.htm "Where to ..?"], shammout.com, accessed 26 November 2010.</ref>

By November 1948 the IDF had been accused of atrocities in a number of towns and villages, to the point where David Ben-Gurion had to appoint an investigator. Israeli poet [[Natan Alterman]] (1910–1970) wrote about the allegations in his poem ''Al Zot'' ("On This"), published in ''[[Davar]]'' on 19 November 1948, about a soldier on a jeep machine-gunning an Arab, referring to the events in Lydda, according to Morris. Two days later Ben-Gurion sought Alterman's permission for the Defence Ministry to distribute the poem throughout the IDF:<ref>For the atrocities in general, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA486 Morris 2004, p. 486ff]; for reference to the poem and Ben-Gurion writing to Alterman, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA489 p. 489].
*Morris writes that the poem is about Lydda in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, pp. 426], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA489 489] (on p. 489 he writes it was "apparently" about Lydda), and Morris 2008, p. 473, footnote 85.</ref>

{{Quote box |quoted= |bgcolor=#FFFFF0 |qalign=left |width=370px |align=center
| quote =<poem>Let us sing then also about "delicate incidents"
For which the true name, incidentally, is murder
Let songs be composed about conversations with sympathetic interlocutors
who with collusive chuckles make concessions and grant forgiveness.<ref name=Cohenp140>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVV4i-KbzoAC&pg=PA140 Cohen 2008, p. 140].
*[http://www.education.gov.il/tochniyot_Limudim/shira/sh_42.htm ''Al Zot'' in Hebrew], www.education.gov.il, accessed 1 December 2010.</poem>}}

===Four figures after the exodus===
[[File:Bill Clinton, Yitzhak Rabin, Yasser Arafat at the White House 1993-09-13.jpg|thumb|230px|alt=photograph|[[Yitzhak Rabin]]'s historic handshake with [[Yasser Arafat]] at the White House, 1993]]
Yigal Allon, who led Operation Dani and may have ordered the expulsions, became Israel's deputy prime minister in 1967. He was a member of the war cabinet during the 1967 Arab Israeli [[Six-Day War]], and the architect of the post-war [[Allon Plan]], a proposal to end Israel's occupation of the [[West Bank]]. He died in 1980.<ref>Jewish Agency for Israel.[http://web.archive.org/web/20041210194811/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/people/BIOS/allon.html "Allon, Yigal (1918–1980)"], accessed 25 September 2009.</ref>

Yitzhak Rabin, Allon's operations officer, who signed the Lydda expulsion order, became Chief of Staff of the IDF during the Six-Day War, and Israel's prime minister in 1974 and again in 1992. He was assassinated in 1995 by a right-wing Israeli radical opposed to making peace with the PLO.<ref name=Morris2004p429>For his having signed the order, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].</ref>

Khalil al-Wazir, the grocer's son expelled from Ramle, became one of the founders of Yasser Arafat's ''[[Fatah]]'' faction within the PLO, and specifically of its armed wing, ''[[Al-Assifa]]''. He organized the PLO's guerrilla warfare and the ''Fatah'' youth movements that helped spark the [[First Intifada]] in 1987. He was assassinated by Israeli commandos in Tunis in 1988.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=GkbzYoZtaJMC&pg=PA529 As'ad Abu Khalil 2005, p. 529ff].</ref>

George Habash, the medical student expelled from Lydda, went on to lead one of the best-known of the Palestinian militant groups, the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]. In September 1970 he masterminded the [[Dawson's Field hijackings|hijacking of four passenger jets]] bound for New York, an attack that put the Palestinian cause on the map. The PFLP was also behind the 1972 [[Lod Airport massacre]], in which 27 people died, and the 1976 hijacking of an Air France flight to Entebbe, which famously led to the IDF's [[Operation Entebbe|rescue of the hostages]]. Habash died of a heart attack in Amman in 2008.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/middleeast/27habash.html?bl&ex=1201582800&en=a0d7bd56323e1b26&ei=5087%0A Andrews and Kifner, ''The New York Times'', January 27, 2008].
*Habash spoke to [[Robert Fisk]] in 1993 about Lydda: "I will never rest until I can go back. The house is still there and a Jewish family lives in it now. Some of my friends tried to find it and some relatives actually went there and sent me a message that the trees are still standing in the garden, just as they were in 1948. ... It's my right to go directly to my house and live there." See [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/still-dreaming-of-his-homeland-robert-fisk-in-damascus-hears-george-habash-orator-fighter-and-refugee-spell-out-his-terms-for-a-settlement-with-israel-1509518.html Fisk 1993].</ref>

==Historiography==
[[File:Anita Shapira.jpg|left|thumb|150px|alt=photograph|Israeli historian [[Anita Shapira]] argues that the scholars who wrote the early history of 1948 censored themselves, because they saw the 1948 war as the tragic climax of the [[Holocaust]] and the Second World War.<ref name=Shapira1995p12/>]]
Benny Morris argues that Israeli historians from the 1950s throughout the 1970s—who wrote what he calls the "Old History"—were "less than honest" about what had happened in Lydda and Ramle.<ref name=Morris1988>[http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].</ref> [[Anita Shapira]] calls them the Palmach generation: historians who had fought in the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], and who thereafter went to work for the IDF's history branch, where they censored material other scholars had no access to. For them, Shapira writes, the Holocaust and the Second World War—including the experience of Jewish weakness in the face of persecution—made the fight for land between the Arabs and Jews a matter of life and death, the 1948 war the "tragic and heroic climax of all that had preceded it," and Israeli victory an "act of historical justice."<ref name=Shapira1995p12>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], pp. 12–13.</ref>

The IDF's official history of the 1948 war, ''Toldot Milhemet HaKomemiyut'' ("History of the War of Independence"), published in 1959, said that residents of Lydda had violated the terms of their surrender, and left because they were afraid of Israeli retribution. The head of the IDF history branch, Lt. Col Netanel Lorch, wrote in ''The Edge of the Sword'' (1961) that they had requested safe conduct from the IDF; American political scientist [[Ian Lustick]] writes that Lorch admitted in 1997 that he left his post because the censorship made it impossible to write good history.<ref>For Lorch's book, see [http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].
*For Lustick, see [http://www.polisci.upenn.edu/faculty/bios/Pubs/survivalreview.pdf Lustick 1997].</ref> Another employee of the history branch, Lt. Col. Elhannan Orren, wrote a detailed history of Operation Dani in 1976 that made no mention of expulsions.<ref name=Morris1988/>

Arab historians published accounts, including [[Aref al-Aref]]'s ''Al Nakba, 1947–1952'' (1956–1960), [[Muhammad Nimr al-Khatib]]'s ''Min Athar al-Nakba'' (1951), and several papers by Walid Khalidi, but Morris writes that they suffered from a lack of archival material; Arab governments have been reluctant to open their archives, and the Israeli archives were at that point still closed.<ref>Morris 2004, pp. 1–2.</ref> The first person in Israel to acknowledge the Lydda and Ramle expulsions, writes Morris, was Yitzhak Rabin in his 1979 memoirs, though that part of his manuscript was removed by government censors.<ref name=Morris1988/> The 30-year rule of [[Israel State Archive|Israel's Archives Law]], passed in 1955, meant that hundreds of thousands of government documents were released throughout the 1980s, and a group calling itself the "New Historians" emerged, most of them born around 1948. They interpreted the history of the war, not in terms of European politics, the Holocaust, and Jewish history, but solely within the context of the Middle East. Shapira writes that they focused on the 700,000 Arabs who were uprooted by the war, not on the 6,000 Jews who died during it, and assessed the behavior of the Jewish state as they would that of any other.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], pp. 9, 16–17.</ref> Between 1987 and 1993, four of these historians in particular—Morris himself, [[Simha Flapan]], [[Ilan Pappé]], and [[Avi Shlaim]]—three of them Oxbridge-trained, published a series of books that changed the historiography of the Palestinian exodus. According to Lustick, although it was known in academic circles that the Palestinians had left because of expulsions and intimidation, it was largely unknown to Israeli Jews until Morris's ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949'' appeared in 1987.<ref>
[http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988], and [http://www.polisci.upenn.edu/faculty/bios/Pubs/survivalreview.pdf Lustick 1997], pp. 157–158.
*Simha Flapan (1911–1987) is the exception to the rule that the New Historians were born around 1948.
*The key texts are:
*[[Simha Flapan]]'s ''The Birth of Israel'' (1987)
*[[Benny Morris]]'s ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949'' (1987), ''[[1948 and After|1948 and After: Israel and the Palestinians]]'' (1990), and ''[[Israel's Border Wars 1949–1956|Israel's Border Wars, 1949–1956]]'' (1993)
*[[Ilan Pappé]]'s ''Britain and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: 1948–1951'' (1988) and ''The Making of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1947–1951'' (1992)
*[[Avi Shlaim]]'s ''Collusion across the Jordan'' (1988) and ''The Politics of Partition'' (1990)
*Other writers engaged in the "New History," according to Lustick (p. 157), include Uri Bar-Joseph, [[Mordechai Bar-On]], [[Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi]], Motti Golani, [[Uri Milstein]], and [[Tom Segev]].
*That the New Historians focus on the 700,000 uprooted, see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], p. 13.</ref>

Their work is not without its critics, most notably Israeli historian [[Efraim Karsh]], who writes that there was more voluntary Palestinian flight than Morris and the others concede. He acknowledges that there were expulsions, particularly in Lydda, though he argues—as does Morris—that they resulted from decisions made in the heat of battle, and account for a small percentage of the overall exodus.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=6RRr_bf1ZhAC&pg=PA160 Karsh 2003, pp. 160–161].
*[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref> Karsh argues that the New Historians have turned the story of the birth of Israel upside down, making victims of the Arab aggressors, though he acknowledges that the New History is now widely accepted.<ref>[http://www.meforum.org/466/benny-morris-and-the-reign-of-error Karsh 1999].</ref> The positions of Karsh and Morris, though they disagree, contrast in turn with those of Ilan Pappé and Walid Khalidi, who argue not only that there were widespread expulsions, but also that they were not the result of ''ad hoc'' decisions. Rather, they argue, the expulsions were part of a deliberate strategy, known as [[Plan Dalet]] and conceived before Israel's declaration of independence, to transfer the Arab population and seize their land.<ref>Pappé 2007.
*[http://www.scribd.com/doc/19199199/Plan-Dalet-Master-Plan-for-the-Conquest-of-Palestine-by-Walid-Khalidi Khalidi 1961], and [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Khalidi,%20Plan%20Dalet%20Revisited.pdf Khalidi 1988].</ref>

==Lod and Ramla today==
[[File:RamleviewS.jpg|left|thumb|180px|alt=photograph|Ramla in 2006]]
As of 2009 around 66,000 people were living in Ramla, which became briefly known around the world in 1962, when former SS officer [[Adolf Eichmann]] was hanged in Ramla prison in May that year.<ref>For the population, see [http://www.cbs.gov.il/population/new_2010/table3.pdf Population figures], Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, accessed 26 November 2010.
*For Eichmann, see [http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/we-have-to-carry-out-the-sentence-1.226299 Weitz 2007].</ref> The population in Lod as of 2010 was officially around 45,000 Jews and 20,000 Arabs; its main industry is its airport, renamed Ben Gurion International Airport in 1973.<ref name=Economist>[http://www.economist.com/node/17254422 "Pulled apart"], ''The Economist'', 14 October 2010.</ref> [[Aliyah from Ethiopia|Beth Israel immigrants from Ethiopia]] were housed there in the 1990s, increasing the ethnic tension in the city which, together with the economic deprivation, make the town "the most likely place to explode," according to Arnon Golan, an Israeli expert on ethnically-mixed cities. {{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} In 2010 a three-meter-high wall was built to separate the Jewish and Arab neighborhoods.<ref name=Economist/>

[[File:Zochrot at the former Lydda ghetto.JPG|thumb|200px|alt=photograph|Eitan Bronstein of [[Zochrot]] places a sign on the former Lydda ghetto.]]
The Arab community has complained that, when Arabs became a majority in Lod's Ramat Eshkol suburb, the local school was closed rather than turned into an Arab-sector school, and in September 2008 it was re-opened as a [[yeshiva]], a Jewish religious school. The local council acknowledges that it wants Lod to become a more Jewish city. In addition to the Arabs officially registered, a fifth of the overall population are [[Bedouin]], who arrived in Lod in the 1980s when they were moved off land in the Negev, according to Nathan Jeffay.They live in illegal dwellings on agricultural land, unregistered and with no municipal services.<ref name=Jeffay>[http://www.forward.com/articles/14435/ Jeffay 2008].</ref>

The refugees are occasionally able to visit their former homes. [[Zochrot]], an Israeli group that researches former Palestinian towns, visited Lod in 2003 and 2005, erecting signs in Hebrew and Arabic depicting its history, including a sign on the wall of the former Arab ghetto. The visits are met with a mixture of interest and hostility.<ref>[http://www.zochrot.org/index.php?id=221 "Remembering Al-Lydd 2005"], [http://www.zochrot.org/index.php?id=364 "Tour and signposting in Al-Lydd (Lod), 2003"].
*Also see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=365 "Testimonies on the Nakba of Lod"].
*[http://www.zochrot.org/images/lydda.pdf Booklet about Lydda] in Arabic and Hebrew, Zochrot.
*[http://www.zochrot.org/images/al-Ramle.pdf Booklet about Ramla], also in Arabic and Hebrew, Zochrot, all accessed 28 November 2010.</ref> Father Oudeh Rantisi, a former mayor of Ramallah who was expelled from Lydda in 1948, visited his family's former home for the first time in 1967:

<blockquote>As the bus drew up in front of the house, I saw a young boy playing in the yard. I got off the bus and went over to him. "How long have you lived in this house?" I asked. "I was born here," he replied. "Me too," I said ...<ref>[http://www.ameu.org/printer.asp?iid=64&aid=95 Rantisi and Amash 2000].</ref></blockquote>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|2}}
*Abu Khalil, As'ad (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=GkbzYoZtaJMC&pg=PA529 "al-Wazir, Khalil"], in Mattar, Philip. ''Encyclopedia Of The Palestinians'', Infobase Publishing.
*[[Lila Abu-Lughod|Abu Lughod, Lila]] and Allan, Diana Keown (2007). "Places of Memory" in Sa'di, Ahmad H. and Abu-Lughod, Lila (eds.). ''Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory''. Columbia University Press.
*Abu Nowar, Ma'an (2002). ''The Jordanian-Israeli War 1948-1951: A History of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan''. Garnet & Ithaca Press.
*Andrews, Edmund L. and Kifner, John (27 January 2008). [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/middleeast/27habash.html?bl&ex=1201582800&en=a0d7bd56323e1b26&ei=5087%0A "George Habash, Palestinian Terrorism Tactician, Dies at 82"], ''The New York Times''.
*[[Gannit Ankori|Ankori, Gannit]] (2006.) ''Palestinian Art''. Reaktion Books.
*[[David Ben-Gurion|Ben-Gurion, David]] (1982). ''The War Diary: The War of Independence, 5708–5709'', Volumes 1 and 2, Israel Defense Ministry Publications.
*[[Kenneth Bilby|Bilby, Kenneth]] (1951). ''New Star in the Near East''. Doubleday.
*Brandabur, A. Clare (1990). [http://www.peuplesmonde.com/spip.php?article680 Reply To Amos Kenan's "The Legacy of Lydda" and An Interview With PFLP Leader Dr. George Habash], ''Peuples & Monde''; first published in ''The Nation'', 1 January 1990, accessed 25 November 2010.
*Cohen, Stuart (2008). ''Israel and Its Army: From Cohesion to Confusion''. Taylor & Francis.
*Currivan, Gene (12 July 1948). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30713FA385F167B93C1A8178CD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=&st=p "Arabs Give Up a Key Point as Latrun Battle Looms, but Retake Others; Israeli Force Wins Town on Key Road"], ''The New York Times''.
*[[Jonathan Dimbleby|Dimbleby, Jonathan]], and [[Don McCullin|McCullin, Donald]] (1980). ''The Palestinians''. Quartet Books.
*''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2009). [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/345947/Lod "Lod"], accessed 23 November 2010.
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*Fraser, Tom (2001). "Arab–Israeli wars," in Holmes, Richard (ed.). ''The Oxford Companion to Military History''. Oxford University Press.
*[[Yoav Gelber|Gelber, Yoav]]. ''Israeli-Jordanian Dialogue, 1948–1953''. Sussex Academic Press, 2004.
*Gelber, Yoav (2006). ''Palestine, 1948: War, Escape and the Emergence of the Palestinian Refugee Problem''. Sussex University Press.
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*Gordon, Elizabeth Oke. ''Saint George: Champion of Christendom and Patron Saint of England''. S. Sonnenschein & Co., 1907.
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*Jeffay, Nathan (2008). [http://www.forward.com/articles/14435/ "Israel’s Mixed Cities on Edge After Riots"], ''The Jewish Daily Forward'', 31 October 2008.
*Kadish, Alon, and Sela, Avraham (2005). [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM "Myths and historiography of the 1948 Palestine War revisited: the case of Lydda]," ''The Middle East Journal'', 22 September 2005.
*[[Efraim Karsh|Karsh, Efraim]] (1999). [http://www.meforum.org/466/benny-morris-and-the-reign-of-error "Benny Morris and the Reign of Error"], ''The Middle East Quarterly'', March 1999.
*Karsh, Efraim (2003). ''Rethinking the Middle East''. Routledge.
*[[Amos Kenan|Kenan, Amos]] (8 February 1989). [http://www.thenation.com/archive/four-decades-blood-vengeance "The Legacy of Lydda: Four Decades of Blood Vengeance"], ''The Nation''; [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0059831.html courtesy link], accessed 26 November 2010.
*[[Walid Khalidi|Khalidi, Walid]] (1961). [http://www.scribd.com/doc/19199199/Plan-Dalet-Master-Plan-for-the-Conquest-of-Palestine-by-Walid-Khalidi "Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine"], ''Middle East Forum'', Vol. 37, p. 11, accessed 23 November 2010.
*Khalidi, Walid (1988). [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Khalidi,%20Plan%20Dalet%20Revisited.pdf "Plan Dalet Revisited"], ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Vol. 18: Nos. 1, 5, accessed 23 November 2010.
*Khalidi, Walid (1998). Introduction to Spiro Munayyer's [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf The fall of Lydda]. ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 80–98.
*[[Alec Kirkbride|Kirkbride, Alec]] (1976). ''From the Wings: Amman Memoirs, 1947–1951'', Routledge.
*[[Arthur Koestler|Koestler, Arthur]] (1949). ''Promise and Fulfilment – Palestine 1917–1949''. This edition Read Books 2007.
*[[Ian Lustick|Lustick, Ian S.]] (1997). [http://www.polisci.upenn.edu/faculty/bios/Pubs/survivalreview.pdf "Israeli history: Who is fabricating what?"], ''Survival'', Volume 39, Issue 3 Autumn 1997, pp. 156–166.
*[[Benny Morris|Morris, Benny]] (1986). [http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 "Operation Dani and the Palestinian Exodus from Lydda and Ramle in 1948"], ''Middle East Journal'', Vol 40, issue 1.
*Morris, Benny (1988). [http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf "The New Historiography: Israel confronts its Past"], in Morris, Benny (ed.). ''Making Israel''. University of Michigan Press, 2007.
*Morris, Benny (1995). [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/history/Morris,%20Falsifying%20the%20Record.pdf "Falsifying the Record: A Fresh Look at Zionist Documentation of 1948"], ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Spring 1995, pp. 44–62.
*Morris, Benny (2001). ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001''. Vintage Books.
*Morris, Benny (2003). ''The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews''. Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-989-0
*Morris, Benny (2004). ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited''. Cambridge University Press.
*Morris, Benny (2008). ''1948: The First Arab-Israeli War''. Yale University Press.
*Munayyer, Spiro (1998). [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf "The Fall of Lydda"], ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Vol 27, issue 4, accessed 14 December 2010.
*[[Ilan Pappé|Pappé, Ilan]] (2006). ''[[The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (Book)|The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine]]'', Oneworld.
*Prior, Michael, P. (1999). ''Zionism and the State of Israel: A Moral Inquiry''. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-20462-3
*Rantisi, Audeh G. and Amash, Charles (2000). [http://www.ameu.org/uploads/vol33_issue3_2000.pdf "Death March"], ''The Link'', July–August 2000, Vol 33, Issue 3, Americans for Middle East Understanding, accessed 14 December 2010.
*Sa'di, Ahmad H. and [[Lila Abu-Lughod|Abu-Lughod, Lila]] (2007). ''Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the claims of memory''. Columbia University Press.
*Sayigh, Rosemary. ''The Palestinians: From Peasants to Revolutionaries''. Zed Books, 2007.
*Schmidt, Dana Adams (12 June 1948). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30D1EFD3D54157B93C0A8178DD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=Jerusalem+siege&st=p "Jerusalem Sees Uneasy Truce"], ''The New York Times.
*Schwartz, Joshua J. ''Lod (Lydda), Israel: From its origins through the Byzantine period, 5600 B.C.E.-640 C.E.'' Tempus Reparatum, 1991.
*[[Tom Segev|Segev, Tom]] (1986). ''1949, The First Israelis''. Henry Holt.
*Segev, Tom (2000). [http://lists.mcgill.ca/scripts/wa.exe?A2=ind0005b&L=fofognet&P=3632 "What really happened in the conquest of Lod?"] ''Haaretz'', 12 May 2000, accessed 14 December 2010.
*[[Anita Shapira|Shapira, Anita]] (1995). [http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 "Politics and Collective Memory: The Debate over the 'New Historians' in Israel"], ''History and Memory'', Vol 7, no 1, Spring/Summer 1995.
*Shapira, Anita. (2007). ''Yigal Allon, Native Son: A Biography''. University of Pennsylvania Press,
*Sharon, M. (1983). "Ludd" in Bosworth, C.E. et al. ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam''. E.J. Brill.
*Shavit, Avi (2004). [http://web.archive.org/web/20080515210330/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=380986&contrassID=2 "Survival of the fittest," Part 1], [http://web.archive.org/web/20080607060238/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=380984 Part 2], ''Haaretz'', 8 January 2004, accessed 14 December 2010.
*[[David K. Shipler|Shipler, David K.]] (23 October 1979). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p "Israel Bars Rabin from Relating '48 Eviction of Arabs''], ''The New York Times''.
*Shipler, David (25 October 1979). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B12FE3C5C12728DDDAC0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=2&sq=&st=p "Allon Denies '48 Ouster of Arabs"], ''The New York Times''.
*[[David Tal (historian)|Tal, David]] (2004). ''War in Palestine, 1948: Strategy and Diplomacy''. Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-5275-X
*Weitz, Yechiam (2007). [http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/we-have-to-carry-out-the-sentence-1.226299 "We have to carry out the sentence"], ''Haaretz'', 2 August 2007.
*Yacobi, Haim (2009). ''The Jewish-Arab City: Spatio-politics in a Mixed Community''. Routledge.
*''[[Zochrot]]'' (2003). [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=365 Testimonies on the Nakba of Lod], 11 January 2003. Also see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=364] [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=221] [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=349], all accessed 14 December 2010.
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|2}}
*[[Nathan Alterman|Alterman, Nathan]] (1948). [http://www.education.gov.il/tochniyot_Limudim/shira/sh_42.htm "Al Zot"], www.education.gov.il, accessed 23 November 2010. {{he icon}}
*Abdel Jawad, Saleh (2007). ''Israel and the Palestinian refugees.'' Eyāl Benveniśtî, Chaim Gans, Sārī Ḥanafī, ed. Springer.
*[[Aref al-Aref|Aref al-'Aref]] (1959). ''Al-Nakba: Nakbat Filsatin wal-Firdaws al-Mafqud 1947–1952'' [''The Catastrophe: The Catastrophe of Palestine and the Lost Paradise 1947–1952'']. Sidon and Beirut, A1-Maktab al-'Sariyya lil-Tiba'a wal-Nashr.
*[[Moshe Dayan|Dayan, Moshe]] (1976). ''Moshe Dayan: story of my life.'' New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-03076-9.
*El-Asmar, Fouzi (1975). ''To be an Arab in Israel''. Institute for Palestine Studies.
*Guttman, Shmarya ("Avi-Yiftah") (November 1948). "Lydda," ''Mibifnim''.
*Kadish, Alon; [[Avraham Sela|Sela, Avraham]]; and Golan, Arnon (2000). ''The Occupation of Lydda, July 1948''. Tel Aviv: Israel Ministry of Defense and Hagana Historical Archive. {{he icon}}
*[[Efraim Karsh|Karsh, Efraim]] (1997). ''Fabricating Israeli History: The 'New Historians'''. Routledge.
*Karsh, Efraim (2002). ''The Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Palestine War 1948'', Osprey Publishing, 2002.
*Kelman, Moshe (1972). "Ha-Hevdel bein Deir Yasin le-Lod" ["The Difference between Deir Yasin and Lydda"], ''Yedi'ot Aharonot'', 2 May 1972. {{he icon}}
*Khalidi, Walid (1992). "All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948". Institute for Palestine Studies.
*[[Ghassan Kanafani|Kanafani, Ghassan]] (1956). "Paper from Ramleh". "Palestine's Children. Short stories by Ghassan Kanafani". Three Continents Press. ISBN 0-89410-431-4.
*Lorch, Netanel (1997). "A Word from an Old Historian," ''Haaretz'', 23 June 1997.
*Monterescu, Daniel and Rabinowitz, Dan (2007). ''Mixed Towns, Trapped Communities''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
*Morris, Benny (1986b). [http://books.google.com/books?id=OjuKhNEmFvoC&pg=PA169 "The Causes and Character of the Exodus from Palestine"] in Pappé, Ilan. ''The Israel/Palestine Question''. Routledge, 1999.
*Morris, Benny (1987). ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949''. Cambridge University Press.
*Munayyer, Spiro (1997). ''Lydda During the Mandate and Occupation Periods''. Institute for Palestine Studies.
*[[Nur-eldeen Masalha|Masalha, Nur]] (2003). ''The Politics of Denial: Israel and the Palestinian Refugee Problem''. Pluto Press.
*Rantisi, Audeh G. [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1998/1948/362_rnts.htm Would I ever see my home again?], ''Al-Ahram'', accessed 14 December 2010.
*Rantisi, Audeh G. and Beebe, Ralph K. (1990). ''Blessed are the peacemakers: the story of a Palestinian Christian''. Eagle.
{{Refend}}
 
{{nakbaend}}
{{Palestinian Arab villages depopulated during the 1948 Palestine War}}
{{Arab-Israeli Conflict}}
{{Israeli-Palestinian Conflict}}
{{Coord|31|56|30.01|N|34|52|41.83|E|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Exodus From Lydda And Ramle}}
[[Category:1948 Palestinian exodus]]
[[Category:1948 Arab–Israeli War]]
[[Category:Forced marches]]
[[Category:Lod]]
[[Category:Ramla]]

[[fr:Exode palestinien de Lydda et Ramle]]

Palästinensische Vertreibung aus Lydda und Ramle 1948

2012-06-10T17:32:26Z

InverseHypercube: /* Four figures after the exodus */ rm period from caption

{{Infobox historical event
| Image_Name = Israeli fighter accepts cigarette from an Arab resident, Lydda, July 1948.png
| Imagesize = 300
| Image_Alt = Photograph
| Image_Caption = An Israeli soldier accepts a cigarette from an Arab resident in Lydda after the fall of the city
| AKA = Lydda death march
| Participants = [[Israel Defense Forces]], [[Arab Legion]], Arab residents of [[Lod|Lydda]] and [[Ramle]]
| Location = Lydda, Ramle, and surrounding villages, then part of the [[Mandate for Palestine]], now part of [[Israel]]
| Date = July 1948
| Result = 50,000–70,000 residents fled from, or were expelled by, the IDF
| URL =
}}
The '''1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle''' was the flight or expulsion of 50,000–70,000 Palestinian Arabs when [[Israel]]i troops captured the towns in July that year. The military action occurred within the context of the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]. The towns, which were predominately Arab areas in [[Palestine]] at the time, and which the UN partition resolution had designated to be in the Arab nation, became predominantly Jewish areas in the new State of Israel, known as [[Lod]] and [[Ramla]].<ref>For population figures, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA425 Morris 2004, p. 425], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 434]. He writes that, in July 1948 before the invasion, Lydda and Ramle had a population of 50,000–70,000, 20,000 of whom were refugees from Jaffa and the surrounding area (p. 425). All were expelled, except for a few elderly or sick people, some Christians, and some who were retained to work; others managed to sneak back in, so that by mid-October 1948 there were around 2,000 Arabs living in both towns (p. 434).
*For the name change, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA29 Yacobi 2009, p. 29]. Yacobi writes that Lod was Lydda's biblical name.
*The Arabs called Lydda al-Ludd. Lydda was the Latin form of its name, which it was widely known by. See [http://books.google.com/books?id=jJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA801&lpg=PA798 Sharon 1983, p. 798].
*Ramle can also be written as Ramleh; it known as Ramla by the Israelis, and should not be confused with [[Ramallah]], the administrative center of the [[Palestinian National Authority]].</ref>

Ramle surrendered immediately, but the conquest of Lydda took longer and led to an unknown number of deaths; Israeli historian [[Benny Morris]] suggests up to 450 Arabs and 9–10 Israeli soldiers died.<ref>The death toll in Lydda:
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426]: '''11 July'''—Six dead and 21 wounded on the Israeli side, and "dozens of Arabs (perhaps as many as 200)".
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 452], footnote 68: Third Battalion intelligence puts the figure at 40 Arabs dead, but perhaps referring only to the numbers they had killed themselves.
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 428]: '''12 July'''—Israeli troops were ordered to shoot at anyone seen on the streets: during that incident, 3–4 Israelis were killed and around a dozen wounded. On the Arab side, 250 dead and many wounded, according to the IDF.</ref> Once the Israelis were in control of the towns, an expulsion order signed by [[Yitzhak Rabin]] was issued to the [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF) stating, "1. The inhabitants of Lydda must be expelled quickly without attention to age.…",<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Morris
| first = Benny
| authorlink = Benny Morris
| title = The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| series = Cambridge Middle East Library
| year = 1987
| location = Cambridge, United Kingdom
| page = 207
| isbn = 0 521 33889 }}
</ref>
Ramle's residents were bussed out, while the people of Lydda were forced to walk miles during a summer heat wave to the Arab front lines, where the [[Arab Legion]], [[Transjordan]]'s British-led army, tried to provide shelter and supplies.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, pp. 432–434].
*Also see Gilbert 2008, pp. 218–219.</ref> The harsh conditions of the exodus for the refugees from Lydda caused deaths, mostly from exhaustion and dehydration, with estimates ranging from a handful to 350; it became known as the ''Lydda death march''. From the Israeli perspective, the conquest of the towns averted an Arab threat to [[Tel Aviv]], thwarted an Arab Legion advance by clogging the roads with refugees, and helped demoralize nearby Arab cities.<ref>For the use of the term "Lydda death march," see, for example, [http://www.google.com/books?id=ro8YAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Lydda+death+march%22&dq=%22Lydda+death+march%22&ei=XJICSou0KaP2yAS1zdHeAg&pgis=1 Fraser 2001], p. 64.
*For the number of refugees who died during the march:
*Morris 1989, pp. 204–211: "Quite a few refugees died – from exhaustion, dehydration and disease."
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA177 Morris 2003, p. 177]: "a handful, and perhaps dozens, died of dehydration and exhaustion."
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, p. 433]: "Quite a few refugees died on the road east," attributing a figure of 335 dead to [[Nimr al-Khatib|Muhammad Nimr al Khatib]], who Morris writes was working from hearsay.
*[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Khalidi 1998], pp. 80–98: 350 dead, citing an estimate from [[Aref al-Aref]].
*[http://books.google.com/books?ei=oa_tTNj_C82NnQfNivn8CQ&ct=result&id=aIJtAAAAMAAJ&dq=The+Politics+of+Denial%3A+Israel+and+the+Palestinian+Refugee+Problem&q=350#search_anchor Nur Masalha 2003, p. 47] writes that 350 died.
*For the IDF and Ben-Gurion's analysis of the effect of the conquest of the towns and the expulsions, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, pp. 433–434].</ref>

The events in Lydda and Ramle accounted for one-tenth of the overall Arab [[1948 Palestinian exodus|exodus from Palestine]], known in the Arab world as ''al-Nakba'' ("the catastrophe"). Many Jews who came to Israel between 1948 and 1951 settled in the refugees' empty homes, both because of a housing shortage and as a matter of policy to prevent former residents from reclaiming them. One of the key issues of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] is whether the refugees and their descendants ought to have either compensation for their loses or the [[Palestinian right of return|right of return]], a concession that would threaten Israel's identity as a [[Jewish state]].<ref>That it was one-tenth of the overall exodus, see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 82.
*That most of the immigrants to Lydda and Ramle were from Asia and North Africa, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Golan 2003].
*That refugees were settled in the empty homes to stop them from being reclaimed, see Morris 2008, p. 308, and [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA45 Yacobi 2009, p. 45].</ref>

Until the late 1970s Israel's historians, many of whom had fought in the 1948 war, maintained that the refugees had simply fled, or had been ordered to leave by their Arab leaders. They saw the creation of Israel as inextricably linked to the [[Holocaust]] and the survival of the Jewish people, and they censored material that might blacken the new state's name. Throughout the 1980s Israeli government documents were released that showed there had been expulsions, which triggered a reassessment of Israel's early history by a younger generation of Israeli scholars known as the [[New Historians]].<ref name=Shapira1995p9>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], pp. 9ff, 12–13, 16–17.</ref> These were not pre-mediated but attributed to a complex and ill-conducted battle.<ref name="case">{{cite journal | title=Myths and Historiography of the 1948 Palestine War Revisited: The Case of Lydda | author=Avraham Sela, Alon Kadish | journal=The Middle East Journal | year=2005 | month=Autumn | volume=59 | issue=4 | pages=617}}</ref>

==Background==
===Israel's declaration of independence===
[[File:Palestine-20-48.png|right|thumb|160px|[[Palestine]] in 1947, showing Lydda and Ramle|alt=map]]
Palestine was under [[British Mandate of Palestine|British rule]] from 1917 to 1948. On 30 November 1947, after 30 years of conflict between the country's Jews and Arabs, the United Nations [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|voted to divide it]] into a Jewish and an Arab state, with Lydda and Ramle to form part of the latter. The proposal was welcomed by Palestine's Jewish community but rejected by the Arabs, and [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] broke out between the communities. The British decided to pull out of the area, and the day British rule ended on 14 May 1948, the State of Israel [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|declared its independence]]. Five Arab states—Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Transjordan, and Lebanon—launched an attack on the new state the next day, triggering the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.<ref>Morris 2008, p. 37ff.</ref>

===Strategic importance of Lydda and Ramle===
Lydda (Arabic: Al-Ludd اَلْلُدّْ) dates back to at least 5600–5250 BCE. Ramle (ar-Ramlah الرملة), three kilometers away, was founded in the 8th century CE. Both towns were strategically important because they sat at the intersection of Palestine's main north–south and east–west roads. Palestine's main railway junction and its airport (now [[Ben Gurion International Airport]]) were in Lydda, and the main source of Jerusalem's water supply was 15 kilometers away.<ref>For Lydda's age, see Schwartz 1991, p. 39.
*According to Christian legend, Lydda was the birth place and burial ground of [[Saint George]] (ca. 270–303 BCE), the patron saint of England; see [http://books.google.com/books?id=jJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA801&lpg=PA798 Sharon 1983, p. 799]. Sharon (p. 798) writes that the town may date back to King Thutmos III of Egypt. Also see [http://books.google.com/books?ei=6OLuTOf0IYiynwff9qDYCg&ct=result&id=RltCAAAAIAAJ&dq=saint+george+born+lydda&q=born+at+lydda#search_anchor Gordon 1907, p. 3].
*For Ramle, see [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-111203784.html Golan 2003].</ref> Jewish and Arab fighters had been attacking each other on roads near the towns since hostilities broke out in December 1947. Israeli geographer Arnon Golan writes that the Arabs had [[Siege of Jerusalem (1948)|blocked Jewish transport to Jerusalem]] at Ramle, forcing the Israelis to build a bypass called the [[Burma Road (Israel)|Burma Road]]. Israel had launched several ground or air attacks on Ramle in May 1948, and Israel's prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, developed what Benny Morris calls an obsession with the towns; he wrote in his diary that they had to be destroyed, and on 16 June referred to them during an Israeli cabinet meeting as the "two thorns".<ref>For Golan's article about Ramle being a focal point, see [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-111203784.html Golan 2003].
*For the siege of Jerusalem, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=UcSUgrDsD_sC&pg=PA145 Gelber 2006, p. 145].
*See [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30D1EFD3D54157B93C0A8178DD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=Jerusalem+siege&st=p Schmidt, 12 June 1948] for the temporary lifting of the siege. The siege was also broken by the opening in June of the [[Burma Road (Israel)|Burma Road]].
*For the attacks on Ramle and Lydda, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA424 Morris 2004, p. 424].
*For Ben-Gurion and the two thorns, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA424 Morris 2004, pp. 424–425], and [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/php/art.php?aid=94940&showEventsBefore=2450729 Segev 2000]. Segev writes that, just after Ben-Gurion's "two thorns" statement to the cabinet, six lines have been erased from the transcript. Segev interprets this to mean that expulsions were discussed.
*For the primary source, see Ben-Gurion 1982, "16 June 1948," p. 525.</ref>
Lydda's local Arab authority that was officially subordinated to the Arab Higher Committee assumed local civic and military powers. The records of Lydda's military command discuss military training, constructing obstacles and trenches, requisitioning vehicles and assembling armored cars armed with machine-guns, and attempts at arms procurement. In April 1948, Lydda had become an arms supply center, and a provided military training and security coordination for the neighboring villagers.<ref name="case"/>

===Operation Dani===
Israel subsequently launched [[Operation Dani]] to secure the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem road and neutralize any threat to Tel Aviv from the Arab Legion, which was stationed in Ramallah and Latrun, with a number of men in Lydda.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA423 Morris 2004, pp. 423–424].</ref> On 7 July the IDF appointed [[Yigal Allon]] to head the operation, and [[Yitzhak Rabin]], who became Israel's prime minister in 1974, as his operations officer; both had served in the [[Palmach]], an elite fighting force of the pre-Israel [[Yishuv|Jewish community]] in Palestine. The operation was carried out between 9 July 1948, the end of the first truce in the Arab-Israeli war, and 18 July, the start of the second truce, a period known in Israeli historiography as the Ten Days. Morris writes that the IDF assembled its largest force ever: the [[Yiftah]] brigade; the [[8th Armored Brigade (Israel)|Eighth Armored Brigade]]'s 82nd and 89th Battalions; three battalions of Kiryati and Alexandroni infantry men; an estimated 6,000 men with around 30 artillery pieces.<ref>Kimche, Jon and David (1960) ''A Clash of Destinies. The Arab-Jewish War and the Founding of the State of Israel.'' Frederick A. Praeger. Library of Congress number 60-6996. Page 225. (number of men).</ref><ref>For the launching of Operation Dani and the forces assembled, see Morris 2008, p. 286.
*For the hiring of Allon and Rabin, see [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979].
*For the period known as the Ten Days, see Morris 2008, p. 273ff.</ref>

===Lydda's defenses===
[[File:St Georges Church Lydda.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Lydda in 1920 with St. George's Church in the background|alt=Ancient buildings, several with domed roofs, a church in the background, and palm trees.]]
In July 1948 Lydda and Ramle had a joint population of 50,000–70,000 Arabs, 20,000 of them refugees from [[Jaffa]] and elsewhere.<ref name=Morris2004p425/> Several Arab towns had already fallen to Jewish or Israeli advances since April, but Lydda and Ramle had held out. There are differing views as to how well-defended the towns were. In January 1948, [[John Bagot Glubb]], the British commander of Transjordan's Arab Legion, had toured Arab towns, including Lydda and Ramle, urging them to prepare to defend themselves. The Legion had distributed barbed wire and as many weapons as could be spared.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA118 Morris 2003, p. 118].</ref> Israeli historians Alon Kadish and [[Avraham Sela]] write that the Arab National Committee—a local emergency Arab authority that answered to the [[Arab Higher Committee]] run by the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]]—had assumed civic and military control of Lydda, and had acquired arms, conducted training, constructed trenches, requisitioned vehicles, and organized medical services. By the time of the Israeli attack, they say the militia in Lydda numbered 1,000 men equipped with rifles, submachine guns, 15 machine guns, five heavy machine guns, 25 anti-tank launchers, six or seven light field-guns, two or three heavy ones, and armored cars with machine guns. They argue that the deaths in Lydda occurred during a military battle for the town, not because of a massacre.<ref name=KadishSela>[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref>

[[File:King Abdullah of Jordan and John Glubb Bagot.jpg|right|thumb|210px|alt=photograph|King Abdullah of Jordan (1882–1951) with [[John Bagot Glubb]] (1897–1986), the British commander of the [[Arab Legion]]]]
Against this view, Palestinian historian [[Walid Khalidi]] writes that just 125 Legionnaires from the Fifth Infantry Company were in Lydda—the Arab Legion numbered 6,000 in all—and that the rest of the town's defense consisted of civilian residents acting under the command of a retired Arab Legion sergeant.<ref name=Khalidi>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Khalidi 1998], p. 81.</ref> According to Morris, a number of Arab Legion soldiers, including 200–300 Bedouin volunteers, had arrived in Lydda and Ramle in April, and a company-sized force had set itself up in the old British police stations in Lydda and on the Lydda-Ramle road, with armored cars and other weapons. He writes that there were 150 Legionnaires in the town in June, though the Israelis believed there were up to 1,500. An Arab Legion officer was appointed military governor of both towns, signaling the desire of [[Abdullah I of Jordan]] to stake a claim in the parts of Palestine allotted by the UN to an Arab-Palestinian state, but Glubb advised him that the Legion was overstretched and could not hold the towns. As a result, Abdullah ordered the Legion to assume a defensive position only, and most of the Legionnaires in Lydda withdrew during the night of 11–12 July.<ref>Morris 2008, pp. 286, 289.
*That the IDF ignored that the Legion was "on a defensive footing," see Gelber 2006, p. 158.</ref>

Kadish and Sela write that the National Committee stopped women and children from leaving, because their departure had acted elsewhere as a catalyst for the men to leave too. They say it was common for Arabs to leave their homes under threat of Israeli invasion, in part because they feared atrocities, particularly rape, and in part because of a reluctance to live under Jewish rule. In Lydda's case, they argue, the fears were more particular: a few days before the city fell, a Jew found in Lydda's train station had been publicly executed and his body mutilated by residents, who, according to Kadish and Sela, now feared Jewish reprisals.<ref name=KadishSela/>

==Fall of the cities==
===Air attacks and surrender of Ramle===
[[File:Capture of Lydda airport, July 1948.JPG|thumb|left|230px|alt=photograph|The IDF took control of Lydda airport on 10 July.]]
The Israeli air force began bombing the towns on the night of 9–10 July, intending to induce civilian flight, and it seemed to work in Ramle: at 11:30 hours on 10 July, Operation Dani headquarters (Dani HQ) told the IDF that there was a "general and serious flight from Ramla." That afternoon, Dani HQ told one of its brigades to facilitate the flight from Ramle of women, children, and the elderly, but to detain men of military age.<ref name=Morris2004p425>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA425 Morris 2004, p. 425].</ref> On the same day, the IDF took control of Lydda airport.<ref name="gelber">[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA159 Gelber 2006, p. 159].</ref> The Israeli air force dropped leaflets over both towns on 11 July telling residents to surrender.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 86: The leaflets said: "You have no chance of receiving help. We intend to conquer the towns. We have no intention of harming persons or property. [But] whoever attempts to oppose us—will die. He who prefers to live must surrender.</ref> Ramle's community leaders, along with three prominent Arab family representatives, agreed to surrender, after which the Israelis mortared the city and imposed a curfew. ''The New York Times'' reported at the time that the capture of the city was seen as the high point of Israel's brief existence.<ref>Formal surrender discussed in a telephone message from Dani HQ, 12 July 1948, 10:30 am, cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].
*For the ''New York Times'' account of the surrender, see [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30713FA385F167B93C1A8178CD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=&st=p Currivan, ''The New York Times'', 12 July 1948].</ref>

Two different images emerged of Ramle under occupation. [[Khalil Wazir]], who later joined the [[PLO]] and became known as Abu Jihad, was evicted from the town with his family, who owned a grocer's store there, when he was 12 years old. He said there was fear of a massacre, as there had been at [[Deir Yassin massacre|Deir Yassin]], and that there were bodies scattered in the streets and between the houses, including the bodies of women and children.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?ei=DjDuTMXIO8SknQfUmOCyCw&ct=result&id=4Qm7AAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Palestinians&q=terribly+frightened#search_anchor Dimbleby and McCullin 1980, pp. 88–89]. He said: "The whole village went to the church. ... I remember the archbishop standing in front of the church. He was holding a white flag. ... Afterwards we came out and the picture will never be erased from my mind. There were bodies scattered on the road and between the houses and the side streets. No one, not even women or children, had been spared if they were out in the street. ..."</ref> Against this, the writer [[Arthur Koestler]] (1905–1983), working for ''The Times'', visited Ramle a few hours after the invasion, and said people were hanging around in the streets as usual. A few hundred young men had been placed in a barbed wire cage, and were being taken in lorries to an internment camp. Women were bringing them food and water, he wrote, arguing with the Jewish guards and seemingly unafraid. He said the prevailing feeling seemed to be relief that the war was over.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=XEqTMSzQYUIC&pg=PA270 Koestler 1949, pp. 270–271]. He wrote: "The Arabs were hanging about in the streets much as usual, except for a few hundred youths of military age who have been put into a barbed wire cage and were taken off in lorries to an internment camp. Their veiled mothers and wives were carrying food and water to the cage, arguing with the Jewish sentries and pulling their sleeves, obviously quite unafraid. ... Groups of Arabs came marching down the main street with their arms above their heads, grinning broadly, without any guards, to give themselves up. The one prevailing feeling among all seemed to be that as far as Ramleh was concerned the war was over, and thank God for it."</ref>

===Moshe Dayan raid on Lydda===
[[File:Mosche Dajan.jpg|right|thumb|130px|alt=photograph|[[Moshe Dayan]] (1915–1981) led a raid on Lydda "blasting at everything that moved."<ref name=Bilby43/>]]
During the afternoon of 11 July, Israel's 89th (armored) Battalion, led by Lt. Col. [[Moshe Dayan]], moved into Lydda. Israeli historian [[Anita Shapira]] writes that the raid was carried out on Dayan's initiative without coordinating it with his commander. Using a column of jeeps led by a Marmon Harrington armored vehicle with a cannon—taken from the Arab Legion the day before—he launched the attack in daylight,<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA225 Shapira 2007, p. 225].</ref> driving through the town from east to west machine-gunning anything that moved, according to Morris, then along the Lydda-Ramle road firing at militia posts until they reached the train station in Ramle.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426].</ref> Kadish and Sela write that the troops faced heavy fire from the Arab Legion in the police stations in Lydda and on the Lydda-Ramle road.<ref name=KadishSela/> A contemporaneous account from Gene Currivan for ''The New York Times'' also said the firing met with heavy resistance.<ref name=Currivan>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30713FA385F167B93C1A8178CD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=&st=p Currivan, ''The New York Times'', 12 July 1948].</ref>

[[Kenneth Bilby]], a correspondent for the ''New York Herald Tribune'' was in the city at the time. He wrote: "[The Israeli jeep column] raced into Lydda with rifles, Stens, and sub-machine guns blazing. It coursed through the main streets, blasting at everything that moved ... the corpses of Arab men, women, and even children were strewn about the streets in the wake of this ruthlessly brilliant charge."<ref name=Bilby43>[http://books.google.com/books?ei=PSnuTIuAL8TMngfJmYXyCg&ct=result&id=-gkcAAAAMAAJ&dq=New+Star+in+the+Near+East&q=coursed#search_anchor Bilby 1950, p. 43].</ref> The raid lasted 47 minutes, leaving 100–150 Arabs dead, according to Dayan's 89th Battalion. Six died and 21 were wounded on the Israeli side.<ref>The casualty figures vary widely. The figure from Dayan is cited in [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*There were dozens dead and wounded, "perhaps as many as 200," according to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426] and [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 p. 452], footnote 68, citing Kadish, Sela, and Golan 2000, p. 36.
*"[A]bout 40 dead and a large number of wounded," according to Third Battalion intelligence, though it is not clear whether they meant 40 killed by the Third Battalion alone; see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 452], footnote 68.
*Six died and 21 were wounded on the Israeli side, according to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426], again citing Kadish, Sela, and Golan 2000, p. 36.</ref> Kadish and Sela write that the high casualty rate was caused by confusion over who Dayan's troops were. The IDF were wearing ''[[keffiyeh]]''s and were led by an armored car seized from the Arab Legion. Residents may have believed the Arab Legion had arrived, only to encounter Dayan's forces shooting at everything as they ran from their homes.<ref name=KadishSela/>

===Unexpected shooting in Lydda===
No formal surrender was announced in Lydda, though people gathered in the streets waving white flags. On the evening of 11 July, 300–400 Israeli soldiers entered the town. Not long afterwards, the Arab Legion forces on the Lydda–Ramle road withdrew, though a small number of Legionnaires remained in the Lydda police station. More Israeli troops arrived at dawn on 12 July. According to a contemporaneous IDF account: "Groups of old and young, women and children streamed down the streets in a great display of submissiveness, bearing white flags, and entered of their own free will the detention compounds we arranged in the mosque and church—Muslims and Christians separately." The buildings soon filled up, and women and children were released, leaving several thousand men inside, including 4,000 in one of the mosque compounds.<ref>For the IDF quote, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].
*For the 4,000 in the Great Mosque, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref>

Israeli historian [[Yoav Gelber]] writes that the Legionnaires still in the police station were panicking, and had been sending frantic messages to their HQ in Ramallah: "Have you no God in your hearts? Don't you feel any compassion? Hasten aid!"<ref name="gelber"/> They were about to surrender, but were told by HQ to wait to be rescued.<ref>Gelber 2004, p. 23.</ref> On 12 July, at 11:30 hours, two or three Arab Legion armored cars entered the city, led by Lt. Hamadallah al-Abdullah from the Jordanian 1st Brigade. The Arab Legion armored cars opened fire on the Israeli soldiers combing the old city. The exchange of gunfire led residents to believe the Legion had arrived in force, and those still armed started firing at the Israelis too. Kadish and Sela write that, according to the Third Battalion's commander, [[Moshe Kelman]], the Israelis came under heavy fire from thousands of weapons from every house, roof and window. Morris argues against this that only a few dozen townspeople took part in what turned out to be a brief firefight. Brief or not, the Israeli soldiers were unnerved by it: there were only 300–400 of them to quell tens of thousands of residents, and they had been under the impression the locals had surrendered, albeit informally.<ref>[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 Morris 2004, footnote 78, p. 453].</ref>

===Massacre in Lydda===
[[File:LyddaDahmashMosque.png|200px|thumb|alt=photograph|The Dahmash mosque just after occupation]]
Gelber describes what followed as probably the bloodiest massacre of the Arab–Israeli war. Shapira writes that the Israelis had no experience of governing civilians and panicked.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA162 Gelber 2006, p. 162].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA227 Shapira 2007, p. 227].
*{{citation | url = http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf | last = Khalidi | year = 1998 | format = [[PDF]]}} calls it "an orgy of indiscriminate killing."
*[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005] call it "an intense battle where the demarcation between civilians, irregular combatants and regular army units hardly existed."</ref> Kelman ordered troops to shoot at any clear target, including at anyone seen on the streets.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].</ref> He said he had no choice; there was no chance of immediate reinforcements, and no indication of where the attacks were coming from.<ref name=KadishSela/> Israeli soldiers threw grenades into houses they suspected snipers were hiding in. Residents ran out of their homes in panic and were shot. Yeruham Cohen, an IDF intelligence officer, said around 250 died between 11:30 and 14:00 hours.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 87.</ref>

Palestinian historian [[Aref al-Aref]] placed the death toll at 426, including 179 he said were later killed in one of the mosques, during a confusing incident that sources variously refer to as a massacre or a battle.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA428 Morris 2004, p. 428], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 453, footnote 81]. For more casualty figures, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref> Thousands of male Muslim detainees had been taken to two of the mosques the day before. Christian detainees had been taken to the church or a nearby Greek Orthodox monastery, leaving the Muslims in fear of a massacre.<ref>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Munayyer 1998], pp. 93–4.</ref> Morris writes that some of them tried to break out, thinking they were about to be killed, and in response the IDF threw grenades and fired anti-tank rockets into one of the mosque compounds. Kadish and Sela say it was a firefight that broke out between armed militiamen inside the mosque and Israeli soldiers outside; they say the Israelis fired an anti-tank shell into it, then stormed it, killing 30 inside. According to Morris, dozens died, including unarmed men, women and children; an eyewitness published a memoir in 1998 saying he had removed 95 bodies from one of the mosques.<ref>For a discussion about which mosque this happened in, and for the 95 bodies, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005], particularly footnote 40.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA428 Morris 2004, p. 428]: "dozens" were shot and killed
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 Morris 2004, p. 453], footnote 81, cites Kadish, Sela and Golan's ''The Conquest'', who say it was a battle that took place in the mosque, not a massacre. He adds that Kadish et al acknowledge that women, children, and unarmed older men were among the dead.
*An eyewitness, Fayeq Abu Mana, 20 years old at the time, told an Israeli group in 2003 that he had been involved in removing the bodies; see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=365 Zochrot 2003].</ref>

When the shooting was over, bodies lay in the streets and houses in Lydda, and on the Lydda–Ramle road; Morris writes that there were hundreds. The Red Cross was due to visit the area, but the new Israeli military governor of Ramle issued an order to have the visit delayed. The visit was rescheduled for 14 July; Dani HQ ordered Israeli troops to remove the bodies by then, but the order seems not to have been carried out. Dr. Klaus Dreyer of the IDF Medical Corps complained on 15 July that there were still corpses lying in and around Lydda, which constituted a health hazard and a "moral and aesthetic issue." He asked that trucks and Arab residents be organized to deal with them.<ref name=Morris2004p434>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 Morris 2004, p. 434].</ref>

==Exodus==
===Expulsion orders===
Benny Morris writes that David Ben-Gurion and the IDF were largely left to their own devices to decide how Arab residents were to be treated, without the involvement of the Cabinet and other ministers. As a result, their policy was haphazard and circumstantial, depending in part on the location, but also on the religion and ethnicity of the town. The Arabs of Western and Lower [[Galilee]], mainly Christian and Druze, were allowed to stay in place, but Lydda and Ramle, mainly Muslim, were almost completely emptied.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA415 Morris 2004, p. 415].</ref> There was no official policy to expel the Palestinian population, he writes, but the idea of [[Transfer Committee|transfer]] was "in the air," and the leadership understood this.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080515210330/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=380986&contrassID=2 Shavit 2004].</ref>

[[File:Yitzhak Rabin (1986) cropped.jpg|thumb|left|130px|alt=photograph|[[Yitzhak Rabin]] (1922–95) signed the expulsion order.<ref name=Morris2004p429/>]]
As the shooting in Lydda continued, a meeting was held on 12 July at Operation Dani headquarters between Ben-Gurion, [[Yigael Yadin]] and Zvi Ayalon, generals in the IDF, and [[Yisrael Galili]], formerly of the [[Haganah]], the pre-IDF army. Also present were Yigal Allon, commanding officer of Operation Dani, and Yitzhak Rabin.<ref name=Shipler1>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979].</ref> At one point Ben-Gurion, Allon, and Rabin left the room. Rabin has offered two accounts of what happened next. In a 1977 interview with [[Michael Bar-Zohar]], Rabin said Allon asked what was to be done with the residents; in response, Ben-Gurion had waved his hand and said, "''garesh otam''"—"expel them."<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986, p. 90, footnote 31.]</ref> In the manuscript of his memoirs in 1979, Rabin wrote that Ben-Gurion had not spoken, but had only waved his hand, and that Rabin had understand this to mean "drive them out."<ref name=Shipler1/> The expulsion order for Lydda was issued at 13:30 hours on 12 July, signed by Rabin.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].
*The orders for Lydda were from Dani HQ to Yiftah Brigade HQ and 8th Brigade HQ, and to Kiryati Brigade at around the same time.
*"1. The inhabitants of Lydda must be expelled quickly without attention to age. They should be directed towards Beit Nabala. Yiftah [Brigade HQ] must determined the method and inform Dani HQ and 8th Brigade HQ.
*"2. Implement immediately (Prior 1999, p. 205).
*The IDF archives holds two nearly identical copies of the expulsion order. According to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 89, Yigal Allon denied in 1979 that there had been such an order, or an expulsion, saying that the order to evacuate the civilian population of Lydda and Ramle came from the Arab Legion.
*A telegram from Kiryati Brigade HQ to Zvi Aurback, its officer in charge of Ramle, read:
*1. In light of the deployment of 42nd Battalion out of Ramle – you must take [over responsibility] for the defence of the town, the transfer of prisoners [to PoW camps] and the emptying of the town of its inhabitants.
*2. You must continue the sorting out of the inhabitants, and send the army-age males to a prisoner of war camp. The old, women and children will be transported by vehicle to al Qubab and will be moved across the lines – [and] from there continue on foot.." (Kiryati HQ to Aurbach, Tel Aviv District HQ (Mishmar) etc., 14:50 hours, 13 July 1948, Haganah Archive, Tel Aviv), cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].</ref>

In his memoirs Rabin wrote: "'Driving out' is a term with a harsh ring. Psychologically, this was one of the most difficult actions we undertook. The population of Lod did not leave willingly. There was no way of avoiding the use of force and warning shots in order to make the inhabitants march the 10 to 15 miles to the point where they met up with the legion." An [[Censorship in Israel|Israeli censorship board]] removed this section from his manuscript, but Peretz Kidron, the Israeli journalist who translated the memoirs into English, passed the censored text to David Shipler of ''The New York Times'', who published it on 23 October 1979.<ref name=Shipler1/>

In an interview with ''The New York Times'' two days later, Yigal Allon took issue with Rabin's version of events. "With all my high esteem for Rabin during the war of independence, I was his commander and my knowledge of the facts is therefore more accurate," he told Shipler. "I did not ask the late Ben-Gurion for permission to expel the population of Lydda. I did not receive such permission and did not give such orders." He said the residents left in part because they were told to by the Arab Legion, so the latter could recapture Lydda at a later date, and in part because they were panic-stricken.<ref name=Shipler2>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B12FE3C5C12728DDDAC0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=2&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 25 October 1979].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA232 Shapira 2007, p. 232]: Allon gave a lecture on the war in 1950, during which [[Anita Shapira]] writes that he was uncharacteristically frank. He said he blamed the Palestinian exodus on three factors. First, they fled because they were [[Psychological projection|projecting]]: the Arabs imagined that the Jews would do to them what they would do to the Jews if positions were reversed. Second, Arab and British leaders encouraged people to leave their towns so as not to be taken hostage, so they could return to fight another day. Third, there were some cases of expulsion, though these were not the norm. In Lydda and Ramle, the Arab Legion continued to attack Israeli outposts in the hope of reconnecting with their troops in Lydda, he said. When the expulsions started, the attacks died down. To leave the towns' hostile populations in place would be to risk their use by the Legion to coordinate further attacks. Allon said he had no regrets: "War is war." Allon described it elsewhere as a "provoked exodus," rather than an expulsion; see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*Also see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 89.</ref> Yoav Gelber also takes issue with Rabin's account. He writes that Ben-Gurion was in the habit of expressing his orders clearly, whether verbally or in writing, and would not have issued an order by waving his hand; he adds that there is no record of any meetings before the invasion that indicate expulsion was discussed. He attributes the expulsions to Allon, who he says was known for his [[scorched earth]] policy. Wherever Allon was in charge of Israeli troops, Gelber writes, no Palestinians remained.<ref name=Gelber2006p162>[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA162 Gelber 2006, pp. 162–163].</ref>

===Shitrit/Shertok intervention===
The Israeli cabinet reportedly knew nothing about the expulsion plan until [[Bechor Shitrit]], Minister for Minority Affairs, appeared unannounced in Ramle on 12 July. He was shocked when he realized troops were organizing expulsions. He returned to Tel Aviv for a meeting with Foreign Minister [[Moshe Shertok]], who met with Ben Gurion to agree on guidelines for the treatment of the residents, though Morris writes that Ben Gurion apparently failed to tell Shitrit or Shertok that he himself was the source of the expulsion orders. Gelber disagrees with Morris's analysis, arguing that Ben-Gurion's agreement with Shitrit and Shertok is evidence that expulsion was not his intention, rather than evidence of his duplicity, as Morris implies.<ref name=Gelber2006p162/> The men agreed the townspeople should be told that anyone who wanted to leave could do so, but that anyone who stayed was responsible for himself and would not be given food. Women, children, the old, and the sick were not to be forced to leave, and the monasteries and churches must not be damaged, though no mention was made of the mosques. Ben-Gurion passed the order to the IDF General Staff, who passed it to Dani HQ at 23:30 hours on 12 July, ten hours after the expulsion orders were issued; Morris writes that there was an ambiguity in the instruction that women, children and the sick were not to be forced to go: the word "''lalechet''" can mean either "go" or "walk". Satisfied that the order had been passed on, Shertok believed he had managed to avert the expulsions, not realizing that, even as he was discussing them in Tel Aviv, they had already begun.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA430 Morris 2004, p. 430].
*Also see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 92.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA161 Gelber 2006, pp. 161–162], also says the residents were already on their way out when this order was given.</ref>

===The exodus===
Thousands of Ramle residents began moving out of the town on foot, or in trucks and buses, between 10 July and 12 July. The IDF used its own vehicles and confiscated Arab ones to move them.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].
*That the Ramle residents were supplied buses by the Kiryati brigade, see [http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].</ref> Morris writes that, by 13 July, the wishes of the IDF and those of the residents in Lydda had dovetailed. Over the past three days, the townspeople had undergone aerial bombardment, ground invasion, had seen grenades thrown into their homes and hundreds of residents killed, had been living under a curfew, had been abandoned by the Arab Legion, and the able-bodied men had been rounded up. Morris writes they had concluded that living under Israeli rule was not sustainable.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA431 Morris 2004, p. 431].</ref> Spiro Munayyer, an eyewitness, wrote that the important thing was to get out of the city.<ref>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Munayyer 1998], p. 94.</ref> A deal was reached with an IDF intelligence officer, Shmarya Guttman, normally an archeologist, that the residents would leave in exchange for the release of the prisoners; according to Guttman, he went to the mosque himself and told the men they were free to join their families.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], pp. 93–4. Morris finds Guttman's account subjective and impressionistic (p. 94, footnote 39). Guttman later wrote about Lydda under the pseudonym "Avi-Yiftah".</ref> Town criers and soldiers walked or drove around the town instructing residents where to gather for departure.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, p. 432].</ref>

Notwithstanding that an agreement may have been reached, Morris writes that the troops understood that what followed was an act of deportation, not a voluntary exodus. While the residents were still in the town, IDF radio traffic had already started calling them "refugees" (''plitim'').<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA455 Morris 2004, p. 455], footnote 96.</ref> Operation Dani HQ told the IDF General Staff/Operations at noon on 13 July that "[the troops in Lydda] are busy expelling the inhabitants [''oskim begeirush hatoshavim'']," and told the HQs of Kiryati, 8th and Yiftah brigades at the same time that, "enemy resistance in Ramle and Lydda has ended. The eviction [''pinui'']" of the inhabitants... has begun."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, p. 432]: At 18:15 hours that day, Dani HQ asked Yiftah Brigade: "Has the removal of the population [''hotza'at ha'ochlosiah''] of Lydda been completed?"</ref>

===The march===
[[File:Refugees from Lydda.jpg|left|thumb|280px|alt=photograph||Refugees from Lydda and Ramle after the three-day exodus<ref>Glubb 1957, plate 8, between pp. 159 and 161. The caption says: "Arab refugee women and children from Lydda and Ramle, resting after their arrival in the Arab area."</ref>]]
Lydda's residents began moving out on the morning of 13 July. They were made to walk, perhaps because of their earlier resistance, or simply because there were no vehicles left. They walked six to seven kilometers to [[Beit Nabala]], then 10–12 more to [[Barfiliya]], along dusty roads in temperatures of 30–35°C, carrying their children and portable possessions in carts pulled by animals or on their backs.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], pp. 93–4; see p. 97 for the temperature.</ref> According to Shmarya Guttman, an IDF soldier, warning shots were occasionally fired.<ref name=Morris2004p433>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, pp. 433–4].</ref> Some were stripped of their valuables en route by Israeli soldiers at checkpoints.<ref name=Morris2004p433/> Another IDF soldier described how possessions and people were slowly abandoned as the refugees grew tired or collapsed: "To begin with [jettisoning] utensils and furniture, and in the end, bodies of men, women, and children, scattered along the way."<ref name=Morris2004p433/>

Haj As'ad Hassouneh, a survivor of the death march, shared his recollection in 1996: <blockquote>The Jews came and they called among the people: "You must go." "Where shall we go?" "Go to Barfilia." ... the spot you were standing on determined what if any family or possession you could get; any to the west of you could not be retrieved. You had to immediately begin walking and it had to be to the east. ... The people were fatigued even before they began their journey or could attempt to reach any destination. No one knew where Barfilia was or its distance from Jordan. ... The people were also fasting due to [[Ramadan]] because they were people of serious belief. There was no water. People began to die of thirst. Some women died and their babies nursed from their dead bodies. Many of the elderly died on the way. ... Many buried their dead in the leaves of corn.<ref name=Jawadp71>[http://books.google.ca/books?id=bWCN0OUiTJkC&pg=PA100&dq=lydda+%22death+march%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HEVTT-bJBcKY8gOXuo3wBQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=lydda%20%22death%20march%22&f=false Abdel Jawad in Benvenisti et al. 2007]</ref></blockquote>

After three days of walking, the refugees were picked up by the Arab Legion and driven to Ramallah.<ref>Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref> Reports vary regarding how many died. Many were elderly people and young children who died from the heat and exhaustion.<ref name =Shipler1/> Morris has written that it was a "handful and perhaps dozens."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA177 Morris 2003, p. 177].</ref> Glubb wrote that "nobody will ever know how many children died."<ref name=Morris2004p433/> [[Nimr al Khatib]] estimated that 335 died based on hearsay.<ref name=Morris2004p433/> Walid Khalidi gives a figure of 350, citing Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref.<ref>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Khalidi 1998, pp. 80–98].</ref> The expulsions clogged the roads eastward. Morris writes that IDF thinking was simple and cogent. They had just taken two major objectives and were out of steam. The Arab Legion had been expected to counter-attack, but the expulsions thwarted it: the roads were now cluttered, and the Legion was suddenly responsible for the welfare of an additional tens of thousands of people.<ref name=Morris2004p433/>

===Looting of refugees and the towns===
[[File:George Habash.jpg|thumb|130px|alt=photograph|[[George Habash]] (1926–2008) who later led the [[PFLP]], was among those expelled from Lydda.]]
The Sharett-Ben Gurion guidelines to the IDF had specified there was to be no robbery, but numerous sources spoke of widespread looting. ''The Economist'' wrote on 21 August that year: "The Arab refugees were systematically stripped of all their belongings before they were sent on their trek to the frontier. Household belongings, stores, clothing, all had to be left behind."<ref>Pappé 2006, p. 168.</ref> Aharon Cohen, director of Mapam's Arab Department, complained to Yigal Allon months after the deportations that troops had been told to remove jewellery and money from residents so that they would arrive at the Arab Legion without resources, thereby increasing the burden of looking after them. Allon replied that he knew of no such order, but conceded it as a possibility.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 97.</ref>

[[George Habash]], who later founded the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]], was born in Lydda to a Greek Orthodox family. He was in his second year at medical school in Beirut at the time, but returned to Lydda when he heard the Israelis had arrived in Jaffa, and was subsequently one of those expelled. Recalling the events of 1948 in 1990, he said that the Israelis took watches, jewellery, gold, and wallets from the refugees, and that he witnessed a neighbor of his shot and killed because he refused to be searched; he said the man's sister, who also saw what happened, died during the march from the shock, exposure and thirst.<ref name=Brandabur>[http://www.peuplesmonde.com/spip.php?article680 Brandabur 1990]. Habash said: "The Israelis were rounding everyone up and searching us. People were driven from every quarter and subjected to complete and rough body searches. You can’t imagine the savagery with which people were treated. Everything was taken—watches, jewelery, wedding rings, wallets, gold. One young neighbor of ours, a man in his late twenties, not more, Amin Hanhan, had secreted some money in his shirt to care for his family on the journey. The soldier who searched him demanded that he surrender the money and he resisted. He was shot dead in front of us. One of his sisters, a young married woman, also a neighbor of our family, was present: she saw her brother shot dead before her eyes. She was so shocked that, as we made our way toward Birzeit, she died of shock, exposure, and lack of water on the way."</ref>

As the residents left, the sacking of the cities began. The Yiftah brigade commander, Lt. Col. Schmuel "Mula" Cohen, wrote of Lydda that, "the cruelty of the war here reached its zenith."<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 88.</ref> Bechor Sheetrit, the Minister for Minority Affairs, said the army removed 1,800 truckloads of property from Lydda alone. Dov Shafrir was appointed Israel's Custodian of Absentee Property, supposedly charged to protect and redistribute Palestinian property, but his staff were inexperienced and unable to control the situation.<ref>Segev 1986, pp. 69–71</ref> The looting was so extensive that the 3rd Battalion had to be withdrawn from Lydda during the night of 13–14 July, and sent for a day to [[Ben Shemen]] for ''kinus heshbon nefesh'', a conference to encourage soul-searching. Cohen forced them to hand over their loot, which was thrown onto a bonfire and destroyed, but the situation continued when they returned to town. Some were later prosecuted.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 86.</ref>

There were also allegations that Israeli soldiers had raped Palestinian women. Ben-Gurion referred to them in his diary entry for 15 July 1948: "The bitter question has arisen regarding acts of robbery and rape [''o'nes'' ("אונס")] in the conquered towns ..."<ref>Ben-Gurion, Volume 2, p. 589.</ref> Israeli writer [[Amos Kenan]], who served as a platoon commander of the 82d Regiment of the Israeli Army brigade that conquered Lydda told ''The Nation'' on 6 February 1989: "At night, those of us who couldn't restrain ourselves would go into the prison compounds to fuck Arab women. I want very much to assume, and perhaps even can, that those who couldn't restrain themselves did what they thought the Arabs would have done to them had they won the war."<ref name=Kenan>[http://www.thenation.com/archive/four-decades-blood-vengeance Kenan 1989]; [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0059831.html courtesy link].</ref> Kenan said he heard of only one woman who complained. A court-martial was arranged, he said, but in court, the accused ran the back of his hand across his throat, and the woman decided not to proceed.<ref name=Kenan/> The allegations were given little consideration by the Israeli government. Agriculture Minister [[Aharon Zisling]] told the Cabinet on 21 July: "It has been said that there were cases of rape in Ramle. I could forgive acts of rape but I won't forgive other deeds, which appear to me much graver. When a town is entered and rings are forcibly removed from fingers and jewellery from necks—that is a very grave matter."<ref name=Zisling>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986, p. 105].
*See also Segev 1986, pp. 71–72.
*For a discussion of Ben-Gurion's concern, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=dL29_RBATv0C&pg=PA313 Tal 2004, p. 311].</ref>

Stuart Cohen writes that central control over the Jewish fighters was weak. Only Yigal Allon, commander of the IDF, made it standard practice to issue written orders to commanders, including that violations of the laws of war would be punished. Otherwise, trust was placed, and sometimes misplaced, in what Cohen calls intuitive troop decency. He adds that, despite the alleged war crimes, the majority of the IDF behaved with decency and civility.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVV4i-KbzoAC&pg=PA139 Cohen 2008, p. 139].</ref> Yitzhak Rabin wrote in his memoirs that some refused to take part in the evictions.<ref>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979]. Rabin wrote: "Great suffering was inflicted upon the men taking part in the eviction action. Soldiers of the Yiftach brigade included youth movement graduates, who had been inculcated with values such as international fraternity and humaneness. The eviction action went beyond the concepts they were used to. There were some fellows who refused to take part in the expulsion action. Prolonged propaganda activities were required after the action, to remove the bitterness of these youth movement groups, and explain why we were obliged to undertake such harsh and cruel action."</ref>

==Aftermath==
===In Ramallah, Amman, and elsewhere===
[[File:Glubb Pasha 1940.jpg|right|thumb|220px|alt=photograph|[[John Bagot Glubb]], British commander of the Arab Legion, was spat on as he drove through the [[West Bank]] for having handed Lydda and Ramle to the Jews.]]
Tens of thousands of Palestinians from Lydda and Ramle poured into Ramallah. For the most part, they had no money, property, food, or water, and represented a health risk, not only to themselves. The Ramallah city council asked King Abdullah to remove them.<ref>IDF Intelligence Service/Arab Department, 21 July 1948, cited in Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref> Some of the refugees reached Amman, the Gaza Strip, Lebanon, and the Upper Galilee, and all over the area there were angry demonstrations against Abdullah and the Arab Legion for their failure to defend the cities. People spat at Glubb, the British commander of the Arab Legion, as he drove through the [[West Bank]], and wives and parents of Arab Legion soldiers tried to break into King Abdullah's palace.<ref name=Morris2008p290>Morris 2008, pp. 290–291.</ref> [[Alec Kirkbride]], the British ambassador in Amman, described one protest in the city on 18 July:

<blockquote>A couple of thousand Palestinian men swept up the hill toward the main [palace] entrance ... screaming abuse and demanding that the lost towns should be reconquered at once ... The King appeared at the top of the main steps of the building; he was a short, dignified figure wearing white robes and headdress. He paused for a moment, surveying the seething mob before, [then walked] down the steps to push his way through the line of guardsmen into the thick of the demonstrators. He went up to a prominent individual, who was shouting at the top of his voice, and dealt him a violent blow to the side of the head with the flat of his hand. The recipient of the blow stopped yelling ... the King could be heard roaring: so, you want to fight the Jews, do you? Very well, there is a recruiting office for the army at the back of my house ... go there and enlist. The rest of you, get the hell down the hillside!" Most of the crowd got the hell down the hillside.<ref>Kirkbride 1976, p. 48, cited in Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref></blockquote>

Morris writes that, during a meeting in Amman on 12–13 July of the Political Committee of the [[Arab League]], delegates—particularly from Syria and Iraq—accused Glubb of serving British, or even Jewish, interests, with his excuses about troop and ammunition shortages. Egyptian journalists said he had handed Lydda and Ramle to the Jews. Perie-Gordon, Britain's acting minister in Amman, told the Foreign Office there was a suspicion that Glubb, on behalf of the British government, had lost Lydda and Ramle deliberately to ensure that Transjordan accept a truce. King Abdullah indicated that he wanted Glubb to leave, without actually asking him to—particularly after Iraqi officers alleged that the entire [[Hashemite]] house was in the pay of the British—but London asked him to stay on. Britain's popularity with the Arabs reached an all-time low.<ref>Morris 2008, pp. 291–292.
*For Perie-Gordon, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=D30D_GzUKfMC&pg=PA208 Abu Nowar 2002, p. 208].</ref> The United Nations Security Council called for a ceasefire to begin no later than 18 July, with sanctions to be levelled against transgressors. The Arabs were outraged: "No justice, no logic, no equity, no understanding, but blind submission to everything that is Zionist," ''Al-Hayat'' responded, though Morris writes that cooler heads in the Arab world were privately pleased that they were required not to fight, given Israel's obvious military superiority.<ref>Morris 2008, p. 295.</ref>

===Situation of the refugees===
Morris writes that the situation of the 400,000 Arabs who became refugees that summer—not only those from Lydda and Ramle—was dire, camping in public buildings, abandoned barracks, and under trees.<ref name=Morris2008p309>Morris 2008, p. 309ff.</ref> [[Count Folke Bernadotte]], the United Nations mediator in Palestine, visited a [[Palestinian refugee camps|refugee camp]] in Ramallah and said he had never seen a more ghastly sight.<ref>Sayigh 2007, p. 84.</ref> Morris writes that the Arab governments did little for them, and most of the aid that did reach them came from the West through the Red Cross and Quakers. A new UN body was set up to get things moving, which in December 1949 became the [[United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East]] (UNRWA), which many of the refugees and their descendants, now standing at four million, still depend on.<ref name=Morris2008p309/> Bernadotte's mediation efforts—which resulted in a proposal to split Palestine between Israel and Jordan, and to hand Lydda and Ramle to King Abdullah—ended on 17 September 1948, when he was assassinated by four Israeli gunmen from [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]], an extremist Zionist faction.<ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jfouAAAAIBAJ&sjid=HNwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6344,4611106&dq=bernadotte+assassination&hl=en "Bernadotte Murder Stuns Whole World"], ''Ottawa Citizen'', 18 September 1948.</ref> The United Nations convened the [[Lausanne Conference, 1949|Lausanne Conference]] from April to September 1949 in part to resolve the refugee question. Israel offered to allow 100,000 to return in exchange for peace, including 25,000 who had already returned illegally. Ben-Gurion opposed it, and the Americans felt it too low: they wanted to see 250,000 refugees re-absorbed. The issue became moot because the Arabs rejected the proposal. They maintained that there were one million refugees overall, and that the Israeli offer was "less than token."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA573 Morris 2004, pp. 573–577].</ref>

===Resettlement of the cities===
{{further|Absentees' Property Laws|Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim lands}}
[[File:Transfer of control from the military governor to the first mayor, Pesach Lev, Lod, April 1949.jpg|right|thumb|230px|alt=photograph|Power is handed from the military governor of Lydda, now called Lod, to the first mayor, Pesach Lev, April 1949.]]
On 14 July 1948 the IDF told Ben-Gurion that "not one Arab inhabitant" remained in Ramla or Lod, as they were now called. In fact, several hundred remained, including the elderly, the ill and some Christians, and others managed to sneak back in over the following months. In October 1948 the Israeli military governor of Ramla-Lod reported that 960 Palestinians were living in Ramla, and 1,030 in Lod. Military rule in the towns ended in April 1949.<ref>For "not one inhabitant," and the hundreds remaining, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 Morris 2004, p. 434].
*For the numbers in October 1948, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA455 Morris 2004, p. 455], footnote 110.
*For military rule ending, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA39 Yacobi 2009, p. 39].</ref>

Nearly 700,000 Jews [[Aliyah|immigrated to Israel]] between May 1948 and December 1951 from Europe, Asia and Africa, doubling the state's Jewish population; in 1950 Israel passed the [[Law of Return]], offering Jews automatic citizenship.<ref name=Yacobi2009p42>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA42 Yacobi 2009, p. 42].</ref> The immigrants were assigned Palestinian homes—in part because of the inevitable housing shortage, but also as a matter of policy to make it harder for former residents to reclaim them—and could buy refugees' furniture from the Custodian for Absentees' Property.<ref name=MorrisYacobi>Morris 2008, p. 308, for a general discussion of the issue.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA45 Yacobi 2009, p. 45], for specific mention of this in relation to Lydda.</ref> Jewish families were occasionally placed in houses belonging to Palestinians who still lived in Israel, the so-called "[[present absentees]]," regarded as physically present but legally absent, with no legal standing to reclaim their property.<ref name=Yacobi2009p42/> By March 1950 there were 8,600 Jews and 1,300 Palestinian Arabs living in Ramla, and 8,400 Jews and 1,000 Palestinians in Lod. Most of the Jews who settled in the towns were from Asia or North Africa.<ref>For the figures, and that most were from Asia and North Africa, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Golan 2003].
*Also see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA39 Yacobi 2009, p. 39].</ref>

The Palestinian workers allowed to remain in the cities were confined to ghettos. The military administrator split the region into three zones—Ramla, Lod, and Rakevet, a neighborhood in Lod established by the British for rail workers—and declared the Arab areas within them "closed," with each closed zone run by a committee of three to five members.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA33 Yacobi 2009, p. 33.]</ref> Many of the town's essential workers were Palestinians. The military administrators did satisfy some of their needs, such as building a school, supplying medical aid, allocating them 50 dunams for growing vegetables, and renovating the interior of the Dahmash mosque, but it appears the refugees felt like prisoners; Palestinian train workers, for example, were subject to a curfew from evening until morning, with periodic searches to make sure they had no guns.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA34 Yacobi 2009, p. 34.]</ref> One wrote an open letter in March 1949 to the ''Al Youm'' newspaper on behalf of 460 Muslim and Christian train workers: "Since the occupation, we continued to work and our salaries have still not been paid to this day. Then our work was taken from us and now we are unemployed. The curfew is still valid ... [W]e are not allowed to go to Lod or Ramla, as we are prisoners. No one is allowed to look for a job but with the mediation of the members of the Local Committee ... we are like slaves. I am asking you to cancel the restrictions and to let us live freely in the state of Israel.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA35 Yacobi 2009, pp. 35–36].</ref>

===Artistic reception===
[[File:Ismail Shammout's Where to ....JPG|right|thumb|150px|alt=photograph|[[Ismail Shammout]]'s ''Where to ..?'' (1953)]]
The [[Palestinian art]]ist [[Ismail Shammout]] (1930–2006) was 19 years old when he was expelled from Lydda. He created a series of oil paintings about the march, the best known of which is ''Where to ..?'' (1953), which enjoys iconic status among Palestinians. A life-size image of a man dressed in rags holds a walking stick in one hand, the wrist of a child in the other, a toddler on his shoulder, with a third child behind him, crying and alone. There is a withered tree behind him, and in the distance the skyline of an Arab town with a [[minaret]]. [[Gannit Ankori]] writes that the absent mother is the lost homeland, the children its orphans.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=X_Q6FX0YFVwC&pg=PA48 Ankori 2006, pp. 48–50].
*For the image on Shammout's website: [http://www.shammout.com/oilbig13.htm "Where to ..?"], shammout.com, accessed 26 November 2010.</ref>

By November 1948 the IDF had been accused of atrocities in a number of towns and villages, to the point where David Ben-Gurion had to appoint an investigator. Israeli poet [[Natan Alterman]] (1910–1970) wrote about the allegations in his poem ''Al Zot'' ("On This"), published in ''[[Davar]]'' on 19 November 1948, about a soldier on a jeep machine-gunning an Arab, referring to the events in Lydda, according to Morris. Two days later Ben-Gurion sought Alterman's permission for the Defence Ministry to distribute the poem throughout the IDF:<ref>For the atrocities in general, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA486 Morris 2004, p. 486ff]; for reference to the poem and Ben-Gurion writing to Alterman, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA489 p. 489].
*Morris writes that the poem is about Lydda in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, pp. 426], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA489 489] (on p. 489 he writes it was "apparently" about Lydda), and Morris 2008, p. 473, footnote 85.</ref>

{{Quote box |quoted= |bgcolor=#FFFFF0 |qalign=left |width=370px |align=center
| quote =<poem>Let us sing then also about "delicate incidents"
For which the true name, incidentally, is murder
Let songs be composed about conversations with sympathetic interlocutors
who with collusive chuckles make concessions and grant forgiveness.<ref name=Cohenp140>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVV4i-KbzoAC&pg=PA140 Cohen 2008, p. 140].
*[http://www.education.gov.il/tochniyot_Limudim/shira/sh_42.htm ''Al Zot'' in Hebrew], www.education.gov.il, accessed 1 December 2010.</poem>}}

===Four figures after the exodus===
[[File:Bill Clinton, Yitzhak Rabin, Yasser Arafat at the White House 1993-09-13.jpg|thumb|230px|alt=photograph|[[Yitzhak Rabin]]'s historic handshake with [[Yasser Arafat]] at the White House, 1993]]
Yigal Allon, who led Operation Dani and may have ordered the expulsions, became Israel's deputy prime minister in 1967. He was a member of the war cabinet during the 1967 Arab Israeli [[Six-Day War]], and the architect of the post-war [[Allon Plan]], a proposal to end Israel's occupation of the [[West Bank]]. He died in 1980.<ref>Jewish Agency for Israel.[http://web.archive.org/web/20041210194811/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/people/BIOS/allon.html "Allon, Yigal (1918–1980)"], accessed 25 September 2009.</ref>

Yitzhak Rabin, Allon's operations officer, who signed the Lydda expulsion order, became Chief of Staff of the IDF during the Six-Day War, and Israel's prime minister in 1974 and again in 1992. He was assassinated in 1995 by a right-wing Israeli radical opposed to making peace with the PLO.<ref name=Morris2004p429>For his having signed the order, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].</ref>

Khalil al-Wazir, the grocer's son expelled from Ramle, became one of the founders of Yasser Arafat's ''[[Fatah]]'' faction within the PLO, and specifically of its armed wing, ''[[Al-Assifa]]''. He organized the PLO's guerrilla warfare and the ''Fatah'' youth movements that helped spark the [[First Intifada]] in 1987. He was assassinated by Israeli commandos in Tunis in 1988.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=GkbzYoZtaJMC&pg=PA529 As'ad Abu Khalil 2005, p. 529ff].</ref>

George Habash, the medical student expelled from Lydda, went on to lead one of the best-known of the Palestinian militant groups, the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]. In September 1970 he masterminded the [[Dawson's Field hijackings|hijacking of four passenger jets]] bound for New York, an attack that put the Palestinian cause on the map. The PFLP was also behind the 1972 [[Lod Airport massacre]], in which 27 people died, and the 1976 hijacking of an Air France flight to Entebbe, which famously led to the IDF's [[Operation Entebbe|rescue of the hostages]]. Habash died of a heart attack in Amman in 2008.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/middleeast/27habash.html?bl&ex=1201582800&en=a0d7bd56323e1b26&ei=5087%0A Andrews and Kifner, ''The New York Times'', January 27, 2008].
*Habash spoke to [[Robert Fisk]] in 1993 about Lydda: "I will never rest until I can go back. The house is still there and a Jewish family lives in it now. Some of my friends tried to find it and some relatives actually went there and sent me a message that the trees are still standing in the garden, just as they were in 1948. ... It's my right to go directly to my house and live there." See [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/still-dreaming-of-his-homeland-robert-fisk-in-damascus-hears-george-habash-orator-fighter-and-refugee-spell-out-his-terms-for-a-settlement-with-israel-1509518.html Fisk 1993].</ref>

==Historiography==
[[File:Anita Shapira.jpg|left|thumb|150px|alt=photograph|Israeli historian [[Anita Shapira]] argues that the scholars who wrote the early history of 1948 censored themselves, because they saw the 1948 war as the tragic climax of the [[Holocaust]] and the Second World War.<ref name=Shapira1995p12/>]]
Benny Morris argues that Israeli historians from the 1950s throughout the 1970s—who wrote what he calls the "Old History"—were "less than honest" about what had happened in Lydda and Ramle.<ref name=Morris1988>[http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].</ref> [[Anita Shapira]] calls them the Palmach generation: historians who had fought in the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], and who thereafter went to work for the IDF's history branch, where they censored material other scholars had no access to. For them, Shapira writes, the Holocaust and the Second World War—including the experience of Jewish weakness in the face of persecution—made the fight for land between the Arabs and Jews a matter of life and death, the 1948 war the "tragic and heroic climax of all that had preceded it," and Israeli victory an "act of historical justice."<ref name=Shapira1995p12>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], pp. 12–13.</ref>

The IDF's official history of the 1948 war, ''Toldot Milhemet HaKomemiyut'' ("History of the War of Independence"), published in 1959, said that residents of Lydda had violated the terms of their surrender, and left because they were afraid of Israeli retribution. The head of the IDF history branch, Lt. Col Netanel Lorch, wrote in ''The Edge of the Sword'' (1961) that they had requested safe conduct from the IDF; American political scientist [[Ian Lustick]] writes that Lorch admitted in 1997 that he left his post because the censorship made it impossible to write good history.<ref>For Lorch's book, see [http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].
*For Lustick, see [http://www.polisci.upenn.edu/faculty/bios/Pubs/survivalreview.pdf Lustick 1997].</ref> Another employee of the history branch, Lt. Col. Elhannan Orren, wrote a detailed history of Operation Dani in 1976 that made no mention of expulsions.<ref name=Morris1988/>

Arab historians published accounts, including [[Aref al-Aref]]'s ''Al Nakba, 1947–1952'' (1956–1960), [[Muhammad Nimr al-Khatib]]'s ''Min Athar al-Nakba'' (1951), and several papers by Walid Khalidi, but Morris writes that they suffered from a lack of archival material; Arab governments have been reluctant to open their archives, and the Israeli archives were at that point still closed.<ref>Morris 2004, pp. 1–2.</ref> The first person in Israel to acknowledge the Lydda and Ramle expulsions, writes Morris, was Yitzhak Rabin in his 1979 memoirs, though that part of his manuscript was removed by government censors.<ref name=Morris1988/> The 30-year rule of [[Israel State Archive|Israel's Archives Law]], passed in 1955, meant that hundreds of thousands of government documents were released throughout the 1980s, and a group calling itself the "New Historians" emerged, most of them born around 1948. They interpreted the history of the war, not in terms of European politics, the Holocaust, and Jewish history, but solely within the context of the Middle East. Shapira writes that they focused on the 700,000 Arabs who were uprooted by the war, not on the 6,000 Jews who died during it, and assessed the behavior of the Jewish state as they would that of any other.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], pp. 9, 16–17.</ref> Between 1987 and 1993, four of these historians in particular—Morris himself, [[Simha Flapan]], [[Ilan Pappé]], and [[Avi Shlaim]]—three of them Oxbridge-trained, published a series of books that changed the historiography of the Palestinian exodus. According to Lustick, although it was known in academic circles that the Palestinians had left because of expulsions and intimidation, it was largely unknown to Israeli Jews until Morris's ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949'' appeared in 1987.<ref>
[http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988], and [http://www.polisci.upenn.edu/faculty/bios/Pubs/survivalreview.pdf Lustick 1997], pp. 157–158.
*Simha Flapan (1911–1987) is the exception to the rule that the New Historians were born around 1948.
*The key texts are:
*[[Simha Flapan]]'s ''The Birth of Israel'' (1987)
*[[Benny Morris]]'s ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949'' (1987), ''[[1948 and After|1948 and After: Israel and the Palestinians]]'' (1990), and ''[[Israel's Border Wars 1949–1956|Israel's Border Wars, 1949–1956]]'' (1993)
*[[Ilan Pappé]]'s ''Britain and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: 1948–1951'' (1988) and ''The Making of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1947–1951'' (1992)
*[[Avi Shlaim]]'s ''Collusion across the Jordan'' (1988) and ''The Politics of Partition'' (1990)
*Other writers engaged in the "New History," according to Lustick (p. 157), include Uri Bar-Joseph, [[Mordechai Bar-On]], [[Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi]], Motti Golani, [[Uri Milstein]], and [[Tom Segev]].
*That the New Historians focus on the 700,000 uprooted, see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], p. 13.</ref>

Their work is not without its critics, most notably Israeli historian [[Efraim Karsh]], who writes that there was more voluntary Palestinian flight than Morris and the others concede. He acknowledges that there were expulsions, particularly in Lydda, though he argues—as does Morris—that they resulted from decisions made in the heat of battle, and account for a small percentage of the overall exodus.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=6RRr_bf1ZhAC&pg=PA160 Karsh 2003, pp. 160–161].
*[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref> Karsh argues that the New Historians have turned the story of the birth of Israel upside down, making victims of the Arab aggressors, though he acknowledges that the New History is now widely accepted.<ref>[http://www.meforum.org/466/benny-morris-and-the-reign-of-error Karsh 1999].</ref> The positions of Karsh and Morris, though they disagree, contrast in turn with those of Ilan Pappé and Walid Khalidi, who argue not only that there were widespread expulsions, but also that they were not the result of ''ad hoc'' decisions. Rather, they argue, the expulsions were part of a deliberate strategy, known as [[Plan Dalet]] and conceived before Israel's declaration of independence, to transfer the Arab population and seize their land.<ref>Pappé 2007.
*[http://www.scribd.com/doc/19199199/Plan-Dalet-Master-Plan-for-the-Conquest-of-Palestine-by-Walid-Khalidi Khalidi 1961], and [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Khalidi,%20Plan%20Dalet%20Revisited.pdf Khalidi 1988].</ref>

==Lod and Ramla today==
[[File:RamleviewS.jpg|left|thumb|180px|alt=photograph|Ramla in 2006]]
As of 2009 around 66,000 people were living in Ramla, which became briefly known around the world in 1962, when former SS officer [[Adolf Eichmann]] was hanged in Ramla prison in May that year.<ref>For the population, see [http://www.cbs.gov.il/population/new_2010/table3.pdf Population figures], Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, accessed 26 November 2010.
*For Eichmann, see [http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/we-have-to-carry-out-the-sentence-1.226299 Weitz 2007].</ref> The population in Lod as of 2010 was officially around 45,000 Jews and 20,000 Arabs; its main industry is its airport, renamed Ben Gurion International Airport in 1973.<ref name=Economist>[http://www.economist.com/node/17254422 "Pulled apart"], ''The Economist'', 14 October 2010.</ref> [[Aliyah from Ethiopia|Beth Israel immigrants from Ethiopia]] were housed there in the 1990s, increasing the ethnic tension in the city which, together with the economic deprivation, make the town "the most likely place to explode," according to Arnon Golan, an Israeli expert on ethnically-mixed cities. {{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} In 2010 a three-meter-high wall was built to separate the Jewish and Arab neighborhoods.<ref name=Economist/>

[[File:Zochrot at the former Lydda ghetto.JPG|thumb|200px|alt=photograph|Eitan Bronstein of [[Zochrot]] places a sign on the former Lydda ghetto.]]
The Arab community has complained that, when Arabs became a majority in Lod's Ramat Eshkol suburb, the local school was closed rather than turned into an Arab-sector school, and in September 2008 it was re-opened as a [[yeshiva]], a Jewish religious school. The local council acknowledges that it wants Lod to become a more Jewish city. In addition to the Arabs officially registered, a fifth of the overall population are [[Bedouin]], who arrived in Lod in the 1980s when they were moved off land in the Negev, according to Nathan Jeffay.They live in illegal dwellings on agricultural land, unregistered and with no municipal services.<ref name=Jeffay>[http://www.forward.com/articles/14435/ Jeffay 2008].</ref>

The refugees are occasionally able to visit their former homes. [[Zochrot]], an Israeli group that researches former Palestinian towns, visited Lod in 2003 and 2005, erecting signs in Hebrew and Arabic depicting its history, including a sign on the wall of the former Arab ghetto. The visits are met with a mixture of interest and hostility.<ref>[http://www.zochrot.org/index.php?id=221 "Remembering Al-Lydd 2005"], [http://www.zochrot.org/index.php?id=364 "Tour and signposting in Al-Lydd (Lod), 2003"].
*Also see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=365 "Testimonies on the Nakba of Lod"].
*[http://www.zochrot.org/images/lydda.pdf Booklet about Lydda] in Arabic and Hebrew, Zochrot.
*[http://www.zochrot.org/images/al-Ramle.pdf Booklet about Ramla], also in Arabic and Hebrew, Zochrot, all accessed 28 November 2010.</ref> Father Oudeh Rantisi, a former mayor of Ramallah who was expelled from Lydda in 1948, visited his family's former home for the first time in 1967:

<blockquote>As the bus drew up in front of the house, I saw a young boy playing in the yard. I got off the bus and went over to him. "How long have you lived in this house?" I asked. "I was born here," he replied. "Me too," I said ...<ref>[http://www.ameu.org/printer.asp?iid=64&aid=95 Rantisi and Amash 2000].</ref></blockquote>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|2}}
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*Weitz, Yechiam (2007). [http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/we-have-to-carry-out-the-sentence-1.226299 "We have to carry out the sentence"], ''Haaretz'', 2 August 2007.
*Yacobi, Haim (2009). ''The Jewish-Arab City: Spatio-politics in a Mixed Community''. Routledge.
*''[[Zochrot]]'' (2003). [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=365 Testimonies on the Nakba of Lod], 11 January 2003. Also see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=364] [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=221] [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=349], all accessed 14 December 2010.
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|2}}
*[[Nathan Alterman|Alterman, Nathan]] (1948). [http://www.education.gov.il/tochniyot_Limudim/shira/sh_42.htm "Al Zot"], www.education.gov.il, accessed 23 November 2010. {{he icon}}
*Abdel Jawad, Saleh (2007). ''Israel and the Palestinian refugees.'' Eyāl Benveniśtî, Chaim Gans, Sārī Ḥanafī, ed. Springer.
*[[Aref al-Aref|Aref al-'Aref]] (1959). ''Al-Nakba: Nakbat Filsatin wal-Firdaws al-Mafqud 1947–1952'' [''The Catastrophe: The Catastrophe of Palestine and the Lost Paradise 1947–1952'']. Sidon and Beirut, A1-Maktab al-'Sariyya lil-Tiba'a wal-Nashr.
*[[Moshe Dayan|Dayan, Moshe]] (1976). ''Moshe Dayan: story of my life.'' New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-03076-9.
*El-Asmar, Fouzi (1975). ''To be an Arab in Israel''. Institute for Palestine Studies.
*Guttman, Shmarya ("Avi-Yiftah") (November 1948). "Lydda," ''Mibifnim''.
*Kadish, Alon; [[Avraham Sela|Sela, Avraham]]; and Golan, Arnon (2000). ''The Occupation of Lydda, July 1948''. Tel Aviv: Israel Ministry of Defense and Hagana Historical Archive. {{he icon}}
*[[Efraim Karsh|Karsh, Efraim]] (1997). ''Fabricating Israeli History: The 'New Historians'''. Routledge.
*Karsh, Efraim (2002). ''The Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Palestine War 1948'', Osprey Publishing, 2002.
*Kelman, Moshe (1972). "Ha-Hevdel bein Deir Yasin le-Lod" ["The Difference between Deir Yasin and Lydda"], ''Yedi'ot Aharonot'', 2 May 1972. {{he icon}}
*Khalidi, Walid (1992). "All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948". Institute for Palestine Studies.
*[[Ghassan Kanafani|Kanafani, Ghassan]] (1956). "Paper from Ramleh". "Palestine's Children. Short stories by Ghassan Kanafani". Three Continents Press. ISBN 0-89410-431-4.
*Lorch, Netanel (1997). "A Word from an Old Historian," ''Haaretz'', 23 June 1997.
*Monterescu, Daniel and Rabinowitz, Dan (2007). ''Mixed Towns, Trapped Communities''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
*Morris, Benny (1986b). [http://books.google.com/books?id=OjuKhNEmFvoC&pg=PA169 "The Causes and Character of the Exodus from Palestine"] in Pappé, Ilan. ''The Israel/Palestine Question''. Routledge, 1999.
*Morris, Benny (1987). ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949''. Cambridge University Press.
*Munayyer, Spiro (1997). ''Lydda During the Mandate and Occupation Periods''. Institute for Palestine Studies.
*[[Nur-eldeen Masalha|Masalha, Nur]] (2003). ''The Politics of Denial: Israel and the Palestinian Refugee Problem''. Pluto Press.
*Rantisi, Audeh G. [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1998/1948/362_rnts.htm Would I ever see my home again?], ''Al-Ahram'', accessed 14 December 2010.
*Rantisi, Audeh G. and Beebe, Ralph K. (1990). ''Blessed are the peacemakers: the story of a Palestinian Christian''. Eagle.
{{Refend}}
 
{{nakbaend}}
{{Palestinian Arab villages depopulated during the 1948 Palestine War}}
{{Arab-Israeli Conflict}}
{{Israeli-Palestinian Conflict}}
{{Coord|31|56|30.01|N|34|52|41.83|E|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Exodus From Lydda And Ramle}}
[[Category:1948 Palestinian exodus]]
[[Category:1948 Arab–Israeli War]]
[[Category:Forced marches]]
[[Category:Lod]]
[[Category:Ramla]]

[[fr:Exode palestinien de Lydda et Ramle]]

Palästinensische Vertreibung aus Lydda und Ramle 1948

2012-06-10T17:28:48Z

InverseHypercube: fixing caption

{{Infobox historical event
| Image_Name = Israeli fighter accepts cigarette from an Arab resident, Lydda, July 1948.png
| Imagesize = 300
| Image_Alt = Photograph
| Image_Caption = An Israeli soldier accepts a cigarette from an Arab resident in Lydda after the fall of the city
| AKA = Lydda death march
| Participants = [[Israel Defense Forces]], [[Arab Legion]], Arab residents of [[Lod|Lydda]] and [[Ramle]]
| Location = Lydda, Ramle, and surrounding villages, then part of the [[Mandate for Palestine]], now part of [[Israel]]
| Date = July 1948
| Result = 50,000–70,000 residents fled from, or were expelled by, the IDF
| URL =
}}
The '''1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle''' was the flight or expulsion of 50,000–70,000 Palestinian Arabs when [[Israel]]i troops captured the towns in July that year. The military action occurred within the context of the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]. The towns, which were predominately Arab areas in [[Palestine]] at the time, and which the UN partition resolution had designated to be in the Arab nation, became predominantly Jewish areas in the new State of Israel, known as [[Lod]] and [[Ramla]].<ref>For population figures, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA425 Morris 2004, p. 425], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 434]. He writes that, in July 1948 before the invasion, Lydda and Ramle had a population of 50,000–70,000, 20,000 of whom were refugees from Jaffa and the surrounding area (p. 425). All were expelled, except for a few elderly or sick people, some Christians, and some who were retained to work; others managed to sneak back in, so that by mid-October 1948 there were around 2,000 Arabs living in both towns (p. 434).
*For the name change, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA29 Yacobi 2009, p. 29]. Yacobi writes that Lod was Lydda's biblical name.
*The Arabs called Lydda al-Ludd. Lydda was the Latin form of its name, which it was widely known by. See [http://books.google.com/books?id=jJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA801&lpg=PA798 Sharon 1983, p. 798].
*Ramle can also be written as Ramleh; it known as Ramla by the Israelis, and should not be confused with [[Ramallah]], the administrative center of the [[Palestinian National Authority]].</ref>

Ramle surrendered immediately, but the conquest of Lydda took longer and led to an unknown number of deaths; Israeli historian [[Benny Morris]] suggests up to 450 Arabs and 9–10 Israeli soldiers died.<ref>The death toll in Lydda:
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426]: '''11 July'''—Six dead and 21 wounded on the Israeli side, and "dozens of Arabs (perhaps as many as 200)".
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 452], footnote 68: Third Battalion intelligence puts the figure at 40 Arabs dead, but perhaps referring only to the numbers they had killed themselves.
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 428]: '''12 July'''—Israeli troops were ordered to shoot at anyone seen on the streets: during that incident, 3–4 Israelis were killed and around a dozen wounded. On the Arab side, 250 dead and many wounded, according to the IDF.</ref> Once the Israelis were in control of the towns, an expulsion order signed by [[Yitzhak Rabin]] was issued to the [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF) stating, "1. The inhabitants of Lydda must be expelled quickly without attention to age.…",<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Morris
| first = Benny
| authorlink = Benny Morris
| title = The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| series = Cambridge Middle East Library
| year = 1987
| location = Cambridge, United Kingdom
| page = 207
| isbn = 0 521 33889 }}
</ref>
Ramle's residents were bussed out, while the people of Lydda were forced to walk miles during a summer heat wave to the Arab front lines, where the [[Arab Legion]], [[Transjordan]]'s British-led army, tried to provide shelter and supplies.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, pp. 432–434].
*Also see Gilbert 2008, pp. 218–219.</ref> The harsh conditions of the exodus for the refugees from Lydda caused deaths, mostly from exhaustion and dehydration, with estimates ranging from a handful to 350; it became known as the ''Lydda death march''. From the Israeli perspective, the conquest of the towns averted an Arab threat to [[Tel Aviv]], thwarted an Arab Legion advance by clogging the roads with refugees, and helped demoralize nearby Arab cities.<ref>For the use of the term "Lydda death march," see, for example, [http://www.google.com/books?id=ro8YAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Lydda+death+march%22&dq=%22Lydda+death+march%22&ei=XJICSou0KaP2yAS1zdHeAg&pgis=1 Fraser 2001], p. 64.
*For the number of refugees who died during the march:
*Morris 1989, pp. 204–211: "Quite a few refugees died – from exhaustion, dehydration and disease."
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA177 Morris 2003, p. 177]: "a handful, and perhaps dozens, died of dehydration and exhaustion."
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, p. 433]: "Quite a few refugees died on the road east," attributing a figure of 335 dead to [[Nimr al-Khatib|Muhammad Nimr al Khatib]], who Morris writes was working from hearsay.
*[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Khalidi 1998], pp. 80–98: 350 dead, citing an estimate from [[Aref al-Aref]].
*[http://books.google.com/books?ei=oa_tTNj_C82NnQfNivn8CQ&ct=result&id=aIJtAAAAMAAJ&dq=The+Politics+of+Denial%3A+Israel+and+the+Palestinian+Refugee+Problem&q=350#search_anchor Nur Masalha 2003, p. 47] writes that 350 died.
*For the IDF and Ben-Gurion's analysis of the effect of the conquest of the towns and the expulsions, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, pp. 433–434].</ref>

The events in Lydda and Ramle accounted for one-tenth of the overall Arab [[1948 Palestinian exodus|exodus from Palestine]], known in the Arab world as ''al-Nakba'' ("the catastrophe"). Many Jews who came to Israel between 1948 and 1951 settled in the refugees' empty homes, both because of a housing shortage and as a matter of policy to prevent former residents from reclaiming them. One of the key issues of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] is whether the refugees and their descendants ought to have either compensation for their loses or the [[Palestinian right of return|right of return]], a concession that would threaten Israel's identity as a [[Jewish state]].<ref>That it was one-tenth of the overall exodus, see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 82.
*That most of the immigrants to Lydda and Ramle were from Asia and North Africa, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Golan 2003].
*That refugees were settled in the empty homes to stop them from being reclaimed, see Morris 2008, p. 308, and [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA45 Yacobi 2009, p. 45].</ref>

Until the late 1970s Israel's historians, many of whom had fought in the 1948 war, maintained that the refugees had simply fled, or had been ordered to leave by their Arab leaders. They saw the creation of Israel as inextricably linked to the [[Holocaust]] and the survival of the Jewish people, and they censored material that might blacken the new state's name. Throughout the 1980s Israeli government documents were released that showed there had been expulsions, which triggered a reassessment of Israel's early history by a younger generation of Israeli scholars known as the [[New Historians]].<ref name=Shapira1995p9>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], pp. 9ff, 12–13, 16–17.</ref> These were not pre-mediated but attributed to a complex and ill-conducted battle.<ref name="case">{{cite journal | title=Myths and Historiography of the 1948 Palestine War Revisited: The Case of Lydda | author=Avraham Sela, Alon Kadish | journal=The Middle East Journal | year=2005 | month=Autumn | volume=59 | issue=4 | pages=617}}</ref>

==Background==
===Israel's declaration of independence===
[[File:Palestine-20-48.png|right|thumb|160px|[[Palestine]] in 1947, showing Lydda and Ramle|alt=map]]
Palestine was under [[British Mandate of Palestine|British rule]] from 1917 to 1948. On 30 November 1947, after 30 years of conflict between the country's Jews and Arabs, the United Nations [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|voted to divide it]] into a Jewish and an Arab state, with Lydda and Ramle to form part of the latter. The proposal was welcomed by Palestine's Jewish community but rejected by the Arabs, and [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] broke out between the communities. The British decided to pull out of the area, and the day British rule ended on 14 May 1948, the State of Israel [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|declared its independence]]. Five Arab states—Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Transjordan, and Lebanon—launched an attack on the new state the next day, triggering the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.<ref>Morris 2008, p. 37ff.</ref>

===Strategic importance of Lydda and Ramle===
Lydda (Arabic: Al-Ludd اَلْلُدّْ) dates back to at least 5600–5250 BCE. Ramle (ar-Ramlah الرملة), three kilometers away, was founded in the 8th century CE. Both towns were strategically important because they sat at the intersection of Palestine's main north–south and east–west roads. Palestine's main railway junction and its airport (now [[Ben Gurion International Airport]]) were in Lydda, and the main source of Jerusalem's water supply was 15 kilometers away.<ref>For Lydda's age, see Schwartz 1991, p. 39.
*According to Christian legend, Lydda was the birth place and burial ground of [[Saint George]] (ca. 270–303 BCE), the patron saint of England; see [http://books.google.com/books?id=jJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA801&lpg=PA798 Sharon 1983, p. 799]. Sharon (p. 798) writes that the town may date back to King Thutmos III of Egypt. Also see [http://books.google.com/books?ei=6OLuTOf0IYiynwff9qDYCg&ct=result&id=RltCAAAAIAAJ&dq=saint+george+born+lydda&q=born+at+lydda#search_anchor Gordon 1907, p. 3].
*For Ramle, see [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-111203784.html Golan 2003].</ref> Jewish and Arab fighters had been attacking each other on roads near the towns since hostilities broke out in December 1947. Israeli geographer Arnon Golan writes that the Arabs had [[Siege of Jerusalem (1948)|blocked Jewish transport to Jerusalem]] at Ramle, forcing the Israelis to build a bypass called the [[Burma Road (Israel)|Burma Road]]. Israel had launched several ground or air attacks on Ramle in May 1948, and Israel's prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, developed what Benny Morris calls an obsession with the towns; he wrote in his diary that they had to be destroyed, and on 16 June referred to them during an Israeli cabinet meeting as the "two thorns".<ref>For Golan's article about Ramle being a focal point, see [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-111203784.html Golan 2003].
*For the siege of Jerusalem, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=UcSUgrDsD_sC&pg=PA145 Gelber 2006, p. 145].
*See [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30D1EFD3D54157B93C0A8178DD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=Jerusalem+siege&st=p Schmidt, 12 June 1948] for the temporary lifting of the siege. The siege was also broken by the opening in June of the [[Burma Road (Israel)|Burma Road]].
*For the attacks on Ramle and Lydda, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA424 Morris 2004, p. 424].
*For Ben-Gurion and the two thorns, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA424 Morris 2004, pp. 424–425], and [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/php/art.php?aid=94940&showEventsBefore=2450729 Segev 2000]. Segev writes that, just after Ben-Gurion's "two thorns" statement to the cabinet, six lines have been erased from the transcript. Segev interprets this to mean that expulsions were discussed.
*For the primary source, see Ben-Gurion 1982, "16 June 1948," p. 525.</ref>
Lydda's local Arab authority that was officially subordinated to the Arab Higher Committee assumed local civic and military powers. The records of Lydda's military command discuss military training, constructing obstacles and trenches, requisitioning vehicles and assembling armored cars armed with machine-guns, and attempts at arms procurement. In April 1948, Lydda had become an arms supply center, and a provided military training and security coordination for the neighboring villagers.<ref name="case"/>

===Operation Dani===
Israel subsequently launched [[Operation Dani]] to secure the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem road and neutralize any threat to Tel Aviv from the Arab Legion, which was stationed in Ramallah and Latrun, with a number of men in Lydda.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA423 Morris 2004, pp. 423–424].</ref> On 7 July the IDF appointed [[Yigal Allon]] to head the operation, and [[Yitzhak Rabin]], who became Israel's prime minister in 1974, as his operations officer; both had served in the [[Palmach]], an elite fighting force of the pre-Israel [[Yishuv|Jewish community]] in Palestine. The operation was carried out between 9 July 1948, the end of the first truce in the Arab-Israeli war, and 18 July, the start of the second truce, a period known in Israeli historiography as the Ten Days. Morris writes that the IDF assembled its largest force ever: the [[Yiftah]] brigade; the [[8th Armored Brigade (Israel)|Eighth Armored Brigade]]'s 82nd and 89th Battalions; three battalions of Kiryati and Alexandroni infantry men; an estimated 6,000 men with around 30 artillery pieces.<ref>Kimche, Jon and David (1960) ''A Clash of Destinies. The Arab-Jewish War and the Founding of the State of Israel.'' Frederick A. Praeger. Library of Congress number 60-6996. Page 225. (number of men).</ref><ref>For the launching of Operation Dani and the forces assembled, see Morris 2008, p. 286.
*For the hiring of Allon and Rabin, see [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979].
*For the period known as the Ten Days, see Morris 2008, p. 273ff.</ref>

===Lydda's defenses===
[[File:St Georges Church Lydda.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Lydda in 1920 with St. George's Church in the background|alt=Ancient buildings, several with domed roofs, a church in the background, and palm trees.]]
In July 1948 Lydda and Ramle had a joint population of 50,000–70,000 Arabs, 20,000 of them refugees from [[Jaffa]] and elsewhere.<ref name=Morris2004p425/> Several Arab towns had already fallen to Jewish or Israeli advances since April, but Lydda and Ramle had held out. There are differing views as to how well-defended the towns were. In January 1948, [[John Bagot Glubb]], the British commander of Transjordan's Arab Legion, had toured Arab towns, including Lydda and Ramle, urging them to prepare to defend themselves. The Legion had distributed barbed wire and as many weapons as could be spared.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA118 Morris 2003, p. 118].</ref> Israeli historians Alon Kadish and [[Avraham Sela]] write that the Arab National Committee—a local emergency Arab authority that answered to the [[Arab Higher Committee]] run by the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]]—had assumed civic and military control of Lydda, and had acquired arms, conducted training, constructed trenches, requisitioned vehicles, and organized medical services. By the time of the Israeli attack, they say the militia in Lydda numbered 1,000 men equipped with rifles, submachine guns, 15 machine guns, five heavy machine guns, 25 anti-tank launchers, six or seven light field-guns, two or three heavy ones, and armored cars with machine guns. They argue that the deaths in Lydda occurred during a military battle for the town, not because of a massacre.<ref name=KadishSela>[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref>

[[File:King Abdullah of Jordan and John Glubb Bagot.jpg|right|thumb|210px|alt=photograph|King Abdullah of Jordan (1882–1951) with [[John Bagot Glubb]] (1897–1986), the British commander of the [[Arab Legion]]]]
Against this view, Palestinian historian [[Walid Khalidi]] writes that just 125 Legionnaires from the Fifth Infantry Company were in Lydda—the Arab Legion numbered 6,000 in all—and that the rest of the town's defense consisted of civilian residents acting under the command of a retired Arab Legion sergeant.<ref name=Khalidi>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Khalidi 1998], p. 81.</ref> According to Morris, a number of Arab Legion soldiers, including 200–300 Bedouin volunteers, had arrived in Lydda and Ramle in April, and a company-sized force had set itself up in the old British police stations in Lydda and on the Lydda-Ramle road, with armored cars and other weapons. He writes that there were 150 Legionnaires in the town in June, though the Israelis believed there were up to 1,500. An Arab Legion officer was appointed military governor of both towns, signaling the desire of [[Abdullah I of Jordan]] to stake a claim in the parts of Palestine allotted by the UN to an Arab-Palestinian state, but Glubb advised him that the Legion was overstretched and could not hold the towns. As a result, Abdullah ordered the Legion to assume a defensive position only, and most of the Legionnaires in Lydda withdrew during the night of 11–12 July.<ref>Morris 2008, pp. 286, 289.
*That the IDF ignored that the Legion was "on a defensive footing," see Gelber 2006, p. 158.</ref>

Kadish and Sela write that the National Committee stopped women and children from leaving, because their departure had acted elsewhere as a catalyst for the men to leave too. They say it was common for Arabs to leave their homes under threat of Israeli invasion, in part because they feared atrocities, particularly rape, and in part because of a reluctance to live under Jewish rule. In Lydda's case, they argue, the fears were more particular: a few days before the city fell, a Jew found in Lydda's train station had been publicly executed and his body mutilated by residents, who, according to Kadish and Sela, now feared Jewish reprisals.<ref name=KadishSela/>

==Fall of the cities==
===Air attacks and surrender of Ramle===
[[File:Capture of Lydda airport, July 1948.JPG|thumb|left|230px|alt=photograph|The IDF took control of Lydda airport on 10 July.]]
The Israeli air force began bombing the towns on the night of 9–10 July, intending to induce civilian flight, and it seemed to work in Ramle: at 11:30 hours on 10 July, Operation Dani headquarters (Dani HQ) told the IDF that there was a "general and serious flight from Ramla." That afternoon, Dani HQ told one of its brigades to facilitate the flight from Ramle of women, children, and the elderly, but to detain men of military age.<ref name=Morris2004p425>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA425 Morris 2004, p. 425].</ref> On the same day, the IDF took control of Lydda airport.<ref name="gelber">[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA159 Gelber 2006, p. 159].</ref> The Israeli air force dropped leaflets over both towns on 11 July telling residents to surrender.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 86: The leaflets said: "You have no chance of receiving help. We intend to conquer the towns. We have no intention of harming persons or property. [But] whoever attempts to oppose us—will die. He who prefers to live must surrender.</ref> Ramle's community leaders, along with three prominent Arab family representatives, agreed to surrender, after which the Israelis mortared the city and imposed a curfew. ''The New York Times'' reported at the time that the capture of the city was seen as the high point of Israel's brief existence.<ref>Formal surrender discussed in a telephone message from Dani HQ, 12 July 1948, 10:30 am, cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].
*For the ''New York Times'' account of the surrender, see [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30713FA385F167B93C1A8178CD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=&st=p Currivan, ''The New York Times'', 12 July 1948].</ref>

Two different images emerged of Ramle under occupation. [[Khalil Wazir]], who later joined the [[PLO]] and became known as Abu Jihad, was evicted from the town with his family, who owned a grocer's store there, when he was 12 years old. He said there was fear of a massacre, as there had been at [[Deir Yassin massacre|Deir Yassin]], and that there were bodies scattered in the streets and between the houses, including the bodies of women and children.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?ei=DjDuTMXIO8SknQfUmOCyCw&ct=result&id=4Qm7AAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Palestinians&q=terribly+frightened#search_anchor Dimbleby and McCullin 1980, pp. 88–89]. He said: "The whole village went to the church. ... I remember the archbishop standing in front of the church. He was holding a white flag. ... Afterwards we came out and the picture will never be erased from my mind. There were bodies scattered on the road and between the houses and the side streets. No one, not even women or children, had been spared if they were out in the street. ..."</ref> Against this, the writer [[Arthur Koestler]] (1905–1983), working for ''The Times'', visited Ramle a few hours after the invasion, and said people were hanging around in the streets as usual. A few hundred young men had been placed in a barbed wire cage, and were being taken in lorries to an internment camp. Women were bringing them food and water, he wrote, arguing with the Jewish guards and seemingly unafraid. He said the prevailing feeling seemed to be relief that the war was over.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=XEqTMSzQYUIC&pg=PA270 Koestler 1949, pp. 270–271]. He wrote: "The Arabs were hanging about in the streets much as usual, except for a few hundred youths of military age who have been put into a barbed wire cage and were taken off in lorries to an internment camp. Their veiled mothers and wives were carrying food and water to the cage, arguing with the Jewish sentries and pulling their sleeves, obviously quite unafraid. ... Groups of Arabs came marching down the main street with their arms above their heads, grinning broadly, without any guards, to give themselves up. The one prevailing feeling among all seemed to be that as far as Ramleh was concerned the war was over, and thank God for it."</ref>

===Moshe Dayan raid on Lydda===
[[File:Mosche Dajan.jpg|right|thumb|130px|alt=photograph|[[Moshe Dayan]] (1915–1981) led a raid on Lydda "blasting at everything that moved."<ref name=Bilby43/>]]
During the afternoon of 11 July, Israel's 89th (armored) Battalion, led by Lt. Col. [[Moshe Dayan]], moved into Lydda. Israeli historian [[Anita Shapira]] writes that the raid was carried out on Dayan's initiative without coordinating it with his commander. Using a column of jeeps led by a Marmon Harrington armored vehicle with a cannon—taken from the Arab Legion the day before—he launched the attack in daylight,<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA225 Shapira 2007, p. 225].</ref> driving through the town from east to west machine-gunning anything that moved, according to Morris, then along the Lydda-Ramle road firing at militia posts until they reached the train station in Ramle.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426].</ref> Kadish and Sela write that the troops faced heavy fire from the Arab Legion in the police stations in Lydda and on the Lydda-Ramle road.<ref name=KadishSela/> A contemporaneous account from Gene Currivan for ''The New York Times'' also said the firing met with heavy resistance.<ref name=Currivan>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30713FA385F167B93C1A8178CD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=&st=p Currivan, ''The New York Times'', 12 July 1948].</ref>

[[Kenneth Bilby]], a correspondent for the ''New York Herald Tribune'' was in the city at the time. He wrote: "[The Israeli jeep column] raced into Lydda with rifles, Stens, and sub-machine guns blazing. It coursed through the main streets, blasting at everything that moved ... the corpses of Arab men, women, and even children were strewn about the streets in the wake of this ruthlessly brilliant charge."<ref name=Bilby43>[http://books.google.com/books?ei=PSnuTIuAL8TMngfJmYXyCg&ct=result&id=-gkcAAAAMAAJ&dq=New+Star+in+the+Near+East&q=coursed#search_anchor Bilby 1950, p. 43].</ref> The raid lasted 47 minutes, leaving 100–150 Arabs dead, according to Dayan's 89th Battalion. Six died and 21 were wounded on the Israeli side.<ref>The casualty figures vary widely. The figure from Dayan is cited in [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*There were dozens dead and wounded, "perhaps as many as 200," according to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426] and [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 p. 452], footnote 68, citing Kadish, Sela, and Golan 2000, p. 36.
*"[A]bout 40 dead and a large number of wounded," according to Third Battalion intelligence, though it is not clear whether they meant 40 killed by the Third Battalion alone; see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 452], footnote 68.
*Six died and 21 were wounded on the Israeli side, according to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426], again citing Kadish, Sela, and Golan 2000, p. 36.</ref> Kadish and Sela write that the high casualty rate was caused by confusion over who Dayan's troops were. The IDF were wearing ''[[keffiyeh]]''s and were led by an armored car seized from the Arab Legion. Residents may have believed the Arab Legion had arrived, only to encounter Dayan's forces shooting at everything as they ran from their homes.<ref name=KadishSela/>

===Unexpected shooting in Lydda===
No formal surrender was announced in Lydda, though people gathered in the streets waving white flags. On the evening of 11 July, 300–400 Israeli soldiers entered the town. Not long afterwards, the Arab Legion forces on the Lydda–Ramle road withdrew, though a small number of Legionnaires remained in the Lydda police station. More Israeli troops arrived at dawn on 12 July. According to a contemporaneous IDF account: "Groups of old and young, women and children streamed down the streets in a great display of submissiveness, bearing white flags, and entered of their own free will the detention compounds we arranged in the mosque and church—Muslims and Christians separately." The buildings soon filled up, and women and children were released, leaving several thousand men inside, including 4,000 in one of the mosque compounds.<ref>For the IDF quote, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].
*For the 4,000 in the Great Mosque, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref>

Israeli historian [[Yoav Gelber]] writes that the Legionnaires still in the police station were panicking, and had been sending frantic messages to their HQ in Ramallah: "Have you no God in your hearts? Don't you feel any compassion? Hasten aid!"<ref name="gelber"/> They were about to surrender, but were told by HQ to wait to be rescued.<ref>Gelber 2004, p. 23.</ref> On 12 July, at 11:30 hours, two or three Arab Legion armored cars entered the city, led by Lt. Hamadallah al-Abdullah from the Jordanian 1st Brigade. The Arab Legion armored cars opened fire on the Israeli soldiers combing the old city. The exchange of gunfire led residents to believe the Legion had arrived in force, and those still armed started firing at the Israelis too. Kadish and Sela write that, according to the Third Battalion's commander, [[Moshe Kelman]], the Israelis came under heavy fire from thousands of weapons from every house, roof and window. Morris argues against this that only a few dozen townspeople took part in what turned out to be a brief firefight. Brief or not, the Israeli soldiers were unnerved by it: there were only 300–400 of them to quell tens of thousands of residents, and they had been under the impression the locals had surrendered, albeit informally.<ref>[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 Morris 2004, footnote 78, p. 453].</ref>

===Massacre in Lydda===
[[File:LyddaDahmashMosque.png|200px|thumb|alt=photograph|The Dahmash mosque just after occupation]]
Gelber describes what followed as probably the bloodiest massacre of the Arab–Israeli war. Shapira writes that the Israelis had no experience of governing civilians and panicked.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA162 Gelber 2006, p. 162].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA227 Shapira 2007, p. 227].
*{{citation | url = http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf | last = Khalidi | year = 1998 | format = [[PDF]]}} calls it "an orgy of indiscriminate killing."
*[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005] call it "an intense battle where the demarcation between civilians, irregular combatants and regular army units hardly existed."</ref> Kelman ordered troops to shoot at any clear target, including at anyone seen on the streets.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].</ref> He said he had no choice; there was no chance of immediate reinforcements, and no indication of where the attacks were coming from.<ref name=KadishSela/> Israeli soldiers threw grenades into houses they suspected snipers were hiding in. Residents ran out of their homes in panic and were shot. Yeruham Cohen, an IDF intelligence officer, said around 250 died between 11:30 and 14:00 hours.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 87.</ref>

Palestinian historian [[Aref al-Aref]] placed the death toll at 426, including 179 he said were later killed in one of the mosques, during a confusing incident that sources variously refer to as a massacre or a battle.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA428 Morris 2004, p. 428], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 453, footnote 81]. For more casualty figures, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref> Thousands of male Muslim detainees had been taken to two of the mosques the day before. Christian detainees had been taken to the church or a nearby Greek Orthodox monastery, leaving the Muslims in fear of a massacre.<ref>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Munayyer 1998], pp. 93–4.</ref> Morris writes that some of them tried to break out, thinking they were about to be killed, and in response the IDF threw grenades and fired anti-tank rockets into one of the mosque compounds. Kadish and Sela say it was a firefight that broke out between armed militiamen inside the mosque and Israeli soldiers outside; they say the Israelis fired an anti-tank shell into it, then stormed it, killing 30 inside. According to Morris, dozens died, including unarmed men, women and children; an eyewitness published a memoir in 1998 saying he had removed 95 bodies from one of the mosques.<ref>For a discussion about which mosque this happened in, and for the 95 bodies, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005], particularly footnote 40.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA428 Morris 2004, p. 428]: "dozens" were shot and killed
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 Morris 2004, p. 453], footnote 81, cites Kadish, Sela and Golan's ''The Conquest'', who say it was a battle that took place in the mosque, not a massacre. He adds that Kadish et al acknowledge that women, children, and unarmed older men were among the dead.
*An eyewitness, Fayeq Abu Mana, 20 years old at the time, told an Israeli group in 2003 that he had been involved in removing the bodies; see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=365 Zochrot 2003].</ref>

When the shooting was over, bodies lay in the streets and houses in Lydda, and on the Lydda–Ramle road; Morris writes that there were hundreds. The Red Cross was due to visit the area, but the new Israeli military governor of Ramle issued an order to have the visit delayed. The visit was rescheduled for 14 July; Dani HQ ordered Israeli troops to remove the bodies by then, but the order seems not to have been carried out. Dr. Klaus Dreyer of the IDF Medical Corps complained on 15 July that there were still corpses lying in and around Lydda, which constituted a health hazard and a "moral and aesthetic issue." He asked that trucks and Arab residents be organized to deal with them.<ref name=Morris2004p434>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 Morris 2004, p. 434].</ref>

==Exodus==
===Expulsion orders===
Benny Morris writes that David Ben-Gurion and the IDF were largely left to their own devices to decide how Arab residents were to be treated, without the involvement of the Cabinet and other ministers. As a result, their policy was haphazard and circumstantial, depending in part on the location, but also on the religion and ethnicity of the town. The Arabs of Western and Lower [[Galilee]], mainly Christian and Druze, were allowed to stay in place, but Lydda and Ramle, mainly Muslim, were almost completely emptied.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA415 Morris 2004, p. 415].</ref> There was no official policy to expel the Palestinian population, he writes, but the idea of [[Transfer Committee|transfer]] was "in the air," and the leadership understood this.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080515210330/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=380986&contrassID=2 Shavit 2004].</ref>

[[File:Yitzhak Rabin (1986) cropped.jpg|thumb|left|130px|alt=photograph|[[Yitzhak Rabin]] (1922–95) signed the expulsion order.<ref name=Morris2004p429/>]]
As the shooting in Lydda continued, a meeting was held on 12 July at Operation Dani headquarters between Ben-Gurion, [[Yigael Yadin]] and Zvi Ayalon, generals in the IDF, and [[Yisrael Galili]], formerly of the [[Haganah]], the pre-IDF army. Also present were Yigal Allon, commanding officer of Operation Dani, and Yitzhak Rabin.<ref name=Shipler1>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979].</ref> At one point Ben-Gurion, Allon, and Rabin left the room. Rabin has offered two accounts of what happened next. In a 1977 interview with [[Michael Bar-Zohar]], Rabin said Allon asked what was to be done with the residents; in response, Ben-Gurion had waved his hand and said, "''garesh otam''"—"expel them."<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986, p. 90, footnote 31.]</ref> In the manuscript of his memoirs in 1979, Rabin wrote that Ben-Gurion had not spoken, but had only waved his hand, and that Rabin had understand this to mean "drive them out."<ref name=Shipler1/> The expulsion order for Lydda was issued at 13:30 hours on 12 July, signed by Rabin.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].
*The orders for Lydda were from Dani HQ to Yiftah Brigade HQ and 8th Brigade HQ, and to Kiryati Brigade at around the same time.
*"1. The inhabitants of Lydda must be expelled quickly without attention to age. They should be directed towards Beit Nabala. Yiftah [Brigade HQ] must determined the method and inform Dani HQ and 8th Brigade HQ.
*"2. Implement immediately (Prior 1999, p. 205).
*The IDF archives holds two nearly identical copies of the expulsion order. According to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 89, Yigal Allon denied in 1979 that there had been such an order, or an expulsion, saying that the order to evacuate the civilian population of Lydda and Ramle came from the Arab Legion.
*A telegram from Kiryati Brigade HQ to Zvi Aurback, its officer in charge of Ramle, read:
*1. In light of the deployment of 42nd Battalion out of Ramle – you must take [over responsibility] for the defence of the town, the transfer of prisoners [to PoW camps] and the emptying of the town of its inhabitants.
*2. You must continue the sorting out of the inhabitants, and send the army-age males to a prisoner of war camp. The old, women and children will be transported by vehicle to al Qubab and will be moved across the lines – [and] from there continue on foot.." (Kiryati HQ to Aurbach, Tel Aviv District HQ (Mishmar) etc., 14:50 hours, 13 July 1948, Haganah Archive, Tel Aviv), cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].</ref>

In his memoirs Rabin wrote: "'Driving out' is a term with a harsh ring. Psychologically, this was one of the most difficult actions we undertook. The population of Lod did not leave willingly. There was no way of avoiding the use of force and warning shots in order to make the inhabitants march the 10 to 15 miles to the point where they met up with the legion." An [[Censorship in Israel|Israeli censorship board]] removed this section from his manuscript, but Peretz Kidron, the Israeli journalist who translated the memoirs into English, passed the censored text to David Shipler of ''The New York Times'', who published it on 23 October 1979.<ref name=Shipler1/>

In an interview with ''The New York Times'' two days later, Yigal Allon took issue with Rabin's version of events. "With all my high esteem for Rabin during the war of independence, I was his commander and my knowledge of the facts is therefore more accurate," he told Shipler. "I did not ask the late Ben-Gurion for permission to expel the population of Lydda. I did not receive such permission and did not give such orders." He said the residents left in part because they were told to by the Arab Legion, so the latter could recapture Lydda at a later date, and in part because they were panic-stricken.<ref name=Shipler2>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B12FE3C5C12728DDDAC0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=2&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 25 October 1979].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA232 Shapira 2007, p. 232]: Allon gave a lecture on the war in 1950, during which [[Anita Shapira]] writes that he was uncharacteristically frank. He said he blamed the Palestinian exodus on three factors. First, they fled because they were [[Psychological projection|projecting]]: the Arabs imagined that the Jews would do to them what they would do to the Jews if positions were reversed. Second, Arab and British leaders encouraged people to leave their towns so as not to be taken hostage, so they could return to fight another day. Third, there were some cases of expulsion, though these were not the norm. In Lydda and Ramle, the Arab Legion continued to attack Israeli outposts in the hope of reconnecting with their troops in Lydda, he said. When the expulsions started, the attacks died down. To leave the towns' hostile populations in place would be to risk their use by the Legion to coordinate further attacks. Allon said he had no regrets: "War is war." Allon described it elsewhere as a "provoked exodus," rather than an expulsion; see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*Also see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 89.</ref> Yoav Gelber also takes issue with Rabin's account. He writes that Ben-Gurion was in the habit of expressing his orders clearly, whether verbally or in writing, and would not have issued an order by waving his hand; he adds that there is no record of any meetings before the invasion that indicate expulsion was discussed. He attributes the expulsions to Allon, who he says was known for his [[scorched earth]] policy. Wherever Allon was in charge of Israeli troops, Gelber writes, no Palestinians remained.<ref name=Gelber2006p162>[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA162 Gelber 2006, pp. 162–163].</ref>

===Shitrit/Shertok intervention===
The Israeli cabinet reportedly knew nothing about the expulsion plan until [[Bechor Shitrit]], Minister for Minority Affairs, appeared unannounced in Ramle on 12 July. He was shocked when he realized troops were organizing expulsions. He returned to Tel Aviv for a meeting with Foreign Minister [[Moshe Shertok]], who met with Ben Gurion to agree on guidelines for the treatment of the residents, though Morris writes that Ben Gurion apparently failed to tell Shitrit or Shertok that he himself was the source of the expulsion orders. Gelber disagrees with Morris's analysis, arguing that Ben-Gurion's agreement with Shitrit and Shertok is evidence that expulsion was not his intention, rather than evidence of his duplicity, as Morris implies.<ref name=Gelber2006p162/> The men agreed the townspeople should be told that anyone who wanted to leave could do so, but that anyone who stayed was responsible for himself and would not be given food. Women, children, the old, and the sick were not to be forced to leave, and the monasteries and churches must not be damaged, though no mention was made of the mosques. Ben-Gurion passed the order to the IDF General Staff, who passed it to Dani HQ at 23:30 hours on 12 July, ten hours after the expulsion orders were issued; Morris writes that there was an ambiguity in the instruction that women, children and the sick were not to be forced to go: the word "''lalechet''" can mean either "go" or "walk". Satisfied that the order had been passed on, Shertok believed he had managed to avert the expulsions, not realizing that, even as he was discussing them in Tel Aviv, they had already begun.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA430 Morris 2004, p. 430].
*Also see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 92.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA161 Gelber 2006, pp. 161–162], also says the residents were already on their way out when this order was given.</ref>

===The exodus===
Thousands of Ramle residents began moving out of the town on foot, or in trucks and buses, between 10 July and 12 July. The IDF used its own vehicles and confiscated Arab ones to move them.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].
*That the Ramle residents were supplied buses by the Kiryati brigade, see [http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].</ref> Morris writes that, by 13 July, the wishes of the IDF and those of the residents in Lydda had dovetailed. Over the past three days, the townspeople had undergone aerial bombardment, ground invasion, had seen grenades thrown into their homes and hundreds of residents killed, had been living under a curfew, had been abandoned by the Arab Legion, and the able-bodied men had been rounded up. Morris writes they had concluded that living under Israeli rule was not sustainable.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA431 Morris 2004, p. 431].</ref> Spiro Munayyer, an eyewitness, wrote that the important thing was to get out of the city.<ref>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Munayyer 1998], p. 94.</ref> A deal was reached with an IDF intelligence officer, Shmarya Guttman, normally an archeologist, that the residents would leave in exchange for the release of the prisoners; according to Guttman, he went to the mosque himself and told the men they were free to join their families.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], pp. 93–4. Morris finds Guttman's account subjective and impressionistic (p. 94, footnote 39). Guttman later wrote about Lydda under the pseudonym "Avi-Yiftah".</ref> Town criers and soldiers walked or drove around the town instructing residents where to gather for departure.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, p. 432].</ref>

Notwithstanding that an agreement may have been reached, Morris writes that the troops understood that what followed was an act of deportation, not a voluntary exodus. While the residents were still in the town, IDF radio traffic had already started calling them "refugees" (''plitim'').<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA455 Morris 2004, p. 455], footnote 96.</ref> Operation Dani HQ told the IDF General Staff/Operations at noon on 13 July that "[the troops in Lydda] are busy expelling the inhabitants [''oskim begeirush hatoshavim'']," and told the HQs of Kiryati, 8th and Yiftah brigades at the same time that, "enemy resistance in Ramle and Lydda has ended. The eviction [''pinui'']" of the inhabitants... has begun."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, p. 432]: At 18:15 hours that day, Dani HQ asked Yiftah Brigade: "Has the removal of the population [''hotza'at ha'ochlosiah''] of Lydda been completed?"</ref>

===The march===
[[File:Refugees from Lydda.jpg|left|thumb|280px|alt=photograph||Refugees from Lydda and Ramle after the three-day exodus<ref>Glubb 1957, plate 8, between pp. 159 and 161. The caption says: "Arab refugee women and children from Lydda and Ramle, resting after their arrival in the Arab area."</ref>]]
Lydda's residents began moving out on the morning of 13 July. They were made to walk, perhaps because of their earlier resistance, or simply because there were no vehicles left. They walked six to seven kilometers to [[Beit Nabala]], then 10–12 more to [[Barfiliya]], along dusty roads in temperatures of 30–35°C, carrying their children and portable possessions in carts pulled by animals or on their backs.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], pp. 93–4; see p. 97 for the temperature.</ref> According to Shmarya Guttman, an IDF soldier, warning shots were occasionally fired.<ref name=Morris2004p433>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, pp. 433–4].</ref> Some were stripped of their valuables en route by Israeli soldiers at checkpoints.<ref name=Morris2004p433/> Another IDF soldier described how possessions and people were slowly abandoned as the refugees grew tired or collapsed: "To begin with [jettisoning] utensils and furniture, and in the end, bodies of men, women, and children, scattered along the way."<ref name=Morris2004p433/>

Haj As'ad Hassouneh, a survivor of the death march, shared his recollection in 1996: <blockquote>The Jews came and they called among the people: "You must go." "Where shall we go?" "Go to Barfilia." ... the spot you were standing on determined what if any family or possession you could get; any to the west of you could not be retrieved. You had to immediately begin walking and it had to be to the east. ... The people were fatigued even before they began their journey or could attempt to reach any destination. No one knew where Barfilia was or its distance from Jordan. ... The people were also fasting due to [[Ramadan]] because they were people of serious belief. There was no water. People began to die of thirst. Some women died and their babies nursed from their dead bodies. Many of the elderly died on the way. ... Many buried their dead in the leaves of corn.<ref name=Jawadp71>[http://books.google.ca/books?id=bWCN0OUiTJkC&pg=PA100&dq=lydda+%22death+march%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HEVTT-bJBcKY8gOXuo3wBQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=lydda%20%22death%20march%22&f=false Abdel Jawad in Benvenisti et al. 2007]</ref></blockquote>

After three days of walking, the refugees were picked up by the Arab Legion and driven to Ramallah.<ref>Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref> Reports vary regarding how many died. Many were elderly people and young children who died from the heat and exhaustion.<ref name =Shipler1/> Morris has written that it was a "handful and perhaps dozens."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA177 Morris 2003, p. 177].</ref> Glubb wrote that "nobody will ever know how many children died."<ref name=Morris2004p433/> [[Nimr al Khatib]] estimated that 335 died based on hearsay.<ref name=Morris2004p433/> Walid Khalidi gives a figure of 350, citing Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref.<ref>[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Khalidi 1998, pp. 80–98].</ref> The expulsions clogged the roads eastward. Morris writes that IDF thinking was simple and cogent. They had just taken two major objectives and were out of steam. The Arab Legion had been expected to counter-attack, but the expulsions thwarted it: the roads were now cluttered, and the Legion was suddenly responsible for the welfare of an additional tens of thousands of people.<ref name=Morris2004p433/>

===Looting of refugees and the towns===
[[File:George Habash.jpg|thumb|130px|alt=photograph|[[George Habash]] (1926–2008) who later led the [[PFLP]], was among those expelled from Lydda.]]
The Sharett-Ben Gurion guidelines to the IDF had specified there was to be no robbery, but numerous sources spoke of widespread looting. ''The Economist'' wrote on 21 August that year: "The Arab refugees were systematically stripped of all their belongings before they were sent on their trek to the frontier. Household belongings, stores, clothing, all had to be left behind."<ref>Pappé 2006, p. 168.</ref> Aharon Cohen, director of Mapam's Arab Department, complained to Yigal Allon months after the deportations that troops had been told to remove jewellery and money from residents so that they would arrive at the Arab Legion without resources, thereby increasing the burden of looking after them. Allon replied that he knew of no such order, but conceded it as a possibility.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 97.</ref>

[[George Habash]], who later founded the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]], was born in Lydda to a Greek Orthodox family. He was in his second year at medical school in Beirut at the time, but returned to Lydda when he heard the Israelis had arrived in Jaffa, and was subsequently one of those expelled. Recalling the events of 1948 in 1990, he said that the Israelis took watches, jewellery, gold, and wallets from the refugees, and that he witnessed a neighbor of his shot and killed because he refused to be searched; he said the man's sister, who also saw what happened, died during the march from the shock, exposure and thirst.<ref name=Brandabur>[http://www.peuplesmonde.com/spip.php?article680 Brandabur 1990]. Habash said: "The Israelis were rounding everyone up and searching us. People were driven from every quarter and subjected to complete and rough body searches. You can’t imagine the savagery with which people were treated. Everything was taken—watches, jewelery, wedding rings, wallets, gold. One young neighbor of ours, a man in his late twenties, not more, Amin Hanhan, had secreted some money in his shirt to care for his family on the journey. The soldier who searched him demanded that he surrender the money and he resisted. He was shot dead in front of us. One of his sisters, a young married woman, also a neighbor of our family, was present: she saw her brother shot dead before her eyes. She was so shocked that, as we made our way toward Birzeit, she died of shock, exposure, and lack of water on the way."</ref>

As the residents left, the sacking of the cities began. The Yiftah brigade commander, Lt. Col. Schmuel "Mula" Cohen, wrote of Lydda that, "the cruelty of the war here reached its zenith."<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 88.</ref> Bechor Sheetrit, the Minister for Minority Affairs, said the army removed 1,800 truckloads of property from Lydda alone. Dov Shafrir was appointed Israel's Custodian of Absentee Property, supposedly charged to protect and redistribute Palestinian property, but his staff were inexperienced and unable to control the situation.<ref>Segev 1986, pp. 69–71</ref> The looting was so extensive that the 3rd Battalion had to be withdrawn from Lydda during the night of 13–14 July, and sent for a day to [[Ben Shemen]] for ''kinus heshbon nefesh'', a conference to encourage soul-searching. Cohen forced them to hand over their loot, which was thrown onto a bonfire and destroyed, but the situation continued when they returned to town. Some were later prosecuted.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 86.</ref>

There were also allegations that Israeli soldiers had raped Palestinian women. Ben-Gurion referred to them in his diary entry for 15 July 1948: "The bitter question has arisen regarding acts of robbery and rape [''o'nes'' ("אונס")] in the conquered towns ..."<ref>Ben-Gurion, Volume 2, p. 589.</ref> Israeli writer [[Amos Kenan]], who served as a platoon commander of the 82d Regiment of the Israeli Army brigade that conquered Lydda told ''The Nation'' on 6 February 1989: "At night, those of us who couldn't restrain ourselves would go into the prison compounds to fuck Arab women. I want very much to assume, and perhaps even can, that those who couldn't restrain themselves did what they thought the Arabs would have done to them had they won the war."<ref name=Kenan>[http://www.thenation.com/archive/four-decades-blood-vengeance Kenan 1989]; [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0059831.html courtesy link].</ref> Kenan said he heard of only one woman who complained. A court-martial was arranged, he said, but in court, the accused ran the back of his hand across his throat, and the woman decided not to proceed.<ref name=Kenan/> The allegations were given little consideration by the Israeli government. Agriculture Minister [[Aharon Zisling]] told the Cabinet on 21 July: "It has been said that there were cases of rape in Ramle. I could forgive acts of rape but I won't forgive other deeds, which appear to me much graver. When a town is entered and rings are forcibly removed from fingers and jewellery from necks—that is a very grave matter."<ref name=Zisling>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986, p. 105].
*See also Segev 1986, pp. 71–72.
*For a discussion of Ben-Gurion's concern, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=dL29_RBATv0C&pg=PA313 Tal 2004, p. 311].</ref>

Stuart Cohen writes that central control over the Jewish fighters was weak. Only Yigal Allon, commander of the IDF, made it standard practice to issue written orders to commanders, including that violations of the laws of war would be punished. Otherwise, trust was placed, and sometimes misplaced, in what Cohen calls intuitive troop decency. He adds that, despite the alleged war crimes, the majority of the IDF behaved with decency and civility.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVV4i-KbzoAC&pg=PA139 Cohen 2008, p. 139].</ref> Yitzhak Rabin wrote in his memoirs that some refused to take part in the evictions.<ref>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979]. Rabin wrote: "Great suffering was inflicted upon the men taking part in the eviction action. Soldiers of the Yiftach brigade included youth movement graduates, who had been inculcated with values such as international fraternity and humaneness. The eviction action went beyond the concepts they were used to. There were some fellows who refused to take part in the expulsion action. Prolonged propaganda activities were required after the action, to remove the bitterness of these youth movement groups, and explain why we were obliged to undertake such harsh and cruel action."</ref>

==Aftermath==
===In Ramallah, Amman, and elsewhere===
[[File:Glubb Pasha 1940.jpg|right|thumb|220px|alt=photograph|[[John Bagot Glubb]], British commander of the Arab Legion, was spat on as he drove through the [[West Bank]] for having handed Lydda and Ramle to the Jews.]]
Tens of thousands of Palestinians from Lydda and Ramle poured into Ramallah. For the most part, they had no money, property, food, or water, and represented a health risk, not only to themselves. The Ramallah city council asked King Abdullah to remove them.<ref>IDF Intelligence Service/Arab Department, 21 July 1948, cited in Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref> Some of the refugees reached Amman, the Gaza Strip, Lebanon, and the Upper Galilee, and all over the area there were angry demonstrations against Abdullah and the Arab Legion for their failure to defend the cities. People spat at Glubb, the British commander of the Arab Legion, as he drove through the [[West Bank]], and wives and parents of Arab Legion soldiers tried to break into King Abdullah's palace.<ref name=Morris2008p290>Morris 2008, pp. 290–291.</ref> [[Alec Kirkbride]], the British ambassador in Amman, described one protest in the city on 18 July:

<blockquote>A couple of thousand Palestinian men swept up the hill toward the main [palace] entrance ... screaming abuse and demanding that the lost towns should be reconquered at once ... The King appeared at the top of the main steps of the building; he was a short, dignified figure wearing white robes and headdress. He paused for a moment, surveying the seething mob before, [then walked] down the steps to push his way through the line of guardsmen into the thick of the demonstrators. He went up to a prominent individual, who was shouting at the top of his voice, and dealt him a violent blow to the side of the head with the flat of his hand. The recipient of the blow stopped yelling ... the King could be heard roaring: so, you want to fight the Jews, do you? Very well, there is a recruiting office for the army at the back of my house ... go there and enlist. The rest of you, get the hell down the hillside!" Most of the crowd got the hell down the hillside.<ref>Kirkbride 1976, p. 48, cited in Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref></blockquote>

Morris writes that, during a meeting in Amman on 12–13 July of the Political Committee of the [[Arab League]], delegates—particularly from Syria and Iraq—accused Glubb of serving British, or even Jewish, interests, with his excuses about troop and ammunition shortages. Egyptian journalists said he had handed Lydda and Ramle to the Jews. Perie-Gordon, Britain's acting minister in Amman, told the Foreign Office there was a suspicion that Glubb, on behalf of the British government, had lost Lydda and Ramle deliberately to ensure that Transjordan accept a truce. King Abdullah indicated that he wanted Glubb to leave, without actually asking him to—particularly after Iraqi officers alleged that the entire [[Hashemite]] house was in the pay of the British—but London asked him to stay on. Britain's popularity with the Arabs reached an all-time low.<ref>Morris 2008, pp. 291–292.
*For Perie-Gordon, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=D30D_GzUKfMC&pg=PA208 Abu Nowar 2002, p. 208].</ref> The United Nations Security Council called for a ceasefire to begin no later than 18 July, with sanctions to be levelled against transgressors. The Arabs were outraged: "No justice, no logic, no equity, no understanding, but blind submission to everything that is Zionist," ''Al-Hayat'' responded, though Morris writes that cooler heads in the Arab world were privately pleased that they were required not to fight, given Israel's obvious military superiority.<ref>Morris 2008, p. 295.</ref>

===Situation of the refugees===
Morris writes that the situation of the 400,000 Arabs who became refugees that summer—not only those from Lydda and Ramle—was dire, camping in public buildings, abandoned barracks, and under trees.<ref name=Morris2008p309>Morris 2008, p. 309ff.</ref> [[Count Folke Bernadotte]], the United Nations mediator in Palestine, visited a [[Palestinian refugee camps|refugee camp]] in Ramallah and said he had never seen a more ghastly sight.<ref>Sayigh 2007, p. 84.</ref> Morris writes that the Arab governments did little for them, and most of the aid that did reach them came from the West through the Red Cross and Quakers. A new UN body was set up to get things moving, which in December 1949 became the [[United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East]] (UNRWA), which many of the refugees and their descendants, now standing at four million, still depend on.<ref name=Morris2008p309/> Bernadotte's mediation efforts—which resulted in a proposal to split Palestine between Israel and Jordan, and to hand Lydda and Ramle to King Abdullah—ended on 17 September 1948, when he was assassinated by four Israeli gunmen from [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]], an extremist Zionist faction.<ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jfouAAAAIBAJ&sjid=HNwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6344,4611106&dq=bernadotte+assassination&hl=en "Bernadotte Murder Stuns Whole World"], ''Ottawa Citizen'', 18 September 1948.</ref> The United Nations convened the [[Lausanne Conference, 1949|Lausanne Conference]] from April to September 1949 in part to resolve the refugee question. Israel offered to allow 100,000 to return in exchange for peace, including 25,000 who had already returned illegally. Ben-Gurion opposed it, and the Americans felt it too low: they wanted to see 250,000 refugees re-absorbed. The issue became moot because the Arabs rejected the proposal. They maintained that there were one million refugees overall, and that the Israeli offer was "less than token."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA573 Morris 2004, pp. 573–577].</ref>

===Resettlement of the cities===
{{further|Absentees' Property Laws|Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim lands}}
[[File:Transfer of control from the military governor to the first mayor, Pesach Lev, Lod, April 1949.jpg|right|thumb|230px|alt=photograph|Power is handed from the military governor of Lydda, now called Lod, to the first mayor, Pesach Lev, April 1949.]]
On 14 July 1948 the IDF told Ben-Gurion that "not one Arab inhabitant" remained in Ramla or Lod, as they were now called. In fact, several hundred remained, including the elderly, the ill and some Christians, and others managed to sneak back in over the following months. In October 1948 the Israeli military governor of Ramla-Lod reported that 960 Palestinians were living in Ramla, and 1,030 in Lod. Military rule in the towns ended in April 1949.<ref>For "not one inhabitant," and the hundreds remaining, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 Morris 2004, p. 434].
*For the numbers in October 1948, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA455 Morris 2004, p. 455], footnote 110.
*For military rule ending, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA39 Yacobi 2009, p. 39].</ref>

Nearly 700,000 Jews [[Aliyah|immigrated to Israel]] between May 1948 and December 1951 from Europe, Asia and Africa, doubling the state's Jewish population; in 1950 Israel passed the [[Law of Return]], offering Jews automatic citizenship.<ref name=Yacobi2009p42>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA42 Yacobi 2009, p. 42].</ref> The immigrants were assigned Palestinian homes—in part because of the inevitable housing shortage, but also as a matter of policy to make it harder for former residents to reclaim them—and could buy refugees' furniture from the Custodian for Absentees' Property.<ref name=MorrisYacobi>Morris 2008, p. 308, for a general discussion of the issue.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA45 Yacobi 2009, p. 45], for specific mention of this in relation to Lydda.</ref> Jewish families were occasionally placed in houses belonging to Palestinians who still lived in Israel, the so-called "[[present absentees]]," regarded as physically present but legally absent, with no legal standing to reclaim their property.<ref name=Yacobi2009p42/> By March 1950 there were 8,600 Jews and 1,300 Palestinian Arabs living in Ramla, and 8,400 Jews and 1,000 Palestinians in Lod. Most of the Jews who settled in the towns were from Asia or North Africa.<ref>For the figures, and that most were from Asia and North Africa, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Golan 2003].
*Also see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA39 Yacobi 2009, p. 39].</ref>

The Palestinian workers allowed to remain in the cities were confined to ghettos. The military administrator split the region into three zones—Ramla, Lod, and Rakevet, a neighborhood in Lod established by the British for rail workers—and declared the Arab areas within them "closed," with each closed zone run by a committee of three to five members.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA33 Yacobi 2009, p. 33.]</ref> Many of the town's essential workers were Palestinians. The military administrators did satisfy some of their needs, such as building a school, supplying medical aid, allocating them 50 dunams for growing vegetables, and renovating the interior of the Dahmash mosque, but it appears the refugees felt like prisoners; Palestinian train workers, for example, were subject to a curfew from evening until morning, with periodic searches to make sure they had no guns.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA34 Yacobi 2009, p. 34.]</ref> One wrote an open letter in March 1949 to the ''Al Youm'' newspaper on behalf of 460 Muslim and Christian train workers: "Since the occupation, we continued to work and our salaries have still not been paid to this day. Then our work was taken from us and now we are unemployed. The curfew is still valid ... [W]e are not allowed to go to Lod or Ramla, as we are prisoners. No one is allowed to look for a job but with the mediation of the members of the Local Committee ... we are like slaves. I am asking you to cancel the restrictions and to let us live freely in the state of Israel.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA35 Yacobi 2009, pp. 35–36].</ref>

===Artistic reception===
[[File:Ismail Shammout's Where to ....JPG|right|thumb|150px|alt=photograph|[[Ismail Shammout]]'s ''Where to ..?'' (1953)]]
The [[Palestinian art]]ist [[Ismail Shammout]] (1930–2006) was 19 years old when he was expelled from Lydda. He created a series of oil paintings about the march, the best known of which is ''Where to ..?'' (1953), which enjoys iconic status among Palestinians. A life-size image of a man dressed in rags holds a walking stick in one hand, the wrist of a child in the other, a toddler on his shoulder, with a third child behind him, crying and alone. There is a withered tree behind him, and in the distance the skyline of an Arab town with a [[minaret]]. [[Gannit Ankori]] writes that the absent mother is the lost homeland, the children its orphans.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=X_Q6FX0YFVwC&pg=PA48 Ankori 2006, pp. 48–50].
*For the image on Shammout's website: [http://www.shammout.com/oilbig13.htm "Where to ..?"], shammout.com, accessed 26 November 2010.</ref>

By November 1948 the IDF had been accused of atrocities in a number of towns and villages, to the point where David Ben-Gurion had to appoint an investigator. Israeli poet [[Natan Alterman]] (1910–1970) wrote about the allegations in his poem ''Al Zot'' ("On This"), published in ''[[Davar]]'' on 19 November 1948, about a soldier on a jeep machine-gunning an Arab, referring to the events in Lydda, according to Morris. Two days later Ben-Gurion sought Alterman's permission for the Defence Ministry to distribute the poem throughout the IDF:<ref>For the atrocities in general, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA486 Morris 2004, p. 486ff]; for reference to the poem and Ben-Gurion writing to Alterman, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA489 p. 489].
*Morris writes that the poem is about Lydda in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, pp. 426], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA489 489] (on p. 489 he writes it was "apparently" about Lydda), and Morris 2008, p. 473, footnote 85.</ref>

{{Quote box |quoted= |bgcolor=#FFFFF0 |qalign=left |width=370px |align=center
| quote =<poem>Let us sing then also about "delicate incidents"
For which the true name, incidentally, is murder
Let songs be composed about conversations with sympathetic interlocutors
who with collusive chuckles make concessions and grant forgiveness.<ref name=Cohenp140>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVV4i-KbzoAC&pg=PA140 Cohen 2008, p. 140].
*[http://www.education.gov.il/tochniyot_Limudim/shira/sh_42.htm ''Al Zot'' in Hebrew], www.education.gov.il, accessed 1 December 2010.</poem>}}

===Four figures after the exodus===
[[File:Bill Clinton, Yitzhak Rabin, Yasser Arafat at the White House 1993-09-13.jpg|thumb|230px|alt=photograph|[[Yitzhak Rabin]]'s historic handshake with [[Yasser Arafat]] at the White House, 1993.]]
Yigal Allon, who led Operation Dani and may have ordered the expulsions, became Israel's deputy prime minister in 1967. He was a member of the war cabinet during the 1967 Arab Israeli [[Six-Day War]], and the architect of the post-war [[Allon Plan]], a proposal to end Israel's occupation of the [[West Bank]]. He died in 1980.<ref>Jewish Agency for Israel.[http://web.archive.org/web/20041210194811/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/people/BIOS/allon.html "Allon, Yigal (1918–1980)"], accessed 25 September 2009.</ref>

Yitzhak Rabin, Allon's operations officer, who signed the Lydda expulsion order, became Chief of Staff of the IDF during the Six-Day War, and Israel's prime minister in 1974 and again in 1992. He was assassinated in 1995 by a right-wing Israeli radical opposed to making peace with the PLO.<ref name=Morris2004p429>For his having signed the order, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].</ref>

Khalil al-Wazir, the grocer's son expelled from Ramle, became one of the founders of Yasser Arafat's ''[[Fatah]]'' faction within the PLO, and specifically of its armed wing, ''[[Al-Assifa]]''. He organized the PLO's guerrilla warfare and the ''Fatah'' youth movements that helped spark the [[First Intifada]] in 1987. He was assassinated by Israeli commandos in Tunis in 1988.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=GkbzYoZtaJMC&pg=PA529 As'ad Abu Khalil 2005, p. 529ff].</ref>

George Habash, the medical student expelled from Lydda, went on to lead one of the best-known of the Palestinian militant groups, the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]. In September 1970 he masterminded the [[Dawson's Field hijackings|hijacking of four passenger jets]] bound for New York, an attack that put the Palestinian cause on the map. The PFLP was also behind the 1972 [[Lod Airport massacre]], in which 27 people died, and the 1976 hijacking of an Air France flight to Entebbe, which famously led to the IDF's [[Operation Entebbe|rescue of the hostages]]. Habash died of a heart attack in Amman in 2008.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/middleeast/27habash.html?bl&ex=1201582800&en=a0d7bd56323e1b26&ei=5087%0A Andrews and Kifner, ''The New York Times'', January 27, 2008].
*Habash spoke to [[Robert Fisk]] in 1993 about Lydda: "I will never rest until I can go back. The house is still there and a Jewish family lives in it now. Some of my friends tried to find it and some relatives actually went there and sent me a message that the trees are still standing in the garden, just as they were in 1948. ... It's my right to go directly to my house and live there." See [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/still-dreaming-of-his-homeland-robert-fisk-in-damascus-hears-george-habash-orator-fighter-and-refugee-spell-out-his-terms-for-a-settlement-with-israel-1509518.html Fisk 1993].</ref>

==Historiography==
[[File:Anita Shapira.jpg|left|thumb|150px|alt=photograph|Israeli historian [[Anita Shapira]] argues that the scholars who wrote the early history of 1948 censored themselves, because they saw the 1948 war as the tragic climax of the [[Holocaust]] and the Second World War.<ref name=Shapira1995p12/>]]
Benny Morris argues that Israeli historians from the 1950s throughout the 1970s—who wrote what he calls the "Old History"—were "less than honest" about what had happened in Lydda and Ramle.<ref name=Morris1988>[http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].</ref> [[Anita Shapira]] calls them the Palmach generation: historians who had fought in the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], and who thereafter went to work for the IDF's history branch, where they censored material other scholars had no access to. For them, Shapira writes, the Holocaust and the Second World War—including the experience of Jewish weakness in the face of persecution—made the fight for land between the Arabs and Jews a matter of life and death, the 1948 war the "tragic and heroic climax of all that had preceded it," and Israeli victory an "act of historical justice."<ref name=Shapira1995p12>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], pp. 12–13.</ref>

The IDF's official history of the 1948 war, ''Toldot Milhemet HaKomemiyut'' ("History of the War of Independence"), published in 1959, said that residents of Lydda had violated the terms of their surrender, and left because they were afraid of Israeli retribution. The head of the IDF history branch, Lt. Col Netanel Lorch, wrote in ''The Edge of the Sword'' (1961) that they had requested safe conduct from the IDF; American political scientist [[Ian Lustick]] writes that Lorch admitted in 1997 that he left his post because the censorship made it impossible to write good history.<ref>For Lorch's book, see [http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].
*For Lustick, see [http://www.polisci.upenn.edu/faculty/bios/Pubs/survivalreview.pdf Lustick 1997].</ref> Another employee of the history branch, Lt. Col. Elhannan Orren, wrote a detailed history of Operation Dani in 1976 that made no mention of expulsions.<ref name=Morris1988/>

Arab historians published accounts, including [[Aref al-Aref]]'s ''Al Nakba, 1947–1952'' (1956–1960), [[Muhammad Nimr al-Khatib]]'s ''Min Athar al-Nakba'' (1951), and several papers by Walid Khalidi, but Morris writes that they suffered from a lack of archival material; Arab governments have been reluctant to open their archives, and the Israeli archives were at that point still closed.<ref>Morris 2004, pp. 1–2.</ref> The first person in Israel to acknowledge the Lydda and Ramle expulsions, writes Morris, was Yitzhak Rabin in his 1979 memoirs, though that part of his manuscript was removed by government censors.<ref name=Morris1988/> The 30-year rule of [[Israel State Archive|Israel's Archives Law]], passed in 1955, meant that hundreds of thousands of government documents were released throughout the 1980s, and a group calling itself the "New Historians" emerged, most of them born around 1948. They interpreted the history of the war, not in terms of European politics, the Holocaust, and Jewish history, but solely within the context of the Middle East. Shapira writes that they focused on the 700,000 Arabs who were uprooted by the war, not on the 6,000 Jews who died during it, and assessed the behavior of the Jewish state as they would that of any other.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], pp. 9, 16–17.</ref> Between 1987 and 1993, four of these historians in particular—Morris himself, [[Simha Flapan]], [[Ilan Pappé]], and [[Avi Shlaim]]—three of them Oxbridge-trained, published a series of books that changed the historiography of the Palestinian exodus. According to Lustick, although it was known in academic circles that the Palestinians had left because of expulsions and intimidation, it was largely unknown to Israeli Jews until Morris's ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949'' appeared in 1987.<ref>
[http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988], and [http://www.polisci.upenn.edu/faculty/bios/Pubs/survivalreview.pdf Lustick 1997], pp. 157–158.
*Simha Flapan (1911–1987) is the exception to the rule that the New Historians were born around 1948.
*The key texts are:
*[[Simha Flapan]]'s ''The Birth of Israel'' (1987)
*[[Benny Morris]]'s ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949'' (1987), ''[[1948 and After|1948 and After: Israel and the Palestinians]]'' (1990), and ''[[Israel's Border Wars 1949–1956|Israel's Border Wars, 1949–1956]]'' (1993)
*[[Ilan Pappé]]'s ''Britain and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: 1948–1951'' (1988) and ''The Making of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1947–1951'' (1992)
*[[Avi Shlaim]]'s ''Collusion across the Jordan'' (1988) and ''The Politics of Partition'' (1990)
*Other writers engaged in the "New History," according to Lustick (p. 157), include Uri Bar-Joseph, [[Mordechai Bar-On]], [[Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi]], Motti Golani, [[Uri Milstein]], and [[Tom Segev]].
*That the New Historians focus on the 700,000 uprooted, see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], p. 13.</ref>

Their work is not without its critics, most notably Israeli historian [[Efraim Karsh]], who writes that there was more voluntary Palestinian flight than Morris and the others concede. He acknowledges that there were expulsions, particularly in Lydda, though he argues—as does Morris—that they resulted from decisions made in the heat of battle, and account for a small percentage of the overall exodus.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=6RRr_bf1ZhAC&pg=PA160 Karsh 2003, pp. 160–161].
*[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref> Karsh argues that the New Historians have turned the story of the birth of Israel upside down, making victims of the Arab aggressors, though he acknowledges that the New History is now widely accepted.<ref>[http://www.meforum.org/466/benny-morris-and-the-reign-of-error Karsh 1999].</ref> The positions of Karsh and Morris, though they disagree, contrast in turn with those of Ilan Pappé and Walid Khalidi, who argue not only that there were widespread expulsions, but also that they were not the result of ''ad hoc'' decisions. Rather, they argue, the expulsions were part of a deliberate strategy, known as [[Plan Dalet]] and conceived before Israel's declaration of independence, to transfer the Arab population and seize their land.<ref>Pappé 2007.
*[http://www.scribd.com/doc/19199199/Plan-Dalet-Master-Plan-for-the-Conquest-of-Palestine-by-Walid-Khalidi Khalidi 1961], and [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Khalidi,%20Plan%20Dalet%20Revisited.pdf Khalidi 1988].</ref>

==Lod and Ramla today==
[[File:RamleviewS.jpg|left|thumb|180px|alt=photograph|Ramla in 2006]]
As of 2009 around 66,000 people were living in Ramla, which became briefly known around the world in 1962, when former SS officer [[Adolf Eichmann]] was hanged in Ramla prison in May that year.<ref>For the population, see [http://www.cbs.gov.il/population/new_2010/table3.pdf Population figures], Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, accessed 26 November 2010.
*For Eichmann, see [http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/we-have-to-carry-out-the-sentence-1.226299 Weitz 2007].</ref> The population in Lod as of 2010 was officially around 45,000 Jews and 20,000 Arabs; its main industry is its airport, renamed Ben Gurion International Airport in 1973.<ref name=Economist>[http://www.economist.com/node/17254422 "Pulled apart"], ''The Economist'', 14 October 2010.</ref> [[Aliyah from Ethiopia|Beth Israel immigrants from Ethiopia]] were housed there in the 1990s, increasing the ethnic tension in the city which, together with the economic deprivation, make the town "the most likely place to explode," according to Arnon Golan, an Israeli expert on ethnically-mixed cities. {{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} In 2010 a three-meter-high wall was built to separate the Jewish and Arab neighborhoods.<ref name=Economist/>

[[File:Zochrot at the former Lydda ghetto.JPG|thumb|200px|alt=photograph|Eitan Bronstein of [[Zochrot]] places a sign on the former Lydda ghetto.]]
The Arab community has complained that, when Arabs became a majority in Lod's Ramat Eshkol suburb, the local school was closed rather than turned into an Arab-sector school, and in September 2008 it was re-opened as a [[yeshiva]], a Jewish religious school. The local council acknowledges that it wants Lod to become a more Jewish city. In addition to the Arabs officially registered, a fifth of the overall population are [[Bedouin]], who arrived in Lod in the 1980s when they were moved off land in the Negev, according to Nathan Jeffay.They live in illegal dwellings on agricultural land, unregistered and with no municipal services.<ref name=Jeffay>[http://www.forward.com/articles/14435/ Jeffay 2008].</ref>

The refugees are occasionally able to visit their former homes. [[Zochrot]], an Israeli group that researches former Palestinian towns, visited Lod in 2003 and 2005, erecting signs in Hebrew and Arabic depicting its history, including a sign on the wall of the former Arab ghetto. The visits are met with a mixture of interest and hostility.<ref>[http://www.zochrot.org/index.php?id=221 "Remembering Al-Lydd 2005"], [http://www.zochrot.org/index.php?id=364 "Tour and signposting in Al-Lydd (Lod), 2003"].
*Also see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=365 "Testimonies on the Nakba of Lod"].
*[http://www.zochrot.org/images/lydda.pdf Booklet about Lydda] in Arabic and Hebrew, Zochrot.
*[http://www.zochrot.org/images/al-Ramle.pdf Booklet about Ramla], also in Arabic and Hebrew, Zochrot, all accessed 28 November 2010.</ref> Father Oudeh Rantisi, a former mayor of Ramallah who was expelled from Lydda in 1948, visited his family's former home for the first time in 1967:

<blockquote>As the bus drew up in front of the house, I saw a young boy playing in the yard. I got off the bus and went over to him. "How long have you lived in this house?" I asked. "I was born here," he replied. "Me too," I said ...<ref>[http://www.ameu.org/printer.asp?iid=64&aid=95 Rantisi and Amash 2000].</ref></blockquote>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|2}}
*Abu Khalil, As'ad (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=GkbzYoZtaJMC&pg=PA529 "al-Wazir, Khalil"], in Mattar, Philip. ''Encyclopedia Of The Palestinians'', Infobase Publishing.
*[[Lila Abu-Lughod|Abu Lughod, Lila]] and Allan, Diana Keown (2007). "Places of Memory" in Sa'di, Ahmad H. and Abu-Lughod, Lila (eds.). ''Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory''. Columbia University Press.
*Abu Nowar, Ma'an (2002). ''The Jordanian-Israeli War 1948-1951: A History of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan''. Garnet & Ithaca Press.
*Andrews, Edmund L. and Kifner, John (27 January 2008). [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/middleeast/27habash.html?bl&ex=1201582800&en=a0d7bd56323e1b26&ei=5087%0A "George Habash, Palestinian Terrorism Tactician, Dies at 82"], ''The New York Times''.
*[[Gannit Ankori|Ankori, Gannit]] (2006.) ''Palestinian Art''. Reaktion Books.
*[[David Ben-Gurion|Ben-Gurion, David]] (1982). ''The War Diary: The War of Independence, 5708–5709'', Volumes 1 and 2, Israel Defense Ministry Publications.
*[[Kenneth Bilby|Bilby, Kenneth]] (1951). ''New Star in the Near East''. Doubleday.
*Brandabur, A. Clare (1990). [http://www.peuplesmonde.com/spip.php?article680 Reply To Amos Kenan's "The Legacy of Lydda" and An Interview With PFLP Leader Dr. George Habash], ''Peuples & Monde''; first published in ''The Nation'', 1 January 1990, accessed 25 November 2010.
*Cohen, Stuart (2008). ''Israel and Its Army: From Cohesion to Confusion''. Taylor & Francis.
*Currivan, Gene (12 July 1948). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30713FA385F167B93C1A8178CD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=&st=p "Arabs Give Up a Key Point as Latrun Battle Looms, but Retake Others; Israeli Force Wins Town on Key Road"], ''The New York Times''.
*[[Jonathan Dimbleby|Dimbleby, Jonathan]], and [[Don McCullin|McCullin, Donald]] (1980). ''The Palestinians''. Quartet Books.
*''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2009). [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/345947/Lod "Lod"], accessed 23 November 2010.
*[[Robert Fisk|Fisk, Robert]] (1993). [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/still-dreaming-of-his-homeland-robert-fisk-in-damascus-hears-george-habash-orator-fighter-and-refugee-spell-out-his-terms-for-a-settlement-with-israel-1509518.html "Still dreaming of his homeland"], ''The Independent'', 9 October 1993.
*Fraser, Tom (2001). "Arab–Israeli wars," in Holmes, Richard (ed.). ''The Oxford Companion to Military History''. Oxford University Press.
*[[Yoav Gelber|Gelber, Yoav]]. ''Israeli-Jordanian Dialogue, 1948–1953''. Sussex Academic Press, 2004.
*Gelber, Yoav (2006). ''Palestine, 1948: War, Escape and the Emergence of the Palestinian Refugee Problem''. Sussex University Press.
*[[Martin Gilbert|Gilbert, Martin]] (2008.) ''Israel: A History''. Key Porter Books.
*[[John Bagot Glubb|Glubb, John Bagot]] (1957). ''A Soldier with the Arabs''. Harper and Brothers.
*Golan, Arnon (2003). [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-111203784.html "Lydda and Ramle: From Palestinian Arab to Israeli Towns, 1948–1967"], ''Middle Eastern Studies'', 39 (4), 1 October 2003.
*Gordon, Elizabeth Oke. ''Saint George: Champion of Christendom and Patron Saint of England''. S. Sonnenschein & Co., 1907.
*[[Richard Holmes (military historian)|Holmes, Richard]] et al. (2001). ''The Oxford Companion to Military History''. Oxford University Press.
*Jeffay, Nathan (2008). [http://www.forward.com/articles/14435/ "Israel’s Mixed Cities on Edge After Riots"], ''The Jewish Daily Forward'', 31 October 2008.
*Kadish, Alon, and Sela, Avraham (2005). [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM "Myths and historiography of the 1948 Palestine War revisited: the case of Lydda]," ''The Middle East Journal'', 22 September 2005.
*[[Efraim Karsh|Karsh, Efraim]] (1999). [http://www.meforum.org/466/benny-morris-and-the-reign-of-error "Benny Morris and the Reign of Error"], ''The Middle East Quarterly'', March 1999.
*Karsh, Efraim (2003). ''Rethinking the Middle East''. Routledge.
*[[Amos Kenan|Kenan, Amos]] (8 February 1989). [http://www.thenation.com/archive/four-decades-blood-vengeance "The Legacy of Lydda: Four Decades of Blood Vengeance"], ''The Nation''; [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0059831.html courtesy link], accessed 26 November 2010.
*[[Walid Khalidi|Khalidi, Walid]] (1961). [http://www.scribd.com/doc/19199199/Plan-Dalet-Master-Plan-for-the-Conquest-of-Palestine-by-Walid-Khalidi "Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine"], ''Middle East Forum'', Vol. 37, p. 11, accessed 23 November 2010.
*Khalidi, Walid (1988). [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Khalidi,%20Plan%20Dalet%20Revisited.pdf "Plan Dalet Revisited"], ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Vol. 18: Nos. 1, 5, accessed 23 November 2010.
*Khalidi, Walid (1998). Introduction to Spiro Munayyer's [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf The fall of Lydda]. ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 80–98.
*[[Alec Kirkbride|Kirkbride, Alec]] (1976). ''From the Wings: Amman Memoirs, 1947–1951'', Routledge.
*[[Arthur Koestler|Koestler, Arthur]] (1949). ''Promise and Fulfilment – Palestine 1917–1949''. This edition Read Books 2007.
*[[Ian Lustick|Lustick, Ian S.]] (1997). [http://www.polisci.upenn.edu/faculty/bios/Pubs/survivalreview.pdf "Israeli history: Who is fabricating what?"], ''Survival'', Volume 39, Issue 3 Autumn 1997, pp. 156–166.
*[[Benny Morris|Morris, Benny]] (1986). [http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 "Operation Dani and the Palestinian Exodus from Lydda and Ramle in 1948"], ''Middle East Journal'', Vol 40, issue 1.
*Morris, Benny (1988). [http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf "The New Historiography: Israel confronts its Past"], in Morris, Benny (ed.). ''Making Israel''. University of Michigan Press, 2007.
*Morris, Benny (1995). [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/history/Morris,%20Falsifying%20the%20Record.pdf "Falsifying the Record: A Fresh Look at Zionist Documentation of 1948"], ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Spring 1995, pp. 44–62.
*Morris, Benny (2001). ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001''. Vintage Books.
*Morris, Benny (2003). ''The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews''. Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-989-0
*Morris, Benny (2004). ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited''. Cambridge University Press.
*Morris, Benny (2008). ''1948: The First Arab-Israeli War''. Yale University Press.
*Munayyer, Spiro (1998). [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf "The Fall of Lydda"], ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Vol 27, issue 4, accessed 14 December 2010.
*[[Ilan Pappé|Pappé, Ilan]] (2006). ''[[The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (Book)|The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine]]'', Oneworld.
*Prior, Michael, P. (1999). ''Zionism and the State of Israel: A Moral Inquiry''. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-20462-3
*Rantisi, Audeh G. and Amash, Charles (2000). [http://www.ameu.org/uploads/vol33_issue3_2000.pdf "Death March"], ''The Link'', July–August 2000, Vol 33, Issue 3, Americans for Middle East Understanding, accessed 14 December 2010.
*Sa'di, Ahmad H. and [[Lila Abu-Lughod|Abu-Lughod, Lila]] (2007). ''Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the claims of memory''. Columbia University Press.
*Sayigh, Rosemary. ''The Palestinians: From Peasants to Revolutionaries''. Zed Books, 2007.
*Schmidt, Dana Adams (12 June 1948). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30D1EFD3D54157B93C0A8178DD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=Jerusalem+siege&st=p "Jerusalem Sees Uneasy Truce"], ''The New York Times.
*Schwartz, Joshua J. ''Lod (Lydda), Israel: From its origins through the Byzantine period, 5600 B.C.E.-640 C.E.'' Tempus Reparatum, 1991.
*[[Tom Segev|Segev, Tom]] (1986). ''1949, The First Israelis''. Henry Holt.
*Segev, Tom (2000). [http://lists.mcgill.ca/scripts/wa.exe?A2=ind0005b&L=fofognet&P=3632 "What really happened in the conquest of Lod?"] ''Haaretz'', 12 May 2000, accessed 14 December 2010.
*[[Anita Shapira|Shapira, Anita]] (1995). [http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 "Politics and Collective Memory: The Debate over the 'New Historians' in Israel"], ''History and Memory'', Vol 7, no 1, Spring/Summer 1995.
*Shapira, Anita. (2007). ''Yigal Allon, Native Son: A Biography''. University of Pennsylvania Press,
*Sharon, M. (1983). "Ludd" in Bosworth, C.E. et al. ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam''. E.J. Brill.
*Shavit, Avi (2004). [http://web.archive.org/web/20080515210330/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=380986&contrassID=2 "Survival of the fittest," Part 1], [http://web.archive.org/web/20080607060238/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=380984 Part 2], ''Haaretz'', 8 January 2004, accessed 14 December 2010.
*[[David K. Shipler|Shipler, David K.]] (23 October 1979). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p "Israel Bars Rabin from Relating '48 Eviction of Arabs''], ''The New York Times''.
*Shipler, David (25 October 1979). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B12FE3C5C12728DDDAC0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=2&sq=&st=p "Allon Denies '48 Ouster of Arabs"], ''The New York Times''.
*[[David Tal (historian)|Tal, David]] (2004). ''War in Palestine, 1948: Strategy and Diplomacy''. Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-5275-X
*Weitz, Yechiam (2007). [http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/we-have-to-carry-out-the-sentence-1.226299 "We have to carry out the sentence"], ''Haaretz'', 2 August 2007.
*Yacobi, Haim (2009). ''The Jewish-Arab City: Spatio-politics in a Mixed Community''. Routledge.
*''[[Zochrot]]'' (2003). [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=365 Testimonies on the Nakba of Lod], 11 January 2003. Also see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=364] [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=221] [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=349], all accessed 14 December 2010.
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|2}}
*[[Nathan Alterman|Alterman, Nathan]] (1948). [http://www.education.gov.il/tochniyot_Limudim/shira/sh_42.htm "Al Zot"], www.education.gov.il, accessed 23 November 2010. {{he icon}}
*Abdel Jawad, Saleh (2007). ''Israel and the Palestinian refugees.'' Eyāl Benveniśtî, Chaim Gans, Sārī Ḥanafī, ed. Springer.
*[[Aref al-Aref|Aref al-'Aref]] (1959). ''Al-Nakba: Nakbat Filsatin wal-Firdaws al-Mafqud 1947–1952'' [''The Catastrophe: The Catastrophe of Palestine and the Lost Paradise 1947–1952'']. Sidon and Beirut, A1-Maktab al-'Sariyya lil-Tiba'a wal-Nashr.
*[[Moshe Dayan|Dayan, Moshe]] (1976). ''Moshe Dayan: story of my life.'' New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-03076-9.
*El-Asmar, Fouzi (1975). ''To be an Arab in Israel''. Institute for Palestine Studies.
*Guttman, Shmarya ("Avi-Yiftah") (November 1948). "Lydda," ''Mibifnim''.
*Kadish, Alon; [[Avraham Sela|Sela, Avraham]]; and Golan, Arnon (2000). ''The Occupation of Lydda, July 1948''. Tel Aviv: Israel Ministry of Defense and Hagana Historical Archive. {{he icon}}
*[[Efraim Karsh|Karsh, Efraim]] (1997). ''Fabricating Israeli History: The 'New Historians'''. Routledge.
*Karsh, Efraim (2002). ''The Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Palestine War 1948'', Osprey Publishing, 2002.
*Kelman, Moshe (1972). "Ha-Hevdel bein Deir Yasin le-Lod" ["The Difference between Deir Yasin and Lydda"], ''Yedi'ot Aharonot'', 2 May 1972. {{he icon}}
*Khalidi, Walid (1992). "All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948". Institute for Palestine Studies.
*[[Ghassan Kanafani|Kanafani, Ghassan]] (1956). "Paper from Ramleh". "Palestine's Children. Short stories by Ghassan Kanafani". Three Continents Press. ISBN 0-89410-431-4.
*Lorch, Netanel (1997). "A Word from an Old Historian," ''Haaretz'', 23 June 1997.
*Monterescu, Daniel and Rabinowitz, Dan (2007). ''Mixed Towns, Trapped Communities''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
*Morris, Benny (1986b). [http://books.google.com/books?id=OjuKhNEmFvoC&pg=PA169 "The Causes and Character of the Exodus from Palestine"] in Pappé, Ilan. ''The Israel/Palestine Question''. Routledge, 1999.
*Morris, Benny (1987). ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949''. Cambridge University Press.
*Munayyer, Spiro (1997). ''Lydda During the Mandate and Occupation Periods''. Institute for Palestine Studies.
*[[Nur-eldeen Masalha|Masalha, Nur]] (2003). ''The Politics of Denial: Israel and the Palestinian Refugee Problem''. Pluto Press.
*Rantisi, Audeh G. [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1998/1948/362_rnts.htm Would I ever see my home again?], ''Al-Ahram'', accessed 14 December 2010.
*Rantisi, Audeh G. and Beebe, Ralph K. (1990). ''Blessed are the peacemakers: the story of a Palestinian Christian''. Eagle.
{{Refend}}
 
{{nakbaend}}
{{Palestinian Arab villages depopulated during the 1948 Palestine War}}
{{Arab-Israeli Conflict}}
{{Israeli-Palestinian Conflict}}
{{Coord|31|56|30.01|N|34|52|41.83|E|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Exodus From Lydda And Ramle}}
[[Category:1948 Palestinian exodus]]
[[Category:1948 Arab–Israeli War]]
[[Category:Forced marches]]
[[Category:Lod]]
[[Category:Ramla]]

[[fr:Exode palestinien de Lydda et Ramle]]

Ana Kasparian

2012-06-09T06:56:23Z

InverseHypercube: semicolon before ref

{{Infobox person
| name = Ana Kasparian
| birth_name = Anahit Misak Kasparian
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1986|07|07}}
| birth_place = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States]]
| residence = Los Angeles
| occupation = Political pundit Internet/radio talk show host/producer Entertainment correspondent 
| alma_mater = {{nowrap|[[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]])}} {{nowrap|[[Columbia University]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])}}
| alma_mater = [[California State University, Northridge]] [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism|(B.A.J.]])/([[Master of Arts in Political Science|M.A.]])
| citizenship = United States
| education = [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism]] (B.A.J.) [[Master of Arts in Political Science]] (M.A.)
| employer =''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''
| movement = [[Progressivism|Progressive]]
| ethnicity = [[Armenian American]]<ref name=armenian/>
| religion = None ([[atheist]])
| television = ''[[The Young Turks with Cenk Uygur]]''
| credits = ''[[The Young Turks]]''
| URL = {{url|http://www.theyoungturks.com/}}
}}

'''Anahit Misak "Ana" Kasparian'''<ref name=armenian>{{cite web |url=http://www.theyoungturks.com/story/2007/10/26/124637/27/news/The-Young-Turks-From-an-Armenian-s-Perspective |title=The Young Turks...From an Armenian's Perspective. |author=Kasparian, Ana |date=26 October 2007 |publisher=The Young Turks |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> ([[Western Armenian language|Western]] {{lang-hy|Անահիտ Միսաք Գասպարյան}}; [[Western Armenian language|Western]] {{IPA-hy|ɑnɑˈhid miˈsɑkʰ kʰɑsbɑˈɾjɑn}});<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asbarez.com/arm/72679/ |title=ԼՈՒՍԱՐՁԱԿ- Երիտհայուհին |author=ՄԱՆՈՅԵԱՆ, ԳԷՈՐԳ |date=30 April 2005 |accessdate=25 March 2012 |language=Armenian |trans_title=Lusardzak - Yerithayuhin}}</ref> born July 7, 1986) is an [[Armenian American]] co-host and producer for the online [[news show]] ''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''. Kasparian began working as a fill-in producer for The Young Turks in 2007.<ref name=userprofile/> She also appears as on the TV version of the show The Young Turks that airs on the Current TV Network.

==Biography==
Ana was born on July 7, 1986 the daughter of [[Western Armenia]] immigrant parents. Kasparian graduated from [[California State University, Northridge]] in 2007 with a [[Bachelor of Arts, Journalism]] (BAJ). Kasparian has worked with [[AOL News]], [[YouTube]], [[TidalTv]] and ''[[On Point]]''. She also worked in news production at CBS radio affiliate [[KNX (AM)]] in Los Angeles.<ref>{{Facebook|id=Ana-Kasparian/192784994077318?sk{{=}}info|name=Ana Kasparian}}</ref> In addition to being the host of ''[[The Young Turks]]'', Ana Kasparian appears frequently on the [[English language|English]] version of the [[Russia|Russian]]-based channel [[RT (TV network)|RT]] and [[RT America]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Search: Ana Kasparian — RT |url=http://rt.com/search/?q=Ana+Kasparian |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> In 2007, Kasparian became the producer and co-host of the [[progressivism|progressive]] [[talk radio]] on [[Sirius XM Radio|Sirius XM Satellite Radio]] and now [[internet show]]/[[TV Show]] ''[[The Young Turks (talk show)|The Young Turks]]''/''The Young Turks with Cenk Uygur.'' <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.linkedin.com/pub/dir/ana/kasparian |title=Ana Kasparian |author=Kasparian, Ana |publisher=LinkedIn |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> She completed her [[Master of Political Science]] in [[political science]] in 2010.<ref name=userprofile>{{cite web |url=http://www.theyoungturks.com/user/AnaKasparian |title=AnaKasparian |author=Kasparian, Ana |publisher=The Young Turks |date=2007 |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.theyoungturks.com/ ''The Young Turks'']
* {{Facebook|id=Ana-Kasparian/192784994077318|name=Ana Kasparian}}
* {{twitter|AnaKasparian|Ana Kasparian}}
* {{youtube|channel=AnaKasparian|Ana Kasparian}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Kasparian, Ana
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Kasparian, Anahit
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American political commentator; journalist
| DATE OF BIRTH = July 7, 1986
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States|U.S.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kasparian, Ana}}

[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:Air America (radio network)]]
[[Category:American agnostics]]
[[Category:American Internet personalities]]
[[Category:American people of Armenian descent]]
[[Category:American political pundits]]
[[Category:American radio producers]]
[[Category:American talk radio hosts]]
[[Category:California State University, Northridge alumni]]
[[Category:Current TV]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles, California]]
[[Category:The Young Turks (talk show)]]

[[tr:Ana Kasparian]]

Asymptote (Vektorgrafik-Sprache)

2012-06-01T00:04:10Z

InverseHypercube: misc. fixes

{{notability|date=October 2011}}
{{primary sources|date=October 2011}}
{{Infobox programming language
| name = Asymptote
| logo = [[Image:AsymptoteLogo.svg|200px]]
| logo caption = The Asymptote logo (SVG file created with Asymptote)
| screenshot =
| screenshot caption =
| file ext =
| paradigm = [[Imperative programming|imperative]], [[typesetting]]
| scope =
| released = {{Start date|2004}}
| designer = Andy Hammerlindl, John C. Bowman, Tom Prince
| developer =
| latest release version = 2.15
| latest release date = {{start date and age|2011|11|17}}
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date = 
| typing = [[duck typing|duck]], [[dynamic typing|dynamic]], [[strong typing|strong]]
| implementations =
| dialects =
| influenced by = [[Metapost]]
| influenced =
| programming language =
| platform =
| operating system = [[Cross-platform]]
| license = [[GPL]]
| website = {{url|http://asymptote.sourceforge.net/}}
| wikibooks =
}}
'''Asymptote''' is a descriptive [[vector graphics]] language, developed by Andy Hammerlindl, John C. Bowman (University of Alberta), and Tom Prince, that provides a natural coordinate-based framework for technical drawing. Asymptote runs on all major platforms ([[UNIX]], [[Mac OS]], [[Microsoft Windows]]). It is [[free software]], available under the terms of the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]].

==Syntax and notable features==
Asymptote typesets labels and equations with [[LaTeX]], producing high-quality [[PostScript]], [[PDF]], [[SVG]], or 3D [[PRC_(File_format)|PRC]] output.<ref>[http://www.math.ualberta.ca/~bowman/publications/asyTUG.pdf Asymptote: A vector graphics language, J. C. Bowman and A. Hammerlindl, TUGBOAT: The Communications of the TeX Users Group, 29:2, 288-294 (2008).]</ref> It is inspired by [[Metapost]], but has a [[C++]]-like syntax. It provides a standard for typesetting mathematical figures, just as [[TeX]]/[[LaTeX]] has become the standard for typesetting equations. It is mathematically oriented (e.g. rotation of vectors by complex multiplication), and uses the [[simplex method]] and deferred drawing to solve overall size constraint issues between fixed-sized objects (labels and arrowheads) and objects that should scale with figure size. Asymptote fully generalizes [[MetaPost]] path construction algorithms to three dimensions,<ref>[http://www.math.ualberta.ca/~bowman/publications/asy3d.pdf The 3D Asymptote Generalization of MetaPost Bézier Interpolation, J. C. Bowman, Proceedings in Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, 7:1, 2010021-2010022 (2007)].</ref> and compiles commands into [[virtual machine]] code for speed without sacrificing portability. High-level graphics commands are implemented in the Asymptote language itself, allowing them to be easily tailored to specific applications. It also appears to be the first software package to lift [[TeX]] into three dimensions.<ref>[http://www.math.ualberta.ca/~bowman/publications/asyTUG3.pdf Asymptote: Lifting TeX to three dimensions, J. C. Bowman and Orest Shardt, TUGBOAT: The Communications of the TeX Users Group, 30:1, 58-63 (2009).]</ref><ref>[http://www.math.ualberta.ca/~bowman/publications/cad10.pdf Surface Parametrization of Nonsimply Connected Planar Bézier Regions, O. Shardt and J. C. Bowman, submitted to Computer Aided Design (2010).]</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==See also==
* [[GeoGebra]] – free Dynamic Mathematics program with Asymptote export

==External links==
* {{SourceForge|asymptote}}
* [http://artofproblemsolving.com/Wiki/index.php/Asymptote_(Vector_Graphics_Language) Asymptote Wiki]
* [http://www.piprime.fr/asymptote/ Philippe Ivaldi's extensive Asymptote gallery]

{{Vector graphics markup languages}}
{{compu-lang-stub}}
[[Category:Vector graphics]]
[[Category:Free software programmed in C++]]
[[Category:Free graphics software]]
[[Category:TeX SourceForge projects]]
[[Category:Linux TeX software]]

[[es:Asymptote]]
[[fr:Asymptote (langage de dessin vectoriel)]]
[[it:Asymptote]]
[[hu:Asymptote]]
[[ru:Asymptote]]
[[zh:Asymptote]]

Ramellis Bücherrad

2012-04-30T20:09:12Z

InverseHypercube:

{{Belege fehlen}}
[[Datei:Le diverse et artificiose machine del Capitano Agostino Ramelli Figure CLXXXVIII.jpg|miniatur|Ramellis Bücherrad aus dem 16. Jahrhundert]]

'''Ramellis Bücherrad''' ist eine Lesemaschine von [[Agostino Ramelli]] aus dem [[16. Jahrhundert]], die er in seinem Buch ''Le diverse et artificiose machine'' beschreibt.

Es handelt sich dabei um ein rotierendes [[Pult|Lesepult]], das das nicht-sequentielle Lesen von etwa zwölf [[Foliant]]en erlaubt. Die einzelnen Bücher befinden sich auf jeweils eigenen Pulten, zwischen denen durch einen Drehmechanismus gewechselt werden kann, so dass die Bücher „''nicht fallen, genau so liegen bleiben, wie sie hingelegt worden sind, sie bleiben immer im gleichen Zustand und wann immer der Leser es wünscht, erscheinen sie so, ohne dass sie irgendwie angebunden oder befestigt werden müssen''“.

Ob dieses Bücherrad jemals genutzt wurde, ist nicht bekannt; ein ähnliches Bücherrad findet sich allerdings in der [[Herzog August Bibliothek]], [[Wolfenbüttel]]. Auch im Museum 'Altes Zollhaus' in [[Hitzacker]] befindet sich ein ähnliches Bücherrad.<ref name="ALttesZollHausHitzacker">[http://www.museum-hitzacker.de/51/Herzog_August.html Webpage des Museum Altes Zollhaus Hitzacker zum Bücherrad]</ref><ref name="Youtube">[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pZ3hTKc_fR8 YouTube Video zum Bücherrad im Museum in Hitzacker]</ref>

Die Lesehilfe bildet konzeptionell einen Vorläufer des modernen [[Hypertext]]-Konzepts, da das Verfolgen von Querverweisen und die Parallel-Lektüre mehrerer Bücher zumindest ansatzweise mechanisiert bzw. automatisiert wird.

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Roussels Lesemaschine]]
* [[Cortazars Lesemaschine]]

== Quellen ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ramellis Bucherrad}}
[[Kategorie:Buchgeschichte]]
[[Kategorie:Lesen]]

[[en:Bookwheel]]

Chicano Movement

2012-04-30T07:23:46Z

InverseHypercube: unitalicizing Mexican American Civil Rights Movement

{{Hispanic and Latino Americans}}
The '''Chicano Movement''' of the 1960s, also called the '''''Chicano Civil Rights Movement''''', also known as ''El Movimiento'', is an extension of the '''Mexican American Civil Rights Movement''' which began in the 1940s with the stated goal of achieving [[Mexican American]] empowerment.

==Origins==
The Chicano Movement encompassed a broad cross section of issues—from restoration of land grants, to farm workers' rights, to enhanced education, to voting and political rights, as well as emerging awareness of collective history. Socially, the Chicano Movement addressed what it perceived to be negative [[Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans|ethnic stereotypes]] of Mexicans in mass media and the American consciousness. Edward J. Escobar sleeder [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080213?&Search=yes&term=escobar&term=edward&term=j&list=hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dedward%2Bj%2Bescobar%26wc%3Don%26dc%3DAll%2BDisciplines&item=3&ttl=1194&returnArticleService=showArticle] from ''The Journal of American History'' describes some of the negativity of the time in stating, "The conflict between Chicanos and the LAPD thus helped Mexican Americans develop a new political consciousness that included a greater sense of ethnic solidarity, an acknowledgment of their subordinated status in American society, and a greater determination to act politically, and perhaps even violently, to end that subordination. While most people of Mexican descent still refused to call themselves Chicanos, many had come to adopt many of the principles intrinsic in the concept of ''[[chicanismo]]''." Chicanos did this through the creation of works of literary and visual art that validated the Mexican American ethnicity and culture.

The term ''Chicano'' was originally used as a derogatory label for the sons and daughters of Mexican migrants. Some prefer to spell the word "Chicano" as "Xicano". This new generation of Mexican Americans were singled out by people on both sides of the border in whose view these Mexican Americans were not "American", yet they were not "Mexican", either. In the 1960s "Chicano" was accepted as a symbol of self-determination and ethnic pride.

The Chicano Movement also addressed discrimination in public and private institutions. Early in the twentieth century, Mexican Americans formed organizations to protect themselves from discrimination. One of those organizations, the [[League of United Latin American Citizens]], was formed in 1929 and remains active today.<ref>[http://www.lulac.org/about/history/ History | LULAC-League of United Latin American Citizens]</ref>

The Chicano Movement had been formenting since the end of the U.S.- Mexican War in 1848, when the current U.S-Mexican border took form. Since that time, countless Chicanos and Chicanas have confronted discrimination, racism and exploitation. The Chicano Movement that culminated in the early 1970s took inspiration from heroes and heroines from their [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]], Mexican and American past.

The movement gained momentum after [[World War II]] when groups such as the [[American G.I. Forum]] (AGIF), which was formed by returning Mexican American veterans, joined in the efforts by other civil rights organizations.<ref>[http://www.americangiforum.org/about.cfm American GI Forum - About Us]</ref> The AGIF first received national exposure when it took on the cause of [[Felix Longoria]], a Mexican American serviceman who was denied funeral services in his hometown of [[Three Rivers, Texas]] after being killed during WWII.<ref>{{cite web|last=Williams|first=Rudi|title=Congress Lauds American G.I. Forum Founder Garcia|url=http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=42268|publisher=U.S. Department of Defense}}</ref>

Mexican American civil rights activists also achieved several major legal victories including the 1947 [[Mendez v. Westminster]] [[Supreme Court]] ruling which declared that segregating children of "Mexican and Latin descent" was unconstitutional and the 1954 [[Hernandez v. Texas]] ruling which declared that Mexican Americans and other historically-subordinated groups in the United States were entitled to equal protection under the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|14th Amendment]] of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]].<ref>[http://www.latinola.com/story.php?story=432 LatinoLA - Latino Hollywood - On Screen and Behind the Scenes]</ref><ref> HERNANDEZ v. TEXAS. The Oyez Project at IIT Chicago-Kent College of Law. http://www.oyez.org/cases/1950-1959/1953/1953_406/</ref>

There were several leaders throughout the Chicano Movement. In New Mexico there was Reies López Tijerina who worked on the land grant movement. He fought to regain control of ancestral lands. He became involved in civil rights causes within six years and also became a cosponsor of the Poor People's March on Washington in 1967. In Texas, war veteran [[Hector P. Garcia|Dr. Hector P. Garcia]] founded the American GI Forum and was later appointed to the [[United States Commission on Civil Rights]]. In Denver, [[Rodolfo Gonzales|Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzáles]] helped define the meaning of being a Chicano through his poem ''Yo Soy Joaquin'' (''I am Joaquin'')[http://www.gs.cidsnet.de/englisch-online/diverse/joaquin.htm]. In California, [[César Chávez]] and the farm workers turned to the struggle of urban youth, and created political awareness and participated in ''[[La Raza Unida]]'' Party.

The most prominent civil rights organization in the Mexican-American community is the [[Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund]] (MALDEF), founded in 1968.<ref>[http://www.maldef.org/about/index.htm MALDEF - About Us]</ref> Although modeled after the [[NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund]], MALDEF has also taken on many of the functions of other organizations, including political advocacy and training of local leaders.

Some women who worked for the Chicano movement felt that members were being too concerned with social issues that affected the Chicano community, instead of addressing problems that affected Chicana women specifically. This led Chicana women to form the [[Comisión Femenil Mexicana Nacional]]. In 1975, it became involved in the case [[Madrigal vs. Quilligan]], obtaining a moratorium on the [[compulsory sterilization]] of women and adoption of bilingual consent forms. These steps were necessary because many Hispanic women who did not understand English well were being sterilized in the United States at the time, without proper consent.<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1449330 STERILIZED in the Name of Public Health]</ref><ref>[http://cemaweb.library.ucsb.edu/cfmn_intro.html California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives]</ref>

With the widespread immigration marches which flourished throughout the U.S. in the Spring of 2006, the Chicano Movement has continued to expand in its focus and the number of people who are actively involved within the Mexican American community. As of the 21st Century, a major focus of the Chicano Movement has been to increase the (intelligent) representation of Chicanos in mainstream American media and entertainment.<ref>[http://mexican-american.org/chicano-movement/index.html "Chicano Power in the U.S.A."] - Xcano Media, Los Angeles</ref>

==Major Cities==
This is a list of the major epicenters of the Chicano Movement.

*[[Albuquerque, New Mexico|Albuquerque]]
*[[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]
*[[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]
*[[Denver, Colorado|Denver]]
*[[Fresno, California|Fresno]]
*[[Houston, Texas|Houston]]
*[[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]]
*[[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]
*[[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]]
*[[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]]
*[[San Diego, California|San Diego]]
*[[San Jose, California|San Jose]]
*[[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]]

==Political activism==
[[Image:Mural Chicano Movement.jpg|thumb|right|200px| Casa [[Aztlán]]. A mural in [[Pilsen, Chicago]] for the Chicano Movement]]

In 1949 and 1950, the American G.I. Forum initiated local “pay your poll tax” drives to register Mexican American voters. Although they were unable to repeal the poll tax, their efforts did bring in new Hispanic voters who would begin to elect Latino representatives to the [[Texas House of Representatives]] and to [[American Congress|Congress]] during the late 1950s and early 1960s.<ref>[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6582/ "Our First Poll Tax Drive": The American G.I. Forum Fights Disenfranchisement of Mexican Americans in Texas]</ref>

In California, a similar phenomenon took place. When World War II veteran [[Edward R. Roybal]] ran for a seat on the [[Los Angeles City Council]], community activists established the [[Community Service Organization]] (CSO). The CSO was effective in registering 15,000 new voters in Latino neighborhoods. With this newfound support, Roybal was able to win the 1949 election race against the incumbent councilman and become the first Mexican American since 1886 to win a seat on the [[Los Angeles City Council]].<ref>[http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/hb0n39n7q6/?brand=oac Election of Roybal, democracy at work : extension of remarks of Hon. Chet Holifield of California in the House of Representatives]</ref>

The [[Mexican American Political Association]] (MAPA), founded in [[Fresno, California]] came into being in 1959 and drew up a plan for direct electoral politics. MAPA soon became the primary political voice for the Mexican-American community of California.<ref>[http://cemaweb.library.ucsb.edu/corona_toc.html California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives]</ref>

==Student walkouts==
{{main|Chicano Blowouts}}
After World War II, Chicanos began to assert their own views of their own history and status as Mexican Americans in the US and they began to critically analyze what they were being taught in public schools.<ref>http://denver.rockymountainnews.com/millennium/0921mile.shtml</ref>

In the late 1960s, when the student movement was active around the globe, the Chicano Movement inspired its own organized protests like the mass walkouts of high school students and the [[Chicano Moratorium]] in [[Los Angeles]] in 1970.<ref>[http://www.laep.org/access/attitudes/blowouts/index.html Our PLACE Called Home - The Chicano Student Walkout]</ref> The student walkouts occurred in [[Denver]] and [[East Los Angeles, California|East LA]] of 1968. There were also many incidents of walkouts outside of the city of [[Los Angeles]]. In the [[Los Angeles County|LA County]] high schools of [[El Monte, California|El Monte]], [[Alhambra, California|Alhambra]], and [[Covina, California|Covina]] (particularly Northview) the students marched to fight for their rights. Similar walkouts took place in 1978 of [[Houston]] high schools to protest the discrepant academic quality for Latino students. There were also several student sit-ins as objection to the decreasing funding of Chicano courses.

The blowouts of the 1960s can be compared to the 2006 walkouts, which were done as opposition to the [[HR4437|Illegal Immigration Control]] bill.

==Student and youth organizations==

Chicano student groups such as United Mexican American Students (UMAS), Mexican American Youth Association (MAYA) in California, and the [[Mexican american youth organization|Mexican American Youth Organization]] (MAYO) in Texas, developed in universities and colleges in the mid 1960’s.<ref name=autogenerated1>Moore, J. W., & Cuéllar, A. B. (1970). ''Mexican Americans''. Ethnic groups in American life series. Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. p. 150. ISBN 0135794900</ref> At the historic meeting at the University of California, Santa Barbara in April 1969, the diverse student organizations came together under the new name [[Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlán]] (MECHA). Student groups such as these were initially concerned with education issues, but their activities evolved to participation in political campaigns and to various forms of protest against broader issues such as police brutality and the U.S. war in Southeast Asia.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> The [[Brown Berets]], a youth group which began in California, took on a more militant and [[chicano nationalism|nationalistic]] ideology.<ref>Moore, J. W., & Cuéllar, A. B. (1970). ''Mexican Americans''. Ethnic groups in American life series. Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. p. 151. ISBN 0135794900</ref>

==Anti-war activism==
The [[Chicano Moratorium]] was a movement by Chicano activists that organized [[Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War|anti-Vietnam War demonstrations]] and activities throughout the Southwest and other Mexican American communities from November 1969 through August 1971. The movement focused on the disproportionately high death rate of Mexican American soldiers in Vietnam as well as discrimination faced at home. Mexican Americans accounted for approximately 20 percent of U.S. casualties in Vietnam, although they made up only 10 percent of the U.S. population at the time.<ref>http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/exybavie.html</ref>{{citation needed|the reference is not to the paper "Mexican American Casualties in Vietnam", but to an online summary that claims that the aforesaid paper has these statistics. Without access to the original document, citation, page numbers, etc, it is impossible to confirm this figure|date=January 2011}} After months of demonstrations and conferences, it was decided to hold a National Chicano Moratorium against the war on August 29, 1970. The Committee only lasted one more year but the political momentum generated by the Moratorium led many of its activists to continue their activism in other groups.<ref>http://chicanomoratorium.org/html/history_timeline.html</ref>

==Chicano art==
{{main|Chicano literature|Chicano#Music|Teatro Campesino|Mexican murals}}

A major element of the Movement was the burgeoning of Chicano art fueled by heightened political activism and energized cultural pride. Chicano visual art, music, literature, dance, theater and other forms of expression have flourished. During the 20th century, an emergence of Chicano expression developed into a full-scale Chicano Art Movement. Chicanos developed a wealth of cultural expression through such media as painting, drawing, sculpture and printmaking. Similarly, novels, poetry, short stories, essays and plays have flowed from the pens of contemporary Chicano writers. Chicano, Mexican-American, and Hispanic cultural centers, theaters, film festivals, museums, galleries and numerous other arts and cultural organizations have also grown in number and impact since this time.

==Aztlán==
''(Taken from the Chicano Activism section of the main article [[Aztlán]])''

The concept of Aztlán as the place of origin of the pre-Colombian Mexican civilization has become a symbol for various Mexican nationalist and indigenous movements.

The name Aztlán was first taken up by a group of Chicano independence activists led by [[Oscar Zeta Acosta]] during the Chicano movement of the 1960s and 1970s. They used the name "Aztlán" to refer to the lands of Northern Mexico that were annexed by the United States as a result of the [[Mexican-American War]]. Combined with the claim of some historical linguists and anthropologists that the original homeland of the Aztecan peoples was located in the southwestern United States, Aztlán in this sense became a symbol for mestizo activists who believe they have a legal and primordial right to the land.
Groups who have used the name "Aztlán" in this manner include [[Plan Espiritual de Aztlán]], [[MEChA]] (Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlán, "Chicano Student Movement of Aztlán").

Many in the Chicano Movement attribute poet [[Alurista]] for popularizing the term Aztlán in a poem presented during the Chicano Youth Liberation Conference in Denver, Colorado, March 1969.<ref>http://www.enotes.com/poetry-criticism/alurista</ref>

==See also==
* [[Chicano]]
* [[Chicanismo]]
* [[Chicano nationalism]]
* [[Chicano studies]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}
Holifield, Chet. (1949). Election of Roybal, democracy at work : extension of remarks of Hon. Chet Holifield of California in the House of Representatives. Retrieved from http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/hb0n39n7q6/

==External links==
*[http://www.mexican-american.org Mexican-American.org] – Network of the Mexican American Community
*[http://www.networkaztlan.com/ NetworkAztlan.com] - Network Aztlan
*[http://chicana-swicki.eurekster.com/ Chicana community search page]
*[http://www.ocweekly.com/content/printVersion/378896 Law-Enforcement Claims Historic Chicano Mural Sensationalizes Gangs] by Gustavo Arellano, ''OC Weekly'', April 9, 2009

{{Chicano/Mexican-American}}

[[Category:History of civil rights in the United States]]
[[Category:Mexican-American culture]]
[[Category:Mexican-American history]]
[[Category:Nonviolent resistance movements]]
[[Category:Defunct American political movements]]

[[fr:Chicano Movement]]

Natural Language Toolkit

2012-04-26T23:16:36Z

InverseHypercube:

[[File:Noun phrase chunking with NLTK.svg|thumb|350px]]
Das '''Natural Language Toolkit''' (kurz: '''NLTK''') ist eine dem Anwendungsbereich [[Computerlinguistik]] und Sprachverarbeitung (Natural Language Processing, ''NLP'') dienende Zusammenstellung von [[Programmbibliothek|Bibliotheken]] und Programmen für die Programmiersprache [[Python (Programmiersprache)|Python]] (ab der Version 2.5). NLTK ist quelloffen und wird unter der [[Apache-Lizenz]] vertrieben.<ref>http://www.nltk.org/faq</ref>

Die Entwicklung des NLTK begann im Jahr 2001 an der [[University of Pennsylvania]] unter Edward Loper und Steven Bird, beide leiten das Projekt seitdem gemeinsam mit Ewan Klein.<ref>http://code.google.com/p/nltk/wiki/People</ref> Da NLTK in erster Linie zu Lehrzwecken entwickelt und dementsprechend angelegt wurde, ist eine umfangreiche Dokumentation, inklusive einem begleitenden, von den NLTK-Entwicklern selbst verfassten, Lehrbuch zur (symbolischen wie auch statistischen) Sprachverarbeitung in Python<ref>Bird, Steven; Ewan Klein; Edward Loper (2009): Natural Language Processing with Python (O'Reilly Media Inc., ISBN 0-596-51649-5.)</ref> fester Bestandteil des Projekts. Verbreitung fand das NLTK daher insbesondere im Lehrbereich der [[Computerlinguistik]], des [[Information Retrieval]] und [[Maschinelles Lernen|Maschinellen Lernens]], der [[Linguistik]] und [[Kognitionswissenschaften]] - es kann und wird darüber hinaus jedoch auch in der Forschung eingesetzt.

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

==Weblinks==

* [http://nltk.org/ Offizielle Website]
* [http://www.nltk.org/book Natural Language Processing with Python] - freie Onlineversion des Buches
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=keXW_5-llD0 Eine Präsentation des Natural Language Toolkit] auf dem Google Campus 2007 (Video, auf YouTube)

[[Kategorie:Programmiersprache Python]]
[[Kategorie:Freie Linguistik-Software]]
[[Kategorie:Bibliothek (Programmierung)]]
[[Kategorie:Computerlinguistik]]

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[[ru:Natural Language Toolkit]]

Great Books of the Western World

2012-04-19T04:46:18Z

InverseHypercube: /* Volumes */ misc. fixes

{{italictitle}}
[[Image:Great Books.jpg|thumb|300px|The Great Books (second edition)]]
'''''Great Books of the Western World''''' is a series of books originally published in the [[United States]] in 1952 by [[Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.]] to present the [[Great Books]] in a single package of 54 volumes. The series is now in its second edition and contains 60 volumes.

==History==
The project got its start at the [[University of Chicago]]. University president [[Robert Hutchins]] collaborated with [[Mortimer Adler]] to develop a course, generally aimed at businessmen, for the purpose of filling in gaps in education, to make one more well-rounded and familiar with the "[[Great Books]]" and ideas of the past three millennia. Among the original students was [[William Benton (senator)|William Benton]], future U.S. senator and later CEO of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. He proposed selecting the greatest books of the canon, complete and unabridged, having Hutchins and Adler edit them for publishing by Encyclopædia Britannica. Hutchins was wary, fearing that the works would be sold and treated as encyclopedias, thereby cheapening them. Nevertheless, he agreed to the project and paid $60,000 for it.

After debates about what to include and how to present it, with an eventual budget of $2,000,000, the project was ready. It was presented at a gala at the [[Waldorf-Astoria Hotel]] in [[New York City]] on April 15, 1952. In his speech, Hutchins said "This is more than a set of books, and more than a liberal education. ''Great Books of the Western World'' is an act of piety. Here are the sources of our being. Here is our heritage. This is the West. This is its meaning for mankind." The first two volumes would be presented to [[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]] and U.S. President [[Harry S. Truman]].

Sales were initially poor. After 1,863 were sold in 1952, less than one-tenth that number were sold the following year. A financial debacle loomed, until Encyclopædia Britannica altered the marketing strategy and sold the set (as Hutchins had feared) through experienced door-to-door encyclopedia salesmen. Through this method 50,000 sets were sold in 1961. In 1963 the editors published ''[[Gateway to the Great Books]]'', a ten-volume set of readings designed as an introduction to the authors and themes in the ''Great Books'' series. Each year from 1961 to 1998 the editors published ''[[The Great Ideas Today]]'', an annual update on the applicability of the ''Great Books'' to current issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft4w10061d/|title=''Robert Maynard Hutchins: A Memoir''|author=Mialton Meyer|publisher=University of California Press|year=1993|accessdate=2007-05-30}} This biography of Robert M. Hutchins contains an extensive and lively discussion of the Great Books project, although the author burdens it with personal opinions.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/020711/greatbooks.shtml|title=Special Collections tells the story of a cornerstone of American education|author=Carrie Golus|date=2002-07-11|accessdate=2007-05-30|publisher=''The University of Chicago Chronicle''}}</ref>

==Volumes==
Originally published in 54 volumes, ''The Great Books of the Western World'' covers categories including [[fiction]], [[history]], [[poetry]], [[natural science]], [[mathematics]], [[philosophy]], [[drama]], [[politics]], [[religion]], [[economics]], and [[ethics]]. Hutchins wrote the first volume, titled ''[[Great Conversation|The Great Conversation]]'', as an introduction and discourse on [[liberal arts|liberal education]]. Adler sponsored the next two volumes, "The Great Ideas: [[A Syntopicon: An Index to The Great Ideas|A Syntopicon]]", as a way of emphasizing the unity of the set and, by extension, of Western thought in general. A team of indexers spent months compiling references to such topics as "Man's freedom in relation to the will of God" and "The denial of void or vacuum in favor of a plenum". They grouped the topics into 102 chapters, for which Adler wrote 102 introductions. The volumes contained the following works, color-coding the spines to denote the categories:

'''Volume 1'''
* [[Great Conversation|The Great Conversation]]

'''Volume 2'''
* Syntopicon I: [[Angel]], [[Animal]], [[Aristocracy]], [[Art]], [[Astronomy]], [[Beauty]], [[Being]], [[Cause]], [[Chance (philosophy)|Chance]], [[wikt:change|Change]], [[Citizen]], [[Constitution]], [[Courage]], [[Custom (law)|Custom]] and [[Convention (norm)|Convention]], [[Definition]], [[Democracy]], [[Interpersonal attraction|Desire]], [[Dialectic]], [[Duty]], [[Education]], [[Classical element|Element]], [[Emotion]], [[Eternity]], [[Evolution]], [[Experience]], [[Family]], [[destiny|Fate]], [[wikt:Form|Form]], [[God]], [[goodness and value theory|Good]] and [[Evil]], [[Government]], [[Habituation|Habit]], [[Happiness]], [[History]], [[Honor]], [[Hypothesis]], [[Idea]], [[Immortality]], [[Inductive reasoning|Induction]], [[Infinity]], [[Judgment]], [[Justice]], [[Knowledge]], [[Labour (economics)|Labor]], [[Language]], [[Law]], [[Liberty]], [[Life]] and [[Death]], [[Logic]], and [[Love]]

'''Volume 3'''
* Syntopicon II: [[Man]], [[Mathematics]], [[Matter]], [[Mechanics]], [[Medicine]], [[Memory]] and [[Imagination]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Mind]], [[Monarchy]], [[Nature]], [[Necessity]] and [[Contingency]], [[Oligarchy]], [[1 (number)|One]] and [[wikt:many|Many]], [[Opinion]], [[wikt:Opposition|Opposition]], [[Philosophy]], [[Physics]], [[Pleasure]] and [[Pain]], [[Poetry]], [[Principle]], [[Progress (history)|Progress]], [[Prophecy]], [[Prudence]], [[Punishment]], [[Quality (philosophy)|Quality]], [[Quantity]], [[Reasoning]], [[Relation (disambiguation)|Relation]], [[Religion]], [[Revolution]], [[Rhetoric]], [[Sameness|Same]] and [[Other]], [[Science]], [[Sense]], [[Sign (linguistics)|Sign]] and [[Symbol]], [[Sin]], [[Slavery]], [[Soul]], [[Space]], [[sovereign state|State]], [[Temperance (virtue)|Temperance]], [[Theology]], [[Time]], [[Truth]], [[Tyranny]], [[Universal (metaphysics)|Universal]] and [[Particular]], [[Virtue]] and [[Vice]], [[War]] and [[Peace]], [[Wealth]], [[Will (philosophy)|Will]], [[Wisdom]], and [[World]]

'''Volume 4'''
* [[Homer]]
** ''[[The Iliad]]''
** ''[[The Odyssey]]''

'''Volume 5'''
* [[Aeschylus]]
** ''[[The Suppliants (Aeschylus)|The Suppliant Maidens]]''
** ''[[The Persians]]''
** ''[[Seven Against Thebes]]''
** ''[[Prometheus Bound]]''
** ''[[The Oresteia]]''
*** ''[[Agamemnon (play)|Agamemnon]]''
*** ''[[The Libation Bearers|Choephoroe]]''
*** ''[[The Eumenides]]''
* [[Sophocles]]
** ''[[Oedipus Cycle|The Oedipus Cycle]]''
*** ''[[Oedipus the King]]''
*** ''[[Oedipus at Colonus]]''
*** ''[[Antigone (Sophocles)|Antigone]]''
** ''[[Ajax (Sophocles)|Ajax]]''
** ''[[Electra (Sophocles)|Electra]]''
** ''[[The Trachiniae]]''
** ''[[Philoctetes (Sophocles)|Philoctetes]]''
* [[Euripides]]
** ''[[Rhesus (play)|Rhesus]]''
** ''[[Medea (play)|Medea]]''
** ''[[Hippolytus (play)|Hippolytus]]''
** ''[[Alcestis (play)|Alcestis]]''
** ''[[Heracleidae (play)|Heracleidae]]''
** ''[[The Suppliants (Euripides)|The Suppliants]]''
** ''[[Trojan Women]]''
** ''[[Ion (play)|Ion]]''
** ''[[Helen (play)|Helen]]''
** ''[[Andromache (play)|Andromache]]''
** ''[[Electra (Euripides)|Electra]]''
** ''[[The Bacchae|Bacchantes]]''
** ''[[Hecuba (play)|Hecuba]]''
** ''[[Heracles (Euripides)|Heracles Mad]]''
** ''[[Phoenician Women]]''
** ''[[Orestes (play)|Orestes]]''
** ''[[Iphigeneia in Tauris]]''
** ''[[Iphigeneia at Aulis]]''
** ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]''
* [[Aristophanes]]
** ''[[The Acharnians]]''
** ''[[The Knights]]''
** ''[[The Clouds]]''
** ''[[The Wasps]]''
** ''[[Peace (play)|Peace]]''
** ''[[The Birds (play)|The Birds]]''
** ''[[The Frogs]]''
** ''[[Lysistrata]]''
** ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]''
** ''[[Assemblywomen|Ecclesiazousae]]''
** ''[[Plutus (play)|Plutus]]''

'''Volume 6'''
* [[Herodotus]]
** ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The History]]''
* [[Thucydides]]
** ''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]''

'''Volume 7'''
* [[Plato]]
** ''[[Charmides (dialogue)|Charmides]]''
** ''[[Lysis (dialogue)|Lysis]]''
** ''[[Laches (dialogue)|Laches]]''
** ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]''
** ''[[Euthydemus (dialogue)|Euthydemus]]''
** ''[[Cratylus (dialogue)|Cratylus]]''
** ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]''
** ''[[Ion (dialogue)|Ion]]''
** ''[[Symposium (Plato dialogue)|Symposium]]''
** ''[[Meno]]''
** ''[[Euthyphro]]''
** ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]''
** ''[[Crito]]''
** ''[[Phaedo]]''
** ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]''
** ''[[Republic (Plato)|The Republic]]''
** ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''
** ''[[Critias (dialogue)|Critias]]''
** ''[[Parmenides (dialogue)|Parmenides]]''
** ''[[Theaetetus (dialogue)|Theaetetus]]''
** ''[[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]''
** ''[[Statesman (dialogue)|Statesman]]''
** ''[[Philebus]]''
** ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]''
** ''[[Seventh Letter (Plato)|The Seventh Letter]]''

'''Volume 8'''
* [[Aristotle]]
** ''[[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]]''
** ''[[De Interpretatione|On Interpretation]]''
** ''[[Prior Analytics]]''
** ''[[Posterior Analytics]]''
** ''[[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]]''
** ''[[Sophistical Refutations]]''
** ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]''
** ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]''
** ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]''
** ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]''
** ''[[On the Soul]]''
** Minor biological works

'''Volume 9'''
* [[Aristotle]]
** ''[[History of Animals]]''
** ''[[Parts of Animals]]''
** ''[[Movement of Animals|On the Motion of Animals]]''
** ''[[Progression of Animals|''On the Gait of Animals'']]
** ''[[On the Generation of Animals]]''
** ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''
** ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''
** ''[[Constitution of the Athenians|The Athenian Constitution]]''
** ''[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]]''
** ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''

'''Volume 10'''
* [[Hippocrates]]
** Works
* [[Galen]]
** ''On the Natural Faculties''

'''Volume 11'''
* [[Euclid]]
** The Thirteen Books of ''[[Euclid's Elements]]''
* [[Archimedes]]
** ''[[On the Sphere and Cylinder]]''
** ''[[Measurement of a Circle]]''
** ''On Conoids and Spheroids''
** ''[[On Spirals]]''
** ''On the Equilibrium of Planes''
** ''[[The Sand Reckoner]]''
** ''[[The Quadrature of the Parabola]]''
** ''On Floating Bodies''
** ''[[Book of Lemmas]]''
** ''[[The Method of Mechanical Theorems|The Method Treating of Mechanical Problems]]''
* [[Apollonius of Perga]]
** ''[[On Conic Sections]]''
* [[Nicomachus of Gerasa]]
** ''[[Introduction to Arithmetic]]''

'''Volume 12'''
* [[Lucretius]]
** ''[[De rerum natura|On the Nature of Things]]''
* [[Epictetus]]
** ''[[Discourses of Epictetus|The Discourses]]''
* [[Marcus Aurelius]]
** ''[[Meditations|The Meditations]]''

'''Volume 13'''
* [[Virgil]]
** ''[[Eclogues]]''
** ''[[Georgics]]''
** ''[[Aeneid]]''

'''Volume 14'''
* [[Plutarch]]
** ''[[Parallel Lives|The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans]]''

'''Volume 15'''
* [[Tacitus|P. Cornelius Tacitus]]
** ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|The Annals]]''
** ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|The Histories]]''

'''Volume 16'''
* [[Ptolemy]]
** ''[[Almagest]]''
* [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]
** ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium|On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres]]''
* [[Johannes Kepler]]
** ''Epitome of Copernican Astronomy'' (Books IV–V)
** ''[[Harmonices Mundi|The Harmonies of the World]]'' (Book V)

'''Volume 17'''
* [[Plotinus]]
** ''[[Enneads|The Six Enneads]]''

'''Volume 18'''
* [[Augustine of Hippo]]
** ''[[Confessions (St. Augustine)|The Confessions]]''
** ''[[City of God (book)|The City of God]]''
** ''[[On Christian Doctrine]]''

'''Volume 19'''
* [[Thomas Aquinas]]
** ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' (First part complete, selections from second part)

'''Volume 20'''
* [[Thomas Aquinas]]
** ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' (Selections from second and third parts and supplement)

'''Volume 21'''
* [[Dante Alighieri]]
** ''[[The Divine Comedy]]''

'''Volume 22'''
* [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]
** ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]''
** ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''

'''Volume 23'''
* [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]
** ''[[The Prince]]''
* [[Thomas Hobbes]]
** ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]''

'''Volume 24'''
* [[François Rabelais]]
** ''[[Gargantua and Pantagruel]]''

'''Volume 25'''
* [[Michel Eyquem de Montaigne]]
** [[Essays (Montaigne)|Essays]]

'''Volume 26'''
* [[William Shakespeare]]
** ''[[Henry VI, Part 1|The First Part of King Henry the Sixth]]''
** ''[[Henry VI, Part 2|The Second Part of King Henry the Sixth]]''
** ''[[Henry VI, Part 3|The Third Part of King Henry the Sixth]]''
** ''[[Richard III (play)|The Tragedy of Richard the Third]]''
** ''[[The Comedy of Errors]]''
** ''[[Titus Andronicus]]''
** ''[[The Taming of the Shrew]]''
** ''[[The Two Gentlemen of Verona]]''
** ''[[Love's Labour's Lost]]''
** ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]''
** ''[[Richard II (play)|The Tragedy of King Richard the Second]]''
** ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]''
** ''[[The Life and Death of King John]]''
** ''[[The Merchant of Venice]]''
** ''[[Henry IV, Part 1|The First Part of King Henry the Fourth]]''
** ''[[Henry IV, Part 2|The Second Part of King Henry the Fourth]]''
** ''[[Much Ado About Nothing]]''
** ''[[Henry V (play)|The Life of King Henry the Fifth]]''
** ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]''
** ''[[As You Like It]]''

'''Volume 27'''
* [[William Shakespeare]]
** ''[[Twelfth Night|''Twelfth Night; or, What You Will'']]
** ''[[Hamlet|The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark]]''
** ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]''
** ''[[Troilus and Cressida]] ''
** ''[[All's Well That Ends Well]]''
** ''[[Measure for Measure]]''
** ''[[Othello|Othello, the Moor of Venice]]''
** ''[[King Lear]]''
** ''[[Macbeth]]''
** ''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]''
** ''[[Coriolanus]]''
** ''[[Timon of Athens]]''
** ''[[Pericles, Prince of Tyre]]''
** ''[[Cymbeline]]''
** ''[[The Winter's Tale]]''
** ''[[The Tempest]]''
** ''[[The Famous History of the Life of King Henry the Eighth]]''
** [[Shakespeare's sonnets|Sonnets]]

'''Volume 28'''
* [[William Gilbert (astronomer)|William Gilbert]]
** ''[[De Magnete|On the Loadstone and Magnetic Bodies]]''
* [[Galileo Galilei]]
** ''[[Two New Sciences|Dialogues Concerning the Two New Sciences]]''
* [[William Harvey]]
** ''[[On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals]]''
** ''On the Circulation of Blood''
** ''[[On the Generation of Animals]]''

'''Volume 29'''
* [[Miguel de Cervantes]]
** ''[[Don Quixote|The History of Don Quixote de la Mancha]]''

'''Volume 30'''
* [[Sir Francis Bacon]]
** ''[[The Advancement of Learning]]''
** ''[[Novum Organum]]''
** ''[[New Atlantis]]''

'''Volume 31'''
* [[René Descartes]]
** ''[[Rules for the Direction of the Mind]]''
** ''[[Discourse on the Method]]''
** ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy]]''
** ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy|Objections Against the Meditations and Replies]]''
** ''[[La Géométrie|The Geometry]]''
* [[Benedict de Spinoza]]
** ''[[Ethics (book)|Ethics]]''

'''Volume 32'''
* [[John Milton]]
** English Minor Poems
** ''[[Paradise Lost]]''
** ''[[Samson Agonistes]]''
** ''[[Areopagitica]]''

'''Volume 33'''
* [[Blaise Pascal]]
** ''[[Lettres provinciales|The Provincial Letters]]''
** ''[[Pensées]]''
** Scientific and mathematical essays

'''Volume 34'''
* [[Sir Isaac Newton]]
** ''[[Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy]]''
** ''[[Opticks|Optics]]''
* [[Christian Huygens]]
** ''Treatise on Light''

'''Volume 35'''
* [[John Locke]]
** ''[[A Letter Concerning Toleration]]''
** ''[[Two Treatises of Government|Concerning Civil Government, Second Essay]]''
** ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]''
* [[George Berkeley]]
** ''[[Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge|The Principles of Human Knowledge]]''
* [[David Hume]]
** ''[[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]]''

'''Volume 36'''
* [[Jonathan Swift]]
** ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]''
* [[Laurence Sterne]]
** ''[[The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman]]''

'''Volume 37'''
* [[Henry Fielding]]
** ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling]]''

'''Volume 38'''
* [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu]]
** ''[[The Spirit of the Laws]]''
* [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]]
** ''[[Discourse on Inequality|A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality]]''
** ''A Discourse on Political Economy''
** ''[[The Social Contract]]''

'''Volume 39'''
* [[Adam Smith]]
** ''[[The Wealth of Nations|An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]''

'''Volume 40'''
* [[Edward Gibbon]]
** ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' (Part 1)

'''Volume 41'''
* [[Edward Gibbon]]
** ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' (Part 2)

'''Volume 42'''
* [[Immanuel Kant]]
** ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''
** ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals|Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals]]''
** ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]''
** Excerpts from ''[[Metaphysics of Morals|The Metaphysics of Morals]]''
*** ''Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics with a note on Conscience''
*** ''General Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals''
*** ''The Science of Right''
** ''[[Critique of Judgment|The Critique of Judgement]]''

'''Volume 43'''
* American State Papers
** [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]
** [[Articles of Confederation]]
** [[United States Constitution|The Constitution of the United States of America]]
* [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[James Madison]], [[John Jay]]
** ''[[The Federalist Papers|The Federalist]]''
* [[John Stuart Mill]]
** ''[[On Liberty]]''
** ''[[Considerations on Representative Government]]''
** ''[[Utilitarianism (book)|Utilitarianism]]''

'''Volume 44'''
* [[James Boswell]]
** ''[[The Life of Samuel Johnson|The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.]]''

'''Volume 45'''
* [[Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]]
** ''[[Traité Élémentaire de Chimie|Elements of Chemistry]]''
* [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier]]
** ''Analytical Theory of Heat''
* [[Michael Faraday]]
** ''Experimental Researches in Electricity''

'''Volume 46'''
* [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]
** ''[[The Philosophy of Right]]''
** ''[[Lectures on the Philosophy of History|The Philosophy of History]]''

'''Volume 47'''
* [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
** ''[[Goethe's Faust|Faust]]''

'''Volume 48'''
* [[Herman Melville]]
** ''[[Moby Dick|Moby Dick; or, The Whale]]''

'''Volume 49'''
* [[Charles Darwin]]
** ''[[On the Origin of Species|The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection]]''
** ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]''

'''Volume 50'''
* [[Karl Marx]]
** ''[[Das Kapital|Capital]]''
* [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]]
** ''[[The Communist Manifesto|Manifesto of the Communist Party]]''

'''Volume 51'''
* [[Count Leo Tolstoy]]
** ''[[War and Peace]]''

'''Volume 52'''
* [[Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky]]
** ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''

'''Volume 53'''
* [[William James]]
** ''[[The Principles of Psychology]]''

'''Volume 54'''
* [[Sigmund Freud]]
** ''The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis''
** ''Selected Papers on Hysteria''
** ''The Sexual Enlightenment of Children''
** ''The Future Prospects of Psycho-Analytic Therapy''
** ''Observations on "Wild" Psycho-Analysis''
** ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]''
** ''[[On Narcissism]]''
** ''Instincts and Their Vicissitudes''
** ''Repression''
** ''The Unconscious''
** ''[[Introduction to Psychoanalysis|A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis]]''
** ''[[Beyond the Pleasure Principle]]''
** ''Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego''
** ''[[The Ego and the Id]]''
** ''Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety''
** ''[[Thoughts for the Times on War and Death]]''
** ''[[Civilization and Its Discontents]]''
** ''New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis''

==Second edition==
In 1990 a second edition of ''Great Books of the Western World'' was published, with updated translations and six more volumes of material covering the 20th century, an era of which the first edition was nearly devoid. A number of pre-20th century books were also added, and four were dropped: [[Apollonius of Perga|Apollonius']] ''[[On Conic Sections]]'', [[Laurence Sterne|Laurence Sterne's]] ''[[The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman|Tristram Shandy]]'', [[Henry Fielding|Henry Fielding's]] ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]'', and [[Joseph Fourier|Joseph Fourier's]] ''[[Analytical Theory of Heat]]''. Adler later expressed regret about dropping ''[[On Conic Sections]]'' and ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]''. Adler also voiced disagreement with the addition of [[Voltaire|Voltaire's]] ''[[Candide]]'', and said that the Syntopicon should have included references to the [[Koran]]. He addressed criticisms that the set was too heavily Western European and did not adequately represent women and minority authors.<ref name=Adler>{{cite web|url=http://books.mirror.org/gb.sel1990.html|title=Selecting works for the 1990 edition of Great Books of the Western World|author=Mortimer Adler|date=September 1997|accessdate=2007-05-29|publisher=Great Books Index|quote=We did not base our selections on an author's nationality, religion, politics, or field of study; nor on an author's race or gender. Great books were not chosen to make up quotas of any kind; there was no "affirmative action" in the process.}}</ref>

The pre-20th century books added (volume numbering is not strictly compatible with the first edition due to rearrangement of some books—see the complete table of contents<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.interleaves.org/%7Erteeter/gbww.html|title=Great Books of the Western World (2nd ed., 1990)|author=Robert Teeter|date=2005-01-04|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> for the second edition):

'''Volume 20'''
* [[John Calvin]]
** ''[[Institutes of the Christian Religion]]'' (Selections)

'''Volume 23'''
* [[Erasmus]]
** ''[[The Praise of Folly]]''

'''Volume 31'''
* [[Molière]]
** ''[[The School for Wives]]''
** ''The Critique of the School for Wives''
** ''[[Tartuffe]]''
** ''[[Dom Juan|Don Juan]]''
** ''[[The Miser]]''
** [[Le Bourgeois gentilhomme|''The Would-Be Gentleman'']]
** ''[[The Imaginary Invalid]]''
* [[Jean Racine]]
** ''[[Bérénice]]''
** ''[[Phèdre]]''

'''Volume 34'''
* [[Voltaire]]
** ''[[Candide]]''
* [[Denis Diderot]]
** ''[[Rameau's Nephew]]''

'''Volume 43'''
* [[Søren Kierkegaard]]
** ''[[Fear and Trembling]]''
* [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
** ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]''

'''Volume 44'''
* [[Alexis de Tocqueville]]
** ''[[Democracy in America]]''

'''Volume 45'''
* [[Honoré de Balzac]]
** ''[[Cousin Bette]]''

'''Volume 46'''
* [[Jane Austen]]
** ''[[Emma]]''
* [[George Eliot]]
** ''[[Middlemarch]]''

'''Volume 47'''
* [[Charles Dickens]]
** ''[[Little Dorrit]]''

'''Volume 48'''
* [[Mark Twain]]
** ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn|Huckleberry Finn]]''

'''Volume 52'''
* [[Henrik Ibsen]]
** ''[[A Doll's House]]''
** ''[[The Wild Duck]]''
** ''[[Hedda Gabler]]''
** ''[[The Master Builder]]''

The six volumes of 20th century material consisted of the following:

'''Volume 55'''
* [[William James]]
** ''[[Pragmatism]]''
* [[Henri Bergson]]
** ''[[An Introduction to Metaphysics]]''
* [[John Dewey]]
** ''[[Experience and Education (book)|Experience and Education]]''
* [[Alfred North Whitehead]]
** ''Science and the Modern World''
* [[Bertrand Russell]]
** ''[[The Problems of Philosophy]]''
* [[Martin Heidegger]]
** ''What Is Metaphysics?''
* [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]
** ''[[Philosophical Investigations]]''
* [[Karl Barth]]
** ''The Word of God and the Word of Man''

'''Volume 56'''
* [[Henri Poincaré]]
** ''Science and Hypothesis]''
* [[Max Planck]]
** ''Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers''
* [[Alfred North Whitehead]]
** ''An Introduction to Mathematics''
* [[Albert Einstein]]
** ''Relativity: The Special and the General Theory''
* [[Arthur Eddington]]
** ''The Expanding Universe''
* [[Niels Bohr]]
** ''Atomic Theory and the Description of Nature'' (selections)
** ''Discussion with Einstein on Epistemology''
* [[G. H. Hardy]]
** ''[[A Mathematician's Apology]]''
* [[Werner Heisenberg]]
** ''Physics and Philosophy''
* [[Erwin Schrödinger]]
** ''[[What is Life? (Schrödinger)|What Is Life?]]''
* [[Theodosius Dobzhansky]]
** ''[[Genetics and the Origin of Species]]''
* [[C. H. Waddington]]
** ''The Nature of Life''

'''Volume 57'''
* [[Thorstein Veblen]]
** ''[[The Theory of the Leisure Class]]''
* [[R. H. Tawney]]
** ''The Acquisitive Society''
* [[John Maynard Keynes]]
** ''[[The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money]]''

'''Volume 58'''
* [[Sir James George Frazer]]
** ''[[The Golden Bough]]'' (selections)
* [[Max Weber]]
** ''Essays in Sociology'' (selections)
* [[Johan Huizinga]]
** ''[[The Autumn of the Middle Ages]]''
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
** ''Structural Anthropology'' (selections)

'''Volume 59'''
* [[Henry James]]
** ''[[The Beast in the Jungle]]''
* [[George Bernard Shaw]]
** ''[[Saint Joan (play)|Saint Joan]]''
* [[Joseph Conrad]]
** ''[[Heart of Darkness]]''
* [[Anton Chekhov]]
** ''[[Uncle Vanya]]''
* [[Luigi Pirandello]]
** ''[[Six Characters in Search of an Author]]''
* [[Marcel Proust]]
** ''[[In Search of Lost Time|Remembrance of Things Past]]'': "[[Swann in Love]]"
* [[Willa Cather]]
** ''[[A Lost Lady]]''
* [[Thomas Mann]]
** ''[[Death in Venice]]''
* [[James Joyce]]
** ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]''

'''Volume 60'''
* [[Virginia Woolf]]
** ''[[To the Lighthouse]]''
* [[Franz Kafka]]
** ''[[The Metamorphosis]]''
* [[D. H. Lawrence]]
** ''[[The Prussian Officer]]''
* [[T. S. Eliot]]
** ''[[The Waste Land]]''
* [[Eugene O'Neill]]
** ''[[Mourning Becomes Electra]]''
* [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]
** ''[[The Great Gatsby]]''
* [[William Faulkner]]
** ''[[A Rose for Emily]]''
* [[Bertolt Brecht]]
** ''[[Mother Courage and Her Children]]''
* [[Ernest Hemingway]]
** ''[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]''
* [[George Orwell]]
** ''[[Animal Farm]]''
* [[Samuel Beckett]]
** ''[[Waiting for Godot]]''

==Criticisms and responses==
===Criticisms of the authors selected===
Criticism has attended ''Great Books of the Western World'' since publication. The stress Hutchins placed on the monumental importance of these works was an easy target for those who dismissed the project as a celebration of dead European males, ignoring contributions of women and non-European authors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-4603568.html|author=Sabrina Walters|title=Great Books won Adler fame, scorn|publisher=''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]''|date=2001-07-01|accessdate=2007-07-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20010703/ai_n13917760|author=Peter Temes|title=Death of a Great Reader and Philosopher|publisher=''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]''|date=2001-07-03|accessdate=2007-07-11 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071104012348/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20010703/ai_n13917760  |archivedate = 2007-11-04}}</ref> The criticism swelled in tandem with the [[feminist]] and [[civil rights movement]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_32_17/ai_77812349|title=What Happened to the Great Ideas? – Mortimer J. Adler's Great Books programs|author=John Berlau|date=2001-08-27|accessdate=2007-05-29|publisher=''Insight on the News''|quote=Harvard University's Henry Louis Gates blasted the Great Books for showing 'profound disrespect for the intellectual capacities of people of color – red, brown or yellow.'}}</ref>

In his ''[[Europe: A History]]'', [[Norman Davies]] criticizes the compilation for overrepresenting selected parts of the western world, especially [[UK|Britain]] and the U.S., while ignoring the other, particularly [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]]. According to his calculation, in 151 authors included in both editions, there are 49 English or American authors, 27 Frenchmen, 20 Germans, 15 ancient Greeks, 9 ancient Romans, 6 Russians, 4 Scandinavians, 3 Spaniards, 3 Italians, 3 Irishmen, 3 Scots, and 3 Eastern Europeans. Prejudices and preferences, he concludes, are self-evident.

In response, such criticisms have been derided as ''[[ad hominem]]'' and biased in themselves. The counter-argument maintains that such criticisms discount the importance of books solely because of generic, imprecise and possibly irrelevant characteristics of the books' authors, rather than because of the content of the books themselves.<ref name=Adler /> In France there appeared several criticisms arguing that writers included in the list such as Milton, Harvey, Gillbert or Melville weren't universally as relevant as some other writers such as John Calvin and Voltaire, who were initially excluded; also, that it excluded many non-British or US authors from the early 20th century who were better known to French readers, such as [[Robert Musil|Musil]], [[Joseph Roth|Roth]] or [[Stefan Zweig|Zweig]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}

===Criticisms of the works selected===
Others thought that while the selected authors were worthy, too much emphasis was placed on the complete works of a single author rather than a wider selection of authors and representative works (for instance, all of [[Shakespeare]]'s plays are included). The second edition of the set already contained 130 authors and 517 individual works. The editors point out that the guides to additional reading for each topic in the ''Syntopicon'' refer the interested reader to many more authors.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mortimer J. Adler|title=The Syntopicon: II|edition=2nd edition|series=Great Books of the Western World, vol. 1-2|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|year=1990|isbn=0-85229-531-6|pages=909–996|chapter=Bibliography of Additional Readings}}</ref>

===Criticisms of difficulty===
The scientific and mathematical selections also came under criticism for being incomprehensible to the average reader, especially with the absence of any sort of critical apparatus. The second edition did drop two scientific works, by [[Apollonius of Perga|Apollonius]] and [[Joseph Fourier|Fourier]], in part because of their perceived difficulty for the average reader. Nevertheless, the editors steadfastly maintain that average readers are capable of understanding far more than the critics deem possible. Robert Hutchins stated this view in the introduction to the first edition:

:Because the great bulk of mankind have never had the chance to get a liberal education, it cannot be "proved" that they can get it. Neither can it be "proved" that they cannot. The statement of the ideal, however, is of value in indicating the direction that education should take.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert M. Hutchins|title=The Great Conversation|year=1952|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|chapter=Chapter VI: Education for All|page=44}}</ref>

===Style over substance===
Since the great majority of the works were still in print, one critic noted that the company could have saved two million dollars and simply written a list. Encyclopædia Britannica's aggressive promotion produced solid sales. Dense formatting also did not help readability.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/macdonald-great-books.html|title=The Book-of-the-Millennium Club|author=Dwight Macdonald|date=1952-11-29 with later appendix|accessdate=2007-05-29|publisher=''[[The New Yorker]]''|quote=I also wonder how many of the over 100,000 customers who have by now caved in under the pressure of Mr. Harden and his banner-bearing colleagues are doing much browsing in these upland pastures?}}</ref>

The second edition selected translations that were generally considered an improvement, though the cramped typography remained. Through reading plans and the ''Syntopicon'', the editors have attempted to guide readers through the set.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mortimer J. Adler|title=The Great Conversation|edition=2nd edition|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|year=1990|isbn=0-85229-531-6|pages=33–34 for discussion of new translations, pp.74–98 for reading plans and guides}}</ref>

===Criticism of the ideas===
[[Robert M. Pirsig]], in ''[[Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance]]'', has his main character Phædrus criticize the Great Books project radically for underestimating the harm done by the included works:

:He came to hate them vehemently, and to assail them with every kind of invective he could think of, not because they were irrelevant but for exactly the opposite reason. The more he studied, the more convinced he became that no one had yet told the damage to this world that had resulted from our unconscious acceptance of their thought.

The editors respond that the set contains wide-ranging debates representing many viewpoints on significant issues, not a monolithic school of thought. Mortimer Adler argued in the introduction to the second edition:

:Presenting a wide variety and divergence of views or opinions, among which there is likely to be some truth but also much more error, the ''Syntopicon'' [and by extension the larger set itself] invites readers to think for themselves and make up their own minds on every topic under consideration.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mortimer J. Adler|year=1990|title=The Great Conversation|edition=2nd edition|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|isbn=0-85229-531-6|chapter=Section 1: The Great Books and the Great Ideas|page=27}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Harvard Classics]]
* [[Western canon]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://britannicashop.britannica.co.uk/epages/Store.sf/Shops/Britannicashop/Products/ENC_BOOK_0123.html Official Britannica web page for the Great Books]
* [http://www.thegreatideas.org/index.html Center for the Study of the Great Ideas] Mortimer Adler web pages with extensive discussion of the Great Books
* [http://readingthegreat.com/ The Great Conversation: Confessions of an Eavesdropper] – a blog detailing the experiences of reading through the great books of the Western World.

[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:Western culture]]

[[bn:গ্রেট বুক্‌স অফ দ্য ওয়েস্টার্ন ওয়ার্ল্ড]]
[[ca:Great Books of the Western World]]
[[ko:서양의 위대한 저서]]
[[it:Grandi Libri del Mondo Occidentale]]
[[no:Great Books of the Western World]]
[[ta:மேற்குலகின் பெரும் நூல்கள்]]
[[zh:西方世界伟大著作]]

St.-Helena-Riesenohrwurm

2012-04-19T00:19:03Z

InverseHypercube:

{{Taxobox
| Taxon_Name = St.-Helena-Riesenohrwurm
| Taxon_WissName = Labidura herculeana
| Taxon_Rang = Art
| Taxon_Autor = ([[Johann Christian Fabricius|Fabricius]], 1798)
| Taxon2_WissName = Labidura
| Taxon2_Rang = Gattung
| Taxon3_WissName = Labiduridae
| Taxon3_Rang = Familie
| Taxon4_Name = Ohrwürmer
| Taxon4_WissName = Dermaptera
| Taxon4_Rang = Ordnung
| Taxon5_Name = Fluginsekten
| Taxon5_WissName = Pterygota
| Taxon5_Rang = Unterklasse
| Taxon6_Name = Insekten
| Taxon6_WissName = Insecta
| Taxon6_Rang = Klasse
| Bild = Labidura herculeana.jpg
| Bildbeschreibung =
}}

Der '''St.-Helena-Riesenohrwurm''' (''Labidura herculeana''), auch als '''St.-Helena-Ohrwurm''' bezeichnet, ist eine [[Ohrwürmer|Ohrwurmart]], die auf der abgeschiedenen Insel [[St. Helena (Insel)|St. Helena]] im Zentralatlantik vorkommt oder vorkam. Er wurde 1798 vom dänischen [[Zoologie|Zoologen]] [[Johann Christian Fabricius]] entdeckt und beschrieben. Seit 1967 wurde er nicht mehr nachgewiesen. Trotzdem hoffen viele Wissenschaftler, dass er noch in einigen entlegenen Gebieten St. Helenas überlebt haben könnte.

== Beschreibung ==
Der St.-Helena-Riesenohrwurm ist der größte Ohrwurm der Welt. Er wird bis zu 84 mm lang. Davon entfallen 50 mm auf die Körperlänge und 34 mm auf die Länge der Greifzangen. Der Körper ist glänzend schwarz mit rötlichen Beinen sowie kurzen Deckflügeln. Die Hinterflügel fehlen. Die Art hat große morphologische Ähnlichkeit mit dem allerdings nur 28 mm langen [[Sandohrwurm]] (''Lapidura riparia''), der ebenfalls auf St. Helena vorkommt.

== Lebensweise ==
''Labidura herculeana'' bewohnte tiefe Erdhöhlen, die er nur nachts oder bei Regen verließ. Seine Nahrung bestand vermutlich aus Pflanzen. Zu seinen Fressfeinden zählten vermutlich der ausgestorbene [[St.-Helena-Wiedehopf]] (''Upupa antaios'') sowie eingeschleppte Mäuse und Ratten.

== Verbreitung und Lebensraum ==
Der St.-Helena-Riesenohrwurm lebt oder lebte in Flachlandgebieten, in „Gumwood Tree“-Wäldern oder in Seevogelkolonien auf Geröllplätzen. Vorkommen sind von ''Horse Point'' und ''Prosperous Bay'' sowie von der ''Eastern Arid Area'' auf St. Helena bekannt.

== Status ==
Der St.-Helena-Riesenohrwurm wurde lange Zeit von der Wissenschaft ignoriert. 1913 sammelte der französische Naturforscher [[Guy Babault]] das zweite Exemplar (nach dem [[Typusexemplar]] von 1798), welches sich heute im [[Muséum national d'histoire naturelle]] in [[Paris]] befindet. Anschließend geriet die Art erneut in Vergessenheit, bis die britischen Ornithologen [[Douglas Dorward]] and [[Philip Ashmole]] im Jahre 1962 auf der Suche nach Vogelknochen in der Prosperous Bay einige enorme Greifzangen fanden. Der Zoologe [[Arthur Loveridge]] bestätigte später, dass diese Greifzangen zu einem riesigen Ohrwurm gehörten.

1965 entdeckte eine belgische Expedition in einem kleinen Areal in der Gegend von ''Horse Point'' im Nordosten von St. Helena lebende Individuen. Bis 1967 wurden etwa 40 Exemplare gesammelt und seitdem gilt die Art als verschollen. Vermutlich hat die Verfolgung durch Mäuse und Ratten, die Zerstörung der „Gumwood Tree“-Wälder sowie die Konkurrenz mit dem eingeschleppten [[Hundertfüßer]] ''[[Scolopendra morsitans]]'' zu seinem Verschwinden beigetragen.

Suchexpeditionen des [[London Zoo|Londoner Zoos]] in den Jahren 1988 und 1993 sowie weitere Suchen im Jahre 2003 durch Philip Ashmole und 2006 durch Howard Mendel blieben ohne Erfolg. 1995 wurde in der ''Prosperous Bay'' die [[Fossil|subfossile]] Greifzange eines Weibchens gefunden.

Im November 2005 wurde in der Presse der Bau eines Großflughafens auf St. Helena angekündigt. Daraufhin sprachen sich viele Wissenschaftler dafür aus, auf den Flughafenbau zu verzichten, weil dadurch viele endemische Tierarten ausgelöscht werden könnten, darunter der St.-Helena-Riesenohrwurm, sofern er überhaupt noch existiert. Im Jahre 2007 sprachen sich 3800 Bewohner von St. Helena in einem Referendum für den Flughafen aus, so dass etwa gegen 2012 mit der Eröffnung des Flughafens gerechnet werden kann.

Derzeit wird der St.-Helena-Riesenohrwurm von der [[IUCN]] als „critically endangered“ eingestuft.

== Literatur ==
*P. Ashmole, M. Ashmole: ''St. Helena and Ascension Island: a natural history''. Anthony Nelson, Oswestry, 2000. ISBN 0904614611
*[[Karl Shuker]]: ''The Lost Ark: New and Rediscovered Animals of the Twentieth Century''. Harper Collins, 1993. ISBN 0002199432
*SM Wells, RM Pyle & NM Collins: ''IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book''. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1983. ISBN 2880326028 ([http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/31594363#page/416/mode/1up Online-Ausgabe])

== Weblinks ==
* {{IUCN|Year=2006|ID=11073|ScientificName=Labidura herculeana|YearAssessed=1996|Assessor=World Conservation Monitoring Centre|Download=5. Juni 2007}}
*[http://www.earwigs-online.de/Lherculeana/Lherculeana.html The Giant Earwig of St. Helena - The Dodo of the Dermaptera]
*[http://kidstonmill.org.uk/docs/PBP%20Invertebrate%20Report%20Text%20only.doc Invertebrates of Prosperous Bay Plain, St. Helena (Microsoft Word Format)]
*[http://www.kidstonmill.org.uk/Labidura.htm Labidura herculeana]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20080110092137/http://www.sundayindependent.co.za/index.php?fSectionId=1042&fArticleId=3012023 It's giant earwigs versus aircraft on remote St Helena]
*[http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/the-giant-earwig-that-could-bring-a-country-to-a-standstill-517112.html The giant earwig that could bring a country to a standstill]
*[http://www.earwigs-online.de/Lherculeana/Fabricius1798.pdf Erstbeschreibung von Labidura herculeana durch Fabricius aus dem Jahre 1798] (in Latein; PDF-Datei; 61 kB)
*[http://travel.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/travel/news/article1824518.ece Times Online - St. Helena joins the jet age]

[[Kategorie:Ohrwürmer]]
[[Kategorie:Neuzeitlich ausgestorbenes Insekt]]
[[Kategorie:St. Helena]]

[[en:Saint Helena earwig]]
[[hu:Szent Ilona-szigeti fülbemászó]]
[[it:Labidura herculeana]]
[[ro:Labidura herculeana]]
[[ru:Labidura herculeana]]
[[sr:Labidura herculeana]]

St.-Helena-Regenpfeifer

2012-04-15T08:56:33Z

InverseHypercube: /* External links */ Commons cat

{{Taxobox
| name = St. Helena Plover
| image =Charadrius sanctaehelenae (1).jpg
| status = CR
| status_system = iucn3.1
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Charadriiformes]]
| familia = [[Charadriidae]]
| genus = ''[[Charadrius]]''
| species = '''''C. sanctaehelenae'''''
| binomial = ''Charadrius sanctaehelenae''
| binomial_authority = ([[James Edmund Harting|Harting]], [[1873]])
| range_map = LocationSaintHelena.png
| range_map_width = 250px
| range_map_caption = Location of [[Saint Helena]]
}}

[[Image:wirebird_egg.jpg|thumb|right|The Wirebird's nest and egg]]
The '''Saint Helena Plover''', '''''Charadrius sanctaehelenae''''', locally known as '''Wirebird''' due to its thin legs, is a small [[wader]] endemic to the island of [[Saint Helena]]. [[Kittlitz's Plover]] is the Saint Helena bird's closest relative{{Verify source|date=August 2007}}.

The bird was first mentioned in [[1638]], and is the [[national bird]] of Saint Helena, featured on [[Coat of Arms of Saint Helena|the island's coat of arms]] and flag. Some older [[Coins of the Saint Helena pound|local 5 pence coins]] (those issued prior to 1998) have the Wirebird on its reverse.

This [[plover]] is resident all year on the open areas of Saint Helena, and it is thought that the widespread [[deforestation]] on the island, while generally harmful for the island's [[ecosystem]], has in fact benefitted this particular species, since it lives in open clearings in the [[forest]].

==Status and conservation==

Saint Helena Plover numbers have been fluctuating, but in general the trend was downward since at least the 1970s. [[Feral cats]] and accidentally introduced rats, as well as the introduced [[Common Myna]]s which eat the [[Bird egg|eggs]], are believed to be play a significant role in the decline of this species' population.

A census in 1988/89 recorded 450 adult{{Verify source|date=August 2007}} birds, although it subsequently sharply declined from causes not fully understood and marked short-term fluctuations. Since 1998, its numbers stood at about 340 adult{{Verify source|date=August 2007}} individuals. Classified as Endangered by the [[IUCN]], it was downlisted to Vulnerable in 2004, as its numbers had apparently stabilized.

However, there was another sharp drop in numbers since then, which may be continuing. Only some 200-220 adult birds are believed to remain. The reasons are elusive, although it is noted that there has been an increase in [[off-road vehicle]] use and a decline in removing feral, and [[neutering]] domestic, [[cats]] in recent years. Construction activity has apparently dispersed some of the smaller [[subpopulation]]s. The planned [[Saint Helena Airport]] at [[Prosperous Bay Plain]] would also destroy one of the major patches of remaining habitat, especially as other grassland is now slated for [[reforestation]] to aid recovery of the island's ecosystem. As a consequence of its dire status and uncertain prospects, the Saint Helena Plover is uplisted to Critically Endangered with extinction in the 2007 [[IUCN Red List]]. There are currently projects underway led by the [[RSPB]] to monitor the birds and try to stop their decline.<ref>See BirdLife International (2007a,b).</ref>

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{IUCN2006|assessors={{aut|BirdLife International}}|year=2004|id=4541|title=Charadrius sanctaehelenae|downloaded=29 August 2007}}
* {{aut|BirdLife International}} (2007a): [ [http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/global_species_programme/whats_new.html 2006-2007 Red List status changes] ]. Retrieved 2007-AUG-26.
* {{aut|BirdLife International}} (2007b): [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/search/species_search.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3123&m=0 St. Helena Plover - BirdLife Species Factsheet]. Retrieved 2007-AUG-26.

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Charadrius sanctaehelenae}}
* [http://www.nationaltrust.org.sh St Helena National Trust - leading the conversation of the Wirebird]
* [http://home.swipnet.se/~w-17282/endemic/wibproj.htm Website with information on the bird]

[[Category:Charadrius]]
[[Category:Fauna of Saint Helena Island]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1873]]

[[br:Nouelig Saint Helena]]
[[ca:Corriol de Santa Helena]]
[[fr:Pluvier de Sainte-Hélène]]
[[it:Charadrius sanctaehelenae]]
[[no:Sankthelenalo]]
[[fi:Sainthelenantylli]]
[[sv:Sankt Helenapipare]]

Cahill Expressway

2012-04-09T22:44:08Z

InverseHypercube: adding image

{{Infobox Australian Road
| road_name = Cahill Expressway
| route_image = NSW_M1.png
| route_image2 =
| route_image3 =
| photo = Cahill Expressway from Art Gallery Road – CN.jpg
| caption = Formerly [[Image:Australian Route 1.svg|20px]] Proposed [[Image:NSW M1mwy.png|30px]] to replace [[Image:NSW M1.png|20px]]
| length = 2
| direction = Northwest-Southeast
| start = '''[[Bradfield Highway, Sydney|Bradfield Highway]]''', [[The Rocks, New South Wales|The Rocks, Sydney]]
| finish = [[Image:NSW M1.png|25px]] '''[[Eastern Distributor]]''', [[Woolloomooloo, New South Wales|Woolloomooloo, Sydney]]
| est = 1958
| through = [[Sydney]]
| route = ''Sydney Harbour Tunnel - Woolloomooloo:'' [[Image:NSW M1.png|35px|center]]
| exits = '''[[Image:NSW M1.png|25px]] [[Sydney Harbour Tunnel]]'''

''for full list see [[Cahill Expressway#Exits and Interchanges|Exits and Interchanges]]''
}}

The '''Cahill Expressway''' is the first true [[freeway]] constructed in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/A890E87A9AB97424CA2569DE0025C18B?Open |title=1998 Special Article - The State of New South Wales - Timeline of History |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |accessdate=2007-01-28}}</ref> It starts from the [[Eastern Distributor]] and [[Cross City Tunnel]] in [[Woolloomooloo]], and runs through a series of sunken cuttings and tunnels between the Royal Botanical Gardens and [[The Domain, Sydney|The Domain]]. It then runs on an elevated section across the northern edge of the Sydney CBD at [[Circular Quay]], and then across the [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] to [[North Sydney, New South Wales|North Sydney]]. It connects there to the [[Warringah Freeway]].

It is named after the then [[New South Wales]] Premier [[John Joseph Cahill]], who also approved construction of the [[Sydney Opera House]]. While being a vital link in the Sydney road system, it is generally not well loved by Sydneysiders, who dislike its ugly appearance and its division of the city from its waterfront.

==History==
[[Image:Cahill Expressway Construction.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Cahill Expressway under construction in 1955]]
[[Image:Cahill Expressway from Bridge.jpg|thumb|250px|The Cahill Expressway viewed from the [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]]]]
[[Image:Cahill Expressway from East.jpg|thumb|250px|The Cahill Expressway viewed from the vicinity of [[Macquarie Street, Sydney]]]]
The expressway was first proposed in 1945 as part of an overall expressway plan for Sydney. Public opposition began when the proposal was first made public in 1948, with the Quay Planning Protest Committee being formed. Despite the opposition, construction on the elevated section of the expressway went ahead in 1955. Funding was provided by the Sydney Council and the NSW Government, and the elevated section was opened on 24 March 1958. Work on the sunken section commenced almost straight away after that, and the additional section was opened on 1 March 1962.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/history/sydneystreets/How_to_Build_a_Street/Cahill_Expressway/default.html |publisher=City of Sydney |title=How to Build a Street |work=Sydney Streets |accessdate=2007-01-28}}</ref>

==Vital link==
The expressway forms a vital link between Sydney's eastern and northern suburbs, by connecting the [[Eastern Distributor]] to the [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] and [[Sydney Harbour Tunnel]]. It allows travel directly from the airport to the northern suburbs without traffic signals, and reduces pressure on alternate cross-city routes such as Bridge St, Park St and Bathurst St. The traffic on the elevated section was also reduced by half following the opening of the Sydney Harbour tunnel in 1992.

The elevated section is a double deck, with the top deck carrying cars, and the lower deck railway lines and [[Circular Quay railway station]]. The station provides easy access to the [[Sydney Opera House]] and the Royal Botanical Gardens. The westbound lanes dip underneath the Harbour Bridge approach road, before forming a large [[spiral (railway)|spiral]] circling the [[Sydney Observatory]] to join to the Bridge in a confined space.

The expressway has a pedestrian walkway next to the traffic lanes, where great views of the [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] and the CBD can be seen. It is accessible by stairs from Macquarie St, or an elevator near [[Circular Quay railway station]]. The walkway connects with the [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] walkway. The [[Roads and Traffic Authority|NSW Roads and Traffic Authority]] offers tickets to view the New Year's Eve fireworks from the Cahill Expressway deck through a competition.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://today.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id=79358 |title=New Year's Eve in your city |work=Today |publisher=[[Nine Network|Channel Nine]] |accessdate=2007-01-28}}</ref>

==Criticism==
The Cahill Expressway was controversial from day one. Its elevated nature, proximity to the city and utilitarian appearance meant that when the design of the elevated section was first unveiled to the public, it was described as ridiculous, ugly, unsightly and a monstrosity. This was an early example of [[freeway revolt]].

[[Sydney Morning Herald]] writer Elizabeth Farrelly describes the freeway as 'doggedly symmetrical, profoundly deadpan, severing the city from the water on a permanent basis'.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/12/02/1038712881320.html |title=Opening up the Cahill Expressway won't be a dynamic change |publisher=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |date=2002-12-03 |accessdate=2007-01-28}}</ref> The sunken section of the expressway runs between the Royal Botanical Gardens and [[The Domain]], key green spaces in Sydney. The Botanic Gardens Trust describes the expressway as destroying the spatial relationship between the two.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/royal_botanic_gardens/history |title=History |work =Botanic Gardens Trust |publisher=NSW Department of Environment and Conservation |accessdate=2007-01-28}}</ref>

Demolition of the expressway has been proposed in the past, most prominently by former Australian [[Prime Minister]] [[Paul Keating]], who in 1994 offered federal funds in the amount of A$150 million toward such a project.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LC19940915015 |title=Cahill Expressway Demolition |work=Legislative Council Hansard (Extract) |publisher=Parliament of New South Wales |date=1994-09-15 |accessdate=2007-01-28}}</ref> The then NSW Premier, [[John Fahey (politician)|John Fahey]], rejected the proposal because of the cost and the resultant traffic problems. In 2005, the cost of demolition was estimated at more than A$1 billion, and the traffic problems resulting from the removal of the link would be severe, given the lack of alternate routes.

However, there are precedents; for example, in [[San Francisco]] in 1985, the Board of Supervisors voted to demolish the elevated [[Embarcadero Freeway]] which similarly divided the city from its waterfront. It was subsequently demolished after being damaged in the [[Loma Prieta earthquake]]. The city of [[Boston]] also demolished a number of elevated expressways (feeding into and crossing the city) after building a 10-lane underground expressway in a project dubbed [[Big Dig (Boston, Massachusetts)|The Big Dig]]. The project, at the time the largest single civil engineering project in US history, took more than a decade to complete at a cost of USD14.6 billion

==Jeffrey Smart==
One of Australian artist [[Jeffrey Smart]]'s most famous works is ''Cahill Expressway'' (1962). The painting shows a stylised view of the Cahill Expressway tunnel and approach road, with a single man shown at the side of the image. The painting shows the alienation many feel when faced with the infrastructure of large freeways, especially when closely juxtaposed with pedestrian scale areas.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ipwea.org.au/papers/download/corker_n.pdf |title=Re:Engineering The Landscape |first=Noel |last=Corkery |format=[[PDF]] |accessdate=2007-01-28}}</ref>

==Exits and Interchanges==
{| border=1 cellpadding=2 style="margin-left:1em; margin-bottom: 1em; color: black; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" class="wikitable"
|- align="center" bgcolor="006d32" style="color: white;font-size:120%;"
| colspan="4" | '''Cahill Expressway [[Image:NSW M1.png|30px]]'''
|- align="center" bgcolor="000000" style="color: white"
| Northwestbound exits
| Distance to Sydney Harbour Bridge (km)
| Distance to Sydney Airport (km)
| Southeastbound exits
|- align="center"
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''End '''Cahill Expressway''' continues as '''[[Bradfield Highway, Sydney|Bradfield Highway]]''' to [[North Sydney, New South Wales|North Sydney]] / [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]]''
| 1
| 13
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''Start '''Cahill Expressway''''' ''from '''[[Bradfield Highway, Sydney|Bradfield Highway]] '''''
|- align="center"
| [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], [[Brisbane]] '''[[Sydney Harbour Tunnel]]''' [[Image:NSW M1.png|20px]]
| 2
| 12
| [[Sydney|Sydney CBD]] '''Conservatorium Road'''
|- align="center"
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''TUNNEL''
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | 2.2
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | 11.8
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''TUNNEL''
|- align="center"
| [[Sydney|Sydney CBD]] '''Macquarie Street'''
| 2.5
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | 11.5
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''no exit''
|- align="center"
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''TUNNEL''
| rowspan="3"| 3
| rowspan="3"| 11
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''TUNNEL''
|- align="center"
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na"; rowspan="2" | ''Start '''Cahill Expressway''''' [[Image:NSW M1.png|20px]] ''continues from '''[[Eastern Distributor]] [[Image:NSW M1.png|20px]]'''''
| [[Potts Point, New South Wales|Potts Point]], [[Woolloomooloo, New South Wales|Woolloomooloo]] '''Cowper Wharf Roadway / Sir John Young Crescent'''
|- align="center"
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''End '''Cahill Expressway''''' [[Image:NSW M1.png|20px]] ''continues as '''[[Eastern Distributor]] [[Image:NSW M1.png|20px]]''' to [[Wollongong, New South Wales|Wollongong]] / [[Canberra]]'' [[Image:Gfi-set01-airport.png|20px|Sydney (Kingsford Smith) Airport]]
|}

==See also==
{{Commons category}}
*[[Freeways in Australia]]
*[[Freeways in Sydney]]

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}

{{Road infrastructure in Sydney}}

[[Category:Highways in Sydney]]

Adobe PhoneGap

2012-04-07T16:56:01Z

InverseHypercube: /* Supported platforms */ uncap.

{{Infobox software
| name = PhoneGap
| logo =
| screenshot =
| caption =
| collapsible =
| author =
| developer = [[Adobe Systems]]
| status = Active
| released =
| frequently updated = yes
| operating system = [[iOS (Apple)|iOS]], [[Android (operating system)|Android]], [[webOS]], [[Windows Mobile]]{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}, [[Symbian]], [[BlackBerry]] and [[Windows Phone 7]]
| programming language = [[JavaScript]], [[HTML5]] and [[CSS3]]
| latest preview version = 1.5.0
| latest preview date = {{release date|2012|03|06}}
| language = English
| genre = [[multiple phone web based application framework|mobile development framework]]
| license = Modified BSD license or the MIT License<ref>[http://www.phonegap.com/about/license PhoneGap License]</ref>
| website = {{url|www.phonegap.com}}
}}

'''PhoneGap''' (was called by the name '''Apache Callback''',<ref>[http://incubator.apache.org/projects/callback.html Apache Callback Project Incubation Status]</ref><ref>[http://wiki.phonegap.com/w/page/46311152/apache-callback-proposal Apache Callback Proposal]</ref> but now '''Apache Cordova'''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.h-online.com/open/news/item/Apache-Cordova-gets-a-new-look-1440114.html |title=Apache Cordova gets a new look - The H Open Source: News and Features |publisher=H-online.com |date=2012-02-22 |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref>) is an open-source [[multiple phone web based application framework|mobile development framework]] produced by [[Nitobi]], purchased by [[Adobe Systems]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adobe.com/aboutadobe/pressroom/pressreleases/201110/AdobeAcquiresNitobi.html |title=Adobe Announces Agreement to Acquire Nitobi, Creator of PhoneGap |publisher=Adobe.com |date=2011-10-03 |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.quora.com/Andre-Charland/PhoneGap/answers |title=Andre Charland's Answers on PhoneGap |publisher=Quora |date= |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref> It enables [[computer software|software]] [[programmer]]s to build [[application software|applications]] for mobile devices using [[JavaScript]], [[HTML5]] and [[CSS3]], instead of lower-level languages such as [[Objective-C]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://gigaom.com/2009/04/05/phonegap-seeks-to-bridge-the-gap-between-mobile-app-platforms/ | title=PhoneGap Seeks to Bridge the Gap Between Mobile App Platforms | author=Jose Fermoso | date=April 5, 2009 | work=GigaOM | accessdate=2012-04-07 }}</ref> The resulting applications are hybrid, meaning that they are neither truly native (all layout rendering is done via the webview instead of the platform's native UI framework) nor purely web based (they are not just web apps but packed for appstore distribution, and have access to part of the device [[application programming interface]]).

==History==
First developed at an iPhoneDevCamp event in San Francisco,<ref>http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Application-Development/PhoneGap-Simplifies-iPhone-Android-BlackBerry-Development-788189/</ref> PhoneGap went on to win the People's Choice Award at [[O'Reilly Media]]'s 2009 Web 2.0 Conference<ref>{{cite web|last=Davis |first=Lidija |url=http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/phone_gap_todays_peoples_choice_winner_at_launch_p.php |title=PhoneGap: People's Choice Winner at Web 2.0 Expo Launch Pad |publisher=Readwriteweb.com |date=2009-04-02 |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref> and the framework has been used to develop many apps.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phonegap.com/apps/ |title=Apps « PhoneGap |publisher=Phonegap.com |date= |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref> [[Apple Inc.]] has confirmed that the framework has its approval, even with the new 4.0 developer license agreement changes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phonegap.com/2010/04/14/phonegap-and-the-apple-developer-license-agreement/ |title=PhoneGap and the Apple developer license agreement. « PhoneGap |publisher=Phonegap.com |date=2010-04-14 |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref> The PhoneGap framework is used by several mobile application platforms such as Worklight,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worklight.com |title=Mobile Application Platform and Tools |publisher=Worklight |date=2012-01-16 |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phonegap.com/2011/06/27/how-phonegap-plays-an-important-part-in-our-enterprise-offering/ |title=How PhoneGap plays an important part in our Enterprise offering « PhoneGap |publisher=Phonegap.com |date=2011-06-27 |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref> Convertigo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.convertigo.com |title=Open Source Mobile Enablement and Enterprise Mashups |publisher=Convertigo |date= |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://phonegap.com/2011/07/07/convertigo-mobilizer-uses-phonegap-build-apis/ |title=Convertigo Mobilizer Uses PhoneGap Build APIs « PhoneGap |publisher=Phonegap.com |date=2011-07-07 |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref> and appMobi<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.appmobi.com |title=Create Mobile and Web Apps with HTML5 and JavaScript | |publisher=appMobi.com |date= |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref> as the backbone of their mobile client development engine. Adobe officially announced the acquisition of Nitobi Software (the original developer) on October 4, 2011.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shankland |first=Stephen |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-30685_3-20114857-264/adobe-buys-phonegap-typekit-for-better-web-tools/ |title=Adobe buys PhoneGap, TypeKit for better Web tools | Deep Tech - CNET News |publisher=News.cnet.com |date=2011-10-03 |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref> Coincident with that, the PhoneGap code was contributed to the Apache Software Foundation to start a new project called Apache Cordova. The project original name, Apache Callback, was viewed as too generic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://markmail.org/message/vcrw2swiwiwcojsd |title=finding a new name that isn't PhoneGap - Brian LeRoux - org.apache.incubator.callback-dev |publisher=MarkMail |date=2011-10-28 |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref>

==Design==
{{Expand section|date=October 2011}}
The mobile framework allows web developers to natively target all [[smartphones]] with a single codebase ([[JavaScript]], [[HTML]] and [[CSS]]) by enabling a [[Foreign Function Interface]] (FFI) to an embedded [[WebView]] or [[Webkit]] on the device.
When initially downloaded PhoneGap comes as a demo phone application which consists of a native wrapper (which initialises the phone application and then loads the webview) and some demo/helloworld html and javascript files.

==Supported platforms==
PhoneGap currently supports development for the [[operating system]]s Apple [[iOS (Apple)|iOS]], Google [[Android (operating system)|Android]], HP [[webOS]], Microsoft [[Windows Phone]], Nokia [[Symbian]] OS<ref>{{cite web|url=http://androidandme.com/2009/12/news/using-phonegap-and-the-sony-ericsson-websdk-to-develop-android-apps/ |title=Using PhoneGap and the Sony Ericsson WebSDK to develop Android apps |publisher=Android and Me |date= |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref> and RIM [[BlackBerry]]. Support for recent versions, such as BlackBerry 5 and 6 and Windows Phone 7, is being implemented now.<ref name="wp7">{{cite web|url=http://github.com/mrlacey/phonegap-wp7|title=Attempt to implement PhoneGap on Windows Phone 7 |accessdate=24 Sept 2010}}</ref><ref name="bb5">{{cite web |url=https://github.com/phonegap/phonegap-blackberry-webworks/tree/master/framework/ext/src/com/phonegap |title=PhoneGap BlackBerry WebWorks (for BlackBerry OS 5.0 and 6.0) |accessdate=31 Jan 2011}}</ref> [[Bada (operating system)|Bada]] (the operating system used by the [[Samsung]] [[Samsung Wave|Wave S8500]]) support is "coming soon".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://build.phonegap.com/ |title=PhoneGap Build |publisher=Build.phonegap.com |date= |accessdate=2012-04-07}}</ref> The table below is a list of supported features for each operating system.<ref>[http://www.phonegap.com/about/features PhoneGap supported features]</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Feature
! [[Apple iOS|iPhone /iPhone 3G]]
! [[Apple iOS|iPhone 3GS and newer]]
! [[File:Android robot.svg|37px|link=Android (operating system)]] [[Android (operating system)|Android 1.0 - 4.0]]
! [[Windows Phone 7]]
! [[File:Blackberry Logo.svg|100px|link=BlackBerry OS]] [[BlackBerry OS|5.x-6.0+]]
! [[File:Blackberry Logo.svg|100px|link=BlackBerry OS]] [[BlackBerry OS|4.6-4.7]]
! [[File:Bada operating system.png|90px|link=Bada]] [[Bada]]
! [[Symbian]]
! [[File:HP D B RGB 72 MX+space.png|40px|link=webOS]] [[webOS]]
|-
| [[Accelerometer]]
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Camera]]
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Compass]]
| {{n/a}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|-
| [[Contact list|Contacts]]
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{n/a}}
|-
| File
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|-
| [[Geolocation]]
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
|-
| Media
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|-
| Network
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
|-
| Notification (alert)
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
|-
| Notification (sound)
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
|-
| Notification (vibration)
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
|-
| Storage
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Barcode scanner]]
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{Yes}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|}

==See also==
*[[Multiple phone web based application framework]]
*[[List of rich Internet application frameworks]]

==References==
<references/>

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
| first1 = Jamie
| last1 = Munro
| date = March 29, 2012
| title = 20 Recipes for Programming PhoneGap: Cross-Platform Mobile Development for Android and iPhone
| publisher = [[O'Reilly Media]]
| edition = 1st
| page = 76
| isbn = 978-1449319540
| url = http://shop.oreilly.com/product/0636920023708.do
}}
* {{cite book
| first1 = Andrew
| last1 = Lunny
| date = September 23, 2011
| title = PhoneGap Beginner's Guide
| publisher = [[Packt Publishing]]
| edition = 1st
| page = 328
| isbn = 1849515360
| url = http://www.packtpub.com/phonegap-beginners-guide/book
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Rohit
| last = Ghatol
| date = November 14, 2011
| title = Beginning PhoneGap: Mobile Web Framework for JavaScript and HTML5
| publisher = [[Apress]]
| edition = 1st
| page = 700
| isbn = 1430239034
| url = http://www.apress.com/9781430239031
}}
* {{cite book
| first1 = Thomas
| last1 = Myer
| date = December 13, 2011
| title = Beginning PhoneGap
| publisher = [[Wrox Press|Wrox]]
| edition = 1st
| page = 336
| isbn = 111815665X
| url = http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-111815665X.html
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|www.phonegap.com}}
{{apache}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Phonegap}}
[[Category:Communication software]]
[[Category:Integrated development environments]]
[[Category:Android development software]]
[[Category:BlackBerry development software]]
[[Category:Rich Internet application frameworks]]

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