Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Judith Exner

2012-05-15T00:39:21Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Fix cleanup tag - insert space in date. March2009 => March 2009. (Build KF)

{{Refimprove|date=January 2008}}
{{Weasel|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Judith Exner
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_name = Judith Eileen Katherine Immoor
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1934|1|11|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[New York City, New York]], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1999|9|24|1934|1|11|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[Duarte, California]], U.S.
| other_names = Judith Campbell Judith Campbell Exner
| spouse = [[William Campbell (film actor)|William Campbell]] (1952-1958, divorced) Dan Exner (1975-1988, separated)
}}

'''Judith Exner''' (January 11, 1934 – September 24, 1999) was an [[United States|American]] woman who claimed to be the mistress of [[President of the United States|U.S. president]] [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Mafia]] leaders [[Sam Giancana]] and [[John Roselli]]. She was also known as '''Judith Campbell Exner'''.

==Early life==
She was born '''Judith Eileen Katherine Immoor''' to a family of a German architect in [[New York]]. Her older sister Jacqueline (b. 1931) later became an actress and took the professional name [[Susan Morrow]]. Her family moved to [[Los Angeles]] when she was a child. She married actor [[William Campbell (film actor)|William Campbell]] in 1952, but divorced him in 1958 when she became involved with [[Frank Sinatra]]. An alternative account states that they divorced in 1959, but after having been separated for two years.<ref>Summers, Anthony, ''Sinatra, The Life''. Vintage Books, 2006</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}

==John F. Kennedy==
On February 7, 1960, Sinatra introduced Exner to [[John F. Kennedy]] in [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]] when Kennedy was still a senator and a [[President|presidential candidate]]. She claimed to have become one of JFK's mistresses. Presumably, [[Jacqueline Kennedy]] was aware of the affair.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} Later, Sinatra introduced Exner to "Sam Flood", who was actually [[Sam Giancana]]. She later claimed that she had not known about his involvement with the Mafia before Kennedy asked her to contact Giancana on his behalf. She continued the affair after Kennedy was elected president.

The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] had her followed and recorded her calls from Giancana's home to Kennedy. The alleged affair between Exner and Kennedy is said to have ended 1962 when the FBI supposedly informed Kennedy of their knowledge of the relationship. She later said that she began the affair with Giancana but when he proposed to her, she turned him down. In a 1996 ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' interview, Exner said that she ended the affair, because she got tired of being the other woman. She also claimed to have terminated a pregnancy resulting from her relationship with Kennedy. She also asserted to have carried payoffs from California defense contractors to the Kennedys, including [[Robert F. Kennedy]].

Her involvement was revealed in 1975 during the investigations of the [[Church Committee]] and first published by [[William Safire]] in ''[[The New York Times]]''.<ref name="'70s">{{Cite book|title= How We Got Here: The '70s|last= Frum|first= David|authorlink= David Frum|coauthors= |year= 2000|publisher= Basic Books|location= New York, New York|isbn= 0-465-04195-7|page= 28|pages= |url= }}</ref> The Committee sent her a [[subpoena]] to make her testify. She later stated that she did not tell everything she knew or suspected, possibly because she was afraid of Mafia retaliation. She denied that she had served as a go-between for Kennedy and Giancana. The Committee did not name her publicly, but someone leaked her identity to the press. At first reluctant, she eventually talked to Scripps-Howard News Service. The publicity was enough to ruin her reputation and earned her the enmity of Kennedy supporters.

==Book==
She wrote a book, ''Judith Exner: My Story'', which was published in 1977.<ref name="'70s"/> In it, she insisted that her relationship with Kennedy was entirely personal and she was not in any way an intermediary between Giancana and Kennedy. Exner's book brought to light many stories about JFK which have been widely related since: his alleged affair with a [[Denmark|Danish]] woman who might have been a spy during [[World War II]] and his alleged affair with [[Marilyn Monroe]].<ref name="'70s"/> Exner also said that Kennedy brought prostitutes to the White House swimming pool.<ref name="'70s"/>

But 11 years later, in an interview with ''[[People (magazine)|People]]'' magazine, Exner told a completely different story about Giancana and Kennedy. {{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} She stated that during the [[1960 presidential election]] she took messages from Giancana to Kennedy. Judith Campbell later claimed these messages concerned the plans to murder the [[Cuba]]n leader [[Fidel Castro]]. Later, in 1997, she added more shocking allegations to her story, including the alleged abortion.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Eric|last=Pace|title=Judith Exner Is Dead at 65; Claimed Affair With Kennedy|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C03E5DB1E3FF934A1575AC0A96F958260|publisher=''New York Times''|date=1999-09-27|accessdate=2008-01-18}}</ref>
===Personal life===
She lived in [[Newport Beach, California]] and painted. She married golfer Dan Exner in April 1975 and they separated in 1988.

===Death===
Judith Campbell Exner died on September 25, 1999 in [[Duarte, California]]. She had been terminally ill with [[breast cancer]].<ref>{{Cite news|first=Eric|last=Pace|title=Judith Exner Is Dead at 65; Claimed Affair With Kennedy|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C03E5DB1E3FF934A1575AC0A96F958260|publisher=''New York Times''|date=1999-09-27|accessdate=2008-01-18}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
Her story was told in the film ''Power and Beauty'' (2002) in which she was played by [[Natasha Henstridge]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Biography}}
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1316/is_12_31/ai_58170292 The Exner file]
* {{Find a Grave|7977}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Exner, Judith
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Judith Campbell; Judith Campbell Exner
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1934-01-11 
| PLACE OF BIRTH = New York City, New York, United States
| DATE OF DEATH = 1999-09-24 
| PLACE OF DEATH = Duarte, California, United States
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Exner, Judith}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:1999 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from breast cancer]]
[[Category:People from New York City]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles, California]]
[[Category:Cancer deaths in California]]

[[fr:Judith Campbell]]

Belagerung von Valenciennes

2012-05-14T16:58:01Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Dated {{Copy edit}}. (Build KF)

{{Unreferenced|date=December 2008}}
{{Copy edit|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Siege of Valenciennes
|image=[[File:Jean+Alaux,+dit+le+Romain,+Prise+de+Valenciennes.+17+mars+1677.jpg|300px]]
|caption= [[Musketeers of the Guard]] entering the citadel of [[Valenciennes]]
|partof=the [[Franco-Dutch War]]
|date=November 1676 - March 17, 1677
|place=[[Valenciennes]], [[Spanish Netherlands]] (present-day [[France]])
|result= French victory
|combatant1={{flagcountry|Kingdom of France}}
|combatant2={{flag|Holy Roman Empire}}
|commander1=
|commander2=
|strength1=60,000
|strength2=3,000
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
{{Campaignbox Dutch War}}

The '''Siege of Valenciennes''' took place from November 1676 to March 1677, during the [[Franco-Dutch War]]. A French army besieged the city of [[Valenciennes]], which was then a part of the [[Spanish Netherlands]] and defended by a small army of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The city surrendered to the French on March 17. It was formally ceded to France the following year in the [[Treaty of Nijmegen]], which ended the war.

==Context==

On the death of Turenne at the battle of Salzbach, the French army retreated and recrossed the Rhine. Louis XIV appointed Louis II de Bourbon-Condé to replace him. It manages to stop the advance of Montecuccoli, and made up the seats of Haguenau and Saverne. But tormented by gout, the Grand Condé in Chantilly retired to retire, imitated in this by Montecuccoli. Louis XIV did not continue unless its fight against the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and Holland and strong recent success, present in person to the war and the capture of Conde and Bouchain.

==Preparations==

In November 1676, Louvois laid siege to the city. In order to remove the urge to Spain to lend a hand in Valenciennes, troops laid siege to St. Omer, and Cambrai. Valenciennes is well fortified, the surroundings were flooded, the garrison seems willing to wait for the reinforcements that are sure to arrive.

Before Valenciennes, Louis XIV was accompanied by his brother and marshals d'Humières, Schomberg, La Feuillade, Luxembourg and Lorges which each controls their day.<ref>France Annales historiques - page 54</ref> Vauban was also there, who commanded all operations.

The purpose is not to attack the bastions, half-moons and other works, that night, to avoid being seen by the enemy. However, against the advice of the marshals, and to the great astonishment of the king, Vauban advocated a daylight attack to create surprise and did not give the enemy time to recover from a night vigil.

==The assault==

March 17 at 9:00 am, two companies of Musketeers, a hundred grenadiers, a battalion of Guards, a regiment of Picardy, going over the top of the Grand Couronne, with the sole intention of remaining there. But the surprise was total, and continues killing the enemy. The musketeers down the drawbridge that connects the work to others, and enter the entrenchment entrenchment, after the besieged.

Before the king is informed that only the first book fell, the Musketeers are already in the city, and progress from house to house. The city council is assembled and sent deputies to the king. This one is trapped and the entire garrison, still amazed to be master, enters Valenciennes.

==Notes and references==

{{reflist}}

==Sources==

France Annales historiques De Philippe Le Bas - 1843

{{coord missing|France}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siege Of Valenciennes}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1676]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1677]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Holy Roman Empire|Valenciennes]]
[[Category:Sieges involving France|Valenciennes]]

[[cs:Obléhání Valenciennes (1677)]]
[[fr:Siège de Valenciennes (1677)]]
[[pl:Oblężenie Valenciennes]]
[[pt:Cerco de Utrecht]]

Salzbergwerk Khewra

2012-05-14T15:29:34Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs Dated {{Use Pakistani English}}. (Build KF)

{{Use Pakistani English|date=May 2012}}
{{Coord|32|38|52.58|N|73|00|30.22|E|display=title}}
{{Infobox mine
| name = Khewra Salt Mine
| image = Khewra Salt Mine - crystal deposits on the mine walls.jpg
| width = 250px
| caption = Khewra Salt Mine tunnel (Crystal Valley)
| pushpin_map =Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_label =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_mapsize =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| latd = 32 |latm =38 |lats =52.58 |latNS =N
| longd = 73 |longm =00 |longs =30.22 |longEW =E
| coordinates_type =
| scale =
| coordinates_region =PK
| display =title
| place = [[Khewra]]
| subdivision_type = Province
| state/province = [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]
| country = [[Pakistan]]
| owner = [[Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]]
| official website = {{URL|http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/pmdc-final/sm.htm|Khewra Salt Mines}}
| acquisition year =
| products = [[rock salt]], [[brine]]
| financial year =
| amount =
| opening year = {{Start date|1872}}
| active years = 140 years
}}
The '''Khewra Salt Mine''' (or '''Mayo Salt Mine''') is located in [[Khewra]], north of [[Pind Dadan Khan]],<ref name="Spate">{{cite book |author=O.H.K. Spate |coauthors=Andrew T.A. Learmonth, B.H. Farmer |title=India, Pakistan and Ceylon: The Regions|publisher=Methuen Publishing Ltd|isbn=978-0-416-75530-5|page=502|date=13 July 1972 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=ItkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA502&dq=khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eP5_T5m3EMWhOuzovYUH&ved=0CGEQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=khewra&f=false |accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> an administrative subdivision of [[Jhelum District]], [[Punjab, Pakistan]]. It is Pakistan's largest and oldest salt mine<ref name="Stanley">{{cite book |author=Stanley J. Lefond |title=Handbook of World Salt Resources |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=Db87AAAAMAAJ&q=Khewra+Salt+Mines&dq=Khewra+Salt+Mines&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CCx7T5eNNtCeOtu8neEC&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA |accessdate=3 April 2012 |edition=1st|date=1 January 1969 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-306-30315-9 |page=347}}</ref> and the world's second largest.<ref name="Camerapix">{{cite book |author=Camerapix |title=Spectrum Guide to Pakistan |publisher=Interlink Books |isbn=978-1-56656-240-9 |page=150 |date=July 1998 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=ZlwOAQAAMAAJ&q=khewra+largest+salt+producer+in+world&dq=khewra+largest+salt+producer+in+world&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TsKBT4DeMcOZOrbZ5IoH&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBQ |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Masudul. Hasan">{{cite book |author=Masud ul Hasan |title=Short encyclopaedia of Pakistan |publisher=Ferozsons |asin=B007EU8QHS |page=118 |edition=1st |year=1975 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?ei=TsKBT4DeMcOZOrbZ5IoH&id=JAoMAAAAIAAJ&dq=khewra+largest+salt+producer+in+world&q=khewra#search_anchor |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Pete Heiden"/> It is a major tourist attaction, drawing up to 250,000 visitors a year.<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/><ref name="Om Gupta">{{cite book |author=Om Gupta |title=Encyclopaedia of India Pakistan & Bangladesh |date=27 June 2006 |publisher=Isha Books |isbn=978-81-8205-389-2 |page=1250 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=svLQOrQjPRsC&pg=PA1250&dq=khewra+40,000+visitors&hl=en&sa=X&ei=raeAT6nwLoOZOrPJsewG&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=khewra&f=false |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref> Its history dates back to its discovery by Alexander's troops in 320 BC, but it started trading in the Mughal era.<ref name="Sarina Singh">{{cite book |author=Sarina Singh |coauthors=Lindsay Brown, Lindsay Brown, Rodney Cocks, John Mock |title=Lonely Planet Pakistan and the Karakoram Highway |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=zn8I4qEew9oC&pg=PA138#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=3 April 2012 |edition=7th|date=1 May 2008 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-74104-542-0 |page=138}}</ref> The main tunnel at ground level was developed by Dr. H. Warth, a mining engineer, in 1872, during British rule. After [[Partition of India|partition]] the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation took over the mine, which still remains the largest source of salt in the country, producing more than 350,000 tons per annum.<ref name="The Seattle Times">{{cite news |last=Pennington |first=Matthew |title=Pakistan salt mined old-fashioned way mine|url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002159747_saltmine25.html |accessdate=8 April 2012 |newspaper=The Seattle Times |date=25 January 2005}}</ref> The Khewra mine has more than 200 million tons of reserves<ref name="U.S. Geological Survey"/> and produces about 99% pure [[halite]].<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/>

== History ==
The Khewra Salt Mine is also known as Mayo Salt Mine, in honour of [[Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo|Lord Mayo]], who visited it as [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy of India]].<ref name="Mayo Salt Mine">{{cite book|author=Society of Arts (Great Britain)|title=Journal Of The Society Of Arts|volume=43|date=7 November 2011|publisher=Nabu Press|isbn=978-1-271-48500-0|page=258|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?ei=2LqKT9epA_H54QTe26iJCg&id=GVgmAQAAIAAJ&dq=Khewra+Salt+mine&q=Mayo#search_anchor |accessdate=15 April 2012}}</ref> The mine is a part of a [[Salt Range|salt range]] that originated about 800 million years ago, when evaporation of a shallow sea followed by geological movement formed a salt range that stretched for about 300 kilometers.<ref name="Sarina Singh"/><ref name="Helen">{{cite book |author=Helen Bateman |coauthor=Jayne Denshire |title=Dangerous Creatures Of The Oceans |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=nHMORt-4LIsC&pg=PA9&dq=khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4DJ7T4SCEoLrOZGVmdQC&ved=0CFEQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=khewra&f=false |accessdate=3 April 2012 |date=30 July 2005 |publisher=Creative Co |isbn=978-1-58340-768-4 |page=9}}</ref> It is said{{By whom|date=May 2012}} that the salt reserves at Khewra were discovered when [[Alexander the Great]] crossed the [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]] and [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]] region during his [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|Indian campaign]]. The mine was discovered, however, not by Alexander, nor by his allies, but by his horse. The story is that Alexander's army stopped to rest, and the horses started licking the stones. A soldier noticed it and tasted the rock, finding it salty and thus leading to the discovery of the mine. During the [[Mughal era]] the salt was traded in various markets, as far away as [[Central Asia]].<ref name="Andre Wink">{{cite book |author=Andre Wink |title=Al Hind: The Making of the Indo Islamic World |date=March 1990 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-09249-5 |page=171 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=U7Q3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA171&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i3KAT9vPC8e5hAfngtSwBw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwADge#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> On the downfall of the Mughal empire, the mine was taken over by Sikhs. [[Hari Singh Nalwa]], the Sikh ruler, shared the management of the mine with [[Gulab Singh of Jammu and Kashmir|Gulab Singh]], the ruler of [[Jammu and Kashmir]]. The salt quarried during [[Sikh Empire|Sikh rule]] was both eaten and used as a source of revenue.<ref name="Vanit Nalwa">{{cite book |author=Vanit Nalwa |title=Hari Singh Nalwa Champion of the Khalsaji 1791-1887 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=ULhgNexD92QC&pg=PA100&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=az2AT_ybA8imhAfgyP3IBw&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2012 |date=1 May 2010 |publisher=Manohar Publications |isbn=978-81-7304-785-5 |page=100}}</ref> In 1872, some time after they had taken over the Sikhs' territory, the British developed the mine further.<ref name="Sarina Singh"/> They found the mining to have been inefficient, with irregular and narrow tunnels and entrances that made the movement of labourers difficult and dangerous. The supply of water inside mine was poor, and there was no storage facility for the mined salt. The only road to the mine was over difficult, rocky terrain. To address these problems the government levelled the road, built godowns, provided a water supply, improved the entrances and tunnels, and introduced a better mechanism for excavation of salt. Penalties were introduced to control salt smuggling.<ref name="Edwin Arnold">{{cite book |author=Sir Edwin Arnold |title=The Marquis of Dalhousie's Administration of British India |year=1862 |publisher=Saunders, Otley, and Co. |volume=1 |isbn=978-1-290-28762-3 |page=166 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=T8kNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=az2AT_ybA8imhAfgyP3IBw&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBTgK#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> While working with [[Geological Survey of India]] in the 1930s and 1940s, [[Birbal Sahni]] found evidence of [[Flowering plant|angiosperms]], [[gymnosperm]]s and insects from the [[Cambrian]] period inside the mine.<ref name="Michael Cremo">{{cite book |author=Michael A. Cremo |title=The Forbidden Archeologist |date=1 November 2010 |publisher=Torchlight Publishing |isbn=978-0-89213-337-6 |page=166 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=X28zNKCBD28C&pg=PA166&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=az2AT_ybA8imhAfgyP3IBw&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref>

== Location ==
[[File:Khewra Salt Mines Pakistan (206).jpg|220px|thumb|Entrance to the mine]]
Khewra Salt Mine is situated in [[Pind Dadan Khan Tehsil]] of [[Jhelum District]]. Located about 200 km from Islamabad and Lahore, it is accessed via the [[M2 motorway (Pakistan)|M2 motorway]], about 30 kilometers off the Lilla interchange while going towards Pind Dadan Khan on the Lilla road.<ref name="Dawn: beauty of Khewra"/><ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place"/> The mine is in mountains that are part of a salt range, a mineral-rich mountain system extending about 200 km from the [[Jehlum river]] south of [[Pothohar Plateau]] to where the Jehlum river joins the [[Indus river]].<ref name="Pete Heiden">{{cite book|author=Pete Heiden|title=Pakistan|date=August 2011|publisher=Essential Library|isbn=978-1-61783-117-1|page=27|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=0RQwcO0wM6IC&pg=PA27&dq=salt+range+Pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1zyJT4e0CYj04QT3rvHKCQ&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBDgo#v=onepage&q=salt%20range%20Pakistan&f=false |accessdate=14 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Sarina Singh"/><ref name="Michael Cremo"/><ref name="Stacy Taus-Bolstad">{{cite book|author=Stacy Taus-Bolstad|title=Pakistan in Pictures|year=January 2003|publisher=Lerner Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8225-4682-5|page=55|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=K9QbtVadL_gC&pg=PA55&dq=salt+range+Pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1zyJT4e0CYj04QT3rvHKCQ&ved=0CFoQ6AEwBjgo#v=onepage&q=salt%20range%20Pakistan&f=false |accessdate=14 April 2012}}</ref> Khewra mine is about 945 feet above sea level<ref name="Dawn: Oil reserves"/> and about 2400 feet into the mountain from the mine entrance. The underground mine covers an area of 110 km2.<ref name="WASJ">{{cite journal |author=Attique ur Rehman |coauthors=Amjad Aslam, Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh |year=2010 |title=Preparation of Analytical Grade Sodium Chloride from Khewra Rock Salt |journal=World Applied Sciences Journal |volume=9 |issue=11 |page=1223 |publisher=IDOSI Publications |format=PDF |issn=1818-4952 |accessdate=15 April 2012 |url=http://www.idosi.org/wasj/wasj9(11)/3.pdf }}</ref>

== Production ==
Khewra Salt Mine has an estimated total of 220 million tonnes and 2000 feet thick deposits of Pakistan's best known rock salt.<ref name="U.S. Geological Survey">{{cite book |author=Frank C. Whitmore |coauthor=Mary Ellen Williams |title=Resources for the twenty-first century |year=1982 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |location=Washington D.C |oclc=623259129 |page=175 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=LP5RNv1tGYAC&pg=PA175&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HH6AT_XHEsfIhAftmoDCBw&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBDhG#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> In raw form it contains negligible amounts of Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Sulfates and moisture, with Iron, Zinc, Copper, Manganese, Chromium and Lead as [[trace element]]s.<ref name="Pennsylvania Environment dept">{{cite techreport |author=Robert V. Titler |coauthors=Paul Curry |title=Chemical Analysis of major constituents and trace contaminants of Rock Salt |institution=[[Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection]] |url=http://files.dep.state.pa.us/water/Wastewater%20Management/WastewaterPortalFiles/Rock%20Salt%20Paper%20final%20052711.pdf |format=PDF |date=14 September 2011 |page=17 |accessdate=15 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="JCSP:Chemical composition">{{cite journal |author=QAZIazi Muhammad Sharif |coauthors=Mumtaz Hussain, Muhammad Tahir Hussain |year=2007 |month=December |title=Chemical Evaluation of Major Salt Deposits of Pakistan |journal=Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan |volume=29 |issue=26 |pages=570–571 |publisher=Chemical Society of Pakistan |editor1=Viqar Uddin Ahmad |editor2=Muhammad Raza Shah |format=PDF |accessdate=15 April 2012 |url=http://jcsp.org.pk/index.php/jcsp/article/viewFile/1249/839 }}</ref> Salt from Khewra, also known as [[Himalayan salt]], is red, pink, off-white or transparent.<ref name="Dorothy Moore">{{cite web |url=http://materialscience.uoregon.edu/ttsem/curriculum%20to%20share/The_Significance_of_Salt.pdf |title=The Significance of Salt |author=Dorothy K. Moore |authorlink= |date= |month= |year= |work= |publisher=Material Science Institute, University of Oregon |location=[[Eugene, Oregon|Eugene]] |page=33 |format=PDF |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref> In the early years of British rule, the Khewra mine produced about 28,000 to 30,000 tons per annum; it increased to about 187,400 tons per annum for the five fiscal years ending 1946-7 and to 136,824 tons for the two years ending 1949-50 with the systematic working introduced by Dr H. Warth.<ref name="Coggin">{{cite book |author=J.Coggin Brown |title=Mineral Wealth: Part III. Materials used in building construction, civil engineering, etc |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=Quim3r1ReaEC&pg=PA507&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bQl-T8nhKcmWhQfE0IiBDg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=5 April 2012 |date= 7 February 2008 |publisher=Isha Books |isbn=978-81-8205-483-7 |page=507}}</ref> The mine's output was reported in 2003 to be 385,000 tons of salt per annum, which amounts to almost half of Pakistan's total production of rock salt.<ref name="Kogan Page">{{cite book |author=Kogan Page |title=Asia & Pacific Review 2003/04 |date=1 August 2003 |edition= 21st |publisher=World of Information |isbn=978-0-7494-4063-3 |page=279 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=RGsEvg7NdoQC&pg=PA279&dq=rock+salt+in+pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yK-BT4_rEoOaOtGdzfYG&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=rock%20salt%20in%20pakistan&f=false |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref> At that rate of output, the tunnel would be expected to last for another 350 years.<ref name="The Seattle Times"/>

The mine comprises nineteen stories, of which eleven are below ground. From the entrance, the mine extends about 2440 ft into the mountains, and the total length of its tunnels is about 40 km.<ref name="Camerapix"/><ref name="PMDC">{{cite web|title=Khewra Salt mine|url=http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/pmdc-final/sm.htm|work=Salt mine|publisher=[[Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]]|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> Quarrying is done using the [[room and pillar]] method, mining only half of the salt and leaving the remaining half to support what is above.<ref name="Bushra Khalid">{{cite journal |author=Bushra Khalid |title=Effect of Temperature and Humidity on Salt Mine Environment |journal=Pakistan Journal of Meteorology |volume=7 |issue=13 |page=73 |publisher=[[Pakistan Meteorological Department]] |format=PDF |accessdate=8 April 2012 |url=http://www.pmd.gov.pk/rnd/rnd_files/vol7_issue13/7_Effect%20of%20Temperature%20and%20Humidity%20on%20Salt%20Mine%20Environment.pdf}}</ref> The temperature inside the mine remains about 18-20 °C throughout the year.<ref name="Dawn: Khewra mine tour"/> A railway track laid during the British era is used to bring salt out of the mine in rail cars.<ref name="Helen"/>

Himalayan salt is used for [[cooking]], as [[bath salt]], as [[brine]]<ref name="Dorothy Moore"/> and as a raw material for many industries, including a [[ICI Pakistan#Soda Ash|soda ash plant]] set up by [[AkzoNobel]] in 1940.<ref name="A K Madan">{{cite book|author=A. K. Madan|title=The economic prospects of chemical industries in India|year=1949|publisher=Thacker|asin=B007HDU8LY|page=119|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?ei=a06IT8OWD43V4QT-qZjsCQ&id=pyoEAAAAMAAJ&dq=Soda+Ash+Plant+in+Khewra+1944&q=Khewra#search_anchor |accessdate=13 April 2012}}</ref> Salt from Khewra mine is also used to make decorative items like lamps, vases, ashtrays and statues,<ref name="Daily Times:Salt production">{{cite news |title=Salt production target on track this year |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_12-11-2003_pg5_11 |agency=[[Associated Press of Pakistan]] |newspaper=Daily Times |date=12 November 2003 |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref> which are exported to the United States, India and many European countries.<ref name="Helen"/><ref name="Dawn: Salt exports">{{cite news|title=PMDC to increase salt exports|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2004/12/29/ebr5.htm|accessdate=14 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=29 December 2004}}</ref> The use of rock salt to make artistic and decorative items started during the Mughal era, when many craftsman made tableware and decorations from it.<ref name="Art in Mughal Era">{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|date=5 February 2004|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-185-3|page=102|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=N7sewQQzOHUC&pg=PA102&dq=Khewra+Salt+Mine&hl=en&sa=X&ei=24OKT5i0HMbO4QSf_4nbCQ&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=15 April 2012}}</ref> Warth introduced the use of a [[lathe]] to cut out art pieces from the rock salt, as he found it similar to [[gypsum]] in physical characteristics.<ref name="Joseph Louis Ratton">{{cite book|author=James Joseph Louis Ratton|title=Hand-book Of Common Salt|date=30 August 2011|publisher=Nabu Press|isbn=978-1-178-95413-5|pages=10-11|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?ei=lAaLT8iGM4KJ4gTu0uSQCg&id=jxUAAAAAQAAJ&dq=Mayo+Salt+Mine&q=warth#search_anchor|accessdate=15 April 2012}}</ref>

In 2008 the [[Government of Pakistan]] decided to sell off seventeen profitable organizations including Khewra salt mines,<ref name="The Nation: 17 units privatized">{{cite news|title=Steel Mills to be sold this fiscal|url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/politics/14-Nov-2008/Steel-Mills-to-be-sold-this-fiscal|accessdate=12 April 2012|newspaper=The Nation|date=14 November 2008}}</ref> but the plan was shelved. The mine is now operated by the [[Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]], a government department.<ref name="PMDC"/>

== Tourism ==
[[Image:SaltMosque.JPG|thumb|right|220px|A small mosque made of salt bricks inside the Khewra salt mine complex]]
Khewra Salt Mine is a major tourist attraction, with around 250,000 visitors a year,<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/><ref name="Om Gupta"/> earning it considerable revenue.<ref name="Dawn: Oil reserves"/> Visitors are taken into the mine on a train.<ref name="Dawn: Khewra mine tour">{{cite news|last=Faisal Khan|first=Zeeshan|title=Khewra: Above the salt|url=http://dawn.com/2010/12/12/khewra-above-the-salt/|accessdate=13 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=12 December 2010}}</ref> There are numerous pools of salty water inside. The Badshahi Mosque was built in the mining tunnels with multi-colored salt bricks<ref name="Sarina Singh"/><ref name="Annemarie Schimmel">{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel |title=Islam in the Indian Subcontinent |date=December 1980 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-06117-0 |page=107 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=TYImm1TnemwC&pg=PA107&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_XCAT-SVGI2HhQe-oYyfBw&ved=0CF8Q6AEwCTgU#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> about fifty years ago.<ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place">{{cite news|last=Sheikh|first=FD|title=Khewra Salt Mines: A fascinating place|url=http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/080412/yworld8.htm|accessdate=13 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=12 April 2008}}</ref> Other artistic carvings in the mine include a replica of [[Minar-e-Pakistan]], a statue of [[Allama Iqbal]], an accumulation of crystals that form the name of [[Muhammad]] in [[Urdu]] script, a model of the [[Great Wall of China]] and another of the Mall Road of [[Murree]].<ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place"/><ref name="Dawn: Khewra mine tour"/> In 2003 two phases of development of tourist facilities and attractions were carried out, at a total cost of 9 million rupees. A clinical ward with 20 beds was established in 2007, costing 10 million rupees,<ref name="Dawn: Asthma ward">{{cite news|title=Salt mine resort for asthma patients|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2007/03/27/nat18.htm|accessdate=14 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=27 March 2007}}</ref> for the treatment of [[asthma]] and other respiratory diseases using [[salt therapy]].<ref name="Telegraph:Asthma treatment">{{cite news|last=Shahzad|first=Khurram|title=Asthma treatment in Pakistani salt mine|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/7527907/Asthma-treatment-in-Pakistani-salt-mine.html|accessdate=6 April 2012|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=26 March 2010}}</ref> The "Visit Pakistan Year 2007" event included a [[Heritage railway|train safari]] visit of Khewra Salt Mine.<ref name="Visit Pakistan 2007">{{cite news|title=Prepare to ‘visit Pakistan Year 2007’|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006%5C12%5C08%5Cstory_8-12-2006_pg11_7|accessdate=13 April 2012|newspaper=Daily Times|date=8 December 2006}}</ref> In February 2011 [[Pakistan railways]] started operating special trains for tourists from [[Lahore]] and [[Rawalpindi]] to Khewra. For this purpose the railway station of Khewra was refurbished with the help of a private firm.<ref name="Dawn: Tourist train">{{cite news|title=Khewra railway station restored|url=http://dawn.com/2011/02/05/khewra-railway-station-restored/|accessdate=12 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=5 February 2011}}</ref>

Other visitor attractions in the mine include the 75-meter-high Assembly Hall; ''Pul-Saraat'', a salt bridge with no pillars over an 80-foot-deep brine pond; ''Sheesh Mahal'' (Palace of Mirrors), where salt crystals are light pink; and a cafe.<ref name="Dawn: beauty of Khewra">{{cite news|author=F. I. Dar|coauthor=Safdar Vail|title=The beauty of Khewra Salt Range|url=http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/051222/review5.htm|accessdate=14 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=22 December 2005}}</ref><ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place"/>

== Other projects ==
The Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation established the Mine Survey Institute at Khewra in 1971.<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC">{{cite web|title=Khewra Salt Mines Project|url=http://www.privatisation.gov.pk/industry/PMDC.htm|work=Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation|publisher=Privatisation Commission of Pakistan|accessdate=12 April 2012}}</ref> The institute conducts mine surveys, organizes mining-related courses for the miners<ref name="PMDC: Khewra Services">{{cite web|title=Mine Survey Institute|url=http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/services.htm|work=Khewra Services|publisher=PMDC|accessdate=12 April 2012}}</ref> and has establishes the Khewra Model High School and the Khewra Women College.<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/><ref name="PMDC: Khewra Services"/> More recently the miners won an important environmental case against the mining company for the provision of unpolluted drinking water.<ref>General Secretary, West Pakistan Salt Miners Labor Union Khewra, Jhelum v. The Director, Industries and Mineral Development, Punjab, Lahora, Human Rights Case No. 120 of 1993, (1994) S.C.M.R. at 2061.</ref> The water available to the residents of Khewra had been polluted by salt, coal and other nearby mining activity. This case is internationally recognised as important with regard to the relationship between humanity and the environment.<ref name="UNESCAP: Summary of Judicial decisions of Environmental cases">{{cite web |url=http://www.unescap.org/drpad/vc/document/compendium/pk1.htm |title=Pakistan - Constitutional Rights, Mining Operations, Water Pollution |date=30 October 2003 |work=UNESCAP Virtual Conference |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref><ref>http://www.unhchr.ch/environment/bp4.html [[UNHCR]] paper on Human Rights and the environment</ref><ref name="Louis J Kotzé">{{cite book|author=Louis J Kotzé|coauthor=A. Paterson|title=The Role of Judiciary in Enviromental Governance: Comparative Perspectives|date=16 April 2009|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Law & Business|isbn=978-90-411-2708-2|pages=396-397|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=2IWYb40mQ8oC&pg=PA396&dq=khewra+Alexander&hl=en&sa=X&ei=WyeLT6O0J5T74QTQpt3gCQ&ved=0CFEQ6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q=khewra&f=false|accessdate=15 April 2012}}</ref>

In 2003, while the Government of Pakistan was looking for ways to increase the country's strategic store of oil to 90 days, the PMDC put forward a proposal to use the Khewra mines to store strategic oil reserves.<ref name="Dawn: Oil reserves">{{cite news|title=PMDC offers salt mine for oil reserves|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2003/02/28/ebr12.htm|accessdate=13 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=28 February 2003}}</ref> Scientific reports confirmed the feasiblity of this proposal, but it was turned down.<ref name="Dawn: Building oil reserves">{{cite news|title=Building oil reserves with taxpayers’ money|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2006/11/27/ebr2.htm|accessdate=14 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=27 November 2006}}</ref>

== Flooding in 2010 ==
In 2010, during [[2010 Pakistan floods|torrential rain]] all over Pakistan, water from a nearby [[nullah]] entered the mine,<ref name="The Nation: Floods">{{cite news|title=Floodwaters enter Khewra Salt Mines|url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/politics/07-Aug-2010/Floodwaters-enter-Khewra-Salt-Mines|accessdate=12 April 2012|newspaper=The Nation|date=7 August 2010}}</ref> reaching a depth of two feet and blocking the exits, after which the mine was closed.<ref name="Tribune:10 villages flooded">{{cite news|title=Breach floods 10 villages|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/38389/breach-floods-10-villages/|accessdate=14 April 2012|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=12 August 2012}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="240px" heights="200px">
File:Khewra Salt Mine - Rock salt as ceiling.JPG|Rock salt makes for some beautiful texture on the walls and ceiling
File:Khewra Salt Mine - Mined area from Mughal Times.jpg|It is said that these rooms were mined during the Mughal times
File:KhewRa Mines Salt and Water.jpg|Reflection in salty water at Khewea Salt Mines
File:Crystal Valley (Khewra Salt Mines).JPG|Crystal Valley, a tunnel with crystals in the wall and roof, illuminated by colorful lights
File:Ground floor tunnel (Khewra Salt Mines).jpg|Ground floor tunnel
File:Salt Mosque (Khewra Salt Mines).jpg|Mosque built with salt bricks in a tunnel
File:SaltLamps.JPG|Lamps made of salt in Khewra market
</gallery>

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/pmdc-final/sm.htm#1 "Khewra Salt Mines", Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]

{{PunjabGeography}}

{{coord missing|Pakistan}}

[[Category:Jhelum District]]
[[Category:Salt mines]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Mines in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Mining companies of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Salt museums]]

[[hi:खेवड़ा नमक खान]]
[[pnb:کھیوڑہ نمک کان]]
[[pt:Khewra]]
[[ur:کھیوڑہ نمک کی کان]]

Seraphimite Church

2012-05-14T14:18:24Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Dated {{No footnotes}}. (Build KF)

{{No footnotes|date=May 2012}}
The '''Tin Can Cathedral''', or as it was known in [[Ukrainian]], '''Бляшена Катедра''', was the first independent Ukrainian Church in North America. It had no affiliation with any church in Europe, and arose from dramatic events at the turn of the century, and the way a few chose to meet the needs of the many in the fledgling [[Ukrainian Canadian]] community.

Ukrainian immigrants began arriving in [[Canada]] in 1891 mainly from the Western Ukraine regions of [[Bukovina]] and [[Galicia]]. The new arrivals from Bukovina were [[Greek Orthodox]], those from Galicia [[Greek Catholic]]. In either case it was the [[Byzantine Church]] and its Eastern rite with which they were familiar. By 1903 the Ukrainian immigrant population in Western Canada had become large enough to attract the attention of religious leaders, politicians, and educationalists.

== Principals ==

The central character in the Ukrainian community in Winnipeg at the time was Cyril Genik (1957-1925). He came from Galicia, having graduated from the Ukrainian Academic Gymnasium in [[Lviv]] and studied law briefly at the University of Chernivtsi. Genik was a friend of Ivan Franko, the Ukrainian author of Лис Микита (Fox Mykyta) who was nominated for the [[Nobel Prize for literature]]. Franko’s biting satire on the clergy of his day and his socialist leanings were probably shared by Genik who happened to be best man at the author’s wedding. Freeing the populace of the clergy, along with land reform, was a way to free the peasantry from the yolk of absentee-landlords who maintained control of the land with the collusion of the hierarchy of the church. Upon his arrival in Canada, Genik became the first Ukrainian to be employed by the Canadian government, and worked as an immigration agent taking new settlers out to their homesteads. Genik’s cousin Ivan Bodrug (1874-1952) and Bodrug’s friend Ivan Negrich (1875-1946) also came from the village of Bereziv in the county of Kolomyia and were qualified as primary school teachers in Galicia. These three men constituted the nucleus of the intelligentsia in the Ukrainian community, and were known as the Березівѕка Третеця (the Bereziv Triuvirate). Genik, the oldest, was the only one of the three already married. His wife Pauline (nee Tsurkowsky) was the daughter of a priest, an educated woman, and they had three sons and three daughters.

The other principal character was Bishop Seraphim, whose real name was Stefan Ustvolsky. Ustvolsky had been defrocked by the Russian Holy Synod in [[St. Petersburg]]. He travelled to [[Mount Athos]] where he was ordained a Bishop by the Holy Anphim, who claimed to be a Bishop. It was suspected that the Holy Anphim ordained Ustvolsky to spite the Czar, as at this time there was a struggle taking place between the Holy Synod and the Czar for control of the Russian Orthodox Church. Having been ordained a Bishop, Seraphim travelled to North America, briefly staying with Ukrainian priests in [[Philadelphia]]. By the time he arrived in [[Winnipeg]], he had no allegiances to the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] or anyone else. The Ukrainians on the prairies accepted him as a travelling holy man, a tradition which goes back to the very beginnings of Christianity.

Another person who participated in the events which culminated in the creation of the Tin Can Cathedral were Seraphim’s assistant Makarii Marchenko. Marchenko acted as a deacon or cantor, helping Seraphim with the church services which he knew well. He arrived with Seraphim from the United States. Archbishop Langevin, who was located in St. Boniface, was the head of the Roman Catholic diocese in Western Canada, in direct contact with the Pope in Rome. He believed that his priests were more than adequate for the needs of the Ukrainian population. Still other players included: Dr. William Patrick, head of Manitoba College, a Presbyterian college in Winnipeg; the Liberal Party of Manitoba; Russian Orthodox missionaries; and sundry others who did not participate directly, but indirectly created the atmosphere ripe for such an event.

== Events ==

If any one incident triggered the following drama, it may have been when a member of the Manitoba legislature. Joseph Bernier introduced a bill “conveying properties of the Greek Ruthenian (Ukrainians were also known as Ruthenians) Church in Communion with Rome into the control of corporations under control of the Church of Rome.” Archbishop Langevin declared “the Ruthenians must prove themselves Catholics by turning property over to the church, and not like Protestants…to an individual or committee of laymen, independent of the priest or bishop.” The size of the Ukrainian population on the prairies had also attracted the interest of Russian Orthodox Missionaries. At this time the Russian Orthodox Church was spending $100,000 a year for missionary work in North America. Also, the Presbyterian Church had become interested and invited young men from the Ukrainian community to attend Manitoba College (today the University of Winnipeg) where special classes were established for young Ukrainians who wished to become school teachers (and later Independent Greek church ministers).

Genik, Bodrug, and Negrich moved quickly to try to secure their community. They brought in Seraphim to set up a church that was independent of any churches in Europe, and would have no loyalty to any of the religious interest groups of the new Ukrainian immigrants on the prairies. Much to their satisfaction, Seraphim proved to fit the bill, set up an Orthodox Russian Church (not Russian Orthodox) of which he declared himself the head, and to placate the Ukrainians it was also called the Seraphimite Church. He provided the parishioners with an Eastern Rite with which the immigrants were familiar, began to ordain cantors and deacons and built the Tin Can Cathedral in Winnipeg’s North-End. Seraphim was charismatic and quickly built up a church with approximately 50,000 to 60,000 parishioners in Winnipeg and outlying rural areas. “Due to various indiscretions and problems with alcohol” he lost the trust of the intelligentsia who had invited him to Winnipeg, and a coup took place in which they moved to get rid of Seraphim while not losing his congregation. Seraphim went to St. Petersburg to try to get recognition and further funding from the Russian Holy Synod for the thriving Seraphimite Church. In his absence Ivan Bodrug and Ivan Negrich, already students of theology at Manitoba College, and as well as priests in the Seraphimite Church, were able to obtain guarantees of Presbyterian funding for Seraphim’s church on the grounds that it would be shifted onto a Presbyterian model over the course of time. Upon his return, Seraphim discovered the betrayal and promptly excommunicated all the priests involved in this treachery. He published pictures of them in the local newspapers with their names printed across their chests, as if they were criminals. His revenge turned out to be short-lived as he soon received word that he had been excommunicated himself by the Russian Holy Synod.

== Aftermath ==

In the aftermath of this social and spiritual brushfire that swept the prairie, a Ukrainian-Canadian community arose.

Ivan Bodrug, one of the mutineers in the Seraphimite Church became the head of the new Independent Church, and was quite a charismatic priest in his own right, preaching an evangelical Christianity because of the Presbyterian influence. He lived right into the 1950’s. The Presbyterian funded church buildings were located on the corner of Pritchard Avenue and McGregor Street, and though the first has since been demolished, the second building still stands there today, across from the Labour Temple in Winnipeg’s North End.

Archbishop Langevin increased his efforts to try to assimilate the Ukrainian Community into the Roman Catholic fold. He set up the Basilian Church of St. Nicholas across the street from the independent Ukrainian Catholic Cathedral of St. Vladimir and Olga on McGregor Street in Winnipeg’s North End. Such competition provided greater opportunity for Ukrainian-Canadian children to learn to speak the Ukrainian language.

The Liberal Party, aware that the Ukrainians were no longer allied with Archbishop Langevin and the Roman Catholics who happened to be aligned with the Conservative Party, stepped forward and funded the very first Ukrainian language newspaper in Canada, Kanadiskyi Farmer (The Canadian Farmer), of which the first editor was none other than Ivan Negrich.

Seraphim disappeared by 1908, but there are accounts of him in Ukrainskyi Holos (the Ukrainian Voice newspaper, still being published today in Winnipeg) selling Bibles to workers on the railroad in British Columbia as late as 1910.

Cyril Genik moved with his eldest daughter and his son, to the United States, to North Dakota and died in 1925.

Makarii Marchenko, upon Seraphim’s departure, declared himself not only new Bishop of the Seraphimite Church, but also Arch-Patriarch, Arch-Pope, Arch-Hetman, and Arch-Prince. Not to take any chances, for good measure he ex-communicated the Pope and the Russian Holy Synod. There are records of him travelling the rural areas and ministering to the Ukrainians who were very much in want of their Eastern rite as late as the 1930’s.

==References==
{{reflist}}

1. Martynowych, Orest T. Ukrainians in Canada: The Formative Period, 1891-1924. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, 1991, page 170.

2. Martynowych, Orest T. Ukrainians in Canada: The Formative Period, 1891-1924. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, 1991, page 170.

3. Hryniuk, Stella. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, www.biographi.ca/EN/009004-119.01-e.php?id_nbr=8154

4. Mitchell, Nick. Ukrainian-Canadian History as Theatre in The Ukrainian Experience in Canada: Reflections 1994, The Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in Canada, Winnipeg, page 226

5. Mitchell, Nick. The Mythology of Exile in Jewish, Mennonite and Ukrainian Canadian Writing in A Sharing of Diversities, Proceedings of the Jewish Mennonite Ukrainian Conference, “Building Bridges”, Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina, 1999, page 188.

6. Martynowych, Orest T. Ukrainians in Canada: The Formative Period, 1891-1924. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, 1991, page 184.

7. Martynowych, Orest T. Ukrainians in Canada: The Formative Period, 1891-1924. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, 1991, page 189

8. Winnipeg Tribune 25 February 1903.

9. Mitchell, Nick. Ukrainian-Canadian History as Theatre in The Ukrainian Experience in Canada: Reflections 1994, The Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in Canada, Winnipeg, page 226.

10. Martynowych, Orest T. Ukrainians in Canada: The Formative Period, 1891-1924. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, 1991, page 192.

11, 12. Yereniuk, Roman, A Short Historical Outline of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada, www.uocc.ca/pdf, page 9.

13. Mitchell, Nick. Ukrainian-Canadian History as Theatre in The Ukrainian Experience in Canada: Reflections 1994, The Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in Canada, Winnipeg, page 229

14. Martynowych, Orest T. Ukrainians in Canada: The Formative Period, 1891-1924. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, 1991, photograph 47.

15. Mitchell, Nick. Ukrainian-Canadian History as Theatre in The Ukrainian Experience in Canada: Reflections 1994, The Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in Canada, Winnipeg, page 229

16. Bodrug, Ivan. Independent Orthodox Church: Memoirs Pertaining to the History of a Ukrainian Canadian Church in the Years 1903-1913, Toronto, Ukrainian Research Foundation, 1980, page 34

== Bibliography ==

Bodrug, Ivan. Independent Orthodox Church: Memoirs Pertaining to the History of a Ukrainian Canadian Church in the Years 1903-1913, Toronto, Ukrainian Research Foundation, 1980.

Martynowych, Orest T. Ukrainians in Canada: The Formative Period, 1891-1924. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, 1991.

Maruschak, M. The Ukrainian Canadians: A History, 2nd ed., Winnipeg: Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in Canada, 1982.

Manitoba Free Press, issues of 10 October 1904, 20 January 1905, 28 December 1905.

Mitchell, Nick. The Mythology of Exile in Jewish, Mennonite and Ukrainian Canadian Writing in A Sharing of Diversities, Proceedings of the Jewish Mennonite Ukrainian Conference, “Building Bridges”, Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina, 1999.

Mitchell, Nick. Tin Can Cathedral, a play, www.kobobooks.com/ebook

Mitchell, Nick. Ukrainian-Canadian History as Theatre in The Ukrainian Experience in Canada: Reflections 1994, The Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in Canada, Winnipeg.

Yereniuk, Roman, A Short Historical Outline of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada, www.uocc.ca/pdf

== External links ==

* 5 Door Documentary, fivedoorfilms.com/documentary.html

* Hryniuk, Stella, GENYK, CYRIL - Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, www.biographi.ca/EN/009004-119.01-e.php?id_nbr=8154

* Mitchell, Nick, www.kobobooks.com/ebook/Tin-Can-Cathedral/book.../page1.html

* Tracz, Orysia Paszczak, Our Christmas: nothing's really changed (01/04/98) www.ukrweekly.com/old/archive/1998/019819.shtml

* Yereniuk, Roman, A Short Historical Outline of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada, www.uocc.ca/pdf

* T - University of Manitoba Libraries: Winnipeg Building Index [ Info ]. Tin Can Cathedral Selkirk Avenue 1904 ... wbi.lib.umanitoba.ca/WinnipegBuildings/browseNames.jsp?letter...

*

[[Category:Churches in Winnipeg]]
[[Category:Ukrainian diaspora in Canada]]

Serrano (Chili)

2012-05-14T04:57:26Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Dated {{Citation needed span}}. (Build KF)

{{infobox pepper
| name = Serrano pepper
| image = Serranochilis.jpg
| caption = Serrano pepper plant with red and green fruits
| alt =
| heat = Hot
| scoville = 10,000 – 25,000
}}

The '''serrano pepper''' (''[[Capsicum annuum]]'') is a [[List of capsicum cultivars|type]] of [[chili pepper]] that originated in the mountainous regions of the [[Mexico|Mexican]] [[States of Mexico|states]] of [[Puebla]] and [[Hidalgo (Mexico)|Hidalgo]].<ref name="dewitt64">DeWitt, Dave, and Paul W. Boslund. ''The Complete Chile Pepper Book: A Gardener's Guide to Choosing, Growing, Preserving, and Cooking'', Timber Press, 2009. ISBN 0-88192-920-4 p. 64.</ref> The name of the pepper is a reference to the mountains (''sierras'') of these regions.<ref name=dewitt64 />

Mature serrano pepper plants reach a height of between one and a half and five feet tall.<ref name=dewitt64 /> Each plant can hold up to fifty pepper pods.<ref name=dewitt64 /> Unripe serrano peppers are green, but the color at maturity varies. Common colors are green, red, brown, orange, or yellow. Serrano pepper plants have distinctly fuzzy leaves and stems.

The serrano pepper's [[Scoville scale|Scoville rating]] is 10,000 to 25,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sheknows.com/articles/805359|accessdate=12 March 2010|title=Types of hot peppers}}</ref> Their flavor is crisp, bright, and biting, notably hotter than the [[jalapeño pepper]] they resemble, and they are typically eaten raw. Serrano peppers are also commonly used in making [[pico de gallo]].<ref name=dewitt64 /> It is also commonly used in making [[Salsa (sauce)|salsa]], as the chilli is particularly fleshy compared to others, making it ideal for such dishes. It is one of the most [[Mexican cuisine|used]] chiles in Mexico.

In the United States, {{Citation needed span|they can be called sport peppers|date=May 2012}}, which are [[pickled]] in a vinegar brine and used to top a meat sandwich such as a [[Chicago Hot Dog|Chicago Style Hot Dog]].<ref>http://www.viennabeef.com/cafemenu/</ref><ref>http://www.wienercircle.net/menu/</ref> They are used as a main component in hot [[giardiniera]] on a traditional [[Italian beef]] sandwich.<ref>http://www.italianbeef.com/Giardiniera-recipes.php</ref><ref>http://www.roadfood.com/Forums/Italian-Beef-Papa-Charlie39s-amp-Proper-Giardiniera-m74950.aspx</ref>
==See also==
*[[List of capsicum cultivars]]
*[[Pickled pepper]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[File:Starr 070730-7846 Capsicum annuum.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Close-up of unripe serrano peppers]]

{{ingredient-stub}}
{{fruit-stub}}
{{Solanales-stub}}
{{vegetable-stub}}

{{Capsicum Cultivars}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Serrano Pepper}}
[[Category:Chili peppers]]
[[Category:Mexican cuisine]]
[[Category:Spanish language]]
[[Category:Capsicum cultivars]]

[[fr:Piment serrano]]
[[hu:Serrano paprika]]
[[nl:Serranopeper]]
[[sv:Serrano]]
[[zh:塞拉諾辣椒]]

Gravitationstraktor

2012-05-14T04:43:16Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Dated {{Citation needed}} x 2. (Build KF)

[[File:Gravity tractor.jpg|thumb|A gravity tractor would fly near an asteroid and gravitationally nudge it off course (Illustration: Dan Durda/FIAAA/B612 Foundation)]]

A '''gravity tractor''' (GT) is a [[spacecraft]] that deflects another object in space, typically a [[potentially hazardous object|potentially hazardous asteroid]] that might impact Earth, without physically contacting it, using only its [[gravitational field]] to transmit the required [[impulse (physics)|impulse]].<ref>Edward T. Lu and Stanley G. Love (10 November 2005), [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7065/abs/438177a.html Gravitational tractor for towing asteroids], ''Nature'' '''438''':177–178, {{doi|10.1038/438177a}}. Also, see [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0509595 astro-ph/0509595] in the [[ArXiv.org e-print archive|arXiv]].</ref><ref>Yeomans, D.K. et al. (2005) [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/acm2008/pdf/8273.pdf Using a Gravity Tractor to Help Mitigate Asteroid Collisions with Earth]</ref>
The tractor spacecraft could either hover near the object being deflected or orbit near it.
The concept has the advantage that essentially nothing need be known about the mechanical composition and structure of the asteroid in advance.

==Advantages==
A number of considerations arise concerning means for avoiding a devastating collision with an asteroidal object, should one be discovered on a trajectory that were determined to lead to Earth impact at some future date.
The one that has caused the greatest concern{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} is how to transmit the [[impulse (physics)|impulse]] required (possibly quite large), to an asteroid of unknown mass, composition, and mechanical strength, without shattering it into fragments, some of which might be themselves dangerous to Earth if left in a collision orbit.
The GT solves this problem by gently accelerating the object as a whole over an extended period of time, using the spacecraft's own mass and associated gravitational field to effect the necessary deflecting force.
Because of the [[Universal gravitation|universality of gravitation]], affecting as it does all mass alike, the asteroid would be accelerated almost uniformly as a whole, with only [[tidal force]]s (which should be extremely small) causing any stresses to its internal structure.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}

A further advantage is that a transponder on the spacecraft, by continuously monitoring the position and velocity of the tractor/asteroid system, could enable the post-deflection trajectory of the asteroid to be accurately known, ensuring its final placement into a safe orbit.<ref>''Threat Mitigation: The Gravity Tractor''  (2006) Schweickart, Russell; Chapman, Clark; Durda, Dan; Hut, Piet, Submitted to NASA Workshop on Near-Earth Objects, Vail, Colorado, June 2006 [arXiv:physics/0608157.pdf], available at [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0608157]</ref>

==Limitations==
Limitations of the tractor concept include the exhaust configuration. With the most efficient hovering design (that is, pointing the exhaust directly at the target object for maximum force per unit of fuel), the expelled reaction mass hits the target head-on, imparting a force in the exact opposite direction to the gravitational pull of the tractor.<ref>{{cite web |title = New Scientist: Letter to editor re: gravity tractor article, with author response|url= http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19526151.400-asteroid-deflection.html |date = 2007-08-04 |accessdate = 2010-03-30}}</ref> It would therefore be necessary to use the orbiting-tractor scheme described below, or else design the hovering tractor so that its exhaust is directed at a slight angle away from the object, while still pointing “down” enough to keep a steady hover.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.b612foundation.org/papers/JPL_report.doc |title= NEAR-EARTH OBJECT (NEO) ANALYSIS OF TRANSPONDER TRACKING AND GRAVITY TRACTOR PERFORMANCE |author= [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] |coauthors= D.K. Yeomans, S. Bhaskaran, S.B. Broschart, S.R. Chesley, P.W. Chodas, M.A. Jones, and T.H. Sweetser |date= September 22, 2008 |publisher= [[B612 Foundation]] |pages= 17–22 |format= Microsoft Word (.doc) |accessdate= April 8, 2010}}</ref> This requires greater thrust and correspondingly increased fuel consumption for each m/s change in the target’s velocity.

Issues of the effect of [[ion propulsion]] thrust on the dust of asteroids have been raised, suggesting that alternative means to control the [[orbital stationkeeping|station keeping]] position of the gravity tractor may need to be considered. In this respect, [[solar sail]]s have been suggested.<ref>http://www.centauri-dreams.org/?p=22765 The Asteroid and the Telescope], Paul Gilster, Centauri Dreams News, 2012-05-03, accessed 2012-05-14.</ref>

==Example==
To get a feel for the magnitude of these issues, let us suppose that a [[Near-Earth object|NEO]] of size around 100 m, and mass of one million metric tons, threatened to impact Earth. Suppose also that

* a velocity correction of 1 cm/s would be adequate to place it in a safe and stable orbit, missing Earth

* that the correction needed to be applied within a period of 10 years.

With these parameters, the required impulse would be: ''V'' × ''M''  = 0.01 [m/s]×109 [kg] = 107 [N-s], so that the average tractor force on the asteroid for 10 years, = 3.156×108 s,{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} would need to be about 0.032 newtons.
An ion-electric spacecraft with a specific impulse of 10,000 N-s per kg, corresponding to an ion beam velocity of 10 km/s (about twenty times that obtained with the best chemical rockets), would require 1,000 kg of reaction mass ([[Xenon]] is currently favored) to provide the impulse.
The kinetic power of the ion beam would then be approximately 317 W; the input electric power to the power converter and ion drive would of course be substantially higher.
The spacecraft would need to have enough mass and remain sufficiently close to the asteroid that the component of the average gravitational force on the asteroid in the desired direction would equal or exceed the required 0.032 N.
Assuming the spacecraft is hovering over the asteroid at a distance of 200 m to its centre of mass, that would
require it to have a mass of about 20 metric tonnes, because due to the [[gravitational force]] we
have{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

<math>
m_2 = \frac{F r^2}{G m_1}
=\frac{0.032[N] \times (200[m])^2}{6.674 \times 10^{-11} [N m^2 kg^{-2}] \times 10^9 [kg]}
\approx 19200 kg
</math>

Considering possible hovering positions or orbits of the tractor around the asteroid, note that if two objects are gravitationally bound in a mutual orbit, then if one receives an arbitrary impulse which is less than that needed to free it from orbit around the other, because of the gravitational forces between them, the impulse will alter the momentum of both, together regarded as a composite system.
That is, so long as the tractor remains in a bound orbit, any propulsive force applied to it will be effectively transferred to the asteroid it orbits.
This permits a wide variety of orbits or hovering strategies for the tractor.
One obvious possibility is for the spacecraft to orbit the NEO with the normal to the orbit in the direction of the desired force.
The ion beam would then be directed in the opposite direction, also perpendicular to the orbit plane. This would result in the plane of the orbit being shifted somewhat away from the center of the asteroid, "towing" it, while the orbital velocity, normal to the thrust, remains constant. The orbital period would be a few hours, essentially independent of size, but weakly dependent on the density of the target body.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/02/070217-asteroid-impact.html National Geographic, February 17, 2007]
* [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn8291 New Scientist, November 9, 2005]
* [http://www.b612foundation.org B612 Foundation]

{{Impact cratering on Earth}}

[[Category:Spaceflight concepts]]

[[fa:تراکتور گرانشی]]

Campbeltown Airport

2012-05-13T09:30:56Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Dated {{Dubious}}{{Citation needed}} x 2. (Build KF)

{{For|military use of the airport|RAF Machrihanish}}
{{Infobox airport
| name = Campbeltown Airport
| nativename = Port-adhair Cheann Loch Chille Chiarain
| nativename-a = RAF Machrihanish
| nativename-r = MoD Machrihanish
| image = Control Tower, Campbeltown Airport.jpg
| image-width = 200
| caption = Control Tower
| IATA = CAL
| ICAO = EGEC
| type = Military/Public
| owner = [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]]
| operator = [[Highlands and Islands Airports Limited]]
| city-served = [[Campbeltown]]
| location = [[Machrihanish]], [[Argyll and Bute]]
| elevation-f = 42
| elevation-m = 13
| latd = 55 | latm = 26 | lats = 14 | latNS = N
| longd= 005 | longm= 41 | longs= 11 | longEW= W
| coordinates_type = airport
| coordinates_region = GB-AGB
| pushpin_map = Scotland Argyll and Bute
| pushpin_label = EGEC
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Argyll and Bute
| website = [http://www.hial.co.uk/campbeltown-airport.html Campbeltown Airport]
| metric-rwy = Y
| r1-number = 11/29
| r1-length-f = {{convert|1750|m|disp=output number only|0}}
| r1-length-m = 1,750
| r1-surface = [[Asphalt]]
| stat-year = 2007
| stat1-header = Movements
| stat1-data = 3,674
| stat2-header = Passengers
| stat2-data = 9,181
| footnotes = Sources: UK [[Aeronautical Information Publication|AIP]] at [[National Air Traffic Services|NATS]]<ref name="aip">[http://www.nats-uk.ead-it.com/public/index.php%3Foption=com_content&task=blogcategory&id=40&Itemid=89.html Campbeltown - EGEC]</ref> Statistics from the [[Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)|UK Civil Aviation Authority]]<ref name="stats">[http://www.caa.co.uk/default.aspx?catid=80&pagetype=88&sglid=3&fld=2007Annual UK Airport Statistics: 2007 - annual]</ref>
}}

'''Campbeltown Airport''' ({{lang-gd|Port-adhair Cheann Loch Chille Chiarain}}) {{Airport codes|CAL|EGEC}} is located at [[Machrihanish]], {{convert|3|NM|abbr=on|lk=in}} west of [[Campbeltown]], near the tip of the [[Kintyre]] peninsula in [[Argyll and Bute]] on the west coast of [[Scotland]]. It is still owned by the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]], under a 'care and maintenance' programme, but a part of the airport is now run as a commercial enterprise by the [[Highlands and Islands Airports Limited]], a company under the control of the [[Scottish Government]].

The airport was formerly known as [[RAF Machrihanish]] (after the village of [[Machrihanish]]) and hosted squadrons of the [[Royal Air Force]] and other [[NATO]] air forces as well as the [[United States Marine Corps]]. It is now called [[MoD Machrihanish]]. The airport is at a strategic point near the Irish Sea, and was used to guard the entrance to the [[Firth of Clyde]] where US nuclear submarines were based at [[Holy Loch]] and where [[Royal Navy]] [[Trident (missile)|Trident missile]] submarines are still based at [[HMNB Clyde]] (Faslane Naval Base).

Permanent full time military operations ceased in 1997.

At {{Convert|3049|m|abbr=on|0}}, the original runway 11/29 at Campbeltown Airport is the longest of any public airport in Scotland. It was built between 1960 and 1962 as part of a major reconstruction for the airport's role in NATO. It was certified to accept the [[Space Shuttle]] should it have needed to make landfall in [[Europe]]{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}, and provided for the [[Boeing 747]] [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]] to get airborne again{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}. Today the published length of the runway is {{convert|1750|m|abbr=on|0}}.<ref name="aip"/>. This is the largest runway in Europe{{Dubious|date=May 2012}}.

Campbeltown Aerodrome has a [[Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)|CAA]] Ordinary Licence (Number P808) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by the licensee (Highlands & Islands Airports Limited)<ref>[http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/375/srg_asd_ordinarylicences.pdf Civil Aviation Authority Aerodrome Ordinary Licences]</ref>

==Scheduled Services==
{{Airport-dest-list
|[[Flybe]] operated by [[Loganair]]|[[Glasgow International Airport|Glasgow-International]]
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.hial.co.uk/campbeltown-airport.html Campbeltown Airport - Official website]

{{Airports in Scotland}}
{{Airports in the United Kingdom}}

[[Category:Airports in Scotland]]
[[Category:Transport in Argyll and Bute]]
[[Category:Highlands and Islands Airports Limited]]
[[Category:Space Shuttle landing sites]]

[[pms:Campbeltown Airport]]
[[ru:Кэмпбелтаун (аэропорт)]]

Natriumthiopental

2012-05-13T06:16:27Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{drugbox
| Verifiedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 476993112
| IUPAC_name = (''RS'')-[5-ethyl-4,6-dioxo-5-(pentan-2-yl)-1,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrimidin-2-yl]sulfanide sodium
| image = Sodium thiopental.svg
| width = 113
| alt = 1:1 mixture (racemate)
| image2 = Sodium-thiopental-3D-vdW-2.png


| Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|thiopental-sodium}}
| pregnancy_category =
| legal_US = Schedule III
| routes_of_administration = Oral, intravenous


| bioavailability =
| metabolism =
| elimination_half-life = 5.5<ref>{{cite journal |author=Russo H, Brès J, Duboin MP, Roquefeuil B |title=Pharmacokinetics of thiopental after single and multiple intravenous doses in critical care patients |journal=Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. |volume=49 |issue=1–2 |pages=127–37 |year=1995 |pmid=8751034 |doi= 10.1007/BF00192371|url= }}</ref>-26 hours<ref>{{cite journal |author=Morgan DJ, Blackman GL, Paull JD, Wolf LJ |title=Pharmacokinetics and plasma binding of thiopental. II: Studies at cesarean section |journal=Anesthesiology |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=474–80 |year=1981 |month=June |pmid=7235275 |doi= 10.1097/00000542-198106000-00006|url= }}</ref>
| excretion =


| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}}
| CAS_number = 71-73-8
| CAS_supplemental = (sodium salt) 76-75-5 (free acid) 
| ATC_prefix = N01
| ATC_suffix = AF03
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N05|CA19}}
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 9561
| PubChem = 3000714
| IUPHAR_ligand = 2579
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|changed|drugbank}}
| DrugBank = DB00599
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 2272257
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|changed|FDA}}
| UNII = 49Y44QZL70
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = D00714
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 738


| C=11 | H=17 | N=2 | Na=1 | O=2 | S=1
| molecular_weight = 264.32 g/mol
| smiles = [Na+].O=C1NC(=S)/N=C(/[O-])C1(C(C)CCC)CC
| InChI = 1S/C11H18N2O2S.Na/c1-4-6-7(3)11(5-2)8(14)12-10(16)13-9(11)15;/h7H,4-6H2,1-3H3,(H2,12,13,14,15,16);/q;+1/p-1
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C11H18N2O2S.Na/c1-4-6-7(3)11(5-2)8(14)12-10(16)13-9(11)15;/h7H,4-6H2,1-3H3,(H2,12,13,14,15,16);/q;+1/p-1
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = AWLILQARPMWUHA-UHFFFAOYSA-M
}}
'''Sodium thiopental''', better known as '''Sodium Pentothal''' (a [[trademark]] of [[Abbott Laboratories]]), '''thiopental''', '''thiopentone''' '''sodium''', or '''Trapanal''' (also a trademark), is a rapid-onset short-acting [[barbiturate]] [[general anaesthetic]]. Thiopental is a core medicine in the [[World Health Organization]]'s "[[WHO Model List of Essential Medicines|Essential Drugs List]]", which is a list of minimum medical needs for a basic healthcare system.<ref name="essentialWHO">{{cite web | year = March 2005 | url = http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2005/a87017_eng.pdf | title = WHO Model List of Essential Medicines | format = PDF | publisher = World Health Organization | accessdate = 2006-03-12}}</ref> It is also usually the first of three drugs administered during most [[lethal injection]]s in the United States.


==Barbiturates==
{{Main|Barbiturate}}
Barbiturates are a class of drugs that act on the [[GABA A receptor|GABAA receptor]] in the brain and spinal cord. The GABAA receptor is an inhibitory channel that decreases neuronal activity, and barbiturates enhance the inhibitory action of the GABAA receptor. Barbiturates, [[benzodiazepine]]s, and [[alcohol]] all bind to the GABAA receptor. Barbiturates that act on the barbiturate binding site of the GABAA receptor directly gate the chloride ion channel of the GABAA receptor, whereas benzodiazepines acting on the benzodiazepine site on the GABAA receptor increase the opening frequency of the chloride ion channel. This explains why overdoses of barbiturates may be lethal whereas overdoses of benzodiazepines alone are typically not lethal. Another explanation is that barbiturates can activate GABA receptors in the absence of the GABA molecule, whereas benzodiazepines need GABA to be present to have an effect: this may explain the more widespread effects of barbiturates in the central nervous system. Barbiturates have [[anesthetic]], [[sedative]], [[anxiolytic]], [[anticonvulsant]] and [[hypnotic]] properties. Barbiturates do not have [[analgesic]] effects.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/ccm/Anesth/aneshome.cfm |title=Anesthesia and Analgesia |accessdate=2007-08-05 |publisher=[[University of Virginia School of Medicine]]}}</ref>

Further, barbiturates are relatively "promiscuous" (i.e. non-selective) compounds that bind to an entire superfamily of ligand-gated ion channels, of which the GABAA receptor channel is only one of several representatives. This superfamily of ion channels includes the neuronal nACHR channel, the 5HT3R channel, the GlyR channel and others. Surprisingly, while GABAA receptor currents are increased by barbiturates (and other general anaesthetics), ligand-gated ion channels that are predominantly permeable for cationic ions are blocked by these compounds. For example, neuronal nACHR channels are blocked by clinically relevant anaesthetic concentrations of both thiopental and pentobarbital.<ref name="Weber_nAChR_anaesthetics">{{cite journal | last1 = Weber | first1 = M | last2 = Motin | first2 = L | last3 = Gaul | first3 = S | last4 = Beker | first4 = F | last5 = Fink | first5 = RH | last6 = Adams | first6 = DJ | year = 2005 | month = January | title = Intravenous anaesthetics inhibit nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-mediated currents and Ca2+ transients in rat intracardiac ganglion neurons | journal = [[British Journal of Pharmacology]] | volume = 144 | issue = 1 | pages = 98–107 | pmid = 15644873 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjp.0705942 | pmc = 1575970}}</ref> Such findings implicate (non-GABA-ergic) ligand-gated ion channels, e.g. the neuronal nAChR channel, in mediating some of the (side) effects of barbiturates.<ref name="Franks_Lieb_general_anaesthetics">{{cite journal | last1 = Franks | first1 = NP | last2 = Lieb | first2 = WR | date = 23 November 1998 | title = Which molecular targets are most relevant to general anaesthesia? | journal = Toxicology Letters | volume = 100–101 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 1–8 | pmid = 10049127 | doi = 10.1016/S0378-4274(98)00158-1}}</ref>

==Uses==
===Anesthesia===
Thiopental is an ultra-short-acting barbiturate and has been used commonly in the induction phase of [[general anaesthesia|general anesthesia]]. Its use in the United States and elsewhere has been largely replaced with that of [[propofol]]. Following [[intravenous therapy|intravenous]] [[Injection (medicine)|injection]] the drug rapidly reaches the brain and causes unconsciousness within 30–45 seconds. At one minute, the drug attains a peak concentration of about 60% of the total dose in the brain. Thereafter, the drug distributes to the rest of the body and in about 5–10 minutes the concentration is low enough in the brain such that consciousness returns.{{citation needed|date=December 2009}}

A normal dose of thiopental (usually 4–6 mg/kg) given to a pregnant woman for operative delivery ([[caesarian section]]) rapidly makes her unconscious, but the baby in her [[uterus]] remains conscious. However, larger or repeated doses can depress the baby.{{citation needed|date=December 2009}}

Thiopental is not used to maintain anesthesia in surgical procedures because, in infusion, it displays [[Zero order kinetics|zero-order elimination kinetics]], leading to a long period before consciousness is regained. Instead, anesthesia is usually maintained with an [[Inhalational anaesthetic|inhaled anesthetic]] (gas) agent. Inhaled anesthetics are eliminated relatively quickly, so that stopping the inhaled anesthetic will allow rapid return of consciousness. Thiopental would have to be given in large amounts to maintain an anesthetic plane, and because of its 11.5–26 hour [[Biological half-life|half-life]], consciousness would take a long time to return.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Morgan DJ, Blackman GL, Paull JD, Wolf LJ |title=Pharmacokinetics and plasma binding of thiopental. II: Studies at cesarean section |journal=Anesthesiology |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=474–80 |year=1981 |pmid=7235275 |doi=10.1097/00000542-198106000-00006}}</ref>

In [[veterinary medicine]], thiopental is used to induce [[Veterinary anesthesia|anesthesia in animals]]. Since thiopental is redistributed to fat, certain breeds of dogs – primarily the [[sight hounds]] – can have accelerated recoveries from thiopental due to their lack of body fat and their lean body mass. Similarly, overweight or obese animals will have prolonged recoveries from thiopental. Thiopental is always administered intravenously, as it can be fairly irritating; severe [[tissue necrosis]] and sloughing can occur if it is injected incorrectly into the tissue around a vein.

===Medically induced coma===
In addition to anesthesia induction, thiopental was historically used to induce [[Induced coma|medical comas]]. It has now been superseded by drugs such as [[propofol]].

Thiopental has a long Context Sensitive Half Time (CSHT), meaning infusions saturate peripheral compartments (fat, muscle etc.). When the infusion is stopped, the drug redistributes from the peripheral tissues back into the blood, prolonging the effect.

Thiopental also exhibits [[Rate_law#Zero-order_reactions|zero order kinetics]] at higher doses. The rate of elimination becomes constant.

Patients with brain swelling, causing elevation of the intracranial pressure, either secondary to trauma or following surgery, may benefit from this drug. Thiopental, and the barbiturate class of drugs, decrease neuronal activity and therefore decrease the production of osmotically active metabolites, which in turn decreases swelling. Patients with significant swelling have improved outcomes following the induction of coma. Reportedly, thiopental has been shown to be superior to [[pentobarbital]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pérez-Bárcena J |title=[Comparison of the effectiveness of pentobarbital and thiopental in patients with refractory intracranial hypertension. Preliminary report of 20 patients] |language=Spanish; Castilian |journal=Neurocirugia (Astur) |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=5–12; discussion 12–3 |year=2005 |month=February |pmid=15756405 |doi= |url=http://www.revistaneurocirugia.com/web/artics/v16n1/1.pdf |accessdate=2008-07-18 |author-separator=, |author2=Barceló B |author3=Homar J |display-authors=3 |last4=Abadal |first4=JM |last5=Molina |first5=FJ |last6=De La Peña |first6=A |last7=Sahuquillo |first7=J |last8=Ibáñez |first8=J}}</ref> in reducing intracranial pressure.This phenomena is also termed as Reverse steal Effect.

===Euthanasia===
Thiopental is used intravenously for the purposes of [[euthanasia]]. The [[Belgium|Belgian]]s and the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] have created a protocol that recommends sodium thiopental as the ideal agent to induce coma, followed by [[pancuronium bromide]].<ref name=euthanasics>{{cite web |url=http://wweek.com/html/euthanasics.html |title=Administration and Compounding of Euthanasic Agents |accessdate=2008-07-18 |author=Royal Dutch Society for the Advancement of Pharmacy |publisher=[[The Hague]] |year=1994}}</ref>

Intravenous administration is the most reliable and rapid way to accomplish euthanasia. A coma is first induced by intravenous administration of 20 mg/kg thiopental sodium (Nesdonal) in a small volume (10 ml physiological saline). Then, a triple dose of a non-depolarizing skeletal muscle relaxant is given, such as 20 mg [[pancuronium bromide]] (Pavulon) or 20 mg [[vecuronium bromide]] (Norcuron). The muscle relaxant should be given intravenously to ensure optimal availability but pancuronium bromide may be administered intramuscularly at an increased dosage level of 40 mg.<ref name=euthanasics />

===Lethal injection===
{{details|Lethal injection}}

Along with [[pancuronium bromide]] and [[potassium chloride]], thiopental is used in 34 states of the [[United States|U.S.]] to execute prisoners by [[lethal injection]]. A very large dose is given to ensure rapid loss of consciousness. Although death usually occurs within ten minutes of the beginning of the injection process, some have been known to take longer.<ref name="Biros">{{cite web
| year = December 2001
| url = http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=D9CF8Q2G6&show_article=1&catnum=0
| title = Ohio executes inmate with 1-drug lethal injection
| publisher = AP
| accessdate = 2009-12-08
}} </ref> The use of sodium thiopental in execution protocols was challenged in court after a study in the medical journal ''[[The Lancet]]'' reported autopsies of executed inmates showed the level of thiopental in their bloodstream was insufficient to cause unconsciousness.

On December 8, 2009, the State of Ohio became the first to use a single dose of sodium thiopental for its capital execution, following the failed use of the standard three-drug cocktail during a recent execution, due to inability to locate suitable veins. [[Kenneth Biros]] was executed using the single-drug method. Death was pronounced at 11:47 a.m., about ten minutes after the single-dose injection was administered. Including the time required to insert the IV lines and prepare the inmate, the entire process lasted 43 minutes.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/blogs/2009/09/24/crimesider/entry5334823.shtml | title = Kenneth Biros Execution: Ohio Man First to Die Under 1-Drug Thiopental Sodium Method | first = Edecio | last = Martinez | date = 8 December 2009 | work = [[CBS News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5h18cDX6PuFXpdEc3JIHpQRFMapvAD9CF8BL00 | title = Ohio executes inmate with 1-drug lethal injection | date = 9 December 2009 | agency = [[Associated Press]] | publisher = [[Google]] | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5mEkZTdUI | archivedate = 23 December 2009}}</ref> Ohio executed a second man using sodium thiopental on January 7, 2010. [[Vernon Smith (murderer)|Vernon Smith]] was pronounced dead eight minutes after the time of injection.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.timesfreepress.com/news/2010/jan/07/ohio-executes-man-second-use-1-drug-method/ | title = Ohio executes man in second use of 1-drug method | publisher = [[Chattanooga Times Free Press]] | first = Julie Carr | last = Smyth | agency = [[Associated Press]] | date = 7 January 2010}}</ref> A third man was executed using the single-drug method on April 20, 2010. [[Daryl Durr]] was pronounced dead at 10:36 am.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.cnn.com/2010/CRIME/04/20/ohio.execution/index.html?hpt=Sbin | title = Ohio executes murderer of teen | work = [[CNN.com]] | date = 20 April 2010 }}</ref> Most recently, [[William Garner (criminal)|William Garner]] was executed in Ohio with sodium thiopental.<ref> {{cite news | url = http://www.cnn.com/2010/CRIME/07/13/ohio.execution/index.html?iref=NS1 | title = Man convicted of murdering 5 children executed in Ohio | work = [[CNN.com]] | date = 13 July 2010 }}</ref>

The [[Washington (U.S. state)|state of Washington]] is now the second state in the U.S. to use the single-dose sodium thiopental injections for death penalty executions. On September 10, 2010, [[Cal Coburn Brown]] was executed. His was the first execution in the state to use a single dose, single drug injection. His death was pronounced approximately one and a half minutes after the intravenous administration of five grams of the drug.<ref> {{cite news | url = http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2012856652_execution10m.html | title = Killer on death row 16-1/2 years is executed | work = [[The Seattle Times]] | date = 10 September 2010 | first=Jennifer | last=Sullivan}}</ref>

Following a shortage that led a court to delay an execution in California, a company spokesman for [[Hospira]], the sole American manufacturer of the drug, objected to the use of thiopental in lethal injection. "Hospira manufactures this product because it improves or saves lives, and the company markets it solely for use as indicated on the product labeling. The drug is not indicated for capital punishment, and Hospira does not support its use in this procedure."<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/29/us/29execute.html | title = Judges Question California's Motivation on Execution | first = Jesse | last = McKinley | date = 28 September 2010 | work = [[New York Times]]}}</ref> On January 21, 2011, the company announced that it would stop production of sodium thiopental from its plant in Italy because it could not guarantee Italian authorities that the drug would not be used in executions. Italy was the only viable place where the company could produce sodium thiopental, leaving the United States without a supplier.<ref> {{cite news | url=http://www.foxnews.com/us/2011/01/21/drug-maker-discontinues-key-death-penalty-drug/#ixzz1BhqUFIxP | title=U.S. Drug Maker Discontinues Key Death Penalty Drug | publisher=Fox News | date=21 January 2011}}</ref>

States such as Nebraska and South Dakota have turned to an Indian supplier of the drug but this move has been criticized on the grounds the chemical may deteriorate in transit to the United States.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/US-death-row-injection-comes-from-Mumbai-firm/articleshow/7870059.cms | title = US death row injection comes from Mumbai firm | date = 5 April 2011 | work = [[Times of India]] | first=Hemali |last=Chhapia}}</ref>

A request from [[Gary Locke]] to export thiopental for lethal injections was denied by the German government.<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.pharmazeutische-zeitung.de/index.php?id=38197 | publisher = Pharmazeutische Zeitung.de| title = Thiopental: Rösler sagt nein zu Export nach USA| date = 8 June 2011 }}</ref>

===Truth serum===
Thiopental (Pentothal) is still used in some places as a [[truth drug|truth serum]] to weaken the resolve of the subject and make them more compliant to pressure.<ref name="SMH_truth_serum">{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/truth-serum-used-on-serial-child-killers/2007/01/12/1168105166282.html|publisher=Sydney Morning Herald|title=Truth serum used on 'serial child killers'|date=January 12, 2007|agency=Reuters}}</ref> The barbiturates as a class decrease higher cortical brain functioning. Some psychiatrists hypothesize that because lying is more complex than telling the truth, suppression of the higher cortical functions may lead to the uncovering of the truth. The drug tends to make subjects loquacious and cooperative with interrogators; however, the reliability of confessions made under thiopental is questionable.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anne Bannon; Stevens, Serita Deborah |title=The Howdunit Book of Poisons (Howdunit) |publisher=Writers Digest Books |location=Cincinnati |year=2007 |isbn=1-58297-456-X}}</ref>

===Psychiatry===
Psychiatrists have used thiopental to desensitize patients with [[phobia]]s,<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/137/12/1580 | title = Behavioral desensitization of phobic anxiety using thiopental sodium | first = T. | last = Pearlman | journal = [[The American Journal of Psychiatry]] | publisher = [[American Psychiatric Association]] | year = 1980 | issue = 12| pages = 1580–1582 | pmid = 6108082 | volume = 137}}</ref> and to "facilitate the recall of painful repressed memories."<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,863001,00.html | title = Drugged Future? | date = February 24, 1958 | work = [[TIME]]}}</ref> One psychiatrist who worked with thiopental is the [[Dutch people|Dutch]] Professor Jan Bastiaans, who used this procedure to help relieve trauma in surviving victims of the [[Holocaust]].<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.maps.org/news-letters/v08n1/08118sne.html | title = The LSD Therapy Career of Jan Bastiaans, M.D | first = Stephen | last = Snelders | journal = Newsletter of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies | publisher = [[Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies]] | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | year = 1998 | pages = 18–20}}</ref>

==Metabolism==
Thiopental rapidly and easily crosses the blood brain barrier as it is a lipophillic molecule. As with all lipid-soluble anaesthetic drugs, the short duration of action of sodium thiopental is due almost entirely to its redistribution away from central circulation towards muscle and fat tissue, due to its very high fat:water partition coefficient (aprx 10), leading to sequestration in fat tissue. Once redistributed, the free fraction in the blood is metabolised in the liver. Sodium thiopental is mainly metabolized to [[pentobarbital]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=WINTERS WD, SPECTOR E, WALLACH DP, SHIDEMAN FE |title=Metabolism of thiopental-S35 and thiopental-2-C14 by a rat liver mince and identification of pentobarbital as a major metabolite |journal=J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. |volume=114 |issue=3 |pages=343–57 |year=1955 |month=July |pmid=13243246 |doi= |url=http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=13243246 |accessdate=2008-07-18}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> 5-ethyl-5-(1'-methyl-3'-hydroxybutyl)-2-thiobarbituric acid, and 5-ethyl-5-(1'-methyl-3'-carboxypropyl)-2-thiobarbituric acid.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bory C |title=[Use of thiopental in man. Determination of this drug and its metabolites in plasma and urine by liquid phase chromatography and mass spectrometry] |language=French |journal=C. R. Acad. Sci. III, Sci. Vie |volume=303 |issue=1 |pages=7–12 |year=1986 |pmid=3093002 |doi= |url= |author-separator=, |author2=Chantin C |author3=Boulieu R |display-authors=3 |last4=Cotte |first4=J |last5=Berthier |first5=JC |last6=Fraisse |first6=D |last7=Bobenrieth |first7=MJ}}</ref>

==Dosage==
The usual dose range for induction of anesthesia using thiopental is from 3 to 7 mg/kg; however, there are many factors that can alter this. Premedication with sedatives such as [[benzodiazepines]] or [[clonidine]] will reduce requirements, as do specific disease states and other patient factors. Among patient factors are: age, sex, lean body mass. Specific disease conditions that can alter the dose requirements of thiopentone and for that matter any other intravenous anaesthetic are: [[hypovolemia]], burns, [[azotemia]], [[hepatic failure]], [[hypoproteinemia]], etc.

==Side effects==
As with nearly all [[anesthesia|anesthetic]] [[Medication|drug]]s, thiopental causes cardiovascular and respiratory depression resulting in [[hypotension]], [[apnea]] and [[airway]] obstruction. For these reasons, only suitably trained medical personnel should give thiopental in an environment suitably equipped to deal with these effects. Side effects include headache, [[agitated emergence]], prolonged [[somnolence]], and [[nausea]]. Intravenous administration of sodium thiopental is followed instantly by an odor and/or taste sensation, sometimes described as being similar to rotting onions, or to garlic. The hangover from the side effects may last up to 36 hours.

Although individual [[molecules]] of thiopental contain one [[sulfur]] atom, it is not a [[sulfonamide (chemistry)|sulfonamide]], and does not show allergic reactions of sulfa/sulpha drugs.

==Contraindications==
Thiopental should not be given in case of [[liver disease]], [[Addison's disease]], [[myxedema]], severe [[heart disease]], severe [[hypotension]], a severe [[breathing disorder]], or a history of [[porphyria]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emedicinehealth.com/drug-thiopental/article_em.htm|title=Pentothal (thiopental)|date=April 12, 2009|publisher=eMedicineHealth}}</ref>

Co-administration of [[pentoxifylline]] and thiopental causes death by acute [[pulmonary edema]] in rats. This pulmonary edema was not mediated by [[cardiac failure]] or by [[pulmonary hypertension]] but was due to increased pulmonary vascular permeability.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pereda J |title=Co-administration of pentoxifylline and thiopental causes death by acute pulmonary oedema in rats |journal=Br. J. Pharmacol. |volume=149 |issue=4 |pages=450–5 |year=2006 |month=October |pmid=16953192 |pmc=1978439 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0706871 |author-separator=, |author2=Gómez-Cambronero L |author3=Alberola A |display-authors=3 |last4=Fabregat |first4=G |last5=Cerdá |first5=M |last6=Escobar |first6=J |last7=Sabater |first7=L |last8=García-De-La-Asuneión |first8=J |last9=Viña |first9=J}}</ref>

==History==
Sodium thiopental was discovered in the early 1930s by [[Ernest H. Volwiler]] and Donalee L. Tabern, working for [[Abbott Laboratories]]. It was first used in human beings on March 8, 1934, by Dr. Ralph M. Waters<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.anesthesia.wisc.edu/AHA/Calendar/March.html | title = This Month in Anesthesia History: March | publisher = Anesthesia History Association}}</ref> in an investigation of its properties, which were short-term anesthesia and surprisingly little analgesia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Steinhaus|first=John E|url=http://www.asahq.org/~/media/For%20Members/Publications/Periodicals/ASA%20Newsletter/NL%20Archives/2001/09%20Sept%2001.ashx|title=The Investigator and His 'Uncompromising Scientific Honesty'|publisher=American Society of Anesthesiologists|journal=Asa Newsletter|month=September|year=2001|volume=65|issue=9|pages=7–9}}</ref> Three months later,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.aana.com/Resources.aspx?id=1811|title=From this point in time: Some memories of my part in the history of anesthesia|first=John S.|last=Lundy|year=1966|journal=Journal of the American Association of Nurse Anesthetists|publisher=American Association of Nurse Anesthetists|volume=24|issue=2|pages=95–102}}</ref> Dr. John S. Lundy started a clinical trial of thiopental at the [[Mayo Clinic]] at the request of Abbott.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.aana.com/Resources.aspx?id=1730|title=History of Anesthesia with Emphasis on the Nurse Specialist|last=Thatcher|first=Virginia S.|year=1953|publisher=J.B. Lippincott|chapter=Chapter 7: Illegal or Legal?|chapterurl=http://www.aana.com/uploadedFiles/Resources/Archives_-_Library/Historical_Resources/Thatcher/0008CHP7.PDF|isbn=0-8240-6525-5}}</ref> Abbott continued to make the drug until 2004, when it spun off its hospital-products division as [[Hospira]].

Thiopental is famously associated with a number of anesthetic deaths in victims of the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]. These deaths, relatively soon after the substance's discovery, were due to excessive doses given to shocked trauma patients. Evidence has become available through [[freedom of information legislation]] and has been reviewed in the ''[[British Journal of Anaesthesia]]''.<ref name="pmid7547061">{{cite journal |author=Bennetts FE |title=Thiopentone anaesthesia at Pearl Harbor |journal=Br J Anaesth |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=366–8 |year=1995 |month=September |pmid=7547061 |doi= |url=http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7547061 |accessdate=2008-07-18}}</ref> Thiopental anaesthesia was in its early days, but nevertheless 13 of 344 wounded admitted to the [[Tripler Army Medical Center|Tripler Army Hospital]] did not survive.

Thiopental is still rarely used as a [[recreational drug]], usually stolen from veterinarians or other legitimate users of the drug; however, more common sedatives such as [[benzodiazepines]] are usually preferred as recreational drugs, and abuse of thiopental tends to be uncommon and opportunistic.

==Chemistry==
Thiopental, 5-ethyl-5-(1-methylbutyl)2-thiobarbituric acid, is synthesized by the alkylation of ethylmalonic ester with 2-bromopentane in the presence of [[sodium ethoxide]]. The product ethyl-(1-methylbutyl)malonic ester undergoes heterocyclization with [[thiourea]], using sodium ethoxide as a base.
[[File:Sodium thiopental synthesis.png|600px|center]]
*E.H. Volwlier, D.L. Tabern, {{US Patent|2153729}} (1939).
*G.H. Donaldson, W. Bay, {{US Patent|2876225}} (1959).

==See also==
* [[Pentobarbital]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?sid=149220 PubChem Substance Summary: Thiopental]

{{Barbiturates}}
{{General anesthetics}}
{{Hypnotics and sedatives}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sodium Thiopental}}

[[Category:General anesthetics]]
[[Category:Lethal injection components]]
[[Category:Sodium compounds]]
[[Category:Thiobarbiturates]]
[[Category:World Health Organization essential medicines]]



[[ar:بنتوثال الصوديوم]]
[[ca:Tiopental]]
[[cs:Thiopental sodný]]
[[de:Thiopental]]
[[es:Tiopentato de sodio]]
[[eo:Tiopentalo]]
[[fa:تیوپنتال]]
[[fr:Thiopental]]
[[it:Tiopental sodico]]
[[hu:Tiopentál-nátrium]]
[[nl:Natriumthiopental]]
[[ja:チオペンタール]]
[[no:Tiopental]]
[[pl:Tiopental]]
[[pt:Tiopental]]
[[ru:Тиопентал натрия]]
[[fi:Tiopentaali]]
[[sv:Tiopental]]
[[tr:Pentotal]]
[[ur:تھایوپینٹال سوڈیئم]]
[[zh:硫噴妥鈉]]

Reform des Osterdatums

2012-05-13T04:22:37Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

Reform of the date of Easter has been proposed several times because the current system for determining the date of [[Easter]] is seen as presenting two significant problems:

# Its [[moveable feast|date varies from year to year]] (by the Western system of calculation, it can fall on any of 35 different dates of the [[Gregorian calendar]]). While many Christians do not consider this to be a problem, it can cause frequent difficulties of co-ordination with civil calendars, for example [[academic term]]s. Many countries can have [[public holiday]]s around Easter weekend.
# The [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] and [[Western Christianity|Western]] Christian churches calculate Pascha using two different calendars (Julian and Gregorian, respectively); hence in most years Easter is celebrated on a different date in the East and the West.
{{Dates for Easter}}

==Fixed date==
It has been proposed that the first problem could be resolved by making Easter occur on a fixed date every year, or alternatively on a Sunday within a fixed range of seven dates.<ref>The Pepuzites, a 5th-century sect, celebrated Easter on the Sunday following April 6. Sozomen, ''Ecclesiastical History'' 7.18. The April 6 date was apparently arrived at because it was equivalent to the 14th of the month of Artemisios in an earlier calendar used in the area, hence, the 14th of the first month of spring. Thomas J. Talley, "Afterthoughts on ''The Origins of the Liturgical Year''", in Sean Gallagher et. al. Eds., ''Western Plainchantin the First Millennium'', Ashgate, Aldershot, 2003, pp. 1-10.</ref> While tying it to one fixed date would serve to underline the belief that Easter commemorates an actual historical event, without an accompanying [[calendar reform]] it would also break the tradition of Easter always being on a Sunday, established since the 2nd century AD and by now deeply embedded in the [[Liturgy|liturgical]] practice and [[Theology|theological]] understanding of almost all [[Christian denomination]]s.

The two most widespread proposals for fixing the date of Easter would set it on either the second Sunday in April (8 to 14), or the Sunday after the second Saturday in April (9 to 15). In both schemes, account has been taken of the fact that—in spite of the many difficulties in establishing the dates of the historical events involved—many scholars attribute a high degree of probability to [[Good Friday|Friday]] April 7, 30, as the date of the [[crucifixion]] of [[Jesus]], which would make April 9 the date of the [[Resurrection]]. Another date which is supported by many scholars is April 3, 33,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schaefer |first=B. E. |year=1990 |title=Lunar Visibility and the Crucifixion |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=53–67 |bibcode=1990QJRAS..31...53S}}</ref><ref name="nature.com">[[Colin Humphreys]] and W. G. Waddington, "Dating the Crucifixion ," Nature 306 (December 22/29, 1983), pp. 743-46.[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v306/n5945/abs/306743a0.html]</ref><ref name=HumWadJASA>Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, ''The Date of the Crucifixion'' Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 (March 1985)[http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/1985/JASA3-85Humphreys.html]</ref><ref>[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, p. 193</ref> making April 5 the date of the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]]. Many churches, including the [[Roman Catholic Church]], have stated that they have no objection in principle to fixing the date of Easter in this way, but no serious discussions have yet taken place on implementing such a change.

In the late 1920s and 1930s, this idea gained some momentum (along with other calendar reform proposals, such as the [[World Calendar]]), and in 1928 a law was passed in the United Kingdom authorising an Order in Council which would fix the date of Easter in that country as the first Sunday after the second Saturday in April.<ref>''Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History'', by E.G. Richards (1998), p. 122 ISBN 0-19-286205-7</ref> However, this was never implemented. In 1977, some Eastern Orthodox representatives objected to separating the date of Easter from lunar phases.<ref>[http://www.byzcath.org/index.php/news-mainmenu-49/2689-ukrainian-catholic-university-organizes-seminar-on-easter-date Ukrainian Catholic University Organizes Seminar on Easter Date]</ref>

==Unified date==
Proposals to resolve the second problem have made greater progress, but they are yet to be adopted.

===1923 attempt===
An astronomical rule for Easter was proposed by the 1923 synod that also proposed the [[Revised Julian calendar]]: Easter was to be the Sunday after the midnight-to-midnight day at the meridian of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in [[Jerusalem]] (35°13'47.2"E or UT+2h20m55s for the small dome) during which the first [[full moon]] after the vernal equinox occurs.<ref>M. Milankovitch, "Das Ende des julianischen Kalenders und der neue Kalender der orientalischen Kirchen", ''Astronomische Nachrichten'' '''220''' (1924) 379–384.</ref><ref>Miriam Nancy Shields, "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1924PA.....32..407S The new calendar of the Eastern churches]", ''Popular Astronomy'' '''32''' (1924) 407–411 ([http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1924PA.....32R.411H page 411]). This is a translation of M. Milankovitch, "The end of the Julian calendar and the new calendar of the Eastern churches", ''Astronomische Nachrichten'' No. 5279 (1924).</ref> Although the instant of the full moon must occur after the instant of the vernal equinox, it may occur on the same day. If the full moon occurs on a Sunday, Easter is the following Sunday. This proposed astronomical rule was rejected by all Orthodox churches and was never considered by any Western church.

===1997 attempt===
The [[World Council of Churches]] proposed a reform of the method of determining the date of Easter at a summit in [[Aleppo]], [[Syria]], in 1997:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oikoumene.org/index.php?id=2677|title=Towards a Common Date of Easter - World Council of Churches/Middle East Council of Churches Consultation Aleppo, Syria, March 5–10, 1997|publisher=[[World Council of Churches]]|date=10 March 1997}}</ref> Easter would be defined as the first Sunday following the first [[Astronomy|astronomical]] [[full moon]] following the astronomical [[vernal equinox]], as determined from the [[meridian (geography)|meridian]] of [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]].<ref>{{cite web|title=World Council of Churches Press Release: THE DATE OF EASTER: SCIENCE OFFERS SOLUTION TO ANCIENT RELIGIOUS PROBLEM|url=http://www.smart.net/~mmontes/pr.wcc.19970324.html|date=24 March 1997}}</ref> The reform would have been implemented starting in 2001, since in that year the Eastern and Western dates of Easter would coincide.

This reform has not been implemented. It would have relied mainly on the co-operation of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], since the date of [[Easter|Pascha]] (Easter) would change for them immediately; whereas for the Western churches, the new system would not differ from that currently in use until 2019. However, Eastern Orthodox support was not forthcoming, and the reform failed.<ref>{{cite web|author=Luke Luhl|title=The Proposal for a Common Date to Celebrate Pascha and Easter|url=http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/ecumenism/common_luhl.aspx|publisher=Orthodox Christian Information Center|year=1997}}</ref> The much greater impact that this reform would have had on the Eastern churches in comparison with those of the West led some Orthodox to suspect that the WCC's decision was an attempt by the West to impose its viewpoint unilaterally on the rest of the world under the guise of [[ecumenism]].

===2008–2009 attempt===
In 2008 and 2009, there was a new attempt to reach a consensus on a unified date on the part of Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant leaders.<ref>[http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/node/8130 New attempt to achieve a common date for Easter]</ref><ref>[http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/node/9553 Hope for a common date for Easter affirmed again]</ref> This effort largely relies on earlier work carried out during the 1997 Aleppo conference.<ref>[http://www.christianpost.com/article/20090601/ecumenical-christians-hope-for-common-easter-date-after-2009/index.html Ecumenical Christians Hope for Common Easter Date After 2009]</ref><ref>[http://www.byzcath.org/index.php/news-mainmenu-49/2689-ukrainian-catholic-university-organizes-seminar-on-easter-date Ukrainian Catholic University Organizes Seminar on Easter Date]</ref> It was organized by academics working at the Institute of ecumenical studies of [[Lviv University]].<ref>[http://www.cathnews.com/article.aspx?aeid=14084 Hopes rise for East-West common Easter]</ref><ref>[http://www.oikoumene.org/en/news/news-management/eng/a/article/1634/a-common-date-for-easter.html A common date for Easter is possible]</ref>

Part of this attempt was reportedly influenced by ecumenical efforts in Syria and Lebanon, where the [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Greek-Melkite Church]] has played an important role in improving ties with the Orthodox.<ref>[http://www.soufanieh.com/PETITION/19820107.lettre.unite.eveques.htm 1982 petition for a unified Easter date]</ref><ref>[http://www.speroforum.com/site/article.asp?idarticle=16989&t=Christians+eye+common+date+for+Easter Christians eye common date for Easter]</ref> There is also a series of apparition phenomena known as [[Our Lady of Soufanieh]] that has urged for a common date of Easter.<ref>[http://www.soufanieh.com/PETITION/petition.htm Petition for a Common date of Easter]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Computus]]
*[[Easter controversy]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.smart.net/~mmontes/ortheast.html Notes on calculating Orthodox Pascha ("Easter")]
*[http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/ecumenism/calendar_bond.aspx An Orthodox article arguing for preservation of the current method of calculating the date of Pascha]

{{Easter}}
{{Time in religion and mythology}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Easter, Reform Of The Date Of}}
[[Category:Calendars]]
[[Category:Easter]]

The Heartland Institute

2012-05-13T02:24:25Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build KF)

{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox Non-profit
| Non-profit_name = The Heartland Institute
| Non-profit_logo = [[File:The Heartland Institute logo.png|200px|center]]
| vector_logo =
| Non-profit_type = [[501(c)#501(c)(3)|501(c)(3)]]
| founded_date =
| founder =
| location = One South Wacker Drive Chicago, Illinois, USA
| area_served = Worldwide
| origins =
| key_people = President and CEO: Joseph L. Bast Executive VP: Kevin Fitzgerald Chairman: Herbert J. Walberg
| focus =
| method =
| revenue = [[United States dollar|US$]]6.8 million (2009)<ref name="IRS">{{cite web |url=http://dynamodata.fdncenter.org/990_pdf_archive/363/363309812/363309812_200912_990.pdf |title=IRS Form 990 (2009), The Heartland Institute |publisher=The Foundation Center |work=[http://foundationcenter.org/findfunders/990finder/ 990 Finder]}}</ref>
| num_volunteers =
| owner =
| Non-profit_slogan =
| homepage = [http://heartland.org/ heartland.org]
| dissolved =
| footnotes =
}}

'''The Heartland Institute''' is an American [[Conservativism in the United States|conservative]] and [[Libertarianism|libertarian]] public policy [[think tank]] based in Chicago, which advocates [[free market]] policies.<ref>{{cite news |title=Back-yard Think Tanks|author=Michele Mohr|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1995-01-08/features/9501080156_1_tanks-policies-chicago-public-schools|newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]]|date=January 8, 1995|quote = the Heartland Institute, a conservative think tank based in Palatine|accessdate=December 5, 2011}}</ref><ref>It also has been described as [[right-wing politics|right-wing]]. See, for example:
* {{Cite news | work = [[Irish Times]] | title = Anti-Obama protesters march in Washington | url = http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/world/2009/0914/1224254474903.html | date = September 14, 2009 | accessdate =September 3, 2010 | first = Ed | last = Pilkington | quote = They include right-wing think tanks such as the Heartland Institute...}}
* {{Cite news | work = [[The Independent]] | title = Tobacco and oil pay for climate conference | first = Steve | last = Connor | date = March 3, 2008 | accessdate =September 2, 2010 | url = http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/tobacco-and-oil-pay-for-climate-conference-790474.html | quote = The first international conference designed to question the scientific consensus on climate change is being sponsored by a right-wing American think-tank which receives money from the oil industry.}}
* {{Cite news | publisher = BBC | title = Climate sceptics rally to expose 'myth' | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8694544.stm | first = Roger | last = Harrabin | date = May 21, 2010 | accessdate =September 3, 2010 | quote = At the world's biggest gathering of climate change sceptics, organised by the right-wing Heartland Institute...}}
* {{Cite news | work = [[Philadelphia City Paper]] | url = http://citypaper.net/articles/2009/12/17/pennsylvania-climate-change-action-plan | title = Shooting the Messenger | first = Julia | last = Harte | date = December 16, 2009 | accessdate =September 5, 2010 | quote = Jay Lehr, science director at the right-wing Heartland Institute, concurs.}}</ref><ref name="scrutiny"/><ref>Alasdair Scott Roberts, ''Blacked out: government secrecy in the information age'', [[Cambridge University Press]],[http://books.google.com/books?id=FtmydcQkMx0C&pg=PA253&dq=%22heartland+institute%22+libertarian&hl=en&ei=KHfATKmKJMO88gaB25TXBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CFAQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=%22heartland%20institute%22%20libertarian&f=false p. 253], 2006
ISBN 0-521-85870-4, ISBN 978-0-521-85870-0</ref> The Institute is designated as a [[501(c)(3)]] [[non-profit]] by the [[Internal Revenue Service]] and has a full-time staff of 40, including editors and senior fellows.<ref name="about">{{cite web | publisher = Heartland Institute | title = About Us | url = http://www.heartland.org/about/}}</ref> The Institute was founded in 1984 and conducts research and advocacy work on issues including [[government spending]], [[taxation]], [[healthcare]], [[tobacco smoking|tobacco]] policy, [[global warming]], [[information technology]] and [[free-market environmentalism]].

In the 1990s, the group worked closely with the tobacco company [[Philip Morris USA|Philip Morris]] to question the science linking [[passive smoking|secondhand smoke]] to health risks, and to lobby against government public-health reforms.<ref name="AJPH1">{{cite journal |author=Tesler LE, Malone RE |title="Our reach is wide by any corporate standard": how the [[tobacco industry]] helped defeat the Clinton health plan and why it matters now |journal=Am J Public Health |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=1174–88 |year=2010 |month=July |pmid=20466958 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2009.179150 |url=http://www.ajph.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2009.179150?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed}}</ref><ref name="indy"/><ref name="merchants1">

{{cite book
| last = Oreskes | first= Naomi
| authorlink = Naomi Oreskes
| coauthors = Erik M. Conway
| title= [[Merchants of Doubt]]
| publisher = [[Bloomsbury Press]]
| year= 2010
| isbn = 978-1-59691-610-4}} pp. 233–234

</ref> More recently, the Institute has focused on [[Climate change denial|questioning the science of climate change]], and was described by the ''[[New York Times]]'' as "the primary American organization pushing climate change skepticism."<ref name="nyt-clouds">{{cite news | work = [[New York Times]] | date = May 1, 2012 | accessdate =May 1, 2012 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/01/science/earth/clouds-effect-on-climate-change-is-last-bastion-for-dissenters.html | title= Clouds’ Effect on Climate Change Is Last Bastion for Dissenters | first = Justin | last = Gillis}}</ref> The Institute has sponsored meetings of [[climate change skeptics]],<ref name="bbc"/> and has been reported to promote public school curricula challenging the scientific consensus on climate change.<ref name="NYTimes-2012.02.15" />

In 2012, internal documents leaked to the public disclosed some sources of the organization's funding, and included a "Climate Strategy Memo," which Heartland says is a forgery.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

==History and leadership==

In its early years, the Heartland Institute focused on policies relevant to the [[Midwestern United States]]. Since 1993 it has focused on reaching elected officials and opinion leaders in all 50 states. In addition to research, the Heartland Institute features an Internet application called [http://policybot.enginez.com/ PolicyBot] which serves as a clearinghouse for research from other conservative think tanks such as the [[Heritage Foundation]], the [[American Legislative Exchange Council]], and the libertarian [[Cato Institute]]. The Institute's president and CEO is Joseph L. Bast.

== Positions ==
=== Global warming ===

The Heartland Institute questions the [[scientific opinion on climate change|scientific opinions on climate change]], arguing that [[Climate change denial|global warming is not occurring]] and, further, that warming might be beneficial if it did occur.<ref name="higw">

{{cite web
| publisher = Heartland Institute
| url = http://www.heartland.org/pdf/ieguide.pdf | format = PDF
| title = Instant Expert Guide: Global Warming
| accessdate =March 4, 2008
|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061201133847/http://www.heartland.org/pdf/ieguide.pdf
|archivedate = December 1, 2006

}}</ref> The institute is a member organization of the [[Cooler Heads Coalition]], which describes itself as "an informal and ad-hoc group focused on dispelling the myths of global warming."<ref>

{{cite web
|publisher=Cooler Heads Coalition
|title=About GlobalWarming.org
|accessdate=August 22, 2008
|url=http://www.globalwarming.org/about

}}</ref> In ''[[Merchants of Doubt]]'', [[Naomi Oreskes]] and [[Erik M. Conway]] wrote that the Heartland Institute was known "for its persistent questioning of climate science, for its promotion of 'experts' who have done little, if any, peer-reviewed climate research, and for its sponsorship of a conference in New York City in 2008 alleging that the scientific community's work on global warming is fake."<ref name="merchants1"/>

Between 2008 and 2011 the Heartland Institute sponsored six [[International Conference on Climate Change|International Conferences on Climate Change]], bringing together hundreds of [[global warming skeptics]]. Prior to the 2012 Conference, The Hearthland Institute unveiled two billboards in Chicago, with pictures of Ted Kacynzki and Charles Manson, two convicted mass murderers, with the question: "I Still Believe in Global Warming, Do You?".
<ref name="heartland.org">
{{cite web
|publisher=Heartland Institute press release
|title=Our Billboards
|authorlink=S. Fred Singer
|accessdate=May 4, 2012
|url=http://climateconference.heartland.org/our-billboards/
}}</ref> Convention speakers have included [[Richard Lindzen]], a professor of meteorology at MIT; [[Roy Spencer (scientist)|Roy Spencer]], a research scientist and climatologist at the University of Alabama; [[S. Fred Singer]], who is a senior fellow of the Heartland Institute <ref name="athink">

{{cite web
|publisher=American Thinker
|title=Climategate Heads to Court
|authorlink=S. Fred Singer
|accessdate=April 7, 2012
|url=http://www.americanthinker.com/2012/04/climategate_heads_to_court.html
}}</ref> and was founding dean of the School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences at the University of Miami and founding director of the National Weather Satellite Service; [[Harrison Schmitt]], a geologist and former NASA astronaut and Apollo 17 moonwalker; and Dr. John Theon, atmospheric scientist and former NASA supervisor. In the first conference, participants criticized the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] and [[Al Gore]].<ref name="indy"/><ref>

{{cite news
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/04/science/earth/04climate.html
| title = Cool View of Science at Meeting on Warming
| first = Andrew | last = Revkin
| authorlink = Andrew Revkin
| work = [[New York Times]]
| date = March 4, 2008
| accessdate =March 4, 2008

}}</ref> The [[BBC]] reported that the heavily politicized nature of the Heartland conferences led some "moderate" climate skeptics to avoid them.<ref name="bbc">

{{cite news | publisher = BBC
| title = Climate sceptics rally to expose 'myth'
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8694544.stm
| first = Roger | last = Harrabin
| date = May 21, 2010
| accessdate =September 3, 2010}}</ref>

In 2008 a bibliography written by [[Dennis Avery]] was posted on Heartland’s Web site, titled "500 Scientists with Documented Doubts of Man-Made Global Warming Scares”.<ref>[http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=21978 500 Scientists Whose Research Contradicts Man-Made Global Warming Scares], by Dennis T. Avery. From the Heartland Institute website; published September 14, 2007, accessed June 20, 2008.</ref><ref name="press release">{{cite press release | title = Controversy Arises Over Lists of Scientists Whose Research Contradicts Man-Made Global Warming Scares | publisher = Heartland Institute | date = May 5, 2008 | url = http://heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=23207 | accessdate =September 3, 2010}}</ref> In late April 2008, Heartland reported that the web site ''[[DeSmogBlog]]'' had "targeted The Heartland Institute in late April 2008, and in particular two lists posted on Heartland’s Web site of scientists whose published work contradicts some of the main tenets of global warming alarmism." <ref name="press release" /> ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'' reported that the work of [[Jim Salinger]], chief scientist at New Zealand's National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, was "misrepresented" as part of a "denial campaign".<ref name="smh"/>

In response to criticism, The Heartland Institute changed the title of the list to “500 Scientists Whose Research Contradicts Man-Made Global Warming Scares.” <ref name="press release"/> Heartland did not remove any of the scientists' names from the list.<ref name="press release" /><ref name="smh" /> Dennis Avery explained, "Not all of these researchers would describe themselves as global warming skeptic"..."but the evidence in their studies is there for all to see.”<ref name="press release" /> Heartland’s president, [[Joseph Bast]], wrote "They have no right – legally or ethically – to demand that their names be removed from a bibliography composed by researchers with whom they disagree. Their names probably appear in hundreds or thousands of bibliographies accompanying other articles or in books with which they disagree. Do they plan to sue hundreds or thousands of their colleagues? The proper response is to engage in scholarly debate, not demand imperiously that the other side redact its publications."<ref name="press release"/>

In February 2012, environmentalist scientist and president of the [[Pacific Institute]] [[Peter Gleick]] deceptively acquired some internal documents from The Heartland Institute and anonymously divulged them together with an additional document he later claimed to have received from an unknown source <ref name="Peter Gleick Statement">
{{cite web
|publisher=Huffington Post
|title=The Origin of the Heartland Documents
|accessdate=February 24, 2012
|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/peter-h-gleick/-the-origin-of-the-heartl_b_1289669.html
}}</ref>; the Heartland Institute has declared this last document to be a fake fabricated with the purpose of defaming and discrediting the institute <ref>
{{cite web
|publisher=Heartland Institute
|title=Leaked: Heartland Institute Responds to Stolen and Fake Documents
|accessdate=February 24, 2012
|url=http://heartland.org/press-releases/2012/02/15/heartland-institute-responds-stolen-and-fake-documents}}</ref>.
The documents showed that the institute planned to provide climate skeptical materials to teachers in the United States to promote criticism of [[climate change]] theories in schools.<ref name="scientific american"/><ref name="NYTimes-2012.02.15"/> Some of the documents contain details of payments to climate skeptics and financial support to skeptics' research programs, namely the founder of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change [[Craig Idso]] ($11,600 per month), physicist [[Fred Singer]] ($5,000 plus expenses per month), geologist [[Robert M. Carter]] ($1,667 per month) and a single pledge of $90,000 to meteorologist [[Anthony Watts (blogger)|Anthony Watts]]. Payments or pledges to Carter and Watts have been confirmed by the recipients.<ref name="scientific american">
{{cite web
|publisher=Scientific American
|title=Leaked: Conservative Group Plans Anti-Climate Education Program
|accessdate=February 15, 2012
|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=leaked-conservative-group}}</ref>

On May 4, 2012 the Institute launched a digital billboard ad campaign in the Chicago area featuring a photo of [[Ted Kaczynski]], (the "[[Unabomber]]" whose mail bombs killed three people and injuring 23 others), and asking the question, “I still believe in global warming, do you?” The Institute planned for the campaign to feature murderer [[Charles Manson]], communist leader [[Fidel Castro]] and perhaps [[Osama bin Laden]], asking the same question. In a statement, the Institute justified the billboards saying "the most prominent advocates of global warming aren’t scientists. They are murderers, tyrants, and madmen."<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/post/heartland-institute-launches-campaign-linking-terrorism-murder-and-global-warming-belief/2012/05/04/gIQAJJ3Q1T_blog.html| Accessed May 5, 2012</ref>

The billlboard reportedly "unleashed a social media-fed campaign, including a petition from the advocacy group [[Forecast the Facts]] calling on Heartland’s corporate backers to immediately pull their funding," and prompted Rep. [[James Sensenbrenner Jr.]] (R-Wis.), to threaten to cancel his speech at the upcoming Heartland Institute Climate Change Conference.<ref name=unabomber/>

Within 24 hours Heartland canceled the campaign and its President Joseph Bast issued a statement saying:
<blockquote>We know that our billboard angered and disappointed many of Heartland’s friends and supporters, but we hope they understand what we were trying to do with this experiment. We do not apologize for running the ad, and we will continue to experiment with ways to communicate the ‘realist’ message on the climate.<ref name=unabomber>{{cite web
|publisher=The Hill
|title=Heartland Institute yanks Unabomber climate billboard
|author=Ben Geman
|date=May 5, 2012
|accessdate=May 5, 2012
|url=http://thehill.com/blogs/e2-wire/e2-wire/225559-heartland-institute-yanks-unabomber-climate-billboard}}</ref></blockquote>

=== Smoking ===
In the 1990s, the Heartland Institute worked with [[Philip Morris USA|Philip Morris]] to question the link between [[passive smoking|secondhand smoke]] and health risks.<ref name="indy"/><ref name="merchants2"/> Philip Morris used Heartland to distribute tobacco-industry material, and arranged for the Heartland Institute to publish "policy studies" which summarized Philip Morris reports.<ref name="merchants2"/><ref>{{cite web | title = Roy Marden to Thomas Borelli et al. | url = http://www.pmdocs.com/PDF/2075574226D_4227_0.PDF | format = PDF | publisher = [http://www.pmdocs.com/ Philip Morris Documents Archive] | date = April 22, 1997}}</ref> The Heartland Institute also undertook a variety of other activities on behalf of Philip Morris, including meeting with legislators, holding "off-the-record" briefings, and producing op-eds, radio interviews, and letters.<ref name="merchants2"/><ref>{{cite web | title = Opposition to Fedsuit | author = Roy Marden | url = http://www.pmdocs.com/PDF/2077575920A_5921_0.PDF | format = PDF | publisher = [http://www.pmdocs.com/ Philip Morris Documents Archive] | date = October 26, 1999}}</ref> In 1994, at the request of Philip Morris, the Heartland Institute met with [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Congressmen to encourage them to oppose increases in the [[excise|federal excise tax]]. Heartland reported back to Philip Morris that the Congressmen were "strongly in our camp", and planned further meetings with other legislators.<ref>{{cite web | title = FET Update | url = http://www.pmdocs.com/PDF/2046554465_4467_0.PDF | format = PDF | publisher = [http://www.pmdocs.com/ Philip Morris Documents Archive] | date = January 28, 1994}}</ref>

=== Budgetary ===

The Heartland Institute is a critic of the current Federal budget and tax code. Several of Heartland Institute's budgetary views include privatization of Federal services to a competitive marketplace, changing the tax code to a more simplified version of the current code, and implementing Taxpayer Savings Grants.

=== Education ===

The Heartland Institute supports the availability of charter schools, providing education tax credits to attend private schools, expanding federal vouchers for low-income students to attend a public or private school of their family's choosing, and the Parent Trigger reform that started in California. The Heartland Institute argues that market reforms should be introduced into the public education system to increase competition and provide more options and greater choice for parents and their children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://heartland.org/issues/education |title=Education | Heartland Institute |publisher=Heartland.org |date= |accessdate=February 2, 2012}}</ref>

=== Healthcare ===

The Heartland Institute advocates for free-market reforms in healthcare and opposes federal control over the healthcare industry. Heartland supports Health Savings Accounts (HSAs), replacing federal tax deductions for employer-based healthcare with a refundable tax credit to allow individual choice over health insurance, removing state and Federal healthcare regulations aimed at providers and consumers of healthcare, and reducing litigation costs which are associated with malpractice suits.<ref name="Heartland Institute Website">{{cite web|url=http://heartland.org/issues/health-care|title="Health Care" on Heartland.org web page|accessdate=11/5/2011}}</ref>

== Publications ==

The Heartland Institute publishes five monthly public policy newspapers aimed at state legislators. These include: ''Budget and Tax News'', which advocates lower taxes and balanced budgets for states and the federal government; ''School Reform News'', which calls for greater competition and [[school choice]]; ''Environment & Climate News,'' which focuses on "market-based environmental protection"; ''Health Care News'', devoted to [[consumer-driven health care]] reform and edited by [[Ben Domenech]]; and ''Infotech and Telecom News,'' which covers the technology and telecommunications industries from a free market perspective. The five monthly publications have a circulation total of nearly 200,000.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Heartland Institute |url=http://www.heartland.org/about/profileresults.html?profile=6110DE2CC2614EF79267933376E6B380&directory=0490F571009CFDBBCAA4E62B8A3EBAE2 |title=Staff: Joseph Bast |accessdate=December 10, 2009}}</ref>

== Funding ==
The Heartland Institute does not disclose its funding sources. According to its brochures, the Heartland Institute receives money from approximately 1,600 individuals and organizations, and no single corporate entity donates more than 5% of the operating budget,<ref>[http://www.heartland.org/FAQArticle.cfm?faqId=7 ]{{dead link|date=February 2012}}</ref> although the figure for individual donors can be much higher, with a single anonymous donor providing $4.6 million in 2008, and $979,000 in 2011, accounting for 20% of Heartland's overall budget, according to reports of a leaked fundraising plan. <ref name=goldenberg>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/feb/15/heartland-institute-microsoft-gm-money?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487|title=Climate science attack machine took donations from major corporations|publisher=The Guardian|date=Feb 16, 2012|accessdate=February 16, 2012}}></ref>Heartland states that it does not accept government funds and does not conduct contract research for special-interest groups.<ref>{{cite web | last = Bast | first = Joseph | url = http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=10582 | title = Welcome to The Heartland Institute! | work = Heartlander | publisher = The Heartland Institute | date= April 13, 2007}}</ref>

[[MediaTransparency]] reported that the Heartland Institute received funding from [[conservatism in the United States|politically conservative]] foundations such as the [[Castle Rock Foundation]], the [[Sarah Scaife Foundation]], the [[John M. Olin Foundation]], and the [[Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation]].<ref>{{cite web | url =http://mediamattersaction.org/transparency/organization/Heartland_Institute | title = Heartland Institute Funding | publisher = [[MediaTransparency]] | accessdate=June 22, 2010}}</ref> In 2011, the Institute received $25,000 from the [[Charles G. Koch Foundation]].<ref name="NYTimes-2012.02.15">{{cite news|last=Gillis|first=Justin|last2=Kaufman|first2=Leslie|title=Leak Offers Glimpse of Campaign Against Climate Science|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/16/science/earth/in-heartland-institute-leak-a-plan-to-discredit-climate-teaching.html?pagewanted=all|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 15, 2012}}</ref> The Charles Koch Foundation states that the contribution was "$25,000 to the Heartland Institute in 2011 for research in healthcare, not climate change, and this was the first and only donation the Foundation made to the institute in more than a decade". <ref name="Koch release">{{cite web|title=Foundation statement on Heartland Institute|url=http://www.charleskochfoundationfacts.org/2012/02/foundation-statement-on-heartland-institute/|publisher=Charles G. Koch Charitable Foundation|accessdate=February 19, 2012}}</ref>

Oil and gas companies have contributed to the Heartland Institute, including over $600,000 from [[ExxonMobil]] between 1998 and 2005.<ref name="nyt-skeptics"/> Greenpeace reported that the Heartland Institute received almost $800,000 from ExxonMobil.<ref name="smh">{{cite news | work = [[Sydney Morning Herald]] | title = The climate change smokescreen | first = David | last = McKnight | date = August 2, 2008 | accessdate =December 28, 2009 | url = http://www.smh.com.au/news/global-warming/the-climate-change-smokescreen/2008/08/01/1217097533885.html}}</ref> In 2008, ExxonMobil said that they would stop funding to groups skeptical of climate warming, including Heartland.<ref name="nyt-skeptics"/><ref>Monica Heger, "[http://spectrum.ieee.org/energy/environment/exxonmobil-cuts-back-its-funding-for-climate-skeptics ExxonMobil Cuts Back Its Funding for Climate Skeptics]," ''IEEE Spectrum,'' July 2008 (Retrieved Dec 27, 2011)</ref><ref>Kert Davies, "[http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/en/news-and-blogs/campaign-blog/exxon-continued-to-fund-climate-denial-in-200/blog/26100/ Exxon continued to fund climate denial in 2009]," Greenpeace Blog, July 19, 2010: "during the same period where Exxon bent to the pressure on its campaign of denial and cut all funding to hard core deniers like the Competitive Enterprise Institute, the Heartland Institute, the George C. Marshall Institute and others..." (Retrieved Dec 27, 2011)</ref> Joseph Bast, president of the Heartland Institute, argued that ExxonMobil was simply distancing itself from Heartland out of concern for its public image.<ref name="nyt-skeptics">{{cite news | work = [[New York Times]] | title = Skeptics Dispute Climate Worries and Each Other | first = Andrew | last = Revkin | authorlink = Andrew Revkin | date = March 8, 2009 | accessdate =September 2, 2010 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/09/science/earth/09climate.html}}</ref>

The Heartland Institute has also received funding and support from tobacco companies [[Philip Morris USA|Philip Morris]],<ref name="merchants2">
{{cite book
|last= Oreskes
| authorlink = Naomi Oreskes | first= Naomi
|coauthors= Erik M. Conway
|title= [[Merchants of Doubt]]
|publisher= [[Bloomsbury Press]]
|year= 2010
|isbn= 978-1-59691-610-4}}{{Page needed|date=October 2010
}}</ref>
[[Altria]] and [[Reynolds American]], and [[pharmaceutical industry]] firms [[GlaxoSmithKline]], [[Pfizer]] and [[Eli Lilly]].<ref name=goldenberg/> ''[[The Independent]]'' reported that Heartland's receipt of donations from Exxon and Philip Morris indicates a "direct link"..."between anti-global warming sceptics funded by the oil industry and the opponents of the scientific evidence showing that passive smoking can damage people's health."<ref name="indy">

{{cite news
| work = [[The Independent]]
| title = Tobacco and oil pay for climate conference
| first = Steve | last = Connor
| date = March 3, 2008
| accessdate =September 2, 2010
| url = http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/tobacco-and-oil-pay-for-climate-conference-790474.html
}}</ref>

As of 2006, the Walton Family Foundation (run by the family of the founder of [[Wal-Mart]]) had contributed approximately $300,000 to the Heartland Institute. The Heartland Institute published an op-ed in the ''[[Louisville Courier-Journal]]'' defending Wal-Mart against criticism over its treatment of workers. The Walton Family Foundation donations were not disclosed in the op-ed, and the editor of the ''Courier-Journal'' stated that he was unaware of the connection and would probably not have published the op-ed had he known of it.<ref name="sp-times">

{{cite news | work = [[St. Petersburg Times]]
| title = Corporate spin can come in disguise
| date = September 10, 2006 | accessdate =September 3, 2010
| first = Bill | last = Adair
| url = http://www.sptimes.com/2006/09/10/Worldandnation/Corporate_spin_can_co.shtml

}}</ref> The ''[[St. Petersburg Times]]'' described the Heartland Institute as "particularly energetic defending Wal-Mart."<ref name="sp-times"/> Heartland has stated that its authors were not "paid to defend Wal-Mart" and did not receive funding from the corporation; it did not disclose the $300,000+ received from the Walton Family Foundation.<ref name="sp-times"/>

== February 2012 document leak ==
In February 2012 [[Peter Gleick]] obtained internal Heartland Institute documents and then leaked them to public websites. The documents disclosed the names of a number of donors to the institute—including the [[Charles G. Koch Charitable Foundation]], tobacco companies [[Altria]] and [[Reynolds American]], drug firms [[GlaxoSmithKline]], [[Pfizer]] and [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]], [[Microsoft]], liquor companies, and an anonymous donor who has given $13 million over the past five years—as well as some recipients of support from the Institute: climate skeptics including [[Craig Idso]], physicist [[Fred Singer]], [[Robert M. Carter|Robert Carter]], and [[Anthony Watts (blogger)|Anthony Watts]].<ref name="scientific american"/><ref name="scrutiny">

{{cite news
| last = Goldenberg | first = Suzanne
| title = Heartland Institute faces fresh scrutiny over tax status
| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/feb/17/heartland-institute-fresh-scrutiny-tax?INTCMP=SRCH
| accessdate =February 18, 2012
| newspaper = The Guardian
| date = February 17, 2012}}</ref> The Heartland Institute maintains that the documents, which were first published on Desmogblog, were fraudulently acquired.<ref>

{{cite news
| last = Goldenberg | first = Suzanne
| title = Heartland Institute 'fights back' over publication of confidential documents
| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/feb/16/heartland-institute-fundraising-drive-leaked?INTCMP=SRCH
| accessdate =February 18, 2012
| newspaper = The Guardian
| date = February 16, 2012}}</ref> The documents contained the 2012 budget, a fundraising plan and board materials.<ref>

{{cite news
| title=Heartland Institute documents published
| url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2012/02/18/Heartland-Institute-documents-published/UPI-57751329549148/?spt=hs&or=tn
| accessdate =February 18, 2012
| newspaper = UPI.com
| date = February 18, 2012}} </ref> The Institute asserts that one in particular of the released documents, the "Climate Strategy Memo", was "forged."<ref>{{cite news | title=Heartland Institute President Joe Bast on why global warming activist Peter Gleick stole and forged documents from his organization. | url=http://online.wsj.com/video/opinion-the-purloined-climate-papers/F3DAA9D5-4213-4DC0-AE0D-5A3D171EB260.html | date = February 21, 2012 | accessdate =February 23, 2012}}</ref><ref>Gillis, Justin & Kaufman, Leslie. [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/16/science/earth/in-heartland-institute-leak-a-plan-to-discredit-climate-teaching.html?ref=science&pagewanted=all#h Leak Offers Glimpse of Campaign Against Climate Science], retrieved from NYTimes.com, February 16, 2012. Also published on [[The New York Times]], pg. A23 with the title: "In Documents, a Plan to Discredit Climate Teaching".</ref>

In support of Heartland's claims of forgery, by February 17 Atlantic editor [[Megan McArdle]] had concluded that the offending document's mismatched metadata, unprofessional writing style and references to specific individuals made its authenticity extremely unlikely.<ref>{{cite news | title=Heartland Memo Looking Faker by the Minute | url=http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2012/02/heartland-memo-looking-faker-by-the-minute/253276/ | date = February 17, 2012 | accessdate =February 23, 2012}}</ref>

Among the documents were plans that indicated a strategy said to undercut the teaching of [[global warming]] in schools.<ref name="NYTimes-2012.02.15"/> The documents also appeared to disclose Heartland's plans for "Operation Angry Badger", to be allocated $612,000 for activity related to [[Wisconsin gubernatorial election, 2012|Wisconsin's recall elections]].<ref name="NYTimes-2012.02.15" /> None of the leaked documents have been independently authenticated.<ref> {{cite news|last=Goldenberg|first=Suzanne|title=Leak exposes how Heartland Institute works to undermine climate science|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/feb/15/leak-exposes-heartland-institute-climate|accessdate=February 15, 2012|newspaper=The Guardian|date=February 15, 2012}}</ref>

In the wake of the release, several environmental organizations have called on General Motors and Microsoft—companies that have donated to The Heartland Institute in the past—to sever their ties with the institute; additionally, scientists previously attacked by the Institute have called on it to "recognise how its attacks on science and scientists have poisoned the debate about climate change policy."<ref name="scrutiny"/>

On February 20, 2012, climate scientist Peter Gleick of The [[Pacific Institute]] said he was mailed the disputed strategy memo from an anonymous source. He admitted obtaining the other documents from the Heartland Institutie by deceptive means, "in a serious lapse of my own professional judgment and ethics", and stated that "My judgment was blinded by my frustration with the ongoing efforts&mdashoften anonymous, well-funded, and coordinated&mdashto attack climate science and scientists and prevent this debate, and by the lack of transparency of the organizations involved."<ref name="gleick">[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/peter-h-gleick/-the-origin-of-the-heartl_b_1289669.html The Origin of the Heartland Documents], [[Peter Gleick]], 2012-02-20, [[Huffington Post]]</ref> On February 16, Dr. Gleick resigned as chair of [[American_Geophysical_Union | American Geophysical Union's]] Task Force on Scientific Ethics.<ref>http://www.agu.org/news/press/pr_archives/2012/2012-11.shtml</ref>

On February 22, 2012, Congressman [[Raúl Grijalva]] requested a [[United States House Committee on Natural Resources|House Committee on Natural Resources]] hearing to investigate whether alleged Heartland payments to [[Indur Goklany]], a senior adviser to the [[United States Department of the Interior|Interior Department]], violated Federal ethics rules. [[Greenpeace]] also requested an investigation into this allegation on the same date.<ref> [http://motherjones.com/blue-marble/2012/02/heartland-docs-indicate-it-paid-govt-scientist-work Heartland Docs Indicate It Paid Gov't Scientist for Work], ''Mother Jones'', Feb. 22, 2012 </ref> Golklany told [[Politico]] he had previously cleared his activities with his department's ethics unit. On February 28, 2012, the Committee announced that it was planning to ignore Congressman Grijalva's request.<ref>http://freebeacon.com/Grijalvas-climate-witch-hunt/</ref>

==See also==
* [[Climate change policy of the United States]]

== References ==

{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==

* {{Official website|http://heartland.org/}}
* [http://climateconference.heartland.org/ International Conference on Climate Change] website at Heartland Institute
* [http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Heartland_Institute Sourcewatch - More detailed funding information]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Heartland Institute, The}}
[[Category:Political and economic think tanks in the United States]]
[[Category:Libertarian think tanks]]
[[Category:Libertarian organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Organizations of environmentalism skeptics and critics]]
[[Category:Non-profit organizations based in Chicago, Illinois]]
[[Category:501(c)(3) nonprofit organizations]]
[[Category:Denialism]]
[[Category:Global warming]]
[[Category:Climate change controversies]]

[[fr:Institut Heartland]]

Nigerianische Streitkräfte

2012-05-13T01:22:05Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Infobox National Military
|country=Nigeria
|name=Nigerian Armed Forces
|native_name=
|image=[[File:Nigerian Defence Forces Flag.svg|300px]]
|caption=
|image2=
|caption2=
|founded=
|current_form=1960
|disbanded=
|branches=[[Nigerian Army|Army]], [[Nigerian Navy|Navy]], [[Nigerian Air Force|Air Force]]
|headquarters=

|commander-in-chief=[[Goodluck Jonathan]]
|commander-in-chief_title=[[President of Nigeria]]
|minister=[[Muhammed Halliru Bello]]
|minister_title=[[Defence Minister of Nigeria]]
|commander=[[Air Chief Marshal]] [[Oluseyi Petinrin]]
|commander_title=[[Chief of the Defence Staff (Nigeria)|Chief of Defence Staff]]

|age=
|conscription=
|manpower_data=2005 est.
|manpower_age=18-49
|available=26,802,678<ref>For updated figures see CIA, [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ni.html#Military World Fact Book - Nigeria]</ref>
|available_f=25,668,446
|fit=15,052,914
|fit_f=13,860,806
|reaching=1,353,180
|reaching_f=1,329,267
|active=85,000
|ranked=51
|reserve=
|deployed=

|amount=
|percent_GDP=1.5% (2006)

|domestic_suppliers=
|foreign_suppliers=
|imports=
|exports=

|history= '''[[Military history of Nigeria]]''' [[Congo Crisis]] [[Biafran War]] [[Sierra Leone Civil War]] [[Conflict in the Niger Delta]]
|ranks=
}}

The '''Nigerian Armed Forces''' are the Armed Forces of the Federal Republic of [[Nigeria]]. The military has active duty personnel in three armed services, totaling approximately 85,000 troops and 82,000 paramilitary personnel.<ref>[[IISS]] Military Balance 2007, Routledge, p.286</ref> Its origins lie in the elements of the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] that became Nigerian when independence was granted in 1960. In 1956 the [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF) was renamed the Nigerian Military Forces, RWAFF, and in April 1958 the colonial government of Nigeria took over from the British [[War Office]] control of the Nigerian Military Forces.<ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ng0140) Library of Congress Country Studies, Nigeria]</ref> There has been a strong military coup culture, between 1966 and 1999 10 [[Military Coups in Nigeria]] took place.

Since its creation the Nigerian military has fought in a civil war – the [[Nigerian Civil War|conflict with Biafra]] in 1967-70 – and sent peacekeeping forces abroad both with the United Nations and as the backbone of the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) Cease-fire [[Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group|Monitoring Group]] (ECOMOG) in [[Liberia]] and [[Sierra Leone]]. It has also seized power twice at home ([[Nigerian military juntas of 1966-1979 and 1983-1998|1966 & 1983]]) and today ‘has become entrenched in all facets of [Nigerian] civic and economic life,’ including manipulation of national political life – General [[Sani Abacha]]’s creation of artificial political parties – and a central role in the control and management of Nigeria’s oil wealth.<ref>J. ‘Kayode Fayemi, ‘Governing the Security Sector in a Democratising Polity: Nigeria’ in Gavin Cawthra & Robin Luckham (eds) Governing Insecurity: Democratic Control of Military and Security Establishments in Transitional Democracies, Zed Books, London/New York, 2003, pp.57-77</ref>

In the aftermath of the civil war, the much expanded size of the military, around 250,000 in 1977, consumed a large part of Nigeria’s resources under military rule for little productive return. The great expansion of the military during the civil war further entrenched the existing military hold on Nigerian society carried over from the first military regime. In doing so, it played an appreciable part in reinforcing the military’s nearly first-among-equals status within Nigerian society, and the linked decline in military effectiveness. Olusegun Obasanjo, who by 1999 had become President, bemoaned the fact in his inaugural address that year: ‘... Professionalism has been lost... my heart bleeds to see the degradation in the proficiency of the military.’<ref>Obasanjo, quoted in Herbert M. Howe, Ambiguous Order: Military Forces in African States, Lynne Rienner, Boulder/London, 2001, p.54. In fairness, it should be noted that Obasanjo has also been accused of misuse of his personal position for profit.</ref>

Nigeria sends many of its officers to [[Pakistan]] for training. Particularly, to institutions such as the [[Pakistan Military Academy]], [[Command and Staff College]] in [[Quetta]] and to the [[National Defence University, Islamabad]]. Training establishments in Nigeria include the initial officer entry Nigerian Defence Academy at [[Kaduna]], the [[Armed Forces Command and Staff College, Jaji]], and the National War College at [[Abuja]] ([http://www.ndc.gov.ng/college/History.htm]). The U.S. commercial military contractor [[Military Professional Resources Inc.]] has been involved from around 1999-2000 in advising on civil-military relations for the armed forces.<ref>http://news.biafranigeriaworld.com/archive/2003/dec/11/0097.html, accessed October 2009 and Peter Singer, 'Corporate Warriors,' [[Cornell University Press]], Ithaca and London, 2003, p.131-2. ISBN 0-8014-4114-5</ref>

==Legal standing==
The roles of a country’s armed forces are entrenched in her Constitution. The defence of the territorial integrity and other core interests of the nation form the major substance of such roles. Section 217 of the 1999 [[Constitution of Nigeria]] addresses the Nigerian Armed Forces:
*(1) There shall be an armed forces for the Federation which shall consist of an army, a navy, an air force and such other branches of the armed forces of the Federation as may be established by an Act of the National Assembly.
*(2)The Federation shall, subject to an Act of the National Assembly made in that behalf, equip and maintain the armed forces as may be considered adequate and effective for the purpose of -
*(a) defending Nigeria from external aggression;
*(b) maintaining its territorial integrity and securing its borders from violation on land, sea, or air;
*(c) Suppress insurrection and act in aid of civil authorities to restore order when called upon to do so by the d. President but subject to such conditions as may be prescribed by an Act of the National Assembly.
*(d) Perform such other functions as may be prescribed by an act of the National Assembly.
*(3) The composition of the officer corps an other ranks of the armed forces of the Federation shall reflect the federal character of Nigeria.

==Army==
{{Main|Nigerian Army}}
The Nigerian Army (NA) is the land branch of the Nigerian Armed Forces and the largest among the armed forces.

==Navy==
{{Main|Nigerian Navy}}
The Nigerian Navy (NN) is the aea branch of the Nigerian Armed Forces. The Nigerian Navy command structure today consists of the Naval Headquarters based in Abuja, two operational commands with headquarters in Lagos and Calabar, two training commands with headquarters in Lagos but with training facilities spread all over Nigeria, two operational bases, five forward operational bases (with two more soon to come on stream), two dockyards located in Lagos and Port Harcourt and two fleets based in Lagos and Calabar. The navy has 7 000 personnel, including those of the Coast Guard.

==Air Force==
{{Main|Nigerian Air Force}}
[[File:Roundel of the Nigerian Air Force.svg|thumb|right|150px|Roundel of the Nigerian Air Force]]
The Nigerian Air Force was formally established in January 1964 with technical assistance from [[West Germany]]. The air force started life as a transport unit with aircrew being trained in [[Canada]], [[Ethiopia]] and [[India]]. The air force did not get a combat capability until a number of [[MiG-17]] aircraft were presented by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1966.

In 2007 the Air Force had a strength of 10,000.<ref>[[IISS]] Military Balance 2007</ref> It flies transport, trainer, helicopter, and fighter aircraft, of which the IISS says there is 'very limited operational capability.'

The Air Force sponsors the [[Air Force Military School, Jos, Nigeria]].

Nigeria also has pursued a policy of developing domestic training and military production capabilities. Nigeria has continued a strict policy of diversification in her military procurement from various countries.

==Other components==
There is a Joint Task Force in the [[Niger Delta]] region designated "Restore Hope."<ref>http://www.punchng.com/Articl.aspx?theartic=Art200809101281020</ref> JTF HQ is located at [[Yenagoa]].

==Nigerian military forces abroad==
[[Image:Nigerian ECOMOG soldier Liberia.jpg|thumb|A Nigerian ECOMOG soldier outside [[Monrovia]], [[Liberia]] (1997)]]
In December 1983, the new Major General [[Muhammadu Buhari]] regime announced that Nigeria could no longer afford an activist anti-colonial role in Africa. [[English-speaking world|Anglophone]] ECOWAS members established ECOMOG, dominated by the Nigerian Army, in 1990 to intervene in the [[First Liberian Civil War|civil war in Liberia]]. The Army has demonstrated its capability to mobilize, deploy, and sustain brigade-sized forces in support of peacekeeping operations in [[Liberia]]. Smaller army forces have been previously sent on UN and ECOWAS deployments in the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]], [[Angola]], [[Rwanda]], [[Somalia]], and [[Sierra Leone]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}}

That policy statement did not deter Nigeria under Generals [[Ibrahim Babangida]] in 1990 and [[Sani Abacha]] in 1997 from sending ECOMOG peacekeeping forces under the auspices of ECOWAS into Liberia and later Sierra Leone when civil wars broke out in those countries. President [[Olusegun Obasanjo]] in August 2003 committed Nigerian troops once again into Liberia, at the urging of the United States, to provide an interim presence until the the [[United Nations Mission in Liberia]] (UNMIL) arrived. [[Charles G. Taylor|Charles Taylor]] was subsequently eased out of power and exiled to Nigeria.

In October 2004, Nigerian troops again deployed into [[Darfur]], Sudan to spearhead an [[African Union]] force to stop the genocide in Darfur. Nigeria boasts to have contributed more than 20,000 troops/police to various UN missions since 1960. The [[Nigeria Police Force]] and troops have served in places like UNIPOM (UN India-Pakistan Observer mission) 1965, [[UNIFIL]] in [[Lebanon]] 1978, the UN observer mission, [[UNIIMOG]] supervising the Iran-Iraq ceasefire in 1988, former [[Yugoslavia]] 1998, [[East Timor]] 1999, and in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] ([[MONUC]]) 2004.

Nigerian officers have served as chiefs of defence in other countries, with Brigadier General Maxwell Khobe serving as Sierra Leone chief of staff in 1998-1999,<ref>[http://www.dawodu.com/barrack7.htm Dr Nowa Omoigui]</ref> and Nigerian officers acting as Command Officer-in-Charge of the [[Armed Forces of Liberia]] from at least 2007.

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
*[http://www.dhmlnigeria.com/LIST%20OF%20MILITARY%20HEALTH%20CARE%20FACILITIES%20UNDER%20DHML.pdf List of Military Health Care Facilities Under DHML] - for unit locations
*[http://www.dawodu.com/omoigui49.htm Military Ranks of the Nigerian Army] Military Ranks of the Nigerian Army

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Military of Nigeria}}
*[[Robin Luckham]], The Nigerian military; a sociological analysis of authority & revolt 1960-67, Cambridge [Eng.] University Press, 1971.
*N.J. Miners, ‘The Nigerian Army 1956-66,’ Methuen and Co. Ltd, London, 1971
*Jimi Peters, 'The Nigerian Military and the State,' 1997, ISBN 1-85043-874-9
*Nigerian Army Education Corps and School, [http://openlibrary.org/books/OL1474957M/History_of_the_Nigerian_Army_1863-1992 History of the Nigerian Army 1863-1992], Abuja, 1992

{{Africa in topic|Military of}}
{{Military of Nigeria}}

[[Category:Military of Nigeria| ]]

[[bn:নাইজেরিয়ার সামরিক বাহিনী]]
[[bg:Въоръжени сили на Нигерия]]
[[es:Fuerzas Armadas de Nigeria]]
[[hu:Nigéria hadereje]]
[[ru:Вооружённые силы Нигерии]]
[[yo:Àwọn Iṣẹ́ Ológun Nàìjíríà]]

Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media

2012-05-13T00:10:48Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Infobox Book
| name = Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Manugactorinconsent2.jpg|200px]]
| author = [[Edward S. Herman]], [[Noam Chomsky]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = United States
| language = English
| series =
| subject =
| genre = [[Politics]]
| publisher = [[Pantheon Books]]
| pub_date = 1988
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover]], [[Paperback]])
| pages =
| isbn = 0-375-71449-9
| dewey= 381/.4530223 21
| congress= P96.E25 H47 2002
| oclc= 47971712
| preceded_by = [[The Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel, and the Palestinians]]
| followed_by = [[Necessary Illusions]]
}}{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media''}}
{{other|Manufacturing Consent (disambiguation)}}
'''''Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media''''' (1988), by [[Edward S. Herman]] and [[Noam Chomsky]], is an analysis of the news media as [[business]]. The title derives from the phrase "the manufacture of consent" that essayist–editor [[Walter Lippmann]] (1889–1974) employed in the book ''[[Public Opinion (book)|Public Opinion]]'' (1922).{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}

==The propaganda model==
Using the [[propaganda model]], ''Manufacturing Consent'' posits that [[corporation|corporate]]-owned [[journalism|news]] [[mass media|mass communication media]] — print, radio, television — are businesses subject to commercial competition for advertising revenue and [[profit (economics)|profit]]. As such, their distortion (editorial bias) of news reportage — i.e. what types of news, which items, and how they are reported — is a consequence of the profit motive that requires establishing a stable, profitable business; therefore, news businesses favoring profit over the [[public interest]] succeed, while those favoring reportorial accuracy over profits fail, and are relegated to the margins of their markets (low sales and ratings).{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}

==Government and news media==
Editorial distortion is aggravated by the news media’s dependence upon private and [[government]]al news sources. If a given newspaper, television station, magazine, etc., incurs governmental disfavor, it is subtly excluded from access to information. Consequently, it loses readers or viewers, and ultimately, advertisers. To minimize such financial danger, news media businesses editorially distort their reporting to favor government and corporate policies in order to stay in business.

==Editorial bias: five filters==

Herman and Chomsky's "propaganda model" describes five editorially-distorting filters applied to news reporting in mass media:

# '''Size, Ownership, and Profit Orientation:''' The dominant mass-media outlets are large firms which are run for profit. Therefore they must cater to the financial interest of their owners - often corporations or particular controlling investors. The size of the firms is a necessary consequence of the capital requirements for the technology to reach a mass audience.
# '''The Advertising License to Do Business:''' Since the majority of the revenue of major media outlets derives from advertising (not from sales or subscriptions), advertisers have acquired a "de-facto licensing authority".<ref>James Curran and Jean Seaton, ''Power without responsibility : the press and broadcasting in Britain'' (First edition 1981, with many subsequent editions).</ref> Media outlets are not commercially viable without the support of advertisers. News media must therefore cater to the political prejudices and economic desires of their advertisers. This has weakened the working-class press, for example, and also helps explain the [[attrition]] in the number of newspapers.
# '''Sourcing Mass Media News:''' Herman and Chomsky argue that “the large bureaucracies of the powerful ''subsidize'' the mass media, and gain special access [to the news], by their contribution to reducing the media’s costs of acquiring [...] and producing, news. The large entities that provide this subsidy become 'routine' news sources and have privileged access to the gates. Non-routine sources must struggle for access, and may be ignored by the arbitrary decision of the gatekeepers.”<ref name = MC>Herman and Chomsky, ''Manufacturing Consent''.</ref>
# '''Flak and the Enforcers:''' "Flak" refers to negative responses to a media statement or program (e.g. letters, complaints, lawsuits, or legislative actions). Flak can be expensive to the media, either due to loss of advertising revenue, or due to the costs of legal defense or defense of the media outlet's public image. Flak can be organized by powerful, private influence groups (e.g. [[think tank]]s). The prospect of eliciting flak can be a deterrent to the reporting of certain kinds of facts or opinions.<ref name = MC/>
# '''Anti-Communism:''' This was included as a filter in the original 1988 edition of the book, but Chomsky argues that since the end of the [[Cold War]] (1945–91), [[anticommunism]] was replaced by the "[[War on Terror]]", as the major social control mechanism.<ref>Noam Chomsky, ''Media Control, the Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda'' (1997).</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Chomsky/Journalist_Mars.html|title=The Journalist from Mars|author=Noam Chomsky|year=2002|publisher=Third World Traveler|accessdate=2009-11-08}}, pp. 69–100</ref>

==Recent developments==
* In 1993, the documentary film ''[[Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media]]'' (1992), directed by [[Mark Achbar]] and [[Peter Wintonick]], partly based upon the book, presents the propaganda model and its arguments, and a biography of Chomsky.

* In 2006, the Turkish government prosecuted Fatih Tas, owner of the Aram editorial house, two editors and the translator of the revised (2001) edition of ''Manufacturing Consent'' for "stirring hatred among the public" (per Article 216 of the Turkish Penal Code) and for "denigrating the national identity" of Turkey (per [[Article 301 (Turkish penal code)|Article 301]]), because that edition’s introduction addresses the Turkish news media’s reportage of governmental suppression of the Kurdish populace in the 1990s; they were acquitted.<ref>{{cite web|last=Butler|first=Daren|date=2006-07-04|url=http://www.kurdishaspect.com/doc75101.html|title=Turkish publisher faces prosecution over Chomsky book|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=2006-07-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2006-12-20|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/europe/6198021.stm|title=Turks acquitted over Chomsky book|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2006-12-20 | location=London}}</ref>

* In 2007, at the ''20 Years of Propaganda?: Critical Discussions & Evidence on the Ongoing Relevance of the Herman & Chomsky Propaganda Model'' (15–17 May 2007) [http://www.uwindsor.ca/propaganda conference] at the [[University of Windsor]], Canada, [[Edward S. Herman|Herman]] and [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]] summarized developments to the [[propaganda model]], followed by the publication of the proceedings of a commemoration of the twentieth publication anniversary of ''Manufacturing Consent'' in 2008.

* In 2008, Chomsky replied to questions concerning the ways internet [[blog]]s and self-generated news reportage conform to and differ from the propaganda model. He also explained how access to information is not enough, because a framework of understanding is required.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rnLWSC5p1XE#t=27m38s
|title=Authors@Google: Noam Chomsky
|date=2008-05-02
}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Media Imperialism]]
* [[Nicaraguan general election, 1984]] (US media coverage of these is the subject of Chapter 3)
* [[Politico-media complex]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* "[[The Engineering of Consent]]"

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Herman%20/Manufac_Consent_Prop_Model.html Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (Excerpt)]
* [http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/198901--.htm Synopsis with Herman interview]
* [http://www.westminster.ac.uk/schools/media/camri/wpcc/the-herman-chomsky-propaganda-model-twenty-years-on The Herman-Chomsky Propaganda Model Twenty Years On] ''Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture'' 6(2), 2009
{{Noam Chomsky}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy Of The Mass Media}}
[[Category:1988 books]]
[[Category:Books by Noam Chomsky]]
[[Category:Books about media bias]]
[[Category:Books about propaganda]]
[[Category:Books about public opinion]]
[[Category:Books about politics of the United States]]

[[es:Los guardianes de la libertad]]
[[it:La fabbrica del consenso: l'economia politica dei mass media]]
[[nl:Manufacturing Consent]]

Mormonen

2012-05-12T23:05:04Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{redirect|Mormon}}
{{semiprotect|small=yes}}
{{Infobox Mormons}}
'''Mormons''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|m|ɔr|m|ən|z}}) are a religious and cultural group related to [[Mormonism]], the principal branch of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], which began with the visions of [[Joseph Smith]] in [[upstate New York]] during the 1820s. After Smith's death in 1844 the Mormons followed [[Brigham Young]] to what would become the [[Utah Territory]]. Today a vast majority of Mormons are members of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) while a minority are members of other churches. Some Mormons are also either independent or non-practicing. The center of Mormon cultural influence is in [[Utah]], and North America has more Mormons than any other continent, though the majority of Mormons live outside the United States.

Mormons have developed a strong sense of communality that stems from their doctrine and history. During the 19th century Mormon converts tended to gather to a central geographic location, and between 1852 and 1890 many Mormons openly practiced [[plural marriage]], a form of religious polygamy. Mormons dedicate large amounts of time and resources to serving in their church, and many young Mormons choose to serve a full time [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] mission. Mormons have a [[Word of Wisdom|health code]] that eschews alcoholic beverages, tobacco, coffee, tea, and other addictive substances. They tend to be very family-oriented, and have strong connections across generations and with extended family. Mormons also have a strict [[law of chastity]], requiring abstention from sexual relations outside of marriage and strict fidelity within marriage.

Mormons self-identify as [[Christian]], though some of their beliefs differ from mainstream Christianity. Mormons believe in the [[Bible]], as well as other books of scripture, such as the [[Book of Mormon]]. They have a unique view of cosmology, and believe that all people are spirit-children of God. Mormons believe that returning to God requires following the example of [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]], and accepting his atonement through ordinances such as baptism. They believe that Christ's church was [[Restoration (Latter Day Saints)|restored]] through Joseph Smith, and is guided by living prophets and [[Apostle (Latter Day Saints)|apostles]]. Central to Mormon faith is the belief that God speaks to his children and answers their prayers.

==Terminology==
The word [[Mormon (word)|"Mormons"]] most often refers to members of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] because of their belief in the [[Book of Mormon]], though members often refer to themselves as ''Latter-day Saints'' or sometimes just ''Saints''.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.lds.org/ensign/1974/05/touchstone-of-truth?lang=eng |title=Touchstone of Truth |work=Ensign |year=1974 |month=May |author=John H. Vandenburg}}; {{cite web |url= http://mormon.org/faq/why-mormons/ |title=Why is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints called Mormons or Mormonism? | Mormon.org |work=mormon.org |year=2012 [last update] |accessdate=25 January 2012}}</ref> The term has been embraced by most adherents of Mormonism, most notably [[Mormon fundamentalism|Mormon fundamentalists]], while other [[Latter Day Saint movement|Latter Day Saint]] denominations, such as the [[Community of Christ]], have rejected it.<ref>The LDS Church has taken the position that the term Mormon should only apply to the LDS Church and its members, and not other adherents who have adopted the term. (See: {{cite web |url=http://newsroom.lds.org/style-guide |title=Style Guide – The Name of the Church |author= |date= |work= |publisher=LDS Newsroom |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}) The church cites the ''[[AP Stylebook]]'', which states, "The term Mormon is not properly applied to the other Latter Day Saints churches that resulted from the split after [Joseph] Smith's death." ("Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The," Associated Press, ''The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law'', 2002, ISBN 0-7382-0740-3, p.48) Despite the LDS Church's position, the term Mormon is widely used by journalists and non-journalists to refer to adherents of [[Mormon fundamentalism]].</ref> Both LDS Church members (or ''Latter-day Saints'') and members of fundamentalist groups commonly use the word Mormon in reference to themselves.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll/Magazines/Ensign/1990.htm/ensign%20november%201990.htm/mormon%20should%20mean%20more%20good.htm |title=Mormon Should Mean 'More Good,' |author=[[Gordon B. Hinckley]] |date=Nov. 1990 |work=[[Ensign (LDS magazine)|Ensign]] |publisher= |page=51 |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}; See also: {{cite web |url=http://newsroom.lds.org/style-guide |title=Style Guide – The Name of the Church |accessdate=2011-10-06}}; {{Cite book|title=Secrets and Wives: The Hidden World of Mormon Polygamy |author=Sanjiv Bhattacharya |url=http://sanjivb.com/_site/book.php}}</ref> The LDS Church, however, disagrees with this self-characterization, and encourages the use of the word ''Mormon'' only in reference to LDS Church members.<ref>The terms Mormon and Mormonism are used by [[Mormon fundamentalism|Mormon fundamentalists]] in reference to themselves. The LDS Church disagrees with that self-characterization and encourages journalists only to use the word Mormon in reference to the LDS Church. {{cite web |url=http://newsroom.lds.org/style-guide |title=Style Guide — LDS Newsroom |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}. Despite the LDS Church preference, the term "fundamentalist Mormonism" is in common use.</ref> Church leaders also encourage members to use the church's full name to emphasize its focus on [[Jesus Christ]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll/Magazines/Ensign/1990.htm/ensign%20may%201990.htm/thus%20shall%20my%20church%20be%20called.htm |title=Thus Shall My Church Be Called |author=Russell M. Nelson |date=May 1990 |work=Ensign |publisher= |page=16|accessdate=November 11, 2011}}; {{cite web |url=http://lds.org/general-conference/2011/10/the-importance-of-a-name?lang=eng |title=The importance of a name |author=M. Russell Ballard |date=October 2, 2011 }}</ref>
The term Latter-day Saints was given to Smith during a 1838 revelation mentioned in [[Doctrine and Covenants]];<ref>{{cite web |url= http://lds.org/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/115.4?lang=eng#3 |title=Doctrine and Covenants 115:4 |first= Joseph|last=Smith|work=lds.org |year=1838 |quote=1838 |accessdate=25 January 2012}}</ref> the term "saint" was used by [[Paul the Apostle]] to refer to early members of the Christian church – the "later-day" being added to differentiate the modern church from the early church.<ref>{{cite book |url= http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IEEkTWyIpZkC&pg=PA324#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Latter-day Saint experience in America |first= Terryl |last= Givens |page=324|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |date= Nov 2004|accessdate=25 January 2012}}</ref>

The word Mormon is often associated with [[polygamy]] (or [[plural marriage]]),<ref>For many people, the mention of Mormons conjures up an assortment of contradictory images ... The charge of practicing polygamy annoys many Mormons because it is so far out of date. {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=1–2}}</ref> which was a distinguishing practice of many early Mormons; however it was renounced by the LDS Church in 1890,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=2}}; {{cite web |url=http://lds.org/scriptures/dc-testament/od/1?lang=eng |title=Official Declaration 1 |publisher=lds.org}}</ref>
and discontinued over the next 15 years.<ref>{{Cite document |title=Solemn Covenant: The Mormon Polygamous Passage |author=B. Carmen Hardy |date=1992 |work= |publisher=Urbana: University of Illinois Press |ref=harv }};
{{cite web |url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/dialogue,15411 |title=LDS Church Authority and New Plural Marriages, 1890–1904 |author=[[D. Michael Quinn]] |date=Spring 1985 |work=[[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]] |publisher= |accessdate=November 11, 2011| page=9}};
{{cite web |url=https://www.sunstonemagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/sbi/articles/037-8-27-35.pdf |title=After the Manifesto: Mormon Polygamy, 1890–1906 |author=Kenneth Cannon II |date=Jan.–Apr. 1983 |work= |publisher=[[Sunstone (magazine)|Sunstone]] |accessdate=November 11, 2011 |page=27}}</ref>
Today, polygamy is practiced only by fundamentalist groups that have broken with the LDS Church.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=14}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints}}

The history of the Mormons has shaped them into a people with a strong sense of unity and communality.<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|pp=75,119}}</ref> From the start, Mormons have tried to establish what they call ''[[Zion (Latter Day Saints)|Zion]]'', a utopian society of the righteous.<ref>A Mormon scripture describing the ancient city of Enoch became a model for the Saints. Enoch's city was a Zion "because they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness; and there were no poor among them" {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=36–38}}; ([http://lds.org/scriptures/pgp/moses/7.18?lang=eng#17 {{nowrap|Book of Moses 7:18}}])</ref>
Mormon history can be divided into three broad time periods: (1) the early history during the lifetime of [[Joseph Smith]], (2) a "pioneer era" under the leadership of [[Brigham Young]] and his successors, and (3) a modern era beginning around the turn of the 20th century. In the first period, Smith had tried literally to build a city called Zion, in which converts could gather. During the pioneer era, Zion became a "landscape of villages" in Utah. In modern times, Zion is still an ideal, though Mormons gather together in their individual congregations rather than a central geographic location.<ref>"In Missouri and Illinois, Zion had been a city; in Utah, it was a landscape of villages; in the urban diaspora, it was the ward with its extensive programs." {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=107}}</ref>

===Beginnings===
{{See also|History of the Latter Day Saint movement}}
[[Image:Joseph Smith first vision stained glass.jpg|left|upright|thumb|A stained glass window showing [[Joseph Smith]]'s [[First Vision]].]]

Mormons trace their origins to the visions that [[Joseph Smith]] reported having in the early 1820s while living in upstate New York.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=1, 9}}; {{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|p=9}}; {{cite book |url= http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Zx9qOay304C&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Joseph Smith and the origins of the Book of Mormon |first= David |last= Persuitte|page=30 |publisher=McFarland |date= October 2000|accessdate=25 January 2012}}</ref> In 1823 Smith said an [[Angel Moroni|angel]] directed him to a buried book written on [[golden plates]] containing the religious history of an ancient people.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=19}}</ref> Smith published what he said was a translation of these plates in March 1830 as the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'', named after [[Mormon (Book of Mormon)|Mormon]], the ancient prophet-historian who compiled the book, and on April 6, 1830, Smith founded the [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of Christ]].<ref>Scholars and eye-witnesses disagree as to whether the church was organized in [[Manchester (town), New York|Manchester, New York]] at the Smith log home, or in [[Fayette, New York|Fayette]] at the home of [[Peter Whitmer]]. {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|p=109}}; {{Harvtxt|Marquardt|2005|pp=223–23}} (arguing that organization in Manchester is most consistent with eye-witness statements).</ref> The early church grew westward as Smith sent missionaries to preach the new gospel.<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|p=41}} (by the next spring the church had 1,000 members).</ref> In 1831, the church moved to [[Kirtland, Ohio]] where missionaries had made a large number of converts<ref>{{Harvtxt|Brodie|1971|p=97}} (citing letter by Smith to Kirtland converts, quoted in {{Harvtxt|Howe|1833|p=111}}); {{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|p=41}}</ref> and Smith began establishing an outpost in [[Jackson County, Missouri]],<ref>{{Harvtxt|Smith|Cowdery|Rigdon|Williams|1835|p=154}}; {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|p=162}}; {{Harvtxt|Brodie|1971|p=109}}.</ref> where he planned to eventually build the city of ''[[Zion (Latter Day Saints)|Zion]]'' (or the [[New Jerusalem]]).<ref>Smith said in 1831 that God intended the Mormons to "retain a strong hold in the land of Kirtland, for the space of five years." ([[Doctrine and Covenants]] 64:21); {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|p=122}}</ref> In 1833, Missouri settlers, alarmed by the rapid influx of Mormons, expelled them from Jackson County into the nearby Clay County, where local residents took them in.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|pp=222–27}}; {{Harvtxt|Brodie|1971|p=137}} (noting that the brutality of the Jackson Countians aroused sympathy for the Mormons and was almost universally deplored by the media); {{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|pp=43–45}} (The Mormons were forced out in a November gale, and were taken in by Clay County residents, who earned from non-Mormons the derogative title of "Jack Mormons").</ref>
After Smith led a mission, known as [[Zion's Camp]], to recover the land,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Brodie|1971|pp=141, 146–59}}; {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|p=322}}.</ref> he began building [[Kirtland Temple]] in [[Lake County, Ohio]], where the church flourished.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Brodie|1971|p=101}}; {{Harvtxt|Arrington|1992|p=21}} (by summer of 1835, there were 1500 to 2000 Saints in Kirtland); Desert Morning News ''2008 Church Almanac'' pg.655 (from 1831 to 1838, church membership grew from 680 to 17,881); {{Harv|Bushman|2005|pp=310–19}} (The Kirtland Temple was viewed as the site of a new [[Pentecost]]); {{Harv|Brodie|1971|p=178}}. Smith also published several new revelations during the Kirtland era.</ref> When the Missouri Mormons were later asked to leave Clay County in 1836, they secured land in what would become [[Caldwell County, Missouri|Caldwell County]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|p=45}} (In December, 1836, the Missouri legislature granted the Mormons the right to organize Caldwell County)</ref>

The Kirtland era ended in 1838, after the failure of a [[Kirtland Safety Society|church-sponsored bank]] caused widespread defections,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|pp=328–38}}; {{Harvtxt|Brooke|1994|p=221}} ("Ultimately, the rituals and visions dedicating the Kirtland temple were not sufficient to hold the church together in the face of a mounting series of internal disputes.")</ref> and Smith regrouped with the remaining church in [[Far West, Missouri]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Roberts|1905|p=24}} (referring to the Far West church as the "church in Zion"); {{Harv|Bushman|2005|p=345}} (The revelation calling Far West "Zion" had the effect of "implying that Far West was to take the place of Independence.")</ref> During the fall of 1838, tensions escalated into the [[1838 Mormon War]] with the old Missouri settlers.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|pp=357–364}}; {{Harvtxt|Brodie|1971|pp=227–30}}; {{Harvtxt|Remini|2002|p=134}}; {{Harvtxt|Quinn|1994|pp=97–98}}.</ref> On October 27, the [[Lilburn Boggs|governor]] of Missouri [[Missouri Executive Order 44|ordered]] that that the Mormons "must be treated as enemies" and be exterminated or driven from the state.<ref>{{Harv|Bushman|2005|p=367}} (Boggs' executive order stated that the Mormon community had "made war upon the people of this State" and that "the Mormons must be treated as enemies, and must be exterminated or driven from the State if necessary for the public peace"). {{Harv|Bushman|2005|p=398}} (In 1976, [[Missouri]] issued a formal apology for this order) {{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|p=47}}.</ref> Between November and April some eight thousand displaced Mormons migrated east into [[Illinois]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|p=47}} ("the Saints, after being ravaged by troops, robbed by neighbors, and insulted by public officials from February to April, crossed over into Illinois").</ref>

In 1839, the Mormons converted a swampland on the banks of the Mississippi River into [[Nauvoo, Illinois]]<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|pp=383–84}}.</ref> and began construction of the [[Nauvoo Temple]]. The city became the church's new headquarters and gathering place, and it grew rapidly, fueled in part by converts immigrating from Europe.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|p=409}}; {{Harvtxt|Brodie|1971|pp=258, 264–65}}; {{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|p=51}} (noting the city growth and missionary success in England).</ref> Meanwhile, Smith introduced temple ceremonies meant to [[Sealing (Mormonism)|seal]] families together for eternity, as well as the doctrines of eternal progression or [[Exaltation (Mormonism)|exaltation]],<ref>{{Harvtxt|Widmer|2000|p=119}} (Smith taught that faithful Mormons may progress until they become co-equal with God); {{Harvtxt|Roberts|1909|pp=502–03}}; {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|pp=497–98}} (the [[second anointing]] provided a guarantee that participants would be exalted even if they sinned).</ref> and plural marriage.<ref>Initially, Smith introduced plural marriage only to his closest associates.{{Harvtxt|Brodie|1971|pp=334–36}}; {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|pp=437, 644}} The practice was acknowledged publicly in 1852 by Brigham Young.</ref>
Smith created a service organization for women called the [[Relief Society]], as well as an organization called the [[Council of Fifty]], representing a future [[theodemocracy|theodemocratic]] "Kingdom of God" on the earth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Quinn|1980|pp=120–122, 165}}; {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|pp=519–21}} (describing the Council of Fifty)</ref>
Smith also published the story of his [[First Vision]], in which the [[God the Father|Father]] and the [[Jesus|Son]] appeared to him while he was about 14 years old.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Shipps|1985|p=30}} The first extant account of the First Vision is the manuscript account in Joseph Smith, "Manuscript History of the Church" (1839); the first published account is Orson Pratt, ''An Interesting Account of Several Remarkable Visions and of the Late Discovery of Ancient American Records'' (Edinburgh: Ballantyne and Hughes, 1840); and the first American publication is Joseph Smith's [[Wentworth letter|letter to John Wentworth]] in ''Times and Seasons'', 3 (March 1842), 706–08. (These accounts are available in {{Cite book | editor-last=Vogel | editor-first=Dan | editor-link=Dan Vogel | title=Early Mormon Documents | volume=1 | place=Salt Lake City | publisher=Signature Books | year=1996 | isbn=1-56085-072-8 | ref=harv | postscript= }}.) As the LDS historian [[Richard Bushman]] wrote in his authoritative biography, "At first, Joseph was reluctant to talk about his vision. Most early converts probably never heard about the 1820 vision." {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|p=39}}</ref>
Long after Smith's death, this vision would come to be regarded by some Mormons as the most important event in human history after the birth, ministry, and [[resurrection of Jesus|resurrection of Jesus Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|author=LDS Church|title=Joseph Smith Home Page/Mission of the Prophet/First Vision: This Is My Beloved Son. Hear Him!|year=2010| url=http://www.josephsmith.net/portal/site/JosephSmith/menuitem.da0e1d4eb6d2d87f9c0a33b5f1e543a0/?vgnextoid=497679179acbff00VgnVCM1000001f5e340aRCRD
|accessdate=2010-04-29|ref=harv}}; {{Harvtxt|Allen|1966|p=29}} (belief in the First Vision now considered second in importance only to belief in the divinity of [[Jesus]].); {{Cite journal| title=What Are People Asking about Us? | last=Hinkley| first=Gordon B. | journal=Ensign | issue=November | year=1998 | url=http://lds.org/portal/site/LDSOrg/menuitem.b12f9d18fae655bb69095bd3e44916a0/?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=7c86605ff590c010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1| ref=harv| postscript=
}} ("[N]othing we teach, nothing we live by is of greater importance than this initial declaration.").</ref>

In 1844, local prejudices and political tensions, fueled by Mormon peculiarity and internal dissent, escalated into conflicts between Mormons and "anti-Mormons".<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1857|pp=64–67}}</ref> On June 27, 1844, Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum were [[Death of Joseph Smith, Jr.|killed by a mob]] in [[Carthage, Illinois]].<ref>Encyclopedia of Latter-Day Saint History pg. 824. {{Harvtxt|Brodie|1971|pp=393–94}}; {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|pp=539–50}}; Many local Illinoisans were uneasy with Mormon power, and their unease was fanned by the local media after Smith suppressed a newspaper containing an exposé regarding plural marriage, theocracy, and other sensitive and oft misinterpreted issues. The suppression resulted in Smith being arrested, tried, and acquitted for "inciting a riot". On June 25, Joseph let himself be arrested and tried for the riot charges again, this time in Carthage, the county seat, where he was incarcerated without bail on a new charge of treason. {{cite web |url=http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/people/joseph_smith/legal_trials.html |title=Legal Trials of Joseph Smith |author= |date= |work= |publisher=www.lightplanet.com |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}</ref> Because Hyrum was Joseph's logical successor,<ref>Brigham Young later said of Hyrum, "Did Joseph Smith ordain any man to take his place. He did. Who was it? It was Hyrum, but Hyrum fell a martyr before Joseph did. If Hyrum had lived he would have acted for Joseph." ''[[Times and Seasons]],'' 5 [Oct. 15, 1844]: 683</ref> their deaths caused a [[Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints)|succession crisis]],<ref>{{Harvtxt|Quinn|1994|p=143}}; {{Harvtxt|Brodie|1971|p=398}}.</ref> and [[Brigham Young]] assumed leadership over the majority of Saints.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2005|pp=556–57}}.</ref> Young had been a close associate of Smith's and was senior [[Apostle (Latter Day Saints)|apostle]] of the [[Quorum of the Twelve]].<ref>Smith's position as [[President of the Church]] was originally left vacant, based on the sentiment that nobody could succeed Smith's office. Years later, the church established the principle that Young, and any other senior [[Apostle (Latter Day Saints)|apostle]] of the [[Quorum of the Twelve]], would be ordained [[President of the Church]] as a matter of course upon the death of the former President, subject to unanimous agreement of the Quorum of the Twelve.</ref> Smaller groups of Latter Day Saints followed other leaders to form other denominations of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Quinn|1994|pp=198–211}}.</ref>

===Pioneer era===
[[File:Mormon Pioneer handcart statue.jpg|thumb|upright|A statue commemorating the [[Mormon handcart pioneers]]]]
For two years after Smith's death, conflicts escalated between Mormons and other Illinois residents. To prevent war, [[Brigham Young]] led the [[Mormon pioneers]] (constituting most of the Latter Day Saints) to a temporary [[Winter Quarters (North Omaha, Nebraska)|winter quarters]] in Nebraska and then eventually (beginning in 1847) to what became the [[Utah Territory]].<ref name="emigration-religious-freedom">In 2004, the State of Illinois recognized the expulsion of the Latter-day Saints as the "largest forced migration in American history" and stated in the adopted resolution that, "WHEREAS, The biases and prejudices of a less enlightened age in the history of the State of Illinois caused unmeasurable hardship and trauma for the community of Latter-day Saints by the distrust, violence, and inhospitable actions of a dark time in our past; therefore, be it RESOLVED, BY THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES OF THE NINETY-THIRD GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS, that we acknowledge the disparity of those past actions and suspicions, regretting the expulsion of the community of Latter-day Saints, a people of faith and hard work." {{cite web |url=http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/fulltext.asp?GAID=3&SessionID=3&GA=93&DocTypeID=HR&DocNum=0793&LegID=12984&SpecSess=&Session= |title=Official House Resolution HR0793 (LRB093 21726 KEF 49525 r) |author=Illinois General Assembly |date=April 1, 2004 |work= |publisher= }}; "The great Mormon migration of 1846–1847 was but one step in the LDS' quest for religious freedom and growth." {{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/mopi/historyculture/index.htm |title=Mormon Pioneer National Historic Trail: History & Culture |author= |date= |work= |publisher= }}</ref> Having failed to build Zion within the confines of American society, the Mormons began to construct a society in isolation, based on their beliefs and values.<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|p=86}} ("Having failed to build Zion within the confines of American society, the Latter-day Saints found in the Great Basin the isolation that would enable them to establish a distinctive community based upon their own beliefs and values").</ref> The cooperative ethic that Mormons had developed over the last decade and a half became important as settlers branched out and colonized a large desert region now known as the [[Mormon Corridor]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|p=84}} (From 1847 to 1857 ninety0five mormon communities were established, most of them clustering around Salt Lake City); {{Cite journal |journal=Pacific Historical Review |volume=8 |issue=2 |title=The Mormon Corridor
|last=Hunter |first=Milton |date=June 1939 |publisher=University of California Press |page=179 |jstor=3633392 |pages=179–200 |ref=harv }}; {{Harvtxt|Shipps|1957|pp=83–84}}.</ref> Colonizing efforts were seen as religious duties, and the new villages were governed by the Mormon bishops (local lay religious leaders).<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|pp=86–89}}.</ref> The Mormons viewed land as commonwealth, devising and maintaining a co-operative system of irrigation that allowed them to build a farming community in the desert.<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|pp=87–91}}.</ref>

From 1849–52, the Mormons greatly expanded their missionary efforts, establishing several missions in Europe, Latin America, and the [[Oceania|South Pacific]].<ref name="ODea91">{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|p=91}}.</ref> Converts were expected to "gather" to Zion, and during Young's presidency (1847–77) over seventy thousand Mormon converts immigrated to America.<ref name=ODea91/> Many of the converts came from England and [[Scandinavia]], and were quickly assimilated into the Mormon community.<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|pp=91–92}}; {{cite web|url=http://welshmormonhistory.org/ |title=Welsh Mormon History}} During the 1840s and 1850s many thousands of [[Wales|Welsh]] Mormon converts immigrated to America, and today, it is estimated that around 20% of the population of [[Utah]] is of Welsh descent.</ref> Many of these immigrants crossed the [[Great Plains]] in wagons drawn by oxen, while some later groups pulled their possessions in small handcarts. During the 1860s newcomers began using the new [[First Transcontinental Railroad|railroad]] that was under construction.<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|pp=95–96}}.</ref>

In 1852 church leaders publicized the previously secret practice of [[plural marriage]], a form of [[polygamy]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=88}} (Plural marriage originated in a revelation that Joseph Smith apparently received in 1831 and wrote down in 1843. It was first publicly announced in a general conference in 1852); {{cite web|url=http://www.media.utah.edu/UHE/p/POLYGAMY.html |title=Polygamy |work=Utah History Encyclopedia}} The Mormon doctrine of plural wives was officially announced by one of the [[Quorum of the Twelve|Twelve Apostles]] [[Orson Pratt]] and [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Smith]]'s successor [[Brigham Young]] in a special conference of the elders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints assembled in the [[Mormon Tabernacle]] on 28 August 1852, and reprinted in an extra edition of the ''[[Deseret News]]''
{{cite article | title = Minutes of conference : a special conference of the elders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints assembled in the Tabernacle, Great Salt Lake City, August 28, 1852, 10 o'clock, a.m., pursuant to public notice | publisher = [[Deseret News|Deseret News Extra]] | date = 14 September 1852 | page = 14}}. See also [[Origin of Latter Day Saint polygamy#The 1850s: Official sanction in the LDS Church|The 1850s: Official sanction in the LDS Church]]</ref> Over the next 50 years many Mormons entered into plural marriages as a religious duty, with the number of plural marriages reaching a peak around 1860, and then declining through the rest of the century.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=88}} (If asked why they entered these relationships, both plural wives and husbands emphasized spiritual blessings of being sealed eternally and of submitting to God's will. According to the federal censuses, the highest percentage of the population in polygamous families was in 1860 (43.6%) and it declined to 25% in 1880 and to 7% in 1990).</ref> Besides the doctrinal reasons for plural marriage, the practice made some economic sense, as many of the plural wives were single women who arrived in Utah without brothers or fathers to offer them societal support.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=88}} ("The close study of the marriages in one nineteenth-century Utah community revealed that a disproportionate number of plural wives were women who arrived in Utah without fathers or brothers to care for them...Since better-off men more frequently married plurally, the practice distributed wealth to the poor and disconnected").</ref>

By 1857, tensions had again escalated between Mormons and other Americans, largely as a result of accusations involving polygamy and the [[theocratic]] rule of the Utah territory by Brigham Young.<ref>See Tullidge, Edward, History of Salt Lake City, 132-35 (Original from the University of Michigan, 1886).</ref> In 1857 President James Buchanan sent an army to Utah, which Mormons interpreted as open aggression against them. Fearing a repeat of Missouri and Illinois, they prepared to defend themselves, determined to torch their own homes in the case that they were invaded.<ref>{{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|pp=101–102}}; {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=95}}.</ref> The relatively peaceful [[Utah War]] ensued from 1857 to 1858, in which the most notable instance of violence was the [[Mountain Meadows massacre]], when leaders of a local Mormon militia ordered the killing of a civilian emigrant party that was traveling through Utah during the escalating tensions.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=96–97}} (calling the Mountain Meadows massacre the greatest tragedy in Mormon history)</ref> In 1858 Young agreed to step down from his position as governor and was replaced by a non-Mormon, [[Alfred Cumming (governor)|Alfred Cumming]].<ref>To combat the notion that rank-and-file Mormons were unhappy under Young's leadership, Cumming noted that he had offered to help any leave the territory who desired. Of the 50,000 inhabitants of the state of Utah, the underwhelming response—56 men, 33 women, and 71 children, most of whom stated they left for economic reasons—impressed Cumming, as did the fact that Mormon leaders contributed supplies to the emigrants. Cumming to [Secretary of State Lewis Cass], written by Thomas Kane, May 2, 1858, BYU Special Collections.</ref> Nevertheless, the LDS Church still wielded significant political power in the Utah Territory.<ref>{{Cite book | last1=Firmage
| first1= Edwin Brown
| last2 = Mangrum
| first2=Richard Collin
| title=Zion in the Courts: A Legal History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 1830–1900
| page=140
| url=http://books.google.com/?id=9AimifP2a-4C&pg=PR7#PPA140,M1
| isbn=0-252-06980-3
| publisher=U. of Illinois Press
| year=2002 | author=Edwin Brown Firmage and Richard Collin Mangrum. | ref=harv | postscript=
}}</ref>

At Young's death in 1877, he was followed by other [[President of the Church|LDS Presidents]], who resisted efforts by the [[United States Congress]] to outlaw Mormon polygamous marriages.<ref name="Bushman97">{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=97}}</ref> In 1878 the Supreme Court ruled in [[Reynolds v. United States]] that religious duty was not a suitable defense for practicing polygamy, and many Mormons went into hiding; later, Congress began seizing church assets.<ref name=Bushman97/> In September 1890, church president [[Wilford Woodruff]] issued a [[1890 Manifesto|Manifesto]] that officially suspended the practice of polygamy.<ref>{{lds|Official Declaration —|od|1}}</ref> Although this Manifesto did not dissolve existing plural marriages, relations with the United States markedly improved after 1890, such that Utah was admitted as a [[U.S. state]]. After the Manifesto, some Mormons continued to enter into polygamous marriages, but these eventually stopped in 1904 when church president [[Joseph F. Smith]] [[Reed Smoot hearings|disavowed polygamy]] before Congress and issued a "[[Second Manifesto]]" calling for all plural marriages in the church to cease. Eventually, the church adopted a policy of [[excommunication|excommunicating]] members found practicing polygamy, and today seeks actively to distance itself from "fundamentalist" groups that continue the practice.<ref>The LDS Church encourages journalists not to use the word ''Mormon'' in reference to organizations or people that practice polygamy {{cite web |url=http://newsroom.lds.org/style-guide |title=Style Guide — LDS Newsroom |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}; The church repudiates polygamist groups and excommunicates their members if discovered {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=91}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/25396937/ns/us_news-faith/t/mormons-seek-distance-polygamist-sects |title=Mormons seek distance from polygamous sects |year=2008 |publisher=msnbc.com}}</ref>

===Modern times===
{{See|Mormonism as a world religion}}
During the early 20th century, Mormons began to reintegrate into the American mainstream. In 1929 the [[Mormon Tabernacle Choir]] began broadcasting a weekly performance on national radio, becoming an asset for public relations.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=103}}</ref> Mormons emphasized patriotism and industry, rising in socioeconomic status from the bottom among American religious denominations to middle-class.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Mauss|1994|p=22}}. "With the consistent encouragement of church leaders, Mormons became models of patriotic, law-abiding citizenship, sometimes seeming to "out-American" all other Americans. Their participation in the full spectrum of national, social, political, economic, and cultural life has been thorough and sincere"</ref>
In the 1920s and 1930s Mormons began migrating out of Utah, a trend hurried by the [[Great Depression]], as Mormons looked for work wherever they could find it.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=105}}</ref> As Mormons spread out, church leaders created programs that would help preserve the tight-knit community feel of Mormon culture.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=106}}</ref> In addition to weekly worship services, Mormons began participating in numerous programs such as [[Boy Scouting (Boy Scouts of America)|Boy Scouting]], a [[Young Women (organization)|Young Women's organization]], church-sponsored dances, ward basketball, camping trips, plays, and [[LDS Seminaries|religious education programs]] for youth and college students.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=53}}</ref> During the Great Depression the church started a [[LDS Humanitarian Services|welfare program]] to meet the needs of poor members, which has since grown to include a humanitarian branch that provides relief to disaster victims.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=40–41}}</ref>
[[File:Mtchoirandorchestra ConferenceCenter.jpg|left|thumb|The 360-member, all-volunteer [[Mormon Tabernacle Choir]]]]

During the latter half of the century, there was a retrenchment movement in Mormonism in which Mormons became more conservative, attempting to regain their status as a "peculiar people".<ref>The term ''peculiar people'' is consciously borrowed from [http://lds.org/scriptures/nt/1-pet/2.9?lang=eng#8 1 Peter 2:9], and can be interpreted as ''special'' or ''different,'' though Mormons have certainly been viewed as ''peculiar'' in the modern sense as well. {{Harvtxt|Mauss|1994|p=60}}</ref>
Though the 1960s and 1970s brought positive changes such as [[Women's Liberation]] and the [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|Civil Rights Movement]], Mormon leaders were alarmed by the erosion of traditional values, the [[sexual revolution]], the widespread use of recreational drugs, [[moral relativism]], and other forces they saw as damaging to the family.<ref>Developments mitigating traditional racial, ethnic, and gender inequality and bigotry were regarded in hindsight by most Americans (and most Mormons) as desirable ... On the other hand, Mormons (and many others) have watched with increasing alarm the spread throughout society of "liberating" innovations such as the normalization of non marital sexual behavior, the rise in abortion, illegitimacy, divorce, and child neglect or abuse, recreational drugs, crime, etc. {{Harvtxt|Mauss|1994|p=124}}</ref>
Partly to counter this, Mormons put an even greater emphasis on family life, religious education, and missionary work, becoming more conservative in the process. As a result, Mormons today are probably less integrated with mainstream society than they were in the early 1960s.<ref>"... [T]he church appears to have arrested, if not reversed, the erosion of distinctive Mormon ways that might have been anticipated in the 60s." {{Harvtxt|Mauss|1994|p=140}} "However, in partial contradiction to their public image, Mormons stand mostly on the liberal side of the continuum on certain other social and political issues, notably on civil rights, and even on women's rights, except where these seem to conflict with child-rearing roles." {{Harvtxt|Mauss|1994|p=156}}</ref>

Although [[black people]] have been members of Mormon congregations since Joseph Smith's time, before 1978, black membership was small. From 1852 to 1978, the LDS Church had a policy against ordaining men of African descent to the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage |first=Armand L. |last=Mauss |pages=213–215 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-252-02803-1 |ref=harv }}; {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=111–12}} ("The origins of this policy are not altogether clear. "Passages in Joseph Smith's translations indicate that a lineage associated with Ham and the Egyptian pharaohs was forbidden the priesthood. Connecting the ancient pharaohs with modern Africans and African Americans required a speculative leap, but by the time of Brigham Young, the leap was made.")</ref> The church had previously been criticized for its policy during the [[civil rights movement]], but the [[1978 Revelation on Priesthood|change]] came in 1978 and was prompted primarily by problems facing mixed race converts in Brazil.<ref name="Black Mormons">{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=111–112}}.</ref> Mormons greeted the change with joy and relief. Since 1978 black membership has grown, and in 1997 there were approximately 500,000 black members of the church (about 5% of the total membership), mostly in Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean.<ref>{{Cite document |url=http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 |title=1999–2000 Church Almanac |author= |date=1998 |work=Adherents.com quoting ''Deseret News ''|publisher=Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT |page=119 |accessdate=November 11, 2011 |ref=harv }}[ ] "A rough estimate would place the number of Church members with African roots at year-end 1997 at half a million, with about 100,000 each in Africa and the Caribbean, and another 300,000 in Brazil."</ref> Black membership has continued to grow substantially, especially in [[West Africa]], where two [[Temple (LDS Church)|temples]] have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa">{{cite web |url=http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/africagrowth.html |title=The Church Continues to Grow in Africa |author= |date= |work= |publisher=Genesis Group |accessdate=}}{{dead link|date=February 2012}}[ ]</ref> Many [[black Mormons]] are members of the [[Genesis Group]], an organization of black members that predates the priesthood ban, and is endorsed by the church.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Black and Mormon|author=Newell G. Bringhurst, Darron T. Smith |date=Dec 13, 2005 |publisher=University of Illinois Press|pages=102–104}}</ref>

[[File:LDS Global Distribution.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Global distribution of LDS Church members in 2009]]
The LDS Church grew rapidly after [[World War II]] and became a world-wide organization as [[Mormon missionary|missionaries]] were sent across the globe. The church doubled in size every 15–20 years,<ref>{{citation |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wTBUCGwdG8MC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA92#v=onepage&q=doubled%20twice%20since%20then&f=false |title=The angel and the beehive: the Mormon struggle with assimilation |author=Armand L. Mauss |year=1994 |page=92}}; {{citation |title= Building a bigger tent: Does Mormonism have a Mitt Romney problem? |url= http://www.economist.com/node/21548247 |date= February 25, 2012 |journal= [[The Economist]] }} (In 2010 alone the church grew by 400,000 new members, including converts and newborns)</ref> and by 1996, there were more Mormons outside the United States than inside.<ref name="Todd 1996">{{cite web|last=Todd|first=Jay M.|title=More Members Now outside U.S. Than in U.S.|url=http://lds.org/ensign/1996/03/news-of-the-church/?lang=eng|work=News of the Church|publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]|accessdate=7 May 2011|month=March|year=1996}}{{dead link|date=February 2012}}</ref> In 2010 there were an estimated 14.1 million Mormons,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newsroom.lds.org/article/2010-statistical-report-for-2011-april-general-conference|title=2010 Statistical Report for 2011 April General Conference}}</ref> with roughly 57% living outside the United States.<ref>Approximately 6.1 million of the church's 14.1 million members live in the US. {{cite web |url=http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/facts-and-statistics/country/united-states/ |title=2010 Facts and Statistics: United States |author= |date= |work= |publisher=LDS Newsroom |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}</ref> Most Mormons are distributed in North and South America, the South Pacific, and Western Europe. The global distribution of Mormons resembles a contact diffusion model, radiating out from the organization's headquarters in Utah.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.natur.cuni.cz/ksgrrsek/acta/2009/2009_reeves.pdf |title=The Global Distribution of Adventists and Mormons in 2007 |author=Daniel Reeves |year=2009 |work= |publisher= |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}</ref> The church enforces general doctrinal uniformity, and congregations on all continents teach the same doctrines, and international Mormons tend to absorb a good deal of Mormon culture, possibly because of the church's top-down hierarchy and a missionary presence. However, international Mormons often bring pieces of their own heritage into the church, adapting church practices to local cultures.<ref name="Thomas W. Murphy 1996">{{cite web |url=https://dialoguejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/sbi/articles/Dialogue_V29N01_183.pdf |title=Reinventing Mormonism: Guatemala as Harbinger of the Future? |author=Thomas W. Murphy |year=1996 |work= |publisher= |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}</ref>

==Culture and practices==
{{Main|Culture of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints}}
Isolation in [[Utah]] had allowed Mormons to create a culture of their own.<ref name="Bushman47">{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=47}}</ref> As the faith spread around the world, many of its more distinctive practices followed. Mormon converts are urged to undergo lifestyle changes, "repent of their sins," and adopt sometimes foreign standards of conduct.<ref name=Bushman47/> Practices common to Mormons include studying the scriptures, praying daily, fasting on a regular basis, attending Sunday worship services, participating in church programs and activities on weekdays, and refraining from work on Sundays when possible. Mormons also emphasize standards they believe were taught by [[Jesus Christ]], including personal honesty, integrity, obedience to law, chastity outside of marriage and fidelity within marriage.<ref name="StrengthofYouth">{{cite web|url=http://lds.org/manual/for-the-strength-of-youth-fulfilling-our-duty-to-god?lang=eng |title=For the Strength of Youth: Fulfilling Our Duty to God |publisher=LDS Church}}</ref>

[[File:Salt Lake Temple, Utah - Sept 2004-2.jpg|thumb||left|The [[Salt Lake Temple]] is one of the most iconic images of the LDS Church]]
In 2010 Around 13–14% of Mormons lived in Utah: the center of cultural influence for Mormonism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://newsroom.lds.org/country/usa-utah |title=USA–Utah |author= |date= |work= |publisher=LDS Newsroom |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}</ref> [[Religion in Utah|Utah Mormons]] (as well as Mormons living in the [[Intermountain West]]) are on average more culturally and/or politically conservative than those living in some cosmopolitan centers elsewhere in the U.S.<ref>Mauss often compares [[Salt Lake City]] Mormons to [[California]] Mormons from [[San Francisco]] and [[East Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)|East Bay]]. The Utah Mormons were generally more orthodox and conservative. {{Harvtxt|Mauss|1994|p=40,128}}; {{Cite document|url = http://pewforum.org/Christian/Mormon/A-Portrait-of-Mormons-in-the-US--Social-and-Political-Views.aspx|title = A Portrait of Mormons in the U.S.: III. Social and Political Views|date = July 24, 2009|publisher = Pew Research Center}}</ref> Utahns self-identifying as Mormon also attend church somewhat more on average than Mormons living in other states. (Nonetheless, whether they live in Utah or elsewhere in the U.S., Mormons tend to be more culturally and/or politically conservative than members of other U.S. religious groups.)<ref>{{Cite document|url = http://www.gallup.com/poll/125021/mormons-conservative-major-religious-group.aspx|date = January 11, 2010|title = Mormons Most Conservative Major Religious Group in U.S.: Six out of 10 Mormons are politically conservative|publisher = [[Gallup poll]]|first = Frank|last = Newport}}; {{Cite document|url = http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1292/mormon-religion-demographics-beliefs-practices-politics|publisher = [[Pew Research Center]]|title = A Portrait of Mormons in the U.S|first = Allison|last = Pond|date = July 24, 2009}}</ref> Utah Mormons often place a greater emphasis on pioneer heritage than international Mormons who generally are not descendants of the [[Mormon pioneers]].<ref name="Thomas W. Murphy 1996"/>

Mormons have a strong sense of communality that stems from their doctrine and history.<ref>Early Mormons had practiced the [[Law of consecration]] in Missouri for two years, in an attempt to eliminate poverty. Families would return their surplus "income" to the bishop, who would then redistribute it among the saints. Though initial efforts at "consecration" failed, consecration has become a more general attitude that underlies Mormon charitable works. {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=36–39}}</ref> LDS Church members have a responsibility to dedicate their time and talents to helping the poor and building the church. The church is divided by locality into congregations called ''[[Ward (LDS Church)|wards]]'' with several wards making up a ''[[Stake (Latter Day Saints)|stake]]''.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=53}} (The name "stake" comes from a passage in Isaiah that compares Zion to a tent that will enlarge as new stakes are planted); ''See [http://lds.org/scriptures/ot/isa/33.20?lang=eng#19 {{nowrap|Isaiah 33:20}}] and [http://lds.org/scriptures/ot/isa/54.2?lang=eng#1 {{nowrap|Isaiah 54:2}}]''.</ref> The vast majority of church leadership positions are [[Laity|lay]] positions, and church members may work 10–15 hours a week in unpaid church service.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=35,52}}</ref> Engaged Mormons also contribute 10 percent of their income to the church as [[tithe|tithing]], and are often involved in [[LDS Humanitarian Services|humanitarian efforts]]. Many LDS young men choose to serve a two year [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] [[Missionary (LDS Church)|mission]], during which they dedicate all of their time to the church, without pay.<ref>A full-time mission is looked upon as important character training for a young man. {{Harvtxt|O'Dea|1957|p=177}}</ref>

Mormons adhere to the [[Word of Wisdom]], a health law or code that prohibits the consumption of tobacco, alcohol, coffee, and tea, and encourages the use of wholesome herbs, grains, fruits, and a moderate consumption of meat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/89 |title=Doctrine & Covenants, Section 89 |author= |date= |work= |publisher= }}</ref> The Word of Wisdom is interpreted to also prohibit other harmful and addictive substances and practices, such as the use of illegal drugs and abuse of prescription drugs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?hideNav=1&locale=0&sourceId=56c6991a83d20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&vgnextoid=e1fa5f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD |title=Word of Wisdom |author= |year=2004 |work=True to the Faith |publisher= |pages=186–88 |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}</ref> Mormons also oppose addictive behavior such as viewing pornography and gambling.<ref name=StrengthofYouth/>

The concept of a united family that lives and progresses forever is at the core of Latter-day Saint doctrine, and Mormons place a high importance on family life.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=59}} (In the temple, husbands and wives are [[Sealing (Mormonism)|sealed]] to each other for eternity. The implication is that other institutional forms, including the church, might disappear, but the family will endure); {{Cite document|url= http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Mormon/mormons-in-america-executive-summary.aspx#family |title=Mormons in America |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=January 2012}} (A 2011 survey of Mormons in the United States showed that family life is very important to Mormons, with family concerns significantly higher than career concerns. Four out of five Mormons believe that being a good parent is one of the most important goals in life, and roughly three out of four Mormons put having a successful marriage in this category); {{Cite document|url= http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700214901/New-Pew-survey-reinforces-Mormons-top-goals-of-family-marriage.html?pg=1 |title=New Pew survey reinforces Mormons' top goals of family, marriage |publisher=Desert News |date=12 January 2012}}; See also: [http://lds.org/family/proclamation?lang=eng The Family: A Proclamation to the World].</ref> Many Mormons hold weekly [[Family Home Evening|family home evenings]], in which an evening is set aside for family bonding, study, prayer and other wholesome activities. Latter-day Saint fathers who hold the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]] typically name and [[baby blessing|bless their children]] shortly after birth to formally give the child a name. Mormon parents hope and pray that their children will gain testimonies of the "gospel" so they can grow up and marry in temples.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=30&ndash31}}; {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=58}}</ref>

Mormons have a strict [[law of chastity]], requiring abstention from sexual relations outside of marriage and strict fidelity within marriage. All sexual activity (heterosexual and homosexual) outside of marriage is considered a serious sin.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chastity |work=True to the Faith |year=2004 |url= http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?hideNav=1&locale=0&sourceId=1f53991a83d20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&vgnextoid=e1fa5f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD |pages=29–33}}; {{Cite document|url=http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Mormon/mormons-in-america-executive-summary.aspx |title=Mormons in America|publisher=Pew Research Center |date=January 2012}} (79% of Mormons in the US say that sex between unmarried adults is morally wrong, far higher than the 35% of the general public who hold the same view).</ref> [[Same-sex marriage]]s are not performed or supported by the LDS Church. Church members are encouraged to marry and have children, and Latter-day Saint families tend to be larger than average. Mormons are opposed to abortions, except in some exceptional circumstances, such as when pregnancy is the result of incest or rape, or when the life or health of the mother is in serious jeopardy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lds.org/study/topics/abortion?lang=eng |publisher=lds.org |title=Topic: Abortion}}</ref> Practicing adult Mormons wear [[Temple garment|religious undergarments]] that remind them of sacred covenants and encourage them to dress modestly. Latter-day Saints are counseled not to partake of any form of media that is obscene or pornographic in any way, including media that depicts graphic representations of sex or violence. [[Tattoo]]s and [[body piercing]]s are also discouraged, with the exception of a single pair of earrings for LDS women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lds.org/manual/for-the-strength-of-youth-fulfilling-our-duty-to-god/dress-and-appearance?lang=eng |title=Dress and Appearance |work=For the Strength of the Youth |publisher=LDS Church |year=2001}}</ref>

[[Homosexual Mormons|LGBT Mormons]], or Mormons who self-identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual, remain in good standing in the church if they abstain from homosexual relations and obey the law of chastity.<ref>Homosexual acts (as well as other sexual acts outside the bonds of marriage) are prohibited by the [[Law of Chastity]]. Violating the Law of Chastity may result in [[excommunication]]. {{cite web |url=http://lds.org/portal/site/LDSOrg/menuitem.b12f9d18fae655bb69095bd3e44916a0/?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&sourceId=7c86605ff590c010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____ |title=What Are People Asking about Us? |author=Gordon B. Hinckley |year=1998 |work= |publisher= |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}</ref> While there are no official numbers, LDS Family Services estimates that there are on average four or five members per [[Ward (LDS Church)|LDS ward]] who experience same-sex attraction.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.evergreeninternational.org/Individuals.htm |title=Resources for Individuals |author= |date= |work= |publisher=Evergreen International |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}</ref> Gary Watts, former president of [[Family Fellowship]], estimates that only 10% of homosexuals stay in the church.<ref>{{Cite document |url= http://www.insidebayarea.com/oaklandtribune/ci_6668882 |title= Mormon church changes stance on homosexuality; New teachings say lifelong celibacy to be rewarded with heterosexuality in heaven |author= Rebecca Rosen Lum |date= August 20, 2007 |publisher= ''[[The Oakland Tribune]]'' |accessdate= 2007-12-20 |ref= harv }}</ref> Many of these individuals have come forward through different support groups or websites stating their homosexual attractions and concurrent church membership.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.affirmation.org/history/in_the_beginning.shtml |work=Affirmation: Gay & Lesbian Mormons |title=In The Beginning: A Brief History of Affirmation |author=Paul Mortensen}}; See also:[[Affirmation: Gay & Lesbian Mormons]]</ref>

==Groups within Mormonism==
{{See also|List of sects in the Latter Day Saint movement|"International" Mormon}}
[[File:Latter Day Saint confirmation (Mayhew 1852).png|thumb|right|190px|A Latter Day Saint [[Confirmation (Latter Day Saints)|confirmation]] circa 1852]]
;Latter-day Saints
: Members of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], formally known as Latter-day Saints, constitute over 99% of [[Brighamite|Mormons]].<ref>The LDS Church claims a membership of over 14 million ({{cite web|url=http://newsroom.lds.org/article/2010-statistical-report-for-2011-april-general-conference|title=2010 Statistical Report for 2011 April General Conference}}), while members of other [[Brighamite|Brigham Young – lineage sects]] number in the tens of thousands. (Indeed, the Latter Day Saint – movement in its entirety is dominated by the LDS Church, which makes up perhaps 98% of such adherents. Note that one denomination dominates the [[Prairie Saints|non-Mormon section of the movement]]: Community of Christ, which has about 250,000 members.)Also note the use of the lower case ''d'' and hyphen in ''Latter-day Saints,'' as opposed to the larger ''[[Latter Day Saint movement]].''</ref> The beliefs and practices of LDS Mormons are generally guided by the teachings of [[First Presidency (LDS Church)|LDS Church leaders]]. There are, however, several smaller groups that differ from "mainstream" Mormonism in various ways. LDS Church members who do not actively participate in worship services or church callings are often called "[[Less-active Mormon|less-active]]" (akin to the qualifying expressions ''non-observant'' or ''non-practicing'' used in relation to members of other religious groups).<ref>{{Cite document|publisher = [[Salt Lake Tribune]]|first = Peggy Fletcher|last = Stack|authorlink = Peggy Fletcher Stack|title = Active, inactive – do Mormon labels work or wound?|url = http://m.sltrib.com/sltrib/mobile/52631643-80/mormon-church-lds-says.html.csp|date = September 23, 2011}}</ref> The LDS Church does not release statistics on church activity, but it is likely that about 40% of Mormons in the United States and 30% worldwide regularly attend worship services.<ref>Member activity rates are estimated from Missionary reports, Seminary and Institute enrollment, and ratio of members per congregation – {{cite web |url=http://ldschurchgrowth.blogspot.com/2011/07/countries-of-world-by-estimated-member.html |title=Countries of the World by Estimated Member Activity Rate |author= |date=July 11, 2011 |work=LDS Church Growth |publisher= |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}; See also: {{cite web |url=http://rsc.byu.edu/archived/latter-day-saint-social-life-social-research-lds-church-and-its-members/8-consequential-dim |title=The Consequential Dimension of Mormon Religiosity |author=Stan L. Albrecht |year=1998 |work= |publisher= |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}; {{Cite document|title = Keeping members a challenge for LDS church|first = Peggy Fletcher|last = Stack|authorlink = Peggy Fletcher Stack|date = July 26, 2005|url = http://www.sltrib.com/utah/ci_2890645|publisher = [[Salt Lake Tribune]]}}</ref> Reasons for inactivity can include lifestyle issues and problems with social integration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Activity_in_the_Church |title=Activity in the Church |author= |year=1992 |work=Encyclopedia of Mormonism |publisher= |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}</ref> Activity rates tend to vary with age, and disengagement occurs most frequently between age 16 and 25. A majority of less active members return to church activity later in life.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rsc.byu.edu/archived/latter-day-saint-social-life-social-research-lds-church-and-its-members/8-consequential-dim |title=The Consequential Dimension of Mormon Religiosity |author=Stan L. Albrecht |year=1998 |work= |publisher= |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}</ref>

; Fundamentalist Mormons
: Members of sects that broke with the LDS Church over the issue of polygamy have become known as [[Mormon fundamentalism|Fundamentalist Mormons]], and differ from mainstream Mormonism primarily in their belief in and practice of [[plural marriage]]. There are thought to be between 20,000 and 60,000 members of fundamentalist sects, (0.1–0.4% of Mormons), with roughly half of them practicing polygamy.<ref>Martha Sonntag Bradley, "Polygamy-Practicing Mormons" in [[J. Gordon Melton]] and Martin Baumann (eds.) (2002). ''Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia'' '''3''':1023–1024; ''[[Dateline NBC]]'', 2001–01–02; Ken Driggs, "Twentieth-Century Polygamy and Fundamentalist Mormons in Southern Utah", ''[[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]]'', Winter 1991, pp. 46–47; Irwin Altman, "Polygamous Family Life: The Case of Contemporary Mormon Fundamentalists", ''[[Utah Law Review]]'' (1996) p. 369; Stephen Eliot Smith, "'The Mormon Question' Revisited: Anti-Polygamy Laws and the Free Exercise Clause", LL. M. thesis, [[Harvard Law School]], 2005.</ref> There are a number of fundamentalist [[Mormon fundamentalist|sects]], the largest two being the [[Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]] (FLDS Church) and the [[Apostolic United Brethren]] (AUB). In addition to plural marriage, some of these groups also practice a form of [[Christian communism|Christian communalism]] known as the [[Law of consecration]] or the [[United Order]]. The LDS Church seeks to distance itself from all such polygamous groups, excommunicating their members if discovered,<ref>The LDS Church encourages journalists not to use the word ''Mormon'' in reference to organizations or people that practice polygamy {{cite web |url=http://newsroom.lds.org/style-guide |title=Style Guide |author= |date= |work= |publisher=LDS Newsroom |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}; The church repudiates polygamist groups and excommunicates their members if discovered – {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=91}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/25396937/ns/us_news-faith/t/mormons-seek-distance-polygamist-sects/ |title=Mormons seek distance from polygamous sects |year=2008 |publisher= msnbc.com }}</ref> and a majority of Mormon fundamentalists have never been members of the LDS Church.<ref>{{Cite journal| journal=Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought |url=https://www.dialoguejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/sbi/articles/Dialogue_V31N02_19.pdf |author=Quinn, Michael D. |issue=2 |date=Summer 1998 |title=Plural Marriage and Mormon Fundamentalism |page=7 |volume=31| ref=harv}}</ref>

; Liberal Mormons{{anchor|Liberal Mormon}}
: Liberal Mormons take an interpretive approach to LDS teachings and scripture. They look to the scriptures for spiritual guidance, but do not necessarily believe the teachings to be literally or uniquely true. For liberal Mormons, revelation is a process through which God gradually brings fallible human beings to greater understanding.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.liberalmormon.net/501whl.shtml |title=LiberalMormon.net |accessdate=October 27, 2011 }}</ref> Liberal Mormons place doing good and loving fellow human beings above the importance of believing correctly.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://latterdaymainstreet.com/2010/09/21/bringing-back-liberal-mormonism/ |title=Bringing back Liberal Mormonism |author=Chris H |date=September 21, 2010 |publisher=Main Street Plaza |accessdate=October 27, 2011 }}</ref> In a separate context, members of minuscule [[List of sects in the Latter Day Saint movement#Liberal Mormon|"progressive" breakaway groups]] have also adopted the label ''Liberal Mormon.''

; Cultural Mormons
: [[Cultural Mormon]]s are individuals who do not believe some (or many) of the doctrines of LDS Church, but who self-identify as Mormon. Usually this is a result of having been raised in the LDS faith, or as having converted and spent a large portion of one's life as an active member of the LDS Church.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newordermormon.org/essays/faithful-unbelievers.php |title=The Paradox of the Faithful Unbeliever |author=By Peggy Rogers |year=2010 |publisher=New Order Mormon |accessdate=October 27, 2011 }}</ref> Cultural Mormons may or may not be actively involved with the church, and in some cases may not even be officially members of the church.

; Ex-Mormons
: [[Ex-Mormon]]s are people who have left the LDS Church. A poll of ex-Mormons found that a majority do not self-identify as a member of another faith, choosing to describe themselves as [[agnostic]], [[atheism|atheist]], or simply ex-Mormon. Others either retained belief in God but not in organized religion or became adherents of other faiths.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080316073935rn_1/www. misterpoll. com/polls/16415/results |title=Exmormon survey |publisher=MisterPoll. com}}; {{cite web |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20011201123951/www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-120101mormons.story |title=Losing Faith and Lots More |author=William Lobdell |date=December 1, 2001 |work= |publisher=Los Angeles Times }}</ref> Ex-Mormon attitudes toward Mormons and Mormonism vary widely. Some ex-Mormons actively proselytize against Mormonism, while some provide only support to others leaving the religion. Other ex-Mormons prefer to avoid the subject entirely.

==Beliefs==
{{main|Mormonism|Mormon cosmology}}

Mormons have a [[Standard Works|scriptural canon]] consisting of the [[Bible]], the [[Book of Mormon]], and a collection of revelations and writings by Joseph Smith known as the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] and [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]. Mormons however have a fairly [[Continuous revelation|open]] definition of [[Religious text|scripture]]. As a general rule, anything spoken or written by a [[Prophet, seer, and revelator|prophet]], while under inspiration, is considered to be the word of God.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Scriptures#Scriptures:_Authority_of_Scripture |title=Authority of Scripture |author= |date= |work=Encyclopedia of Mormonism |publisher= |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}</ref> Thus, the [[Bible]], written by prophets, is the word of God, so far as it is translated correctly. The [[Book of Mormon]] is also believed to have been written by ancient prophets, and is viewed as a companion to the Bible. By this definition, the teachings of Smith's successors are also accepted as scripture, though they are always measured against, and draw heavily from the scriptural canon.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=25–26}}</ref>
[[Image:Christus statue temple square salt lake city.jpg|thumb|Mormons see {{nowrap|[[Jesus|Jesus Christ]]}} as the premier figure of their religion.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=8}} ("As the name of the church ... suggests, Jesus Christ is the premier figure. Smith does not even play the role of the last and culminating prophet, as Muhammad does in Islam"); {{cite web |url=http://newsroom.lds.org/article/what-mormons-believe-about-jesus-christ |title=What Mormons Believe About Jesus Christ |author= |date= |work= |publisher=LDS Newsroom |accessdate=November 11, 2011}}; In a [http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Mormon/mormons-in-america-executive-summary.aspx#beliefs 2011 Pew Survey] a thousand Mormons were asked to volunteer the one word that best describes Mormons. The most common response from those surveyed was “Christian” or “Christ-centered".</ref>]]

Mormons believe in "a friendly universe," governed by a God whose work and glory it is to bring his children to immortality and eternal life.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=79}}.</ref> Mormons have a fairly unique perspective on the nature of God, the origin of man, and the purpose of life. For instance, Mormons believe in a pre-mortal existence where people were literal spirit children of God,<ref name="PMGpos">{{Cite document|title=Plan of Salvation|work=True to the Faith: A Gospel Reference|year=2004|publisher=LDS Church |url=http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll/Curriculum/home%20and%20family.htm/true%20to%20the%20faith%20a%20gospel%20reference.htm/plan%20of%20salvation.htm?f=templates$fn=document-frame.htm$3.0#JD_36863Pla|page=115|ref=harv}}</ref> and that God presented a [[Plan of salvation|plan]] that would allow his children to progress and become more like him. The plan involved the spirits receiving bodies on earth and going through trials in order to learn, progress, and receive a "fulness of joy".<ref name=PMGpos/> The most important part of the plan involved [[Jesus]], the eldest of God's children, coming to earth as the literal Son of God, to conquer sin and death so that God's other children could return. According to Mormons, every person who lives on earth will be resurrected, and most of them will be received into various [[Degrees of glory|kingdoms of glory]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=75}}</ref> To be accepted into the [[Celestial Kingdom|highest]] kingdom, a person must fully accept Christ through faith, repentance, and through [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]] such as [[Baptism (Mormonism)|baptism]] and the [[Confirmation (Latter Day Saints)|laying on of hands]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=78}}; In Mormonism, an ordinance is a formal act, in which people enter into [[Covenant (Latter Day Saints)|covenants]] with God. For example, covenants associated with [[Baptism (Mormonism)|baptism]], and the [[Eucharist]] (commonly called [[Sacrament (LDS Church)|sacrament]]) involve taking the name of the Son upon themselves, always remembering Him, and keeping his commandments; {{Cite document|title=Atonement of Jesus Christ|work=True to the Faith: A Gospel Reference|year=2004|publisher=LDS Church |url=http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll/Curriculum/home%20and%20family.htm/true%20to%20the%20faith%20a%20gospel%20reference.htm/atonement%20of%20jesus%20christ.htm?f=templates$fn=document-frame.htm$3.0#JD_36863Ato|page=14|ref=harv}}; {{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=60–61}} Because Mormons believe that everyone must receive certain ordinances to be saved, Mormons perform vicarious ordinances such as [[baptism for the dead]] on behalf of deceased persons. Mormons believe that the deceased may accept or reject the offered ordinance in the [[Spirit world (Latter Day Saints)|spirit world]]).</ref>

According to Mormons, a deviation from the original principles of Christianity, known as the [[Great Apostasy#The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Great Apostasy]] began not long after the [[ascension of Jesus Christ]].<ref name = PMG35>{{Cite book |author= Missionary Department of the LDS Church |authorlink= The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |title= Preach My Gospel |publisher= [[LDS Church]], Inc |year= 2004 |page= 35 |url= http://lds.org/languages/additionalmanuals/preachgospel/PreachMyGospel___06_03-1_TheRestoration__36617_eng_006.pdf |isbn= 0-402-36617-4 |ref= harv }}</ref> It was marked with the corruption of Christian doctrine by [[Greek philosophy|Greek]] and other philosophies,<ref name = GA2>{{Cite book |last= Talmage |first= James E. |authorlink= James E. Talmage |title= The Great Apostasy |publisher= The Deseret News |year= 1909 |pages= 64–65 |url= http://www.archive.org/stream/greatapostasycon00atalm#page/68/mode/2up |isbn= 0-87579-843-8 |ref= harv }}</ref> with followers dividing into different ideological groups.<ref name = MARV1>{{Cite book |last= Richards |first= LeGrand |authorlink= LeGrand Richards |title= A Marvelous Work and a Wonder |publisher= Deseret Book Company |year= 1976 |page= 24 |url= http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=udFopREPKMgC&lpg=PR2&dq=a%20marvelous%20work%20and%20a%20wonder&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 0-87747-161-4 |ref= harv }}</ref> Mormons claim the [[martyr]]dom of the [[Apostle (Christian)|Apostles]]<ref name = GA1>{{Cite book | last = Talmage | first = James E. | authorlink = James E. Talmage | title = The Great Apostasy | publisher = The Deseret News | year = 1909 | page = 68 | url =http://www.archive.org/stream/greatapostasycon00atalm#page/68/mode/2up | isbn = 0-87579-843-8 | ref = harv | postscript = }}</ref> lead to a loss of [[Priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Priesthood authority]] to administer the church and its ordinances.<ref name = Eyring>{{Cite journal |last= Eyring |first= Henry B. |author-link= Henry B. Eyring |title= The True and Living Church |url= http://lds.org/ensign/2008/05/the-true-and-living-church?lang=eng |journal= Ensign |publisher= LDS Church |pages= 20–24 |date= May 2008 |year= 2008 |ref= harv }}; Cf. [http://bibref.hebtools.com/bibref.php?book=John&verse=14%3A16-17&src=1000 John 14:16–17] and [http://bibref.hebtools.com/bibref.php?book=John&verse=16%3A13&src=1000 16:13], [http://bibref.hebtools.com/bibref.php?book=Acts&verse=2%3A1-4&src=1000 Acts 2:1–4], and [http://bibref.hebtools.com/bibref.php?book=Galatians&verse=1%3a6-9 Galatians 1:6–9].</ref>
Mormons believe that God [[Restoration (Latter Day Saints)|restored]] the [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] church through Joseph Smith. In particular, Mormons believe that [[angel]]s such as [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[James, son of Zebedee|James]], [[John the Apostle|John]], and [[John the Baptist]] appeared to Joseph Smith and others and bestowed various [[Priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Priesthood]] authorities on them. Mormons believe that their church is the "only true and living church" because of the divine authority restored through Smith. Mormons self-identify as being Christian,<ref>{{Cite document|title=Mormonism in America|url= http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Mormon/mormons-in-america-executive-summary.aspx|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=January 2012}} (Mormons are nearly unanimous in describing Mormonism as a Christian religion, with 97% expressing this point of view)</ref> though other Christians (particularly white evangelical Protestants) disagree with this view.<ref>{{Cite document|title=Romney's Mormon Faith Likely a Factor in Primaries, Not in a General Election|publisher=Pew Research Center|url=http://www.pewforum.org/Politics-and-Elections/Romneys-Mormon-Faith-Likely-a-Factor-in-Primaries-Not-in-a-General-Election.aspx}} (About a third of Americans and half of evangelical Protestants view Mormonism as a non-Christian religion).</ref> Mormons view other Christian churches as having a portion of the truth, doing good works, and being led by the [[Light of Christ]].<ref>"Have the Presbyterians any truth? Yes. Have the Baptists, Methodists, etc., any truth? Yes. They all have a little truth mixed with error. We should gather all the good and true principles in the world and treasure them up, or we shall not come out true 'Mormons'." {{Cite document|title=Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith |page=316 |author=Joseph Fielding Smith |year=1993|ref=harv}}</ref>

Though the LDS Church has a top-down hierarchical structure with a president/prophet dictating revelations for the whole church, there is a bottom-up aspect as well. Ordinary Mormons have access to the same inspiration that is thought to guide their prophets, and are encouraged to seek their own [[Revelation (Latter Day Saints)#Personal revelation|personal revelations]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|p=54}}.</ref> Mormons see Joseph Smith's [[First Vision|first vision]] as proof that the heavens are open, and that God answers prayers. They place considerable emphasis on "asking God" to find out if something is true. Most Mormons do not claim to have had heavenly visions like Smith's in response to prayers, but feel that God talks to them in their hearts and minds through the [[Holy Spirit]]. Though Mormons have some beliefs that are considered strange in a modernized world, they continue to hold onto their beliefs because they feel God has spoken to them.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bushman|2008|pp=15, 35–35}} (Outside observers sometimes react to Mormonism as "nice people, wacky beliefs." Mormons insist that the "wacky" beliefs pull them together as a people and give them the strength and the know-how to succeed in the modern world).</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Latter-day Saints}}
*[[List of Latter Day Saints]]
*[[Brighamite|List of sects in the Latter Day Saint movement: Followers of Brigham Young]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite journal
| last=Alexander
| first=Thomas G.
| authorlink=Thomas G. Alexander
| title=The Reconstruction of Mormon Doctrine: From Joseph Smith to Progressive Theology
| journal=Sunstone
| volume=5
| issue=4
| year=1980
| pages=24–33
|url=https://www.sunstonemagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/sbi/articles/022-24-33.pdf
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
*{{Cite book
| last = Bloom
| first = Harold
| author-link = Harold Bloom
| title = The American Religion: The Emergence of the Post-Christian Nation
| publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]]
| publication-place = New York
| edition = 1st
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-0-671-67997-2
| ref = harv
| postscript =
}}.
*{{Cite book
| last = Bowman
| first = Matthew
| author-link = Matthew Bowman (historian)
| title = The Mormon People: The Making of an American Faith
| publisher = [[Random House]]
| year = 2012
| isbn = 978-0-679-64491-0
| ref = harv
}}.
*{{Cite book
| last = Brodie
| first = Fawn M.
| author-link = Fawn M. Brodie
| title = [[No Man Knows My History: The Life of Joseph Smith]]
| publisher = [[Alfred A. Knopf|Knopf]]
| publication-place = New York
| edition=2nd
| year = 1971
| isbn=0-394-46967-4
| ref = harv
| postscript =
}}.
*{{Cite book
| last=Bushman
| first=Richard Lyman
| authorlink=Richard Bushman
| title=[[Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling]]
| year=2005
| place=New York
| publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf|Knopf]]
| isbn=1-4000-4270-4
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
*{{Cite book
| last=Bushman
| first=Richard Lyman
| title=Mormonism: A Very Short Introduction
| year=2008
| place=New York
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| isbn=978-0-19-531030-6
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
*{{Cite book
| contribution=Mormons
| last=Epperson
| first=Steven
| title=A notion of peoples: a sourcebook on America's multicultural heritage
| year=1999
| editor-last=Barkan
| editor-first=Elliott Robert
| publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group
| isbn=0-313-29961-7
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
*{{Cite document
| last=Hill
| first=Marvin S.
| authorlink=Marvin S. Hill
| title=Quest for Refuge: The Mormon Flight from American Pluralism
| year=1989
| publisher=[[Signature Books]]
| publication-place=Salt Lake City, Utah
| url=http://signaturebookslibrary.org/?p=5303
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
*{{Cite book
| editor-last=Ludlow
| editor-first=Daniel H.
| editor-link=Daniel H. Ludlow
| title=Encyclopedia of Mormonism
| year=1992
| publisher=Mcmillan
| publication-place=New York
| isbn=0-02-904040-X
| url=http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,3733
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
*{{Cite book
| last=Mauss
| first=Armand
| authorlink=Armand Mauss
| title=The Angel and the Beehive: The Mormon Struggle with Assimilation
| publication-place=Urbana & Chicago
| publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]
| year=1994
| isbn=0-252-02071-5
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
*{{Cite book
| last=May
| first=Dean
| authorlink=Dean L. May
| contribution=Mormons
| title=Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups
| editor-last=Thernstrom
| editor-first=Stephan
| publisher=Harvard University Press
| publication-place=Cambridge, Mass.
| year=1980
| page=720
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
*{{Cite book
| last=McMurrin
| first=Sterling M.
| authorlink=Sterling M. McMurrin
| title=The Theological Foundations of the Mormon Religion
| publisher=[[Signature Books]]
| publication-place=Salt Lake City
| year=1965
| isbn=1-56085-135-X
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
* {{Cite book
| last=O'Dea
| first=Thomas F.
| title=The Mormons
| year=1957
| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
| location=Chicago
| isbn= 0-226-61743-2
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}
*{{Cite book
| last1=Ostling
| first1=Richard
| last2=Ostling
| first2=Joan K.
| author1-link=Richard and Joan Ostling
| author2-link=Richard and Joan Ostling
| title=Mormon America: The Power and the Promise
| publisher=HarperOne
| publication-place=New York
| year=2007
| isbn=978-0-06-143295-8
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
*{{Cite book
| last=Quinn
| first=D. Michael
| author-link=D. Michael Quinn
| title=The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power
| publisher=[[Signature Books]]
| publication-place=Salt Lake City
| year=1994
| isbn=1-56085-056-6
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
*{{Cite book
| last=Shipps
| first=Jan
| authorlink=Jan Shipps
| title=Mormonism: The Story of a New Religious Tradition
| year=1985
| publisher=University of Illinois Press
| publication-place=Chicago
| isbn=0-252-01417-0
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.
*{{Cite book
| last=Shipps
| first=Jan
| title=Sojourner in the promised land: forty years among the Mormons
| year=2000
| publisher=University of Illinois Press
| publication-place=Chicago
| isbn=0-252-02590-3
| ref=harv
| postscript=
}}.

{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/ The Mormons—PBS American Experience/Frontline: ''Watch the Full Program Online''—Part One: History, Part Two: Church & State]
*[http://www.patheos.com/Library/Mormonism.html/ Patheos + Mormonism] – Patheos.com – Mormonism Origins, Mormonism History, Mormonism Beliefs
*[http://lds.org/?lang=eng lds.org], official website of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
*[http://www.mormonfundamentalism.com/ mormonfundamentalism.com], information on Mormon fundamentalism compiled by Brian C. Hales
*[http://www.mormonwiki.com/Main_Page MormonWiki.com] free encyclopedia about Mormons from the perspective of members
*[http://www.buzzfeed.com/expresident/famous-people-you-didnt-know-were-mormon "23 Famous People You Didn't Know Were Mormon"] – Jack Shepherd, [[BuzzFeed]]
* {{Wikisource-inline|list=
**{{Cite Collier's|Mormons|noicon=x}}
**{{Cite Americana|Mormons|noicon=x}}
**{{CathEncy|wstitle=Mormons|author=W. R. Harris|noicon=x}}
**{{Cite EB1911|Mormons|short=x|noicon=x}}
**{{Cite NIE|Mormons|year=1905|author=[[Woodbridge Riley|I. Woodbridge Riley]]|noicon=x}}
**{{Cite EB9|Mormons|author=John Fraser|volume=16|noicon=x}}
**{{Cite AmCyc|Mormons|author=[[Robert Carter (editor)|Robert Carter]]|noicon=x}}
**[[s:Portal:Mormonism|Mormonism portal]]
}}
{{LDSaffiliation}}
{{Good article}}
[[Category:Mormonism| ]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saints|*Mormons]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint terms]]
[[Category:Mormon studies]]

[[ar:مورمون]]
[[da:Mormon]]
[[pdc:Mormon]]
[[de:Mormonentum]]
[[fa:مورمون]]
[[fr:Théologie du mormonisme]]
[[id:Mormon]]
[[lt:Mormonai]]
[[pl:Mormoni]]
[[pt:Mórmon]]
[[ro:Mormon]]
[[ru:Мормон]]
[[sl:Mormon]]
[[sr:Мормони]]
[[tl:Mormon]]
[[th:มอรมอน]]
[[uk:Мормони]]
[[zh:摩爾門教]]

Software-defined Networking

2012-05-12T22:59:46Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Dated {{Editorial}}. (Build KF)

{{context|date=March 2012}}
The [[firmware]] of [[network switch]]es and [[network router|router]]s ([[control plane]]) has traditionally remained proprietary, locked and under the control of the companies that manufactured the equipment. Software defined networking (SDN) seeks to change this disposition, and to make the control plane remotely accessible and remotely modifiable via third-party software clients, using [[Open standard|open]] [[Communications protocol|protocol]]s such as [[OpenFlow]].

Thus SDN allows for
# quick experimenting and optimization of switching/routing policies, and for
# external access to the innards of switches and routers that formerly were closed and proprietary.

==Background==
{{Editorial|date=May 2012}}
Over the past decades Internet Protocol (IP) based networks used the notion of Autonomous Systems (AS) in order to scale and extend. Under this approach connected network junctions are able to forward datagram packets to a reasonable next hop based on partial need to know basis.
This is much like how the traditional post office service operates, where a postal worker in London does not need to know all the tenants of of all the streets in San Francisco in order to choose a reasonable next hop for a letter at hand. This approach to networking is simple, resileent, and it scales, but it has strong drawbacks. For one thing it does not allow the designated destinations, or tenants in the above analogy, to move without changing their identity as far as the packet delivery service is concerned. Their topological location, which is the network interface they are attached to defines their identity. In fact, using this traditional approach to internetworking, it is very hard to be specific regarding many other identity qualities such as logical grouping, access control, quality of service, intermediate network processing, etc.

This situattion has led to the creation of numerous complementary standards by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), to constantly increasing complexity of network switches and routers that from the network junctions, and to increasingly complex configuration of network interfaces in order to be able to apply identity specific networking qualities. As cloud architectures and dynamic resource allocation started to evolve, and as computer operating systems and virtual machines enabling such elasticity started to get hold, the need became apparent to evolve an additional layer of virtual networking, Software Defined Networking (SDN), which will allow network operators to be specific about network service, but without coupling these specifications with network interfaces, allowing entities to move between interfaces, without changing identity or violating specifications.

Software Defined Networking therefore is the ability to decouple network control (learning & forwarding decisions) from network topology (interfaces & how they peer)

As the notion of software defined networking evolved it became apparent that a globaly aware scalable and topology decopiled software control system will take charge of the edges of the network, and traditional topology coupled control software will continue to drive the core of the network so that scalability, interopability, high-availability, and extend ability of IP networks can be maintain. This meant that an additional mechanism for driving network hardware needs to be added for the purpose of software defined edge control, in addition to the traditional vendor specific control software which typically resides very close to this hardware. Consequently a set of commands for forwarding hardware was defined in the form of protocol termed OpenFlow. This protocol enables globally aware centralized or distributed software defined controllers to drive the network edge hardware I order to create an identity based overlay on the traditional IP core.

==Access Control in SDN==

Remote access to the control plane is made available to administrators or users of the network, typically with a role-based access system ([[Role-based access control|RBAC]]) in order to provide security.

==Decoupling between data plane access and control plane access==

In one configuration of SDN, the network control plane hardware can be physically decoupled from the data forwarding plane hardware, i.e. a network switch can forward packets and a separate server can run the network control plane.

The rationale for this approach is twofold. First, the decoupling allows for the control plane to be implemented using a different distribution model than the data plane. Second, it allows the control plane development and runtime environment to be on a different platform than the traditionally low-powered management CPUs found on hardware switches and routers.

SDN requires some method for the control plane to communicate with the data plane. One such mechanism is OpenFlow which is a standard interface for controlling [[computer network]]ing switches. OpenFlow is often misunderstood to be equivalent to SDN, but there is no requirement for the use of OpenFlow within an SDN.

Definition and marketing of SDN and OpenFlow is managed by the Open Networking Foundation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Open Networking Foundation |url=http://www.opennetworking.org/ }}</ref>

The term was coined by Kate Greene<ref name="nick">{{cite news |author= Kate Greene |title= TR10: Software-Defined Networking |publisher= MIT |work= Technology Review |date= March/April 2009 |url= http://www.technologyreview.com/biotech/22120/ |accessdate= November 20, 2011 }}</ref>.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.opennetworking.org/images/stories/downloads/openflow/wp-sdn-newnorm.pdf Software-Defined Networking: The New Norm for Networks]

[[Category:Network architecture]]

[[fr:Software Defined Networking]]

Kalmia latifolia

2012-05-12T21:54:05Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{about||the Texas Mountain Laurel|Calia secundiflora|the Australian Mountain Laurel|Cryptocarya nova-anglica}}
{{Italic title}}
{{taxobox
|image = Kalmia_Latifolia.jpg
|image_caption = ''Kalmia latifolia'' flowers
|regnum = [[Plant]]ae
|unranked_divisio = [[Flowering plant|Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Asterids]]
|ordo = [[Ericales]]
|familia = [[Ericaceae]]
|genus = ''[[Kalmia]]''
|species = '''''K. latifolia'''''
|binomial = ''Kalmia latifolia''
|binomial_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| range_map = Kalmia latifolia map.png
|}}

'''''Kalmia latifolia''''', commonly called '''Mountain-laurel''' or '''Spoonwood''', is a species of [[flowering plant]] in the [[blueberry]] family, [[Ericaceae]], that is native to the [[eastern United States]]. Its range stretches from southern [[Maine]] south to northern [[Florida]], and west to [[Indiana]] and [[Louisiana]]. Mountain-laurel is the [[List of U.S. state flowers|state flower]] of [[Connecticut]] and [[Pennsylvania]]. It is the namesake of the city of [[Laurel, Mississippi]] (founded 1882).

==Growth==
It is an [[evergreen]] [[shrub]] growing to 3–9 m tall. The [[leaf|leaves]] are 3–12 cm long and 1–4 cm wide. Its [[flower]]s are round, ranging from light pink to white, and occurring in clusters. There are several named [[cultivar]]s today that have darker shades of pink, near red and maroon pigment. It blooms in May and June. All parts of the plant are [[poison]]ous. [[Root]]s are [[Fiber|fibrous]] and matted.<ref name=Keeler>{{cite book
| last =Keeler
| first =Harriet L.
| title =Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them
| publisher =Charles Scribner's Sons
| year =1900
| location =New York
| pages =186–189 }}</ref>

The plant is naturally found on rocky slopes and [[mountain]]ous [[forest]] areas. It thrives in [[acid]]ic soil, preferring a [[soil pH]] in the 4.5 to 5.5 range. The plant often grows in large [[thicket]]s, covering great areas of [[forest floor]]. In [[North America]] it can become tree sized on undeveloped mountains of the Carolinas but is a [[shrub]] farther north.<ref name=Keeler /> The species is a frequent component of [[oak-heath forest]]s. <ref>[http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncTIIIe.shtml ''The Natural Communities of Virginia Classification of Ecological Community Groups'' (Version 2.3), Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, 2010]</ref><ref>Schafale, M. P. and A. S. Weakley. 1990. ''Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina: third approximation''. North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, North Carolina Division of Parks and Recreation.</ref>

==Etymology==
It is also known as '''Ivybush''', '''Calico Bush''', '''Spoonwood''' (because native Americans used to make their spoons out of it), '''Sheep Laurel''', '''Lambkill''' and '''Clamoun'''.

The plant was first recorded in America in 1624, but it was named after [[Pehr Kalm]], who sent samples to [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in the 18th century.

==Cultivation and uses==
The plant was originally brought to [[Europe]] as an [[ornamental plant]] during the 18th century. It is still widely grown for its attractive [[flower]]s. Numerous [[cultivar]]s have been selected with varying flower color. Many of the cultivars have originated from the Connecticut Experiment Station in [[Hamden, Connecticut|Hamden]] and from the plant breeding of Dr. Richard Jaynes. Jaynes has numerous named varieties that he has created and is considered the world's authority on ''Kalmia latifolia''. <ref>{{cite web | title=Mountain Laurel | last=Shreet | first=Sharon | url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1082/is_n2_v40/ai_18152569/ | publisher=Flower and Garden Magazine | date=April-May 1996 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jaynes |first=Richard A. |title=Kalmia: Mountain Laurel and Related Species |publisher=[[Timber Press]] |location=Portland, OR |date=1997 |isbn=0-88192-367-2}}</ref>

[[Image:mountain-laurel-handrail.jpg|thumb|alt=handrail made with mountain laurel branches|Wood railing section made with mountain laurel branches]]
The wood of the mountain laurel is heavy and strong but brittle, with a close, straight grain.<ref name=FEIS>{{cite web |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/kallat/all.html#BOTANICAL%20AND%20ECOLOGICAL%20CHARACTERISTICS |title=Species: Kalmia latifolia |work=Fire Effects Information Service |publisher=[[United States Forest Service]] |accessdate=2011 Oct 03}}</ref> It has never been a viable commercial crop as it does not grow large enough<ref name=woodmag/> yet it is suitable for wreaths, furniture, bowls and other household items.<ref name=FEIS/> It was used in the early 19th century in wooden-works clocks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oldandsold.com/articles02/article1104.shtml |title=The legacy of the Ogee Clock |author=Gene Galbraith |date=September 12, 2006 |accessdate=October 3, 2011}}</ref> [[Burl]]s were used for pipe bowls in place of imported briar burls.<ref name=woodmag>{{cite web |url=http://www.woodmagazine.com/materials-guide/lumber/wood-species-2/mountain-laurel/ |title=Mountain Laurel |publisher=Wood Magazine.com |accessdate=2011 Oct 03}}</ref> It can be used for [[handrail]]s or [[guard rail]]s.<ref>{{cite web | title=Wood Railing | last=Pader | first=James | url=http://awoodrailing.com }}</ref>

Mountain laurel is a food plant of last resort for [[gypsy moth]] [[caterpillar]]s, utilized only during outbreaks when moth densities are extremely high. {{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}

==Toxicity==
Mountain laurel is [[poison]]ous to several different animals due to [[andromedotoxin]] and [[arbutin]]<ref name=NCSU>{{cite web |url=http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/poison/Kalmila.htm |title=Poisonous Plants: Kalmia latifolia |work=Poisonous Plants of North Carolina |last1=Russell |first1=Alice B. |last2=Hardin |first2=James W. |last3=Grand |first3=Larry |last4=Fraser |first4=Angela |publisher=[[North Carolina State University]] |accessdate=2011 Oct 03}}</ref>, including [[horse]]s,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aspca.org/Pet-care/poison-control/Plants/mountain-laurel.aspx |title=Mountain Laurel |publisher=[[American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals|ASPCA]] |accessdate=2011 Oct 03}}</ref> [[goat]]s, [[cattle]], [[Domestic sheep|sheep]],<ref name=UoT>{{cite web |url=http://www.caf.wvu.edu/~forage/library/bulletins/poisonous%20plants.pdf |title=Poisonous Plants of the Southern United States |publisher=Agricultural Extension Services, [[University of Tennessee]] |date=January 1980 |accessdate=2011 Oct 03}}</ref> [[deer]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/pdf/ec/ec1440.pdf |title=Deer-resistant Ornamental Plants |author=Horton, Jenner L. |author2=Edge, W.Daniel |date=July 1994 |publisher=[[Oregon State University|Oregon State University Extension]] |accessdate=2011 Oct 03}}</ref> and monkeys and humans.<ref name=UoP/> It is not toxic to [[dog]]s, [[cat]]s, or small household pets.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} The green parts of the plant, [[flower]]s, twigs, and [[pollen]] are all toxic,<ref name=UoP/> including food products made from them, such as [[Bees_and_toxic_chemicals#Toxic_honey|honey]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/FoodborneIllness/FoodborneIllnessFoodbornePathogensNaturalToxins/BadBugBook/ucm071128.htm |title=Grayanotoxin |work=Bad Bug Book |publisher=[[Food and Drug Administration|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] |date=05/04/2009 |accessdate=2011 Oct 07}}</ref><ref name=UoP/> Symptoms of [[toxicity]] begin to appear about 6 hours following ingestion.<ref name=UoT/><ref name=UoP/> Symptoms include<ref name=UoP>{{cite web |url=http://research.vet.upenn.edu/PoisonousPlantsofPA/Kalmialatifolia/tabid/5452/Default.aspx |title=Kalmia latifolia |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] School of Veterinary Medicine |accessdate=2011 Oct 03}}</ref> irregular or difficulty breathing, [[Anorexia (symptom)|anorexia]], repeated swallowing, profuse [[salivation]], [[Tears|watering of the eyes]] and nose, cardiac distress, incoordination, depression, [[vomiting]], frequent [[defecation]], weakness, convulsions,<ref name=NCSU/> paralysis,<ref name=NCSU/> [[coma]], and eventually death. [[Autopsy]] will show [[Human gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal]] irritation and [[Bleeding|hemorrhage]].<ref name=UoP/>
{{clear}}
==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Buberel unknown flower 12.jpg|''K. latifolia'' flower buds.
File:Kalmia latifolia species.jpg|More mature buds of wild ''K. latifolia'', showing the geometry.
File:Mountain Laurel Kalmia latifolia 'Olympic Wedding' Leaves and Buds 2575px.jpg|Leaves and early buds
File:Mountain Loral Flowers.jpg
File:Kalmia_latifolia1.jpg
File:Laurel1.jpg
File:Mountain Laurel Kalmia latifolia 'Olympic Wedding' Young Old Flowers 3264px.jpg|Flowers, both blooming and wilted, on the same flower head.‎
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[List of late spring flowers]]
* [[List of early summer flowers]]
* [[List of plants poisonous to equines]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons|Kalmia_latifolia|Kalmia latifolia}}
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?21115 Germplasm Resources Information Network: ''Kalmia latifolia'']
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=KALA USDA Plant Profile: ''Kalmia latifolia'']
*[http://www.ct-botanical-society.org/galleries/kalmialati.html Connecticut Botanical Society Profile: ''Kalmia latifolia'']
*[http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/species/frame/kala.htm ''Kalmia latifolia'' images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kalmia Latifolia}}
[[Category:Kalmia|latifolia]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Poisonous plants]]
[[Category:Trees of Connecticut]]
[[Category:Trees of Indiana]]
[[Category:Trees of Maine]]
[[Category:Flora of Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Trees of New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Trees of New York]]
[[Category:Trees of Ohio]]
[[Category:Trees of Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Flora of Rhode Island]]
[[Category:Trees of Vermont]]
[[Category:Trees of West Virginia]]
[[Category:Flora of Alabama]]
[[Category:Trees of Delaware]]
[[Category:Trees of Florida]]
[[Category:Trees of Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Trees of Kentucky]]
[[Category:Trees of Louisiana]]
[[Category:Trees of Maryland]]
[[Category:Trees of Mississippi]]
[[Category:Trees of North Carolina]]
[[Category:Trees of South Carolina]]
[[Category:Trees of Tennessee]]
[[Category:Trees of Virginia]]
[[Category:Symbols of Connecticut]]
[[Category:Symbols of Pennsylvania]]

[[da:Bredbladet Kalmia]]
[[de:Lorbeerrosen]]
[[fr:Kalmia latifolia]]
[[la:Kalmia latifolia]]
[[sv:Bredbladig kalmia]]

Gebet (Judentum)

2012-05-12T21:16:57Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

[[File:Jews-pray-in-the-Western-Wall-1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Jews praying in Jerusalem (Ha[[Kotel]] HaMaaravi), 2010.]]
{{Judaism}}
[[File:Flickr - Israel Defense Forces - The Evacuation of Bedolach (26).jpg|thumb|right|Morning Prayer, 2005.]]
'''Jewish prayer''' ({{lang-he-n|'''תְּפִלָּה'''}}, ''tefilláh''; plural {{lang-he-n|'''תְּפִלּוֹת'''}}, ''tefillos'' or ''tefillót''; [[Yiddish]] '''תּפֿלה''' ''tfíle'', plural '''תּפֿלות''' ''tfílles''; [[Yinglish]]: '''davening''' from Yiddish דאַוונען ''davnen'' ‘to pray’) are the [[prayer]] recitations that form part of the observance of [[Judaism]]. These prayers, often with instructions and commentary, are found in the ''[[siddur]]'', the traditional Jewish prayer book.

Traditionally, three prayer services are recited daily:
# ''Shacharit'' or ''Shaharit'' (שַחֲרִת), from the [[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]] ''shachar'' or ''shahar'' (שַחָר) "morning light,"
# ''Mincha'' or ''Minha'' (מִנְחָה), the afternoon prayers named for the flour offering that accompanied sacrifices at the [[Temple in Jerusalem]],
# ''Arvit'' (עַרְבִית) or ''Ma'ariv'' (מַעֲרִיב), from "nightfall."
Additional prayers:
* ''Musaf'' (מוּסָף, "additional") are recited by [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] and [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] congregations on [[Shabbat]], major [[Jewish holiday]]s (including [[Chol HaMoed]]), and [[Rosh Chodesh]].
* A fifth prayer service, ''Ne'ilah'' (נְעִילָה, "closing"), is recited only on [[Yom Kippur]], the Day of Atonement.

According to the [[Talmud]], prayer is a [[mitzvah|Biblical commandment]]<ref>Tractate [[Taanit]] 2a, in reference to {{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|11:13|HE}}: "You shall serve God with your whole heart.</ref> and the [[Talmud]] gives two reasons why there are three basic prayers: to recall the daily sacrifices at the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], and/or because each of the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|Patriarchs]] instituted one prayer: [[Abraham]] the morning, [[Isaac]] the afternoon and [[Jacob]] the evening.<ref>Tractate Berachoth 26b: the morning sacrifice ''Tamid'', the afternoon ''Tamid'', and the overnight burning of the afternoon offering. The latter view is supported with Biblical quotes indicating that the Patriarchs prayed at the times mentioned. However, even according to this view, the exact times of when the services are held, and moreover the entire concept of a ''mussaf'' service, are still based on the sacrifices.</ref> A distinction is made between individual prayer and communal prayer, which requires a [[quorum]] known as a ''[[minyan]]'', with communal prayer being preferable as it permits the inclusion of prayers that otherwise must be omitted.

[[Maimonides]] (1135–1204 CE) relates that until the [[Babylonian exile]] (586 BCE), all Jews composed their own prayers, but thereafter the sages of the [[Great Assembly]] composed the main portions of the ''siddur''.<ref>Mishneh Torah, Laws of Prayer 1:4</ref> Modern scholarship dating from the [[Wissenschaft des Judentums]] movement of 19th century Germany, as well as textual analysis influenced by the 20th Century discovery of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], suggests that dating from this period there existed "liturgical formulations of a communal nature designated for particular occasions and conducted in a centre totally independent of Jerusalem and the Temple, making use of terminology and theological concepts that were later to become dominant in Jewish and, in some cases, Christian prayer."<ref>{{cite web|author=Reif, Stefan C.|title=The Second Temple Period, Qumran Research and Rabbinic Liturgy: Some Contextual and Linguistic Comparisons|url=http://orion.mscc.huji.ac.il/symposiums/5th/reif00.html|accessdate=2009-03-11|date=19–23 January 2000|work=Fifth Orion International Symposium LITURGICAL PERSPECTIVES: PRAYER AND POETRY IN LIGHT OF THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS|publisher=The Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature}}</ref> The language of the prayers, while clearly from the [[Second Temple]] period{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} (516 BCE–70 CE), often employs Biblical idiom. Jewish prayerbooks emerged during the early [[Middle Ages]] during the period of the [[Geonim]] of [[Babylonia]] (6th–11th Centuries CE)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.library.upenn.edu/exhibits/cajs/exhibit1996/Liturgy.html|title=Jewish Liturgy: The Siddur and the Mahzor|author=Center for Judaic Studies, University of Pennsylvania|accessdate=2009-03-12}}</ref>

Over the last two thousand years variations have emerged among the traditional [[liturgy|liturgical]] [[Minhag|customs]] of different Jewish communities, such as [[Ashkenazic]], [[Sephardic]], [[Yemenite Jews|Yemenite]], [[Hassidic]], and others, however the differences are minor compared with the commonalities. Most of the Jewish liturgy is sung or chanted with traditional melodies or [[Cantillation|trope]]. [[Synagogue]]s may designate or employ a professional or lay ''[[hazzan]]'' (cantor) for the purpose of leading the congregation in prayer, especially on Shabbat or holidays.

==Origin and history of Jewish prayer==
===Biblical origin===
According to the [[Talmud]] (tractate [[Taanit]] 2a), prayer is a Biblical command: "'You shall serve God with your whole heart.' ({{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|11:13|HE}}) What service is performed with the heart? This is prayer." The prayers are therefore referred to as ''Avodah sheba-Lev'' ("service that is in the heart"). The noted rabbi [[Maimonides]] likewise categorizes prayer as a Biblical command,<ref>[[Mishneh Torah]], Laws of Prayer 1:1.</ref> but believed that the number of prayers and their times are not.

The [[Talmud]] (tractate Berachoth 26b) gives two reasons why there are three basic prayers:
# Each service was instituted parallel to a sacrificial act in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]: the morning ''Tamid'' [[korban|offering]], the afternoon ''Tamid'', and the overnight burning of this last offering.
# According to Rabbi [[Jose b. Hanina]], each of the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|Patriarchs]] instituted one prayer: [[Abraham]] the morning, [[Isaac]] the afternoon and [[Jacob]] the evening prayers. This view is supported with Biblical quotes indicating that the Patriarchs prayed at the times mentioned. However, even according to this view, the exact times of when the services are held, and moreover the entire concept of a ''mussaf'' service, are still based on the sacrifices.

Additional Biblical references suggest that [[David|King David]] and the prophet [[Daniel]] prayed three times a day. In [[Book of Psalms|Psalms]], David states: "Evening, morning and afternoon do I pray and cry, and He will hear my voice" ({{bibleverse-nb||Psalm|55:18|HE}}). As in [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]: "[...] his windows being open in his chamber toward Jerusalem, he kneeled upon his knees three times a day, and prayed, and gave thanks before his God, as he had done before" ({{bibleverse-nb||Daniel|6:11|HE}}).

[[Orthodox Judaism]] regards ''[[halakha]]'' (Jewish law) as requiring Jewish men to pray three times daily and four times daily on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] and most [[Jewish holiday]]s, and five times on [[Yom Kippur]]. Orthodox Jewish women are required to pray at least daily, with no specific time requirement, but the system of multiple daily prayer services is regarded as optional.<ref>This view is based on Maimonides' view as above.</ref> [[Conservative Judaism]] also regards the ''halakhic'' system of multiple daily services as mandatory. Since 2002, Conservative Jewish women have been regarded as having undertaken a communal obligation to pray the same prayers at the same times as men, with traditionalist communities and individual women permitted to opt out.<ref>[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf Rabbi David Fine, ''Women and the Minyan'', Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.]</ref> [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] congregations do not regard ''halakha'' as binding and hence regard appropriate prayer times as matters of personal spiritual decision rather than a matter of religious requirement.

===Text and language===
According to [[halakha]], all individual prayers and virtually all communal prayers may be said in any language that the person praying understands. For example, the ''[[Mishnah]]'' mentions that the ''[[Shema]]'' need not be said in Hebrew<ref>[[s:Mishnah/Seder Zeraim/Tractate Berakhot/Chapter 2/3|Berakhot 2:3]]</ref> A list of prayers that must be said in Hebrew is given in the Mishna,<ref>[[s:Mishnah/Seder Nashim/Tractate Sotah/Chapter 7/2|Sotah 7:2]]</ref> and among these only the [[Priestly Blessing]] is in use today, as the others are prayers that are to be said only in a [[Temple in Jerusalem]], by a [[Kohen|priest]], or by a reigning [[Jewish Messiah|King]].

Despite this, the tradition of most [[Ashkenazi]] [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] synagogues is to use Hebrew (usually [[Ashkenazi Hebrew]]) for all except a small number of prayers, including the ''[[Kaddish]]'', which had always been in [[Aramaic]], and [[sermon]]s and instructions, for which the local language is used. In other streams of Judaism there is considerable variability: [[Sephardic]] communities may use [[Ladino language|Ladino]] or [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] for many prayers; [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] synagogues tend to use the local language to a varying degree; and at some [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] synagogues almost the whole service may be in the local language.

Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Laws of Prayer 1:4) relates that until the [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian exile]], all Jews composed their own prayers. After the exile, however, the sages of the time (united in the [[Great Assembly]]) found the ability of the people insufficient to continue the practice, and they composed the main portions of the ''[[siddur]]'', such as the ''[[Amidah]]''. The origins of modern Jewish prayer were established during the period of the [[Tannaim]], "from their traditions, later committed to writing, we learn that the generation of rabbis active at the time of the destruction of the Second Temple (70 C.E.) gave Jewish prayer its structure and, in outline form at least, its contents."<ref name="Overview: History of Jewish Prayer">{{cite web|title=Overview: History of Jewish Prayer|url=http://www.myjewishlearning.com/practices/Ritual/Prayer/History.shtml?PRRI|accessdate=2009-03-12}}</ref> This liturgy included the twice-daily recitation of the Shema, the [[Amidah]], or Shmoneh Esrei, including 18 blessings recited several times daily, and the [[Torah reading|public recitation of the Torah]] in installments.<ref name="Overview: History of Jewish Prayer"/> The oldest prayer books date from the time of the [[Geonim]] of [[Babylonia]]; "some were composed by respected rabbinic scholars at the request of far-flung communities seeking an authoritative text of the required prayers for daily use, Shabbat, and holidays."<ref name="Overview: History of Jewish Prayer"/>

The language of the prayers, while clearly being from the Second Temple period, often employs Biblical idiom, and according to some authorities it should not contain rabbinic or Mishnaic idiom apart from in the sections of Mishnah that are featured (see Baer).

Over the last two thousand years, the various streams of Jews have resulted in small variations in the traditional liturgy [[Minhag|customs]] among different Jewish communities, with each community having a slightly different [[Minhag#Nusach|Nusach]] (customary liturgy). The principal difference is between [[Ashkenazic]] and [[Sephardic]] customs, although there are other communities (e.g. [[Yemenite Jews]]), and [[Hassidic]] and other communities also have distinct customs, variations, and special prayers. The differences are quite minor compared with the commonalities.

===The siddur===
{{main|siddur}}
The earliest parts of Jewish prayer are the ''[[Shema Yisrael]]'' ("Hear O Israel") ([[Deuteronomy]] 6:4 ''et seq''), and the [[Priestly Blessing]] ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 6:24-26), which are in the [[Torah]]. A set of eighteen (currently nineteen) blessings called the ''Shemoneh Esreh'' or the ''[[Amidah]]'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], "standing [prayer]"), is traditionally ascribed to the [[Great Assembly]] in the time of [[Ezra]], at the end of the Biblical period.

The name ''Shemoneh Esreh'', literally "eighteen", is an historical anachronism, since it now contains nineteen blessings. It was only near the end of the [[Second Temple]] period that the eighteen prayers of the weekday Amidah became standardized. Even at that time their precise wording and order was not yet fixed, and varied from locale to locale. Many modern scholars believe that parts of the Amidah came from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[apocrypha]]l work [[Ben Sira]].

According to the [[Talmud]], soon after the destruction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] a formal version of the Amidah was adopted at a rabbinical council in [[Yavne]], under the leadership of Rabban [[Gamaliel II]] and his colleagues. However, the precise wording was still left open. The order, general ideas, opening and closing lines were fixed. Most of the wording was left to the individual reader. It was not until several centuries later that the prayers began to be formally fixed. By the [[Middle Ages]] the texts of the prayers were nearly fixed, and in the form in which they are still used today.

The siddur was printed by [[Soncino family (printers)|Soncino]] in Italy as early as 1486, though a siddur was first mass-distributed only in 1865. The siddur began appearing in the [[vernacular]] as early as 1538. The first English [[translation]], by Gamaliel ben Pedahzur (a [[pseudonym]]), appeared in London in 1738; a different translation was released in the United States in 1837.<ref>[http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1176152818456 Power and Politics: Prayer books and resurrection | Jerusalem Post]</ref>

Readings from the [[Torah]] (five books of Moses) and the [[Nevi'im]] ("Prophets") form part of the prayer services. To this framework various Jewish sages added, from time to time, various prayers, and, for festivals especially, numerous hymns.

The earliest existing codification of the prayerbook was drawn up by Rav [[Amram Gaon]] of Sura, Babylon, about 850 CE. Half a century later Rav [[Saadia Gaon]], also of Sura, composed a [[Siddur of Saadia Gaon|siddur]], in which the rubrical matter is in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. These were the basis of Simcha ben Samuel's [[Machzor Vitry]] (11th century France), which was based on the ideas of his teacher, [[Rashi]]. Another formulation of the prayers was that appended by Maimonides to the laws of prayer in his [[Mishneh Torah]]: this forms the basis of the Yemenite liturgy, and has had some influence on other rites. From this point forward all Jewish prayerbooks had the same basic order and contents.

===Denominational variations===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-134-0791-16A, Polen, Ghetto Warschau, Juden beim Gebet.jpg|thumb|left|[[Warsaw Ghetto]]: Praying Jews - scene created for German Nazi propaganda move created in May of 1942.]]
[[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] services generally use the same basic format for services as in Orthodox Judaism with some doctrinal leniencies and some prayers in English. In practice there is wide variation among Conservative congregations. In traditionalist congregations the liturgy can be almost identical to that of [[Orthodox Judaism]], almost entirely in Hebrew (and Aramaic), with a few minor exceptions, including excision of a study session on Temple sacrifices, and modifications of prayers for the restoration of the [[Korban|sacrificial]] system. In more liberal Conservative synagogues there are greater changes to the service, with up to a third of the service in English; abbreviation or omission of many of the preparatory prayers; and replacement of some traditional prayers with more contemporary forms. There are some changes for doctrinal reasons, including [[egalitarian]] language, fewer references to restoring [[Korban|sacrifices]] in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], and an option to eliminate special roles for [[Kohen|Kohanim]] and [[Levite]]s.

The liturgies of [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] are based on traditional elements, but contains language more reflective of liberal belief than the traditional liturgy. Doctrinal revisions generally include revising or omitting references to traditional doctrines such as bodily [[resurrection]], a personal [[Jewish Messiah]], and other elements of traditional [[Jewish eschatology]], Divine revelation of the [[Torah]] at [[Mount Sinai]], [[Jewish Angelarchy|angels]], conceptions of reward and punishment, and other personal miraculous and supernatural elements. Services are often from 40% to 90% in the vernacular.

[[Reform Judaism]] has made greater alterations to the traditional service in accord with its more liberal [[theology]] including dropping references to traditional elements of [[Jewish eschatology]] such as a personal [[Jewish Messiah|Messiah]], a bodily [[resurrection]] of the dead, and others. The Hebrew portion of the service is substantially abbreviated and modernized and modern prayers substituted for traditional ones. In addition, in keeping with their view that the laws of [[Shabbat]] (including a traditional prohibition on playing instruments) are inapplicable to modern circumstances, Reform services often play instrumental or recorded music with prayers on the [[Shabbat|Jewish Sabbath]]. All Reform synagogues are [[Egalitarian]] with respect to gender roles.

==Philosophy of prayer==
[[File:Soldiertefillinkotel.JPG|thumb|right|An Israeli soldier lays [[tefillin]] at the Western Wall ([[Kotel]]) prior to prayer.]]
In [[Jewish philosophy]] and in [[Rabbinic literature]], it is noted that the Hebrew verb for prayer—''hitpallel'' התפלל—is in fact the [[reflexive verb|reflexive form]] of ''palal'' פלל, to judge. Thus, "to pray" conveys the notion of "judging oneself":<ref>This interpretation is [[Homily|homiletic]] rather than scholarly, as it is historically more likely that the root meaning of ''hitpallel'' is "to seek judgement for oneself", in other words to present a legal pleading.</ref> ultimately, the purpose of prayer—''[[tefilah]]'' תפלה—is to transform ourselves [http://www.tilb.org/sermons/moskowitzhRH5767.html] [http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/39928/jewish/The-Cosmology-of-the-Mitzvot.htm].

This [[etymology]] is consistent with the [[Divine_simplicity#In_Jewish_thought|Jewish conception]] of [[divine simplicity]]. It is not God that changes through our prayer—Man does not influence God as a defendant influences a human judge who has emotions and is subject to change—rather it is man himself who is changed [http://www.mesora.org/prayer.html]. It is further consistent with [[Maimonides]]' [[Divine providence (Judaism)#Maimonides|view]] on [[Divine Providence]]. Here, Tefillah is the medium which God gave to man by means of which he can change himself, and thereby establish a new ''relationship'' with God—and thus a new destiny for himself in life [http://www.mesora.org/prayer.html] [http://www.ou.org/torah/weiss/5758/behaalotecha58.htm]; see [[Psalms#Use_of_the_Psalms_in_Jewish_ritual|also]] under [[Psalms]].

===The rationalist approach===
In this view, ultimate goal of prayer is to help train a person to focus on divinity through philosophy and intellectual contemplation. This approach was taken by [[Maimonides]] and the other medieval rationalists.

===The educational approach===
In this view, prayer is not a conversation. Rather, it is meant to inculcate certain attitudes in the one who prays, but not to influence. This has been the approach of Rabbenu Bachya, [[Yehuda Halevy]], [[Joseph Albo]], [[Samson Raphael Hirsch]], and [[Joseph Dov Soloveitchik]]. This view is expressed by Rabbi [[Nosson Scherman]] in the overview to the [[Artscroll]] Siddur (p. XIII); note that Scherman goes on to also affirm the Kabbalistic view (see below).

===Kabbalistic view===
[[Kabbalah]] (esoteric Jewish mysticism) uses a series of kavanot, directions of intent, to specify the path the prayer ascends in the dialog with God, to increase its chances of being answered favorably. Kabbalists ascribes a higher meaning to the purpose of prayer, which is no less than affecting the very fabric of reality itself, restructuring and repairing the universe in a real fashion. In this view, every word of every prayer, and indeed, even every letter of every word, has a precise meaning and a precise effect. Prayers thus literally affect the mystical forces of the universe, and repair the fabric of creation.

This approach has been taken by the [[Chassidei Ashkenaz]] (German pietists of the Middle-Ages), the [[Zohar]], the [[Isaac Luria|Arizal's]] Kabbalist tradition, the [[Moshe Chaim Luzzatto|Ramchal]], most of [[Hasidic Judaism|Hassidism]], the [[Vilna Gaon]] and [[Jacob Emden]].

==Methodology and terminology==
=== Terms for praying ===
''Daven'' is the originally exclusively Eastern Yiddish verb meaning "pray"; it is widely used by [[Ashkenazic]] [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jews]]. In Yinglish, this has become the [[Anglicise]]d ''davening''. The origin of the word is obscure, but is thought by some to have come from [[Middle French]] ''divin'' (short for ''office divin'', Divine service) and by others to be derived from a [[Slavonic languages|Slavic]] word meaning "to give" ({{lang|ru|'''''давать'''''}}, davat') . Others claim that it originates from an Aramaic word, "de'avoohon" or "d'avinun", meaning "of their/our forefathers", as the three prayers are said to have been invented by [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]]. In Western Yiddish, the term for "pray" is ''oren'', a word with clear roots in [[Romance languages]]—compare Spanish and Portuguese ''orar'' and Latin ''orare''.<ref name="Balashon">{{cite web |url=http://www.balashon.com/2007/01/daven.html |title=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective: daven |accessdate=2007-12-09 |work=}}</ref>

=== Minyan (Quorum) ===
[[File:Givati at Western Wall.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the [[Israel Defense Forces]]' Givati Brigade pray the Evening Service ([[Ma'ariv]]) at the [[Western Wall]], October 2010.]]
{{main|Minyan}}
Individual prayer is considered acceptable, but prayer with a quorum of ten adults - a ''[[minyan]]'' - is the most highly recommended form of prayer and is required for some prayers. An adult in this context means over the age of 13 ([[B'nai Mitzvah|''bar mitzvah'']]). Judaism had originally only counted only men in the ''minyan'' for formal prayer, on the basis that one does not count someone who is not obligated to participate. The rabbis had exempted women from almost all time-specific positive mitzvot (commandments) due to women in the past being bound up in an endless cycle of pregnancy, birthing and nursing from a very early age. Orthodox Judaism still follows this reasoning and excludes women from the minyan. Since 1973, [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] congregations have overwhelmingly become egalitarian and count women in the ''minyan''. Today quite a few Conservative congregations even feature Female rabbis and cantors. A very small number of congregations that identify themselves as Conservative have resisted these changes and continue to exclude women from the minyan. Those Reform and Reconstructionist congregations that consider a ''minyan'' mandatory for communal prayer, count both men and women for a ''minyan''. In [[Orthodox Judaism]], according to some authorities, women can count in the ''minyan'' for certain specific prayers, such as the [[List of Jewish blessings|''Birchot HaGomel'']] blessing, which both men and women are obligated to say publicly.

Various sources{{Who|date=December 2007}} encourage a congregrant to pray in a fixed place in the synagogue (מקום קבוע, ''maqom qavua'').

===Attire===
*''Head covering''. In most synagogues, it is considered a sign of respect for male attendees to wear a head covering, either a dress hat or a [[kippa]] (skull cap, plural ''kipot'' also known by the Yiddish term ''yarmulke''). It is common practice for both Jews and non-Jews who attend a synagogue to wear a head covering.<ref>[[International Council of Christians and Jews]], [http://www.jcrelations.net/en/?item=1152#scull%20cap Jewish-Christian Relations :: A glossary of terms used in the Christian-Jewish dialogue], "Non-Jewish male visitors to the synagogue are offered skull caps at the entrance and are asked to wear them."</ref><ref>Rabbi Amy R. Scheinerman, [http://scheinerman.net/judaism/Synagogue/objects2.html#kippah What's What?], "Non-Jews who are guests in a synagogue can cover their heads; it is a sign of respect and not at all inappropriate for people who are not Jewish."</ref> Some Conservative synagogues may also encourage (but rarely require) women to cover their heads. Many Reform and Progressive temples do not require people to cover their heads, although individual worshipers, both men and women, may choose to. Many Orthodox and some conservative men and women wear a head covering throughout their day, even when not attending religious services.
*''[[Tallit]]'' (prayer shawl) is traditionally worn during all morning services, during Aliyah to the Torah, as well as the [[Kol Nidre]] service of [[Yom Kippur]]. In Orthodox synagogues they are expected to be worn only by men who are halakhically Jewish and in Conservative synagogues they should be worn only by men and women who are halakhically Jewish. In most Orthodox [[Ashkenazi]] synagogues they are worn only by men who are or have been married.<ref>
*[[Mordechai Becher]], ''Gateway to Judaism: The What, How, And Why of Jewish Life'', [[Mesorah Publications]], 2005, p. 328.
*Joyce Eisenberg, Ellen Scolnic, ''Dictionary of Jewish Words'', [[Jewish Publication Society]], 2006, p. 166.</ref>
[[File:IDF soldier put on tefillin.jpg|thumb|right|200px|IDF soldier put on tefillin and prays.]]
*''[[Tefillin]]'' (phylacteries) are a set of small cubic leather boxes painted black, containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with verses from the Torah. They are tied to the head and arm with leather straps dyed black, and worn only by Jews, during weekday morning prayers. In Orthodox synagogues they are expected to be worn only by men; in Conservative synagogues they are also worn by some women.
*''[[Tzeniut]]'' (modesty) applies to men and women. When attending Orthodox synagogues, women will likely be expected to wear long sleeves (past the elbows), long skirts (past the knees), a high neckline (to the collar bone), and if married, to cover their hair with a wig, scarf, hat or a combination of the above. For men, short pants or sleeveless shirts are generally regarded as inappropriate. In some Conservative and Reform synagogues the dress code may be more lax, but still respectful.

== Daily prayers ==
=== Shacharit (morning prayers) ===
{{main|Shacharit}}
The ''Shacharit'' (from ''shachar'', morning light) prayer is recited in the morning. ''Halacha'' limits parts of its recitation to the first three (Shema) or four (Amidah) hours of the day, where "hours" are 1/12 of daylight time, making these times dependent on the season.

Various prayers are said upon arising; the tallit katan (a garment with [[tzitzit]]) is donned at this time. The [[tallit]] (large prayer shawl) is donned before or during the actual prayer service, as are the [[tefillin]] (phylacteries); both are accompanied by blessings.

The service starts with the "morning blessings" (''birkot ha-shachar''), including blessings for the [[Torah]] (considered the most important ones). In Orthodox services this is followed by a series of readings from Biblical and rabbinic writings recalling the [[korban|offerings]] made in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]. The section concludes with the "Rabbis' [[Kaddish]]" (''kaddish de-rabbanan'').

The next section of morning prayers is called ''Pesukei D'Zimrah'' ("verses of praise"), containing several [[psalms]] (100 and 145–150), and prayers (such as ''yehi chevod'') made from a tapestry of Biblical verses, followed by the [[Exodus 15.1-15.18|Song at the Sea]] (Exodus, chapters {{bibleverse-nb||Ex|14|HE}} and {{bibleverse-nb||Ex|15|HE}}).

''Barechu'', the formal public call to prayer, introduces a series of expanded blessings embracing the recitation of the ''[[Shema Yisrael|Shema]]''. This is followed by the core of the prayer service, the ''[[Amidah]]'' or ''Shemoneh Esreh'', a series of 19 blessings. The next part of the service, is ''[[Tachanun]]'', supplications, which is omitted on days with a festive character (and by Reform services usually entirely).

On Mondays and Thursdays a [[Torah reading]] service is inserted, and a longer version of Tachanun takes place.

Concluding prayers (see [[Uva letzion]]) and [[Aleinu]] then follow, with the Kaddish of the mourners generally after Aleinu.

=== Mincha (afternoon prayers) ===
{{main|Mincha}}
''Mincha'' or ''Minha'' (derived from the flour offering that accompanied each sacrifice) may be recited from half an hour after ''halachic'' noontime. This earliest time is referred to as ''mincha gedola'' (the "large mincha"). It is, however, preferably recited after ''mincha ketana'' (2.5 ''halachic'' hours before nightfall<ref>On another view, before sunset</ref>). Ideally, one should complete the prayers before sunset, although many authorities permit reciting Mincha until nightfall.

[[Sephardi]]m and [[Italian Jews]] start the Mincha prayers with [[Psalm 84]] and ''Korbanot'' ({{bibleverse||Numbers|28:1-8|HE}}), and usually continue with the ''Pittum hakketoret''. The opening section is concluded with {{bibleverse||Malachi|3:4|HE}}. Western Ashkenazim recite the ''Korbanot'' only.

''Ashrei'', containing verses from [[Psalm]]s {{bibleverse-nb||Ps|84:5|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Ps|144:15|HE}} and the entire {{bibleverse||Psalm|145|HE}}, is recited, immediately followed by ''[[Chatzi Kaddish]]'' (half-Kaddish) and the ''Shemoneh Esreh'' (or [[Amidah]]). This is followed by ''[[Tachanun]]'', supplications, and then the full Kaddish. Sephardim insert Psalm {{bibleverse-nb||Ps|67|HE}} or {{bibleverse-nb||Ps|93|HE}}, followed by the Mourner's Kaddish. After this follows, in most modern rites, the ''[[Aleinu]]''. Ashkenazim then conclude with the Mourner's Kaddish. On [[Tisha B'Av]], [[tallit]] and [[tefillin]] are worn during Mincha. Service leaders often wear a tallit even on normal days, and must wear one during the [[Ta'anit|fast days]].

[[Image:JaffaMaariv.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Minyan]] Ma'ariv prayer in a Jaffa [[Tel Aviv]] flea-market shop]]

=== Ma'ariv/Arvit (evening prayers) ===
{{main|Maariv (prayer)}}

In many congregations, the afternoon and evening prayers are recited back-to-back on a working day, to save people having to attend synagogue twice.<ref>In strict law, one should only recite Mincha between sunset and nightfall if one recites Arvit after nightfall; conversely one should only recite Arvit between sunset and nightfall if one recites Mincha before sunset; in other words one should not take advantage of both flexibilities at once so as to combine the prayers. The prevailing practice, of doing exactly that, is regarded as an emergency measure. On yet another view, the disputed period is not that between sunset and nightfall but the last seasonally adjusted hour and a quarter before sunset.</ref> The [[Vilna Gaon]] discouraged this practice, and followers of his set of customs commonly wait until after nightfall to recite ''Ma'ariv'' (the name derives from the word "nightfall").<ref>One reason for this is that, while the prevailing practice may satisfy the law concerning the timing of Arvit in the sense of the evening Amidah, it means that the evening Shema is recited too early.</ref>

This service begins with the ''Barechu'', the formal public call to prayer, and ''Shema Yisrael'' embraced by two benedictions before and two after. [[Ashkenazi]]m outside of Israel (except [[Chabad-Lubavitch]] and followers of the [[Vilna Gaon]]) then add another blessing (''Baruch Adonai le-Olam''), which is made from a tapestry of biblical verses. (This prayer is also said by Baladi [[Yemenite Jews|Temanim]] in and out of Israel.) This is followed by the Half-Kaddish, and the ''Shemoneh Esreh'' (''Amidah''), bracketed with the full Kaddish. [[Sephardi]]m then say Psalm 121, say the Mourner's Kaddish, and repeat ''Barechu'' before concluding with the Aleinu. [[Ashkenazi]]m, in the [[Jewish diaspora|diaspora]], do neither say Psalm 121 nor repeat Barechu, but conclude with ''Aleinu'' followed by the Mourner's Kaddish (in Israel, Ashkenazim do repeat Barcheu after mourner's Kaddish).

==Prayer on Shabbat (Sabbath)==
=== Friday night ===
[[Shabbat]] services begin on Friday evening with the weekday Mincha (see above), followed in some communities by the [[Song of Songs]], and then in most communities by the ''Kabbalat Shabbat'', the mystical prelude to Shabbat services composed by 16th century [[Kabbalists]]. This [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] term literally means "Receiving the Sabbath". In many communities, the piyut ''[[Yedid Nefesh]]'' introduces the Kabbalat Shabbat prayers.

Kabbalat Shabbat is, except for amongst many [[Italian Jews|Italian]] and [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews]], composed of six psalms, {{bibleverse-nb||Ps|95|HE}} to {{bibleverse-nb||Ps|99|HE}}, and {{bibleverse-nb||Ps|29|HE}}, representing the six week-days. Next comes the poem ''[[Lekha Dodi]]''. Composed by Rabbi [[Shlomo Halevi Alkabetz]] in the mid-16th century, it is based on the words of the [[Talmud]]ic sage Hanina: "Come, let us go out to meet the Queen Sabbath" (Talmud Shabbat 119a). Kabbalat Shabbat is concluded by {{bibleverse||Psalm|92|HE}} (the recital of which constitutes men's acceptance of the current Shabbat with all its obligations) and {{bibleverse||Psalm|93|HE}}. Many add a study section here, including ''Bameh Madlikin'' and ''Amar rabbi El'azar'' and the concluding ''Kaddish deRabbanan'' and is then followed by the Maariv service; other communities delay the study session until after Maariv. Still other customs add here a passage from the [[Zohar]].

The [[Shema Yisrael|Shema]] section of the Friday night service varies in some details from the weekday services—mainly in the different ending of the ''Hashkivenu'' prayer and the omission of ''Baruch Adonai le-Olam'' prayer in those traditions where this section is otherwise recited. In the [[Italian Jews#Italian rite Jews|Italian rite]], there are also different versions of the ''Ma'ariv 'aravim'' prayer (beginning ''asher killah'' on Friday nights) and the ''Ahavat 'olam'' prayer.

Most commemorate the Shabbat at this point with ''VeShameru'' ({{bibleverse||Exodus|31:16-17|HE}}). The custom to recite the biblical passage at this point has its origins in the Lurianic [[Kabbalah]], and does not appear before the 16th century. It is therefore absent in traditions and prayer books less influenced by the Kabbalah (such as the [[Yemenite Jews|Yemenite]] ''[[Baladi]]'' tradition), or those that opposed adding additional readings to the siddur based upon the Kabbalah (such as the [[Vilna Gaon]]).

The [[Amidah]] on Shabbat is abbreviated, and is read in full once. This is then followed by the [[hazzan]]'s mini-repetition of the Amidah, ''Magen Avot'', a digest of the seven benedictions. In some [[Ashkenazi]] [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] synagogues the second chapter of [[Mishnah]] tractate Shabbat, ''Bameh Madlikin'', is read at this point, instead of earlier. [[Kiddush]] is recited in the synagogue in Ashkenazi and a few Sephardi communities. The service then follows with [[Aleinu]]. Most Sephardi and many Ashkenazi synagogues end with the singing of ''[[Yigdal]]'', a poetic adaptation of [[Maimonides]]' 13 principles of Jewish faith. Other Ashkenazi synagogues end with ''[[Adon Olam|Adon `olam]]'' instead.

=== Shacharit ===
[[Shabbat]] morning prayers commence as on week-days. Of the hymns, Psalm 100 (''Mizmor LeTodah'', the psalm for the Thanksgiving offering), is omitted because the ''todah'' or Thanksgiving [[korbanot|offering]] could not be offered on [[Shabbat]] in the days of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]. Its place is taken in the [[Ashkenazi]] tradition by Psalms {{bibleverse-nb||Psalm|19|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Psalm|34|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Psalm|90|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Psalm|91|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Psalm|135|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Psalm|136|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Psalm|33|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Psalm|92|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Psalm|93|HE}}. [[Sephardi]]c Jews maintain a different order, add several psalms and two religious poems. The ''Nishmat'' prayer is recited at the end of the ''Pesukei D'Zimrah''. The blessings before ''Shema'' are expanded, and include the hymn ''El Adon'', which is often sung communally.

The fourth intermediary benediction of the ''Shacharit [[Amidah]]'' begins with ''Yismach Moshe''. The Torah scroll is taken out of the Ark, and the [[Parsha|weekly portion]] is [[Torah reading|read]], followed by the ''[[haftarah]]''.

After the [[Torah]] reading, three prayers for the community are recited. Two prayers starting with ''[[Yekum Purkan]]'', composed in Babylon in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], are similar to the subsequent ''Mi sheberakh'', a blessing for the leaders and patrons of the synagogue. The Sephardim omit much of the Yekum Purkan. Prayers are then recited (in some communities) for the government of the country, for peace, and for the State of [[Israel]].

After these prayers, Ashrei is repeated and the Torah scroll is returned to the Ark in a procession through the Synagogue. Many congregations allow children to come to the front in order to kiss the scroll as it passes. In many Orthodox communities, the Rabbi (or a learned member of the congregation) delivers a sermon at this point, usually on the topic of the Torah reading. In [[yeshivot]], the sermon is usually delivered on Saturday night.

=== Mussaf ===
{{main|Mussaf}}
The ''Musaf'' service starts with the silent recitation of the ''[[Amidah]]''. It is followed by a second public recitation that includes an additional reading known as the ''Kedushah''. This is followed by the ''Tikanta Shabbat'' reading on the holiness of [[Shabbat]], and then by a reading from the biblical [[Book of Numbers]] about the sacrifices that used to be performed in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]. Next comes ''Yismechu'', "They shall rejoice in Your sovereignty"; ''Eloheynu'', "Our God and God of our Ancestors, may you be pleased with our rest"; and ''Retzei'', "Be favorable, our God, toward your people Israel and their prayer, and restore services to your Temple."

After the ''Amidah'' comes the full [[Kaddish]], followed by ''Ein keloheinu''. In [[Orthodox Judaism]] this is followed by a reading from the [[Talmud]] on the incense offering called Pittum Haketoreth and daily psalms that used to be recited in the Temple in Jerusalem. These readings are usually omitted by [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] Jews, and are always omitted by [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] Jews.

The ''Musaf'' service culminates with the Rabbi's Kaddish, the ''[[Aleinu]]'', and then the Mourner's Kaddish. Some [[synagogue]]s conclude with the reading of ''An'im Zemirot'', "The Hymn of Glory", Mourner's Kaddish, The psalm of the Day and either Adon Olam or Yigdal.

===Mincha===
Mincha commences with ''Ashrei'' (see above) and the prayer [[Uva letzion]], after which the first section of the next [[Parsha|weekly portion]] is [[Torah reading|read from the Torah scroll]]. The ''Amidah'' follows the same pattern as the other Shabbat ''Amidah'' prayers, with the middle blessing starting ''Attah Echad''.

After Mincha, during the winter Sabbaths (from [[Sukkot]] to [[Passover]]), ''Barekhi Nafshi'' (Psalms {{bibleverse-nb||Ps|104|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Ps|120|HE}}-{{bibleverse-nb||Ps|134|HE}}) is recited in some customs. During the summer Sabbaths (from Passover to [[Rosh Hashanah]]) chapters from the ''[[Pirkei Avot|Avot]]'', one every Sabbath in consecutive order, are recited instead of ''Barekhi Nafshi''.

===Ma'ariv===
The week-day Ma'ariv is recited on the evening immediately following Shabbat, concluding with ''Vihi No'am'', ''Ve-Yitten lekha'', and ''[[Havdalah]]''.

==Special observances and circumstances==
=== Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur ===
{{Teshuva}}
The services for the [[High Holidays|Days of Awe]]—Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur—take on a solemn tone as befits these days. Traditional solemn tunes are used in the prayers.

The musaf service on Rosh Hashana has nine blessings; the three middle blessings include biblical verses attesting to sovereignty, remembrance and the [[shofar]], which is sounded 100 times during the service.

Yom Kippur is the only day in the year when there are five prayer services. The evening service, containing the Ma'ariv prayer, is widely known as "[[Kol Nidrei]]", the opening declaration made preceding the prayer. During the daytime, shacharit, musaf (which is recited on Shabbat and all festivals) and mincha are followed, as the sun begins to set, by [[Ne'ila]], which is recited just this once a year.

=== Pesach, Shavuot and Sukkot ===
The services for the three festivals of [[Pesach]] ("Passover"), [[Shavuot]] ("Feast of Weeks" or "Pentecost"), and [[Sukkot]] ("Feast of Tabernacles") are alike, except for interpolated references and readings for each individual festival. The preliminaries and conclusions of the prayers are the same as on Shabbat. The Amidah on these festivals only contains seven benedictions, with ''Attah Bechartanu'' as the main one. [[Hallel]] (communal recitation of Psalms {{bibleverse-nb||Ps|113|HE}}-{{bibleverse-nb||Ps|118|HE}}) follows.

The Musaf service includes Umi-Penei Hata'enu, with reference to the special festival and [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] sacrifices on the occasion. A [[Priestly Blessing|blessing on the pulpit]] ("dukhen") is pronounced by the "[[Kohen|kohanim]]" (Jewish priests) during the Amidah (this occurs daily in Israel and most Sephardic congregations, but only on [[Pesach]], [[Shavuot]], [[Sukkot]], [[Rosh Hashanah]], and [[Yom Kippur]] in Ashkenazic congregations of the [[Jewish diaspora|diaspora]]). On week-days and Sabbath the priestly blessing is recited by the [[hazzan]] after the Modim ("Thanksgiving") prayer. (American Reform Jews omit the Musaf service.)

=== Missed prayer ===
In the event one of the prayers was missed inadvertedly, the Amidah prayer is said twice in the next service — a procedure known as ''tefillat tashlumin''.<ref>Brachot 26a</ref>

==Related customs==
Many Jews sway their body back and forth during prayer. This practice (referred to as ''[[Shuckling|shoklen]]'' in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]) is not mandatory, and in fact the [[kabbalah|kabbalist]] [[Isaac Luria]] felt that it should not be done. In contrast, the German Medieval authority ''[[Yaakov ben Moshe Levi Moelin|Maharil]]'' (Rabbi Jacob Molin) linked the practice to a statement in the [[Talmud]] that the Mishnaic sage [[Rabbi Akiva]] would sway so forcefully that he ended up at the other side of the room when praying (Talmud tractate Berachot).

Money for ''[[tzedakah]]'' (roughly translated as "economic justice") is given during or immediately before the weekday morning and afternoon services in many communities.

==Role of women==
Men are obligated to perform public prayer three times a day with additional services on [[Jewish holidays]]. According to Jewish law, each prayer must be performed within specific time ranges, based on the time that the communal [[Korban|sacrifice]] the prayer is named after would have been performed in the days of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]].

According to the [[Talmud]] women are generally exempted from obligations that have to be performed at a certain time. Orthodox authorities have generally interpreted this exemption due to women's higher spiritual level and therefore a lack of need to connect to God at specific times, since they are always connected to God. In accordance with the general exemption from time-bound obligations, most Orthodox authorities have exempted women from performing evening prayers ([[Maariv]]), but most believe that women should at least try to pray [[Shacharit]] and [[Mincha]], the morning and afternoon prayers, respectively.

[[Image:JerusalemWailingWall.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Jewish women praying by the Western Wall, early 1900s]]
[[Image:Women praying in the Western Wall tunnels by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Women praying in the [[Western Wall tunnel]] at the closest physical point to the [[Holy of Holies]]]]

Orthodox authorities have been careful to note that although women have been exempted from praying at specific fixed times, they are not exempted from the obligation of prayer itself. The 19th century [[posek]] [[Yechiel Michel Epstein]], author of the ''[[Arukh HaShulkhan]]'', notes: "Even though the rabbis set prayer at fixed times in fixed language, it was not their intention to issue a leniency and exempt women from this ritual act".

Authorities have disagreed on the minimum amount that women's prayer should contain. Many Jews rely on the ruling of the (Ashkenazi) Rabbi [[Avraham Gombiner]] in his ''[[Magen Avraham]]'' commentary on the ''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'',<ref>[[Shulkhan Arukh]] section ''[[Orach Chayim]]'' 106:2</ref> and more recently the ([[Sephardi]]) Rabbi [[Ovadia Yosef]] (''Yabiah Omer'' vol. 6, 17), that women are only required to pray once a day, in any form they choose, so long as the prayer contains praise of (brakhot), requests to (bakashot), and thanks of (hodot) God.<ref>[http://www.nishmat.net/article.php?id=2&heading=0 Women's Issues:Women And Prayer When Time is Short], ''[[Nishmat]]''</ref> In addition, not all Orthodox authorities agree that women are completely exempt from time-bound prayer. The ''[[Mishnah Berurah]]'' by Rabbi [[Yisrael Meir Kagan]], an important code of [[Ashkenazi Judaism|Ashkenzic]] Jewish law, holds that the Men of the [[Great Assembly]] obligated women to say ''Shacharit'' (morning) and ''Minchah'' (afternoon) prayer services each day, "just like men". The ''Mishnah Berurah'' also states that although women are exempt from reciting the [[Shema Yisrael]], they should nevertheless say it anyway. Nonetheless, even the most liberal Orthodox authorities hold that women cannot count in a minyan for purposes of public prayer.

Throughout [[Orthodox Judaism]], including its most liberal forms, men and women are required to sit in separate sections with a [[mechitza]] (partition) separating them. Conservative/Masorti Judaism permits mixed seating (almost universally in the United States, but not in all countries). All Reform and Reconstructionist congregations have mixed seating.

[[Haredi]] and much of [[Modern Orthodox]] Judaism has a blanket prohibition on women leading public congregational prayers. Conservative Judaism has developed a blanket justification for women leading all or virtually all such prayers, holding that although only obligated individuals can lead prayers and women were not traditionally obligated, Conservative Jewish women in modern times have as a collective whole voluntarily undertaken such an obligation.<ref>http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf</ref> Reform and Reconstructionist congregations permit women to perform all prayer roles because they do not regard [[halakha]] as binding.

A small liberal wing within Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly rabbis friendly to the [[Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance]] (JOFA), has begun re-examining the role of women in prayers based on an individual, case-by-case look at the historical role of specific prayers and services, doing so within classical ''halakhic'' interpretation.

Accepting that where obligation exists only the obligated can lead, this small group has typically made three general arguments for expanded women's roles:
# Because women were required to perform certain [[korbanot]] (sacrifices) in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], women today are required to perform, and hence can lead (and can count in the ''minyan'' for if required), the specific prayers substituting for these specific sacrifices. ''Birchat Hagomel'' falls in this category.
# Because certain parts of the service were added after the [[Talmud]] defined mandatory services, such prayers are equally voluntary on everyone and hence can be led by women (and no ''minyan'' is required). ''Pseukei D'Zimrah'' in the morning and ''Kabbalat Shabbat'' on Friday nights fall in this category.
# In cases where the Talmud indicates that women are generally qualified to lead certain services but do not do so because of the "dignity of the congregation", modern congregations are permitted to waive such dignity if they wish. Torah reading on Shabbat falls in this category. An argument that women are permitted to lead the services removing and replacing the Torah in the Ark on ''Shabbat'' extends from their ability to participate in Torah reading then.

A very small number of Modern Orthodox congregations accept some such arguments, but very few Orthodox congregations or authorities accept all or even most of them. Many of those who do not accept this reasoning point to ''kol isha'', the tradition that prohibits a man from hearing a woman other than his wife sing. JOFA refers to congregations generally accepting such arguments as [[Partnership Minyan]]im. On Shabbat in a Partnership Minyan, women can typically lead ''Kabbalat Shabbat'', the ''P'seukei D'Zimrah'', the services for removing the Torah from and replacing it to the Ark, and Torah reading, as well as give a ''D'Var Torah'' or sermon.

==Role of minors==
In most divisions of [[Judaism]] boys prior to [[Bar Mitzvah]] cannot act as a [[Hazzan|Chazzen]] for prayer services that contain ''devarim sheb'kidusha'', i.e. [[Kaddish]], Barechu, the amida, etc., or receive an aliya or chant the [[Torah]] for the congregation. Since [[#Friday night services|Kabbalat Shabbat]] is just [[psalms]] and does not contain ''devarim sheb'kidusha'', it is possible for a boy under Bar Mitzvah to lead until Barechu of Ma'ariv. Some eastern Jews let a boy under bar mitzvah read the Torah and have an aliyah.<ref>Epstein, Morris. ''All About Jewish Holidays and Customs''. Ktav Publishing House, 1959. p. 89</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Jewish prayers and blessings]]
* [[Siddur]]
* [[Shiv'ah]]
* [[Shuckling]]
* [[Carlebach minyan]]

==References==
;Notes
{{reflist|2}}

;Bibliography
* ''To Pray As a Jew'', [[Hayim Halevy Donin]], Basic Books (ISBN 0-465-08633-0)
* ''Entering Jewish Prayer'', [[Reuven Hammer]] (ISBN 0-8052-1022-9)
* ''Kavvana: Directing the Heart in Jewish Prayer'', Seth Kadish, Jason Aronson Inc. 1997. ISBN 0-7657-5952-7.
* ''Or Hadash: A Commentary on [[Siddur Sim Shalom]] for Shabbat and Festivals'', Reuven Hammer, The [[Rabbinical Assembly]] and the [[United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism]]
* [[Seligman Baer|S. Baer]]. ''Siddur Avodath Yisrael'' (newly researched text with commentary Yachin Lashon), 19th century.
* ''A Guide to Jewish Prayer'', Rabbi [[Adin Steinsaltz]], Shocken Books (ISBN 0-8052-4174-4)
* ''Hilchot Tefilla: A Comprehensive Guide to the Laws of Daily Prayer'', [[David Brofsky]], KTAV Publishing House/OU Press/Yeshivat Har Etzion. 2010. (ISBN 978-1-60280-164-6)
* ''God's Favorite Prayers'', Tzvee Zahavy, Talmudic Books. 2011. (ISBN 978-0-615-50949-5)

== External links ==
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/liturgy.html Jewish liturgy] Jewish Virtual Library.org
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/862308/jewish/Jewish-Prayer.htm Jewish Prayer - Prayer in Judaism] Chabad.org
* [http://www.jewfaq.org/liturgy.htm Outline of prayer services] Jewfaq.org
* [http://www.GoDaven.com GoDaven.com - The Worldwide Minyan Database] GoDaven.com
* [http://www.aish.com/literacy/mitzvahs/Lively_Introduction_to_Prayer.asp Introduction to Jewish Prayer] Aish.com
* [http://www.mincha.com Siddur in PDF]
* [http://hibba.org/en/allmusics Traditional Sephardi prayer Tunes]
* [http://www.sidduraudio.com Audio and text of the Siddur] SiddurAudio.com


{{Jewish prayers}}
{{Jewish life}}
{{Shabbat}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2011}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jewish Prayer Services}}
[[Category:Jewish holy days|Services]]
[[Category:Jewish law and rituals|Services]]
[[Category:Jewish prayer and ritual texts|Services]]
[[Category:Jewish services| ]]
[[Category:Shabbat]]

[[da:Tefilah]]
[[fa:نماز (یهودیت)]]
[[fr:Offices dans le judaïsme]]
[[it:Preghiera ebraica]]
[[he:תפילה (יהדות)]]
[[mzn:نماز (یهودیت)]]
[[nl:Joods gebed]]
[[nn:Jødiske bøner og gudstenester]]
[[pt:Oração judaica]]
[[fi:Tefilla]]
[[tr:Yahudi ayin sistemi]]
[[yi:תפילה]]

Helium-3

2012-05-12T20:11:11Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{about|the elemental isotope| the record label|Helium 3 (record label)}}
{{Infobox isotope
| background = cyan
| isotope_name = Helium-3
| alternate_names =Helium-3, 3He, He-3
| symbol =He
| mass_number =3
| mass =3.0160293
| num_neutrons =1
| num_protons =2
| abundance =0.000137% (% He on Earth)
| abundance_2 =0.001% (% He Solar System)
| halflife =stable
| error_halflife =
| text_color =
| image =
| parent =Tritium
| parent_symbol =H
| parent_mass =3
| parent_decay =[[beta decay]] of tritium
| spin =1/2+
}}

'''Helium-3''' (He-3, sometimes called '''tralphium'''<ref>from tri alpha named by [[George Gamow]] {{cite journal|title=Report on the Progress in Stellar Evolution to 1950|author=Owen Gingerich|journal=Astrophysics and Space Science|doi= 10.1023/A:1002711422064|volume=267|issue=1–4|pages=3–31|bibcode = 1999Ap&SS.267....3G|year=1999 }}</ref>) is a light, non-[[radioactive]] [[isotope]] of [[helium]] with two [[proton]]s and one [[neutron]]. It is rare on [[Earth]], and is sought for use in [[nuclear fusion]] research. The abundance of helium-3 is thought to be greater on the [[Moon]] (embedded in the upper layer of [[Lunar soil|regolith]] by the [[solar wind]] over billions of years){{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} and the [[solar system]]'s [[gas giant]]s (left over from the original [[solar nebula]]), though still low in quantity (28 [[parts per million|ppm]] of lunar regolith is [[helium-4]] and from 1 ppb to 50 ppb is helium-3).<ref>{{cite conference|first=E. N.|last=Slyuta|coauthors=Abdrakhimov, A. M.; Galimov, E. M.|date = March 12–16, 2007|year= |title=The Estimation of Helium-3 Probable Reserves in Lunar Regolith|conference=38th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference|pages=2175|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2007/pdf/2175.pdf}}</ref><ref name="F. H. Cocks 2010">{{cite journal|author=F. H. Cocks|year=2010|title=3He in permanently shadowed lunar polar surfaces|journal= Icarus|volume=206|issue=2|pages=778–779|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.12.032|bibcode=2010Icar..206..778C}}</ref>

The [[helion (chemistry)|helion]], the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of a helium-3 atom, consists of two protons but only one neutron, in contrast to two neutrons in ordinary helium. Its existence was first proposed in 1934 by the Australian nuclear physicist [[Mark Oliphant]] while based at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]]'s [[Cavendish Laboratory]], in an experiment in which fast [[deuteron]]s were reacted with other deuteron targets (the first demonstration of nuclear fusion).<ref>{{cite journal|title=Transmutation Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen|first=M. L. E.|last=Oliphant|coauthors=Harteck, P.; Rutherford, E.|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A|volume=144|issue=853|year=1934|pages=692–703|jstor=2935553| doi = 10.1098/rspa.1934.0077|bibcode=1934RSPSA.144..692O}}</ref>

Helium-3 was postulated to be a radioactive isotope until helions from it were identified in a sample of natural helium (which is mostly helium-4) from both the atmosphere and gas well sources, by [[Luis Walter Alvarez|Luis W. Alvarez]] and [[Robert Cornog]] in a [[cyclotron]] experiment at the [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]], in 1939.<ref>{{cite web|year=1981|publisher= Newsmagazine Publication|url=http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Research-Review/Magazine/1981/81fepi1.html|title=Lawrence and His Laboratory: Episode: A Productive Error|accessdate=2009-09-01}}</ref> Although helium-3 was found to be about 10,000 times more rare with respect to helium-4 in helium from wells, its significant presence in underground gas deposits implied that it either did not decay, or else had an extremely long [[half-life]] compatible with a [[primordial isotope]].

Helium-3 occurs as a primordial nuclide, escaping from the Earth's crust into the atmosphere and into space, over time. It is also a natural [[nucleogenic]] and [[cosmogenic nuclide]], produced when lithium is bombarded by natural neutrons generated by spontaneous fission, and by cosmic rays. Some helium-3 in the atmosphere is also a relic of open air [[thermonuclear weapon]] testing. [[Tritium]], with a roughly 12-year half-life, decays into helium-3, which can be recovered. [[Irradiation]] of [[lithium]] in a [[nuclear reactor]]—either a fusion or fission reactor—can also produce tritium, and thus (after decay) helium-3.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

Helium-3 is proposed as a second-generation [[nuclear fusion|fusion]] fuel for fusion power uses, but such systems are still in very early experimental development phases. Helium-3 is used in neutron detection, and extremely low temperature cryogenics. It has been used as a magnetizable ([[hyperpolarization (physics)|hyperpolarized]]) gas to carry out nuclear magnetic imaging studies of the lungs.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

== Physical properties ==
Owing to its lower atomic mass (3.0160293 [[atomic mass unit|amu]]), helium-3 has significantly different properties from helium-4 (4.0026 amu). Because of the weak, induced dipole-dipole interaction between helium atoms, their macroscopic physical properties are mainly determined by [[zero point energy]] (groundstate kinetic energy), and the microscopic properties of helium-3 cause it to have higher zero point energy, which means helium-3 can overcome dipole-dipole interaction with less thermal energy than helium-4. Helium-3 boils at 3.19 [[kelvin]] compared to helium-4's 4.23 K, and its [[critical point (thermodynamics)|critical point]] is also lower at 3.35 K, compared to helium-4's 5.19 K. It has less than half the density when liquid at its boiling point: 0.059 g/ml compared to helium-4's 0.12473 g/ml at one atmosphere. Its latent heat of vaporization is also considerably lower at 0.026 [[Kilojoule per mole|kJ/mol]] compared to helium-4's 0.0829 kJ/mol.<ref>[http://www.trgn.com/database/cryogen.html Teragon's Summary of Cryogen Properties] Teragon Research, 2005</ref>

== Fusion reactions ==
{| class="wikitable" | style="float: right; border: 1px solid #BBB; margin: .56em 0 0 .9em;"
|+ Comparison of neutronicity of reactions<ref>{{cite web|url=http://members.tm.net/lapointe/IEC_Fusion.html|title=Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lancs.ac.uk/ug/suttond1/#fusion|title = Nuclear Fission and Fusion|accessdate=2007-05-06|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070404153838/http://www.lancs.ac.uk/ug/suttond1/#fusion |archivedate=2007-04-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://library.thinkquest.org/28383/nowe_teksty/htmla/2_37a.html|title=The Fusion Reaction|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/fdm1291.pdf|format=PDF|title=A Strategy for D – 3He Development|author = John Santarius|month=June|year=2006|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/nucrea.html|title=Nuclear Reactions|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref>
|-
! Reactants
!
! Products
! ''Q''

! n/MeV
|-
! colspan="5"|First-generation fusion fuels
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Deuterium|21H]] + [[Deuterium|21H]] (D-D)
| →
| 32He + 10n
| 3.268 [[MeV]]
| 0.306
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Deuterium|21H]] + [[Deuterium|21H]] (D-D)
| →
| [[Tritium|31H]] + 11p
| 4.032 [[MeV]]
| 0
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Deuterium|21H]] + [[Tritium|31H]] (D-T)
| →
| [[Helium-4|42He]] + 10n
| 17.571 [[MeV]]
| 0.057
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="5"|Second-generation fusion fuel
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Deuterium|21H]] + 32He (D-3He)
| →
| [[Helium-4|42He]] + 11p
| 18.354 [[MeV]]
| 0
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="5"|Third-generation fusion fuels
|- style="text-align: center;"
| 32He + 32He
| →
| [[Helium-4|42He]]+ 211p
| 12.86 [[MeV]]
| 0
|- style="text-align: center;"
| 115B + 11p
| →
| 3 [[Helium-4|42He]]
| 8.68 [[MeV]]
| 0
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="5"|Net result of D burning (sum of first 4 rows)
|- style="text-align: center;"
| 6D
| →
| 2([[Helium-4|4He]] + n + p)
| 43.225 [[MeV]]
| 0.046
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="5"|Current nuclear fuel
|- style="text-align: center;"
| [[Uranium-235|235U]] + n
| →
| 2 [[Fission product|FP]]+ 2.5n
| ~200 [[MeV]]
| 0.001
|}

[[Image:fusion rxnrate.svg|right|300px|thumb|The fusion reaction rate increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and then gradually drops off. The DT rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70 keV, or 800 million kelvins) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly considered for fusion energy.]]

Some fusion processes produce highly energetic neutrons which render reactor components [[radioactive]] with [[activation product]]s through the continuous bombardment of the reactor's components with emitted neutrons. Because of this bombardment and irradiation, [[power generation]] must occur indirectly through thermal means, as in a fission reactor. However, the appeal of helium-3 fusion stems from the [[aneutronic fusion|aneutronic]] nature of its reaction products. Helium-3 itself is non-radioactive. The lone high-energy by-product, the [[proton]], can be contained using electric and magnetic fields. The momentum energy of this proton (created in the fusion process) will interact with the containing electromagnetic field, resulting in direct net electricity generation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/presentations/jfs_ieee0904.pdf|format=PDF|title= Lunar 3He and Fusion Power|author=John Santarius|date=September 28, 2004|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref>

Because of the higher [[Coulomb barrier]], the temperatures required for [[Deuterium|21H]] + 32He fusion are much higher than those of conventional [[Deuterium|21H]] + [[Tritium|31H]] ([[deuterium]] + [[tritium]]) fusion. Moreover, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, reactions between nuclei of the same reactant will occur, and the D-D reaction ([[Deuterium|21H]] + [[Deuterium|21H]]) does produce a [[neutron]]. Reaction rates vary with temperature, but the D-3He reaction rate is never greater than 3.56 times the D-D reaction rate (see graph). Therefore fusion using D-3He fuel may produce a somewhat lower neutron flux than D-T fusion, but is by no means clean, negating some of its main attraction.

A second possibility, fusing 32He with itself (32He + 32He), requires even higher temperatures (since now both reactants have a +2 charge), and thus is even more difficult than the D-3He reaction. However, it does offer a possible reaction that produces no neutrons; the protons it produces possess charges and can be contained using electric and magnetic fields, which in turn results in direct electricity generation. 32He + 32He fusion has been demonstrated in the laboratory and is thus theoretically feasible and would have immense advantages, but commercial viability is many years in the future.<ref>{{cite journal|url= http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/19296/|title=Mining the Moon: Lab experiments suggest that future fusion reactors could use helium-3 gathered from the moon|author=Mark Williams|journal=MIT Technology Review|date=August 23, 2007|accessdate=2011-01-25}}</ref>

The amounts of helium-3 needed as a replacement for [[fossil fuel|conventional fuel]]s are substantial by comparison to amounts currently available. The total amount of energy produced in the [[Deuterium|21H]] + 32He reaction is 18.4 M[[electronvolt|eV]], which corresponds to some 493 [[watt-hour|megawatt-hour]]s (4.93×108 W·h) per three [[gram]]s (one [[mole (chemistry)|mole]]) of ³He. Even if that total amount of energy could be converted to electrical power with 100% efficiency (a physical impossibility), it would correspond to about 30 minutes of output of a gigawatt electrical plant; a year's production by the same plant would require some 17.5 kilograms of helium-3.

The amount of fuel needed for large-scale applications can also be put in terms of total consumption: According to the US Energy Information Administration, "Electricity consumption by 107 million U.S. households in 2001 totaled 1,140 billion kW·h" (1.14×1015 W·h). Again assuming 100% conversion efficiency, 6.7 [[tonne]]s of helium-3 would be required for that segment of the energy demand of the United States, 15 to 20 tonnes given a more realistic end-to-end conversion efficiency.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}

== Neutron detection ==
'''Helium-3''' is a most important isotope in instrumentation for [[neutron detection]]. It has a high absorption cross section for thermal [[neutron radiation|neutron]] beams and is used as a converter gas in neutron detectors. The neutron is converted through the nuclear reaction
:n + 3He → 3H + 1H + 0.764 MeV
into charged particles [[tritium]] (T, 3H) and [[Hydrogen atom|protium]] (p, 1H) which then are detected by creating a charge cloud in the stopping gas of a [[proportional counter]] or a [[Geiger-Müller tube]].<ref>[http://www.lanl.gov/quarterly/q_sum03/neutron_detect.shtml A Modular Neutron Detector | Summer 2003| Los Alamos National Laboratory]. Lanl.gov. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref>

Furthermore, the absorption process is strongly [[Spin (physics)|spin]]-dependent, which allows a [[Spin polarization|spin-polarized]] helium-3 volume to transmit neutrons with one spin component while absorbing the other. This effect is employed in [[Polarized neutron scattering|neutron polarization analysis]], a technique which probes for magnetic properties of matter.<ref>[http://www.ncnr.nist.gov/AnnualReport/FY2002_html/pages/neutron_spin.htm NCNR Neutron Spin Filters]. Ncnr.nist.gov (2004-04-28). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref><ref>[http://www.ill.eu/science-technology/neutron-technology-at-ill/optics/3he-spin-filters/ ILL 3He spin filters]. Ill.eu (2010-10-22). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.ncnr.nist.gov/staff/hammouda/publications/2000_gentile_j_appl_cryst.pdf|title= SANS polarization analysis with nuclear spin-polarized 3He|doi=10.1107/S0021889800099817|journal=J. Appl. Cryst. |year=2000|volume= 33|pages= 771–774}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ncnr.nist.gov/equipment/he3nsf/index.html Neutron Spin Filters: Polarized 3He]. NIST.gov</ref>

The [[United States]] [[Department of Homeland Security]] had hoped to deploy detectors to spot smuggled plutonium in shipping containers by their neutron emissions, but the worldwide shortage of helium-3 following the draw down in nuclear weapons production since the [[Cold War]] has to some extent prevented this.<ref>Wald, Matthew L.. (2009-11-22) [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/23/us/23helium.html?partner=rss&emc=rss Nuclear Bomb Detectors Stopped by Material Shortage]. Nytimes.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref>

== Cryogenics ==
A [[helium-3 refrigerator]] uses helium-3 to achieve temperatures of 0.2 to 0.3 [[kelvin]]. A [[dilution refrigerator]] uses a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 to reach [[cryogenics|cryogenic]] temperatures as low as a few thousandths of a [[kelvin]].<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20100208194054/http://na47sun05.cern.ch/target/outline/dilref.html Dilution Refrigeration]. cern.ch</ref>

An important property of helium-3, which distinguishes it from the more common helium-4, is that its nucleus is a [[fermion]] since it contains an odd number of spin 1/2 particles. Helium-4 nuclei are [[boson]]s, containing an even number of spin 1/2 particles. This is a direct result of the [[Angular momentum quantum number#Addition of quantized angular momenta|addition rules]] for quantized angular momentum. At low temperatures (about 2.17 K), helium-4 undergoes a [[phase transition]]: A fraction of it enters a [[superfluid]] [[phase (matter)|phase]] that can be roughly understood as a type of [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]. Such a mechanism is not available for helium-3 atoms, which are fermions. However, it was widely speculated that helium-3 could also become a superfluid at much lower temperatures, if the atoms formed into ''pairs'' analogous to [[Cooper pair]]s in the [[BCS theory]] of [[superconductivity]]. Each Cooper pair, having integer spin, can be thought of as a boson. During the 1970s, [[David Lee (physicist)|David Lee]], [[Douglas Osheroff]] and [[Robert Coleman Richardson]] discovered two phase transitions along the melting curve, which were soon realized to be the two superfluid phases of helium-3.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Osheroff|first=D. D. |authorlink= |coauthors=Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M.|year=1972|month= |title=Evidence for a New Phase of Solid He3 |journal=[[Physical Review Letters]]|volume=28|issue=14|pages=885–888|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.28.885|url= |bibcode= 1972PhRvL..28..885O}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Osheroff|first=D. D.|authorlink= |coauthors=Gully, W. J.; Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M.|year=1972|month= |title=New Magnetic Phenomena in Liquid He3 below 3 mK|journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=29|issue=14|pages=920–923|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.920|bibcode=1972PhRvL..29..920O}}</ref> The transition to a superfluid occurs at 2.491 millikelvins (i.e., 0.002491 K) on the melting curve. They were awarded the 1996 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for their discovery. [[Anthony James Leggett|Tony Leggett]] won the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on refining understanding of the superfluid phase of helium-3.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Leggett|first=A. J.|authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1972 |month= |title=Interpretation of Recent Results on He3 below 3 mK: A New Liquid Phase?|journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=29|issue=18|pages=1227–1230|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.1227|url= |bibcode=1972PhRvL..29.1227L}}</ref>

In zero magnetic field, there are two distinct superfluid phases of 3He, the A-phase and the B-phase. The B-phase is the low-temperature, low-pressure phase which has an isotropic energy gap. The A-phase is the higher temperature, higher pressure phase that is further stabilized by a magnetic field and has two point nodes in its gap. The presence of two phases is a clear indication that 3He is an unconventional superfluid (superconductor), since the presence of two phases requires an additional symmetry, other than gauge symmetry, to be broken. In fact, it is a ''p''-wave superfluid, with spin one, '''S'''=1, and angular momentum one, '''L'''=1. The ground state corresponds to total angular momentum zero, '''J'''='''S'''+'''L'''=0 (vector addition). Excited states are possible with non-zero total angular momentum, '''J'''>0, which are excited pair collective modes. Because of the extreme purity of superfluid 3He (since all materials except 4He have solidified and
sunk to the bottom of the liquid 3He and any 4He has phase separated entirely, this is the most pure condensed matter state), these collective modes have been studied with much greater precision than in any other unconventional pairing system.

== Medical lung imaging ==
Helium-3 nuclei have an intrinsic [[nuclear spin]] of ½, and a relatively high [[magnetogyric ratio]]. Helium-3 can be [[Hyperpolarization (physics)|hyperpolarized]] using non-equilibrium means such as spin-exchange optical pumping.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Hyperpolarized 3He Gas Production and MR Imaging of the Lung|first1 = Jason C.|last1 = Leawoods|first2 = Dmitriy A.|last2 = Yablonskiy|first3 = Brian|last3 = Saam|first4 = David S.|last4 = Gierada|first5 = Mark S.|last5 = Conradi|year =2001|journal =Concepts in Magnetic Resonance|volume =13|pages =277-293|}}</ref> During this process, [[circular polarization|circularly polarized]] infrared laser light, tuned to the appropriate wavelength, is used to excite electrons in an [[alkali metal]], such as [[caesium]] or [[rubidium]] inside a sealed glass vessel. The [[angular momentum]] is transferred from the alkali metal electrons to the noble gas nuclei through collisions. In essence, this process effectively aligns the nuclear spins with the magnetic field in order to enhance the [[nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]] signal. The hyperpolarized gas may then be stored at pressures of 10 atm, for up to 100 hours. Following inhalation, gas mixtures containing the hyperpolarized helium-3 gas can be imaged with an MRI scanner to produce anatomical and functional images of lung ventilation. This technique is also able to produce images of the airway tree, locate unventilated defects, measure the [[pulmonary gas pressures|alveolar oxygen partial pressure]], and measure the [[ventilation/perfusion ratio]]. This technique may be critical for the diagnosis and treatment management of chronic respiratory diseases such as [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)]], [[emphysema]], [[cystic fibrosis]], and [[asthma]].<ref>{{cite journal|title = Hyperpolarized Gas Imaging of the Lung|first1 = Talissa|last1 = Altes|first2 = Michael|last2 = Salerno|year =2004|journal =J Thorac Imaging|volume =19|pages =250-258|}}</ref>

== Production ==
Current US industrial consumption of Helium-3 is approximately 60,000 liters per year;<ref name="fas">[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41419.pdf The Helium 3 Shortage: Supply, Demand, and Options for Congress]. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> cost at auction has typically been approximately $100/liter although increasing demand has raised prices to as much as $2,000/liter in recent years.<ref>[http://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/diagnostics/physics-projects-deflate-for-lack-of-helium3 Physics Projects Deflate for Lack of Helium-3]. Spectrum.ieee.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> Helium-3 is naturally present in small quantities due to radioactive decay, but virtually all helium-3 used in industry is manufactured. Helium-3 is a product of [[tritium]] decay, and tritium can be produced through neutron bombardment of [[deuterium]], [[lithium]], [[boron]], or [[nitrogen]] targets. Production of tritium in significant quantities requires the high neutron flux of a nuclear reactor; breeding tritium with lithium-6 consumes the neutron, while breeding with lithium-7 produces a low energy neutron as a replacement for the consumed fast neutron.

Current supplies of helium-3 come, in part, from the dismantling of nuclear weapons where it accumulates,<ref>Charmian Schaller [http://web.archive.org/web/20061029124748/http://afci.lanl.gov/aptnews/aptnews.mar1_98.html Accelerator Production of Tritium – That Could Mean 40 Years of Work]. Los Alamos Monitor. March 1, 1998</ref><ref>[http://www.ieer.org/sdafiles/vol_5/5-1/tritium.html Science for Democratic Action Vol. 5 No. 1]. IEER. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> however the need for warhead disassembly is diminishing. Consequently tritium itself is in short supply, and the US Department of Energy recently began producing it by the lithium irradiation method at the Tennessee Valley Authority's Watts Bar reactor.<ref name="fas"/> Substantial quantities of tritium could also be extracted from the heavy water moderator in [[CANDU]] nuclear reactors.

Production of helium-3 from tritium at a rate sufficient to meet world demand will require significant investment, as tritium must be produced at the same rate as helium-3, and approximately eighteen times as much tritium must be maintained in storage as the amount of helium-3 produced annually by decay (production rate '''dN/dt''' from number of moles or other unit mass of tritium ''N'', is ''N γ'' = ''N'' ln 2/''t''½ where the value of ''t''½/(ln 2) is about 18 years; see [[radioactive decay]]). If commercial fusion reactors were to use helium-3 as a fuel, they would require tens of tonnes of helium-3 each year to produce a fraction of the world's power, requiring substantial expansion of facilities for tritium production and storage.<ref name=Witt>[[#Witt|Wittenberg 1994]]</ref>

== Abundance ==
=== Solar nebula (primordial) abundance ===
One early estimate of the primordial ratio of 3He to 4He in the solar nebula has been the measurement of their ratio in the atmosphere of Jupiter, measured by the mass spectrometer of the Galileo atmospheric entry probe. This ratio is about 1:10,000,<ref>{{Cite journal | bibcode = 1996Sci...272..846N | title = The Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer: Composition of Jupiter's Atmosphere | author1 = Niemann | first1 = Hasso B. | last2 = Atreya | first2 = Sushil K. | last3 = Carignan | first3 = George R. | last4 = Donahue | first4 = Thomas M. | last5 = Haberman | first5 = John A. | last6 = Harpold | first6 = Dan N. | last7 = Hartle | first7 = Richard E. | last8 = Hunten | first8 = Donald M. | last9 = Kasprzak | first9 = Wayne T. | volume = 272 | year = 1996 | pages = 846–9 | journal = Science | doi = 10.1126/science.272.5263.846 | pmid = 8629016 | issue = 5263}}</ref> or 100 parts of 3He per million parts of 4He. This is roughly the same ratio of the isotopes in lunar regolith, when it contains 28 ppm helium-4 and 2.8 ppb helium-3 (which is at the lower end of actual sample measurements, which vary from about 1.4 to 15 ppb). However, terrestrial ratios of the isotopes are lower by a factor of 100, mainly due to enrichment of helium-4 stocks in the mantle by billions of years of [[alpha decay]] from [[uranium]] and [[thorium]].

=== Terrestrial abundance ===
{{main|isotope geochemistry}}

3He is a primordial substance in the Earth's [[mantle (geology)|mantle]], considered to have become entrapped within the Earth during planetary formation. The ratio of 3He to 4He within the Earth's crust and mantle is less than that for assumptions of solar disk composition as obtained from meteorite and lunar samples, with terrestrial materials generally containing lower 3He/4He ratios due to ingrowth of 4He from radioactive decay.

3He is present within the mantle, in the ratio of 200–300 parts of 3He to a million parts of 4He. Ratios of 3He/4He in excess of atmospheric are indicative of a contribution of 3He from the mantle. Crustal sources are dominated by the [[helium-4|4He]] which is produced by the decay of radioactive elements in the crust and mantle.

The ratio of Helium-3 to Helium-4 in natural Earth-bound sources varies greatly.<ref name=Aldrich>Aldrich, L.T.; Nier, Alfred O. Phys. Rev. 74, 1590 – 1594 (1948). The Occurrence of He3 in Natural Sources of Helium. Page 1592, Tables I and II.</ref><ref name=Holden>Holden, Normen E. 1993. Helium Isotopic Abundance Variation in Nature. [http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/10183304-ds0WIi/10183304.PDF copy of paper BNL-49331] "Table II. 3He Abundance of Natural Gas ... 3He in ppm ... Aldrich 0.05 – 0.5 ... Sano 0.46 – 22.7", "Table V. ... of Water ... 3He in ppm ... 1.6 – 1.8 East Pacific ... 0.006 – 1.5 Manitoba Chalk River ... 164 Japan Sea" (Aldrich measured Helium from US wells, Sano that of Taiwan gas [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v323/n6083/abs/323055a0.html])</ref> Samples of the ore [[Spodumene]] from Edison Mine, South Dakota were found to contain 12 parts of helium-3 to a million parts of helium-4. Samples from other mines showed 2 parts per million.<ref name=Aldrich/>

Helium is also present as up to 7% of some natural gas sources,<ref>[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/He/key.html WebElements Periodic Table: Professional Edition: Helium: key information]. Webelements.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> and large sources have over 0.5% (above 0.2% makes it viable to extract).<ref name=SmithDM>[[#Smith|Smith, D.M.]] "any concentration of helium above approximately 0.2 percent is considered worthwhile examining" ... "U.S. government still owns approximately 1 billion nm3 of helium inventory", "Middle East and North Africa ... many very large, helium-rich (up to 0.5 percent) natural gas fields" (Smith uses nm3 to mean "normal [[cubic metre]]", elsewhere called "cubic metre at [[standard temperature and pressure|STP]])</ref> Algeria's annual gas production is assumed to contain 100 million normal cubic metres<ref name=SmithDM/> and this would contain between 5 and 50 m3 of Helium-3 (about 1 to 10 kilograms) using the normal abundance range of 0.5 to 5 ppm. Similarly the US 2002 stockpile of 1 billion normal m3<ref name=SmithDM/> would have contained about 10 to 100 kilograms of helium-3.

3He is also present in the [[Earth's atmosphere]]. The natural abundance of 3He in naturally occurring helium gas is 1.38{{e|-6}} (1.38 parts per million). The partial pressure of helium in the Earth's atmosphere is about 0.52 Pa, and thus helium accounts for 5.2 parts per million of the total pressure (101325 Pa) in the Earth's atmosphere, and 3He thus accounts for 7.2 parts per trillion of the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere of the Earth has a mass of about 5.14{{e|15}} tonnes,<ref>[http://ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1175%2FJCLI-3299.1 The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses]. Ams.allenpress.com (1970-01-01). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> the mass of 3He in the Earth's atmosphere is the product of these numbers, or about 37,000 tonnes of 3He.

3He is produced on Earth from three sources: lithium [[spallation]], [[cosmic rays]], and beta decay of tritium (3H). The contribution from cosmic rays is negligible within all except the oldest regolith materials, and lithium spallation reactions are a lesser contributor than the production of 4He by [[alpha particle]] emissions.

The total amount of helium-3 in the mantle may be in the range of 0.1–1 million [[tonne]]s. However, most of the mantle is not directly accessible. Some helium-3 leaks up through deep-sourced [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] volcanoes such as those of the [[Hawaii]]an islands, but only 300 grams per year is emitted to the atmosphere. [[Mid-ocean ridge]]s emit another 3 kilogram per year. Around [[subduction|subduction zone]]s, various sources produce helium-3 in [[natural gas]] deposits which possibly contain a thousand tonnes of helium-3 (although there may be 25 thousand tonnes if all ancient subduction zones have such deposits). Wittenberg estimated that United States crustal natural gas sources may have only half a tonne total.<ref>[[#Witt|Wittenberg 1994]] p. 3, Table 1; p. 9.</ref> Wittenberg cited Anderson's estimate of another 1200 metric tonnes in [[interplanetary dust]] particles on the ocean floors.<ref>[[#Witt|Wittenberg 1994]] Page A-1 citing Anderson 1993, "1200 metric tone"</ref> In the 1994 study, extracting helium-3 from these sources consumes more energy than fusion would release.<ref>[[#Witt|Wittenberg 1994]] Page A-4 "1 kg (3He), pumping power would be 1.13{{e|6}} MYyr ... fusion power derived ... 19 MWyr"</ref> Wittenberg also writes that extraction from US crustal natural gas, consumes ten times the energy available from fusion reactions.<ref>[[#Witt|Wittenberg 1994]] Page A-4 using Table 1 page A-5 of US crustal natural gas</ref>{{Clarify|date=July 2008}}

== Extraterrestrial supplies ==
Materials on the [[Moon]]'s surface contain helium-3 at concentrations on the order of between 1.4 and 15 [[Parts-per notation|ppb]] in sunlit areas,<ref>[http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/Research/he3_pubs.html FTI Research Projects :: 3He Lunar Mining]. Fti.neep.wisc.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2007/pdf/2175.pdf|format=PDF|title=The estimation of helium-3 probable reserves in lunar regolith|author=E. N. Slyuta and A. M. Abdrakhimov, and E. M. Galimov|work=Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII|year=2007}}</ref> and may contain concentrations as much as 50 [[Parts-per notation|ppb]] in permanently shadowed regions.<ref name="F. H. Cocks 2010"/> A number of people, starting with [[Gerald Kulcinski]] in 1986,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/536/1|title=A fascinating hour with [[Gerald Kulcinski]]|author=Eric R. Hedman|date=January 16, 2006|work=The Space Review}}</ref> have proposed to [[Exploration of the Moon|explore the moon]], mine lunar [[regolith]] and use the helium-3 for [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]]. Because of the low concentrations of helium-3, any mining equipment would need to process extremely large amounts of regolith (over 150 million tonnes of regolith to obtain one ton of helium 3),<ref>{{cite web|title=The challenge of mining He-3 on the lunar surface: how all the parts fit together|author=I.N. Sviatoslavsky|month=November|year=1993|url=http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/wcsar9311-2.pdf|format=PDF}} Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics Technical Report WCSAR-TR-AR3-9311-2.</ref> and some proposals have suggested that helium-3 extraction be piggybacked onto a larger mining and development operation.{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}}

The primary objective of [[Indian Space Research Organization]]'s first lunar probe called [[Chandrayaan-I]], launched on October 22, 2008, was reported in some sources to be mapping the Moon's surface for helium-3-containing minerals.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/News_By_Industry/ET_Cetera/With_He-3_on_mind_India_gets_ready_for_lunar_mission/articleshow/3500270.cms|title=With He-3 on mind, India gets ready for lunar mission|work=The Times Of India | date=2008-09-19}}</ref> However, this is debatable; no such objective is mentioned in the project's official list of goals, while at the same time, many of its scientific payloads have noted helium-3-related applications.<ref>[http://www.isro.org/chandrayaan/htmls/objective_scientific.htm Scientific]. Isro.org (2008-11-11). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref><ref>[http://luna-ci.blogspot.com/2008/11/chandrayaan-1-payload-feature-2-sub-kev.html Luna C/I:: Chandrayaan-1 Payload Feature #2: Sub KeV Atom Reflecting Analyser (SARA)]. Luna-ci.blogspot.com (2008-11-12). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref>

[[Cosmochemistry|Cosmochemist]] and [[geochemist]] [[Ouyang Ziyuan]] from the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]] who is now in charge of the [[Chang'e program|Chinese Lunar Exploration Program]] has already stated on many occasions that one of the main goals of the program would be the mining of helium-3, from which operation "each year three space shuttle missions could bring enough fuel for all human beings across the world."<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2006-07/26/content_649325.htm He asked for the moon-and got it]. Chinadaily.com.cn (2006-07-26). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.</ref> which is an extreme overstatement however, as one [[Payload (air and space craft)|payload]] to [[Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO]] of current [[spacecraft]] designs is less than 4 tonnes. To "bring enough fuel for all human beings across the world",<ref name="Witt"/> more than one Space Shuttle load (and the processing of 4 million tonnes of regolith) per week would be necessary.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}

In January 2006, the Russian space company [[RKK Energiya]] announced that it considers lunar helium-3 a potential economic resource to be mined by 2020,<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080809210848/http://www.space.com/news/ap_060126_russia_moon.html Russian Rocket Builder Aims for Moon Base by 2015, Reports Say]. Associated Press (via space.com). 26 January 2006 </ref> if funding can be found.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.thespacereview.com/article/551/1|title=Moonscam: Russians try to sell the Moon for foreign cash|author=James Oberg|date = February 6, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/824/1|title=Death throes and grand delusions| author = [[Dwayne A. Day]]|work=[[The Space Review]]|date=March 5, 2007}}</ref>

Mining [[gas giant]]s for helium-3 has also been proposed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System| author=Bryan Palaszewski|url=http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2006/TM-2006-214122.pdf|format=PDF}} NASA Technical Memorandum 2006-214122. AIAA–2005–4319. Prepared for the 41st Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit cosponsored by AIAA, ASME, SAE, and ASEE, Tucson, Arizona, July 10–13, 2005.</ref> The [[British Interplanetary Society]]'s hypothetical [[Project Daedalus]] interstellar probe design was fueled by helium-3 mines in the atmosphere of [[Jupiter]], for example. Jupiter's high gravity makes this a less energetically favorable operation than extracting helium-3 from the other gas giants of the solar system, however.

== Power generation ==
A second-generation approach to controlled [[nuclear fusion|fusion]] power involves combining helium-3 (32He) and [[deuterium]] ([[Deuterium|21H]]). This reaction produces a [[helium-4]] ion ([[Helium-4|42He]]) (like an [[alpha particle]], but of different origin) and a high-energy [[proton]] (positively charged hydrogen ion) (11p). The most important potential advantage of this fusion reaction for power production as well as other applications lies in its compatibility with the use of [[electrostatic]] fields to control fuel [[ion]]s and the fusion protons. Protons, as positively charged particles, can be converted directly into [[electricity]], through use of [[Solid-state chemistry|solid-state]] conversion materials as well as other techniques. Potential conversion efficiencies of 70% may be possible, as there is no need to convert proton energy to heat in order to drive a [[turbine]]-powered [[Electric generator|electrical generator]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}.

There have been many claims about the capabilities of helium-3 power plants. According to proponents, fusion power plants operating on [[deuterium]] and helium-3 would offer lower capital and [[operating cost]]s than their competitors due to less technical complexity, higher conversion efficiency, smaller size, the absence of radioactive fuel, no air or water [[pollution]], and only low-level [[radioactive]] waste disposal requirements. Recent estimates suggest that about $6 billion in [[investment]] [[Capital (economics)|capital]] will be required to develop and construct the first helium-3 fusion [[power plant]]. Financial breakeven at today's wholesale [[electricity]] prices (5 US cents per [[kilowatt-hour]]) would occur after five 1-[[gigawatt]] plants were on line, replacing old conventional plants or meeting new demand.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/air_space/1283056.html?page=4|title=Mining The Moon|author=Paul DiMare|date=October 2004|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref>

The reality is not so clear-cut. The most advanced fusion programs in the world are [[inertial confinement fusion]] (such as [[National Ignition Facility]]) and [[magnetic confinement fusion]] (such as [[ITER]] and other [[tokamak]]s). In the case of the former, there is no solid roadmap to power generation. In the case of the latter, commercial power generation is not expected until around 2050.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.iter.org/proj/Pages/ITERAndBeyond.aspx|title=ITER & Beyond|accessdate= 2009-08-04}}</ref> In both cases, the type of fusion discussed is the simplest: D-T fusion. The reason for this is the very low [[Coulomb barrier]] for this reaction; for D+3He, the barrier is much higher, and it is even higher for 3He–3He. The immense cost of reactors like [[ITER]] and [[National Ignition Facility]] are largely due to their immense size, yet to scale up to higher plasma temperatures would require reactors far larger still. The 14.7 MeV proton and 3.6 MeV alpha particle from D–3He fusion, plus the higher conversion efficiency, means that more electricity is obtained per kilogram than with D-T fusion (17.6 MeV), but not that much more. As a further downside, the rates of reaction for [[Aneutronic fusion#Candidate aneutronic reactions|helium-3 fusion reactions]] are not particularly high, requiring a reactor that is larger still or more reactors to produce the same amount of electricity.

To attempt to work around this problem of massively large power plants that may not even be economical with D-T fusion, let alone the far more challenging D–3He fusion, a number of other reactors have been proposed – the [[Fusor]], [[Polywell]], [[Focus fusion]], and many more, though many of these concepts have fundamental problems with achieving a net energy gain, and generally attempt to achieve fusion in thermal disequilibrium, something that could potentially prove impossible,<ref>{{cite news|url= http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/29869|title=A general critique of inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion systems|author= Todd Rider|accessdate=2007-05-07}}</ref> and consequently, these long-shot programs tend to have trouble garnering funding despite their low budgets. Unlike the "big", "hot" fusion systems, however, if such systems were to work, they could scale to the higher barrier "[[aneutronic fusion|aneutronic]]" fuels. However, these systems would scale well enough that their proponents tend to promote [[Aneutronic fusion#Technical challenges|p-B fusion]], which requires no exotic fuels like helium-3.

== In popular culture ==
* Helium-3 was harvested in the 2009 science fiction movie ''[[Moon (film)|Moon]]'', by the story's protagonist Sam Bell, the occupant of a mining station on the far side of the [[Moon]].<ref>Scott, A. O. [ "Moon"], ''[[The New York Times]]'', June 12, 2009.</ref><ref>[ "SciFi Movie Review: Moon"],
SciTechStory.com website, October 23, 2010.</ref><ref>Ebert, Roger. [ "Reviews: Moon"], ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'', June 17, 2009</ref>
* Helium-3 was harvested in the 2012 science fiction movie ''[[Iron Sky]]'' by Nazis who had fled to the dark side of the moon at the end of World War II.<ref>[http://www.cgsociety.org/index.php/CGSFeatures/CGSFeatureSpecial/iron_sky Iron Sky], in: CGSociety: Production Focus, April 16, 2012.</ref>
* Helium-3 was harvested and refined in the ''[[Mass Effect (video game)|Mass Effect]]'' video game series for use in "fusion torches": the primary commercial form of starship thrusters. <ref>[http://masseffect.wikia.com/wiki/Helium-3 Helium-3], in Mass Effect Wiki, April 27, 2012.</ref>

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|2}}

=== Bibliography ===
* <cite id=Smith>{{cite journal
|author=D.M Smith, T.W. Goodwin, J.A.Schiller
|url=http://www.airproducts.com/NR/rdonlyres/E44F8293-1CEE-4D80-86EA-F9815927BE7E/0/ChallengestoHeliumSupply111003.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Challenges to the worldwide supply of helium in the next decade
|publisher=Air Products and Chemicals
|accessdate=2008-07-01
}}</cite>
* <cite id=Witt>{{cite journal
|author=L.J. Wittenberg
|date=July 1994
|url=http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/fdm967.pdf
|format=PDF
|title=Non-Lunar 3He Resources
|accessdate=2008-07-01
}}</cite>
* <cite id=Schmitt>{{cite book
|author=H.H. Schmitt
|year= 2005|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IerrQGC6S2YC&printsec=frontcover|isbn=0-387-24285-6
|title=Return to the Moon: Exploration, Enterprise, and Energy in the Human Settlement of Space
|publisher=Springer
}}</cite>

== External links ==
* [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/2003/presentation-speech.html The Nobel Prize in Physics 2003, presentation speech]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/broadband/tx/moonsale/ Moon for Sale: A BBC Horizon documentary on the possibility of lunar mining of Helium-3]

{{Isotope|element=helium
|lighter=[[Diproton]]
|heavier=[[Helium-4]]
|before=[[Lithium-4]] '''([[proton emission|p]]) '''[[Hydrogen-3]] '''([[beta decay|β−]])
|after=Stable
}}

[[Category:Isotopes of helium|Helium-03]]
[[Category:Nuclear fusion fuels]]

[[bg:Хелий 3]]
[[ca:Heli-3]]
[[et:Heelium-3]]
[[es:Helio-3]]
[[fr:Hélium 3]]
[[ko:헬륨-3]]
[[it:Elio-3]]
[[lv:Hēlijs-3]]
[[nl:Helium-3]]
[[ja:ヘリウム3]]
[[no:Helium-3]]
[[pt:Hélio-3]]
[[ru:Гелий-3]]
[[fi:Helium-3]]
[[sv:Helium-3]]
[[tr:Helyum-3]]
[[zh:氦-3]]

Hillbilly

2012-05-12T19:55:56Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

'''Hillbilly''' is a term referring to certain people who dwell in [[rural]], [[mountain]]ous areas of the [[United States]], primarily [[Appalachia]] but also the [[The Ozarks|Ozarks]]. Owing to its strongly [[stereotype|stereotypical]] connotations, the term is frequently considered [[derogatory]], and so is usually offensive to those [[United States|Americans]] of Appalachian heritage.
==History==
[[Image:HillbillyHotDogs.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''Hillbilly Hot Dogs'', a roadside [[hot dog stand]] located near [[Huntington, West Virginia]].]]

Origins of the term "hillbilly" are obscure. According to Anthony Harkins in ''Hillbilly: A Cultural History of an American Icon'', the term first appeared in print in a 1900 ''New York Journal'' article, with the definition: "a Hill-Billie is a free and untrammeled white citizen of Alabama, who lives in the hills, has no means to speak of, dresses as he can, talks as he pleases, drinks whiskey when he gets it, and fires off his revolver as the fancy takes him."

The Appalachian region was largely settled in the 18th century by the [[Scotch-Irish American|Scotch-Irish]], the majority of whom originated in the lowlands of Scotland. Harkins believes the most credible theory of the term's origin is that it derives from the linkage of two older Scottish expressions, "hill-folk" and "billie" which was a synonym for "fellow", similar to "guy" or "bloke".

Although the term is not documented until 1900, a conjectural etymology for the term is that it originated in 17th century Ireland for Protestant supporters of King [[William III of England|William III]] during the [[Williamite War in Ireland|Williamite War]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/immig_emig/northern_ireland/ni_2/article_2.shtml |title=Hillbillies in the White House |publisher=[[BBC online]] }}</ref> The Irish Catholic supporters of James II referred to these northern Protestant supporters of "King Billy", as "Billy Boys". However, Michael Montgomery, in ''From Ulster to America: The Scotch-Irish Heritage of American English'', states "In Ulster in recent years it has sometimes been supposed that it was coined to refer to followers of King William III and brought to America by early Ulster emigrants…, but this derivation is almost certainly incorrect… In America ''hillbilly'' was first attested only in 1898, which suggests a later, independent development."<ref>{{cite book|first=Michael|last=Montgomery|title=From Ulster to America: The Scotch-Irish Heritage of American English|year=2006|publisher=Ulster Historical Foundation|location=Belfast|isbn=978-1-903688-61-8|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=I957OegamHMC|page=82}}</ref>

Harkins theorizes that use of the term outside the Appalachians arose in the years after the American Civil War, when the Appalachian region became increasingly bypassed by technological and social changes taking place in the rest of the country. Until the Civil War, the Appalachians were not significantly different from other rural areas of the country. After the war, as the frontier pushed further west, the Appalachian country retained its frontier character, and the people themselves came to be seen as backward, quick to violence, and inbred in their isolation. Fueled by news stories of mountain feuds, such as that in the 1880s between the [[Hatfields and McCoys]], the hillbilly stereotype developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The "classic" hillbilly stereotype - the poor, ignorant, feuding family with a huge brood of children tending the family [[moonshine]] still - reached its current characterization during the years of the [[Great Depression]], when many mountaineers left their homes to find work in other areas of the country. It was during these years that comic strips such as ''[[Lil' Abner]]'' and films such as ''[[Ma and Pa Kettle]]'' made the "hillbilly" a common stereotype.

The period of Appalachian out-migration, roughly from the 1930s through the 1950s, saw many mountain residents moving north to the midwestern industrial cities of [[Chicago]], [[Cleveland]], [[Akron, Ohio|Akron]], and particularly [[Detroit]], where jobs in the automotive industry were plentiful. This movement north became known as the "[[Hillbilly Highway]]".

The advent of the [[interstate highway]] system and [[television]] brought many previously isolated communities into mainstream United States culture in the 1950s and 1960s. The [[Internet]] continues this integration.

==Slang use==
The term hillbilly is commonly used outside of Appalachia as a reference in describing socially backward people that fit certain "hillbilly" characteristics. In this context, it is often (though not always) derogatory. Although the described person may reside on completely flat [[terrain]], hillbilly is substituted in place of more disparaging terms, such as [[white trash]]. In urban usage, hillbilly is sometimes used interchangeably for terms like [[hick]].

==Music==
[[File:HillbillyFamilyBandDLange.jpg|thumb|180px|Migrant family from Arkansas playing hill-billy songs, 1939]]
''Hillbilly music'' was at one time considered an acceptable label for what is now known as [[country music]]. However, some artists and fans, notably [[Hank Williams Sr.]], found the term offensive even in its heyday. The label, coined in 1925 by country pianist [[Al Hopkins]],<ref name=Sanjek>{{cite book |first=David |last=Sanjek |title=All the Memories Money Can Buy: Marketing Authenticity and Manufacturing Authorship |pages= 155–172 in Eric Weisbard, ed., ''This is Pop'' |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2004 |ISBN=0-674-01321-2 (cloth) |ISBN=0-674-01344-1 (paper) |pages=156–157}}</ref> persisted until the 1950s.

Now, the older name is widely deemed offensive, but the term ''hillbilly music'' is still used on occasion to refer to [[old-time music]] or [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]]. An early tune that contained the word ''hillbilly'' was "Hillbilly Boogie" by the [[Delmore Brothers]] in 1946. Earlier, in the 1920s, there were records by a band called the Beverly Hillbillies. In 1927, the [[Gennett Records|Gennett]] studios in [[Richmond, Indiana]], made a recording of black fiddler Jim Booker with other instrumentalists; their recordings were labeled "made for Hillbilly" in the Gennett files, and were marketed to a white audience. Also during the 1920s, an old-time music band known as the Hill Billies featuring [[Al Hopkins]] and [[Charlie Bowman|Fiddlin' Charlie Bowman]], achieved acclaim as recording artists for Columbia Records. By the late forties, radio stations broadcast music described as "hillbilly," originally to describe fiddlers and string bands, but was then used to describe the traditional music of the people of the Appalachian Mountains. The people who actually sang these songs and lived in the Appalachian Mountains never used these terms to describe their own music.

Popular songs whose style bore characteristics of both hillbilly and [[African American]] music were referred to, in the late 1940s and early 1950s as [[Old-time music|hillbilly boogie]], and in the mid-1950s as ''[[rockabilly]]''. [[Elvis Presley]] was a prominent player of the latter genre and was known early in his career as the "Hillbilly Cat". When the Country Music Association was founded in 1958, the term ''hillbilly music'' gradually fell out of use. However, the term ''rockabilly'' is still in common use.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rockabillyhall.com/ |title=Rock a Billy Hall }}</ref>

Later, the music industry merged hillbilly music, [[Western Swing]], and [[Western music (North America)|Cowboy music]], to form the current category C&W, [[Country and Western]].

The famous [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]] fiddler [[Vassar Clements]] described his style of music as "hillbilly jazz."

==In fiction and popular culture==
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2010}}

The stereotypical hillbilly has inspired many fictional accounts in a variety of media, from novels and comic strips to movies and television. These accounts introduced the hillbilly to the general American public as a uniquely American type. Comic strips such as ''[[Li’l Abner]]'' and ''[[Snuffy Smith]]'', and radio programs such as ''[[Lum and Abner]]'' brought the stereotype of lazy, simple-minded hillbillies into American homes.

Film and television have portrayed the hillbilly in both derogatory and sympathetic terms. Films such as ''[[Sergeant York]]'' or the [[Ma and Pa Kettle]] series portrayed the hillbilly as wild but good-natured, and television programs of the 1960s, such as ''[[The Real McCoys]]'', ''[[The Andy Griffith Show]]'', and especially ''[[The Beverly Hillbillies]]'' portrayed the hillbilly as somewhat backward but with a wisdom that always outwitted more sophisticated city folk. The popular 1970s television variety show ''[[Hee Haw]]'' starred several well-known [[country and western]] singers and regularly lampooned the stereotypical hillbilly lifestyle. A darker image of the hillbilly is found in the film ''[[Deliverance]]'' (1972), based on a novel by [[James Dickey]], which depicted the hillbilly as genetically deficient and murderous.

In the Appalachian and Ozark regions, the hillbilly stereotype formed the basis for financially lucrative commercial interpretations of traditional culture through theme parks and theaters, such as [[Dogpatch USA]] in Arkansas, and [[Dollywood]] in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee.

==Local pride==
The [[Springfield, Missouri]] Chamber of Commerce once presented dignitaries visiting the city with an "Ozark Hillbilly Medallion" and a certificate proclaiming the honoree a "hillbilly of the Ozarks." On June 7, 1952, President [[Harry S. Truman]] received the medallion after a breakfast speech<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=2414&st=&st1= |title=Remarks at a Breakfast of the 35th Division Association, Springfield, Missouri |date=June 7, 1952 |accessdate=30 October 2010}}</ref> at the Shrine Mosque for the [[35th Infantry Division (United States)|35th Division]] Association. Other recipients included [[US Army]] generals [[Omar Bradley]] and [[Matthew Ridgeway]], [[James Cash Penny|J. C. Penney]], [[Johnny Olsen]] and [[Ralph Story]].<ref>Dessauer, Phil "Springfield, Mo.-Radio City of Country Music" (April, 1957), ''[[Coronet (magazine)|Coronet]]'', p. 151</ref>

Hillbilly Days<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hillbillydays.com |title=Hillbilly days}}</ref> is an annual festival held in mid-April in [[Pikeville, Kentucky]] celebrating the best of Appalachian culture. The event began by local Shriners as a fundraiser to support the Shriners Children's Hospital. It has grown since its beginning in 1976 and now is the second largest festival held in the state of Kentucky. Artists and craftspeople showcase their talents and sell their works on display. Nationally renowned musicians as well as the best of the regional mountain musicians share six different stages located throughout the downtown area of Pikeville. Want-to-be hillbillies from across the nation compete to come up with the wildest Hillbilly outfit. The event has earned its name as the Mardi Gras of the Mountains. Fans of "mountain music" come from around the United States to hear this annual concentrated gathering of talent. Some refer to this event as the equivalent of a "Woodstock" for mountain music.

==See also==
* [[Cracker (pejorative)|Cracker]]
* [[Hillbilly armor]]
* [[List of ethnic slurs]]
* [[Pikey]]
* [[Redneck]]
* [[Trailer trash]]
* [[Yokel]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* Dessauer, Phil "Springfield, Mo.-Radio City of Country Music" (April, 1957), ''[[Coronet (magazine)|Coronet]]''
* ''Hillbilly, A Cultural History of an American Icon'', by Anthony Harkins
* ''Hillbillyland: What the Movies Did to the Mountains & What the Mountains Did to the Movies'', by J. W. Williamson

{{Ethnic slurs}}

[[Category:American folklore]]
[[Category:American people of Scotch-Irish descent]]
[[Category:American regional nicknames]]
[[Category:Appalachia]]
[[Category:Appalachian culture]]
[[Category:Appalachian studies]]
[[Category:Pejorative terms for people]]
[[Category:Social groups]][[Category:Stereotypes]]

[[ar:هيلبيلي]]
[[da:Hillbilly]]
[[es:Hillbilly]]
[[fr:Hillbilly]]
[[he:הילבילי]]
[[nl:Hillbilly]]
[[nn:Hillbilly]]
[[pt:Hillbilly]]
[[fi:Hillbilly]]
[[sv:Hillbilly]]

Faktoid

2012-05-12T18:23:19Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

[[File:Mur chiński 2010 1.JPG|thumb|220px|The [[Great Wall of China]] is often incorrectly referred to as the only man-made object visible from the moon.]]

A '''factoid''' is a questionable or [[:wikt:spurious|spurious]] (unverified, [[falsity|false]], or fabricated) statement presented as a [[fact]], but with no [[wikt:veracity|veracity]]. The word can also be used to describe a particularly insignificant or novel fact, in the absence of much relevant context.<ref>{{cite book |title=Steve Wright's Book of Factoids |publisher=Harper |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-00-724029-6}} As read on his hit BBC Radio show "Steve Wright in the Afternoon".</ref> The word is defined by the ''[[Compact Oxford English Dictionary of Current English|Compact Oxford English Dictionary]]'' as "an item of unreliable information that is repeated so often that it becomes accepted as fact".<ref>{{cite book |editor=Simpson JA & Weiner ESC |title=The Compact Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=2008 |isbn=0-19-861258-3}}</ref>

''Factoid'' was [[neologism|coined]] by [[Norman Mailer]] in his 1973 biography of [[Marilyn Monroe]]. Mailer described a factoid as "facts which have no existence before appearing in a magazine or newspaper",<ref>{{cite book |last=Mailer |first=Norman |title=Marilyn: A Biography |publisher=Grosset & Dunlap |year=1973 |isbn=0-448-01029-1}}</ref> and created the word by combining the word ''[[wikt:fact|fact]]'' and the ending ''[[wikt:-oid|-oid]]'' to mean "similar but not the same". The ''[[Washington Times]]'' described Mailer's new word as referring to "something that looks like a fact, could be a fact, but in fact is not a fact".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/jan/23/20070123-121624-9376r/|title=Ah, there’s joy in Mudville’s precincts|last=Pruden|first=Wesley|authorlink=Wesley Pruden|date=January 23, 2007|work=[[The Washington Times]]|accessdate=24 February 2012}}</ref>

Factoids may give rise to, or arise from, [[list of common misconceptions|common misconceptions]] and [[urban legend]]s.

==Examples==
[[File:Mount isa.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Mount Isa]], [[Australia]], is often incorrectly referred to as the largest city in the world by area.]]
[[File:Toronto Downtown Core at Night.jpg|thumb|220px|Neither [[Toronto]] nor any other city was ever designated by [[UNESCO]] as the world's most multicultural city.]]

The following are many examples of well-known factoids, and the facts which clarify or debunk them.

*Many residents of [[Mount Isa, Queensland]] believe that their city is the world's largest or second largest city by surface area. In reality, Mount Isa is the second largest city in [[Australia]]; there are several cities around the world with larger incorporated areas.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}
*One belief associated with the [[Australian property bubble]] is that real estate value doubles every 7 years. However, “Take the city of [[Sydney]] - the Mecca of property investing. In 1890, the average Sydney home price was $1,446 (£723). If property really does double every seven years then, in 2009, the average Sydney home would have been worth $189,530,112.00.” Today, the average price of a home in Sydney is closer to half a million dollars rather than $189 million.<ref>[http://www.jenman.com.au/news_alert.php?id=90 Beware the Selling Machines]</ref>
*The media in [[Canada]] have often reported that [[Toronto]] was named by [[UNESCO]] as the most multicultural city in the world. Although there have been some reports suggesting that Toronto may be ''one of'' the world's most diverse cities (see [[Demographics of Toronto]]), the [[United Nations]] agency has never designated any city as being ''the most'' multicultural or diverse.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ceris.metropolis.net/PolicyMatter/2004/PolicyMatters11.pdf |title=The Anatomy of an Urban Legend: Toronto's Multicultural Reputation |author=Michael J. Doucet |publisher=CERIS - Metropolis Toronto Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Settlement |month=October |year=2004 |accessdate=2007-05-23 |format=PDF}}</ref> Nonetheless, the belief in this status persisted for years, even finding its way onto UNESCO's own web site,<ref>[http://www.unesco.org/most/usa9.htm UNESCO Best Practices for Human Settlements: Metro Toronto's Changing Communities]</ref> into the pages of the ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]''<ref>Clyde H. Farnsworth, "Toronto Journal: To Battle Bigots, Help from South of the Border," New York Times, Friday, 12 February 1993, 4.</ref> and ''[[The Economist]]'',<ref>''City of diversity'', Economist City Guide: Toronto, [http://www.economist.com/cities/findStory.cfm?city_id=TO&folder=Facts-History] (retrieved May 24, 2007)</ref> and into international media reports in respect of Toronto's two [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] bids.
*The [[Great Wall of China]] is often thought as being the only man-made object visible from the moon.<ref>See [[Great Wall of China#Visibility from space|Great Wall of China's visibility]]</ref> In reality no single, man-made object on Earth can be seen with a naked eye from the Earth's moon. Given good circumstances one might be able to discern the result of some human activity such as the [[Flevoland|changing of the Netherlands' coast]] or the partial drying out of the [[Aral Sea]], but even that would not be easy. Some astronauts have reported seeing the Great Wall from low earth orbit, [[Man-made structures visible from space|among a number of man-made structures]]. In reality, a viewer would need [[visual acuity]] 17,000 times better than normal (20/20) to see the Wall from the Moon, and vision 8 times better than normal to see it from [[low earth orbit]].<ref name=LopezGil>{{cite journal | title=Is it Really Possible to See the Great Wall of China from Space with a Naked Eye? | author=Norberto López-Gil | journal=Journal of Optometry | volume=1 | issue=1 | pages=3–4 | url=http://www.journalofoptometry.org/Archive/vol1/pdf/02%20Vol1-n1%20Letter%20to%20the%20Editor.pdf}}</ref>
*Dogs and cats are often thought to be completely [[Color blindness|color-blind]] and see the world in scales of grey. That is wrong. They do have colour vision, [[Dichromacy|dichromate]], but not nearly as good as that of humans, [[Trichromacy|trichromate]] i.e. red, green and blue light.<ref>Cecil Adams, "Are cats and dogs really color-blind? How do they know?" May 1, 1987, [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/366/are-cats-and-dogs-really-color-blind-how-do-they-know The Straight Dope website]. Accessed November 22, 2010.</ref><ref>Paulette Clancy, "Cats, dogs can see some color: Are cats and dogs colorblind? Do cats' eyes glow in the dark?" ''Ask A Scientist!'' October 22, 1998. Found at [http://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/education/ask/index.html?quid=165 Cornell University website]. Accessed November 22, 2010.</ref>
*Many people in [[Texas]] believe that the [[Flag of Texas|Texas flag]] is the only state flag that can be flown at the same height as the [[Flag of the United States|American flag]], because of Texas's former status as a nation.<ref>[http://www.barrypopik.com/index.php/new_york_city/entry/texas_flag_only_one_at_same_height_as_us_flag_urban_legend/ barrypopik.com]</ref> However, in reality, according to the [[United States Flag Code]], all state flags are displayed at the same height as the American flag when on separate poles, with the American flag in a position of honor (to its own right). State flags should hang below the American flag while on the same pole, and should never be larger than the American flag. Moreover, Texas is not the only U.S. state to have formerly been an independent nation; [[Hawaii]], [[Vermont]], and [[California]] share this status.

==Other meanings==
The word ''factoid'' is now sometimes also used to mean a small piece of ''true'' but valueless or insignificant information, in contrast to the original definition. This has been popularized by the [[CNN Headline News]] TV channel, which, during the 1980s and 1990s, used to frequently include such a fact under the heading "factoid" during newscasts. [[BBC Radio 2]] presenter [[Steve Wright (DJ)|Steve Wright]] uses factoids extensively on his show.<ref>{{cite book |author=Wright, Steve |title=Steve Wright's Book of Factoids |publisher=HarperCollins Entertainment |year=2005 |isbn=0-00-720660-7}}</ref>

As a result of confusion over the meaning of factoid, some English-language style and usage guides recommend against its use.<ref>{{cite book |author=Brians, Paul |title=Common Errors in English Usage |publisher=William James & Company |year=2003 |isbn=1-887902-89-9}} [http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/factoid.html]</ref> Language expert [[William Safire]] in his ''On Language'' column advocated the use of the word ''[[factlet]]'' to express a "little bit of arcana".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1993/12/05/magazine/on-language-only-the-factoids.html?pagewanted=all|title=On Language; Only the Factoids|last=Safire|first=William|date=December 5, 1993|work=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=24 February 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Chuck Norris facts]]
*[[Just-so story]]
*[[List of common misconceptions]]
*[[Meme]]
*[[Talking point]]
*[[Trivia]]
*[[Truthiness]]

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://lessknownfacts.com Random Facts]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Communication]]

[[es:Factoide]]
[[hy:Փաստոիդ]]
[[it:Fattoide]]
[[pl:Faktoid]]
[[pt:Factoide]]
[[ru:Фактоид]]
[[simple:Factoid]]
[[sv:Faktoid]]

Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski

2012-05-12T18:22:02Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
{{Redirect2|Dostoyevsky|Dostoevsky|other uses|Dostoyevsky (disambiguation)}}
{{Eastern Slavic name|Mikhaylovich|Dostoyevsky}}

{{Infobox writer 
|name=Fyodor Dostoyevsky
|image=Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg
|caption=Portrait of Dostoyevsky in 1872 painted by [[Vasily Perov]]
|notableworks = ''[[Notes from Underground]]'' ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' ''[[The Idiot]]'' ''[[Demons (novel)|Demons]]'' ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''
|spouse = Maria Dmitriyevna Isayeva (1857–1864) [her death]
[[Anna Grigoryevna Snitkina]] (1867–1881) [his death]
|children = Sonya (1868), [[Lyubov Dostoyevskaya|Lyubov]] (1869–1926), Fyodor (1871–1922), Alexey (1875–1878)
|influences = [[Honore de Balzac|Balzac]]{{·}}[[Bible]]{{·}}[[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]]{{·}}[[Charles Dickens|Dickens]]{{·}}[[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol]]{{·}}[[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]{{·}}[[Victor Hugo|Hugo]]{{·}}[[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]{{·}}[[Plato]]{{·}}[[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]]{{·}}[[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]]{{·}}[[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]
|influenced = [[Mikhail Bulgakov|Bulgakov]]{{·}}[[Albert Camus|Camus]]{{·}}[[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]]{{·}}[[Philip K. Dick|Dick]]{{·}}[[William Faulkner|Faulkner]]{{·}}[[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]{{·}}[[André Gide|Gide]]{{·}}[[Knut Hamsun|Hamsun]]{{·}}[[Ernest Hemingway|Hemingway]]{{·}}[[Hermann Hesse|Hesse]]{{·}}[[Carl Jung|Jung]]{{·}}[[James Joyce|Joyce]]{{·}}[[Franz Kafka|Kafka]]{{·}}[[Jack Kerouac|Kerouac]]{{·}}[[Thomas Mann|Mann]]{{·}}[[Gabriel García Márquez|Márquez]]{{·}}[[Vladimir Nabokov|Nabokov]]{{·}}[[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]{{·}}[[Marcel Proust|Proust]]{{·}}[[Mario Puzo|Puzo]]{{·}}[[Ernesto Sabato|Sabato]]{{·}}[[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]]{{·}}[[Lev Shestov|Shestov]]{{·}}[[Alexander Solzhenitsyn|Solzhenitsyn]]{{·}}[[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]]{{·}}[[Virginia Woolf|Woolf]]{{·}}[[Richard Wright (author)|Wright]]{{·}}[[Émile Zola|Zola]]
|signature = Fyodor Dostoyevsky Signature.svg
}}

'''Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky'''<ref>His name has been variously transcribed in English, his first name sometimes being rendered as Theodore. This is because, before the post-revolutionary [[Reforms_of_Russian_orthography#The_post-revolution_reform|orthographic reform]] which, amongst other things, replaced the Cyrillic letter Ѳ ('th') with the Cyrillic letter Ф ('f'), Dostoyevsky's name was written Ѳеодоръ (Theodor) Михайловичъ Достоевскій.</ref> ({{lang-rus|Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский|p=ˈfʲodər mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪtɕ dəstɐˈjefskʲɪj|a=ru-Dostoevsky.ogg}}; 11 November 1821 – 9 February 1881<ref>[[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style date]] 30 October 1821 – 29 January 1881.</ref>) sometimes translated as '''Dostoevsky''', was a [[Russia]]n writer of [[novel]]s, [[short story|short stories]] and [[essay]]s. Dostoyevsky's literary works explore human psychology in the troubled political, social and spiritual context of 19th-century Russian society. A [[Slavophile]], nationalist and monarchist, he criticised the bourgeois, pre-[[materialism|materialist]] West and [[nihilism]] in many of his works. Although Dostoyevsky wrote books in the mid-1850s which were influenced by [[literary realism|realist]] and [[romanticism|romanticist]] writers, most notably by Dickens, Gogol and Balzac, his best remembered work was done in his last years, including such masterpieces as ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'', ''[[The Idiot]]'' and ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''. Dostoyevsky overall wrote 11 complete novels, 3 novellas, 17 short novels and 3 essays. He is often acknowledged by critics as one of the greatest and most prominent psychologists in [[world literature]].<ref name="BritannicaRussianLit">{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513793/Russian-literature|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=11 April 2008|title=Russian literature|quote=Dostoyevsky, who is generally regarded as one of the supreme psychologists in world literature, sought to demonstrate the compatibility of Christianity with the deepest truths of the psyche.}}</ref>

Fyodor Dostoyevsky was born and raised within the grounds of the Mariinsky hospital. At an early age he was introduced to English, French, German and Russian literature, as well as to fairytales and legends. His mother's sudden death was devastating for Dostoyevsky, and he had to leave the private school for a much-hated military school. After his graduation he worked as an engineer and enjoyed briefly a primarily liberal lifestyle. Because of money issues he began to translate books to earn some money. Around the mid-1850s he wrote his first novel, ''[[Poor Folk]]'', which pushed him into the mainstream. Because of his attendance on several [[socialism|socialist]] circles, he and other members were condemned to death, but the [[mock execution]] was overturned to four years prison in Siberia. After his release he worked as a soldier and had his first affair, and he later returned to St. Petersburg to continue writing books.

In the following years Dostoyevsky began to work as a journalist at first for conservative and Slavophile but later switching between left and right-wing periodicals. Beginning with his travel to Europe he suffered from money issues caused by his gambling addiction, the resulting humiliation to beg for money and his epileptic fits. Only through his huge productivity he eventually became one of the most widely read and renowned Russian writers. His books were translated in over 170 languages and have sold around 15 million copies.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=7}} Dostoyevsky left a lasting influence on other writers, ranging from [[Ernest Hemingway]] to [[Sigmund Freud]].

==Early life==
===Childhood===
[[File:Wki Dostoyevsky Street 2 Moscow Mariinsky Hospital.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Mariinsky Hospital in Moscow, Dostoyevsky's birthplace]]
Fyodor Dostoyevsky was born on 30 October 1821 (11 November 1821, according to the [[Gregorian Calendar]]) as the second child of Mikhail Dostoyevsky and Maria Nechayeva. Dostoyevsky's paternal lineage was descended from a multi-ethnical and denominational [[Lithuania]]n nobility from the region of [[Pinsk]], however the family had fallen on hard times and had been reduced to the class of non-monastic clergy. Dostoyevsky's paternal great-grandfather and grandfather practised as priests in the Ukrainian town of Bratslava, where his father was born. As was the custom, Mikhail was destined to follow his father into the clergy, but instead of joining a seminary he escaped from home at age fifteen. This break with his family was final and he never saw them again.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=9–35}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=3–23}}

In 1809, at the age of 20, he gained entry to Moscow's Imperial Medical-Surgical Academy. He was assigned to a Moscow hospital where he served as a military doctor and was appointed senior physician in 1818. In 1819 he married the eleven-years younger Maria. One year later he resigned from military service to accept a post at the Mariinsky Hospital for the poor. After the birth of two sons, [[Mikhail Dostoyevsky|Mikhail]] and Fyodor, Mikhail was promoted to the post of collegiate assessor, a position that entitled him to the legal status of noble and enabled him to acquire a small estate 150 [[verst]] from Moscow called Darovoye. Maria Nechayeva descended from a family of Russian [[merchant]]s. Both parents had possibly a little streak of [[Tatar]] mixed in.{{sfn|Lavrin|1947|p=7}} Following Fydor and his elder brother, Maria and Mikhail went on to have 5 more children.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=9–35}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=3–23}}

Dostoyevsky was raised in the family home within the grounds of the Mariinsky hospital—It was neither a wealthy nor a poor home. In his childhood, Fyodor often went with his family to summer visits to the estate in Darovoye. At the age of three he discovered heroic sagas, fairy tales, legends and a deeply ingrained piety from nannies. He was soon obsessed with tales. The nanny Alina Frolovna, who helped the family when their manor burnt down, and the serf and farmer Marei from Darovoye, who helped to fight his early [[hallucination]]s, possibly caused by the terrible tales and the gothic literature, were influential for his childhood. Fyodor also discovered the miserable hospital garden, which was separated by a large grid from their civil and protected private garden. His parents forbade him the contact with the other side, as they intended to shield their children from uncontrollable influences. Fyodor, however, ignored their warnings and often talked with the reconvalescent people. There he also encountered a crime upon a nine-year-old girl, who was found raped in the garden. He never forgot this traumatic experience.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=9–35}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=3–23}}

Fyodor's parents placed value on a thorough upbringing. At the age of four he learned reading and writing by his mother from the Bible. One of the day's highlights were the evening readings by his father and mother. His parents introduced him at an early stage to Russian literature, such as [[Nikolay Karamzin|Karamzin]]'s ''Russian Tales'', [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]], [[Gavrila Derzhavin|Derzhavin]], as well as English literature of [[Ann Radcliffe]] and German literature of [[Friedrich Schiller]]. Fyodor was impressed by the latter's play "[[Die Räuber|The Robbers]]", which he saw at the age of 10. Fyodor and Mikhail both enjoyed Pushkin's poems, which they learned for the most part by heart; Pushkin's death was a shock for the whole family. Fyodor's father also placed value on a good education. He sent Fyodor first to a French boarding school and then to the best private high school in Moscow, the "College for Noble Male Children". As the school was too expensive, he had to make loans, take advances and extend his private practice. When the thirteen-year-old Fyodor arrived to this famous college, he experienced an [[inferiority complex]] towards his more polite classmates. This feeling was often documented on his works, especially ''[[The Raw Youth|The Adolescent]]''.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=9–35}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=3–23}}

===Youth===
[[File:Image dost 01.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky as an engineer]]
In 27 September 1837 his mother died of [[tuberculosis]]. Fyodor contracted a serious throat disease. Subsequently, Fyodor and his brother Mikhail were sent around May to [[St Petersburg]] to attend the [[Military engineering-technical university|Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute]], while their younger siblings were sent to different families. Fyodor and Mikhail had to abandon the academic education at the Moscow college, as their adoptive parents were not able to pay for the schoolfee. Fyodor's career, however, seems to be apparent, as his father expected a space at the academy for his sons, and the political propensity under [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] allowed them a good military professional career. On the way to St. Petersburg, Fyodor became a witness of a violence on violence situation in a posting house; one member of the military police beat the carter's neck, and the carter subsequently passed his pain to the horse through a whiplash; Fyodor betook to this situation on his book ''[[A Writer's Diary]]''. At the academy he was separated from his brother, who was later sent to [[Reval]], [[Estonia]] due to his poor health and the better studying conditions. Fyodor passed the entrance exam and entered the academy on 16 January the next year, but only with the help of [[Legal guardian|godmothers]], who paid the schoolfee for the unaware Fyodor.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=35–67}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=38–61}}

Fyodor did not enjoy the academy, primarily because of his lack of interest in the subjects science, mathematics and military application, as he rather preferred drawing and architecture, and the atmosphere. The academy was a former castle built for the tsar [[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]], who was murdered shortly after his accession to the throne. Among the 120 classmates, mainly from Polish or Baltic-German descent, he was an outsider due to his different character; Fyodor was brave and had a strong sense of justice as opposed to his clownish and brutal class fellows. He protected newcomers, aligned himself with teachers, criticised the corruption among officers and helped poor farmers. Although he was a loner and lived in his own literary world, his classmates showed respect for him. Fyodor was called "Monk [[Photius]]" because of his reclusive way of life and his interest in religion.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=35–67}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=38–61}}

The first strong presence of [[epilepsy]] occurred on Fyodor after receiving a message of the death of his father. Mikhail was murdered in 1839 by his adscript peasant; the cause was one of Mikhail's irascibility attacks. Fyodor continued the disliked study. When he passed the exams and obtained the rank as ingenieur cadet, he was given the right to live off-site. After his short visit to brother Mikhail in Reval, Fyodor often went to concerts, operas, theatres and ballets, and was introduced to gambling by two of his friends. His independence was responsible for the financial troubles. In August 1843 he received an employment as a [[draftsman]]. In the meantime, Fyodor lived in an apartment of German-Baltic Dr. A. Riesenkampf, a friend of his brother Mikhail. Like in his childhood at the hospital, he showed interest in the ill people from the lower class. Aside this, he began to translate [[George Sand]]'s ''[[La dernière Albini]]'' and [[Honoré de Balzac|Balzac]]'s ''[[Eugénie Grandet]]'' as well as Schiller's ''[[Mary Stuart (play)|Mary Stuart]]'', Pushkin's ''[[Boris Godunov (play)|Boris Godunov]]'' and Goethe's ''Reineke Fuchs'',{{sfn|Lavrin|1947|pp=10–11}} and upon the advice Schiller's ''The Robbers'', ''[[Don Carlos]]'' among others. With the help of his translations, he could obtain some money. His job became more and more humiliating. After quitting a duty travel, he was released in 19 October 1844 as a lieutenant. Fyodor was in financial troubles, so he decided to write his own novel.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=35–67}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=38–61}}

==Career==
===Early publications and circles===
[[File:Dostoevskij 1847.jpg|thumb|upright|The young Dostoyevsky, in an 1847 portrait by [[Konstiantyn Trutovsky|Trutovsky]]]]
In the autumn of 1844, Fyodor shared an apartment with his friend from the academy, [[Dmitry Grigorovich]]. Fyodor worked continuously on his first novel; he hoped to obtain a wide readership in order to ameliorate his financial condition. He risked everything for his book to obtain some money. In a letter to Michael he wrote, "What matters is that my novel should cover everything. If it does not work, I will hang myself." In May 1845 Fyodor reworked on the script for the last time and asked Grigovoich to read the novel aloud. Grigorovich was impressed by the novel and subsequently brought it in the same night to [[Nikolay Nekrasov]], a friend of his. Both were so impressed that they finalised the book and at four o'clock rang to Fyodor's apartment. On the same day, Nekrasov brought the manuscript by the "New Gogol" to the most famous and influential literary critic during that time, [[Vissarion Belinsky]]. Initially sceptical, the critic was later similarly astonished. ''[[Poor Folk]]'' was released in 15 January 1846 in the [[almanac]] ''St. Petersburg Collection'' and was commercially enormously successful.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=76–86}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=69–103}}

The novel describes in the form of an [[epistolary novel]] the relationship between the somewhat elder, small official Makar Devushkin and the young seamstress Varvara Dobroselova, a remote relative. Both write letters to each other and through the tender, sentimental adoration for his relative and her confident, warm friendship with him, they seem to prefer a life in a higher society, although this pushed them into a humiliating poverty. Their idyll would be destroyed by money and might.

An unscrupulous merchant finds an inexperienced girl and hires her as his housewife and guarantor. He sends her to a manor, somewhere on a steppe, while Devushkin alleviates his misery and pain with alcohol. The story focuses on poor people who fight against their lack of self esteem. Their threats and destruction leads to the loss of their inner freedom, to the entire dependence of the social authorities and to the extinction of the individual. Dostoyevsky shows how poverty and dependence are indissolubly aligned with profound inner damage, i.e. deflection and deformation of the self esteem, which combine for inner and outer loss.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=69–103}}
[[File:Vissarion Belinsky by K Gorbunov 1843.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Vissarion Belinsky]]]]

Shortly after the publication of ''Poor Folk'', Dostoyevsky wrote his second novel, ''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem|The Double]]'', during his visit in Reval. Although the book was released on February 1846, it was already included in the almanac ''Fatherland Notes'' on 30 January. ''The Double'' centres on the shy protagonist Yakov Golyadkin discovering his [[doppelgänger]], who ruins his life piece by piece. The doppelgänger succeeds in the private and vocational rise that has been prohibited to the original Golyadkin. The novel was panned by critics and readers; Belinsky commented that the work had "no sense, no content and no thoughts", and the novel appears overall boring due to the protagonist's garrulity.{{sfn|Belinsky|1847|p=96}} The idea for ''The Double'' is principally brilliant, but its external form is miscarried and full of multi-clause sentences.{{sfn|Reber|1964|p=22}}{{sfn|Terras|1969|p=224}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=76–86}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=69–103}}

In the 1840s, the interests of the population began to turn more toward social questions, as opposed to [[romanticism]] and [[idealism]]. Dostoyevsky discovered [[socialism]] around 1846. His first influences were particularly the French socialists [[Charles Fourier|Fourier]], [[Cabet]], [[Proudhon]] and [[Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon|Saint Simon]]. Dostoyevsky initially had a good relationship with Belinsky. Through him he extended his knowledge of the philosophy of socialism; its intellectual world, sense of justice and interest in the poor and disadvantaged attracted him. His relationship with Belinsky became, however, more and more negative later on, as Belinsky's [[atheism]] and his dislike of church and religion clashed with Dostoyevsky's Orthodox beliefs and Christ's teachings, and Dostoyevsky thus decided to quit the circle. Later, Dostoyevsky took up the issues of the existence of God and [[nihilism]] in his later books, as well as the order of human coexistence, the requirements of fraternity, and the coherence of freedom and fortune.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=94–119}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=69–103}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=69–103}}

As Dostoyevsky suffered assaults by the press on his second novel, his health declined and epileptic seizures occurred. He, however, worked frantically and from 1846 to 1848 released short stories in the magazine ''Annals of the Fatherland'' including "[[Mr. Prokharchin]]", "The Landlady", "A Weak Heart" and "[[White Nights (short story)|White Nights]]". These were not successful, and from the release of the first short story on, he was again in financial trouble. He therefore decided to join the [[utopian]] socialist Betekov circle, where the members created a living community, and this became helpful for him. After the circle's break-up, Dostoyevsky befriended [[Apollon Maykov]] and his brother [[Valerian Maykov|Valerian]], and after the latter's death, Apollon became an important component in his life. In spring 1846 he joined the [[Petrashevsky Circle]] by the recommendation of poet [[Pleshcheyev]]. As contrasted with the former circles, the Pethrashevsky Circle was socio-Christian.{{sfn|Mochulsky|1967|pp=115–121}} [[Mikhail Petrashevsky]] discussed in a harmless manner the possibilities of social reforms in Russia. Dostoyevsky attended its library and sometimes participated on this circle, discussing with other such themes as freedom of censorship, abolition of serfdom or reforms of counts.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=94–143}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=69–103}}

===Exile in Siberia===
[[File:B pokrovsky kazn 1949.jpg|thumb|Before the mock execution, the members were split into three-man groups. Dostoyevsky was the third of the second row, next to him stood Pleshcheyev and Durov]]
Dostoyevsky and members of the Petrashevsky Circle were spied out by the agent Antonelli, who submitted reports to the official Librandi of the Ministry of International Affairs. Dostoyevsky was accused of having read several works by Belinsky, including ''Correspondence with Gogol'', ''Criminal Letters'' and ''The Soldier's Speech'', being present or passing its transcriptions. Antonelli wrote in his report, "[Correspondence with Gogol] summoned a considerable amount of enthusiastic approval from the society, in particular on the part of Belasoglo and Yastrzhembsky, especially at that point where Belinsky says that religion has no basis among the Russian people. It was proposed that this letter be distributed in several copies". Dostoyevsky responded that he did not like those essays but only read it "as a literary monument, neither more nor less" and argued about "personality and human egoism" instead of politics. Dostoyevsky and several members of the circle were nonetheless arrested on 22 April 1849 upon the request of Count [[Orlov]] and Emperor [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicolas I]]. The latter feared a revolution or revolt similar to the [[Decembrist revolt|Decembrist revolt of 1825]] in Russia and the [[Revolutions of 1848]] in Europe, calling the Petrashevtsy "conspirators".{{sfn|Mochulsky|1967|pp=121–133}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=129–221}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=103–169}}

On 23 December Dostoyevsky and the rest of the circle were brought to the Semyonov Place in St. Petersburg. The [[mock execution]] was then cancelled by the Tsar and Dostoyevsky's sentence was commuted to four years of [[exile]] with hard labour at a [[katorga]] prison camp in [[Omsk]], [[Siberia]]. The people were divided into groups of three people, consisting of one prisoner, one [[gendarmerie|gendarme]] and one military police. After the fourteen-day drive on a sleigh they finally reached [[Tobolsk]] on 11 January 1850, a meeting place for prisoners. Twelve days later Durov and Dostoyevsky reached Omsk.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=129–221}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=103–169}} He described the barracks as following:
{{cquote|In summer, intolerable closeness; in winter, unendurable cold. All the floors were rotten. Filth on the floors an inch thick; one could slip and fall... We were packed like herrings in a barrel... There was no room to turn around. From dusk to dawn it was impossible not to behave like pigs... Fleas, lice, and black beetles by the bushel...|source=Frank 76. Quoted from Pisma, I: 135–37.}}

===Prison release, first affair, return to St. Petersburg===
[[File:Valikhanov.jpg|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky (right) and the [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] scholar [[Shokan Walikhanuli]] in 1859]]

After his release on 14 February 1854, Dostoyevsky asked his brother Mikhail for help and to send him several books by authors such as [[Giambattista Vico|Vico]], [[Guizot]], [[Ranke]], [[Hegel]] or [[Kant]].{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=223–224}} He also began to work on ''[[The House of the Dead (novel)|The House of the Dead]]'', thematising his experience in that prison. First parts of his third book, the novel ''[[Netochka Nezvanova (novel)|Netochka Nezvanova]]'', were released in 1849, but the work itself remained unfinished. Dostoyevsky moved in mid-March to [[Semy|Semipalatinsk]] to serve in the Siberian Army Corps of the Seventh Line Battalion. Around this time, Dostoyevsky met Baron [[Wrangel family|Alexander Egorovich Wrangel]], his big admirer who attended the mock execution. They both rented a house outside of Semipalatinsk, in the "Cossack Garden".{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=223–243}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=171–213}}

During his visit with Lieutenant-Colonel Belikhov, Dostoyevsky made an acquaintance with the family Alexander Ivanovich Isaev and Maria Dmitrievna Isaeva. Dostoyevsky soon fell in love with Maria, but she never did. After Dostoyevsky sent a letter through Wrangel to General E. I. Totleben, apologising his activity on several utopian circles, he obtained in the fall of 1856 the right to publish books and to marry. After her husband's departure to [[Kuznetsk]] in August 1855 and his death in the same year, Maria accepted to move with Dostoyevsky to [[Barnaul]], but later refused her proposal and stated that both were not meant for each other, and his poor financial situation was another reason to decline it. Dostoyevsky later went to Kuznetsk and discovered that she had an affair with the 24 years old schoolmaster Nikolay Vergunov. Despite this, Maria married Dostoyevsky in Semipalatinsk on 7 February 1857. Their family life was, however, overall unhappy, and his fits shocked her. They have mostly lived apart.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=227–243}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=171–213}}
[[File:Dostoevskij 1863.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Dostoyevsky in Paris (1863)]]
In 1859 he was released from the military service due to a medical certificate; his health has been worsened since the marriage. In the same year he was granted permission to return to Russia, first to [[Tver]], where he met his brother for the first time since ten years, and then back to St. Petersburg on 16 September 1859, although he remained under police surveillance until his death. Shortly after his arrival to St. Petersburg, he joined the Society for the Aid of Needy Writers and Scholars, or just known as Literary Fund. Their goal was to help scholars and writers in need, such as those arrested on political grounds. The only work completed in prison, "A Little Hero", was issued in a journal, while "Uncle's Dream" and "The Village of Stepanchikovo" were not included in any publication until 1860. ''[[Notes from the House of the Dead]]'' was released in ''Russky Mir'' (The Russia World) on September 1860, and "The Insulted and the Injured" was released on the newly established ''[[Vremya (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine, which was created owing to his brother's cigarette factory.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=273–315}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=171–213}}

Dostoyevsky began his trip to Europe in 7 June 1862. His first stations were in the German cities [[Cologne]], [[Berlin]], [[Dresden]] and [[Wiesbaden]] (where he rested for gambling), then in Belgium and finally arriving Paris in mid-June. In London he met [[Herzen]] and visited the [[The Crystal Palace|Crystal Palace]], he travelled with Strakhov together through [[Switzerland]] in July and then through northern Italy cities, including [[Turin]], [[Geneva]], [[Livorno]] and [[Florence]]. Dostoeyvsky wrote his mainly negative expression to the European countries in his ''Winter Notes on Summer Impressions''. On this book he criticised such themes as [[capitalism]], [[modernisation]], [[materialism]], [[catholicism]] and [[protestantism]].{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=351–357, 372–383}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=215–246}}

Until its closure in 24 May 1863 by the Tsarist Regime because of a misunderstanding of a publication by [[Nikolay Strakhov]] about the Polish revolt in Russia, ''Time'' was a very popular periodical with more than 4000 subscriber in its final years. ''Time'' and its 1864 successor ''[[Epoch (Russian magazine)|Epokha]]'' followed the philosophy of the [[conservative]] and [[Slavophile]] movement ''[[Pochvennichestvo]]'', which was favoured by Dostoyevsky during his term of imprisonment and in the post-prison years.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=227–243}} From August to October 1863 Dostoyevsky made a second trip to Europe. In Paris he met his second love, [[Apollinaria Suslova|Polina Suslova]], and lost in Wiesbaden and [[Baden-Baden]] all of his money in gambling. In Wiesbaden he wrote a letter to Wrangel, asking for a 100 [[thaler]]s loan and first mentioning his next novel. Suslova's infidelity to him with a Spaniard and Dostoyevsky's [[Problem gambling|gambling addiction]] resulted to their eventual separation. Dostoyevsky subsequently asked his brother and, after his death in July 1864, Baron Wrangel for money. Two months before Michael's death, his wife Maria died of tuberculosis, and Dostoyevsky subsequently became the lone parent of his stepson Pasha and Michael's family. Added to this are the fees caused by Mikhail for the financing of ''Epokha'', and without the help from his relatives and friends he would go bankrupt.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=384–398}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=414–453}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=215–246}}

===Crime and Punishment===
[[File:Annagrigdost.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Anna Snitkina]]]]
The first two parts of his sixth novel, ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'', were published in January and February 1866 in the periodical ''[[The Russian Messenger]]''. The novel became a success, prompting critic Strakhov to remark afterwards, "Only ''Crime and Punishment'' was read during 1866". Also doing well was the magazine, bringing around 500 new subscribers. In summer 1866, Dostoyevsky moved to a country house in [[Lyublino District|Lyublino]] with his brother-in-law Alexander Ivanov – married to his sister Vera – to escape the heat of Moscow. He returned to St. Petersburg in late September and promised editor F. T. Stellovsky to complete the novel ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]'' by November, although not having written a single line. Milyukov, one of Dostoyevsky's friends, advised him to hire a secretary. Dostoyevsky contacted Pavel Olkhin, one of the best [[stenography|stenographer]] in St. Petersburg, who recommended his most talented pupil, [[Anna Snitkina|Anna Grigoryevna Snitkina]]. Dostoyevsky was the favourite author of Snitkina and her recently deceased father. On 4 October 1866 she made a visit to Dostoyevsky. He began to dictate to her, while she wrote shorthand. Snitkina brought the last transcription of ''The Gambler'' to Dostoyevsky on 30 October (his birthday). Thanks to her skills the novel was completed in just 26 days, and Dostoyevsky soon after extended a contract with her. ''The Gambler'' treated a subject Fyodor Dostoyevsky himself was familiar with – gambling.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=455–508}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=455–508}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=215–246}}

''Crime and Punishment'' initially received mixed reception by critics. Most of the negative responses came from nihilists. [[Grigory Eliseev]] of the radical magazine ''[[The Contemporary]]'' called the novel a "fantasy according to which the entire student body is accused without exception of attempting murder and robbery". Strakhov was overall satisfied with the novel, stating that Dostoyevsky successfully portrayed a Russian person aptly and realistic. The main protagonist, [[Raskolnikov]] was inspired by 12 January 1866 crime committed by A. M. Danilov, and has been compared with [[Ivan Turgenev]]'s Yevgeny Bazarov from ''[[Fathers and Sons (novel)|Fathers and Sons]]''. Raskolnikov is a caricature portrayal of a typical nihilist; radical, anarchistic and careless, but compared with Bazarov more radical. After murdering a pawnbroker for her cash, Raskolnikov argues that with the pawnbroker's money he can perform good deeds to counterbalance the crime, while ridding the world of a worthless [[Parasitism (social offence)|parasite]]. He also commits this murder to test his own hypothesis that some people are naturally capable of such things, and even have the right to do them. Several times throughout the novel, Raskolnikov justifies his actions by connecting himself mentally with [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], believing that murder is permissible in pursuit of a higher purpose.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=455–508}}
[[File:Casino Bad Homburg 1849.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Gambling "hell" in Bad Homburg]]
On 15 February 1867 Dostoyevsky married Anna Snitkina in the [[Trinity Cathedral, St. Petersburg|Trinity Cathedral]] in St. Petersburg. His strong double-fit caused by heavy consumption of champagne during the marriage plunged her into despair. Also problematic was her bad relationship with his relatives and their neighbours. The 7000 rubles wage for ''Crime and Punishment'' were not enough to cover all the debts. To avoid a compulsory auction, Snitkina (now Dostoyevskaya) seized furnishes, her piano and jewellery. With this money, the family finally began their delayed wedding journey abroad in 14 April 1867. In Berlin they had a rest in the Hotel Union, in Dresden he visited the [[Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister]], where he sought for inspiration for his future novels. He was deeply impressed by the paintings, especially [[Raphael]]'s ''[[Sistine Madonna]]''.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=483–563}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=247–288}}

Three weeks later he moved to [[Bad Homburg|Homburg]] for gambling, where he lost all of his wife's money. She and Dostoyevsky continued their trip in early July through Germany, including [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]], [[Darmstadt]], [[Heidelberg]] and [[Karlsruhe]]. In Baden-Baden he entered casinos despite having lost his money before. It was predictable that Dostoyevsky again gambled away, and subsequently Dostoyevskaya had no other choice to move to different pawn brokerage to pawn such items as wedding rings, wedding presents, earrings and clothes. In the meantime, Dostoyevskaya awaited a child. On 23 August they left Baden-Baden and arrived [[Basel]] to visit a museum, in which they watched [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Holbein]]'s ''[[The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb]]'', an influential painting for his next novel. Dostoyevsky was so captivating by the picture, that his wife had to drag her husband away from the panel lest its grip on him induce an epileptic fit.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=483–563}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=247–288}}

In [[Geneva]] they were low on funds and had to pawn things. Finally they found a lodging with the Raymond sisters. Geneva was optimal for her future childbirth, as the city had a good reputation for doctors. Dostoyevsky occasionally played in Saxon-les-Bains to find money, but as usual he was unsuccessful. In December they rented a larger apartment on the Rue du Mont-Blanc street next to an English church. Anna gave a birth to Sonya, named after his beloved niece and the heroine in ''Crime and Punishment'', on 5 March, but the child, however, died three months later due to [[pneumonia]]. She was buried in a children's cemetery in [[Plainpalais]]. Again in financial troubles due to his addiction, he returned to Geneva to work on his next novel.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=483–563}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=247–288}}

===The Idiot===
[[File:Fyodor Mikahailovich Dostoyevsky's Study in St Petersburg.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Dostoyevsky's study in [[Saint Petersburg]].]]
When he returned to Geneva in September, he began working on ''[[The Idiot]]'', managing to complete one hundred pages in just 23. The death of Sonya was devastating for the parents, and Anna's health was affected because of the frequent passages to Sonya's grave. Dostoyevsky felt himself cornered between the mountains and the Geneva lake. Subsequently they left Geneva and moved to [[Vevey]] in early June 1868, hoping for a better atmosphere for Dostoyevsky to complete ''The Idiot''. Three months later they left for [[Milano]] through the shortest route above the two-thousand metre high Simiplon. While in Milano, Anna began to learn Italian and sometimes served as an interpreter. After enduring three rainy autumn months in Milano, they travelled southwards to [[Florence]].{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=564–589}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=274–309}}

''The Idiot'' was completed in this city on January 1868 and shortly thereafter serialised in ''The Russian Messenger''. The novel's protagonist, the twenty-six-year-old [[Prince Myshkin|Prince Lev Nikolayevich Myshkin]], returns to Russia after spending several years at a Swiss [[sanatorium]]. Scorned by the society of [[St. Petersburg]] for his trusting nature and naivete, he finds himself at the center of a struggle between a beautiful kept woman (Nastasya) and a virtuous and pretty young girl (Aglaja), both of whom win his affection. Unfortunately, Myshkin's very goodness precipitates disaster, leaving the impression that, in a world obsessed with money, power, and sexual conquest, a sanatorium may be the only place for a [[saint]]. Myshkin is the personification of a "relatively beautiful man", namely Christ. Coming "from above", the Swiss mountains to Russia, he physically bears a resemblance to Christ: a little bit above medium sized; very blond, thick hair; sunken cheeks and a thin, almost entirely white goatee. Just like Christ, Myshkin is a teacher, confessor and mysterious outsider. Passions such as greed or jealousy are for him alien. In contrast to his environment he puts no value to vindicate his right to money and might. He feels compassion without hate, love or ferocity. His relationship with the sinful Mary is obviously inspired by Christ's relationship with [[Mary Magdalene]]. Therefore he is called "Idiot" because of such differences.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=564–589}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=274–309}}

In May, Anna's mother visited the family to help them. They moved to an apartment on the Piazza del Mercato Nuovo due to lack of room. Its turbulent area near a market place and the summer heat caused the Dostoyevskys a great deal of trouble. Three months later they decided to leave the city for [[Prague]]. On the way to there, their first stay was in [[Bologna]] and their second in Vienna, arrived through the railway line Venice–[[Triest]]. Three days after their arrival to Prague they had to leave the city because of an unsuccessful search for a ready-furnished apartment, as furnishes and tableware were too expensive. Therefore they decided to return to Dresden in August. There, they rented a house in an English quarter.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=564–625}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=274–309}}

Shortly after their arrival, Anna's mother came to assist her daughter for her upcoming birth in 26 September—[[Lyubov Dostoyevskaya|Lyubov]], meaning "Love" in Russian, but she later called herself Aimée (French for "beloved"). In April 1871 Dostoyevsky made a final visit to a gambling hall in Wiesbaden. According to Anna, Dostoyevsky was cured from his addiction after the birth of Lyubov, but whether this is true is dubious. Another reason for his abstinence might be the closure of several casinos in Germany in the period 1872/1873; it was not until Hitler's coup d'état that these were re-opened. In July they took the train to Berlin. For fear of custom calamities Dostoyevsky burnt numerous manuscripts, including those for ''The Idiot''. The family finally arrived St. Petersburg in 8 July, marking the end of their four years and three months long "wedding trip" instead of their planned three months journey.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=564–625}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=274–309}}

===Return to Russia===
[[File:Dostoyevsky The Demons Manuscript.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Manuscript to ''The Demons'']]
Anna's younger brother, Ivan Snitkin, visited the family in autumn 1869. A pupil at the Moscow Agriculture School, Snitkin told about the unrest among the students. One of his fellow students, Ivanov, was, however, a symphatic young man who helped him for the travel preparation. Dostoyevksy later discovered that the same Ivanov was murded in 21 November by a five-man group in a park near the university. Behind the murder was the nihilist [[Nechayev]]. Influenced by [[Bakunin]]'s ''Alliance révolutionnaire européenne'', Nechayev formed a terror organisation comprising several of these five-man groups. Subsequently, Dostoyevsky planned to write a novel about nihilism.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=626–649}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=310–322}}

Back in Russia, the family was again in financial troubles and therefore had to sell their from plunder survived possession. Moreover, Anna reached the final period of pregnancy. Dostoyevsky thought the child would be born in 15 July, and thus should be named Vladimir based on the [[calendar of saints]], but Fyodor, or Fedya, was born one day later. Soon after the birth, they moved to a different apartment on the Serpukhovskaya Street, near an institute for technology. The family hoped to clear the 25,000 debts by selling their house in Peski, but as the tenant refrained from paying the fees and duties the building was sold in an auction for a relatively low price. Disputes between creditors still continued. Anna proposed to delegate her husband's copyrights and came to negotiation with the creditors by paying off debts in justifiable instalments.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=669–680}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=329–331}}

Nonetheless, Dostoyevsky was able to revive his friendships with Maykov and Strakhov and to find new acquaintances, including [[Vsevolod Solovyov]] and his brother [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Vladimir]], church politician Terty Filipov, and future imperial high commissioner of the Holy Synod, Konstantin Pobedonostsev, who influenced Dostoyevsky's political progression to Conservatism. In early 1872, art collector [[Pavel Tretyakov]] asked Dostoyevsky to pose for [[Vasily Perov]]. The resulting painting, according to Danish critic [[Georg Brandes]] a depiction of a "partly Russian peasant face, partly the likeness of a criminal", is possibly the most popular image of Dostoyevsky. Around this time, the Dostoyevskys planned to aestivate in [[Staraya Russa]], a [[spa]] known for its pleasant salt baths. On the way to it, they took the train to [[Sosnika]] and then to [[Novgorod]]. However, the family postponed their trip because of Lyuba's wrist injury, received few weeks before their departure. A doctor meant she had a [[sprain]], but it ultimately turned out to be a fracture. Anna subsequently moved to St. Petersburg, while Fyodor waited with his son in Staraya Russa for their return. Around the time of their return, Anna's sister died from [[typhus]], and Anna had developed an abscess on her throat. The work on his next novel was delayed due to these casualties.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=669–680}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=329–331}}
[[File:Fyodor Mikahailovich Dostoyevsky 1876.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Dostoyevsky, 1876]]
The family moved back to St. Petersburg in September 1872. The story of ''[[Demons (novel)|Demons]]'', depending on the translation also known under different titles, is largely based on the murder of Ivanov and was influenced by the [[Book of Revelation]]. The second characters, Stepan and Pyotr Verkhovensky, are the embodiments of Nechayev and [[Timofey Granovsky]], respectively.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=310–322}} The novel was finished in 26 November 1872, and released in January in the "Dostoyevsky Press", founded by Dostoyevsky and his wife. Although the books were available against cash only and their apartment served as a bookshop, the business was stable and about three-thousand copies of ''Demons'' were sold. Anna was responsible for the financing. Dostoyevsky proposed to establish a new periodical, ''[[A Writer's Diary]]'', including a collection of essays of the same name, but due to lack of money he first published it on Meshchersky's ''The Citizen'', heading the publishing from 1 January against a payment of 3000 rubles per year. In summer of 1873, Anna again travelled with her children to Staraya Russa, while Dostoyevsky stayed in St. Petersburg to write on his ''Diary''.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=669–680}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=335–336}}

In March, Dostoyevsky left the ''The Citizen'' because of the stressful work and Russia's bureaucracy. During his 15 months activity as a journalist in ''The Citizen'' he was brought two times to court, in 11 June 1873, because of citing Prince Meshchersky's words without permission, and in 23 March 1874, for two days. Dostoyevsky offered ''The Russian Messenger'' a new novel he had not yet began to work on, but the magazine refused to give him the fee (the actual reason, which they kept secret from him, was that the periodical closed a deal to release [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[Anna Karenina]]''). [[Nikolay Nekrasov]] visited him and proposed to publish ''A Writer's Diary'' in ''The National Annals''; he would receive 250 ruble for the print sheet, 100 more than for ''The Russian Messenger''.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=669–680}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=335–361}}

Dostoyevsky's health declined and he suffered from cough and breathlessness, first symptoms of a lung disease. Subsequently, Dostoyevsky was examined in St. Petersburg and he was advised by several doctors to take a cure outside of Russia. One doctor advised him [[Bad Ems]], another [[Bad Soden]]. Dostoeyvsky left Russia and in June visited a known pulmonologist in Berlin, who referred him to a doctor in Bad Ems. Around July, Dostoyevsky reached Ems but went to a different physician. He was diagnosed with an acute [[catarrh]], and to alleviate symptoms the doctor prescribed him a type of soda from a well. His health, however, was not improved until the physician prescribed him a different prescription. During his stay at the health spa he began to work on ''[[The Raw Youth|The Adolescent]]'', also known as ''The Raw Youth''. In late July he returned to St. Petersburg.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=669–680}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–361}}

His wife proposed to spend the winter in Staraya Russa to provide him rest from work. The doctors suggested Dostoyevsky to make a second visit in Ems, as his health has improved since his last visit. In late July he returned to Staraya Russa, and in 10 August Alexey was born. In mid-September the family left the town for St. Petersburg. Dostoyevsky finalised the novel in the end of 1875, while parts of it were already serialised between January and December 1875 in the ''Annals''. ''The Adolescent'' chronicles the life of 19-year-old intellectual, Arkady Dolgoruky, illegitimate child of the controversial and womanising landowner Versilov. A focus of the novel is the recurring conflict between father and son, particularly in ideology, which represents the battles between the conventional "old" way of thinking in the 1840s and the new nihilistic point of view of the youth of 1860s Russia.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=669–680}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–361}}

===Last years===
[[File:Unveiling of the Pushkin monument in Moscow.jpg|left|thumb|upright|The unveiling of the Pushkin monument in Moscow]]

In the early 1876 he continued to work on his ''Diaries''. The book's main theme is, like in ''The Adolescent'', child abuse through adults, reflecting his study of living conditions of children during his spa visit. The essay collection sold more than twice as much as his prior books. Dostoyevsky received more letters from readers than anytime before. People of different age and occupation visited him, be it a theology student who has religious doubts, or an agnostic teacher. Thanks to Anna's brother, the family finally brought the [[dacha]] in Staraya Russa. The house, now a museum, has several similarities with the one in his next novel.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=723–803}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–393}}

In the summer of 1876, Dostoyevsky again suffered from breathlessness. He visited Ems the third time and was examined by Dr. Orth, who prescribed him "Kränchen" with milk as well as "Kesselbrunnen" to gargle. The doctor said that Dostoyevsky might live 15 years more providing that he would live in a healthy climate. When Dostoyevsky returned to Russia, Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] ordered him to visit his palace and to present him his ''Diaries''. He also asked him to educate his sons, Sergey and Paul. This visit led to the increase of his circle of acquaintances. He was a common guest in several salons in St. Petersburg. He met with many famous people, including Princess Sofya Tolstaya, poet friend Jakow Polonski, politician Graf Witte, journalist [[Alexey Suvorin]], musician [[Anton Rubinstein]] and artist [[Ilya Repin]].{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=723–803}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–393}}

Dostoyevsky's health began to deteriorate; in March 1877 alone he had four epileptic fits. Instead of going to Ems he decided to visit [[Maly Prikol]], a manor near [[Kursk]]. On the way back to St. Petersburg to finalise his ''Diaries'', Dostoyevsky visited Darovoye. At the same time Anna and her children made a [[pilgrimage]] to [[Kiev]]. In December he attended [[Nikolay Nekrasov]]'s funeral and gave a speech. Around that time he was appointed an honorary member of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]].{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=723–803}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–393}}

In the early 1878 he listened to a speech about the "Man of God" delivered by Vladimir Solovyov, which became influential for his next novel. In February the next year he received an honorary certificate by the academy, and in spring he was invited to participate in an international congress about copyright in Paris, headed by [[Victor Hugo]], but declined it after his son Alyosha's death in 16 May, who did not survive the two-hours long death struggle caused by epilepsy. The family later moved to a different apartment on the Yamskaya Street, where he wrote his first works. Around this time he was elected the board director of the Slavic Benevolent Society in St. Petersburg, and in summer he was elected in the honorary committee of the [[Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale]], which included Victor Hugo, Ivan Turgenev, [[Paul Heyse]], [[Alfred Tennyson]], [[Anthony Trollope]], [[Henry Longfellow]], [[Ralph Emerson]] and Leo Tolstoy.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=723–803}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–393}}

[[File:Dostoyevsky's funeral.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Funeral of Dostoyevsky]]
Dostoyevsky made his fourth and final visit to Ems in early August 1879. He was diagnosed as having a [[pulmonary emphysema]] in an initial stage. The doctor believed that it is not possible to cure the decease, but said that it could be combatted with a high and likely success. First parts of his final novel, ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'', were serialised in ''The Russian Messenger'' in 1 February and the last parts were published in November 1880. Composed of 12 books, ''The Brothers Karamazov'' tells the story of the protagonist [[Alyosha Karamazov]]. Alyosha, a novice, is the brother of the atheist Ivan Karamazov and soldier Dmitry. First parts of the books introduces the Karamazovs. The main plot is the death of their father Fyodor, while other parts are philosophical and religious argumentations to Alyosha by Father Zosima.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=723–803}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–414}}

The most renowned chapter is "[[The Grand Inquisitor]]", a [[parable]] told by Ivan to Alyosha about [[Second Coming|Christ's Second Coming]] in [[Seville]], Spain, where Christ was imprisoned by the ninety-years old, pseudo-religious, Catholic [[Grand Inquisitor]]. Instead of answering him, Christ gives him a kiss and the Inquisitor subsequently releases him but tells him not to return. The tale was misunderstood for being a defence to the actions by the Inquisitor, while others, such as [[Romano Guardini]], argued that the book's Christ was Ivan's own interpretation of his Christ, "the idealistic product of the unbelief". Ivan, however, obviously stated that he is against Christ. Most contemporary critics and scholars agree that Dostoyevsky is particularly attacking Roman Catholicism and socialist atheism, which both represent the Inquisitor. With this novel he warns the readers against a terrible revelation in the future which already occurred in the past. For Dostoyevsky, the [[Donation of Pepin]] around 750 and the [[Spanish Inquisition]] in the 16th century corrupted the true Christianity.{{sfn|Müller|1982|pp=91–103}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=723–803}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–414}}

[[File:Dostoyevsky on his Bier, Kramskoy.jpg|left|thumb|upright|"He seems as if still alive, with a face of total quietude, as in the best moments of his life"]]
With nearly 800 pages, ''The Brothers Karamazov'' is undoubtedly Dostoyevsky's biggest literary contribution. It is often cited as his life work, his ''[[magnum opus]]''. Apart from being critically successful, the book was also doing well on the market. In 3 February 1880 he was chosen as the vice president of the Slavic Benevolent Society. He was invited to an unveiling of a [[Pushkin]] memorial in Moscow. Initially scheduled for 26 May, the date of the unveiling was rescheduled to 6 June because of the death of [[Maria Alexandrovna (Marie of Hesse)|Empress Maria Alexandrovna]]. Dostoyevsky delivered his memorised speech two days later inside a big room. During his impressive and hypnotising speech many people cried or were hysterical, while other fainted or left the room. His speech has been met with a large applause, and even his long-time rival [[Ivan Turgenev]] enfolded him. Dostoyevsky's delivery was later, however, attacked by several people, among them the liberal political scientist Alexander Gradovsky and conservative thinker Konstantin Leontiev, and fits occurred.{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=723–835}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=337–414; 427–443}}

In 25 January, Tsar's secret police executed a search warrant in a neighbour's apartment. They searched after the terror organisation "People's Will" who assassinated Tsar Alexander II. This investigation might be jointly responsible for his [[pulmonary haemorrhage]] in 26 January 1881. However, Anna declined this claim, stating that the haematorrhoea occurred after Dostoyevsky had searched for his dropped pen holder, but an even stronger haematorrhoea appeared after he asked for his residual fee for the novel. Anna searched shortly afterwards for the doctor von Bretzel and other, but they stated that Dostoyevsky would most likely die some time in the next days. When his health became to steady, Dostoyevsky had a second rush of blood. Among Dostoyevsky's last words were his delivery of Matthew 3:14 from the New Testament: "But John tried to stop him, saying, 'I need to be baptised by you, and are you coming to me?'". Dostoyevsky died on that day, eight minutes before half nine. According to a Russian custom his body was embedded on a table. Initially Dostoyevsky wanted to be buried in the [[Novodevichy Convent]] cemetery near novelist [[Nikolay Nekrasov|Nekrasov]], but due to money issues he was instead interred in the [[Tikhvin Cemetery]] at the [[Alexander Nevsky Lavra|Alexander Nevsky Convent]], near his favourite poets [[Karamsin]] and [[Vasily Zhukovsky|Zhukovsky]]. It is not exactly known how many visitors attended his funeral. According to a reporter, more than 100,000 mourners attended it, while others state a number between 40,000 and 50,000. His burial attracted many prominent people. Nestor, archbishop of Vyborg, delivered the [[liturgy]], while Ioann Yanyshev performed the [[consecration]]. His tombstone is inscribed with the words of Christ,{{sfn|Frank|2009|pp=912–932}}{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=444–451}}

{{cquote|Verily, verily, I say unto you, Except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone: but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit.|source=from [[Gospel of John|the Gospel According to John]] 12:24|author=NT}}

==Personality and physical appearance==
Dostoyevsky is known for his remarkable and powerful personality, but is known to have a fragile physical constitution. In his childhood he was described by the parents as a hothead, stubborn and having a cheeky mouth.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=16}} Around the time when he was in the college, several people depicted him as a pale, introverted dreamer, and a peaking, overexcited romantic.{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=55}} The most descriptive account during the time was made by Dr. Alexander Riesenkampf, "Feodor Mikhailovich was no less-good natured and no less courteous than his brother, but when not in a good mood he often looked at everything through dark glasses, became vexed, forgot good manners, and sometimes was carried away to the point of abusiveness and loss of self-awereness", but "[i]n the circle of his friends he always seemed lively, untroubled, self-content".{{sfn|Frank|2009|p=61–62}}

Dostoyevsky's [[epilepsy]], a type of a [[chronic (medicine)|chronic]] [[neurological disorder]] characterised by [[seizure]]s,<ref name="nejm-2003">{{cite journal | author = Chang BS, Lowenstein DH | title =Epilepsy | year = 2003 | journal = N. Engl. J. Med. | volume = 349 | issue = 13 | pages = 1257–66 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra022308 | pmid = 14507951 | url = http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra022308}}</ref> is one of the most "famous" in history. It is unknown and disputable what caused his epilepsy. Some think it was a "[[generalised epilepsy]]", others state he suffered from "[[temporal lobe epilepsy]]", while some believed it was a combination of these two. [[Théophile Alajouanine]] meant he had "partial and secondarily generalised seizures with ecstatic [[Aura (symptom)|aura]]", while [[Henri Gastaut]] believed that his seizures were "[[idiopathy|idiopathic]] generalised". P.H.A. Voskuil had similar views as Alajouanine and Gastaut, "complex partial seizures with secondarily generalised nocturnal seizures and ecstatic auras". According to Rosetti and Bogousslavsky, Dostoyevsky suffered from "temporal lobe epilepsy, most likely left mesiotemporal, with complex partial and secondarily generalised seizures, with a relatively benign course".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acnr.co.uk/pdfs/volume6issue1/v6i1history.pdf|format=pdf|title=Dostoevsky and Epilepsy|author=Andrew Larner|publisher=ACNR – Advances in Clinical Neuroscience & Rehabilitation|accessdate=12 May 2012|volume=6|number=1|date=March/April 2006}}</ref> [[Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalyst]] [[Sigmund Freud]], who believed that epilepsy is "always straight cases of hysteria", said the illness was caused by his father's death and he ultimately saw an [[Oedipus complex]] in him:

{{cquote|Dostoyevsky called himself an epileptic…it is highly probable that this so-called epilepsy was only a symptom of his neurosis and must accordingly be classified as hystero-epilepsy – that is, as severe hysteria. The most probable assumption is that the attacks went back far into his childhood, that their place was taken to begin with by milder symptoms and that they did not assume an epileptic form until after the shattering experience of his eighteenth year – the murder of his father.|author=Sigmund Freud|source=''Dostoyevsky and Parricide''}}

However, according to several letters, Dostoyevsky did not hate his father, who dealed with his peasants very poorly. Freud's theory is generally considered by scholars and scientists to be incorrect, as it is dubious whether his father was really killed by his peasants. It is not explicitly known when his first epileptic fits occurred. Some proposed the date of the first occurrence of eplipsy was at the age of 9, while others argued it was in his teens or early adulthood. Dostoyevsky, however, wrote that the first seizure appeared after the "psychological torture", the mock execution. In his notebook he recorded a total of 102 fits in 20 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/2007/04/16/diagnosing-dostoyevskys-epilepsy/|publisher=Neurophilosophy.com|accessdate=1 May 2012|title=Diagnosing Dostoyevsky’s epilepsy|date=16 April 2007}}</ref>

In a meeting with Baron Wrangel, "when [Dostoyevsky] came in", he was "extremely reserved [...] morose, his face pale and sickly and covered with freckles. [Dostoyevsky's] light coloured hair was cut short, and he was of more than medium height. Intently looking at me with his sharp, grey-blue eyes, it seemed that he was trying to peer into [Wrangel's] very soul—now what sort of man is he? ... ".{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=149–150}} Herzen characterised Dostoyevsky as "a naive, not entirely lucid, but very nice person".{{sfn|Frank|2009|p=355}}

==Religious beliefs==
Dostoyevsky was raised in a "pious Russian family" and knowing "the Gospel almost from the cradle".{{sfn|Frank|2009|p=24}} Early on he attended [[mass (liturgy)|mass]]es in churches every sunday,{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|pp=11, 19}} took part in annual [[pilgrimage]]s at the St. Sergius Trinity Monastery and was introduced by his family to Christianity with the Russia translation of Johannes Hübner's ''One Hundred and Four Sacred Stories from the Old and New Testaments Selected for Children'', partly a German child bible, partly a [[catechism]].{{sfn|Kjetsaa|1989|p=19}}{{sfn|Frank|2009|p=24}}{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=1}} Apart from religious literature Dostoyevsky was educated by a [[deacon]] near the hospital.{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=1}} One of his most remembered account of his childhood memory were the prayers in front of guests, "Mother of God, keep me and preserve me under Thy wing!", and the reading from the [[Book of Job]], which "made an impression on [Dostoyevsky]" when "still almost a child".{{sfn|Frank|2009|p=30}}

According to an officer of the military academy, Dostoyevsky was deeply religious and orthodox and often read the Gospels and [[Heinrich Zschokke]]'s ''Die Stunden der Andacht'' (Hours of Devotion). The latter book "preached a sentimental version of Christianity entirely free from [[dogma]]tic content and with a strong emphasis on giving Christian love a social application", which is perhaps his first introduction to [[Christian socialism]].{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=2}} Through the literature of Hoffmann, Balzac, Sue and Goethe, Dostoyevsky created his own imaginary belief similar to Russian [[sect|sectarianism]] and [[Old Believers|Old Belief]].{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=2}} After his arrest, the subsequent mock execution and the imprisonment in Siberia, his religious views have significantly changed and revived through the New Testament, the only allowed book in prison.{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=6}} In January 1854, however, Dostoyevsy wrote the following letter to a woman from whom he received the Testament, which suggests that Dostoyevsky was a non-believer:

{{cquote|I have heard from many sources that you are very religious, Natalia Dmitrievna... '''As for myself, I confess that I am a child of my age, a child of unbelief and doubt up to this moment, and I am certain that I shall remain so to the grave.''' What terrible torments this thirst to believe has cost me and continues to cost me, burning ever more strongly in my soul the more contrary arguments there are. Netherless, God sometimes sends me moments of complete tranquillity. In such moments I love and find that I am loved by others, and in such moments I have nurtured in myself a symbol of truth, in which everything is clear and holy for me. This symbol is very simple: it is the belief that there is nothing finer, profounder, more attractive, more reasonable, more courageous and more perfect than Christ, and not only is there not, but I tell myself with jealous love that there cannot be. Even is someone were to prove to me that the truth lay outside Christ, I should choose to remain with Christ rather than with the truth|author=Fyodor Dostoyevsy|source=Pis'ma, XXVIII, i, 176}}

In a meeting with Baron Wrangel, Dostoyevsky revived his belief in an [[omniscient]], [[omnipotent]] Creator by viewing the spangled sky. Wrangel said that he "was rather pious, but did not often go to church, and disliked priests, especially the Siberian ones. But he spoke about Christ ecstatically". Both planned to translate Hegel's works and [[Carus]]' ''[[Psyche (book)|Psyche]]'', and Dostoyevsky explored [[Islam]] when he asked his brother to send him a copy of the [[Quran]]. Through his visits to Europe and discussions between Herzen, [[Apollon Grigoryev|Grigoriev]] and [[Nikolay Strakhov|Strakhov]], Dostoyevsky discovered [[Pochvennichestvo]]. Dostoyevsky believed that the [[Catholic Church]] adopted the principles of [[rationalism]], [[Legalism (Western philosophy)|legalism]], [[materialism]] and [[individualism]] from the ancient Rome and passed on its philosophy to [[Protestantism]] and finally to [[socialism]], which then leads to [[atheism]].{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=7-9}}

Overall, many critics pointed out that Dostoyevsky's religion is unusual and partially not in agreement with the Christian core beliefs. Malcolm V. Jones found elements of Islam and [[Buddhism]] in his religious belief.{{sfn|Jones|2005|p=68-69}} [[Beat generation]] writer [[Allan Ginsberg]] labelled his works as "Buddha bibles".{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|p=12}}

==Legacy==
[[File:Dostoevskiy mosmetro.jpg|thumb|right|[[Dostoyevskaya (Moscow Metro)|Dostoyevskaya]] station on the [[Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line]].]]
Together with Leo Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky is often regarded one of the greatest novelists in the [[Russian literature#Golden Age|Golden Age of Russian literature]],{{sfn|Lauer|2000|p=364}} and only few people of the 19th century were as influential as Dostoyevsky. The publication of his debut novel, ''Poor Folk'', pushed him into the literary mainstream; critics saw in him the rising star of the Russian literature. He was known for his gifted narrative, and through his sharp and at the same time deep, sophisticated statements in intellectual and political discussions he was described as a spiritual guide, a teacher and even a [[prophet]].{{sfn|Müller|1982|p=7}}

Dostoyevsky's works also attracted readers outside of Russia. The German translator Wilhelm Wolfsohn published one of the earliest known translation, parts of ''Poor Folk'', in a 1846/1847 magazine,{{sfn|Meier-Gräfe|1988|p=492}} and a similar pattern followed France, while the first English translations were provided by Marie von Thilo in 1881, and the first adequate translations were done between 1912 and 1920 by [[Constance Garnett]].{{sfn|Jones|Terry|2010|p=216}}

Since then, many non-Russians were introduced to Dostoyevsky's works. German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] called Dostoyevsky in ''[[Twilight of the Idols]]'' "the only psychologist, incidentally, from whom I had something to learn; he ranks among the most beautiful strokes of fortune in my life…"{{sfn|Müller|1982|p=7}} [[Thomas Mann]] adviced to read his novels in masses, while [[Hermann Hesse]] primarly enjoyed his novels, he also stated that to read him is like a "glimpse into the havoc".{{sfn|Müller|1982|p=8}} Norwegian novelist [[Knut Hamsun]] meant that "no one has analysed the complicated human structure as Dostoyevsy. His psychologic sense is overwhelming and visionary. We have no yardstick by which to assess his greatness".{{sfn|Lavrin|1947|p=161}} [[André Gide]] said that Dostoyevsky "should be put beside [[Ibsen]] and Nietzsche; he is equal in size as the three, and maybe the most important".{{sfn|Lavrin|1947|p=162}} According to an excerpt of a letter written by [[Edmund Gosse]] to Gide, "[Dostoyevsky] is the cocaine and morphia of modern literature".{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|p=3}} Left-wing groups such as the [[surrealism|surrealists]], the [[existentialism|existentialist]]s and the Beats named Dostoyevsky as their influence.{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|p=5}} Dostoyevsky is cited as the forerunner of [[Russian symbolism]], influencing writers including [[Alexander Blok]], [[Andrey Bely]] and [[Vyacheslav Ivanovich Ivanov|Vyacheslav Ivanov]],{{sfn|Lavrin2|2005|p=38}} of [[existentialism]],{{sfn|Bloom|2004|p=108}} [[expressionism]]{{sfn|Burry|2011|p=57}} and [[psychoanalysis]].{{sfn|Breger|2008|p=270}}

After the [[1917 Russian Revolution]], Dostoyevsky's books were now and then censored or banned. His philosophy, especially in ''The Demons'', was deemed as [[capitalism|capitalistic]] and anti-communist, leading to the nickname of "our evil genius" by [[Maxim Gorky]]. Reading Dostoyevsky was forbidden and those who did not observe the law were imprisoned. During the Second World War, however, his works were [[propaganda|propagated]] by both the Soviets and the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]], and after the war the prohibtion law was overturned. His 125th anniversary in 1947 was celebrated throughout Russia, but despite this his novels were agained banned the next year until [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s accession to power ten years later and the following [[de-Stalinization]], which softened the laws.{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|p=7-8}}

After the [[Second World War]], his works topped the best-seller lists worldwide. Philosopher, psychologists, theologian, social scientists, politician, literary scientists, physicians, lawer, pupils and students have acknowledged his works. Many of his novels and stories were filmed and dramatised in the [[Soviet Union]] and the West.{{sfn|Müller|1982|p=8}} Dostoyevsy's fictional characters and his work overall were popularised in [[graffiti]]s, presidential speeches, [[vaudeville]]s, films and [[playwright]]s.{{sfn|Bloshteyn|2007|p=4}} A 1956 green-olive stamp dedicated to Dostoyevsky was released in the Soviet Union with a [[print run]] of 1,000 copies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stamprussia.com/56.htm|publisher=CPA – "Souzpechat" Central Philatelic Agency|title=USSR (Soviet Union) Postage – Stamps: 1956 – 1960|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref> The [[Dostoevsky Museum]] was opened in 12 November 1971 in the apartment where he wrote the first and the last novels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eng.md.spb.ru/museum/|title=Museum|Fyodor Dostoevsky Literary Memorial Museum|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref> The [[minor planet]] [[3453 Dostoevsky]] was discovered in 1981 by [[Lyudmila Karachkina]] and named for him. [[Iggy Pop]]'s studio album ''[[The Idiot (album)|The Idiot]]'' was named after his novel. The [[Moscow Metro]] station [[Dostoyevskaya (Moscow Metro)|Dostoyevskaya]] in the [[Lyublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line]] was scheduled to open for the public on 15 May, the 75th anniversary of Moscow Metro. The illustrations on the [[décor]] made by artist [[Ivan Nikolaev]] were criticised because of their depiction of suicides. The station was netherless opened on 19 June 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://engl.mosmetro.ru/pages/page_6.php?id_page=561|title=Liublinsko-Dmitrovskaya Line|publisher=Moscow Metro|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/news/moscow-metro-station-suicides/|publisher=TV-Novosti|work=[[Russia Today]]|title=Opening delayed for Moscow metro's "station of suicides"|date=15 May 2010|accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref>



==Works==
Dostoyevsky's works of fiction include 2 translations, 15 novels and novellas, and 17 short stories. Many of his longer novels were first published in [[Serial (literature)|serialised form]] in [[literary magazine]]s and [[journal]]s (see the individual articles). The years given below indicate the year in which the novel's final part or first complete book edition was published. In English many of his novels and stories are known by several titles.

;Plays
*(~1844) ''The Jew Yankel'' (unknown whether finshed or not; title based on Gogol's character from ''[[Taras Bulba]]'')
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

;Novels and novellas
*(1846) ''[[Poor Folk]]''
*(1846) ''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem]]''
*(1849) ''[[Netochka Nezvanova (novel)|Netochka Nezvanova]]'' (unfinished)
*(1859) ''[[Uncle's Dream]]''
*(1859) ''[[The Village of Stepanchikovo]]''
*(1861) ''[[Humiliated and Insulted]]''
*(1862) ''[[The House of the Dead (novel)|The House of the Dead]]''
*(1864) ''[[Notes from Underground]]''
*(1866) ''[[Crime and Punishment]]''
*(1867) ''[[The Gambler (novel)|The Gambler]]''
*(1869) ''[[The Idiot]]''
*(1870) ''[[The Eternal Husband]]''
*(1872) ''[[The Possessed (novel)|Demons]]''
*(1875) ''[[The Adolescent]]''
*(1880) ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''
{{col-2}}

;Short stories
*(1846) "[[Mr. Prokharchin]]"
*(1847) "Novel in Nine Letters"
*(1847) "The Landlady"
*(1848) "The Jealous Husband"
*(1848) "A Weak Heart"
*(1848) "Polzunkov"
*(1848) "[[An Honest Thief|The Honest Thief]]"
*(1848) "[[A Christmas Tree and a Wedding|The Christmas Tree and a Wedding]]"
*(1848) "[[White Nights (short story)|White Nights]]"
*(1849) "A Little Hero"
*(1862) "[[A Nasty Story|A Nasty Anecdote]]"
*(1865) "[[The Crocodile (short story)|The Crocodile]]"
*(1873) "[[Bobok]]"
*(1876) "The Heavenly Christmas Tree"
*(1876) "[[A Gentle Creature|The Meek One]]"
*(1876) "[[The Peasant Marey]]"
*(1877) "[[The Dream of a Ridiculous Man]]"
{{col-end}}

;Essays
*''[[A Writer's Diary]]'', collected essays
*''Winter Notes on Summer Impressions'' (1863)
*''[[A Writer's Diary]]'' (Дневник писателя [''Dnevnik pisatelya''], 1873–1881)
*''Letters'' (collected in English translations in five volumes of ''Complete Letters'')

;Translations
*(1843) ''[[Eugénie Grandet]]'', ([[Honore de Balzac]])
*(1843) ''La dernière Aldini'' ([[George Sand]])
*(1843) ''[[Mary Stuart (play)|Mary Stuart]]'' ([[Friedrich Schiller]])
*(1843) ''[[Boris Godunov (play)|Boris Godunov]]'' ([[Alexander Pushkin]])
*(1843) ''Reineke Fuchs'' ([[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]])

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[List of Russian philosophers]]
*[[Existentialism]]
*[[Dostoevsky Museum]]
*[[Subjective idealism|Antimaterialism]]
*[[Objections to evolution|Antidarwinism]]
*[[Conservatism]]
*[[Christian socialism]]
*[[Gambling addiction]]
*[[Petrashevsky circle]]
*[[Epilepsy]]
*[[Monarchism]]
*[[Slavophilism]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin||colwidth=30em}}
* [[Rowan Williams]], ''Dostoevsky Language, Faith and Fiction'' (2008)
*{{cite book
|title=[[Humiliated and Insulted]]
|last=Avsey
|first=Ignat
|others=Trans. Avsey
|year=2008
|publisher=Oneworld Classics
|location=[[London]]
|chapter=Extra Material on Fyodor Dostoevsky's ''Humiliated and Insulted''
|isbn=978-1-84749-045-2
|ref = harv}}
* W. J. Leatherbarrow, ''A Devil's Vaudeville: the demonic in Dostoevsky's major fiction'' (2005)
* ''The Cambridge Companion to Dostoevskii'', ed. W. J. Leatherbarrow (2002)
*{{cite book|last=Frank|first=Joseph|title=Dostoevsky: A Writer in His Time|url=http://books.google.de/books?id=lp1RpM8o9BQC&dq=fyodor+dostoevsky++biography&hl=de&source=gbs_navlinks_s&redir_esc=y|volume=1–5|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12819-1|ref=harv}}
* ''Dostoevsky and the Christian tradition'', ed. G. Pattison, D. O. Thompson (2001)
* P. Evdokimov, ''Gogol et Dostoievski'' (2nd. ed. 1984)
* ''New Essays on Dostoevsky'', ed. M. Jones, G. M. Terry (1983)
* V. Seduro, ''Dostoevski's Image in Russia Today'' (1975)
* D. Capetanakis, 'Dostoevsky', in ''Demetrios Capetanakis A Greek Poet In England'' (1947), p. 103–116
* P. Evdokimov, ''Dostoevski et le probleme du mal'' (1942; repr. 1978)
* N. Berdyaev, ''Dostoevsky'' (1934; Russian original 1923)
* L. Shestov, ''Dostoevsky, Tolstoy and Nietzsche'' (1969; Russian original 1903)
*{{cite book|title=Dostoevsky: His Life and Work|last=Mochulsky|first=Konstantin|others=Trans. Minihan, Michael A|year=1967|origyear=First published 1967|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|location=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]]|isbn=0-691-01299-7|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mDKphT8_XLsC|ref = harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Belinsky|first=Vissarion|title=Polnoye sobranye|year=1847|volume=10|language=Russian|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Reber|first=Natalie|title=Studien zum Motiv des Doppelgängers bei Dostojevskij und E.T.A. Hoffmann|location=Gießen|year=1964|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Terras|first=Victor|title=The Young Dostoevsky (1846–1849): A critical study|volume=69|series=Slavistic printings and reprintings|year=1969|publisher=University of Michigan|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Kjetsaa|first=Geir|title=A Writer's Life|date=15 January 1989|publisher=Fawcett Columbine|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Lavrin|first=Janko|title=Dostoevksy|year=1947|publisher=New York The Macmillan Company|location=New York|ocolc=646160256|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Müller|first=Ludolf|title=Dostojewskij: Sein Leben, Sein Werk, Sein Vermächtnis|year=1982|language=German|publisher=Erich Wewel Verlag|location=Munich|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Malcolm V.|title=Dostoevsky And the Dynamics of Religious Experience|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=L52TNlWprfcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=dostoevsky+and+dynamics&hl=de&sa=X&ei=jAWlT7TkMPDP4QSCpbnBCQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2005|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-205-5|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Bloshteyn|first=Maria R.|title=The Making of a Counter-Culture Icon: Henry Miller's Dostoevsky|series=G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series|year=2007|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-9228-1|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Meier-Gräfe|first=Julius|title=Dostoevsky: The Man and His Work|year=1988|publisher=insel verlag|location=Frankfurt am Main|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Lauer|first=Reinhard|title=Geschichte der Russischen Literatur: von 1700 bis zur Gegenwart|year=2000|publisher=Verlag C.H. Beck|location=Munich|language=German|isbn=978-3-406-50267-5|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Neuhäuser|first=Rudolf|title=F.M. Dostoejevskij: Die Grossen Romane und Erzählungen; Interpretationen und Analysen|year=1993|publisher=Böhlau Verlag|location=Vienna; Cologne; Weimar|language=German|isbn=978-3-205-98112-1|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=Malcom V.|last2=Terry|first2=Garth M.|title=New Essays on Dostoyevsky|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-15531-1|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Lavrin|first=Janko|title=Dostoevsky: A Study|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=57iTq6YSJbcC&printsec=frontcover&hl=de&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2005|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4179-8844-0|ref={{harvid|Lavrin2|2005}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Bloom|first=Harold|title=Fyodor Dostoevsky|url=http://books.google.de/books?id=1C1K-BnFGFIC&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2004|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-7910-8117-4|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Breger|first=Louis|title=Dostoevsky: The Author As Psychoanalyst|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vxX2JGsN7PoC&printsec=frontcover&hl=de&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2008|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-0843-9|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Burry|first=Alexander|title=Multi-Mediated Dostoevsky: Transposing Novels Into Opera, Film, and Drama|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lfLnzvLaB-kC&printsec=frontcover&hl=de&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2011|publisher=Northwestern University Press|isbn=978-0-8101-2715-9|ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

==External links==

{{Sister project links
|wikt=no
|commons=Fyodor Dostoyevsky
|b=no
|n=no
|q=Fyodor Dostoyevsky
|s=Author:Fyodor Dostoyevsky
|v=no
|species=no}}
*[http://ilibrary.ru/author/dostoevski/index.html Complete works in Russian]
*[http://www.philolog.ru/fmdost/index.html Complete journalistic works in Russian]
*[http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/issues.shtml Dostoyevsky studies]
*[http://en.rodovid.org/wk/Person:341394 Dostoyevsky's family tree]
*{{gutenberg author| id=Fyodor+Dostoyevsky|name=Fyodor Dostoyevsky}}
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-29930}}
*{{IBList |type=author|id=96|name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
*{{IMDb name|id=0234502|name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}

{{Fyodor Dostoyevsky}}

{{Authority control|PND=118527053|LCCN=n/79/029930|VIAF=104023256}}

{{Persondata
|NAME= Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Dostoevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich; Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский (Russian)
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= Russian novelist
|DATE OF BIRTH= {{Birth date|df=yes|1821|11|11}}
|PLACE OF BIRTH= Moscow
|DATE OF DEATH= {{Death date|df=yes|1881|2|9}}
|PLACE OF DEATH= Saint Petersburg
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dostoyevsky, Fyodor}}
[[Category:1821 births]]
[[Category:1881 deaths]]
[[Category:Fyodor Dostoyevsky| ]]
[[Category:Christian existentialists]]
[[Category:Christian novelists]]
[[Category:Christian writers]]
[[Category:Graduating of Military Engineering-Technical University]]
[[Category:Christian philosophers]]
[[Category:Deaths from emphysema]]
[[Category:Deaths from epilepsy]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox Christians from Russia]]
[[Category:People from Moscow]]
[[Category:People with epilepsy]]
[[Category:Russian Orthodox Christians]]
[[Category:Russian essayists]]
[[Category:Russian-language writers]]
[[Category:Russian monarchists]]
[[Category:Russian novelists]]
[[Category:Russian short story writers]]
[[Category:Russian writers]]
[[Category:Christian radicals]]
[[Category:Magazine editors]]
[[Category:Russian translators]]
[[Category:Russian prisoners and detainees]]
[[Category:19th-century novelists]]
[[Category:Russian people of Lithuanian descent]]
[[Category:Gambling addicts]]
[[Category:Conservatism in Russia]]
[[Category:Criticism of atheism]]
[[Category:Slavophiles]]
[[Category:Russian nationalists]]
[[Category:Russian engineers]]
[[Category:Dostoyevsky family]]
[[Category:Russian people of Belarusian descent]]
[[Category:Russian people of Polish descent]]

{{Link GA|es}}
{{Link FA|ca}}
{{Link FA|hr}}
{{Link FA|ml}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[af:Fjodor Dostojefski]]
[[am:ፍዮዶር ዶስቶየቭስኪ]]
[[ar:فيودور دوستويفسكي]]
[[an:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[az:Fyodor Dostoyevski]]
[[bn:ফিওদোর দস্তয়েভ্‌স্কি]]
[[zh-min-nan:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[ba:Достоевский, Фёдор Михаил улы]]
[[be:Фёдар Дастаеўскі]]
[[be-x-old:Фёдар Дастаеўскі]]
[[bcl:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[bg:Фьодор Достоевски]]
[[bs:Fjodor Dostojevski]]
[[br:Fyodor Dostoyevskiy]]
[[ca:Fiódor Dostoievski]]
[[cs:Fjodor Michajlovič Dostojevskij]]
[[cy:Fyodor Dostoievski]]
[[da:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
[[de:Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski]]
[[dsb:Fjodor Michajlowič Dostojewskij]]
[[et:Fjodor Dostojevski]]
[[el:Φιοντόρ Ντοστογιέφσκι]]
[[es:Fiódor Dostoyevski]]
[[eo:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
[[ext:Fiódor Dostoyevski]]
[[eu:Fedor Dostoievski]]
[[fa:فئودور داستایوسکی]]
[[hif:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[fr:Fiodor Dostoïevski]]
[[fy:Fjodor Dostojevski]]
[[ga:Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]
[[gl:Fiódor Dostoievski]]
[[gan:多托頁夫斯基]]
[[ko:표도르 도스토옙스키]]
[[hy:Ֆեոդոր Դոստոևսկի]]
[[hi:फ़्योद्र दोस्तोयेव्स्की]]
[[hr:Fjodor Mihajlovič Dostojevski]]
[[io:Fyodor Dostoyevski]]
[[id:Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]
[[os:Достоевский, Фёдор Михаилы фырт]]
[[is:Fjodor Dostojevskíj]]
[[it:Fëdor Dostoevskij]]
[[he:פיודור דוסטויבסקי]]
[[jv:Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]
[[ka:თედორე დოსტოევსკი]]
[[kk:Фёдор Михайлович Достоевский]]
[[sw:Fyodor Dostoyevski]]
[[ku:Fyodor Dostoyevskî]]
[[ky:Достоевский, Фёдор Михайлович]]
[[la:Theodorus Dostoevskij]]
[[lv:Fjodors Dostojevskis]]
[[lb:Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski]]
[[lt:Fiodoras Dostojevskis]]
[[hu:Fjodor Mihajlovics Dosztojevszkij]]
[[mk:Фјодор Михајлович Достоевски]]
[[ml:ഫിയോദർ ദസ്തയേവ്‌സ്കി]]
[[mr:फ्योदर दस्तयेवस्की]]
[[arz:دوستويفسكى]]
[[mzn:فئودور داستایوسکی]]
[[ms:Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]
[[mwl:Fiódor Dostoiévski]]
[[mn:Фёдор Достоевский]]
[[nl:Fjodor Dostojevski]]
[[ja:フョードル・ドストエフスキー]]
[[no:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
[[nn:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
[[oc:Fiodor Dostoievskii]]
[[mhr:Федор Достоевский]]
[[uz:Fyodor Dostoyevskiy]]
[[pag:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[pnb:دوستوفسکی]]
[[pms:Fëdor Dostoevskij]]
[[pl:Fiodor Dostojewski]]
[[pt:Fiódor Dostoiévski]]
[[kaa:Fyodor Dostoevskiy]]
[[ro:Feodor Dostoievski]]
[[rue:Федор Достоєвскый]]
[[ru:Достоевский, Фёдор Михайлович]]
[[sah:Достоевскай Федор Михайлович]]
[[sc:Fedor Dostoevskij]]
[[sco:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[sq:Fëdor Michajlovič Dostoevskij]]
[[scn:Fëdor Mikhailovič Dostoevskij]]
[[simple:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[sk:Fiodor Michajlovič Dostojevskij]]
[[sl:Fjodor Mihajlovič Dostojevski]]
[[ckb:فیۆدۆر دەستۆیێڤسکی]]
[[sr:Фјодор Достојевски]]
[[sh:Fjodor Mihajlovič Dostojevski]]
[[fi:Fjodor Dostojevski]]
[[sv:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
[[tl:Fëdor Dostoevskij]]
[[ta:பியோதர் தஸ்தயெவ்ஸ்கி]]
[[tt:Федор Достоевский]]
[[th:ฟีโอดอร์ ดอสโตเยฟสกี]]
[[tg:Фёдор Михайлович Достоевский]]
[[tr:Fyodor Dostoyevski]]
[[tk:Fýodor Dostoýewskiý]]
[[uk:Достоєвський Федір Михайлович]]
[[ur:فیودر دوستوئیفسکی]]
[[vi:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky]]
[[vo:Fyodor Mihailovic Dostoyevskiy]]
[[fiu-vro:Dostojevski Fjodor]]
[[wa:Fyodor Mixhaylovitch Dostoyevskiy]]
[[war:Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
[[yi:פיאדאר דאסטאיעווסקי]]
[[yo:Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]
[[zh-yue:杜斯托也夫斯基]]
[[diq:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
[[bat-smg:Fiuoduors Duostuojėvskis]]
[[zh:費奧多爾·陀思妥耶夫斯基]]

Freie-Software-Bewegung

2012-05-12T17:51:04Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Merge from |Free-software community |discuss=Talk:Free-software community#Merge_to_free_software |date=December 2011}}

The '''free software movement''' is a [[social movement|social]] and [[political movement]]<ref>[http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/emacs-devel/2008-03/msg00635.html Richard Stallman on the nature of the Free software movement] in 2008 on emacs-devel mailing list.</ref> with the goal of ensuring software users' four basic freedoms: the freedom to run their software, to study and change their software, and to redistribute copies with or without changes. Although drawing on traditions and philosophies among members of the 1970s [[hacker (programmer subculture)|hacker culture]], [[Richard Stallman]] formally founded the movement in 1983 by launching the [[GNU Project]].<ref>{{cite web
|title=Announcement of the GNU project
|url=http://www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-announcement.html
}}</ref>

The '''free software philosophy''' at the core of the movement drew on the essence and incidental elements of what was called ''hacker culture'' by many computer users in the 1970s, among other sources.

Stallman founded the [[Free Software Foundation]] in 1985 to support the movement.

== Philosophy ==
The philosophy of the movement is that the use of computers should not lead to people being prevented from cooperating with each other. In practice, this means rejecting "[[proprietary software]]", which imposes such restrictions, and promoting [[free software]],<ref>{{cite web
|title=Use Free Software
|publisher=gnu.org
|url=http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/use-free-software.html
}}</ref> with the ultimate goal of liberating everyone "in cyberspace"<ref>{{cite web
|title=Stallman interviewed by Sean Daly
|url=http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20060625001523547
|publisher=Groklaw
|date=2006-06-23
}}</ref> – that is, every computer user. Stallman notes that this action will promote rather than hinder the progression of technology, since "it means that much wasteful duplication of system programming effort will be avoided. This effort can go instead into advancing the state of the art".<ref name="Wardrip-Fruin, Noah 2003">Wardrip-Fruin, Noah, and Nick Montfort, eds. ''The New Media Reader''. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.</ref>

Members of the free software movement believe that all users of software should have the freedoms listed in [[The Free Software Definition]]. Many of them hold that it is [[morality|immoral]] to prohibit or prevent people from exercising these freedoms and that these freedoms are required to create a decent society where software users can help each other, and to have control over their computers.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Why free software?
|url=http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-free.html
|publisher=gnu.org
}}</ref>

Some adherents to the free software movement do not believe that [[proprietary software]] is strictly immoral.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Copyleft: Pragmatic Idealism
|publisher=gnu.org
|url=http://www.fsf.org/licensing/essays/pragmatic.html
}}</ref>

"While social change may occur as an unintended by-product of technological change, advocates of new technologies often have promoted them as instruments of positive social change." This quote by San Jose State professor Joel West explains much of the philosophy, or the reason that the free source movement is alive. If it is assumed that social change is not only affected, but in some points of view, directed by the advancement of technology, is it ethical to hold these technologies from certain people? If not to make a direct change, this movement is in place to raise awareness about the effects that take place because of the physical things around us. A computer, for instance, allows us so many more freedoms than we have without a computer, but should these technological mediums be implied freedoms, or selective privileges? The debate over the morality of both sides to the free software movement is a difficult topic to compromise respective opposition. <ref>{{cite web
|title= The Effect of Computerization Movements Upon Organizational Adoption of Open Source
|publisher=San Jose State University
|url=http://www.cob.sjsu.edu/opensource/research/westdedrick_si_2005.pdf
}}</ref>

The Free Software Foundation also believes all software needs [[free documentation]], in particular because conscientious programmers should be able to update manuals to reflect modification that they made to the software), but deems the freedom to modify less important for other types of written works.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Free Software and Free Manuals
|url=http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-doc.html
|publisher=gnu.org
}}</ref> Within the free software movement, the [[Floss manuals]] foundation specialises on the goal of providing such documentation. Members of the free software movement advocate that works which serve a practical purpose should also be free.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}

== Actions ==
=== Writing and spreading free software ===
The core work of the free software movement focused on software development. The free software movement also rejects proprietary software, refusing to install software that does not give them the freedoms of free software. According to Stallman, "The only thing in the software field that is worse than an unauthorised copy of a proprietary program, is an authorised copy of the proprietary program because this does the same harm to its whole community of users, and in addition, usually the developer, the perpetrator of this evil, profits from it."<ref>{{cite web
|title=Transcript of Stallman on Free Software
|date=2006-03-09
|url=http://fsfeurope.org/documents/rms-fs-2006-03-09.en.html
|publisher=FSFE
}}</ref>

=== Building awareness ===
Some supporters of the free software movement take up [[public speaking]], or host a stall at software-related conferences to raise awareness of software freedom. This is seen as important since people who receive free software, but who are not aware that it is free software, will later accept a non-free replacement or will add software that is not free software.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Transcript of Stallman speaking at WSIS
|url=http://fsfe.org/en/fellows/ciaran/ciaran_s_free_software_notes/transcript_of_rms_at_wsis_on_is_free_open_source_software_the_answer#wsis--importance-of-awareness
|publisher=[[Ciarán O'Riordan]]
}}</ref>

=== Ethical Equality ===
Margaret S. Elliot, a researcher in the Institute for Software at the University of California Irvine, not only outlines many benefits that could come from a free software movement, she claims that it is inherently necessary to give every person equal opportunity to utilize the internet, assuming that the computer is globally accessible. Since the world has become more based in the framework of technology and its advancement,creating a selective internet that allows only some to surf the web freely is nonsensical according to Elliot. If there is a desire to live in a more coexistent world that is benefited by communication and global assistance, then globally free software should be a position to strive for, according to many scholars who promote awareness about the free software movement. The ideas sparked by the GNU associates are an attempt to promote a "cooperative environment" that understands the benefits of having a local community and a global community.
title=Mobilization of software developers
url=http://ifipwg213.org/system/files/elliottscacchi2.pdf
publisher=Institute for Software Research

== Legislation ==
A lot of lobbying work has been done against [[software patent]]s and expansions of copyright law. Other lobbying focusses directly on use of free software by government agencies and government-funded projects.

The [[Venezuela]]n government implemented a free software law in January 2006. Decree No. 3,390 mandated all government agencies to migrate to free software over a two-year period.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.freesoftwaremagazine.com/articles/professional_services_venezuela/
|title=Free software liberates Venezuela
|publisher=[[Free Software Magazine]] n°10
|date=2006-02-08
}}</ref>

Congressmen Dr [[Edgar David Villanueva]] and Jacques Rodrich Ackerman have been instrumental in introducing in Republic of Peru bill 1609 on "Free Software in Public Administration".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Free_Software_in_Public_Agencies
|title=An English translation of the Free Software bill proposed in Peru
}}{{dead link|date=November 2011}}</ref> The incident immediately invited the attention of Microsoft Inc, Peru, whose General Manager wrote a letter to Dr Edgar David Villanueva. Dr Villanueva's response received worldwide attention and is still seen as a classical piece of argumentation favouring use of Free Software in Governments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gnu.org.pe/resmseng.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070829215908/http://www.gnu.org.pe/resmseng.html|archivedate=2007-08-29|title=Peruvian Congressman Edgar Villanueva writing to Microsoft about free software.}}</ref>

In the USA, there have been efforts to pass legislation at the state level encouraging use of free software by state government agencies.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://news.cnet.com/2100-1001-949241.html
|title=Open source's new weapon: The law?
}}</ref>

== Subgroups and schisms ==
Like many social movements, the free software movement has ongoing internal conflict between personalities and between supporters of compromise versus strict adherence to values.

=== Open source ===
In 1998, some companies {{who|date=November 2011}} met to create a marketing campaign for free software which would focus on technology rather than ethics{{Citation needed|date=February 2008}}. After this [[Eric Raymond]] and [[Bruce Perens]] founded the [[Open Source Initiative]] (OSI), to promote the term "[[open-source software]]" as an [[alternative term for free software]]. OSI did not agree with the free software movement's position that non-free software is a social problem or that it is unethical,<ref>[http://www.urbanophile.com/arenn/hacking/fsvos.html "Free", "Open Source", and Philosophies of Software Ownership]{{dead link|date=November 2011}}</ref> arguing instead that it is a superior model for software development.<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=gnu.org
|url=http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html
|title=Open Source misses the point
}}</ref>

By 2005, Richard Glass considered the differences to be a "serious fracture" but "vitally important to those on both sides of the fracture" and "of little importance to anyone else studying the movement from a software engineering perspective" since they have had "little effect on the field".<ref>{{Citation
| author = Richard Glass
| chapter = Standing in Front of the Open Source Steamroller
| title = Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software
| editor = Joseph Feller, Brian Fitzgerald, Scott A. Hissam, Karim R. Lakahani
| publisher = MIT Press
| year = 2005
| isbm = 0262062461
| pages = 89}}</ref>

Some free software advocates use the term [[Free and Open Source Software]] (FOSS) as an inclusive compromise, drawing on both philosophies to bring both free software advocates and open source software advocates together to work on projects with more cohesion. Some users believe that a compromise term encompassing both aspects is ideal, to promote both the user's freedom with the software and also to promote the perceived superiority of an open source development model.

While some people prefer to link the two ideas of “open source software” and “free software” together, it is important to understand the difference because they offer two separate ideas and values. This ambiguity began in 1998 when people started to use the term “open source software” rather than “free software.” People in the community of free software used these separate terms as a way to differenciate what they did. The Open Source movement addresses software being open as a practical question as opposed to an ethical dilemma. In other words, it focuses more on the development. The Open Source movement ultimately determines that non-free software is not the solution of best interest.

On the other hand, the Free Software movement views non-free software as a social issue and free software as the solution to the problem. Those who work within the free software community have searched for less ambiguous terms in efforts to refine their definition so there is no confusion, but have struggle to find words that do not yield vagueness. Although the movements have separate values and goals, people in both the open source community and free software community collaborate when it comes to practical projects. <ref>{{cite web
|publisher=gnu.org
|url=http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-software-for-freedom.html
|title=Why “Free Software” is better than “Open Source”
}}</ref>

The switch from the free software movement to the open source movement has had negative effects on the progression of community,according to Christopher Kelty who dedicates a scholarly chapter to the free software movements in "Theorizing Media and Practice". The open source movement denies that selectivity and the privatization of software is unethical. Although the open source movement is working towards the same social benefits as the free software movement, Kelty claims that by disregarding this fundamental belief of the free software advocates, one is destroying the overall argument. If it can be claimed that it is ethical to limit the internet and other technology to only users who have the means to utilize these software, then there is no argument against the way things are at the moment; there is no need to complain if all morality is in affect. <ref>{{cite web
|publisher=anthropology of media
|url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=IbycR6djcEEC&oi=fnd&pg=PA281&dq=free+software+movement&ots=MP7ORZCGuh&|sig=c2kggN8Sg75Qs2lxCoQtf-Xn7jo#v=onepage&q=free%20software%20movement&f=false
|title=theorizing media and practice
}}</ref>

=== Stallman and Torvalds ===
The two most prominent people attached to the movement, [[Richard Stallman]] and [[Linus Torvalds]], may be seen as representatives of the value based versus apolitical philosophies, as well as the Gnu versus Linux [[coding style]]s. Paradoxically as it seems, it is the [[symbiosis]] of their works that make up a complete [[operating system]] known as [[Linux|GNU/Linux, or just Linux]]. In the [[GNU/Linux naming controversy]] the FSF argues for the term GNU/Linux because GNU was a longstanding project to develop a free operating system, of which they say the kernel was the last missing piece.<ref>http://www.gnu.org/gnu/linux-and-gnu.html</ref>

== Measures of progress ==
[[Ohloh]], a [[web service]] founded in 2004 and launched in 2006, monitors the development activity in the [[free software community]], providing detailed [[Software metric|metrics]] and [[Quantitative analysis (finance)|quantitative analyses]] on the growth and popularity of projects and [[programming language]]s.

In January 2010, [[Global Graphics]] completed a survey [http://www.computerworlduk.com/toolbox/open-source/applications/news/index.cfm?newsid=18518] with 400 Chief Information Officers from organisations with over 1000 employees across the US and the UK that showed three quarters (76 per cent) of large organisations use free software across the enterprise with over half (51 per cent) planning to deploy more free software in 2010.

== Criticism and controversy ==
=== Should principles be compromised? ===
Some, such as [[Eric Raymond]], criticise the speed at which the free software movement is progressing, suggesting that temporary compromises should be made for long-term gains. Raymond argues that this could raise awareness of the software and thus increase the free software movement's influence on relevant standards and legislation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/world-domination/world-domination-201.html|title=ESR's "World Domination 201", on the need for more compromise by the free software movement}}</ref>

Others, such as Richard Stallman, see the current level of compromise to be the bigger worry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/use-free-software.html|title=RMS on the progress of the movement and his worry about compromise}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.libervis.com/article/richard_stallman_on_world_domination_201|title=Richard Stallman on "World Domination 201"|quote=I cannot agree to that compromise, and my experience teaches me that it won't be temporary. ... What our community needs most is more spine in rejection of non-free software. It has far too much willingness to compromise. ... To "argue" in favor of adding non-free software in GNU/Linux distros is almost superfluous, since that's what nearly all of them have already done.}}</ref>

=== How will programmers get paid? ===

Stallman said that this is where people get the misconception of "free": there is no wrong in programmers' requesting payment for a proposed project. Restricting and controlling the user's decisions on use is the actual violation of freedom. Stallman defends that in some cases, monetary incentive is not necessary for motivation since the pleasure in expressing creativity is a reward in itself (such as music and art).<ref name="Wardrip-Fruin, Noah 2003" />

== See also ==
{{Portal|Free software}}

* [[Free software community]]
* [[GNU Manifesto]]
* [[History of free software]]
* [[Linux adoption]]
* [[Open source movement]]
* [[Free Culture Movement]]
* [[Free Software Foundation]]
* [[Open Source Initiative]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
* David M. Berry, ''Copy, Rip, Burn: The Politics of Copyleft and Open Source'', Pluto Press, 2008, ISBN 0-7453-2414-2
* Johan Soderberg, ''Hacking Capitalism: The Free and Open Source Software Movement'', Routledge, 2007, ISBN 0-415-95543-2

==External links==
* [http://www.onlamp.com/pub/a/onlamp/2005/09/29/what-is-free-software.html What is Free Software?] - Essay by [[Karl Fogel]].
* [http://fsfeurope.org/documents/rms-fs-2006-03-09.en.html The Free Software Movement and the Future of Freedom], a 2006 lecture by Richard Stallman
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-software-intro.html Free Software Movement intro by FSF]
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/ The GNU Project Philosophy Directory], containing many defining documents of the free software movement
* [http://www.zmag.org/znet/viewArticle/4795 An interview with Stallman, "Free Software as a social movement"]
* Christian Imhorst, [http://www.imhorst.net/translations/anarchy-and-source-code/ ''Anarchy and Source Code - What does the Free Software Movement have to do with Anarchism?]'', (licence: [[GFDL]]), 2005
* [http://www.zeuux.org/law/billxu-rms-drm.html An anti-DRM campaign] - by Bill Xu and Richard Stallman
* [http://www.apdip.net/news/fossdoc The Codebreakers - a freely redistributable movie]
* [http://www.gnu.org/music/free-software-song.html Stallman's Free Software Song]

{{FLOSS}}
{{Intellectual property activism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Free Software Movement}}
[[Category:Copyleft media]]
[[Category:Free software culture and documents]]
[[Category:Free Software Foundation]]
[[Category:GNU Project|*]]
[[Category:Social movements]]

[[ar:حركة البرمجيات الحرة]]
[[bn:মুক্ত সফটওয়্যার আন্দোলন]]
[[es:Movimiento del software libre]]
[[fa:جنبش نرم‌افزار آزاد]]
[[fr:Mouvement du logiciel libre]]
[[ko:자유 소프트웨어 운동]]
[[hr:Pokret slobodnih programa]]
[[id:Gerakan perangkat lunak bebas]]
[[ja:フリーソフトウェア運動]]
[[ru:Философия движения свободного программного обеспечения]]
[[si:නිදහස් මෘදුකාංග ව්‍යාපාරය]]
[[simple:Free software movement]]
[[zh:自由软件运动]]

Der häßliche Amerikaner

2012-05-12T15:33:47Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build KF)

{{for|other uses of the term|Ugly American (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox Film
| name = The Ugly American
| image = The Ugly American poster.jpg
|caption = original movie poster
| director = [[George Englund]]
| producer = [[George Englund]]
| writer = [[Stewart Stern]]
| starring = [[Marlon Brando]] [[Sandra Church]] [[Eiji Okada]] [[Pat Hingle]] [[Judson Pratt]] [[Arthur Hill (actor)|Arthur Hill]]
| music =
| cinematography = [[Clifford Stine]] 
| editing = [[Ted J. Kent]]
| distributor = [[Universal Pictures]]
| released = 1963
| runtime = 115 min.
| language =
| budget =
|}}
'''''The Ugly American''''' is the title of a 1958 political novel by [[Eugene Burdick]] and [[William Lederer]] upon which a 1963 movie starring [[Marlon Brando]] was based. The novel became a [[bestseller]], was influential at the time, and is still in print. The book is a quasi-[[roman à clef]]; that is, it presents, in a fictionalized guise, the experience of Americans in Southeast Asia (Vietnam) and allegedly portrays several real people who are represented by pseudonyms.
==1958 novel==
The novel, taking place in a fictional nation called Sarkhan (an imaginary country in Southeast Asia that somewhat resembles [[Burma]] or [[Thailand]], but which is meant to allude to Vietnam) as its setting and includes several real people, most of whose names have been changed. The book describes the United States's losing struggle against [[Communism]]—what was later to be called ''the battle for [[Hearts and Minds (Vietnam)|hearts and minds]]'' in [[Southeast Asia]], because of innate arrogance and the failure to understand the local culture. The title is actually a [[double entendre]], referring both to the physically unattractive hero, Homer Atkins, in contrast with the ugly behavior of the American government employees.

In the novel, a Burmese journalist says "For some reason, the [American] people I meet in my country are not the same as the ones I knew in the United States. A mysterious change seems to come over Americans when they go to a foreign land. They isolate themselves socially. They live pretentiously. They're loud and ostentatious."

The "ugly American" of the book title fundamentally refers to the plain-looking engineer Atkins, who lives with the local people, who comes to understand their needs, and who offers genuinely useful assistance with small-scale projects such as the development of a simple bicycle-powered water pump. It is argued in the book that the Communists are successful because they practice tactics similar to those of Atkins.

According to an article published in ''[[Newsweek]]'' in May 1959, the "real" "Ugly American" was identified as an International Cooperative Agency technician named Otto Hunerwadel, who, with his wife Helen, served in Burma from 1949 until his death in 1952. They lived in the villages, where they taught farming techniques and helped start home canning industries.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Fulbright Difference |last1=Clifford |first1=Robert L. |last2=Hunerwadel |first2=Helen B. |editor1-last=Arndt |editor1-first=Richard T. |editor2-last=David Lee |editor2-first=Rubin |chapter=Chapter 1: Burma Beginnings and Point Four |series=Fulbright Association series |publisher=Transaction Publishers |location=New Brunswick, NJ |date=1996 |origyear=1993 |pages=20–24 |isbn=1-56000-085-6 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LqMwKTUN7f0C&pg=PA20&dq=Hunerwadel#v=onepage&q=Hunerwadel&f=false |accessdate=18 July 2011 }}</ref>

Another of the book's heroes, Colonel Hillandale, appears to have been modeled on the real-life [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] Lieutenant General [[Edward Lansdale]], an expert in [[Counter-insurgency|counter-guerrilla operations]].

After the book had gained wide readership, the term [[Ugly American (epithet)|"Ugly American"]] came to be used to refer to the "loud and ostentatious" type of visitor in another country, rather than the "plain looking folks, who are not afraid to 'get their hands dirty' like Homer Atkins" to whom the book itself referred.

== 1963 film ==

The story of this novel was made into a film in 1963 starring [[Marlon Brando]] as Ambassador Harrison Carter MacWhite. Its screenplay was written by [[Stewart Stern]], and the film was produced and directed by [[George Englund]]. The film was shot mainly in Hollywood, with Thailand serving as the inspiration for the background sceneries. Parts of the film were also shot on locations in Bangkok, Thailand, including at [[Chulalongkorn University]], one of the leading institutes of higher learning of the country. Upon release, the film garnered generally positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator [[Rotten Tomatoes]] reports that 80% of critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 6.1/10.

[[Kukrit Pramoj]], a Thai politician and scholar, was hired as a cultural expert/advisor to the film and later played the role of Sarkhan's Prime Minister "Kwen Sai". Later on, in 1975, he really did become the 13th Prime Minister of [[Thailand]]. Probably because of this, the word "Sarkhan" has entered the Thai language as a nickname of Thailand itself, often with a slight self-deprecating or mocking tone.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

=====Cast=====
[[Marlon Brando]] ...
Ambassador Harrison Carter MacWhite 
[[Eiji Okada]] ...
Deong 
[[Sandra Church]] ...
Marion MacWhite 
[[Pat Hingle]] ...
Homer Atkins 
[[Arthur Hill]] ...
Grainger 
[[Jocelyn Brando]] ...
Emma Atkins 
[[Kukrit Pramoj]] ...
Prime Minister Kwen Sai 
[[Judson Pratt]] ...
Joe Bing 
[[Reiko Sato]] ...
Rachani, Deong's Wife 
George Shibata ...
Munsang 
Judson Laire ...
Senator Brenner 
[[Philip Ober]] ...
Ambassador Sears 
Yee Tak Yip ...
Sawad, Deong's Assistant 
[[Carl Benton Reid]] ...
Senator at Confirmation Hearing 

== Notes ==
<references/>

== External links ==
* {{imdb title|0056632|The Ugly American}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ugly American, The}}
[[Category:1958 novels]]
[[Category:1963 films]]
[[Category:American novels adapted into films]]
[[Category:American political novels]]
[[Category:American roman a clef novels]]
[[Category:Books about United States foreign relations]]
[[Category:Cold War novels]]
[[Category:Films set in a fictional Asian country]]
[[Category:Roman à clef novels]]

[[Category:Cold War films]]


[[fr:Le Vilain Américain]]
[[id:The Ugly American]]
[[it:Missione in Oriente]]
[[pl:Spokojny Amerykanin (film 1963)]]
[[th:อเมริกันอันตราย]]
[[wa:The Ugly American]]

Andromeda IV

2012-05-12T14:59:51Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Dated {{Citation needed}}. (Build KF)

{{Infobox Galaxy
| name = Andromeda IV
| image = [[File:Andromeda IV Hubble WikiSky.jpg|240px]]
| caption = Andromeda IV just about 30″ to the right from TYC 2801-551-1 star (mag: 10.3); [[Hubble space telescope|HST]]
| credit = [[NASA]] / [[STScI]] / [[WikiSky]]
| epoch = [[J2000]]
| type = Dwarf irregular<ref name="ned">{{cite web
| title=NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database
| work=Results for Andromeda IV
| url=http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/cgi-bin/nph-objsearch?objname=Andromeda+IV#ObjNo1
| accessdate=2007-03-15 }}</ref>
| ra = {{RA|00|42|32.3}}<ref name="ned" />
| dec = {{DEC|+40|34|19}}<ref name="ned" />
| dist_ly =
| z = 256 ± 9 km/[[second|s]]<ref name="ned" />
| appmag_v = 16.6B<ref name="ned" />
| size_v = 1′.3 × 1′.0<ref name="ned" />
| constellation name = [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]]
| notes =
| names = And IV,<ref name="ned" /> [[Principal Galaxies Catalogue|PGC]] 2544<ref name="ned" />
}}
{{Sky|00|42|32.3|+|40|34|19|1000000000}}
'''Andromeda IV''' (And IV) might be an [[Irregular galaxy|irregular]] [[Andromeda Galaxy's satellite galaxies|satellite]] of the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]; however it is more probably not a [[galaxy]] at all, but a loosely bound [[star cluster]] or some other background feature.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

==History==
It was discovered by [[Sidney van den Bergh]].<ref name="McConnachieetal2005">{{cite journal
| author=McConnachie, A. W.; Irwin, M. J.; Ferguson, A. M. N.; Ibata, R. A.; Lewis, G. F.; Tanvir, N.
| title=Distances and metallicities for 17 Local Group galaxies
| journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
| year=2005
| volume=356
| issue=4
| pages=979–997
| bibcode=2005MNRAS.356..979M
| doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08514.x |arxiv = astro-ph/0410489 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{WikiSky}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Andromeda 04}}
[[Category:Dwarf irregular galaxies]]
[[Category:Local Group]]
[[Category:Andromeda Subgroup]]
[[Category:Andromeda (constellation)]]

{{galaxy-stub}}

[[fr:Andromeda IV]]
[[pl:Andromeda IV]]
[[pt:Andrômeda IV]]
[[fi:Andromeda IV]]
[[zh:仙女座IV]]

Bacon’s Castle

2012-05-12T14:16:41Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Infobox nrhp
| name =Bacon's Castle
| nrhp_type =nhl
| image =Bacons Castle 2006.jpg
| caption =Bacon's Castle in 2006
| location= [[Surry County, Virginia]]
| lat_degrees = 37 | lat_minutes = 06 | lat_seconds = 38 | lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 76 | long_minutes = 43 | long_seconds = 41 | long_direction = W
| locmapin = Virginia
| area = Hampton Roads
| built = 1665
| architect = Unknown<ref name=nris/>
| architecture=[[Jacobean architecture|Jacobean]] and [[Greek revival]]
| designated_nrhp_type= October 9, 1960<ref name="nhlsum">{{cite web|url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=646&ResourceType=Building|title=Bacon's Castle |accessdate=2008-06-23|work=National Historic Landmark summary listing|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref>
| added =1966<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|2006a}}</ref>
| governing_body =[[Preservation Virginia]]
| refnum=66000849
}}
'''Bacon's Castle''', also variously known as "Allen's Brick House" or the "Arthur Allen House" is located in [[Surry County, Virginia]], [[USA]], and is [[Virginia]]'s oldest documented brick dwelling.<ref name=Cent>{{cite book|title=Preserving Virginia 1889-1989: Centennial Pictorial|year=1989|publisher=The Art Band|location=Virginia|pages=12}}</ref> The house became known as "Bacon's Castle" because it was occupied as a [[fort]] or "[[castle]]" by the followers of [[Nathaniel Bacon (diplomat)|Nathaniel Bacon]] during [[Bacon's Rebellion]] in 1676. However, contrary to popular folklore, Bacon never lived at Bacon's Castle, nor is he even known to have visited it. Today Bacon's Castle is an historic house museum and historic site open for guest visitation. Bacon's Castle is an official Preservation Virginia historic site and operates under its 501 (c)(3) not-for-profit status.

==History==
Soon after Surry County was formed in the [[Virginia Colony|Royal Colony of Virginia]] in 1652, [[Arthur Allen (Virginia Colony)|Arthur Allen]] built a [[Jacobean architecture|Jacobean]] brick house in 1665 near the [[James River (Virginia)|James River]], where he and his wife Alice (née Tucker) Allen lived. He was a wealthy [[merchant]] and a [[Justice of the Peace]] in Surry County. Allen died in 1669, but his son, Major [[Arthur Allen II]], inherited the house and property. Major Allen was a member of the Virginia [[House of Burgesses]].

About mid-September, 1676, a number of the rebel followers of frontiersman Nathaniel Bacon seized the brick house of Major Allen and fortified it.<ref name=NRHPNomForm>National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form, Bacon's Castle, p. 2.</ref> The [[garrison]], commanded at various times by William Rookings, Arthur Long, Joseph Rogers and John Clements, retained control of the house for over three months while their cause declined. The death of Bacon in October left his forces under the leadership of Joseph Ingram, who proved to be unsuited to the command. Ingram dispersed his army in small garrisons, and as the demoralized troops began to plunder indiscriminately, the condition of the colony was soon deplorable.<ref name=NRHPNomForm/>

Royal Governor [[William Berkeley (governor)|Sir William Berkeley]] began to conquer the isolated posts one by one, some by force and some by persuasion. On December 29, a loyal force aboard the vessel ''Young Prince'', captured an unidentified "fort" which many historians have identified as Bacon's Castle. After withstanding a brief siege early in January, 1677, the loyalists used the "fort" as a base of operations for the last engagements of the rebellion, which ended before the month was out.<ref name=NRHPNomForm/>

The Allen family's brick home became known as "Bacon's Castle" because it was occupied as a [[fort]] or "[[castle]]" by the followers of [[Nathaniel Bacon (diplomat)|Nathaniel Bacon]] during [[Bacon's Rebellion]] in 1676. However, contrary to popular folklore, Bacon never lived at Bacon's Castle, nor is he even known to have visited it.<ref name=NRHPNomForm/> Bacon was the proprietor of [[Curles Neck Plantation]] in [[Henrico County, Virginia|Henrico County]], about 30 miles upriver on the northern bank of the James River. Many historians believe the name "Bacon's Castle" was not used until many years after Bacon's Rebellion. In 1769, the ''[[Virginia Gazette]]'' newspaper in the capital city of [[Williamsburg, Virginia|Williamsburg]] used that name when it published several articles about Bacon's Rebellion.

==Preservation and Current Operations==
[[File:Bacon's Castle Smokehouse.jpg|thumbnail|right|An external building part of the site.]]
Bacon's Castle was acquired by [[Preservation Virginia]] (formerly known as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities) in the 1970s and restored. Preservation activities continue while guests visit the Site. Bacon's Castle now operates as a house museum and historic site with 40-acres of outbuildings and dependencies including barns, slave and tenant quarters, smokehouses, and a rare example of a 17th-century english formal garden. Visitors may self-tour the grounds, outbuildings and gardens throughout the year. Between March and November guests may tour the Castle and purchase merchandise in its gift shop on Fridays and Saturdays between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. and Sundays between 12 and 4 p.m. Group tours are available with advance reservations.

==Architecture==
Bacon's Castle is a rare example of American [[Jacobean architecture]] and the only surviving "high-style" house from the 17th century.<ref name=Virginia>
{{Cite web
| title = Bacon's Castle
| publisher = Preservation Virginia
| url = http://www.apva.org/baconscastle/
| accessdate = 25 July 2010}}</ref><ref name=McAlester1>
{{Cite book
| last = McAlester
| first = Virginia
| coauthors = Lee McAlester
| title = A Field Guide to American Houses
| publisher = Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
| year = 1984
| location = New York
| page = 110
| isbn = 0-394-73969-8}}</ref> It is one of only three surviving Jacobean [[great house]]s in the [[Western Hemisphere]] — the other two are in [[Barbados]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} Notable [[architecture|architectural]] features include the triple-stacked chimneys, shaped Flemish [[gable]]s, and carved [[compass rose]]s decorating the cross [[Beam (structure)|beams]] in many of the public rooms. The house is listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].

Between the mid to late-nineteenth century, Bacon's Castle underwent several modifications. An original one story service wing was replaced by a taller [[Greek Revival]] wing. Around this time, the entrance was moved from the center of the main block to the [[hyphen (architecture)|hyphen]] between the original house and addition, and diamond-pane [[casement window]]s were exchanged for double-hung [[sash window]]s. Moving the door left a scar in the location of the original [[pediment]]ed surround. All of these changes were maintained in the restoration.<ref>
{{Cite book
| last = Howe
| first = Jeffery
| title = The Houses We Live In
| publisher = PRC Publishing Ltd
| year = 2002
| location = Location
| pages = 125–6
| isbn = 1-85648-437-0 {{Please check ISBN|reason=Check digit (0) does not correspond to calculated figure.}}}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of the oldest buildings in Virginia]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

==References==
{{Commons category}}
*{{cite book |last=Wertenbaker |first=Thomas J. |title=Virginia under the Stuarts, 1607-1688 |date=1914 |publisher=Princeton University |location=New Jersey}}
*{{cite book |last=Morrison |first=Hugh |title=Early American Architecture |location=New York |date=1952}}
*{{cite book |last=Kimball |first=Fiske |title=Domestic Architecture of the American Colonies and of the Early Republic |date=1922 |location=New York}}

==External links==
*[http://www.preservationvirginia.org/baconscastle Bacon's Castle webpage on the Preservation Virginia website]
*[http://www.facebook.com/baconscastle Bacon's Castle Facebook webpage]
*[http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/explorers/sitec56.htm National Park Service, a brief history of Bacon's Castle]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hh:@field(DOCID+@lit(VA0955)) Historic American Buildings Survey, Library of Congress]

{{Registered Historic Places}}
{{James River Plantations}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1665]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Virginia]]
[[Category:Museums in Surry County, Virginia]]
[[Category:James River plantations]]
[[Category:National Historic Landmarks in Virginia]]
[[Category:Jacobean architecture in Virginia]]
[[Category:Greek Revival architecture in Virginia]]
[[Category:Houses in Surry County, Virginia]]

[[zh:培根堡]]

Dschungeldivision

2012-05-12T13:55:07Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

[[Image:Sio AWM070302.jpeg|thumb|Australian troops of B Company, 30th Battalion crossing a shallow creek between Weber Point and Malalamai during the [[Battle of Sio]] in 1944.]]

The '''Jungle Division''' was a military organisation adopted in 1943 by the [[Australian Army]] during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. This organisation was a much lighter version of the standard British-pattern infantry [[division (military)|division]] used during previous campaigns in the deserts of [[North Africa Campaign|North Africa]] and was optimised to meet the needs of [[jungle warfare]] against the [[Japan]]ese in the [[South West Pacific Area]]. Jungle divisions were smaller and had fewer heavy weapons, vehicles and support units and despite some modifications, this re-organisation proved quite successful during later Australian operations in [[New Guinea Campaign|New Guinea]], [[New Britain Campaign|New Britain]], [[Bougainville Campaign|Bougainville]], [[Aitape-Wewak campaign|Aitape-Wewak]] and [[Borneo Campaign (1945)|Borneo]].

==Reorganisation of the Australian Army, 1943==
[[Image:Matilda (AWM 016100).jpg|thumb|left|A [[Matilda tank]], named "Clincher", from the Australian 4th Armoured Brigade, moves towards Japanese strong points near Finschhafen, on 9 November 1943.]]
The changing nature of land warfare during the Second World War led to significant changes in the composition of Australian Army units. Indeed the success of German mechanised units during the invasions of Poland and France convinced Australian defence planners that the army required armoured units, and these began to be raised in 1941 when the [[Australian 1st Armoured Division|1st Armoured Division]] was formed. The two [[Australian Army Reserve|Citizens Military Force]] cavalry divisions were first motorised and then converted into armoured divisions in 1942 and the [[3rd Army Tank Brigade (Australia)|3rd Army Tank Brigade]] was formed to provide support to the infantry. However in response to the growing Japanese threat Australian forces were concentrated in the Pacific, and in response to this changing operational environment land headquarters identified the need for three different types of division in February 1943: armoured divisions, standard infantry divisions and jungle infantry divisions. Large armoured units were especially not suitable for jungle warfare, and most were disbanded during 1943 and 1944.<ref>Palazzo 2001, pp. 178–183.</ref>

Ultimately the conditions that prevailed in the South West Pacific led the Australian Army to convert six infantry divisions to 'Jungle divisions' in early 1943. This organisation operated on reduced manpower and had fewer heavy weapons, vehicles and support units then the British-pattern division previously used,<ref name=Palazzo183186>Palazzo 2001, pp. 183–186.</ref> with the main imperatives being "manpower, transport, and communications."<ref>Grey 2001, p. 149.</ref> Specifically each [[battalion]] was reduced in size and placed on a new ‘tropical war establishment’, the anti-aircraft and carrier platoons were disbanded, and the later converted into a medium machine gun platoon of four [[Vickers machine gun]]s, while the number of [[Ordnance ML 3 inch Mortar|3-inch mortars]] was increased from six to eight. Equally while the standard division contained a large number of motorbikes, trucks and mechanised vehicles, such transport was of limited use in the rugged, roadless jungles and the muddy tracks of the South West Pacific. To this end each rifle [[company (military unit)|company]] in a jungle division was restricted to just one jeep and trailer, relying instead on ‘foot mobility’ and supported logistically by native carrier trains rather than vehicles, as well as by air transport and supply dropping.<ref group="Note">The establishment of a standard infantry battalion was 35 officers and 875 other ranks. Under the jungle organisation each battalion was reduced by 1 officer and 106 other ranks.</ref><ref name=Coates49>Coates 1999, p. 49.</ref> As many administrative personal as possible were also removed from the divisional structure, while fewer vehicles also meant a reduced requirement for maintenance personnel and reduced logistical support.<ref name=Palazzo184>Palazzo 2001, p. 184.</ref>

[[Image:Soliders tarakan (AWM 108076).jpg|thumb|right|Two soldiers from the 2/23rd Battalion during the attack on Freda feature on Tarakan 1945]]

The rationale behind these changes was to increase the effectiveness of infantry units by stripping them of elements which were not necessary in tropical terrain or those that were no longer necessary due to declining Japanese airpower and artillery. Equally it served to reduce the size of the Australian Army in order to free up manpower for use in civilian industry in the face of a growing manpower crisis.<ref name=Coates49/> Indeed a jungle division had an establishment of just 13,118 men, approximately 4,000 fewer than a standard division.<ref name=Palazzo184/> The greatest problem faced by the army in New Guinea was logistical support as the island lacked roads and port facilities, while its terrain was amongst the most difficult in the world. Inland the main means of movement was on foot, and native porters were essential for the transport of supplies and the evacuation of the wounded.<ref name=Palazzo184/> The jungle division optimised the army for operations in this environment, and as such, for the first time in its history the Australian Army was organised specifically for the conditions it would fight in, rather than just following accepted British doctrine.<ref name=Palazzo184/>

Six infantry divisions were eventually converted to the jungle organisation including three CMF militia divisions: the [[Australian 3rd Division|3rd]], [[Australian 5th Division|5th]] and [[11th Division (Australia)|11th]] and the three [[Second AIF|Australian Imperial Force]] divisions: the [[Australian 6th Division|6th]], [[Australian 7th Division|7th]], [[Australian 9th Division|9th]].<ref>Palazzo 2001, p. 183.</ref> These divisions formed the bulk of Australia’s deployed forces, with the remaining divisions predominantly used for home service where the open terrain suited them, while others were disbanded.<ref group="Note">The [[Australian 10th Division|10th Division]] had been disbanded in 1942; the [[Australian 1st Armoured Division|1st Armoured]], [[Australian 2nd Armoured Division|2nd Armoured]] and [[Australian 3rd Armoured Division|3rd Armoured Division]]s were disbanded in 1943. The [[Australian 2nd Division|2nd]] and [[Australian 4th Division|4th Division]]s were disbanded in 1944. The [[1st Division (Australia)|1st Division]] (a training formation) and the [[12th Division (Australia)|12th Division]] (Northern Territory Force) were reduced to one brigade each in 1945.</ref><ref name=Palazzo184/> Although the jungle divisions proved successful<ref name=Palazzo183186/> experience later indicated that additional artillery support was required and a number of divisions—including the 7th and 9th—were subsequently assigned an additional two field artillery regiments. Regardless, although the jungle divisions had less firepower than the standard division they were better suited for the projection of power in the tropics.<ref name=Palazzo184/>

==Order of battle==
[[File:MG firing on Tarakan Hill.jpg|thumb|right|A Vickers medium machine gun team providing supporting fire for patrols from D Company, 2/23rd Battalion during the fighting for Tarakan Hill on 2 May 1945]]
The main units in each Jungle Division upon their formation in 1943 were as follows:<ref group="Note">Additional units, such as machine gun battalions, commando squadrons and armoured regiments were also available at [[corps]] level, and were assigned to divisions as required.</ref><ref>Palazzo 2001, p. 185.</ref>
* Divisional Headquarters
* 3 Infantry Brigades (each of three Infantry Battalions for a total of nine)
* 1 Field Artillery Regiment (equipped with twenty-four [[25 Pounder]] guns)
* 1 Light Anti-Aircraft Battery
* Divisional Provost Company ([[Military Police]])
* Divisional Carrier Company (equipped with [[Bren Carrier]]s)
* Divisional Signals
* Divisional Engineers
** 1 Field Park Company
** 3 Field Companies
** Camouflage Training Unit
* Divisional Supply and Transport
** Supply Depot Company
** General Transport Company
* 3 Field Ambulance Companies
* 6 Light Aid Detachments
* 3 Brigade workshops

==Notes==
[[File:D Trp 14Bty Short 25pdr Tarakan.jpg|thumb|right|A 2/7th Field Regiment gun crew move a short 25 Pounder on Tarakan on 2 May 1945]]
;Footnotes
{{reflist|group=Note}}

;Citations
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last=Coates |first=John |authorlink= |title=Bravery Above Blunder: The 9th Australian Division at Finschhafen, Sattelberg, and Sio |year=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=South Melbourne |isbn=0-19-550837-8}}
*{{cite book |last=Grey |first=Jeffrey |authorlink= |title=The Australian Army |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=South Melbourne |isbn=0-19-554114-6}}
*{{cite book |last=Palazzo |first=Albert |authorlink= |title=The Australian Army. A History of its Organisation 1901–2001 |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=South Melbourne |isbn=0-19-551507-2}}
{{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jungle Division}}
[[Category:Infantry units and formations of Australia]]
[[Category:Infantry units and formations]]
[[Category:Australian World War II divisions]]

Conisbrough Castle

2012-05-12T13:52:05Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Infobox UK property
|property_name = Conisbrough Castle
|image_name = Conisbrough Castle Doncaster winter time.jpg
|image_size = 200px
|caption = Conisbrough Castle, open to the public and property of English Heritage
|type = Castle
|NT/EH/RHS = EH
|managed = English Heritage as of April 2008
|area =
|main = Castle ruins
|other = Events
|public_access = Yes
|museum =
|exhibition = Yes
|country = England
|region = [[Yorkshire and the Humber]]
|gridsquare = SK5198
|address = Conisbrough Castle, Castle Hill, [[Conisbrough]], DONCASTER
|postcode = [[DN postcode area|DN12 3BU]]
|refreshments = Yes
|parking = Yes
|shop = Yes
|website = [http://www.conisbroughcastle.org.uk/ Website]
|co_ord ={{coord|53|29|03|N|1|13|35|W|display=inline,title|region:GB_type:landmark}}
}}

'''Conisbrough Castle''' is a 12th-century [[castle]] in [[Conisbrough]], [[South Yorkshire]], England, whose remains are dominated by the 97-foot (29.5m) high circular keep, which is supported by six [[buttress]]es. In the mid-1990s, the keep was restored, with a [[wood]]en roof and two floors being rebuilt. Audio and visual displays now help to reconstruct a view of life in a medieval castle, while a history of the site is documented in the adjacent visitors' centre. The building is considered one of South Yorkshire's primary tourist attractions, and sees in excess of 30,000 visitors per year. It is managed by English Heritage, as of 1 April 2008. Doncaster Council own the land the monument is standing on, but [[English Heritage]] manages the property.

==History==
[[Image:Conisbrough keep.jpg|thumbnail|left|Conisbrough Castle Keep]]
The castle was probably built by [[Hamelin Plantagenet]] on the site of an earlier [[Norman dynasty|Norman]] castle. [[House of Warren|The Warenne family]] also owned [[Sandal Castle]] near [[Wakefield]], [[Lewes Castle]] in [[Sussex]], and [[Reigate Castle]] in [[Surrey]], as well as a keep on their lands at Mortemer in [[Normandy]]. The Yorkshire lands ceded to [[The Crown]] on the death without issue of [[John de Warenne, 7th Earl of Surrey]] in 1347.<ref name='CCWeb'>{{cite web|url=http://www.conisbroughcastle.org.uk/CastleHistory/CastleHistory.aspx |title=Castle History |accessdate=2008-07-01 |last=Pilkington |first=John |publisher=English Heritage |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080401170403/http://www.conisbroughcastle.org.uk/History/history.htm  |archivedate = 2008-04-01}}</ref>

After Conisbrough reverted to the Crown, [[Edward III]] gave it to his youngest son [[Edmund Langley]] and was probably during his tenure that the work to improve the accommodation in the inner ward was carried out. Langley died in 1402 and the castle was inherited by his eldest son [[Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York|Edward, 2nd Duke of Albemarle]]. Albemarle (by then Duke of York) was slain at the [[Battle of Agincourt]] in 1415. His widow Maud resided in the castle until her death in 1446 when it passed to [[Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York|Richard, 3rd Duke of York]] who was killed at the [[Battle of Wakefield]] in 1460. His son Edward, [[Earl of March]] continued the war emerging victorious and was crowned King [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]]. Because Edward won the war the castle was not confiscated as would usually have happened when a magnate rebelled against the crown and lost. In this case the castle was inherited by Edward and became Crown property when he ascended to the throne.<ref name='CCWeb'/>

By the reign of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] the castle was in a dilapidated state. In the 1537–38 a survey by Royal Commissioners found that the castle was already a ruin and from the description of the survey most of the damage seen today had already occurred.<ref name='CCWeb'/>

It is because it was a ruin by the 17th century, the collapsed gatehouse and parts of the [[curtain wall]] made the castle indefensible. This meant that no further damage was done to the fabric of the castle during the [[English Civil War]], that caused so much damage to many old fortifications either through bombardment or [[slighting]], and so, along with sympathetic ownership, the keep survived as a ruin, but largely intact, down to the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conisbroughcastle.org.uk/CastleHistory/CastleHistory.aspx |title=Conis Castle:History|publisher=[[English Heritage]] |accessdate=February 2011}}</ref>

The name ''Conisbrough'' is derived from the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''Cyningesburh'' - meaning 'the defended ''burh'' of the King', suggesting the area once belonged to one of English kings, prior to the [[Norman Conquest]]. At the time of the Norman Conquest the manor of Conisbrough was held by [[Harold Godwinson|King Harold]] - he was defeated at the [[Battle of Hastings]].<ref>'Conquest, Anarchy and Lordship: Yorkshire, 1066-1154' By Paul Dalton, Cambridge University Press, 2002,ISBN 0-521-52464-4, ISBN 978052152464334 {{Please check ISBN|reason=Invalid length.}}, pp. 34</ref><ref>'Conisbrough Castle' by Michael Welman Thompson, Great Britain. Dept. of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1977, ISBN 0-11-671453-0, ISBN 978-0-11-671453-4</ref><ref>'Ivanhoe' Walter Scott, Sir Walter Scott, Graham Tulloch, Penguin Classics, 2000, ISBN 0-14-043658-8, ISBN 978-0-14-043658-7. pp. 481</ref> Earlier documents dated at c. 1000–1004 show lands in this area known as Kyningesburg were granted by [[Wulfric]], one of King Edward's ministers, to Elfhei, another Saxon nobleman.

==Conisbrough Castle in fiction==
[[Image:Aerial view of Conisbrough Castle - geograph.org.uk - 639358.jpg|thumb|Aerial photograph of the castle]]
In [[Sir Walter Scott]]'s novel, ''[[Ivanhoe]]'', 'Coningsburgh Castle' is based on Conisbrough. Scott's Coningsburgh is a Saxon fortress, based on the mistaken conclusion by him that its unique style marked its keep as a non-Norman. In the notes that accompany the novel, Scott acknowledges that the outer works were Norman but speculates that the keep—which he describes in some detail in the novel (but which in the notes he says he only viewed hastily)—was similar to Scottish mainland and island [[Broch]]s in particular [[Broch of Mousa]] in the [[Shetlands]], and hence in Scott's mind, if the castles of the Scottish islands were Scandinavian in origin, then so too could Conisbrough have been a pre-Norman castle built by Scandinavians or Saxons with knowledge of similar Scottish structures.<ref>{{cite book|last=Scott|first=Sir Walter|year=1836 |chapter=Ivanhoe: a romance|title=Waverley novels|volume=15-16|publisher=Parker |pages=237, [http://books.google.co.nz/books?printsec=frontcover&pg=PA284&id=n-YXAAAAYAAJ#v=onepage&q&f=false 284–287]}}</ref> A Victorian romantic vista since shown not to be so.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.conisbroughcastle.org.uk/ Official website]
* [http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/conisbrough-castle/ History and visitor information: English Heritage]

[[Category:Castles in South Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Conisbrough]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in South Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed castles]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in South Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Doncaster]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Doncaster]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in South Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Ruins in South Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in South Yorkshire]]

[[it:Castello di Conisbrough]]

Gedik Ahmed Pascha

2012-05-12T13:50:41Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{More footnotes|date=October 2010}}
'''Gedik Ahmed Pasha''' was an [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[list of Ottoman Grand Viziers|grand vizier]] as well as an army and [[kapudan pasha|navy]] commander during the reigns of sultans [[Mehmed II|Mehmed the Conqueror]] and [[Beyazid II]].

His background remains largely unknown. Some sources claim that he was of [[Albanians|Albanian]] descent and others that he was of [[Serbs|Serbian]] descent.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stavrides|first=Théoharis |title=The Sultan of Vezirs: The Life and Times of the Ottoman Grand Vezir Mahmud Pasha Angeloviu (1453-1474) (Ottoman Empire and Its Heritage Series, Volume 24)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ptXG0uA70lAC&pg=PA65&dq=Gedik+Ahmed+Pasha+albanian&hl=en&ei=VlJATNiENYH88Ab71NXBDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6wEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=August 2001|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers, Inc.|isbn=90-04-12106-4|page=65}}</ref> He undertook virtually all of his construction enterprises in [[Anatolia]].

Leading the Ottoman Army, he defeated the last [[Anatolian Turkish Beylik|beylik (principality)]] resisting Ottoman expansion in Anatolia, the [[Karamanids]]. The Karamanids had been the strongest principality in Anatolia for nearly 200 years, even stronger than the Ottomans in the latter's beginning. They effectively succeeded the [[Sultanate of Rûm|Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate]] in the amount of possessions they held, among them the city of Konya, the former Selçuk capital. Gedik Ahmed Pasha's victory against the Karamanids in 1471, conquering their territory as well as the Mediterranean coastal region around [[Ermenek]], [[Mennan]] and [[Silifke]], proved crucial for the future of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. {{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}

Gedik Ahmed Pasha also fought against Venetians in the Mediterranean and was dispatched in 1475 by the Sultan to aid the [[Crimean Khanate]] against [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] forces. In [[Crimea]], he conquered [[Caffa]], [[Soldaia]], [[Balaklava|Cembalo]] and other Genoese castles as well as the [[Principality of Theodoro]] with its capital [[Mangup]] and the coastal regions of Crimea. He rescued the Khan of Crimea, [[Meñli I Giray]], from Genoese forces. As a result of this campaign, [[Crimea]] and [[Circassia]] entered into the Ottoman sphere of influence.

In 1479, Sultan Mehmet II ordered him to lead the Ottoman Navy in the Mediterranean Sea as part of the war against [[Naples]] and [[Milan]]. During his campaign, Gedik Ahmed Pasha conquered the islands of [[Lefkada|Santa Maura (Lefkada)]], [[Kefalonia]] and [[Zakynthos|Zante (Zakynthos)]]. Since he had conquered [[Constantinople]] in 1453, Mehmed II saw himself as the inheritor of the [[Roman Empire]] and seriously considered the conquest of Italy to reunite Roman lands under his dynasty. As part of this plan, Gedik Ahmed Pasha was sent with a naval force to the heel of the [[Italy|Italian]] peninsula.

After a failed attempt to conquer [[Siege of Rhodes (1480)|Rhodes]] from the [[Knights of St. John]] he took the harbor city [[Battle of Otranto|Otranto]] in 1480. But due to lack of food, he had to return with most of his troops to [[Albania]] in the same year, planning to continue the campaign in 1481.

The death of [[Mehmed II]] prevented this. Instead he sided with [[Beyazid II]] in the struggle for who would succeed the Sultan. However Beyazid II did not fully trust Gedik Ahmed Pasha and had him imprisoned and later killed on November 18, 1482 at [[Adrianople]].

== See also ==
* [[Ottoman Navy]]
* [[List of Ottoman Grand Viziers]]

== References and sources ==
{{reflist}}
* [http://cronologia.leonardo.it/battaglie/batta50.htm La Battaglia di Otranto] (in Italian)
* E. Hamilton Currey, ''Sea-Wolves of the Mediterranean'', London, 1910
* Bono, Salvatore: ''Corsari nel Mediterraneo'' (''Corsairs in the Mediterranean''), Oscar Storia Mondadori. Perugia, 1993.
* [http://www.corsaridelmediterraneo.it/indice/a.htm Corsari nel Mediterraneo: Condottieri di ventura. Online database in Italian, based on Salvatore Bono's book.]
* [http://www.theottomans.org/english/chronology/index.asp# The Ottomans: Comprehensive and detailed online chronology of Ottoman history in English.]
* [http://ansiklopedi.turkcebilgi.com/Kronoloji_Osmanl%FD_Tarihi Comprehensive and detailed online chronology of Ottoman history in Turkish.]
* [http://www.dzkk.tsk.mil.tr/TURKCE/tarihiMiras.asp?strAnaFrame=TarihiMiras&strIFrame=INDEX Turkish Navy official website: Historic heritage of the Turkish Navy (in Turkish)]

{{s-start}}
{{succession box|title=[[Grand Vizier]]|before=[[Veli Mahmud Pasha]]|after=[[Karamani Mehmed Pasha]]|years=1474–1477}}
{{s-end}}
{{Grand Viziers of Ottoman Empire}}
{{Seamen of the Ottoman Empire}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Pasha, Gedik Ahmed
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1482
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pasha, Gedik Ahmed}}
[[Category:Ottoman Empire admirals]]
[[Category:Military history of the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Military history of Italy]]
[[Category:History of Crimea]]
[[Category:Pashas]]
[[Category:1482 deaths]]
[[Category:15th-century Ottoman grand viziers]]
[[Category:Albanian Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Executed Ottoman people]]
[[Category:Devşirme]]
[[Category:Grand Viziers of Mehmed II]]

[[ca:Gefik Ahmad Paixà]]
[[fr:Gedik Ahmed Pacha]]
[[ko:게디크 아흐메드 파샤]]
[[it:Gedik Ahmet Pascià]]
[[nl:Gedik Ahmed Pasja]]
[[pt:Gedik Ahmed Paşa]]
[[tr:Gedik Ahmed Paşa]]

Tin House

2012-05-12T13:48:36Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{italic title}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2008}}
{{Infobox publisher
| image =
| parent =
| status =
| founded = 1998
| founder = [[Win McCormack]]
| successor =
| country = [[United States]]
| headquarters = [[Portland, Oregon]]
| distribution = [[Publishers Group West]]
| keypeople =
| publications = [[Magazine]]s, [[Book]]s
| topics =
| genre =
| imprints =
| revenue =
| numemployees =
| nasdaq =
| url = {{URL|http://www.tinhouse.com}}
}}

'''''Tin House''''' is an [[United States|American]] [[literary magazine]] and book publisher based in [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]], [[Oregon]] and [[New York City]]. The ''Tin House'' magazine was conceived in the summer of 1998 by Portland publisher [[Win McCormack]]. He envisioned a journal that would be graphically appealing and free of the stale substance found in many contemporary journals. With this in mind, he enlisted Holly MacArthur as managing editor, along with the help of two experienced New York [[editing|editors]], Rob Spillman and [[Elissa Schappell]].<ref>McGrath, Charles. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/06/weekinreview/06mcgr.html?scp=14&sq=%22Tin%20House%22&st=cse "Does the Paris Review Get a Second Act?"] ''[[New York Times]]''. (February 6, 2005).</ref>

In 2005, ''Tin House'' expanded into a book division, '''Tin House Books'''. They also run a by-admission-only summer writers' workshop held at [[Reed College]].<ref>Greenfield, Beth. [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/04/travel/escapes/04Ahead.html?scp=3&sq=%22Tin%20House%22&st=cse "Where Words Go to Work and Play".] ''[[New York Times]]''. (May 4, 2007).</ref>

==''Tin House'' magazine==
{{Infobox magazine
| title = Tin House
| image_file = Tin House (magazine) volume 9 number 1 cover.jpg
| image_size = 
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| editor =
| editor_title =
| previous_editor =
| staff_writer =
| frequency = Quarterly
| circulation =
| category = [[Literary magazine]]
| company =
| publisher =
| firstdate = {{Start date|1999|month}}
| country = [[United States]]
| based = [[Portland, Oregon]]
| language =
| website = {{URL|http://www.tinhouse.com/magazine/}}
| issn =
}}

''Tin House'' publishes both fiction and poetry, and it also publishes interviews with important literary figures, a "Lost and Found" section dedicated to exceptional [[public domain]] and generally overlooked material, and drink recipes. It is also distinguished from many other notable literary magazines by actively seeking work from previously unpublished writers for its "New Voices" section.<ref>Cotts, Cynthia. [http://www.villagevoice.com/1999-06-22/news/tin-meisters/ "Tin Meisters."] ''[[The Village Voice]].''</ref>

A story from the Summer 2003 issue, "Breasts" by [[Stuart Dybek]], was featured in ''[[The Best American Short Stories]]'' for [[2004 in literature|2004]],<ref>Moore, Lorrie ed. ''The Best American Short Stories 2004.'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2004) http://www.amazon.com/Best-American-Short-Stories-2004/dp/0618197354</ref> and in [[2006 in literature|2006]], "Window" by [[Deborah Eisenberg]] was a "juror favorite" in ''[[O. Henry Award|The O. Henry Prize Stories]]''.<ref>Furman, Laura. [http://www.randomhouse.com/anchor/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9781400095391&view=toc ''The O. Henry Prize Stories 2006.]'' (Anchor: May 2006).</ref>

=== Staff ===
<ref name=Staff>[http://www.tinhouse.com/about-us/staff.html]</ref>
* Publisher/Editor-in-Chief: [[Win McCormack]]
* Editor: [[Rob Spillman]]
* Art Director: Janet Parker
* Managing Editor: Cheston Knapp
* Executive Editor: Lee Montgomery
* Poetry Editor: [[Brenda Shaughnessy]]
* Senior Editor: Michelle Wildgen
* Editorial Assistant: Lance Cleland
* Designer: Diane Chonette
* Associate Poetry Editor: Matthew Dickman
* Paris Editor: Heather Hartley
* Editor at Large: [[Elissa Schappell]]
* Deputy Publisher: Holly Macarthur

=== Writers whose work has appeared in ''Tin House'' ===
{{col-start}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Chris Adrian]]
* [[Sherman Alexie]]
* [[Dorothy Allison]]
* [[Steve Almond]]
* [[Yehuda Amichai]]
* [[Tom Barbash]]
* [[Charles Baxter]]
* [[Aimee Bender]]
* [[Sarah Shun-lien Bynum]]
* [[Lucy Corin]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Ariel Dorfman]]
* [[Stuart Dybek]]
* [[Deborah Eisenberg]]
* [[Faiz Ahmed Faiz]]
* [[Richard Ford]]
* [[Seamus Heaney]]
* [[Ann Hood]]
* [[Bret Anthony Johnston]]
* [[Miranda July]]
* [[Yasunari Kawabata]]
{{col-break}}
* [[James Kelman]]
* [[Stephen King]]
* [[Stanley Kunitz]]
* [[Kelly Le Fave]]
* [[Jonathan Lethem]]
* [[Rick Moody]]
* [[Pablo Neruda]]
* [[Sharon Olds]]
* [[Dawn Powell]]
* [[Peter Rock (novelist)|Peter Rock]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Edward W. Said]]
* [[James Salter]]
* [[John Sanford]]
* [[Charles Simic]]
* [[Donna Tartt]]
* [[Quincy Troupe]]
* [[Danielle Trussoni]]
* [[David Foster Wallace]]
{{col-end}}

==Tin House Books==
===Staff===
<ref name=Staff/>
* Lee Montgomery: Editorial Director
* Meg Storey: Associate Editor
* Tony Perez: Associate Editor
* Deborah Jayne: Director of Publicity

===Books published===
<ref>[http://www.tinhouse.com/books/books_catalog.htm Tin House Catalog]</ref>
{{Cleanup|section|date=September 2008}}

* ''Best of Tin House.'' (2006). ISBN 0-9773127-1-2
* ''Do Me: Tales of Sex and Love from Tin House.'' (2007). ISBN 978-0-9794198-0-5
* ''Food and Booze: A Tin House Literary Feast''(2006). ISBN 0-9773127-7-1
* ''The World Within.'' (2007). ISBN 978-0-9776989-6-7
* [[Katie Arnold-Ratliff|Arnold-Ratliff, Katie]]. ''Bright Before Us.'' (2011). ISBN 978-1-935639-07-7
* [[Geoffrey Becker|Becker, Geoffrey]]. ''Hot Springs.'' (2010). ISBN 978-0-9820539-4-2
* [[Louis Bogan|Bogan, Louis]] trans. and ed. ''The Journal of [[Jules Renard]].'' (2008). ISBN 978-0-9794198-7-4
* [[Karen Lee Boren|Boren, Karen Lee]]. ''Girls in Peril.'' (2006.) ISBN 978-0-9773127-2-6
* [[Adam Braver|Braver, Adam]]. "November 22, 1963." (2008). ISBN 978-0-9802436-2-8
* [[Lucy Corin|Corin, Lucy]]. ''The Entire Predicament.'' (2007). ISBN 978-0-9776989-8-1
* [[Bernard DeVoto|DeVoto, Bernard]]. ''The Hour: A Cocktail Manifesto.'' (2010). ISBN 978-0-9825048-0-2
* [[Harriet Fasenfest|Fasenfest, Harriet]]. ''A Householder's Guide to the Universe.'' (2010). ISBN 978-0-9825691-5-3
* [[Dolly Freed|Freed, Dolly]]. ''Possum Living: How to Live Well Without a Job and With (Almost) No Money.'' (2010). ISBN 978-0-9820539-3-5
* [[Josh Goldfaden|Goldfaden, Josh]]. ''Human Resources.'' (2006). ISBN 0-9776989-1-2
* [[Tom Grimes|Grimes, Tom]]. ''Mentor: A Memoir.'' (2010). ISBN 978-0-9825048-8-8
* [[J.C. Hallman|Hallman, J.C.]] ed. ''The Story About the Story: Great Writers Explore Great Literature.'' (2009). ISBN 978-0-9802436-9-7
* [[Matthea Harvey|Harvey, Matthea]]. illustrated by [[Elizabeth Zechel|Zechel, Elizabeth]]. ''The Little General and The Giant Snowflake.'' (2009). ISBN 978-0-9776989-8-1
* [[Michiel Heyns|Heyns, Michiel]], introduction by [[A.L. Kennedy]]. "The Children's Day." (2009) ISBN 978-0-9802436-6-6
* [[Elina Hirvonen|Hirvonen, Elina]]. "When I Forgot." (2009) ISBN 978-0-9802436-5-9
* [[Jim Krusoe|Krusoe, Jim]]. "Erased." (2009) ISBN 978-0-9802436-7-3
* [[Jim Krusoe|Krusoe, Jim]]. ''Girl Factory.'' (2008). ISBN 978-0-9794198-2-9
* [[Sarahlee Lawrence|Lawrence, Sarahlee]]. ''River House.'' (2007). ISBN 978-0-9825691-3-9
* [[Alex Lemon|Lemon, Alex]]. ''Mosquito.'' (2006). ISBN 0-9773127-4-7
* [[Michele Matheson|Matheson, Michele]]. ''Saving Angelfish.'' (2006). ISBN 0-9773127-6-3
* [[Win McCormack|McCormack, Win]]. ''You Don't Know Me: A Citizen's Guide to Republican Family Values.'' (2008). ISBN 978-0-9794198-6-7
* [[Lee Montgomery|Montgomery, Lee]] and [[Tony Perez]], eds. "The Writer's Notebook." (2009) ISBN 978-0-9794198-1-2
* [[Keith Lee Morris|Morris, Keith Lee]]. ''Call It What You Want.'' (2010). ISBN 978-0-9825030-8-9
* [[Keith Lee Morris|Morris, Keith Lee]]. ''The Dart League King.'' (2008). ISBN 978-0-9794198-8-1
* [[Lucia Nevai|Nevai, Lucia]]. ''Salvation.'' (2008). ISBN 978-0-9794198-3-6
* [[Mary Otis|Otis, Mary]]. ''Yes, Yes Cherries.'' (2007) ISBN 978-0-9776989-0-5
* [[Jeff Parker (writer)|Parker, Jeff]], [[Mikhail Iossel]], eds. [[Francine Prose]], intro. "Rasskazy: New Fiction from a New Russia." (2009). ISBN 978-0-9820539-0-4
* [[Jeff Parker (writer)|Parker, Jeff]]. ''Ovenman.'' (2007) ISBN 978-0-9776989-2-9
* [[Brenda Shaughnessy|Shaughnessy, Brenda]] and [[CJ Evans]], eds. "Satellite Convulsions: Poems from Tin House." (2008). ISBN 978-0-9794198-9-8
* [[Robert Paul Smith|Smith, Robert Paul]]. illustrated by [[Elinor Goulding Smith|Smith, Elinor Goulding]]. ''How to Do Nothing with Nobody All Alone by Yourself.'' (2010). ISBN 978-0-9820539-5-9
* [[Zak Smith|Smith, Zak]]. ''Pictures Showing What Happens on Each Page of [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s Novel [[Gravity's Rainbow]].'' (2006). ISBN 0-9773127-9-8
* [[Zak Smith|Smith, Zak]]. "We Did Porn." (2009) ISBN 978-0-9802436-8-0
* [[Scott Sparling|Sparling, Scott]]. ''Wire to Wire.'' (2011) ISBN 978-1-935639-05-3
* [[Marlene van Niekerk|van Niekerk, Marlene]]. ''Agaat.'' (2010). ISBN 978-0-9825030-9-6
* [[Jan Elizabeth Watson|Watson, Jan Elizabeth]]. "Asta in the Wings." (2009) ISBN 978-0-9802436-1-1

==See also==
*[[List of literary magazines]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.tinhouse.com/ Tin House] (official website)

{{English-language arts magazines}}

[[Category:American literary magazines]]
[[Category:Culture of Portland, Oregon]]
[[Category:Media in Portland, Oregon]]
[[Category:Magazines published in Oregon]]

Vom alten Schlag: Der Zweite Weltkrieg am anderen Ende der Welt. Erinnerungen

2012-05-12T13:43:04Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Infobox Book | 
| name = With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:07-old-breed.jpg|200px]]
| image_caption = Oxford University Cover
| author = [[Eugene B. Sledge]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = [[United States|United States of America]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = War [[Memoir]]
| publisher = ''[[Presidio Press]]''
| release_date = 1981
| media_type = Print
| pages = 326 p.
| isbn = 0-19-506714-2
| dewey= 940.54/26 20
| congress= D767.99.P4 S55 1991
| oclc= 22653690
| preceded_by =
| followed_by = [[China Marine (memoir)|China Marine: An Infantryman's Life after World War II]]
}}
'''''With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa''''' is a [[World War II]] memoir by [[Eugene Sledge]], a [[United States Marine Corps|United States Marine]]. Since its first publication in 1981, ''With the Old Breed'' has been recognized as one of the best first-hand accounts of [[Pacific Theater of Operations|combat in the Pacific]] during World War II. The memoir is based on notes Sledge kept tucked away in a pocket-sized Bible he carried with him during battles.

==Origins==
By his own account, Sledge began writing the memoir in 1944, "immediately after [[Peleliu]] while we were in rest camp on [[Pavuvu|Pavuvu Island]]", and continued working on it "as soon as I returned to civilian life" in 1946.<ref name=typescript01>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-11-18|url=http://content.lib.auburn.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/ebsledge&CISOPTR=92&REC=8|date=Undated|title=With The Old Breed draft foreword|publisher=Eugene B. Sledge Papers, RG 96, Auburn University Libraries Special Collections & Archives Department}}</ref> Nicknamed "Sledgehammer" by his comrades, Sledge experienced combat during the battles of [[Battle of Peleliu|Peleliu]] and [[Battle of Okinawa|Okinawa]] as a [[M2 Mortar|60 mm mortarman]] while part of K Company, [[3rd Battalion 5th Marines|3rd Battalion, 5th Marines]], [[1st Marine Division (United States)|1st Marine Division]] (''K/3/5'').

The book's working title was ''A Marine Mortarman in World War II'', which Sledge later changed to ''Into The Abyss''. The book was first published under its final title by the Presidio Press in 1981.

===Synopsis===

In contrast to the European theater, Sledge's memoir gives a perspective on the Pacific campaign. His memoir is a front-line account of infantry combat in the Pacific War. It brings the reader into the island hopping, the jungle heat and rain, the "[[banzai attack]]" or full frontal assault used by his enemies. Sledge wrote starkly of the brutality displayed by American and Japanese soldiers during the battles, and of the hatred that both sides harbored for each other. In Sledge's words, "This was a brutish, primitive hatred, as characteristic of the horror of war in the Pacific as the palm trees and the islands."

Sledge describes one instance in which he and a comrade came across the mutilated bodies of three Marines, including one Marine whose genitals had been cut off and stuffed into the corpse's mouth. He also describes the behavior of some Marines towards dead Japanese, including the removal of gold teeth from Japanese corpses (and, in one case, a severely wounded but still living Japanese soldier), as well as other disturbing trophy-taking.

Sledge describes in detail the sheer physical struggle of living in a combat zone and the debilitating effects of constant fear, fatigue, and filth. "Fear and filth went hand-in-hand," he wrote. "It has always puzzled me that this important factor in our daily lives has received so little attention from historians and is often omitted from otherwise excellent personal memoirs by infantrymen." Marines had trouble staying dry, finding time to eat their rations, practicing basic field sanitation (it was impossible to dig latrines or [[cathole]]s in the coral rock on Peleliu), and simply moving around on the pulverized coral of Peleliu and in the mud of Okinawa.

==Printings==
*1981: Novato, California: Presidio Press. — {{OCLC search link|12197607}}
*1983: Paperback: Toronto; New York: Bantam Books. — ISBN 978-0-553-23055-0 — {{OCLC search link|82912620}}
:::(The Bantam war book series)
*1990: New York, New York: Oxford University Press. — ISBN 978-0-19-506714-9 — {{OCLC search link|22653690}}
:::(New introduction by Paul Fussell)
*1990: Novato, California: Presidio. — ISBN 978-0-89141-119-2 — {{OCLC search link|21718513}}
*1996: Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. — ISBN 978-1-55750-747-1 — {{OCLC search link|35132407}}
:::(Classics of naval literature series; introduction by Joseph H. Alexander)
*2001: Prince Frederick, Maryland: Recorded Books. — ISBN 978-0-7887-4879-0 — {{OCLC search link|48064872}}
:::(Audio-10 cassettes)
*2006: Princeton, New Jersey: Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic. — {{OCLC search link|70684214}}
:::(Audio-CD)
*2007: New York, New York: Presidio Press:
:::(New introduction by Victor Davis Hanson)
::Trade paperback — (8.2" x 5.5"): ISBN 978-0-89141-906-8 — {{OCLC search link|124046079}}
::Mass market paperback — (6.8" x 4.2"): ISBN 978-0-89141-919-8 — {{OCLC search link|175295688}}
*2010: London, England: Ebury Press
::Trade paperback ISBN 978-0-09-193753-9 - {{OCLC search link|0091937531}}

===Translation into Japanese===
*2008:{{nihongo|講談社-学術文庫|kodansya-gakujutu-bunko}}
:title{{nihongo|ペリリュー・沖縄戦記|perirū-okinawa-senki}}
:size of {{nihongo|文庫本|bunkobon}}14.8 x 11 x 2 cm
:ISBN 978-4-06-159885-0
===Translation into Thai===

*2010 แปซิฟิก สมรภูมิเดนตาย สหายร่วมรบ by Matichon press

:ISBN 978-974-02-0614-9

===Translation into Czech===
Se starou gardou: na Peleliu a Okinawě, Universum [translation Michal Ulvr]
: ISBN 978-80-242-2922-5

==Adaptations==
* 2007: [[Ken Burns]] drew considerably from ''With the Old Breed'' for his World War II documentary ''[[The War (documentary)|The War]]''.
* 2010: [[HBO]] used ''With the Old Breed'', along with [[Robert Leckie (author)|Robert Leckie's]] ''[[Helmet for My Pillow]]'', as the basis for the miniseries ''[[The Pacific (miniseries)|The Pacific]]'', the successor to ''[[Band of Brothers (TV miniseries)|Band of Brothers]]''.

==See also==
* ''[[China Marine (memoir)]]''

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.studsterkel.org/gwar.php Audio interview with E.B. Sledge (6 parts)] - Studs Terkel
*[http://diglib.auburn.edu/collections/ebsledge/ Eugene B. Sledge Collection] - Auburn University Digital Library
*[http://www.victorhanson.com/articles/hanson072507.html Victor Davis Hanson's introduction to the 2007 edition of ''With the Old Breed'']
*[http://ww2db.com/read.php?read_id=21 ''With the Old Breed'' book review] - WW2DB

{{DEFAULTSORT:With The Old Breed}}
[[Category:1981 books]]
[[Category:Alabama nonfiction]]
[[Category:Books adapted into films]]
[[Category:Personal accounts of World War II]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps in popular culture]]
[[Category:American memoirs]]

Mordfall James Byrd junior

2012-05-12T13:33:52Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Infobox person
| name = James Byrd, Jr.
| image =JamesByrdJr..jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1949|5|2}}
| birth_place = [[Beaumont, Texas]], United States
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1998|06|07|1949|05|2}}
| death_place = [[Jasper, Texas]], United States
| occupation =
}}
'''James Byrd, Jr.''' (May 2, 1949 – June 7, 1998) was an [[African-American]] who was [[murder]]ed by three white men, asserted to be [[White supremacy | white supremacists]], in [[Jasper, Texas]], on June 7, 1998. Shawn Berry, Lawrence Brewer, and John King dragged Byrd behind a [[pick-up truck]] along an [[asphalt]] road.
Byrd, who remained conscious throughout most of the ordeal, was killed when his body hit the edge of a [[culvert]], severing his right arm and head. The murderers drove on for another mile before dumping his torso in front of an African-American cemetery in Jasper.<ref name ="dragging">{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/US/9807/06/dragging.death.02/|title=3 whites indicted in dragging death of black man in Texas|publisher=[[CNN]]|date=1998-07-06|accessdate=2010-07-24}}</ref> Byrd's lynching-by-dragging gave impetus to passage of a Texas hate crimes law. It later led to the [[Federal government of the United States|federal]] October 22, 2009 [[Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act]], commonly known as the [[Matthew Shepard]] Act. President [[Barack Obama]] signed the bill into law on October 28, 2009.<ref>[http://content.usatoday.com/communities/theoval/post/2009/10/620000629/1 Obama signs hate-crimes law rooted in crimes of 1998 ([[USA TODAY]], Oct 28, 2009)]</ref>

Lawrence Brewer was executed by lethal injection for this crime by the state of Texas on September 21, 2011.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504083_162-20110188-504083.html White supremacist Lawrence Russell Brewer executed for dragging death ([[CBS News]], September 22, 2011)]</ref> King remains on Texas' death row while appeals are pending, <ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/InmateDetails.jsp?sidnumber=04684561 King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref><ref>"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/kingjohn.htm King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on August 25, 2010.</ref><ref name="keysDidPrison"/> while Berry was sentenced to life imprisonment.

==Victim==
James Byrd, Jr. was born in [[Beaumont, Texas]], one of nine children, to Stella (1925 – October 7, 2010) and James Byrd, Sr. (born 1924).<ref name=KFDM>[http://www.kfdm.com/articles/pain-39700-dies-praised.html Mother of James Byrd, Jr. dies] (October 7, 2010)</ref>

===Family===
Ross Byrd, the only son of James Byrd, has been involved with Murder Victims' Families for Reconciliation, an organization that opposes capital punishment. He has campaigned to spare the lives of those who murdered his father and appears briefly in the documentary ''Deadline'' about the death penalty in Illinois.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jeralyn|title=Families of Murder Victims Opposed to Capital Punishment|url=http://www.talkleft.com/story/2002/07/05/175/14540|work=The Politics of Crime|publisher=TalkLeft.com|accessdate=27 August 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/05/07/60II/main552832.shtml Killing Time - [[Dan Rather]] interviews Renee and Ross Byrd]</ref>

==Murder==
On June 7, 1998, Byrd, age 49, accepted a ride from Shawn Berry (age 24), Lawrence Brewer (age 31) and John King (age 23). Berry, who was driving, was acquainted with Byrd from around town. Instead of taking Byrd home, the three men took Byrd to a remote county road out of town, beat him severely, urinated on him and chained him by his ankles to their pickup truck before dragging him for three miles. Brewer later claimed that Byrd's throat had been slashed by Berry before he was dragged. However, forensic evidence suggests that Byrd had been attempting to keep his head up while being dragged, and an [[autopsy]] suggested that Byrd was alive during much of the dragging. Byrd died after his right arm and head were severed after his body hit a [[culvert]]. His body had caught the culvert on the side of the road, resulting in Byrd's decapitation.<ref name="ClosingArguments">"[http://www.cnn.com/US/9902/22/dragging.death.03/ Closing arguments today in Texas dragging-death trial]," [[CNN]], February 22, 1999.</ref> Byrd's brain and skull were found intact, further suggesting he maintained consciousness while being dragged. <ref>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Paul|title=Criminal Law, Case Studies & Controversies|year=2008|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|location=New York|pages=204}}</ref>

Berry, Brewer and King dumped their victim's mutilated remains in front of an African-American church on Huff Creek Road; the three men then went to a barbecue. Along the area where Byrd was dragged, authorities found a wrench with "Berry" written on it. They also found a lighter that was inscribed with "Possum", which was King's prison [[nickname]].<ref>"[http://web.archive.org/web/20051227000441/http://www.texasobserver.org/showArticle.asp?ArticleID=275 Justice in Jasper]," ''[[Texas Observer]]'', September 17, 1999.</ref> The following morning, Byrd's limbs were found scattered across a seldom-used road. The police found 81 places that were littered with Byrd's remains. State law enforcement officials, along with Jasper's [[District Attorney]], determined that since Brewer and King were well-known [[white supremacists]], the murder was a [[hate crime]]. They decided to call upon the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] less than 24 hours after the discovery of Byrd's remains.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}

King had several racist [[tattoo]]s: a black man hanging from a tree, [[Nazism|Nazi]] symbols, the words "[[Aryan race|Aryan]] Pride," and the patch for a gang of white supremacist inmates known as the [[Prison gang#In the United States|Confederate Knights of America]].<ref>"[http://www.cnn.com/US/9902/16/dragging.death.04/index.html Texas sheriff 'knew somebody was murdered because he was black']," CNN, February 16, 1999.</ref> In a jailhouse letter to Brewer that was intercepted by jail officials, King expressed pride in the crime and said he realized in committing the murder he might have to die. "Regardless of the outcome of this, we have made history. Death before dishonor. [[Sieg Heil]]!" King wrote.<ref name="ClosingArguments" /> An officer investigating the case also testified that witnesses said King had referenced ''[[The Turner Diaries]]'' after beating Byrd.<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/jasper1.html The officer's account of the initial stages of the investigation through an affidavit filed in Jasper County, Texas on June 9, 1998.]</ref>

Berry, Brewer and King were tried and convicted for Byrd's murder. Brewer and King received the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]], while Berry was sentenced to [[Life imprisonment|life in prison]].

Brewer was executed by lethal injection on September 21, 2011 <ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504083_162-20110188-504083.html White supremacist Lawrence Russell Brewer executed for dragging death ([[CBS News]], September 22, 2011)]</ref> while King remains on Texas' death row.<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/InmateDetails.jsp?sidnumber=04684561 King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref><ref>"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/kingjohn.htm King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on August 25, 2010.</ref><ref name="keysDidPrison"/>

==Perpetrators==
[[File:PolunskyUnitWestLivingstonTX.jpg|thumb|The perpetrators were held at the [[Allan B. Polunsky Unit]]]]
===Shawn Allen Berry===
The driver of the truck, Berry was the most difficult to convict of the three defendants because there was a lack of evidence to suggest that he was a racist. {{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} Berry had also claimed that Brewer and King were entirely responsible for the crime. Brewer, however, testified that Berry had cut Byrd's throat before he was tied to the truck. The jury decided that there was little evidence to support this claim.<ref name="Texas NAACP">{{cite web |title=Texas NAACP| url=http://www.texasnaacp.org/jasper.htm | accessdate=June 19, 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070430140528/http://www.texasnaacp.org/jasper.htm  |archivedate = April 30, 2007}}</ref> As a result, Berry was spared the death penalty and was sentenced to life in prison. Berry, [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice|TDCJ]]#00894758, is in the [[Ramsey Unit]] in [[Brazoria County, Texas]],<ref name="keysDidPrison">Keys, Perryn. "[http://www.beaumontenterprise.com/news/jasper__the_road_back__did_prison_time_turn_man_into_one_of_byrd_s_killers__06-30-2008_13_18_38.html?showFullArticle=y JASPER: THE ROAD BACK: Did prison time turn man into one of Byrd's killers?]" ''[[Beaumont Enterprise]]''. June 9, 2008. Retrieved on July 23, 2010.</ref> and his parole eligibility date is June 7, 2038.<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/index2.htm Berry, Shawn Allen]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref> As of 2003 Berry is in protective custody; he spends 23 hours per day in an {{convert|8|ft|m|adj=on}} by {{convert|6|ft|m|adj=on}} cell, with one hour for exercise. Berry married a woman named Christie Marcontell by proxy.<ref>King, Joyce. ''Hate Crime: The Story of a Dragging in Jasper, Texas''. [[Random House, Inc.]], 2002. [http://books.google.com/books?id=dhH1GOJCrmkC&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&dq=%22Shawn+Allen+Berry+is+at+the+Ramsey%22&source=bl&ots=4hdi_kbdSy&sig=mgjNcuQdCljQofrLdOrzhpdg8OI&hl=en&ei=LinSTN7gEoWBlAePt_S2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Shawn%20Allen%20Berry%20is%20at%20the%20Ramsey%22&f=false 207]. Retrieved from [[Google Books]] on November 3, 2010. ISBN 0-375-42132-7, ISBN 978-0-375-42132-7.</ref> Marcontell was Berry's girlfriend at the time of the murder. The two have a child together.

===Lawrence Russell Brewer===
Brewer was a white supremacist who, prior to Byrd's murder, had served a prison sentence for drug possession and burglary. He was paroled in 1991. After violating his parole conditions in 1994, Brewer was returned to prison. According to his court testimony, he joined a white supremacist gang with King in prison in order to safeguard himself from other inmates.<ref name="Court TV Online">{{cite web | title=Court TV Online| url=http://www.courttv.com/archive/trials/brewer/092199_pm_ctv.html| accessdate=June 19, 2007}}</ref> Brewer and King became friends in the [[Beto Unit]] prison.<ref name="keysDidPrison"/> A psychiatrist testified that Brewer did not appear repentant for his crimes. Brewer was ultimately convicted and [[death penalty|sentenced to death]].<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/InmateDetails.jsp?sidnumber=03897953 Brewer, Lawrence Russell]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref> Brewer, TDCJ#999327,<ref>"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/brewerlawrence.htm Brewer, Lawrence Russell]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on August 25, 2010.</ref> was on death row at the [[Polunsky Unit]].<ref name="keysDidPrison"/> Brewer was executed in the [[Huntsville Unit]] on September 21, 2011.<ref>{{cite news |title=Lawrence Russell Brewer executed in 1998 dragging death |author=Heather Nolan and Jessica Lipscomb |url=http://www.beaumontenterprise.com/news/article/Lawrence-Russell-Brewer-executed-in-1998-dragging-2182092.php |newspaper=Beaumont Enterprise |date=September 22, 2011 |accessdate=September 22, 2011}}</ref> The day before his execution, Brewer told [[KHOU (TV)|KHOU 11 News]] in [[Houston]]: "As far as any regrets, no, I have no regrets. No, I'd do it all over again, to tell you the truth."<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/09/21/troy-davis-and-lawrence-b_n_974293.html Troy Davis And Lawrence Brewer, A Tale Of Two Executions]</ref>

====Last meal practice ended in Texas====
Before his execution Brewer ordered a large meal that included two [[chicken fried steak]]s, a triple-meat bacon cheeseburger, a large bowl of fried [[okra]], a pound of barbecue, three fajitas, a meat lover's pizza, a pint of ice cream, and a slab of peanut butter fudge with lots of crushed peanuts. However he did not eat any of it and the meal was discarded, prompting Texas prison officials to end the 87-year-old tradition<ref>[http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/local_news/article/Last-meal-tradition-for-death-row-inmates-2184368.php Last-meal requests off death row menu]</ref> of giving [[Last meal|last meals]] to condemned inmates.<ref>[http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Last-meal-requests-come-to-an-end-on-Texas-death-2184484.php Last meal requests come to an end on Texas death row (''[[San Antonio Express-News]]'', September 23, 2011)]</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/23/us/texas-death-row-kitchen-cooks-its-last-last-meal.html Texas Death Row Kitchen Cooks Its Last ‘Last Meal’ (''[[New York Times]]'', September 22, 2011)]</ref><ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-15040658 Last meal: What's the point of this death row ritual?], Daniel Nasaw, BBC News Magazine, 26 September 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-26.</ref>

===John William King===
King was accused of beating Byrd with a bat and then dragging him behind a [[pickup truck|truck]] until he died. King had previously claimed that he had been [[prison rape|gang-raped]] in prison by black inmates.<ref name="Prison Fellowship">{{cite web | title=Justice Fellowship| work="Prison Rape - It's No Joke" | url=http://www.justicefellowship.org/article.asp?ID=2695 | accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref> Although he had no previous record of racism, King had joined a white supremacist prison gang, allegedly for self-protection.<ref>Nolan, Pat: [http://www.justicefellowship.org/key-issues/issues-in-criminal-justice-reform/issue-1/pf-commentary-prison-rape/12780-prison-rape-its-no-joke "Prison Rape - It's No Joke"] Washington Post, June 25, 2009</ref> As a child he was diagnosed as manic-depressive. He was found guilty and sentenced to death for his role in Byrd's kidnapping and murder.<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/InmateDetails.jsp?sidnumber=04684561 King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref> King, TDCJ#999295,<ref>"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/kingjohn.htm King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on August 25, 2010.</ref> is on death row at the Polunsky Unit.<ref name="keysDidPrison"/>

==Reactions to the murder==
Numerous aspects of the Byrd murder echo [[lynching in the United States|lynching tradition]]s. These include [[mutilation]] or [[decapitation]] and revelry, such as a barbecue or a picnic, during or after.

Byrd's murder was strongly condemned by [[Jesse Jackson]] and the [[Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change|Martin Luther King Center]] as an act of vicious [[racism]] and focused national attention on the prevalence of [[White supremacy|white supremacist]] [[prison gang]]s.

The victim's family created the James Byrd Foundation for Racial Healing after his death. In 1999 [[Chantal Akerman]], inspired by the literary works of [[William Faulkner]], set out to make a film about the beauty of the American South. However, after arriving on location (in Jasper, Texas) and learning of the brutal racist murder, she changed her focus. Akerman made ''Sud'' (French for "South") a meditation on the events surrounding the crime and the history of racial violence in the United States. In 2003, a movie about the crime, titled ''[[Jasper, Texas (film)|Jasper, Texas]]'', was produced and aired on [[Showtime (TV network)|Showtime]]. The same year, a documentary named ''Two Towns of Jasper'', made by filmmakers Marco Williams and Whitney Dow, premiered on [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]'s P.O.V. series.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/pov/ PBS.org]</ref>

Basketball star [[Dennis Rodman]] paid for funeral expenses and gave Byrd's family $25,000. Fight promoter Don King gave Byrd's children $100,000 to be put towards their education expenses. <ref>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Paul|title=Criminal Law, Case Studies & Controversies|year=2008|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7335-6927-0{{Please check ISBN|reason=Check digit (0) does not correspond to calculated figure.}}|pages=1176}}</ref>

While at radio station [[WIAD|WARW]] in Washington, D.C., DJ [[The Greaseman|Doug Tracht]] (also known as "The Greaseman") made a derogatory comment about James Byrd after playing [[Lauryn Hill]]'s song "[[Doo Wop (That Thing)]]".<ref>"The Reliable Source" Annie Groer, Ann Gerhart. ''[[The Washington Post]]''. Washington, D.C.: March 18, 1999. pg. C.03</ref> The February 1999 incident proved catastrophic to Tracht's radio career, igniting protests from black and white listeners alike. He was quickly fired from WARW and lost his position as a volunteer deputy sheriff in [[Falls Church]], [[Virginia]].

In May 2004 two white teenagers were arrested and charged with criminal mischief for desecrating James Byrd Jr.'s grave with racial slurs and profanities.<ref>[http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/State-briefs-White-teens-charged-in-grave-1977172.php White teens charged in grave desecration ([[Houston Chronicle]], May 12, 2004)]</ref>

===Impact on US politics===
Some advocacy groups, such as the [[NAACP]] National Voter Fund, made an issue of this case during [[George W Bush]]'s presidential campaign in 2000. They accused Bush of implicit racism since, as governor of Texas, he opposed [[hate crime]] legislation. Also, citing a prior commitment, Bush could not appear at Byrd's funeral. Because two of the three murderers were sentenced to death and the third to life in prison (all charged with and convicted of capital murder, the highest felony level in Texas) Governor Bush maintained that 'we don't need ''tougher'' laws'. The 77th Texas Legislature passed the James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Act. With the signature of [[Governor of Texas|Governor]] [[Rick Perry]] who inherited the balance of Bush's unexpired term, the act became Texas state law in 2001.<ref>{{cite news |title= Texas governor signs into law hate-crimes bill |agency= [[Associated Press]] |newspaper= The Deseret News |date= May 11, 2001 |page= A2}}</ref> In 2009, the [[Matthew Shepard Act|Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act]] expanded the [[Hate crimes in the United States#Federal prosecution of hate crimes|1969 United States federal hate-crime law]] to include crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived [[gender]], [[sexual orientation]], [[gender identity]], or [[disability]].<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/10/28/obama-signs-billion-defense-policy/ Obama Signs Defense Policy Bill That Includes 'Hate Crime' Legislation]</ref>

===Musical tributes===
In 2010, Alabama musician [[Matthew Mayfield]] penned, recorded, and released a song in Byrd's honor. The tune, titled "Still Alive," is the fourth track on Mayfield's EP ''You're Not Home''. "Still Alive" clearly related a stark bitterness towards racism and equated such hate crimes to genocide.

"Tell Me Why" by Will Smith featuring Mary J. Blige mentions Byrd on Will Smith's fourth album, [[Lost and Found (Will Smith album)| Lost and Found]]

"The Ballad of James Byrd" is another tribute to Byrd, written and performed by Southern Californian musician Ross Durand.

"The New Hell" by death metal band [[The Famine]] mentions Byrd on their album ''[[The Architects of Guilt]]'' (2011).

"Jasper", by [[Confrontation Camp]], is the fifth track on the album ''[[Objects in the Mirror Are Closer Than They Appear (Confrontation Camp album)|Objects in the Mirror Are Closer Than They Appear]]'' (2000).

"100 Miles" by Rollins Band is a b-side track from their album "Get Some Go Again." The song's lyrics are written in the first person about a vigilante who takes the lives of Byrd's killers. (2000)

"Guitar Drag" by sound artist [[Christian Marclay]] is a video- and sound-installation about the murdering of James Byrd (2000).

==See also==
{{Portal|Texas}}
* [[Dragging death]]
* [[Lynching]]

{{clear}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* King, Joyce. ''Hate Crime: The Story of a Dragging in Jasper, Texas.'' Pantheon, 2002.
* Temple-Raston, Dina. ''A Death in Texas: A Story of Race, Murder, and a Small Town's Struggle for Redemption.'' Henry Holt and Co., January 6, 2002.
* Ainslie, Ricardo. ''Long Dark Road: Bill King and Murder in Jasper, Texas.'' [[University of Texas]] Press, 2004.

==External links==
* [http://www.lizardproductions.com/RememberHisName.html Remember His Name - From Hate To Healing: The Long Road Home] documentary in production by Lizard Productions
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7105192 James Byrd, Jr.] at Find A Grave
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0335185 ''Jasper, Texas''] - television movie
* [http://capmag.com/article.asp?ID=1464 Politically Correct Murder and Media Bias] by [[Larry Elder]] - compares media coverage of the Byrd case to the murder of [[Ken Tillery]]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~action/ads2/adnaacp.html NAACP National Voter Fund - Campaign ads 2000]
* [http://www.matthewmayfield.com/album/yourenothome.html Listen to "Still Alive" by Matthew Mayfield]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Byrd Jr., James
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = May 2, 1949
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Jasper, Texas]] [[U.S.A]]
| DATE OF DEATH = June 7, 1998
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Jasper, Texas]] [[United States|U.S.A.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Byrd Jr., James}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:1998 deaths]]
[[Category:1998 murders in the United States]]
[[Category:American murder victims]]
[[Category:Hate crimes]]
[[Category:Murdered African-American people]]
[[Category:Murders]]
[[Category:People from Texas]]
[[Category:People murdered in Texas]]
[[Category:Racially motivated violence against African Americans]]
[[Category:Homicides by motor vehicle]]
[[Category:1998 in Texas]]

[[fr:Affaire James Byrd, Jr.]]
[[ru:Бёрд, Джеймс]]
[[fi:James Byrd, Jr]]

Tiger Mountain (Washington)

2012-05-12T13:33:20Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Infobox mountain
| name = Tiger Mountain
| photo = tiger_mountain.jpg
| photo_caption = [[Squak Mountain]], [[Cougar Mountain]], and [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] seen from the summit of West Tiger #3
| elevation_ft = 3004
| elevation_ref = {{navd88}}<ref name="ngs">{{cite ngs|SX1409|Tiger Mtn}}</ref>
| prominence_ft = 1644
| prominence_ref = <ref name="pb">{{cite peakbagger|2208|Tiger Mountain, Washington}}</ref>
| location = [[King County, Washington]], [[United States|USA]]
| range = [[Issaquah Alps]]
| lat_d = 47.488096836 | lat_NS = N
| long_d = 121.946962119 | long_EW = W
| region = US-WA
| source = ngs
| coordinates_ref = <ref name="ngs"/>
| topo = [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] Hobart
}}

'''Tiger Mountain''' is a [[mountain]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]].

==The mountain==
The mountain has six [[summit (topography)|peaks]] in the center of the [[Issaquah Alps]] forming a {{convert|13500|acre|km2|sing=on}} triangle between [[Interstate 90 (Washington)|Interstate 90]] (I-90) on the north, the Issaquah-Hobart Road on the southwest, and [[State Route 18 (Washington)|State Route 18]] (SR 18) on the southeast. Immediately to the west is [[Squak Mountain]] followed by [[Cougar Mountain]], to the south east are Mc Donald and Taylor Mountains, and [[Rattlesnake Ridge]].

It was established as Tiger Mountain State Forest in 1981. In 1989, the entire [[Issaquah]] [[Plateau]] in the northwest corner was designated as a [[conservation area]], the West Tiger Mountain Natural Resources Conservation Area, accessed by a large [[trailhead]] at [[Exit ramp|Exit]] 20 on I-90.

The most crowded trail leads to the bald [[summit (topography)|summit]] of West Tiger #3, with a panoramic view of Seattle and points to the south and east. It is a {{convert|6.2|mi|adj=on}} hike, round-trip, with an elevation change of about {{convert|2000|ft|m}}. The nearby peaks of West Tiger #2 and West Tiger #1 provide essentially the same view, but with fewer obstructions the higher one goes.

Poo Poo Point, a bare shoulder of West Tiger Mountain, is a bare ridge on the west side of Tiger Mountain. The point is named for the sound the [[steam whistle]]s would make when signaling loggers. The point is a popular launching point for [[paragliding]] and [[hang gliding]]. You can reach the point by the Chirico Trail which starts at the landing zone for the hang gliders and paragliders in a field adjacent to the Issaquah-Hobart Road, or by taking the High School Trail which begins on 2nd Avenue just south of [[Issaquah High School]]. Many people fly year-round ([[weather]] permitting) and have flown cross-country flights exceeding {{convert|75|mi|km}}.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cloudbase.org/Flying/SiteGuide/TigerMountainWA/tabid/87/Default.aspx
|title=Tiger Mountain site guide.
|publisher=Cloudbase Country Club.
|accessdate=2008-09-20
}}</ref>

State Route 18 bypasses the congested highways of the metro Seattle area. It reaches an elevation of {{convert|1375|ft|m}} between Tiger and Taylor Mountain, where another major trailhead is located. This provides access to South Tiger Mountain with limited views, Middle Tiger Mountain with a 45 degree window looking down on the Cedar Hills Landfill, and East Tiger Mountain with a panoramic view south toward [[Mount Rainier]].

Many trails on Tiger Mountain have wide beds and slope very gently because they are built on the remnants of 1920s logging railroads, long after the rails and crossties were salvaged in the [[Great Depression]]. Near Middle Tiger Mountain is the site of a fatal 1924 train wreck where artifacts can still be seen.

In the most remote part of the [[forest]], 15 Mile Creek arises in the pass between East and West Tiger. The [[stream|creek]] carves a miniature "[[Grand Canyon|Grand]] [[Canyon]]" through [[sandstone]].

Much of Tiger Mountain is owned or managed by the Washington State Department of Natural Resources.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Pages/default.aspx
|title=Washington State Department of Natural Resources
|publisher=Washington State Department of Natural Resources
|accessdate=2008-09-22
}}</ref>

==Transmitting facilities==
Tiger Mountain is home to some Seattle area radio stations' transmitters on the mountain's west face. These include:
*[[KPLU-FM]] 88.5
*[[KQMV]] 92.5
*[[KMPS]] 94.1
*[[KJAQ]] 96.5
*[[KIRO-FM]] 97.3
*[[KING-FM]] 98.1
*[[KLCK-FM]] 98.9
*[[KISW]] 99.9
*[[KKWF]] 100.7
*[[KZOK-FM]] 102.5
*[[KMTT]] 103.7
*[[KBKS-FM]] 106.1
*[[KNDD]] 107.7

==Sources==
* {{cite book |last=Zilly |first=John |title=Beyond Mount Si: the best hikes within 85 miles of Seattle |publisher=Adventure Press |location=Seattle |year=2003 |isbn=1-881583-08-2}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Granite Mountain Lookout |publisher=Hiking Snoqualmie |url=http://hikingsnoqualmie.blogspot.com Hiking Snoqualmie}}
* {{cite web |title=Grand Ridge Trail - High Point Trailhead |publisher=HikingWithMyBrother.com |url=http://www.hikingwithmybrother.com/search?q=%22Tiger+Mountain%22}}
* {{cite summitpost|222276|Tiger Mountain}}
* {{cite web |title=Tiger Mountain, Hobart, WA |work=Washington Horse Trails |publisher=Trail Meister |url=http://www.trailmeister.com/Washington/TigerSouth/Tiger.htm}}
* {{cite gnis|id=1527215|name=Tiger Mountain}}

{{Protected Areas of Washington}}

[[Category:Cascade Range]]
[[Category:Mountains of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Landforms of King County, Washington]]
[[Category:Washington (state) state forests]]
[[Category:Washington Natural Areas Program]]
[[Category:Protected areas of King County, Washington]]

Squak Mountain

2012-05-12T13:26:14Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Infobox mountain
| name = Squak Mountain
| photo = Poo Poo Point.jpg
| photo_caption = Squak Mountain as seen from [[Poo Poo Point]] (east)
| elevation_ft = 2028
| elevation_ref = <ref name=ngs>{{cite ngs|id=SY3571|designation=Byron}}</ref>
| prominence_ft = 1680
| prominence_ref = <ref name=pb>{{cite peakbagger |pid=2207 |name=Squak Mountain}}</ref>
| location = [[King County, Washington]], [[United States|USA]]
| range = [[Issaquah Alps]]
| coordinates = {{coord|47|29|47|N|122|02|18|W|type:mountain_region:US}}
| coordinates_ref = <ref name=ngs/>
}}

'''Squak Mountain''' is the second most westerly mountain of the [[Issaquah Alps]] [[mountain chain]] in [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] state. It is situated between [[Cougar Mountain]] to the west and [[Tiger Mountain]] to the east. [[Interstate 90]] parallels the base of the north side of the mountain. Much of the Squak Mountain [[drainage basin|watershed]] drains in to [[Lake Sammamish]]. Most of the mountain is protected by '''Squak Mountain State Park''' and Cougar/Squak and Squak/Tiger Corridors of [[King County, Washington|King County]].
The name "Squak" comes from the [[Lushootseed language|Southern Lushootseed]] placename ''/sqʷásxʷ/'', which is also the source of the name [[Issaquah Creek]] and the city of [[Issaquah, Washington|Issaquah]].<ref name="Bright2004">{{cite book|last=Bright|first=William|authorlink=William Bright|title=Native American placenames of the United States|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5XfxzCm1qa4C&pg=PA459|accessdate=11 April 2011|year=2004|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3598-4|pages=187, 459}}</ref><ref name=majors>{{Cite book| last = Majors | first = Harry M. | title = Exploring Washington | publisher = Van Winkle Publishing Co | year = 1975 | page = 78 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CoWrPQAACAAJ| isbn = 978-0-918664-00-6}}</ref>

[[File:Trientalis borealis 1177.JPG|left|upright|thumb|''[[Trientalis latifolia]]'' (Broadleaf Starflower) is a perennial [[herbaceous plant|herb]] found on Squak Mountain.]]

==The Park==
The well-signed trail system consists mostly of abandoned roads that are narrowing to single-track trails, more so each year. One such road-trail leads to a foundation and fireplace that is the remnant of the [[Dorothy Bullitt|Bullitt family]] summer home. Distant views are infrequent because of the forest. The major attraction of Squak Mountain is its urban [[wilderness]].

[[Image:Squak.jpg|thumb|right|284px|Radar image of Squak Mountain, with park map superimposed]]

[[Real estate developer|Residential development]] in Issaquah extends to the park boundary to and elevation of about {{convert|1,100|ft}}. The park is accessed from a trailhead (elevation {{convert|740|ft|disp=s|abbr=out}}) at the hairpin turn of Mountainside Drive in the north, and the signed state park entrance on May Valley Road in the south (elevation {{convert|350|ft|disp=s|abbr=out}}). A lesser trailhead is found on the [[Renton, Washington|Renton]]-Issaquah Road on the west (elevation {{convert|400|ft|disp=s|abbr=out}}). Other trailheads may be reached via Sycamore Drive SE and Sunrise Place SE.

==History==
While generally a quiet and safe park, Squak Mountain State Park has seen mayhem over the years.
* On January 15, 1953 during a heavy storm, a DC-4 from Boeing field to Burbank, California was blown off course, clipped trees near the summit and came down near a farm in a fiery crash that killed all on board. <ref name=AirCrash>{{cite journal|last=Pfarr|first=Tim|title=Uncover the dark side of Issaquah|journal=Issaquah Press|date=February 15, 2011|year=2011|url=http://www.issaquahpress.com/2011/02/15/discover-the-dark-side-of-issaquah/|accessdate=30 August 2011}}</ref>
* On May 4, 1991, Donna Barensten who suffered from dementia disappeared while hiking with her husband Ron in Squak Mountain State Park. Her body was found nearly one year later. <ref name=1991Death>{{cite journal|title=Body Found On Squak Mountain|journal=Seattle Times|date=April 27, 1992|url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19920427&slug=1488661|accessdate=30 August 2011}}</ref>
* In April 25, 2004, the body of Alena Stathopoulos, 29 was found on the Squak Mountain trail not far from SE May Valley Road by two hikers. Her roommate Esther Rose Havekost was convicted in December 2004 for murdering her in their shared apartment and for paying a man $10,000 to dump the body. She was sentenced to 27 months in prison. <ref name=2004Murder>{{cite journal|last=Skolnik|first=Sam|title=Woman who ran escort agency charged in roommate's death|journal=Seattle Post-Intelligencer|date=December 1, 2004|url=http://www.seattlepi.com/local/article/Woman-who-ran-escort-agency-charged-in-roommate-s-1161007.php|accessdate=30 August 2011}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{refbegin}}
* Simpson, Douglas G. ''Squak Mountain: An Island in the Sky A history and trails guide to Squak Mountain'', Issaquah Alps Trail Club.
* Manning, Harvey & Penny. ''Walks & Hikes in the Foothills & Lowlands Around Puget Sound'', The Mountaineers, Seattle, 1995.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Squak Mountain State Park|Squak Mountain}}
* {{cite web |title=Squak Mountain State Park |publisher=[[Washington State Parks]] |url=http://www.parks.wa.gov/parks/?selectedpark=Squak%20Mountain}}
* {{cite ngs|id= SY3572|designation=Squak Mtn King County Rad Mast}}
* {{cite journal |first=Karen |last=Sykes |title=Time to take a closer look at nearby Squak Mountain |date=March 29, 2001 |publisher=Seattle Post-Intelligencer |url=http://www.seattlepi.com/getaways/16372_hike29.shtml}}
* {{cite journal|last=McQuaide|first=Mike|title=Issaquah's Squak Mountain is climbing in popularity|journal=Seattle Times|date=November 4, 2004|url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20041104&slug=nwwsquak04|accessdate=30 August 2011}}
* {{cite journal|last=Sykes|first=Karen|title=Hike Of The Week: It's easy to get away in the Issaquah Alps|journal=Seattle Post-Intelligencer|date=December 26, 2007|url=http://www.seattlepi.com/news/article/Hike-Of-The-Week-It-s-easy-to-get-away-in-the-1259532.php#ixzz1WTCWONQg|accessdate=30 August 2011}}
* {{cite journal|last=Mapes|first=Lynda V.|title=Squak Mountain trail is a winter delight|journal=Seattle Times|date=December 25, 2009|year=2009|url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2010598182_wintertrails26m.html|accessdate=30 August 2011}}
* {{cite gnis|id=1512686|title=Squak Mountain}}
* "[http://www.summitpost.org/view_object.php?object_id=408738&context_id=442785 Squak Mountain]". SummitPost.org.
* "[http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=2207 Squak Mountain]". Peakbagger.com.
* "[http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=25669 Squak Mountain-West Peak]". Peakbagger.com.
* "[http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=31304 Squak Mountain-Southeast Peak]". Peakbagger.com.
* [http://www.greentrailsmaps.com/maps/search/mapid=203S Green Trails Maps Map of Cougar and Squak Mountains].
* [http://www.parks.wa.gov/parks/thumbnailAndmaps/8600342.pdf Washington State Parks Map of Squak Mountain State Park].

{{Protected Areas of Washington}}

[[Category:Cascade Range]]
[[Category:Mountains of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Landforms of King County, Washington]]
[[Category:Washington (state) state parks]]
[[Category:Parks in King County, Washington]]

{{KingWA-geo-stub}}

G. Harry Stine

2012-05-12T13:19:04Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Requested visit by template {{Pixie me}}. ISBNs (Build KF)

{{For|19th-century baseball player|Harry Stine (baseball)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2011}}
{{Infobox person
| name = G. Harry Stine
| image = StineGHarry.jpg
| alt = G. Harry Stine with model rocket
| caption = G. Harry Stine preparing a model rocket for launch at NARAM-12, Houston, TX, 1970
| birth_date = {{birth date|1928|03|26}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{death date and age|1997|11|02|1928|03|26}}
| death_place =
| nationality =
| other_names =
| known_for = model rocketry, science fiction
| occupation =
}}
{{More footnotes|date=September 2010}}
'''George Harry Stine''' (March 26, 1928 – November 2, 1997) was one of the founding figures of [[model rocket]]ry, a science and technology writer, and (under the name Lee Correy) a science fiction author.

==Education and early career==
Stine grew up in Colorado Springs and attended the University of Colorado in Boulder. Upon his graduation he went to work at [[White Sands Proving Grounds]], first as a civilian scientist and then, from 1955–1957, at the U.S. Naval Ordnance Missile Test Facility as head of the Range Operations Division.

Stine and his wife Barbara were friends of author [[Robert A. Heinlein]], who sponsored their wedding, as Harry's parents were dead and Barbara's mother too ill to travel. Several of Heinlein's books are dedicated one or both of them, most particularly ''[[Have Space Suit - Will Travel]]''.<ref name="deds">{{cite web|url=http://nitrosyncretic.net/rah/dedications.html|title=Heinlein’s Dedications|accessdate=2010-03-09}}</ref> Stine also wrote science fiction under the pen name "Lee Correy" in the mid 1950s, as well as writing science articles for [[Popular Mechanix]].

==Model rocketry==
After White Sands, Stine was employed at several other aerospace companies, finally ending up at [[Glenn L. Martin Company|Martin]] working on the [[Titan (rocket family)|Titan]] project. This job was short-lived: he was abruptly fired in 1957 when [[United Press]] called him for a reaction to the launch of [[Sputnik 1]], and he repeated to them a passage from his just-published book ''Earth Satellites and the Race for Space Superiority'', in which he wrote, "For the first time since the dawn of history, the Earth is going to have more than one moon. This is due to happen within the next few months—or it may have already happened even at the time you are reading this."<ref>{{cite book | author=Dickson, Paul | title=Sputnik: The Launch of the Space Race | publisher=McFarlane Walter & Ross | year=2001 | isbn=1-55199-099-7}}</ref> The next day he was told to clear out his desk.

Back in his days at White Sands he had handled inquiries from young people concerning rockets, and early in 1957 he wrote an article for ''[[Mechanics Illustrated]]'' about rocket safety. Shortly thereafter he received a letter from [[Orville Carlisle]], who had begun making small models and, more importantly, replaceable solid fuel engines to power them. Stine was impressed with the samples that Carlisle had sent him, and wrote a cover article for the October ''MI'' issue about them. After the Martin firing, he contacted Carlisle and the two of them formed Model Missiles Inc., the first manufacturer of model rockets and their engines. Stine also founded the [[National Association of Rocketry]] (initially called the Model Missile Association) and wrote the safety code which became its centerpiece; he served as its president until the late 1960s.

MMI was short-lived, as they were unprepared to handle the level of business they attracted and because of some poor business decisions. Issues with the production of early engines caused them to seek out [[Vernon Estes]], who came to them in the summer of 1958. Estes's design and construction of "Mabel", the first engine-manufacturing machine, was the foundation of his success and put [[Estes Industries]] in a dominant position in the hobby which it was never to relinquish.

Stine continued to work to popularize the hobby, writing the ''Handbook of Model Rocketry'' in 1965, which went on through seven editions over the years. He returned to the aerospace industry, continuing to write under his pen name, including a [[Star Trek]] novel called ''[[The Abode of Life]]'' and the original novel ''[[Shuttle Down]]''. Under his own name, he was a regular science-fact columnist for [[Astounding (magazine)|Astounding]] and its later successor [[Analog (magazine)|Analog]], where his intriguing articles were in a position to influence two generations of budding scientists, social thinkers and film artists. Stine would also occasionally advise [[Rick Sternbach]] and [[Mike Okuda]] in their work for ''[[Star Trek: the Next Generation]]'' as technical artists and advisors, and was credited in ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation Technical Manual]]'' for that assistance. The character named "Harry Stein" in the novel [[Stardance]] (by [[Spider Robinson]] and [[Jeanne Robinson]]) is a homage to Stine.

==Other work==
Stine was very interested in the interaction of volunteer/free market Libertarian ideas with space colonization and as a tool of citizen diplomacy and world peace, and so was called to serve as Chair of the Advisory Board of the [[Libertarian International Organization]] where he mentored various citizen initiatives until his death. In the wake of his book, ''The Third Industrial Revolution,'' he was asked to co-organize the [[American Astronautical Society]] 1977 conference on private Space Colonization to re-channel focus away from Space exploration alone, and where he received an award as a Founder of the international space effort. He was interested in the concept of non immediate profit-driven free markets, and was seen as a developer and [http://www.rocket.aero/stine.html defender] of the "[[pay it forward]]" approach with [[Robert A. Heinlein]], a term also popularized in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_It_Forward_%28film%29 a movie of that name], starring Kevin Spacey and other stars. In addition to ''The Third Industrial Revolution'', he wrote several other books encouraging public awareness of the possibilities of a lucrative and socially beneficial active space industry.

Stine was a founding member of the [[Citizens' Advisory Council on National Space Policy]], and attended several meetings including the 1980 meeting that prepared the space defense policy papers for the Reagan Transition Team. The Council was instrumental in developing the Reagan Strategic Defense Initiative which became known as Star Wars.

Additional speculative works later in his life included "Warbots", a fictional concept based on a melded human/robotic military force that utilized a mixed combination of AI-driven robotic military units with on-site human commanders and enlisted personnel to assess the situation and adjust goals and activities to match the conditions of action in the face of inevitable changes, focusing on the power and dispensability of AI-driven machines with the flexibility and adaptability of the human mind and body.

He died in [[Phoenix, Arizona]] of an apparent stroke.<ref>[http://www.sfwa.org/News/stine.htm] SFWA Obituaries, G. Harry Stine</ref>

==Bibliography==
===Science Fiction===
(hardback, as Lee Correy) 
''Starship Through Space'', Henry Holt, 1954 
''Rocket Man'', Henry Holt, 1955

(paperback, as Lee Correy) 
''Contraband Rocket'', Ace Double, 1955 ISBN 978-0-441-04146-6 
''Star Driver'', Del Rey, July 1980 
''[[Shuttle Down]]'', Del Rey, April 1981 
''Space Doctor'', Del Rey, June 1981 
''The Abode of Life'', Pocket Science Fiction, May 1982 
''A Matter of Metalaw'', DAW Science Fiction, October 1986 
''Manna'', DAW Science Fiction, January 1984

(paperback, as G.Harry Stine) 
Warbots, Pinnacle Science Fiction, May 1988 ISBN 1-55817-111-8 
Warbots #2: Operation Steel Band, Pinnacle Science Fiction, July 1988 ISBN 1-55817-061-8 
Warbots #3: The Bastaard Rebellion, Pinnacle Science Fiction, September 1988 ISBN 1-55817-089-8 
Warbots #4: Sierra Madre, Pinnacle Science Fiction, November 1988 ISBN 1-55817-132-0 
Warbots #5: Operation High Dragon, Pinnacle Science Fiction, January 1989 ISBN 1-55817-159-2 
Warbots #6: The Lost Battalion, Pinnacle Science Fiction, April 1989 ISBN 1-55817-205-X 
Warbots #7: Operation Iron Fist, Pinnacle Science Fiction, August 1990 ISBN 1-55817-253-X 
Warbots #8: Force of Arms, Pinnacle Science Fiction, March 1990 ISBN 1-55817-324-2 
Warbots #9: Blood Siege, Pinnacle Science Fiction, September 1990 ISBN 1-55817-402-8 
Warbots #10: Guts and Glory, Pinnacle Science Fiction, June 1991 ISBN 1-55817-453-2 
Warbots #11: Warrior Shield, Pinnacle Science Fiction, February 1992 ISBN 1-55817-589-X 
Warbots #12: Judgement Day, Pinnacle Science Fiction, September 1992 ISBN 1-55817-642-X 
Starsea Invaders: First Action, New American Library, August 1993 
Starsea Invaders: Second Contact, New American Library, March 1994 
Starsea Invaders: Third Encounter, New American Library, May 1995 
Open Space (graphic novel, undated)

===Non-Fiction===
Earth Satellites and the Race for Space Superiority, 1957 
Rocket Power and Space Flight, Henry Holt & Co., 1957 
Man and the Space Frontier, 1962 
The Third Industrial Revolution, Putnam, 1975 ISBN 0-399-11552-8 
Shuttle into Space: A Ride in America's Space Transportation, 1978 
The Third Industrial Revolution, Ace Science Fiction, May 1979 ISBN 0-441-80664-3 
The Space Enterprise, Ace Science, August 1980 ISBN 0-441-77756-2 
Confrontation in Space, Prentice-Hall, 1981 
Space Power, Ace Science, September 1981 ISBN 0-441-77744-9 
The Space Enterprise, 1982 
The Hopeful Future, MacMillan, 1983 ISBN 0-02-614790-4 
The Silicon Gods, Dell, October ISBN 0-440-08048-7, 1984 
The Untold Story of The Computer Revolution, Arbor House, 1984 ISBN 0-87795-574-3 
Frontiers of Science: Strange Machines You Can Build Atheneum, 1985 ISBN 0-689-11562-9 {{Please check ISBN|reason=Check digit (9) does not correspond to calculated figure.}} 
Handbook for Space Colonists, Henry Holt & Co., 1985 ISBN 003070412 
On The Frontiers of Science, Atheneum, 1985 ISBN 0-689-11562-8 
The Corporate Survivors, Amacom Books, 1986 ISBN 0-8144-5831-9 
ICBM: The Making of the Weapon That Changed the World, Crown, 1991 ISBN 0-517-56768-7 
Mind Machines You Can Build, Top Of The Mountain Publishing, 1992 ISBN 1-56087-075-3 
Halfway to Anywhere, M. Evans and Company, N.Y., 1996 ISBN 0-87131-805-9 
Living in Space, M. Evans & Co., 1997 ISBN 0-87131-841-5 
The Manna Project: Business Opportunities in Outer Space, 1998

====Model rocketry====
The Handbook of Model Rocketry 1st ed., Follet Publishing, 1965 
The Handbook of Model Rocketry 2nd ed., Follet Publishing, 1967 
The Handbook of Model Rocketry 3rd ed., Follet Publishing, 1970 
The Handbook of Model Rocketry 4th ed., Follet Publishing, 1976 ISBN 0-695-80616-5 
The Handbook of Model Rocketry 5th ed., 1985 ISBN 0-668-05360-7 
The Handbook of Model Rocketry 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1994 ISBN 0-471-59361-3 
The Handbook of Model Rocketry 7th ed., with Bill Stine, Wiley, 2004 ISBN 0-471-47242-5 
The Model Rocketry Manual, 1969 
The New Model Rocketry Manual, Arco Publishing, 1977 
The New Model Rocketry Handbook, Arco Publishing, 1977 ISBN 0-668-04282-6 (paper edition) 
The New Model Rocketry Handbook, Arco Publishing, 1977 ISBN 0-668-04030-0 (library edition)

==External links==
* {{isfdb name}}

==References==
<div class=
"references-small">
<references/></div>

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Stine, G. Harry
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =March 26, 1928
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =November 2, 1997
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Stine, G. Harry}}
[[Category:1928 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:Model rocketry]]
[[Category:American engineers]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers]]

Zitroneneukalyptus

2012-05-12T13:13:08Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: Requested visit by template {{Pixie me}}. ISBNs (Build KF)

{{Italic title}}
{{taxobox
|name = Lemon-scented Gum
|image = Corymbia citriodora.jpg
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperm]]s
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicot]]s
|unranked_ordo = [[Rosid]]s
|ordo = [[Myrtales]]
|familia = [[Myrtaceae]]
|genus = ''[[Corymbia]]''
|species = '''''C. citriodora'''''
|binomial = ''Corymbia citriodora''
|binomial_authority = ([[William Jackson Hooker|Hook.]]) [[K.D. Hill]] & [[L.A.S.Johnson]]
|synonyms = ''Eucalyptus citriodora'' 
''E. maculata'' var. ''citriodora'' 
''E. melissiodora''
| range_map = Distribution Corymbia citriodora.jpg
| range_map_width = 240px
| range_map_caption = ''C. citriodora'', field distribution
}}

'''''Corymbia citriodora''''' is a tall [[tree]], to 51 metres in height, from [[temperate]] and [[Tropics|tropical]] north eastern [[Australia]]. It is also known as '''lemon-scented gum''', '''blue spotted gum''' and '''lemon [[eucalyptus]]'''.

''Corymbia citriodora'' has smooth, pale, uniform or slightly mottled [[bark]], white to coppery in summer, and a conspicuously narrow-leaved [[Crown (botany)|crown]] which smells strongly of [[lemon]]s. [[Pear]]-shaped [[bud]]s are borne in clusters of three, formed in the corner of leaf and stem junctions, whilst [[fruit]] (capsules) are [[urn]]-shaped. The bark is smooth for the entire height of the tree, often powdery, shedding in thin curling flakes.<ref>[http://www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/cd-keys/euclid3/euclidsample/html/Corymbia_citriodora.htm Factsheet - Corymbia citriodora]</ref>

It prefers lighter, slightly acidic [[loam]]y soils and occurs in dry [[sclerophyll]] forest and woodlands in hilly country. ''Corymbia citriodora'' has a [[lignotuber]]. [[Flower]]ing has been recorded in January, April, May, June, July, August, October and December.

Plants of ''C. citriodora'' are [[Naturalization|naturalised]] in the [[Darling Scarp|Darling Range]] near [[Mundaring, Western Australia|Mundaring]], [[Western Australia]] and by planting to suburban [[New South Wales]] and [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]].

[[File:Lemon scented gum Pos solutions.JPG|left|thumb|The Lemon-scented Gum in the [[Pos solutions]] reserve, [[Moorabbin, Victoria]].]]

[[File:KingsParkWesternAustralia1 gobeirne.jpg|left|thumb|An avenue of Lemon-scented Gums in [[Kings Park, Western Australia|Kings Park]], [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Western Australia]]]][[Kings Park, Western Australia|Kings Park]] in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] has a famous, beautiful avenue of this species planted many years ago, but it has spread to become a serious [[weed]] there also.<ref>Hussey et al., (1997) ''Western weeds : a guide to the weeds of Western Australia '' South Perth, W.A.: Plant Protection Society of W.A. : 1997. ISBN 0-646-32440-3, 1997</ref>

''Corymbia citriodora'' is an important forest tree, in demand for structural timber and for [[honey]] production. It also is popular in horticulture both within Australia and overseas. The name ''Corymbia citriodora'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''citriodorus'', which means ''lemon-scented''.

The [[essential oil]] of the lemon-scented gum mainly consists of [[citronellal]] (80%),<ref>Boland, D.J. ''et al.'', ''Eucalyptus Leaf Oils - Use, Chemistry, Distillation and Marketing'', ISBN 0-909605-69-6.</ref> produced largely in Brazil and China.<ref>Lawless, J., ''The Ilustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils'', ISBN 1-85230-661-0</ref> While unrefined oil from the lemon eucalyptus tree is used in [[perfumery]], a refined form of this oil is used in [[insect repellent]]s. The refined oil's citronellal content is turned into cis- and trans- isomers of [[p-menthane-3,8-diol]]s (PMD), a process which occurs naturally as the eucalyptus leaves age.

==See also==
* [[List of honey plants]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite book | author=Pink, A. | url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11892|title=Gardening for the Million| year=[[2004]] | publisher=[[Project Gutenberg|Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation]]}}
*[http://www.publish.csiro.au/samples/euclidsample/html/Corymbia_citriodora.htm Euclid:''Corymbia citriodora'']
*[http://www.hear.org/pier/wra/pacific/corymbia_citriodora_htmlwra.htm Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER): ''Corymbia citriodora'']

{{DEFAULTSORT:Corymbia citriodora}}
[[Category:Corymbia|citriodora]]
[[Category:Myrtales of Australia]]
[[Category:Flora of Queensland]]
[[Category:Horticulture and gardening]]
[[Category:Ornamental trees]]
[[Category:Trees of Australia]]
[[Category:Honey plants]]

[[az:Limonu evkalipt]]
[[cs:Blahovičník citroníkový]]
[[es:Corymbia citriodora]]
[[fr:Corymbia citriodora]]
[[it:Eucalyptus citriodora]]
[[he:אקליפטוס לימוני]]
[[pt:Eucalyptus citriodora]]

Benutzer:Sophekles/Abigail (biblische Person)

2012-05-12T12:46:56Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{About|the wife of David|more information on the human name "Abigail"|Abigail (name)|other uses|Abigail (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Antonio Molinari David y Abigail.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''David and Abigail'' by [[Antonio Molinari]].]]
'''Abigail''' ({{Hebrew Name 2|אֲבִיגַיִל|אֲבִיגָיִל|Avigáyil||ʾĂḇîḡáyil|ʾĂḇîḡāyil|"her Father's joy" or "fountain of joy"}}, spelt ''Abigal'' in {{Bibleref2|2Samuel|3:3|NIV|2 Samuel 3:3}}) was the wife of [[Nabal]]; she became a wife of [[David (biblical king)|David]] after Nabal's death ([[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] {{Bibleref2-nb|1SAM|25|NIV}}). She became the mother of one of David's sons, who is listed in the [[Book of Chronicles]] under the name [[Daniel (son of David)|''Daniel'']],<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Chronicles|3:1|}}</ref> in the [[Masoretic Text]] of the Books of Samuel as ''Chileab,''<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Samuel|3:3|}}</ref> and in the [[Septuagint]] text of 2 Samuel 3:3 as Δαλουια, ''Dalouia''.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/sep/sa2003.htm 2 Samuel 3], LXX</ref> [[Jon D. Levenson|Levenson]] and [[Halpern]] suggest that Abigail may, in fact, also be the same person as [[Abigail (mother of Amasa)|Abigail, mother of Amasa]].<ref>[[Jon D. Levenson]] and [[Baruch Halpern]], "The Political Import of David's Marriages," ''[[Journal of Biblical Literature|JBL]]'' 99 [1980] 511-512.</ref>

[[File:Escalante-abigail.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Prudent Abigail'' by [[Juan Antonio de Frías y Escalante|Juan Antonio Escalante]].]]

==Biblical history==
In the passage from 1 Samuel, [[Nabal]] demonstrates ingratitude towards [[David]], and Abigail attempts to placate David in order to stop him taking revenge. She gives him food, and speaks to him, urging him not to "have on his conscience the staggering burden of needless bloodshed" (verse 31, [[NIV]]) and reminding him that [[Yahweh|God]] will make him a "[[Davidic line|lasting dynasty]]" (verse 28). [[Jon Levenson]] calls this an "undeniable [[wikt:adumbration|adumbration]]" of [[Nathan (prophet)|Nathan]]'s prophecy in [[Covenant (biblical)#Davidic covenant|2 Samuel 7]].<ref name=Levenson>[[Jon D. Levenson]], "1 Samuel 25 as Literature and History," ''[[Catholic Biblical Quarterly|CBQ]]'' 40 [1978] 20.</ref> Alice Bach notes that Abigail pronounces a "crucial prophecy,"<ref>Alice Bach, "[http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1945&C=1780 The Pleasure of Her Text]," ''Union Seminary Quarterly Review'' 43 [1989] 44.</ref> and the [[Talmud]] regards her as one of the [[Tanakh]]'s seven female prophets.<ref>[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Megilah.pdf 14a]</ref> Levenson, however, suggests that she "senses the drift of history" from intelligence rather than from special revelation.<ref name=Levenson />

After Abigail reveals to Nabal what she has done, "[[YHWH]] struck Nabal and he died," (v.38), after which David married her.

The text explicitly describes Abigail as "intelligent and beautiful" (1 Samuel 25:3, [[NIV]], also in the [[JPS Tanakh]]). The [[Talmud]] amplifies this idea, mentioning her as being one of the "four women of surpassing beauty in the world."<ref>[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Megilah.pdf 15a]</ref> In terms of her moral character, [[Abraham Kuyper]] argues that Abigail's conduct indicates "a most appealing character and unwavering faith,"<ref>[[Abraham Kuyper]], ''Women of the Old Testament'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1941), 106.</ref> but Alice Bach regards her as subversive.<ref>Alice Bach, "[http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1945&C=1780 The Pleasure of Her Text]," ''Union Seminary Quarterly Review'' 43 [1989] 41.</ref>

==Generic use==
Abigail's self-styling as a ''[[handmaid]]''<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Samuel|25:25|}} and following</ref> led to ''Abigail'' being the traditional term for a waiting-woman, for example as the ''waiting [[gentlewoman]]'' in [[Beaumont and Fletcher]]'s ''[[The Scornful Lady]]'', published in 1616. [[Jonathan Swift]] and [[Henry Fielding]] use ''Abigail'' in this generic sense, as does [[Charlotte Brontë]]. [[Anthony Trollope]] makes two references to ''the abigail'' (all lower case) in ''[[The Eustace Diamonds]]'', at the beginning of Chapter 42. [[William Rose Benet]] notes the notoriety of [[Abigail Hill]], better known as "Mrs Masham", a [[lady-in-waiting]] to [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]].<ref>''The Reader's Encyclopedia'', 1948, ''s.v.'' "Abigail".</ref>
{{commons category|David and Abigail}}

==In art==

Abigail is a featured figure on [[Judy Chicago]]'s installation piece ''[[The Dinner Party]]'', being represented in one of the 999 tiles of the ''[[List of women in the Heritage Floor|Heritage Floor]].''<ref name="AbigailBM">{{cite web | author= | year=2007 | title=Abigail | work=Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art: The Dinner Party: Heritage Floor: Abigail | publisher=[[Brooklyn Museum]] | url=http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/dinner_party/heritage_floor/abigail.php | accessdate=13 December 2011}}</ref><ref name="C69">Chicago, 69.</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==

*Chicago, Judy. ''The Dinner Party: From Creation to Preservation''. London: Merrell (2007). ISBN 1-85894-370-1

{{Prophets of the Tanakh}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abigail}}
[[Category:11th-century BC women]]
[[Category:10th-century BC women]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible people]]
[[Category:Wives of David]]
[[Category:Books of Samuel]]

[[ca:Abigail]]
[[de:Abigail]]
[[el:Αβιγαία]]
[[es:Abigaíl]]
[[eo:Abigail]]
[[id:Abigail]]
[[he:אביגיל]]
[[sw:Abigaili]]
[[hu:Abigél]]
[[nl:Abigaïl (Bijbel)]]
[[ja:アビガイル]]
[[no:Abigajil]]
[[pl:Abigail]]
[[pt:Abigail (Bíblia)]]
[[sr:Абигел]]
[[sv:Abigail]]

Ealdred (Erzbischof von York)

2012-05-12T12:07:30Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{For|similar names|Ealdred}}
{{Redirect|Aldred}}

{{Infobox Christian leader
| name = Ealdred
| title = [[Archbishop of York]]
| province = [[Diocese of York|York]]
| diocese = [[Diocese of York]]
| see = [[Archbishop of York]]
| image = Gloucester catedral anglosajon.JPG
| imagesize = 250px
| alt = Interior view of a chamber, with arches supporting the pillars holding up the roof.
| caption = Crypt of Gloucester Cathedral, which predates the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]], and would have been contemporary with Ealdred's administration of [[Gloucester Abbey]]
| elected = 25 December 1060
| ended = 11 September 1069
| other_post = [[Abbot of Tavistock]] [[Bishop of Worcester]]
| predecessor = [[Cynesige]]
| successor = [[Thomas of Bayeux]]
| consecration = 1046
| birth_name = Ealdred
| death_date = 11 September 1069
| death_place = [[York]]
| buried = [[York Minster]]
}}

'''Ealdred''' (or '''Aldred''';<ref name=DNB/> died 11 September 1069) was [[Abbot of Tavistock]], [[Bishop of Worcester]], and [[Archbishop of York]] in [[History of Anglo-Saxon England|Anglo-Saxon England]]. He was related to a number of other ecclesiastics of the period. After becoming a monk at the monastery at [[Winchester]], he was appointed [[Abbot]] of [[Tavistock Abbey]] in around 1027. In 1046 he was named to the Bishopric of Worcester. Ealdred, besides his episcopal duties, served [[Edward the Confessor]], the King of England, as a diplomat and as a military leader. He worked to bring one of the king's relatives, [[Edward the Exile]], back to England from Hungary to secure an heir for the childless king.

In 1058 he undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the first bishop from England to do so.<ref name=Edward208>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' pp. 208–209</ref> As administrator of the [[Diocese of Hereford]], he was involved in fighting against the Welsh, suffering two defeats at the hands of raiders before securing a settlement with [[Gruffydd ap Llywelyn]], a Welsh ruler.

In 1060, Ealdred was elected to the archbishopric of York, but had difficulty in obtaining papal approval for his appointment, only managing to do so when he promised not to hold the bishoprics of York and Worcester simultaneously. He helped secure the election of [[Wulfstan (Bishop of Worcester)|Wulfstan]] as his successor at Worcester. During his archiepiscopate, he built and embellished churches in his diocese, and worked to improve his clergy by holding a synod which published regulations for the priesthood.

Some sources state that following King Edward the Confessor's death in 1066, it was Ealdred who crowned [[Harold Godwinson]] as King of England.<ref name=Hindley335>Hindley ''A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons'' p. 335</ref> Ealdred supported Harold as king, but when Harold was defeated at the [[Battle of Hastings]], Ealdred backed [[Edgar the Ætheling]] and then endorsed King [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]], the [[Duke of Normandy]] and a distant relative of King Edward's. Ealdred crowned King William on Christmas Day in 1066. William never quite trusted Ealdred or the other English leaders, and Ealdred had to accompany William back to Normandy in 1067, but he had returned to York by the time of his death in 1069. Ealdred supported the churches and monasteries in his diocese with gifts and building projects.

==Early life==

Ealdred was probably born in the west of England, and could be related to [[Lyfing of Winchester|Lyfing]], his predecessor as bishop of Worcester.<ref name=DNB>Lawson "[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/37382 Ealdred (d. 1069)]" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref> His family, from Devonshire, may have been well-to-do.<ref name=King124>King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' p. 124</ref> Another relative was Wilstan or Wulfstan, who under Ealdred's influence became [[Abbot of Gloucester]].<ref name=DNB/> Ealdred was a monk in the [[cathedral chapter]] at [[Winchester Cathedral]] before becoming abbot of Tavistock Abbey about 1027, an office he held until about 1043.<ref name=Knowles72>Knowles ''Monastic Order in England'' p. 72</ref> Even after leaving the abbacy of Tavistock, he continued to hold two properties from the abbey until his death.<ref name=King124/> During his tenure as abbot, he supported the abbey with gifts; the medieval chronicler [[William of Malmesbury]] said that they were splendid and many.<ref name=King125>King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' p. 125</ref> No contemporary documents relating to Ealdred's time as abbot have been discovered.<ref name=King125/>

Ealdred was made bishop of Worcester in 1046, a position he held until his resignation in 1062.<ref name=Handbook224>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 224</ref> He may have acted as [[Suffragan bishop|suffragan]], or subordinate bishop, to his predecessor Lyfing before formally assuming the bishopric,<ref name=DNB/><ref name=Edward86>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 86</ref> as from about 1043 Ealdred witnessed as an ''episcopus'', or bishop, and a charter from 1045 or early 1046 names Sihtric as abbot of Tavistock.<ref name=King125/> Lyfing died on 26 March 1046, and Ealdred became bishop of Worcester shortly after. However, Ealdred did not receive the other two dioceses that Lyfing had held, [[Bishop of Crediton|Crediton]] and [[Bishop of Cornwall|Cornwall]]; King Edward the Confessor (reigned 1043–1066) granted these to [[Leofric (bishop)|Leofric]], who combined the two sees at Crediton in 1050.<ref name=King125/>

==Bishop and royal advisor==
[[Image:Harold2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|Harold Godwinson, from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], whom Ealdred failed to catch in 1051|alt=Tapestry image of a man on horseback holding a falcon]]

Ealdred was an advisor to King Edward the Confessor, and was often involved in the royal government.<ref name=Huscroft49/> He was also a military leader, and in 1046 he led an unsuccessful expedition against the Welsh.<ref name=Huscroft49>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 49</ref> This was in retaliation for a raid led by the Welsh rulers [[Gruffydd ap Rhydderch]], [[Rhys ap Rhydderch]], and Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. Ealdred's expedition was betrayed by some Welsh soldiers who were serving with the English, and Ealdred was defeated.<ref name=Maund89>Maund ''Welsh Kings'' pp. 89–90</ref>

In 1050, Ealdred went to Rome "on the king's errand",<ref name=Huscroft50>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 50</ref> apparently to secure papal approval to move the seat, or centre, of the bishopric of Crediton to Exeter. It may also have been to secure the release of the king from a vow to go on pilgrimage, if sources from after the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]] of England are to be believed.<ref name=DNB/> While in Rome, he attended a papal council, along with his fellow English bishop [[Herman (bishop)|Herman]].<ref name=Smith574>Smith, et al. "Court and Piety" ''Catholic Historical Review'' p. 574</ref> That same year, as Ealdred was returning to England he met [[Sweyn Godwinson|Sweyn]], a son of [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex]], and probably absolved Sweyn for having abducted the abbess of [[Leominster Abbey]] in 1046.<ref name=Godwins55>Barlow ''The Godwins'' p. 55</ref> Through Ealdred's intercession, Sweyn was restored to his earldom, which he had lost after abducting the abbess and murdering his brother Beorn.<ref name=Rex37>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 37</ref><ref name=Edward103>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 103</ref> Ealdred helped Sweyn not only because Ealdred was a supporter of Earl Godwin's family but because Sweyn's earldom was close to his bishopric. As recently as 1049 Irish raiders had allied with Gruffydd ap Rhydderch of [[Kingdom of Gwent|Gwent]] in raiding along the [[River Usk]]. Ealdred unsuccessfully tried to drive off the raiders, but was again routed by the Welsh. This failure underscored Ealdred's need for a strong earl in the area to protect against raids.<ref name=Mason57>Mason ''House of Godwine'' pp. 57–58</ref> Normally, the [[bishop of Hereford]] would have led the defence in the absence of an Earl of Hereford, but in 1049 the incumbent, [[Æthelstan (Bishop of Hereford)|Æthelstan]], was blind, so Ealdred took on the role of defender.<ref name=King126>King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' pp. 126–127</ref>

==Diplomatic travels==
Earl Godwin's rebellion against the king in 1051 came as a blow to Ealdred, who was a supporter of the earl and his family. Ealdred was present at the royal council at London that banished Godwin's family.<ref name=King127>King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' p. 127</ref> Later in 1051, when he was sent to intercept Harold Godwinson and his brothers as they fled England after their father's outlawing, Ealdred "could not, or would not" capture the brothers.<ref name=Harold132>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 132–133</ref><ref name=Edward114>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 114</ref> The banishment of Ealdred's patron came shortly after the death of [[Ælfric Puttoc]], the Archbishop of York. York and Worcester had long had close ties, and the two sees had often been held in [[Benefice|plurality]], or at the same time. Ealdred probably wanted to become Archbishop of York after Ælfric's death, but his patron's eclipse led to the king appointing [[Cynesige]], a royal chaplain, instead.<ref name=King127/> In September 1052, though, Godwin returned from exile and his family was restored to power.<ref name=Huscroft6>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' pp. 6–7</ref> By late 1053 Ealdred was once more in royal favour.<ref name=King127/> At some point, he was alleged to have accompanied Swein on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but proof is lacking.<ref name=Fleming79>Fleming ''Kings & Lords in Conquest England'' pp. 79–80</ref>{{efn|If he did accompany Swein, the historian [[Frank Barlow (historian)|Frank Barlow]] argues that it was probably in 1058.<ref name=BarlowChurch88>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 88</ref>}}

In 1054 King Edward sent Ealdred to Germany to obtain Emperor [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]]'s help in returning Edward the Exile, son of [[Edmund Ironside]], to England. Edmund (reigned 1016) was an elder half-brother of King Edward the Confessor, and Edmund's son Edward was in Hungary with King [[Andrew I of Hungary|Andrew I]], having left England as an infant after his father's death and the accession of [[Canute the Great|Cnut]] as King of England.<ref name=Huscroft8>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 8</ref> In this mission Ealdred was somewhat successful and obtained insight into the working of the German church during a stay of a year<ref name=Walker76>Walker ''Harold'' p. 76</ref> with [[Herman II (Archbishop of Cologne)|Hermann II]], the [[Archbishop of Cologne]].<ref name=Edward215>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' pp. 215–218</ref> He also was impressed with the buildings he saw, and later incorporated some of the German styles into his own constructions.<ref name=King128>King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' p. 128</ref> The main objective of the mission, however, was to secure the return of Edward; but this failed, mainly because Henry III's relations with the Hungarians were strained, and the emperor was unable or unwilling to help Ealdred.<ref name=Mason88>Mason ''House of Godwine'' p. 88</ref> Ealdred was able to discover that Edward was alive, and had a place at the Hungarian court.<ref name=Rex126>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 126</ref>{{efn|Edward eventually returned to England in 1057, but died shortly thereafter.<ref name=Rex127>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 127</ref>}} Although some sources state that Ealdred attended the coronation of Emperor [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]], this is not possible, as on the date that Henry was crowned, Ealdred was in England consecrating an abbot.<ref name=King128/>

Ealdred had returned to England by 1055, and brought with him a copy of the ''[[Romano-German Pontifical|Pontificale Romano-Germanicum]]'', a [[Roman Pontifical|set of liturgies]], with him. An extant copy of this work, currently manuscript [[Cotton library|Cotton Vitellus E xii]], has been identified as a copy owned by Ealdred.<ref name=King128/> It appears likely that the ''[[Chrodegang of Metz|Rule of Chrodegang]]'', a continental set of ordinances for the communal life of [[Canon (priest)|secular canons]], was introduced into England by Ealdred sometime before 1059. Probably he brought it back from Germany, possibly in concert with Harold.<ref name=Rex77>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 77</ref>

After Ealdred's return to England he took charge of the sees of Hereford<ref name=Mason94>Mason ''House of Godwine'' p. 94</ref> and [[Bishop of Ramsbury|Ramsbury]].<ref name=Harold132/> Ealdred also administered [[Winchcombe Abbey]] and [[Gloucester Abbey]].<ref name=Edward198>Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' pp. 197–199</ref> The authors of the ''Handbook of British Chronology Third Edition'' say he was named bishop of Hereford in 1056, holding the see until he resigned it in 1060,<ref name=Handbook217>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 217</ref> but other sources say that he merely administered the see while it was vacant,<ref name=Huscroft45>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 45</ref> or that he was bishop of Hereford from 1055 to 1060.<ref name=BHOYork>Greenway ''[http://british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=8457 Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066–1300: Volume 6: York: Archbishops]''</ref>

Ealdred became involved with the see of Ramsbury after its bishop Herman got into a dispute with King Edward over the movement of the seat of his bishopric to [[Malmesbury Abbey]]. Herman wished to move the seat of his see, but Edward refused permission for the move. Ealdred was a close associate of Herman's,<ref name=King128/> and the historian [[H. R. Loyn]] called Herman "something of an alter ego" to Ealdred.<ref name=Loyn61>Loyn ''English Church'' p. 61</ref> According to the medieval chronicler [[John of Worcester]], Ealdred was given the see of Ramsbury to administer while Herman remained outside England. Herman returned in 1058, and resumed his bishopric. There is no contemporary documentary evidence of Ealdred's administration of Ramsbury.<ref name=King128/>

==Welsh affairs, Jerusalem, and Worcester==

The king again employed Ealdred as a diplomat in 1056, when he assisted earls Harold and Leofgar in negotiations with the Welsh.<ref name=King128a/> Edward sent Ealdred after the death in battle of Bishop [[Leofgar of Hereford]], who had attacked Gruffydd ap Llywelyn after encouragement from the king. However, Leofgar lost the battle and his life, and Edward had to sue for peace.<ref name=Maund94>Maund ''Welsh Kings'' pp. 94–95</ref> Although details of the negotiations are lacking, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn swore loyalty to King Edward,<ref name=King128a/> but the oath may not have had any obligations on Gruffydd's part to Edward. The exact terms of the submission are not known in total, but Gruffydd was not required to assist Edward in war nor attend Edward's court.<ref name=Maund94/> Ealdred was rewarded with the administration of the see of Hereford, which he held until 1061, and was appointed Archbishop of York.<ref name=King128a>King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' pp. 128–129</ref> The diocese had suffered a serious raid from the Welsh in 1055, and during his administration, Ealdred continued the rebuilding of the cathedral church as well as securing the cathedral chapter's rights.<ref name=King128a/> Ealdred was granted the administration in order that the area might have someone with experience with the Welsh in charge.<ref name=Darlington399/>

In 1058 Ealdred made a pilgrimage to [[Jerusalem]], the first English bishop to make the journey.<ref name=Edward208/> He travelled through Hungary, and the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' stated that "he went to Jerusalem in such state as no-one had done before him".<ref name=QKing130>Quoted in King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' p. 130</ref> While in Jerusalem he made a gift of a gold chalice to the church of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre|Holy Sepulchre]].<ref name=BarlowChurch89>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 89</ref> It is possible that the reason Ealdred travelled through Hungary was to arrange the travel of Edward the Exile's family to England. Another possibility is that he wished to search for other possible heirs to King Edward in Hungary.<ref name=King130>King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' p. 130</ref> It is not known exactly when Edward the Exile's family returned to England, whether they returned with Edward in 1057, or sometime later, so it is only a possibility that they returned with Ealdred in 1058.<ref name=Rex129>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 129</ref>

Very little documentary evidence is available from Ealdred's time as Bishop of Worcester. Only five leases that he signed survive, and all date from 1051 to 1053. Two further leases exist in ''[[Hemming's Cartulary]]'' as copies only. How the [[Anglican Diocese of Worcester|diocese of Worcester]] was administered when Ealdred was abroad is unclear, although it appears that [[Wulfstan (Bishop of Worcester)|Wulfstan]], the prior of the [[cathedral chapter]], performed the religious duties in the diocese. On the financial side, the ''[[Chronicon Abbatiae de Evesham|Evesham Chronicle]]'' states that [[Æthelwig]], who became abbot of [[Evesham Abbey]] in 1058, administered Worcester before he became abbot.<ref name=King134>King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' pp. 134–137</ref>

==Archbishop of York==
[[File:Bayeux Edward Funeral.jpg|left|upright=2.4|thumb|The funeral cortege of Edward the Confessor, from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]|alt=Tapestry image of a procession of men carrying a coffin heading towards a church building.]]
Cynesige, the archbishop of York, died on 22 December 1060, and Ealdred was elected [[Archbishop of York]] on Christmas Day, 1060. Although a bishop was promptly appointed to Hereford, none was named to Worcester, and it appears that Ealdred intended to retain Worcester along with York, which several of his predecessors had done.<ref name=King130/> There were a few reasons for this, one of which was political, as the kings of England preferred to appoint bishops from the south to the northern bishoprics, hoping to counter the northern tendency towards separatism. Another reason was that York was not a wealthy see, and Worcester was. Holding Worcester along with York allowed the archbishop sufficient revenue to support himself.<ref name=Loyn158>Loyn ''Governance'' p. 158</ref>

In 1061 Ealdred travelled to Rome to receive the [[pallium]], the symbol of an archbishop's authority. Journeying with him was [[Tostig Godwinson|Tostig]], another son of Earl Godwin, who was now earl of [[Northumbria]].<ref name=Hindley330>Hindley ''A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons'' p. 330</ref> William of Malmesbury says that Ealdred, by "amusing the simplicity of King Edward and alleging the custom of his predecessors, had acquired, more by bribery than by reason, the archbishopric of York while still holding his former see."<ref name=Powell13>Powell ''House of Lords'' pp. 13–14</ref> On his arrival in Rome, however, charges of [[simony]], or the buying of ecclesiastical office, and lack of learning were brought against him, and his elevation to York was refused by Pope [[Pope Nicholas II|Nicholas II]], who also deposed him from Worcester.<ref name=Powell13/> The story of Ealdred being deposed comes from the ''Vita Edwardi'', a life of Edward the Confessor, but the ''Vita Wulfstani'', an account of the life of Ealdred's successor at Worcester, [[Wulfstan (Bishop of Worcester)|Wulfstan]], says that Nicholas refused the pallium until a promise to find a replacement for Worcester was given by Ealdred.<ref name=King131>King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' p. 131</ref> Yet another chronicler, John of Worcester, mentions nothing of any trouble in Rome, and when discussing the appointment of Wulfstan, says that Wulfstan was elected freely and unanimously by the clergy and people.<ref name=King131/> John of Worcester also claims that at Wulfstan's consecration, [[Stigand]], the archbishop of Canterbury extracted a promise from Ealdred that neither he nor his successors would lay claim to any jurisdiction over the diocese of Worcester. Given that John of Worcester wrote his chronicle after the eruption of the Canterbury–York supremacy struggle, the story of Ealdred renouncing any claims to Worcester needs to be considered suspect.<ref name=King131a>King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' pp. 131–132</ref>

For whatever reason, Ealdred gave up the see of Worcester in 1062, when papal legates arrived in England to hold a council and make sure that Ealdred relinquished Worcester.<ref name=Harold50>Walker ''Harold'' p. 50</ref> This happened at Easter in 1062.<ref name=Darlington399>Darlington "Ecclesiastical Reform" ''English Historical Review'' pp. 399–400</ref> Ealdred was succeeded by Wulfstan, chosen by Ealdred, but John of Worcester relates that Ealdred had a hard time deciding between Wulfstan and Æthelwig.<ref name=Monastic76>Knowles ''Monastic Order'' p. 76</ref> The legates had urged the selection of Wulfstan because of his saintliness.<ref name=BarlowChurch106>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' pp. 106–107</ref> Because the position of Stigand, the archbishop of Canterbury, was irregular, Wulfstan sought and received consecration as a bishop from Ealdred. Normally, Wulfstan would have gone to the archbishop of Canterbury, as the see of Worcester was within Canterbury's province.<ref name=Brooks306>Brooks ''Early History of the Church of Canterbury'' p. 306</ref> Although Ealdred gave up the bishopric, the appointment of Wulfstan was one that allowed Ealdred to continue his considerable influence on the see of Worcester. Ealdred retained a number of estates belonging to Worcester. Even after the Norman Conquest, Ealdred still controlled some events in Worcester, and it was Ealdred, not Wulfstan, who opposed [[Urse d'Abetot]]'s attempt to extend the castle of Worcester into the cathedral after the Norman Conquest.<ref name=King132>King "Ealdred" ''Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII'' pp. 132–133</ref>

While archbishop, Ealdred built at [[Beverley]], expanding on the building projects begun by his predecessor Cynesige,<ref name=Huscroft46>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 46</ref> as well as repairing and expanding other churches in his diocese.<ref name=Edward198/> He also built refectories for the canons at York and Southwell.<ref name=Darlington404>Darlington "Ecclesiastical Reform" ''English Historical Review'' p. 404</ref> He also was the one bishop that published ecclesiastical legislation during Edward the Confessor's reign, attempting to discipline and reform the clergy.<ref name=Barlow122>Barlow ''English Church, 1066–1154'' p. 122</ref> He held a synod of his clergy shortly before 1066.<ref name=BarlowChurch246>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 246</ref>

==After the death of Edward the Confessor==
[[File:William the Conqueror silver coin.jpg|thumb|right|A penny from the time of William I|alt=Coin image of a crowned male head with a sceptre in the background]]
John of Worcester, a medieval chronicler, stated that Ealdred crowned King Harold II in 1066, although the [[Normans|Norman]] chroniclers mention Stigand as the officiating prelate.<ref name=Hindley335/> Given Ealdred's known support of Godwin's family, John of Worcester is probably correct.<ref name=DNB/> Stigand's position as archbishop was canonically suspect, and as earl Harold had not allowed Stigand to consecrate one of the earl's churches, it is unlikely that Harold would have allowed Stigand to perform the much more important royal coronation.<ref name=Rex199>Rex ''Harold'' pp. 199–200</ref> Arguments for Stigand having performed the coronation, however, rely on the fact that no other English source names the ecclesiastic who performed the ceremony; all Norman sources name Stigand as the presider.<ref name=BarlowChurch60>Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 60 footnote 4</ref> In all events, Ealdred and Harold were close, and Ealdred supported Harold's bid to become king.<ref name=Harold132/><ref name=Harold117>Walker ''Harold'' p. 117</ref> Ealdred perhaps accompanied Harold when the new king went to York and secured the support of the northern magnates shortly after Harold's consecration.<ref name=Douglas183>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 183</ref>

According to the medieval chronicler [[Geoffrey Gaimar]], after the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]] Harold entrusted the loot gained from [[Harald III of Norway|Harold Hardrada]] to Ealdred.<ref name=Lawson42n93>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 42 footnote 93</ref> Gaimar asserts that King Harold did this because he had heard of Duke William's landing in England, and needed to rush south to counter it.<ref name=Lawson75>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 75</ref> After the Battle of Hastings, Ealdred joined the group who tried to elevate Edgar the Ætheling, Edward the Exile's son, as king, but eventually he submitted to William the Conqueror at [[Berkhamsted]].<ref name=Huscroft19>Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 19</ref><ref name=Williams32>Williams ''English and the Norman Conquest'' p. 32</ref> John of Worcester says that the group supporting Edgar vacillated over what to do while William ravaged the countryside,<ref name=Rex130>Rex ''Harold II'' p. 130</ref> which led to Ealdred and Edgar's submission to William.<ref name=Douglas206>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 206</ref>

Ealdred crowned William king on [[Christmas|Christmas Day]] 1066.<ref name=Powell1>Powell ''House of Lords'' p. 1</ref> An innovation in William's coronation ceremony was that before the actual crowning, Ealdred asked the assembled crowd, in English, if it was their wish that William be crowned king. The [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Coutances|Bishop of Coutances]] then did the same, but in [[Norman language|Norman French]].<ref name=Powell1/> In March 1067, William took Ealdred with him when William returned to [[Normandy]], along with the other English leaders Earl [[Edwin, Earl of Mercia|Edwin of Mercia]], Earl [[Morcar]], Edgar the Ætheling, and Archbishop Stigand.<ref name=Harold185>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 185–187</ref> Ealdred at [[Whitsun]] 1068 performed the coronation of [[Matilda of Flanders|Matilda]], William's wife.<ref name=Powell13/> The ''[[Laudes Regiae]]'', or song commending a ruler, that was performed at Matilda's coronation may have been composed by Ealdred himself for the occasion.<ref name=Queen183>Stafford ''Queen Emma & Queen Edith'' p. 183</ref> In 1069, when the northern [[thegn]]s rebelled against William and attempted to install Edgar the Ætheling as king, Ealdred continued to support William.<ref name=Williams32/> He was the only northern leader to support William, however.<ref name=Kapelle109>Kapelle ''Norman Conquest of the North'' p. 109</ref> Ealdred was back at York by 1069; he died there on 11 September 1069,<ref name=Handbook224/> and was buried in his episcopal cathedral. He may have taken an active part in trying to calm the rebellions in the north in 1068 and 1069.<ref name=Powell13/> The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury records a story that when the new sheriff of Worcester, Urse d'Abetot, encroached on the cemetery of the cathedral chapter for [[Worcester Cathedral]], Ealdred pronounced a rhyming curse on him, saying "Thou are called Urse. May you have God's curse."<ref name=QBates153>Quoted in Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 153. The exact sentence in Bates is "Urse's refusal to move it drew a poetic Old English curse from the archbishop, which began "Thou are called Urse. May you have God's curse.""</ref>

==Legacy==

After Ealdred's death, one of the restraints on William's treatment of the English was removed.<ref name=Barlow57/> Ealdred was one of a few native Englishmen who William appears to have trusted, and his death led to fewer attempts to integrate Englishmen into the administration, although such efforts did not entirely stop.<ref name=Bates156>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 156</ref> In 1070, a church council was held at Westminster and a number of bishops were deposed. By 1073 there were only two Englishmen in episcopal sees, and by the time of William's death in 1089, there was only one, [[Wulfstan (Bishop of Worcester)|Wulfstan II]] of Worcester.<ref name=Barlow57>Barlow ''English Church, 1066–1154'' p. 57</ref>

Ealdred did much to restore discipline in the monasteries and churches under his authority,<ref name=DNB/><ref name=Barlow122/> and was liberal with gifts to the churches of his diocese. He built the monastic church of St Peter at [[Gloucester]] (now [[Gloucester Cathedral]], though nothing of his fabric remains), then part of his diocese of Worcester. He also repaired a large part of [[Beverley Minster]] in the diocese of York, adding a [[Presbytery (architecture)|presbytery]] and an unusually splendid painted ceiling covering "all the upper part of the church from the choir to the tower...intermingled with gold in various ways, and in a wonderful fashion".<ref>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' p. 93, quoting the ''Chronica Ecclesiae Eboracensis'' (York chronicle). None of these works remain</ref> He added a pulpit "in German style" of bronze, gold and silver, surmounted by an arch with a [[rood]] cross in the same materials; these were examples of the lavish decorations added to important churches in the years before the conquest.<ref name=Edward198/><ref>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' p. 65 and note 151 on pp. 264–265</ref>

Ealdred encouraged Folcard, a monk of [[Canterbury Cathedral|Canterbury]], to write the ''Life'' Saint [[John of Beverley]].<ref name=DNBJB>Palliser "[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/14845 John of Beverley (St John of Beverley) (d. 721)]" (fee required) ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref> This was part of Ealdred's promotion of the cult of Saint John,<ref name=Blair314>Blair ''The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society'' p. 314</ref> who had only been canonized in 1037. Along with the ''Pontificale'', Ealdred may have brought back from Cologne the first manuscript of the ''[[Cambridge Songs]]'' to enter England, a collection of Latin [[Goliard]]ic songs which became famous in the Middle Ages.<ref name=ASEnc>Lapidge "Ealdred" ''Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 153</ref> The historian Michael Lapidge suggests that the ''Laudes Regiae'', which are included in Cotton Vitellius E xii, might have been composed by Ealdred, or a member of his household. Another historian, H. J. Cowdrey, argued that the ''laudes'' were composed at Winchester. These praise songs are probably the same performed at Matilda's coronation, but might have been used at other court ceremonies before Ealdred's death.<ref name=Cotton16>Lapidge "Ealdred of York" ''Yorkshire Archaeological Journal'' pp. 16–18</ref>

Historians have seen Ealdred as an "old-fashioned prince-bishop".<ref name=Loyn62>Loyn ''English Church'' p. 62</ref> Others say that he "raised the see of York from its former rustic state".<ref name=QHarper168>Harper-Bill "Anglo-Norman Church" ''Companion to the Anglo-Norman World'' p. 158</ref> He was known for his generosity and for his diplomatic and administrative abilities.<ref name=Loyn62/> After the Conquest, Ealdred provided a degree of continuity between the pre- and post-Conquest worlds.<ref name=Loyn67>Loyn ''English Church'' p. 67</ref> One modern historian feels that it was Ealdred who was behind the compilation of the D version of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', and gives a date in the 1050s as its composition.<ref name=Lawson62fn34>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 62 footnote 34</ref> Certainly, Ealdred is one of the leading figures in the work, and it is likely that one of his clerks compiled the version.<ref name=Wormald130>Wormald ''Making of English Law'' pp. 130–131</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist|60em}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|colwidth=40em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|colwidth=60em}}
* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |authorlink=Frank Barlow (historian) |title=Edward the Confessor |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, CA |year=1970 |isbn=0-520-01671-8 }}
* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |authorlink=Frank Barlow (historian) |title=The English Church 1000–1066: A History of the Later Anglo-Saxon Church |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=1979 |isbn=0-582-49049-9 |edition=Second }}
* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |title=The English Church 1066–1154: A History of the Anglo-Norman Church |authorlink=Frank Barlow (historian)|publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=1979|isbn=0-582-50236-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |authorlink=Frank Barlow (historian)|title=The Godwins: The Rise and Fall of a Noble Dynasty |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=0-582-78440-9 }}
* {{cite book |author=Bates, David |authorlink=David Bates (historian) |title=William the Conqueror |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2001 |isbn=0-7524-1980-3 }}
* {{cite book |author=Blair, John P. |title=The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year= 2005 |isbn=0-19-921117-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Brooks, Nicholas |title=The Early History of the Church of Canterbury: Christ Church from 597 to 1066 |publisher=Leicester University Press |location=London |year=1984 |isbn=0-7185-0041-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Darlington |first=R. R. |year=1936 |title=Ecclesiastical Reform in the Late Old English Period |journal=[[The English Historical Review]] |volume=51 |issue=203 |pages=385–428 |doi=10.1093/ehr/LI.CCIII.385|jstor= 553127 }}
* {{cite book |author=Dodwell, C.R. |title=Anglo-Saxon Art, A New Perspective|year= 1982|publisher= Manchester University Press|location=Manchester, UK| isbn=0-7190-0926-X }}
* {{cite book |title= William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England |last= Douglas|first=David C. |authorlink= David C. Douglas |year=1964 |publisher= University of California Press |location= Berkeley, CA }}
* {{cite book |title=Kings & Lords in Conquest England |last=Fleming |first= Robin |year=2004 |edition=Reprint |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=0-521-52694-9 }}
* {{cite book |author=Fryde, E. B. |coauthors=Greenway, D. E.; Porter, S.; Roy, I. |title=Handbook of British Chronology|edition=Third revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56350-X }}
* {{cite book |title= Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066–1300: Volume 6: York: Archbishops |last=Greenway |first=Diana E. |year= 1999 |publisher= Institute of Historical Research |url= http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=8457 |accessdate= 2 February 2009}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Harper-Bill |title=The Anglo-Norman Church |encyclopedia=A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World |pages=165–190 |editor=Harper-Bill, Christopher and Elizabeth Van Houts |publisher=Boydell |location=Woodbridge, UK |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84383-341-3}}
* {{cite book |title=A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons: The Beginnings of the English Nation |last= Hindley|first=Geoffrey |year= 2006|publisher= Carroll & Graf Publishers |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7867-1738-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Huscroft, Richard |title=Ruling England 1042–1217 |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=0-582-84882-2 }}
* {{cite book |author=Kapelle, William E. |title=The Norman Conquest of the North: The Region and Its Transformation |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill, NC |year=1979 |isbn=0-8078-1371-0}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=King, Vanessa |title=Ealdred, Archbishop of York: The Worcester Years |encyclopedia=Anglo-Norman Studies XVIII: Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1995 |year=1996 |publisher=Boydell |location=Woodbridge, UK |editor=Harper-Bill, Christopher |pages=124–137| isbn=0-85115-666-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Knowles, David |title=The Monastic Order in England: A History of its Development from the Times of St. Dunstan to the Fourth Lateran Council, 940–1216|authorlink=David Knowles (scholar) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1976 |edition= Second reprint |isbn=0-521-05479-6 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |editors=Lapidge, Michael, et al. |year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1 |pages=153 |author=Lapidge, Michael |title=Ealdred }}
* {{cite journal|author=Lapidge, Michael |year=1983|title= Ealdred of York and MS. Cotton Vitellius E.XII |journal =Yorkshire Archaeological Journal | volume=55 |pages=11–25}}
* {{cite book |author=Lawson, M. K. |title=The Battle of Hastings: 1066 |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2002 |isbn=0-7524-1998-6 }}
* {{cite book |author=Lawson, M. K. |title= Cnut: England's Viking King |publisher=Tempus Publishing, Limited |location=Stroud, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-7524-2964-7 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Lawson, M. K. |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |title= Ealdred (d. 1069) |url= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/37382 |accessdate= 11 November 2007 |doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/37382 |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |format= {{ODNBsub}} }}
* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink= H. R. Loyn|title=The English Church, 940–1154 |publisher=Pearson Education |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |year=2000 |isbn=0-582-30303-6 }}
* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R.|authorlink= H. R. Loyn |title=The Governance of Anglo-Saxon England, 500–1087 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA |year=1984 |isbn=0-8047-1217-4}}
* {{cite book |author=Mason, Emma |title=House of Godwine: The History of Dynasty |publisher=Hambledon & London |location=London |year=2004 |isbn=1-85285-389-1 }}
* {{cite book |author=Maund, Kari L. |title=The Welsh Kings: Warriors, Warlords and Princes |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2006 |isbn=0-7524-2973-6 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author= Palliser, D. M. |title = John of Beverley (St John of Beverley) (d. 721) |encyclopedia= Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/14845|accessdate= 29 September 2008 |doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/14845 |format= {{ODNBsub}} }}
* {{cite book |title= The House of Lords in the Middle Ages: A History of the English House of Lords to 1540 |last= Powell|first=J. Enoch |authorlink= Enoch Powell |coauthors= Wallis, Keith|year=1968 |publisher= Weidenfeld and Nicolson |location=London }}
* {{cite book |author=Rex, Peter |title=Harold II: The Doomed Saxon King |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7394-7185-2 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Smith, Mary Frances|coauthors=Fleming, Robin; Halpin, Patricia |format=fee required| title=Court and Piety in Late Anglo-Saxon England | journal= The Catholic Historical Review | issue=87 |number=4| year=2001 |pages=569–602 |doi=10.1353/cat.2001.0189 |volume=87 |jstor= 25026026}}
* {{cite book |author=Stafford, Pauline |authorlink=Pauline Stafford |title=Queen Emma and Queen Edith: Queenship and Women's Power in Eleventh-century England |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |location=Cambridge, MA |year=1997 |isbn=0-631-22738-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Walker, Ian |title=Harold the Last Anglo-Saxon King |publisher=Wrens Park |location=Gloucestershire, UK |year=2000|isbn=0-905778-46-4 }}
* {{cite book |author=Williams, Ann |title=The English and the Norman Conquest |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Ipswich, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-85115-708-4 }}
* {{cite book |author=Wormald, Patrick |authorlink=Patrick Wormald |title=The Making of English Law: King Alfred to the Twelfth Century |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |location=Cambridge, MA |year=1999 |isbn=0-631-22740-7 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | author=Nelson, Janet L. |year =1981| title =The Rites of the Conqueror|encyclopedia= Anglo-Norman Studies IV: Proceedings of the Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies |editor=R. Allen Brown |publisher = Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge, UK |isbn=0-85115-161-2 |pages=117–132; 210–221}}
{{refend}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-rel|ca}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Leofgar of Hereford]] }}
{{s-ttl| title=[[Bishop of Hereford]] | years=1056–1060}}
{{s-aft| after=[[Walter of Lorraine]] }}
{{s-bef | before=[[Lyfing of Winchester|Lyfing]] }}
{{s-ttl| title=[[Bishop of Worcester]] | years=1046–1062}}
{{s-aft| after=[[Wulfstan (Bishop of Worcester)|Wulfstan]] }}
{{s-bef | before=[[Cynesige]] }}
{{s-ttl| title=[[Archbishop of York]] | years=1061–1069}}
{{s-aft| after=[[Thomas of Bayeux]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Archbishops of York}}

{{featured article}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2010}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Ealdred
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Aldred
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Abbot of Tavistock; Bishop of Hereford; Bishop of Worcester; Archbishop of York
|DATE OF BIRTH=
|PLACE OF BIRTH=
|DATE OF DEATH=11 September 1069
|PLACE OF DEATH=York
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ealdred}}
[[Category:1069 deaths]]
[[Category:Abbots of Tavistock]]
[[Category:Archbishops of York]]
[[Category:Bishops of Hereford]]
[[Category:Bishops of Worcester]]
[[Category:11th-century bishops]]
[[Category:11th-century Roman Catholic archbishops]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]

{{Link GA|es}}
{{Link GA|sv}}
[[es:Aldred]]
[[fr:Aldred]]
[[no:Ealdred av Worcester]]
[[pt:Ealdred]]
[[ru:Элдред]]
[[fi:Ealdred]]
[[sv:Ealdred]]
[[uk:Елдред]]

Karen Ann Quinlan

2012-05-12T11:58:06Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Refimprove|date=October 2007}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Karen Ann Quinlan
| image = KarenAnnQuinlan.jpg
| caption = Karen Ann Quinlan in 1972, prior to her brain injury
| birth_date = {{birth date|1954|3|29|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Scranton, Pennsylvania]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1985|6|11|1954|3|29|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[Morris Township, New Jersey]]
}}'''Karen Ann Quinlan''' (March 29, 1954 – June 11, 1985) was an important figure in the history of the [[right to die]] controversy in the United States.

When she was 21, Quinlan became unconscious after arriving home from a party. She had consumed [[diazepam]], [[dextropropoxyphene]], and [[ethanol|alcohol]]. After she collapsed and stopped breathing twice for 15 minutes or more, the paramedics arrived and took her to a hospital, where she lapsed into a [[persistent vegetative state]]. After she was kept alive on a [[ventilator]] for several months without improvement, her parents requested the hospital to discontinue active care and allow her to die. The hospital refused, and the subsequent legal battles made newspaper headlines and set significant [[precedent]]s. The tribunal eventually ruled in her parents' favor. Although Quinlan was removed from [[mechanical ventilation]] during 1976, she lived on in a persistent vegetative state for almost a decade until her death from [[pneumonia]] in 1985.

Quinlan's case continues to raise important questions in [[moral theology]], [[bioethics]], [[euthanasia]], [[legal guardian]]ship and [[civil rights]]. Her case has affected the practice of medicine and law around the world. Two significant outcomes of her case were the development of formal ethics committees in hospitals, nursing homes and hospices, and the development of [[living will|advance health directives]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2007}}

==Early life==
Karen Ann Quinlan was born on March 29, 1954, in [[Scranton, Pennsylvania]], to a young [[single parent|unmarried mother]] of [[Irish American]] ancestry. A few weeks later, she was adopted by Joseph and Julia Quinlan, devout [[Roman Catholic]]s who lived in [[Landing, New Jersey]]. Julia and Joseph produced a daughter, Mary Ellen, in 1956, and a son, John, in 1957.<ref name="KarenAnn">Quinlan, J and Quinlan, J. D. (1977). ''Karen Ann: The Quinlans Tell Their Story''. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0-385-12666-2</ref>

Karen Ann and her family lived uneventfully in Landing for the next two decades.

==Collapse==
In April 1975, shortly after she turned 21, Karen Ann left her parents' home and moved with two roommates into a house a few miles away. Around the same time, she went on a radical diet, reportedly in order to fit into a dress that she had bought. She weighed 115 pounds (52 kg) when admitted to the hospital.

On April 15, 1975, a few days after moving into her new house, Quinlan attended a friend's birthday party at a local bar. She had eaten almost nothing for two days. At the party she reportedly drank a few [[gin and tonic]]s and took [[Valium]]. Shortly afterwards she felt faint, and was quickly taken home and put to bed. When friends checked on her about fifteen minutes later, they found she was not breathing.

An ambulance was called and [[rescue breathing|mouth-to-mouth resuscitation]] was attempted. Eventually some color returned to her pallid skin, but she did not regain consciousness.

Quinlan was admitted to [[Newton Memorial Hospital]] in New Jersey in a coma. She remained there for nine days in an unresponsive condition before being transferred to [[St Clare's Hospital]], a larger facility.

==Coma==
Karen Quinlan had suffered irreversible [[brain damage]] after experiencing an extended period of [[respiratory failure]] (lasting no more than 15–20 minutes). No precise cause of her respiratory failure has been given. Her mother said the doctors' best guess was that she [[pulmonary aspiration|aspirated]] her own [[vomit]] while unconscious.

She was in a very deep form of unconsciousness called a [[persistent vegetative state]]. Her eyes were "disconjugate" (they no longer moved in the same direction together). Her [[EEG]] showed only abnormal slow-wave activity.

Over the next few months she remained in hospital and her condition gradually deteriorated. She lost weight - eventually weighing less than 80 pounds (36 kg). She was prone to unpredictable, violent thrashing of her limbs. She was given [[nasogastric intubation|nasogastric feeding]] and a [[ventilator]] to help her breathe, and it was thought that these were the only things keeping her alive.

==Legal battle==
After seeing Karen like this for several months, her family finally came to the conclusion that she was beyond hope, and decided to remove her from the ventilator. Hospital officials, faced with threats from the Morris County prosecutor to bring homicide charges against them, joined with the Quinlan family in seeking an appropriate protective order from the courts, before allowing the respirator to be removed. The Quinlan family persevered, and in 1976 they took their case to the [[New Jersey Supreme Court]], which ruled in their favor. When she was taken off the respirator, Quinlan surprised many by continuing to breathe unaided, and was fed by artificial nutrition for nine more years. <ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=qwgjAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jc4FAAAAIBAJ&pg=4910,299074&dq=karen-ann-quinlan&hl=en "Karen Ann Quinlan dies after 10 years in a coma"], ''St. Petersburg (FL) Evening Independent'', June 12, 1985, p1</ref>

==Death==
She lived in a [[persistent vegetative state]] until her death from complications from [[pneumonia]] in 1985. Quinlan was buried at [[Gate of Heaven Cemetery, East Hanover|Gate of Heaven Cemetery]] in [[East Hanover, New Jersey]].<ref>"Tearful Rites for Karen Quinlan", ''[[The Record (Bergen County)|Bergen Record]]'', June 16, 1985. Accessed August 4, 2007. "A procession of about 75 cars then drove to Gate of Heaven Cemetery in East Hanover."</ref>

==Catholic moral theology and the New Jersey Supreme Court decision==

At the time legal guardianship was assigned by a New Jersey court to her father, Joseph Quinlan, his religious affiliation as a Catholic was taken into consideration positively, for assessing his conscience and motivations.

This brought the Catholic Church's moral teaching to bear on the case as relevant material. The [[New Jersey Supreme Court]] decision on the groundbreaking and precedent-setting case quotes extensively from an address given by [[Pope Pius XII]] to medical professionals on the matter of preservation of life:

::"The request of plaintiff for authority to terminate a medical procedure characterized as "an extraordinary means of treatment" would not involve euthanasia. This upon the reasoning expressed by Pope Pius XII in his "allocutio" (address) to anesthesiologists on November 24, 1957, when he dealt with the question:

:::'Does the anesthesiologist have the right, or is he bound, in all cases of deep unconsciousness, even in those that are completely hopeless in the opinion of the competent doctor, to use modern artificial respiration apparatus, even against the will of the family?'

::His answer made the following points:

:::1. 'In ordinary cases the doctor has the right to act in this manner, but is not bound to do so unless this is the only way of fulfilling another certain moral duty.
:::2. The doctor, however, has no right independent of the patient. He can act only if the patient explicitly or implicitly, directly or indirectly gives him the permission.
:::3. The treatment as described in the question constitutes extraordinary means of preserving life and so there is no obligation to use them nor to give the doctor permission to use them.
:::4. The rights and the duties of the family depend on the presumed will of the unconscious patient if he or she is of legal age, and the family, too, is bound to use only ordinary means.
:::5. This case is not to be considered euthanasia in any way; that would never be licit. The interruption of attempts at resuscitation, even when it causes the arrest of circulation, is not more than an indirect cause of the cessation of life, and we must apply in this case the principle of [[double effect]].' " (from the text of the New Jersey Supreme Court decision, "On the Matter of Quinlan" (1976)

===Extraordinary means===
{{unreferenced section|date=March 2012}}
Catholic moral theology does not require that "[[extraordinary means]]" be employed in preserving a patient's life. Such means are any procedure which might place an undue burden on the patient, family or others and is beyond the basic care required for the ordinary sustenance of life and dignity, food, water, air, hygiene. A patient always has the right to refuse extraordinary means of treatment even if this will hasten natural death. However, only the patient has this right which may be expressed legally through guardianship or advanced expression of their wishes.

It is to this principle that Karen Quinlan's parents appealed when they requested that the extraordinary means of a respirator be removed. The court honored this principle in finding in their favor.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}}

The requirement of an expressed or implied will of the patient by Catholic moral theology is a guarantee against the undue influence of governmental or other agencies which might not have the patient's best interests as a motivation in such personal matters.

==Autopsy findings==
While Quinlan was alive the extent of damage to her brainstem could not be precisely determined. After she died her entire [[brain]] and [[spinal cord]] were studied carefully. While her [[cerebral cortex]] had moderate scarring, it seemed that her [[thalamus]] was extensively damaged bilaterally. Her [[brain stem]] (which controls breathing and cardiac functions) was undamaged. These findings suggest that the thalamus plays a particularly important role in [[consciousness]].<ref name="ThalamusRole">Kinney, H. C., Korein, J., Panigrahy, A., Dikkes, P. and Goode, R. (1994). Neuropathological Findings in the Brain of Karen Ann Quinlan -- The Role of the Thalamus in the Persistent Vegetative State. ''The New England Journal of Medicine''. 330:1469-1475.</ref>

==In popular culture==
The Quinlans published two books about the case: ''Karen Ann: The Quinlans Tell Their Story'' (1977)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Quinlan |first1=Joseph |last2=Quinlan |first2=Julia |last2=Battelle |first3=Phyllis |title=Karen Ann: the Quinlans Tell Their Story |year=1977 |publisher=Doubleday |location=Garden City, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-385-12666-3 |oclc=3259340}}</ref> and ''My Joy, My Sorrow: Karen Ann's Mother Remembers'' (2005).<ref>{{cite book |last=Quinlan |first=Julia |title=My Joy, My Sorrow: Karen Ann's Mother Remembers |year=2005 |publisher=St. Anthony Messenger Press |location=Cincinnati, Ohio |isbn= 978-0-86716-663-7 |oclc=58595022}}</ref>

A 1977 [[TV movie]], ''In The Matter of Karen Ann Quinlan'' was made about the Quinlan case, with [[Piper Laurie]] and [[Brian Keith]] playing Quinlan's parents.

The eponymous heroine of [[Douglas Coupland]]'s novel ''[[Girlfriend in a Coma (novel)|Girlfriend in a Coma]]''<ref>{{cite book |last=Coupland |first=Douglas |title=Girlfriend in a Coma |year=1998 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=Toronto|isbn=978-0-00-224396-4 |oclc=37983572}}</ref> is Karen Ann McNeil. She collapses after a party where she has taken Valium as well as some alcohol. Like Karen Ann Quinlan, she also has deliberately stopped eating in order to fit into an outfit (in this case, a bikini). For these reasons (and the frequent nostalgic references to events from the 1970s in Coupland's works) the character is thought{{who|date=March 2012}} to be based loosely on Quinlan. In the novel, Karen awakens after being comatose for nearly eighteen years.

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography}}
* [[Right to die]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{cite web|last=Sabatino|first=Charles P.|title=Advance Directives and Advance Care Planning: Legal and Policy Issues|url=http://aspe.hhs.gov/daltcp/reports/2007/adacplpi.htm|publisher=American Bar Association Commission on Law and Aging|accessdate=October 2007}}

==External links==
*{{Find a Grave|6497327}}

{{EthicsCases}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Quinlan, Karen Ann
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = March 29, 1954
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Scranton, Pennsylvania]]
| DATE OF DEATH = June 11, 1985
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Morris Township, New Jersey]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Quinlan, Karen Ann}}
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:1985 deaths]]
[[Category:People with severe brain damage]]
[[Category:People from Scranton, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Deaths from pneumonia]]
[[Category:People from Morris County, New Jersey]]
[[Category:American people of Irish descent]]

[[es:Karen Ann Quinlan]]
[[eu:Karen Ann Quinlan]]
[[fr:Karen Ann Quinlan]]
[[ja:カレン・クィンラン]]
[[sv:Karen Ann Quinlan]]

Schottische Aufklärung

2012-05-12T11:44:12Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

[[File:David Hume and Adam Smith statues, Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|250px|[[David Hume]] and [[Adam Smith]] at the [[Scottish National Portrait Gallery]]]]
{{History of Scotland}}
The '''Scottish Enlightenment''' ({{lang-sco|Scottis Enlightenment}}) was the period in [[History of Scotland#18th century|18th century Scotland]] characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. By 1750, [[Scottish people|Scots]] were among the most literate citizens of Europe, with an estimated 75% level of literacy.<ref name="HermanOne"/> The culture was oriented to books,<ref>Mark R. M. Towsey, ''Reading the Scottish Enlightenment: Books and Their Readers in Provincial Scotland, 1750-1820'' (2010)</ref> and intense discussions took place daily at such intellectual gathering places in Edinburgh as [[The Select Society]] and, later, [[The Poker Club]] as well as within Scotland’s [[Ancient universities of Scotland|ancient universities]] such as [[Glasgow University|Glasgow]], [[Edinburgh University|Edinburgh]] and [[Aberdeen University|Aberdeen]].

Sharing the [[humanism|humanist]] and rationalist outlook of the [[Age of Enlightenment|European Enlightenment]] of the same time period, the thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment asserted the fundamental importance of human reason combined with a rejection of any authority which could not be justified by reason. They held to an optimistic belief in the ability of humanity to effect changes for the better in society and nature, guided only by reason. It was this latter feature which gave the Scottish Enlightenment its special flavour, distinguishing it from its continental European counterpart. In Scotland, the Enlightenment was characterised by a thoroughgoing [[empiricism]] and practicality where the chief virtues were held to be improvement, virtue and practical benefit for both the individual and society as a whole.

Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, political economy, engineering, architecture, medicine, geology, archaeology, law, agriculture, chemistry and sociology. Among the Scottish thinkers and scientists of the period were [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]], [[Alexander Campbell (clergyman)|Alexander Campbell]], [[David Hume]], [[Adam Smith]], [[Dugald Stewart]], [[Thomas Reid]], [[Robert Burns]], [[Adam Ferguson]], [[John Playfair]], [[Joseph Black]] and [[James Hutton]].

The Scottish Enlightenment had effects far beyond Scotland itself, not only because of the esteem in which Scottish achievements were held in Europe and elsewhere, but also because its ideas and attitudes were carried across the [[Atlantic world]] as part of the [[Scottish diaspora]], and by American students who studied in Scotland. As a result, a significant proportion of technological and social development in the United States, Canada and New Zealand in the 18th and 19th centuries were accomplished through Scots-Americans and Scots-Canadians.

==After the Act of Union 1707==
In the period following the [[Act of Union 1707]], Scotland's place in the world was altered radically. Following the [[Scottish Reformation|Reformation]], many Scottish academics were teaching in great cities of [[mainland Europe]], then with the birth and rapid expansion of the new [[British Empire]] came a revival of philosophical thought in Scotland and a prodigious diversity of thinkers.

Arguably the poorest<ref name="HermanTwo"/> country in [[Western Europe]] in 1707, Scotland was then able to turn its attentions to the wider world without opposition from [[England]]. Scotland's benefit from [[free trade]] within the Union is occasionally overstated, as little attention was paid to Scotland and the economic issues it had in the first several decades after union. Some reforms of agriculture even worsened the problems. There was a substantial amount of black market trade in avoidance of English trade tariffs. With the intellectual benefits of having established [[History of education in Scotland|Europe's first public education system]] since [[classical antiquity]] Scottish thinkers began questioning assumptions previously taken for granted; and with Scotland's traditional connections to France, then in the throes of [[the Enlightenment]], the Scots began developing a uniquely practical branch of [[humanism]] to the extent that [[Voltaire]] said, "We look to Scotland for all our ideas of [[civilization]]."<ref name="BarrosoVoltaire"/><ref name="RSEVoltaire"/>

== Empiricism and inductive reasoning ==
The first major philosopher of the Scottish Enlightenment was [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]],<ref name="Denby"/> who held the Chair of Philosophy at the University of Glasgow from 1729 to 1746. A moral philosopher with alternatives to the ideas of [[Thomas Hobbes]], one of his major contributions to world thought was the [[Utilitarianism|utilitarian]] and [[consequentialism|consequentialist]] principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, ''"the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers."''

Much of what is incorporated in the [[scientific method]] (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between [[science]] and [[religion]] were developed by David Hume. "Like many of the learned Scots, he revered the new science of [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]], [[Francis Bacon|Bacon]], [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]], [[Robert Boyle|Boyle]] and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]; he believed in the experimental method and loathed [[superstition]]."<ref name="Denby"/>

==Economics and sociology==
[[Adam Smith]] developed and published ''[[The Wealth of Nations]],'' the starting point of modern economics.<ref name="Samuelson"/> This famous study, which had an immediate impact on British [[economic policy]], still frames 21st century discussions on [[globalisation]] and [[tariff]]s.<ref name="Fry"/>

Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed what Hume called a '[[science of man]]'<ref name="Magnusson"/> which was expressed historically in works by such as [[James Burnett]], Adam Ferguson, [[John Millar (philosopher)|John Millar]] and [[William Robertson (historian)|William Robertson]], all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behave in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of [[modernity]]. Indeed, modern sociology largely originated from this movement.<ref>Alan Swingewood, "Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment," ''The British Journal of Sociology,'' Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1970), pp. 164-180 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/588406 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Science and medicine==
The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of [[William Cullen]], physician and chemist, [[James Anderson of Hermiston|James Anderson]], an [[agronomist]], Joseph Black, [[physicist]] and chemist, and James Hutton, the first modern [[geologist]].<ref name="Denby"/><ref name="Repcheck"/>

While the Scottish Enlightenment is traditionally considered to have concluded toward the end of the 18th century,<ref name="Magnusson"/> disproportionately large Scottish contributions to British science and letters continued for another 50 years or more, thanks to such figures as James Hutton, [[James Watt]], [[William Murdoch]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] and [[Walter Scott|Sir Walter Scott]].

{{Quotation|An English visitor to Edinburgh during the heyday of the Scottish Enlightenment remarked: "Here I stand at what is called the Cross of Edinburgh, and can, in a few minutes, take 50 men of genius and learning by the hand." It is a striking summation of the outburst of pioneering intellectual activity that occurred in Scotland in the second half of the 18th century. They were a closely knit group: most knew one another; many were close friends; some were related by marriage. All were politically conservative but intellectually radical ([[Unionism in Scotland|Unionists]] and progressives to a man), courteous, friendly and accessible. They were stimulated by enormous curiosity, optimism about human progress and a dissatisfaction with age-old [[theology|theological]] disputes. Together they created a cultural [[golden age]].|[[Magnus Magnusson]]|[[New Statesman]]<ref name="Magnusson"/>         }}

==Cultural influence==
The Scottish Enlightenment had numerous dimensions, it impacted the culture of the nation in areas such as music.<ref>June C. Ottenberg, "Musical Currents of the Scottish Enlightenment," ''International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music'' Vol. 9, No. 1 (Jun., 1978), pp. 99-109 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/836530 in JSTOR]</ref> Advances in medicine were dramatic, and Edinburgh became a world leader in medical research and the training of physicians.<ref>Charles W. J. Withers, and Wood, Paul, eds. ''Science and Medicine in the Scottish Enlightenment.'' (2002)</ref>

==International impact==
The influence of the movement spread beyond Scotland across the British Empire, and into the continent. The political ideas had an important impact on the Founding Fathers of the United States, which broke away from the Empire in 1775.<ref>Daniel Walker Howe, "Why the Scottish Enlightenment Was Useful to the Framers of the American Constitution," ''Comparative Studies in Society and History,'' Vol. 31, No. 3 (July 1989), pp. 572-587 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/178771 in JSTOR]</ref><ref>Robert W. Galvin, 'America's Founding Secret: What the Scottish Enlightenment Taught Our Founding Fathers'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2002)</ref><ref>Michael Fry, ''How the Scots Made America,'' (Thomas Dunne Books, (2004)</ref> The philosophy of [[Common Sense Realism]] was especially influential in 19th century American thought and religion.<ref>Sydney E. Ahlstrom, "The Scottish Philosophy and American Theology," ''Church History,'' Vol. 24, No. 3 (Sep., 1955), pp. 257-272 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3162115 in JSTOR]</ref>

[[Voltaire]] said "We look to Scotland for our idea of civilisation".<ref name="HermanOne"/>{{rp|[p.116]}}

== Key figures ==

* [[Robert Adam]] (1728–1792) [[architect]]
* [[James Anderson of Hermiston|James Anderson]] (1739–1808) [[Agronomy|agronomist]], [[lawyer]], amateur scientist
* [[Joseph Black]] (1728–1799) [[Physics|physicist]] and [[Chemistry|chemist]], first to isolate [[carbon dioxide]]
* [[Hugh Blair]] (1718–1800) [[Minister (Christianity)|minister]], author
* [[James Boswell]] (1740–1795) [[lawyer]], author of ''[[Life of Johnson]]''
* [[Thomas Brown (philosopher)|Thomas Brown]] (1778–1820), Scottish [[Moral philosophy|moral philosopher]] and [[Philosophy of mind|philosopher of mind]]; jointly held the Chair of Moral Philosophy at Edinburgh University with [[Dugald Stewart]]
* [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo]] (1714–1799) philosopher, [[judge]], founder of modern comparative historical [[linguistics]]
* [[Robert Burns]]<ref name="Manning"/> (1759–1796) [[poet]]
* [[Alexander Campbell (clergyman)|Alexander Campbell]] (1788–1866) early leader in the [[Restoration Movement]]
* [[George Campbell (Presbyterian minister)|George Campbell]] (1719–1796) philosopher of [[language]], [[theology]], and [[rhetoric]]
* [[John Clerk of Eldin|Sir John Clerk of Eldin]] (1728–1812) prolific artist, author of ''[[Naval tactics in the Age of Sail#Sir John Clerk of Eldin|An Essay on Naval Tactics]]''; great-uncle of [[James Clerk Maxwell]]
* [[William Cullen]] (1710–1790) [[physician]], [[chemist]], early [[medical research]]er
* [[Adam Ferguson]] (1723–1816) considered the founder of [[sociology]]
* [[Robert Fergusson]] (1750–1774), poet.
* [[Andrew Fletcher (politician)|Andrew Fletcher]] (1653–1716) a forerunner of the Scottish Enlightenment,<ref name="Fletcher"/> writer, patriot, commissioner of Parliament of Scotland
* [[Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet]] (1761–1832) geologist, geophysicist
* [[Henry Home, Lord Kames]] (1696–1782) philosopher, judge, [[historian]]
* [[David Hume]] (1711–1776) philosopher, historian, essayist
* [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]] (1694–1746) philosopher of [[metaphysics]], [[logic]], and [[ethics]]
* [[James Hutton]]<ref name="Repcheck"/><ref name="Manning"/> (1726–1797) founder of modern geology
* [[John Leslie (physicist)|Sir John Leslie]] (1766–1832) mathematician, physicist, investigator of [[heat]] ([[thermodynamics]])
* [[James Mill]] (1773–1836) late in the period - Father of [[John Stuart Mill]].
* [[John Millar (philosopher)|John Millar]] (1735–1801) philosopher, [[historian]], [[Historiography|historiographer]]
* [[Thomas Muir (radical)|Thomas Muir]] of Huntershill, (1765–1799), political reformer, leader of the Scottish "Friends of the People Society"
* [[John Playfair]] (1748–1819) mathematician, author of ''Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth''
* [[Allan Ramsay (poet)|Allan Ramsay]]<ref name="DavidAllan"/> (1686–1758) poet
* [[Henry Raeburn]]<ref name="Magnusson"/> (1756–1823) [[portrait]] [[Painting|painter]]
* [[Thomas Reid]] (1710–1796) philosopher, founder of the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]]
* [[William Robertson (historian)|William Robertson]] (1721–1793) one of the founders of modern historical research
* [[Walter Scott|Sir Walter Scott]] (1771–1832) lawyer, novelist, poet
* [[Sir John Sinclair, 1st Baronet|John Sinclair]] (1754–1835) [[politician]], writer, the first person to use the word [[statistics]] in the English language
* [[William Smellie]] (1740–1795) editor of the first edition of [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
* [[Adam Smith]] (1723–1790) whose ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' was one of the first modern treatises on [[economics]]
* [[Dugald Stewart]] (1753–1828) [[Moral philosophy|moral philosopher]]
* [[George Turnbull (theologian)|George Turnbull]] (1698–1748), theologian, philosopher and writer on education
* [[John Walker (naturalist)]] (1730–1803) [[professor]] of [[natural history]]
* [[James Watt]] (1736–1819) student of Joseph Black; [[engineer]], [[inventor]] (see [[Watt steam engine]])

Plus two who visited and corresponded with Edinburgh scholars<ref name="Repcheck"/>:
* [[Erasmus Darwin]] (1731–1802) [[physician]], [[botanist]], philosopher, grandfather of [[Charles Darwin]]
* [[Benjamin Franklin]] (1706–1790) [[polymath]], one of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]]

{{Quotation|The learned Scots were remarkably unlike the French ''philosophes;'' indeed, they were unlike any other group of philosophers that ever existed. In a gigantic study, “The Sociology of Philosophies,” published in 1998, [[Randall Collins]] assembled structural portraits of the seminal moments in philosophy, both [[Western philosophy|Western]] and [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern]]. Typically, the most important figures in a given cluster of thinkers (perhaps three or four men) would jockey for centrality while cultivating alliances with other thinkers or students on the margins. In the Scottish group, however, there was little of the bristling, charged, and exclusionary fervour of the [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]]-[[Jean le Rond d'Alembert|d’Alembert circle]]; or of the ruthless atmosphere found in [[Germany]] in the group that included [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], the [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]] brothers, and [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]; or of the conscious glamour of the [[Existentialism|existentialists]] in postwar [[Paris]]. The Scots vigorously disagreed with one another, but they lacked the [[temperament]] for the high moral drama of quarrels, renunciations, and reconciliation. [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Hutcheson]], Hume and Smith, along with Adam Ferguson and Thomas Reid, were all widely known, but none of them were remotely [[cult]] figures in the style of Hegel, [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emerson]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], or [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]]. To an astonishing degree, the men supported one another’s projects and publications, which they may have debated at a club that included amateurs (say, poetry-writing doctors, or lawyers with an interest in science) or in the fumy back room of some dark Edinburgh tavern. In all, the group seems rather like an erudite version of [[Charles Dickens|Dickens]]’s chattering and benevolent [[The Pickwick Papers|Pickwick Club]].|[[David Denby (film critic)|David Denby]]|[[The New Yorker]]<ref name="Denby"/>         }}

==See also==
*[[Midlands Enlightenment]]
*[[American Enlightenment]]
*[[List of books for the "Famous Scots Series"|Books in the "Famous Scots Series"]]
* [[Scottish Progressives]]

== References ==

{{reflist|refs=

<ref name="HermanOne">{{cite book |last= Herman |first= Arthur |authorlink= Arthur Herman |title= [[How the Scots Invented the Modern World|The Scottish Enlightenment: The Scots' Invention of the Modern World]] |publisher= [[4th Estate, Limited]] |year=2003 |isbn=1-84115-276-5 }}</ref>

<ref name="HermanTwo">{{cite book |last= Herman |first= Arthur |authorlink= Arthur Herman |title= [[How the Scots Invented the Modern World]] |year=2001 |location= |publisher=[[Crown Publishing Group]] |edition= Hardcover: ISBN 978-0-609-60635-3, Paperback: ISBN 978-0-609-80999-0 }}</ref>

<ref name="BarrosoVoltaire">{{cite web |url= http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/06/756&format=HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=en |title= The Scottish enlightenment and the challenges for Europe in the 21st century; climate change and energy |author= [[José Manuel Barroso]], 11th [[President of the European Commission]] |work= Enlightenment Lecture Series, [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh University]] |date= 28 November 2006 |quote= I will try to show why Voltaire was right when he said: 'Nous nous tournons vers l’Écosse pour trouver toutes nos idées sur la civilisation' [we look to Scotland for all our ideas on civilisation]. }}</ref>

.<ref name="RSEVoltaire">{{cite web |url= http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/international/potocnik.htm |title= Visiting The Royal Society of Edinburgh… |work= [[Royal Society of Edinburgh]]. First published in ''[[The Scotsman]]'', Saturday 4 June 2005 |quote=Scotland has a proud heritage of science, research, invention and innovation, and can lay claim to some of the greatest minds and greatest discoveries since Voltaire wrote those words 250 years ago. }}</ref>

<ref name="Denby">{{cite web |url= http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/10/11/041011crat_atlarge |title= Northern Lights: How modern life emerged from eighteenth-century Edinburgh |author= David Denby |work= [[The New Yorker]] |publisher= Review of [[James Buchan]]'s ''Crowded With Genius: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind (Capital of the Mind: Edinburgh'' in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]) [[HarperCollins]], 2003. Hardcover: ISBN 0-06-055888-1, ISBN 978-0-06-055888-8 |date=11 October 2004 |quote= The fountainhead was [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]], a kind of pan-Enlightenment figure who, from 1729 until his death in 1746, held the chair in [[moral philosophy]] at the [[University of Glasgow]], where he broke with tradition by lecturing in [[English language|English]] in addition to the common lecturing language of the time, [[Latin language|Latin]]. Hutcheson, a frequent visitor to [[Edinburgh]], was Adam Smith’s teacher and he encouraged Hume’s early efforts. He was suspicious of [[metaphysics]] or any claims not based on [[observation]] or [[experience]]. [[Empiricism]] and the [[Inductive reasoning|inductive method]] was the clarion call of the Scottish Enlightenment. The intellectual break with the past was drastic and seemingly irreversible. In recent years, scholars have traced the rudiments of modern psychology, anthropology, the earth sciences, and theories of civil society and liberal education to eighteenth-century Scotland. |authorlink= David Denby (film critic) }}</ref>

.<ref name="Fry">{{cite book |last= Fry |first= Michael |others= [[Paul Samuelson]], [[Lawrence Klein]], [[Franco Modigliani]], [[James M. Buchanan]], [[Maurice Allais]], [[Theodore Schultz]], [[Richard Stone]], [[James Tobin]], [[Wassily Leontief]], [[Jan Tinbergen]] |title= Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics |year= 1992 |location= |publisher= [[Routledge]] |isbn= 978-0-415-06164-3 |quote= ''Adam Smith's Legacy'' brings together ten [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Laureates in Economics]], the greatest number since the prize was instituted in 1969. They explore themes as diverse as Smith's use of data, his attitude towards human capital, and his views on economic policy. Heirs to Smith and leaders of the discipline, the contributors also reflect upon the current state of economics, assessing the extent to which it measures up to the benchmark established by its founder. }}</ref>

<ref name="Magnusson">{{cite web |url= http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |title= Northern lights |author= [[Magnus Magnusson]] |work= [[New Statesman]] |publisher= Review of [[James Buchan]]'s ''Capital of the Mind: Edinburgh (Crowded With Genius: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind'' in the [[United States|U.S.]]) [[London]]: [[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]] ISBN 0-7195-5446-2 |date=10 November 2003 }}</ref>

<ref name="Repcheck">{{cite book |last= Repcheck |first= Jack |title= The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity |year= 2003 |publisher=[[Basic Books]], [[Perseus Books Group]] |location= [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |isbn= 0-7382-0692-X |pages= 117–143 |chapter= Chapter 7: The Athens of the North |quote= Onto the list should also be added two men who never lived in Edinburgh but who visited and maintained an active correspondence with the scholars there: [[Benjamin Franklin|Ben Franklin]] (1706-1790), the statesman and talented [[polymath]] who discovered [[electricity]]; and [[Erasmus Darwin]] (1731-1802), [[Charles Darwin]]'s grandfather and the author of a precursor [[theory]] of [[evolution]]. }}</ref>

<ref name="Samuelson">{{cite book |last= Samuelson |first= Paul |title= Economics |year= 1976 |location= |publisher= [[McGraw-Hill]] |isbn= 0-07-054590-1 |quote= As a scholarly discipline, economics is just two centuries old. Adam Smith published his pathbreaking book ''The Wealth of Nations'' in 1776, ... }}</ref>

<ref name="Manning">{{cite web |url= http://www.scibooks.org/manwhofoundtime.html |title= A Toast To Times Past |author= Phillip Manning |work= [[Chapel Hill, North Carolina|Chapel Hill]] News |date= 28 December 2003 |quote= Burns penned the song <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Auld Lang Syne]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> in 1788 during the intellectual flowering known as the Scottish Enlightenment. Burns was part of a convivial group in Edinburgh whose writing and thinking produced the Enlightenment. One of the most original thinkers in that group, the man whose work would stimulate [[Charles Darwin]]’s ideas about [[evolution]], was a well-to-do gentleman farmer named [[James Hutton]]. He discovered the immensity of our past, the days gone by that Burns wrote about so eloquently. }}</ref>

<ref name="Fletcher">{{cite web |url= http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521439947 |title= Andrew Fletcher: Political Works |author= [[Cambridge University Press]] }}</ref>

<ref name="DavidAllan">{{cite web |url= http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/academic/history/scothist/hons/4111.shtml |title= A Hotbed of Genius: Culture and Society in the Scottish Enlightenment |author= Dr David Allan |work= [[University of St Andrews]] }}</ref>

}}

== Further reading ==
* David Allan. ''Virtue, Learning and the Scottish Enlightenment: Ideas of Scholarship in Early Modern History''. · [[Edinburgh University Press]], 1993. ISBN 978-0-7486-0438-8.
* Broadie, Alexander. ''The Scottish Enlightenment: The Historical Age of the Historical Nation.'' [[Birlinn Limited|Birlinn]] 2002. Paperback: ISBN 1-84158-151-8, ISBN 978-1-84158-151-4.
* Broadie, Alexander, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment.'' (Cambridge Companions to Philosophy) [[Cambridge University Press]], 2003. ISBN 978-0-521-00323-0.
* Bruce, Duncan A. ''The Mark of the Scots: Their Astonishing Contributions to History, Science, Democracy, Literature, and the Arts.'' 1996. Hardcover: ISBN 1-55972-356-4, ISBN 978-1-55972-356-5. Citadel, [[Kensington Books]], 2000. Paperback: ISBN 0-8065-2060-4, ISBN 978-0-8065-2060-5.
* [[James Buchan|Buchan, James]] ''Crowded With Genius: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind.'' (Harper Perennial, 2004). ISBN 978-0-06-055889-5.
* Campbell, R. H. and Andrew S. Skinner, eds. ''The Origins and Nature of the Scottish Enlightenment'' (1982), 12 essays by scholars, esp. on history of science
* Daiches, David, Peter Jones and Jean Jones. ''A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment, 1730-1790'' (1986), 170pp; well-illustrated introduction
* Derry, J. F. ''Darwin in Scotland: Edinburgh, Evolution and Enlightenment.'' · Whittles Publishing, 2009. Paperback: ISBN 1-904445-57-8.
* [[David Daiches]], Peter Jones, Jean Jones (eds). ''A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment 1731-1790.'' (Edinburgh University Press, 1986); ISBN 0-85411-069-0
* Goldie, Mark. "The Scottish Catholic Enlightenment," ''The Journal of British Studies'' Vol. 30, No. 1 (Jan., 1991), pp. 20–62 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-9371%28199101%2930%3A1%3C20%3ATSCE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V in JSTOR]
* Graham, Gordon. "Morality and Feeling in the Scottish Enlightenment," ''Philosophy'' Vol. 76, No. 296 (Apr., 2001), pp. 271–282 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-8191%28200104%2976%3A296%3C271%3AMAFITS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in JSTOR]
*Herman, Arthur. ''[[How the Scots Invented the Modern World]]: The true story of how western Europe's poorest nation created our world & everything in it.'' Arthur Herman. (Crown Publishing Group, 2001); ISBN 0-609-80999-7.
* Lenman, Bruce P. ''Enlightenment and Change: Scotland 1746-1832'' (2nd ed. The New History of Scotland Series. Edinburgh University Press, 2009). 280 pp. ISBN 978-0-7486-2515-4; 1st edition also published under the titles ''Integration, Enlightenment, and Industrialization: Scotland, 1746-1832'' (1981) and ''Integration and Enlightenment: Scotland, 1746-1832 (1992); general survey
* Swingewood, Alan. "Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment," ''The British Journal of Sociology,'' Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1970), pp. 164–180 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0007-1315%28197006%2921%3A2%3C164%3AOOSTCO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L in JSTOR]
* Towsey, Mark R. M. ''Reading the Scottish Enlightenment: Books and Their Readers in Provincial Scotland, 1750-1820'' (2010)

===Primary sources===
* Broadie, Alexander, ed. ''The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology'' (1998), primary sources. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0862417384 excerpt and text search]

== External links ==
* [http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/10/11/041011crat_atlarge Northern Lights: How modern life emerged from eighteenth-century Edinburgh].
* [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/scottish.htm Scottish Enlightenment] - an introduction.
* [http://www.livingphilosophy.org.uk/Philosophy_Play.htm Living philosophy] - Philosophical play readings of the legacy of David Hume, Adam Smith and Robert Burns
* [http://www.eota.org.uk Edinburgh Old Town Association] - has references and links

{{Scotland topics}}

{{Age of Enlightenment}}

[[Category:Scottish Enlightenment| ]]

[[ca:Il·lustració escocesa]]
[[cs:Skotské osvícenství]]
[[el:Σκωτσέζικος Διαφωτισμός]]
[[es:Ilustración escocesa]]
[[fr:Lumières écossaises]]
[[ko:스코틀랜드 계몽주의]]
[[is:Skoska upplýsingin]]
[[he:ההשכלה הסקוטית]]
[[nl:Schotse verlichting]]
[[no:Den skotske opplysningstiden]]
[[pt:Iluminismo Escocês]]
[[ru:Шотландское Просвещение]]
[[sl:Škotsko razsvetljenstvo]]
[[fi:Skotlantilainen valistus]]
[[zh:苏格兰启蒙运动]]

Benutzerin:Emmy Sophie/Kishori Amonkar

2012-05-12T07:07:18Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Infobox musical artist 
| name = Kishori Amonkar
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| image_size =
| landscape = 
| background = solo_singer
| birth_name =
| alias =
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1932}}<ref name="Martinez">{{cite book |title=Semiosis in Hindustani music |last=Martinez |first=José Luiz |year=2001 |origyear=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-1801-6 |page=169}}</ref>
| birth_place =
| origin =
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| genre = [[Hindustani classical music]]
| occupation =
| instrument = [[singing]]
| years_active = 
| label =
| associated_acts = [[Mogubai Kurdikar]]
| website =
}}
'''Kishori Amonkar'''N-{{Ref label|name|1|a}} ({{lang-mr|किशोरी आमोणकर}}) (born 1932) is an [[India]]n singer who performs in the classical genre ''[[khyal]]'' and the light classical genres ''[[thumri]]'' and ''[[bhajan]]''. Amonkar trained under her mother, classical singer [[Mogubai Kurdikar]] of the [[Jaipur-Atrauli gharana|Jaipur ''gharana'']] (musical tradition of [[Jaipur]]), but experimented with a variety of vocal styles in her career. She is considered one of the preeminent representatives of [[Hindustani classical music]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Students' Britannica India |title=Amonkar, Kishori |year=2000 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |volume=1 |isbn=0-85229-760-2 | page=60}}</ref>

== Life and career ==
In the early 1940s, Amonkar began to receive vocal lessons in [[Hindustani classical music]] from her mother [[Mogubai Kurdikar]] and later received training from tutors of several ''gharanas''.<ref name="Deshpandep125">{{cite book |title=Between two tanpuras |last=Deshpande |first=Vamanrao H. |authorlink=Vamanrao Deshpande |year=1989 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=0-86132-226-6 |pages=125–126, 131}}</ref> Amonkar became interested in [[Filmi|film music]] and sang playback for the 1964 movie ''[[Geet Gaya Patharon Ne]]'', but returned to classical music because of bad experiences in the movie industry.<ref name="Deshpandep125" /> Amonkar lost her voice for two years in the late 1950s for unknown reasons.<ref name="Deshpandep138">Deshpande 1989, p. 138</ref> She sang for the 1990 Hindi film [[Drishti (film)|''Drishti'']].

Amonkar's work in light music has informed her classical singing and she modified her [[Jaipur-Atrauli gharana|Jaipur ''gharana'']] performance style by applying features from other ''gharanas''.<ref>Deshpande 1989, pp. 127, 129</ref> She has created many compositions for a number of ragas.<ref>Deshpande 1989, pp. 134–135</ref> Amonkar's students include Manik Bhide, Meena Joshi, Suhasini Mulgaonkar, Mira Panshikar, and her granddaughter Tejashree Amonkar.<ref>Deshpande 1989, p. 140</ref><ref name="Suhasini">{{cite news|last=Suhasini|first=Lalitha|title='She has to learn very fast'|publisher=''[[The Indian Express]]''|date=13 May 2005|url=http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=128956|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref>

Kishori Amonkar has two sons with her husband Ravindra Amonkar.<ref>Deshpande 1989, p. 141</ref> She is sometimes described as "temperamental".<ref name="Suhasini" /> Amonkar lives in [[Mumbai]].<ref name="Deshpandep138" />

==Recognition==
Amonkar received the national awards [[Padma Bhushan]] in 1987 and [[Padma Vibhushan]] in 2002.<ref>{{cite web|title=Padma Awards|publisher=[[Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (India)|Ministry of Communications and Information Technology]]|url=http://india.gov.in/myindia/advsearch_awards.php?start=0&award_year=&state=&field=3&p_name=Amonkar&award=All|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref> She was awarded the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] for 1985 and the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship]] for 2009.<ref>{{cite web|title=SNA: List of Akademi Awardees – Music – Vocal|publisher=[[Sangeet Natak Akademi]]|url=http://www.sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/awardeeslist.htm|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=SNA: List of Akademi Fellows|publisher=Sangeet Natak Akademi|url=http://www.sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/fellowslist.htm#2009|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref>

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small">
n-[1]
{{note label|name|1|a}}
The given name is sometimes written as Kishore.<ref name="Martinez" />
</div>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{external media|video1=[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yMMgLEKZwiY Art Talk with Kishori Amonkar on NewsX]}}
{{Wikiquote|Kishori Amonkar}}
*{{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p182089|label=Kishori Amonkar}}

{{Normdaten|LCCN=nr/89/013082|VIAF=36763493}}
{{Persondata
|NAME=Amonkar, Kishori
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Indian classical singer
|DATE OF BIRTH=1932
|PLACE OF BIRTH=
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Amonkar, Kishori}}
[[Category:1932 births]]
[[Category:Hindustani singers]]
[[Category:Indian female singers]]
[[Category:Indian playback singers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship]]

[[hi:किशोरी आमोनकर]]
[[ml:കിഷോരി അമോൻകർ]]
[[mr:किशोरी आमोणकर]]
[[te:కిషోరీ అమోంకర్]]

Ted Rowlands, Baron Rowlands

2012-05-12T07:00:48Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{about|the Welsh politician|the CNN newsman named "Ted Rowlands"|Ted Rowlands (newscaster)}}
{{Infobox MP
|honorific-prefix =
|name = The Lord Rowlands
|honorific-suffix = [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]]
|image =
|constituency_MP = [[Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney (UK Parliament constituency)|Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney]] [[Merthyr Tydfil (UK Parliament constituency)|Merthyr Tydfil]] (1972-1983)
|parliament =
|majority =
|term_start = 13 April 1972
|term_end = 7 June 2001
|predecessor = [[S. O. Davies]]
|successor = [[Dai Havard]]
|constituency_MP2= [[Cardiff North (UK Parliament constituency)|Cardiff North]]
|parliament2 =
|majority2 =
|term_start2 = 31 March 1966
|term_end2 = 18 June 1970
|predecessor2 = [[Donald Box]]
|successor2 = [[Michael Roberts (politician)|Michael Roberts]]
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1940|01|23|df=yes}}
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|restingplace =
|birthname =
|nationality = [[United Kingdom|British]]
|party = [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]
|otherparty =
|spouse =
|relations =
|children =
|residence =
|alma_mater = [[King's College London]]
|occupation =
|profession =
|cabinet =
|committees =
|portfolio =
|religion =
|signature =
|website =
}}
'''Edward "Ted" Rowlands, Baron Rowlands''', [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born 23 January 1940) is a [[Wales|Welsh]] politician, who served as a [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] [[Member of Parliament]] for over thirty years and as a junior minister in the 1960s and 1970s.

==Education==
He attended [[Rhondda]] Grammar School and [[Metropolitan Borough of Wirral|Wirral]] Grammar School, and then [[King's College London]] where he obtained a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] in History in 1962.

==Political career==
Rowlands was first elected to the Commons at the [[United Kingdom general election, 1966|1966 general election]] as Member of Parliament for [[Cardiff North (UK Parliament constituency)|Cardiff North]], but lost his seat at the [[United Kingdom general election, 1970|1970 election]]. He was elected to represent [[Merthyr Tydfil (UK Parliament constituency)|Merthyr Tydfil]] at the [[Merthyr Tydfil by-election, 1972|1972 by-election]] called after the death of the long standing MP [[S. O. Davies]]. Rowlands served as [[Member of Parliament]] for Merthyr Tydfil until the constituency boundaries were redrawn and renamed for the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983 general election]], when he was returned for the new [[Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney (UK Parliament constituency)|Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney]] constituency. He was returned at three further elections before he stepped down at the [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001 general election]].

He had served as a junior minister under in [[Harold Wilson]]'s governments, as [[Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State]] in the [[Welsh Office]] from 1969 to 1970, and again from 1974 to 1975, when he was appointed to the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]]. From 1976, under [[James Callaghan]]'s premiership, he was [[Minister of State]] at the Foreign Office until Labour was defeated at the [[United Kingdom general election, 1979|1979 general election]].

In a debate on the [[Falklands War]] on 3 April 1982, Rowlands revealed that the British were reading Argentine diplomatic traffic. Rowlands was criticised (but not prosecuted as per [[parliamentary privilege]]) for revealing this intelligence source, as the likely result of his disclosure was that the Argentinians would secure their systems and the intelligence would dry up.

:''Argentine embassies used the same, top of the line, Swiss Crypto AG machine systems as their armed forces, so this was the precise equivalent of publicly announcing, during World War II, that the Allies had broken the [[Enigma machine|Enigma]] system used by the Nazis. It is unlikely we shall ever know how much damage this betrayal of trust did to national security, but if anyone else than an [[Member of Parliament|MP]] had given the information to the Argentines they would have been prosecuted.'' <ref>Bincheno, Hugh: ''Razor's Edge: The Unofficial History of the Falklands War'', page 121. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006 ISBN 978-0-297-84633-7 {{Please check ISBN|reason=Check digit (7) does not correspond to calculated figure.}}</ref>

He was appointed a CBE in 2002, and in June 2004 he was given a life peerage, as '''Baron Rowlands''', of Merthyr Tydfil and of [[Rhymney]] in the County of Mid-Glamorgan. In the [[House of Lords]], he is a member of the [[Constitution Committee (House of Lords)|Constitution Committee]].

Lord Rowlands sat on the [[Richard Commission]] which reported on 31 March 2004 on whether the [[National Assembly for Wales]] should have additional legislative powers.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{Rayment|date=February 2012}}
*{{Rayment-hc|date=March 2012}}

{{S-start}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Cardiff North (UK Parliament constituency)|Cardiff North]]
| years = [[United Kingdom general election, 1966|1966]]–[[United Kingdom general election, 1970|1970]]
| before = [[Donald Box]]
| after = [[Michael Roberts (politician)|Michael Roberts]]
}}
{{s-bef | before = [[S. O. Davies]] }}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Merthyr Tydfil (UK Parliament constituency)|Merthyr Tydfil]]
| years = [[Merthyr Tydfil by-election, 1972|1972]]–[[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]]
}}
{{s-non | reason = Constituency abolished }}

{{s-new | constituency}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney (UK Parliament constituency)|Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney]]
| years = [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]]–[[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001]]
}}
{{s-aft | after = [[Dai Havard]] }}
{{S-end}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Rowlands, Ted Baron Rowlands
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = British politician
| DATE OF BIRTH =23 January 1940
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Rowlands, Ted Baron Rowlands}}
[[Category:1940 births]]
[[Category:Alumni of King's College London]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Labour Party (UK) MPs]]
[[Category:Labour Party (UK) life peers]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for Welsh constituencies]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1966–1970]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1970–1974]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1974]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1974–1979]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1979–1983]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1983–1987]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1987–1992]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1992–1997]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1997–2001]]
[[Category:Welsh politicians]]
[[Category:People educated at Wirral Grammar School for Boys]]

[[cy:Ted Rowlands]]

Europa zuerst

2012-05-12T06:37:55Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

'''Europe first''', also known as '''Germany first''', was the key element of the [[grand strategy]] employed by the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] during [[World War II]]. According to this policy, the United States and the United Kingdom would use the preponderance of their resources to subdue [[Nazi Germany]] in [[Europe]] first. They would also fight a holding action against [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] in the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], using fewer resources. After the defeat of Germany—considered the greatest threat to [[Great Britain]]<ref>Hornfischer p. 151-153, 383</ref>—all [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces could be concentrated against Japan.

==Background==
===United Kingdom===
Germany was the United Kingdom's primary threat, which escalated after the [[Battle of France|Fall of France]], which saw Germany overrunning all of the Allies in Western Europe, leaving the United Kingdom alone. Germany's planned invasion, [[Operation Sea Lion]], was averted due to their failure to establish air superiority in the [[Battle of Britain]]. America, in [[ABC-1]] agreement with British, had adopted the grand strategy of "getting Germany first". If the United States was diverted from its main focus in Europe to the Pacific (Japan), [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] might crush both the Soviet Union and Britain, and would then rise as the unconquerable fortress in Europe.

Most of the aircraft in Britain's [[colonialism|colonies]] were of obsolete types, as modern designs such as the [[Supermarine Spitfire]] were badly needed for home defense. As a result, the British lacked the resources to achieve air superiority in the Far East. The drive to tighten air defenses was dulled because the Allies' underestimated the performance of Japanese aircraft such as the [[A6M Zero]].

First Sea Lord [[Dudley Pound|Sir Dudley Pound]] had originally decided that no [[capital ships]] could be spared to reinforce [[Singapore]], as too many of them would have to be deployed in the Far East to counter the Japanese Navy, leaving an insufficient number to deal with Europe. That shortfall would have to be made up by the US agreeing to deploy most of its battleships in the Atlantic.

Against Admiralty planning, Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] urged the reinforcement of Singapore after several British naval successes were achieved in 1941. These included the sinking of the [[German battleship Bismarck]], which ended the threat of heavy surface warships against Atlantic convoys, and the Battles of [[Battle of Taranto|Taranto]] and [[Battle of Cape Matapan|Cape Matapan]], which gave the Allies the upper hand over the Italian Navy in the [[Battle of the Mediterranean|Mediterranean Theater]]. A compromise was made to send two capital ships and an aircraft carrier, but [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|''Prince of Wales'' and ''Repulse'' were sunk]]. Strategists had known that the British [[flotilla]] on its own could not make much impact, and it was always assumed that they would be joined by ships of the US Pacific fleet which included eight battleships at [[Pearl Harbor]].

===United States===
When Japan attacked the United States, the United Kingdom had already been fighting in Europe for over two years, and had few resources to spare to protect far-flung [[colonialism|colonies]].

When [[Declaration of war by the United States#Formal declarations of war|Germany declared war]] on the United States on December 11, 1941, the United States faced a decision about how to allocate resources between these two separate theaters of war.

On the one hand, Japan had attacked the United States directly at Pearl Harbor, and the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese Navy]] threatened United States territory in a way that Germany, with a limited surface fleet, was not in a position to do. On the other hand, Germany was universally considered the stronger and more dangerous threat to Europe because only [[Great Britain]] and the [[Soviet Union]] remained un-occupied by [[Nazi Germany]], Germany's geographical proximity to the UK and the Soviet Union was therefore a greater threat to their survival<ref>Hornfischer p. 11-15, 130, 151-153, 382, 383</ref>

Prior to the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], American planners foresaw the possibility of a two-front war. [[Chief of Naval Operations]] [[Harold Rainsford Stark]] authored the [[Plan Dog memo]], which advocated concentrating on victory in Europe while staying on the defensive in the Pacific. This memo laid the basis for the "Europe first" policy.

==Agreement==
Soon after the declaration of war, the United States and the United Kingdom agreed at the [[Arcadia Conference]] on the "Europe first" strategy, and the United States committed to sending its army and air force to fight Germany in Europe and Africa as soon as those forces were ready. The campaign against Japan would be focused on halting Japanese expansion until the war on Germany was complete, at which time the full power of the United Kingdom, the United States, and eventually the [[Soviet Union]] could be turned against Japan. This strategy would concentrate on what was perceived as the strongest of the Axis Powers, and would prevent a German victory that might knock the United Kingdom or the Soviets out of the war.

===Opposition===
The "Europe First" strategy did not go along well with factions of the US military, driving a wedge between the Navy and the Army. While USN Fleet Admiral [[Ernest King]] was a strong believer in "Europe First", contrary to British perceptions, his natural aggression did not permit him to leave resources idle in the Atlantic that could be utilized in the Pacific, especially when "it was doubtful when — if ever — the British would consent to a cross-Channel operation".<ref name=Morison1957_pp13-14>{{Cite book |first=Samuel Eliot |last=Morison |title=History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Vol. XI: Invasion of France & Germany: 1944–1945 |pages=13–14 |publisher= [[Little, Brown and Company]] |year=1957 |isbn=0-316-58311-1}}</ref> King once complained that the Pacific deserved 30% of Allied resources but was getting only 15%. In spite of (or perhaps partly because of) the fact that the two men did not get along,<ref>{{cite web |accessdate=2007-12-30
|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWkingE.htm
|title=Ernest King
|author=Simkin, John
|publisher=Spartacus Educational
}}</ref> the combined influence of King and General [[Douglas MacArthur]] increased the allocation of resources to the Pacific War.<ref name=Gray>{{cite book
|accessdate=2007-12-30
|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/BigL/BigL-6.html
|chapter=Chapter 6: Joint Logistics in the Pacific Theater
|author=Gray, Anthony W., Jr.
|title=The Big 'L' — American Logistics in World War II
|editor=Alan Gropman
|year=1997
|publisher=National Defense University Press
|location=Washington, D.C.
}}</ref>

General [[Hastings Ismay]], chief of staff to [[Winston Churchill]], described King as:
<blockquote>tough as nails and carried himself as stiffly as a poker. He was blunt and stand-offish, almost to the point of rudeness. At the start, he was intolerant and suspicious of all things British, especially the [[Royal Navy]]; but he was almost equally intolerant and suspicious of the [[United States Army|American Army]]. War against Japan was the problem to which he had devoted the study of a lifetime, and he resented the idea of American resources being used for any other purpose than to destroy Japanese. He mistrusted Churchill's powers of advocacy, and was apprehensive that he would wheedle President Roosevelt into neglecting the war in the Pacific.</blockquote>

At the [[Casablanca Conference]], King was accused by Field Marshal Sir [[Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke|Alan Brooke]] of favoring the Pacific war, and the argument became heated. The combative General [[Joseph Stilwell]] wrote: "Brooke got nasty, and King got good and sore. King almost climbed over the table at Brooke. God, he was mad. I wished he had socked him."<ref name=Pogue1973_p305>{{Cite book |first=Forrest C. |last= Pogue |title=George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory 1943–1945 |pages=305 |publisher=Viking Adult |year=1973 |isbn=0-670-33694-7}}</ref>

==Consequences==
Initially, few new resources were committed to the Far East after Pearl Harbor and the Fall of Singapore. Japanese forces essentially went undefeated for six months after Pearl Harbor as they conquered Southeast Asia and several Pacific islands, threatening [[Australia]]. The Allies were largely caught off guard by the rapid Japanese expansion, with their remaining cruisers and destroyers in the Far East all but wiped out in the [[Battle of the Java Sea]]. The British had withdrawn from the [[Indian Ocean]] citing superior Japanese carrier forces.

While freed up from the Pacific and responsibilities to the allies, many Royal Navy [[capital ship]]s were then tied up in the [[Battle of the Mediterranean|Mediterranean]] and [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic]].

The [[Soviet Union]] focused almost entirely on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]], repelling the [[Operation Barbarossa|Axis invasion]] and eventually conquering the Eastern European countries, ultimately driving towards Germany. The Soviets only agreed near the end of the war to invade Japanese possessions in China and [[Manchukuo]].

Japan's decisive defeat by the United States at the [[Battle of Midway]], involving the loss of four Japanese fleet carriers and a significant number of trained aircrews, crippled its offensive capability and ended plans for eastern expansion. Nonetheless, the Japanese continued their invasion moves in the South Pacific.

Up to this point, the Allies had been on the defensive in the Pacific. King advocated (with Roosevelt's tacit consent) the [[Battle of Guadalcanal|invasion of Guadalcanal]]. When General Marshall resisted this line of action (as well as who would command the operation), King stated that the Navy (and the Marines) would then carry out the operation by themselves, and instructed Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]] to proceed with the preliminary planning. King eventually won the argument, and the successful invasion went ahead with the backing of the Joint Chiefs. Not only was it the first time that the Japanese lost ground during the War, but the momentum placed the Allies on the offensive. Australian war historians held Admiral King in high regard for his attention to the Pacific Theatre. <ref name=Bowen>
{{cite web
|accessdate=2007-12-30
|url=http://www.users.bigpond.com/pacificwar/GermanyFirst/GermanyFirst.html
|title=Despite Pearl Harbor, America adopts a 'Germany First' strategy
|work=America Fights Back
|author=Bowen, James
|series=The Pacific War from Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal
|publisher=Pacific War Historical Society}}</ref>

Unlike the British and Soviets, the United States was willing to wage war offensively on both the Pacific and European fronts without diverting resources from either side. Most of the US [[aircraft carrier|carriers]], [[battleship]]s, and [[cruiser]]s were deployed against Japan. Germany's surface fleet was small and the escort ships used in the [[Second Battle of the Atlantic]] were mostly [[destroyer]]s and [[destroyer escort]]s to counter the [[U-boat]] threat. The Pacific War could be prosecuted successfully with well placed ground troops, usually [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]], though this was also because US Army General [[George C. Marshall]] resisted sending troops to the Pacific, leaving operations like Guadalcanal entirely to the Navy and Marines. Old second-rate battleships remained in the Atlantic theatre, provided bombardment support for the [[Normandy_Landings#Naval_activity|D-Day landings]], which were carried out by the British, Canadian and US Armies.

By the end of 1942, the US had suffered heavy losses in carriers and cruisers in the Pacific (as had the Japanese naval vessels) as a result of the Battles of [[Battle of Coral Sea|Coral Sea]], [[Battle of Midway|Midway]], and the prolonged campaigns of attrition around [[Battle of Guadalcanal|Guadalcanal]] and the [[Solomon Islands campaign|Solomon Islands]]. Nonetheless, the Pacific Theater was far from neglected, as shipbuilding programs were accelerated after Pearl Harbor, intended not only replace the early war losses, but also to give the US an insurmountable material advantage. The new ships were ready starting in early 1943, particularly the many carriers of the [[Essex class aircraft carrier|Essex-class]]. There were few trade-offs that the US Navy was forced to make, the only notable one was the cancellation of the [[Montana class battleship|Montana-class battleships]] as such ships were less important than they were pre-war, and as this freed up shipyards to construct the more urgently needed aircraft carriers, amphibious and anti-submarine vessels.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/usnshtp/bb/bb67.htm |title=Montana Class (BB-67 through BB-71) |accessdate=2008-05-28 |author=Department of the Navy |authorlink=United States Navy |publisher=Naval Historical Center }}</ref>

The surrender of Italy in 1943 enabled the transfer of some Allied carriers and battleships to the [[Indian Ocean]], where they could launch strikes against Japanese conquered possessions in Southeast Asia. However, the Royal Navy had to keep most of its key units at home to maintain a strong presence in the Arctic, being tied down by Nazi Germany's last capital ship, the [[German battleship Tirpitz]]. After a series of sorties in 1944 finally resulting in the sinking of ''Tirpitz'', then the British were able to transfer carriers and battleships to the Pacific.

By the time Germany was defeated, the Allies had liberated [[Burma]], the [[Philippines]], and a string of island bases leading up to the home islands of Japan, including [[Iwo Jima]] and [[Okinawa]]. The U.S. started a massive reallocation of Army troops to the Pacific to prepare for the invasion of Japan, known as [[Operation Downfall]], but during preparations Japan surrendered following detonation of [[atomic bomb]]s over [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]] and invasion by Soviet forces in China and [[Manchukuo]].

===British/Commonwealth involvement in the Pacific===
The "Europe First" policy had political implications, as it limited the employment of British and Empire forces in the Pacific. The Australian Government had sought U.S. military assistance in 1942, when it was faced with the possibility of Japanese invasion, and while Australia had made a significant contribution to the Pacific War, it had never been an equal partner with its U.S. counterparts in strategic decision-making. While General MacArthur had more Australian than US forces under his command in 1942, it has been claimed that he nonetheless decreed that all Australian victories would be reported as "Allied victories", while American victories would be reported as American. It is also a widely-held view that, from mid-1943 onwards, MacArthur confined the Australian Army divisions under his command to tough and largely irrelevant actions, while reserving the more prestigious actions for US troops, resulting in enduring antipathy towards MacArthur in Australia.<ref>http://www.fact-archive.com/encyclopedia/Douglas_MacArthur</ref><ref name="Jackson 2006 500">{{cite book | last = Jackson | first = Ashley | title = The British Empire and the Second World War | publisher = Hambledon Continuum | year = 2006 | location = London | pages = 500 | isbn = 1-85285-417-0 }}</ref>

It was argued that a British presence would act as a counter-balance to the powerful and increasing U.S. presence in the Pacific, and the Australians would warmly welcome the British Pacific Fleet when they established their main base in [[Sydney]].<ref name="Jackson 2006 500"/> The measure was forced on Churchill by the British Chiefs of Staff, not only to re-establish British presence in the region, but to mitigate any perception in the U.S. that the British were doing nothing to help defeat Japan. However, Admiral Ernest King and General [[George C. Marshall]] had continually resisted operations that would assist the British agenda in reclaiming or maintaining any part of its pre-war colonial holdings in the Pacific or the eastern Mediterranean. King was adamant that naval operations against Japan remain 100% American, and angrily resisted the idea of a British naval presence in the Pacific at the [[Quadrant Conference]] in late 1944, citing (among other things) the difficulty of supplying additional naval forces in the theater. For much the same reason, General [[Henry Arnold]] resisted the offer of RAF units in the Pacific. Roosevelt, however, overruled King and allowed British Empire forces to deploy in the Pacific.

Despite King's reservations, the [[British Pacific Fleet]] did acquit itself sufficiently in the Pacific, as the [[Comparison of armoured to unarmoured flight deck designs|armoured flight decks]] of their aircraft carriers appeared to hold up well against [[Kamikaze]] attacks. The British had a limited presence against Japan up until the last months of the war.

==Analysis==
One clear result of the Europe first policy was that battles in the European theater tended to be set-piece, pre-planned events. With fewer resources, the United States commanders in the Pacific tended to run much smaller, innovative operations and were forced to be more flexible in their strategic planning, in order to save lives. For example, as a result of fortuitous events, the [[Battle of Leyte]] and later [[Battle of Iwo Jima]] were undertaken with almost no strategic foreplanning.

The differences in the theaters were also due to their nature; as Europe was heavily land-based, the best perceived way to beat Nazi Germany was to invade the continent. When [[End of World War II in Europe|Germany surrendered]], [[Battle of Berlin|Berlin had been captured]] and only [[Norway]] and [[Denmark]] remained in Axis hands. By contrast, to defeat Imperial Japan, a naval power spread out wide across islands in the world's largest ocean, key islands could be taken (such as Leyte) to cut off supply lines and bypass major bases such as [[Rabaul]] and [[Truk Lagoon]]; examples of such campaigns included [[Operation Cartwheel]]. At the end of World War II the Japanese still held most of their conquered possessions in China and Southeast Asia until the Soviet intervention.

==See also==
*[[Asia First]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*Hornfischer, James D. ''Neptune's Inferno: The US Navy at Guadalcanal.'' New York: Bantam Books, 2011. ISBN 978-0-553-80670-0.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Europe First}}
[[Category:Politics of World War II]]

[[da:Europa først]]
[[fr:L'Allemagne d'abord]]
[[lt:Europa pirmiausia]]
[[no:Europa først]]
[[ro:Mai întâi Europa]]
[[zh:歐洲優先]]

Hudson Valley

2012-05-12T06:32:34Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{About|the region|the magazine|Hudson Valley (magazine)}}
[[Image:Wpdms ev26188 hudson valley.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Hudson Valley]]
{{Regions of New York}}
The '''Hudson Valley''' comprises the [[valley]] of the [[Hudson River]] and its adjacent communities in [[New York]] State, United States, from northern [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]] northward to the cities of [[Albany, New York|Albany]] and [[Troy, New York|Troy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.travelhudsonvalley.org/ |title=Mountains, Valleys and the Hudson River |publisher=Hudson Valley Tourism |year=2009|accessdate=2011-09-29}}</ref>

==History==
At the time of the arrival of the first Europeans in the 17th century, the area of Hudson Valley was inhabited primarily by the [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian-speaking]] [[Mahican]] and [[Munsee]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people,<ref>{{cite book|title=History of the Indian tribes of Hudson's River: Their Origin, Manners and Customs, Tribal and Sub-tribal Organizations, Wars, Treaties, etc. |url=http://www.archive.org/details/historyindiantr01ruttgoog |first=Edward Manning |last=Ruttenberg|year=1872 |publisher=J. Munsell |location=Albany, NY |oclc=85801464}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=America's first river: the history and culture of the Hudson River Valley |editor1-first=Thomas S. |editor1-last=Wermuth |editor2-first=James M. |editor2-last=Johnson |editor3-first=Christopher |editor3-last=Pryslopski |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-615-30829-6}}</ref> known collectively as River Indians.<ref>{{cite book|title=The River Indians – Mohicans Making History |first=Shirley W. |last=Dunn |publisher=Purple Mountain Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-916346-78-2}}</ref>

The first [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] settlement was in the 1610s with the establishment of [[Fort_Nassau_(North_River)|Fort Nassau]], a trading post (''[[Factory (trading post)|factorij]]'') south of modern-day Albany, with the purpose of exchanging European goods for [[American Beaver|beaver]] pelts. Fort Nassau was later replaced by [[Fort Orange (New Netherland)|Fort Orange]]. During the rest of the 17th century, the Hudson Valley formed the heart of the [[New Netherland]] colony operations, with the [[New Amsterdam]] settlement on [[Manhattan]] serving as a post for supplies and defense of the upriver operations.<ref>Gehring, Charles T.; Starna, William A., "Dutch and Indians in the Hudson Valley: The Early Period". Wermuth et al., pp. 13–29.</ref>

During the [[French and Indian War]] in the 1750s, the northern end of the valley became the bulwark of the [[Great Britain|British]] defense against [[France|French]] invasion from [[Canada]] via [[Lake Champlain]]<ref>Thomas, A and Smith, P; ''Upstate down: thinking about New York and its discontents'' University Press of America 2009, p78</ref>

The valley became one of the major regions of conflict during the [[American Revolution]]. Part of the early strategy of the [[Great Britain|British]] was to sever the colonies in two by maintaining control of the river.<ref>Glatthaar, Joseph T., and Martin, James Kirby (2007). ''Forgotten Allies: The Oneida Indians and the American Revolution'', p. 39. Macmillan. ISBN 0-8090-4600-8.</ref>

Following the building of the [[Erie Canal]], the area became an important industrial center. The canal opened the Hudson Valley and [[New York City]] to commerce with the Midwest and [[Great Lakes]] regions.<ref>Stanne, Stephen P., et al. (1996). ''The Hudson: An Illustrated Guide to the Living River'', p. 120. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2271-4.</ref> However, in the mid 20th century, many of the industrial towns went into decline.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hirschl |first1=Thomas A. |last2=Heaton |first2=Tim B. |year=1999 |title=New York State in the 21st Century |pages=126–128 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=0-275-96339-X}}</ref>
[[Image:Catskills beyond Hudson.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Catskills seen from across the river.]]

In the early 19th century, popularized by the stories of [[Washington Irving]], the Hudson Valley gained a reputation as a somewhat gothic region inhabited by the remnants of the early days of the Dutch colonization of New York (see, e.g., ''[[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow]]''). The area is associated with the [[Hudson River School]], a group of American [[romanticism|Romantic]] painters who worked from about 1830 to 1870.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Hudson: America's river |first=Francis F. |last=Dunwell |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-231-13641-9 |page=100}}</ref>

The natural beauty of the Hudson Valley has earned the Hudson River the nickname "America's Rhineland",<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/Food/Stir-It-Up/2011/0103/Venison-juniper-berry-marinade |title=Venison juniper berry marinade |first=Clay |last=Collins |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |date=2011-01-01 |accessdate=2011-09-29 |quote=Christmas at my German in-laws’ house in New York’s Hudson Valley – America’s Rhineland – means goose, red cabbage, and klösse (potato dumplings).}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hvwinemag.com/Grapes_riesling.html |title=Grapes of the Hudson Valley |work=Hudson Valley Wine Magazine |accessdate=2011-09-29 |quote=The Hudson Valley’s beautiful river, shorelines and mountains have led some to call our valley ‘America’s Rhineland.’}}</ref> a comparison to the famous 40 mile (65 km) stretch of Germany's [[Rhine|Rhine River]] valley between the cities of [[Bingen am Rhein|Bingen]] and [[Koblenz]]. A similar 30-mile (48 km) [[Hudson River Historic District|stretch of the east bank in Dutchess and Columbia counties]] has been designated a [[National Historic Landmark]].

==Geology and physiography==
The Hudson Valley is a [[Physiographic regions of the world|physiographic section]] of the larger [[Ridge-and-valley Appalachians|Valley And Ridge]] province, which in turn is part of the larger [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachian]] physiographic division.<ref name="USGS-Water">{{cite web |title=Physiographic divisions of the conterminous U. S. |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |url=http://water.usgs.gov/GIS/metadata/usgswrd/XML/physio.xml |accessdate=2007-12-06 }}</ref>

==Hudson river pollution==
The numerous factories that at one time lined the Hudson River poured [[Waste|garbage]] and [[industrial waste]] directly into the river.This pollution was not assessed in a comprehensive fashion until the 1970s. By that time, the largest company still operating factories in the area was [[General Electric]], which became primarily responsible for cleaning the Hudson River. In 2009 dredging was started to remove contaminated sediments from the river bed and in 2010 General Electric agreed to finance and conduct a second dredging campaign at the Upper Hudson River between Fort Edward and Troy. These works will be supervised by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]].<ref name=EPA>{{cite web| publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency| location= New York, NY | url= http://www.epa.gov/hudson/faqs.htm | work= Hudson River PCBs| title=Frequently Asked Questions | accessdate=2011-09-29}}</ref>

==Sports==
The [[Hudson Valley Renegades]] is a minor league baseball team affiliated with the [[Tampa Bay Rays]]. The team is a member of the [[New York - Penn League]] and plays at [[Dutchess Stadium]] in [[Fishkill, New York|Fishkill]].

The Hudson Valley Rebels are the Hudson Valley's Premiere [[Rugby union]] club. The Hudson Valley Rebels are members of the [[Metropolitan New York Rugby Football Union]] and were established in 2001. Their home pitch is Beacon Memorial Park, in [[Beacon, New York|Beacon]].

The [[Hudson Valley Highlanders]] of the [[North American Football League]] play their home games at Dietz Stadium in [[Kingston, New York|Kingston]].

The [[Hudson Valley Horrors]] are the region's first non-urban [[Roller Derby|flat track women's roller derby team]] and are part of the grass-roots derby revival. They currently practice and host bouts at Hyde Park Roller Magic in Hyde Park.

The Rockland Boulders of the Can-Am Professional Baseball League play in Rockland County.

==Regions==

The Hudson Valley is divided into three regions: Lower, Middle and Upper. The following is a list of the counties within the Hudson Valley sorted by region<ref>Silverman, B ''et al''; ''Frommer's New York State'' Frommer's 2009, p196</ref>.
{| width="100%" |
|-
| width="25%" |
'''Lower Hudson'''
*[[Westchester, New York|Westchester]]
*[[Rockland County, New York|Rockland]]
*[[Putnam County, New York|Putnam]]
*[[Bergen County, New Jersey|Bergen]]
 
||| width="25%" |
'''Mid-Hudson'''
*[[Dutchess County, New York|Dutchess]]
*[[Orange County, New York|Orange]]
*[[Ulster County, New York|Ulster]]
||| width="25%" |
'''Upper Hudson/[[Capital District]]'''
*[[Columbia County, New York|Columbia]]
*[[Greene County, New York|Greene]]
*[[Rensselaer County, New York|Rensselaer]]
*[[Albany County, New York|Albany]]
|}

==Communities==
{{See also|Timeline of town creation in the Hudson Valley}}
{{See also|Timeline of town creation in New York's Capital District}}
{| width="100%" |
|-
| width="25%" |
*[[Airmont, New York|Airmont]]
*[[Albany, New York|Albany]]
*[[Ancram, New York|Ancram]]
*[[Annandale-on-Hudson, New York|Annandale-on-Hudson]]
*[[Arlington, New York|Arlington]]
*[[Athens (town), New York|Athens]]
*[[Balmville, New York|Balmville]]
*[[Beacon, New York|Beacon]]
*[[Brewster, New York|Brewster]]
*[[Buchanan, New York|Buchanan]]
*[[Carmel, New York|Carmel]]
*[[Castleton-on-Hudson, New York|Castleton-on-Hudson]]
*[[Catskill (town), New York|Catskill]]
*[[Chester (village), New York|Chester]]
*[[Chestnut Ridge, New York|Chestnut Ridge]]
*[[Coeymans, New York|Coeymans]]
*[[Cohoes, New York|Cohoes]]
*[[Cold Spring, New York|Cold Spring]]
*[[Congers, New York|Congers]]
*[[Copake, New York|Copake]]
*[[Cornwall, New York|Cornwall]]
*[[Cortlandt Manor, New York|Cortlandt Manor]]
*[[Coxsackie (town), New York|Coxsackie]]
*[[Croton-on-Hudson, New York|Croton-on-Hudson]]
*[[Delmar, New York|Delmar]]
*[[Dobbs Ferry, New York|Dobbs Ferry]]
*[[East Fishkill, New York|East Fishkill]]
*[[East Greenbush, New York|East Greenbush]]
*[[Elsmere, New York|Elsmere]]
*[[Esopus, New York|Esopus]]
*[[Fairview, Dutchess County, New York|Fairview]]
||| width="25%" |
*[[Fishkill, New York|Fishkill]]
*[[Fort Montgomery, New York|Fort Montgomery]]
*[[Garrison, New York|Garrison]]
*[[Gardiner, New York|Gardiner]]
*[[Germantown (town), New York|Germantown]]
*[[Glasco, New York|Glasco]]
*[[Goshen (village), New York|Goshen]]
*[[Grand View-on-Hudson, New York|Grand View-on-Hudson]]
*[[Hastings-on-Hudson, New York|Hastings-on-Hudson]]
*[[Haverstraw (village), New York|Haverstraw]]
*[[Highland, Ulster County, New York|Highland]]
*[[Highland Falls, New York|Highland Falls]]
*[[Highland Mills, New York|Highland Mills]]
*[[Hillburn, New York|Hillburn]]
*[[Hillcrest, Rockland County, New York|Hillcrest]]
*[[Hillsdale, New York|Hillsdale]]
*[[Hudson, New York|Hudson]]
*[[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]]
*[[Irvington, New York|Irvington]]
*[[Kingston, New York|Kingston]]
*[[Mahopac, New York|Mahopac]]
*[[Malden-on-Hudson, New York|Malden-on-Hudson]]
*[[Marlboro, New York|Marlboro]]
*[[Menands, New York|Menands]]
*[[Middletown, Orange County, New York|Middletown]]
*[[Millbrook, New York|Millbrook]]
*[[Milton, Ulster County, New York|Milton]]
*[[Monroe (town), New York|Monroe]]
*[[Monsey, New York|Monsey]]
*[[Montgomery (town), New York|Montgomery]]
||| width="25%" |
*[[Montrose, New York|Montrose]]
*[[Mount Ivy, New York|Mount Ivy]]
*[[Nanuet, New York|Nanuet]]
*[[New Baltimore, New York|New Baltimore]]
*[[New City, New York|New City]]
*[[New Hamburg, New York|New Hamburg]]
*[[New Paltz, New York|New Paltz]]
*[[New Windsor, New York|New Windsor]]
*[[Newburgh (city), New York|Newburgh, City of]]
*[[Newburgh (town), New York|Newburgh, Town of]]
*[[Nyack, New York|Nyack]]
*[[Ossining (town), New York|Ossining]]
*[[Palisades, New York|Palisades]]
*[[Patterson, New York|Patterson]]
*[[Pawling (village), New York|Pawling]]
*[[Pearl River, New York|Pearl River]]
*[[Peekskill, New York|Peekskill]]
*[[Piermont, New York|Piermont]]
*[[Pleasant Valley (town), New York|Pleasant Valley]]
*[[Pomona, New York|Pomona]]
*[[Port Ewen, New York|Port Ewen]]
*[[Poughkeepsie, New York|Poughkeepsie]]
*[[Putnam Valley, New York|Putnam Valley]]
*[[Ravena, New York|Ravena]]
*[[Red Hook, New York|Red Hook]]
*[[Rensselaer, New York|Rensselaer]]
*[[Rhinebeck (village), New York|Rhinebeck]]
*[[Rhinecliff, New York|Rhinecliff]]
*[[Saugerties (village), New York|Saugerties]]
*[[Selkirk, New York|Selkirk]]
||| width="25%" |
*[[Sleepy Hollow, New York|Sleepy Hollow]]
*[[Sloatsburg, New York|Sloatsburg]]
*[[South Nyack, New York|South Nyack]]
*[[Sparkill, New York|Sparkill]]
*[[Spring Valley, New York|Spring Valley]]
*[[Staatsburg, New York|Staatsburg]]
*[[Stockport, New York|Stockport]]
*[[Stony Point, New York|Stony Point]]
*[[Stuyvesant, New York|Stuyvesant]]
*[[Suffern, New York|Suffern]]
*[[Taghkanic, New York|Taghkanic]]
*[[Tarrytown, New York|Tarrytown]]
*[[Tivoli, New York|Tivoli]]
*[[Troy, New York|Troy]]
*[[Upper Nyack, New York|Upper Nyack]]
*[[Valhalla, New York|Valhalla]]
*[[Valley Cottage, New York|Valley Cottage]]
*[[Van Keurens, New York|Van Keurens]]
*[[Verplanck, New York|Verplanck]]
*[[Wappinger, New York|Wappinger]]
*[[Warwick, New York|Warwick]]
*[[Washingtonville, New York|Washingtonville]]
*[[Watervliet, New York|Watervliet]]
*[[Wawarsing, New York|Wawarsing]]
*[[West Haverstraw, New York|West Haverstraw]]
*[[West Nyack, New York|West Nyack]]
*[[West Park, New York|West Park]]
*[[West Point, New York|West Point]]
*[[Yonkers, New York|Yonkers]]
*[[Yorktown, New York|Yorktown]]
|}

==See also==
{{Portal bar|Geography|Hudson Valley|New York}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |title=Historic houses of the Hudson valley |year=1942 |first1=Harold |last1=Donaldson Eberlein |first2=Cortlandt |last2=Van Dyke Hubbard |publisher=Architectural Book Pub. Co |location=New York |oclc=3444265}}
* Scheltema, Gajus and Westerhuijs, Heleen (eds.),''Exploring Historic Dutch New York''. Museum of the City of New York/Dover Publications, New York (2011). ISBN 978-0-486-48637-6
* {{Cite book |title=Visions of Washington Irving: Selected Works From the Collections of Historic Hudson Valley |year=1991 |author=[[Historic Hudson Valley]] |publisher=[[Historic Hudson Valley]] |location=Tarrytown, NY |isbn=978-0-912882-99-4}}
* {{Cite book |title=Health Maintenance Organizations in the Hudson Valley Region |year=1993 |publisher=Hudson Valley Health Systems Agency |author=Hudson Valley Health Systems Agency |location=Tuxedo, NY |oclc=30910810}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Catskill Witch and Other Tales of the Hudson Valley |year=1974 |first1=James |last1=McMurry |first2=Jeff |last2=Jones |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |location=Syracuse, NY |isbn=978-0-8156-0105-0}}
* {{Cite book |title=Biography of a River: The People and Legends of the Hudson Valley |year=1969 |publisher=Hawthorn Books |location=New York |first=John |last=Mylod |oclc=33563}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Hudson River and Its Painters |year=1972 |publisher=[[Viking Press]] |location=New York |first=John K. |last=Howat |isbn=978-0-670-38558-4}}
* {{Cite book |title=Literature of the Mid Hudson Valley: A Preliminary Study |year=1973 |first=Alfred H. |last=Marks |publisher=Center for Continuing Education, State University College |location=New Paltz, NY |oclc=1171631}}
* {{Cite book |title=River of Dreams: The Story of the Hudson River |year=2009 |first=Hudson |last=Talbott |authorlink=Hudson Talbott |publisher=[[G. P. Putnam's Sons]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-399-24521-3}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Historic Wallkill and Hudson River Valleys |url=http://www.archive.org/details/historicwallkill07wall |author=Wallkill Valley Publishing Association |year=1904 |publisher=Wallkill Valley Publishing Association |location=Walden, NY |oclc=13418978}}
* {{Cite book |title=Hudson River Bracketed |year=1929 |first=Edith |last=Wharton |authorlink=Edith Wharton |publisher=[[D. Appleton & Company]] |location=New York |oclc=297188}}
* {{Cite book |title=Dutch houses in the Hudson Valley before 1776 |year=1965 |first=Helen |last=Wilkinson Reynolds |publisher=[[Dover Publications]] |location=New York |oclc=513732}}

==External links==

* [http://www.hudsonrivervalley.com/ Hudson River Valley National Heritage Area]
* [http://www.hudsongreenway.state.ny.us/ Hudson River Valley Greenway]
* [http://www.hrvh.org/ Hudson River Valley Heritage]: digital collection of historical materials
* [http://dfl.highlands.com/lisa/lisa.html Livingston-Svirsky Archive (LiSA)]

{{New York}}
{{Capital District}}
{{New York metropolitan area}}

{{coord missing|New York}}

[[Category:Hudson Valley| ]]
[[Category:Physiographic sections]]

[[id:Lembah Hudson]]
[[pt:Hudson Valley]]
[[simple:Hudson Valley]]
[[sv:Hudson Valley]]

Berkeley Castle

2012-05-12T06:08:27Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{for|the castle of the same name in West Virginia in the United States|Samuel Taylor Suit Cottage}}
[[File:Berkeley Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1440403.jpg|thumb|300px|Berkeley Castle in 2009, viewed from the southwest]]
'''Berkeley Castle''' (historically sometimes spelt ''Berkley Castle'') is a [[castle]] in the town of [[Berkeley, Gloucestershire|Berkeley]], [[Gloucestershire]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] ({{gbmapping|ST685989}}). The castle's origins date back to the 11th century and it has been designated by [[English Heritage]] as a grade I [[listed building]].<ref name="IECastle"/>

The castle has remained within the [[Berkeley family]] since they reconstructed it in the 12th century, except for a period of royal ownership by the [[Tudor dynasty|Tudors]]. It was traditionally the scene of the murder of King [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] in 1327.<ref name="Kingsley51_54"/><ref name="GuardianSumption"/>

==Construction==
[[Image:Berkeley Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1440412.jpg|thumb|Shell keep and inner gatehouse, viewed from the outer bailey]]
The first castle at Berkeley was a [[motte-and-bailey]], built around 1067 by [[William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford|William FitzOsbern]] shortly after the [[Norman conquest of England|Conquest]].<ref name="Verey176_178"/> This was subsequently held by three generations of the first Berkeley family, all called Roger de Berkeley, and rebuilt by them in the first half of the 12th century.<ref name="Pine25_26"/> The last Roger de Berkeley was dispossessed in 1152 for withholding his allegiance from the [[House of Plantagenet]] during the conflict of [[The Anarchy]], and the [[Lordship]] of Berkeley was then granted to [[Robert Fitzharding]], a wealthy [[burgess (title)|burgess]] of [[Bristol]] and supporter of the Plantagenets. He was the founder of the Berkeley family which still holds the castle.<ref name="Verey176_178"/><ref name="Sivier75_76"/><ref name="Bettey15_19"/><ref name="Burke254"/>

In 1153–54 Fitzharding received a royal [[charter]] from [[Henry II of England|King Henry II]] giving him permission to rebuild the castle,<ref name="Burke254"/> with the aim of defending the Bristol - [[Gloucester]] Road, the [[River Severn|Severn]] estuary and the [[Wales|Welsh]] border.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}} Fitzharding built the circular [[shell keep]] during 1153–56, probably on the site of the former motte. The building of the [[Curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] followed, probably during 1160–90 by Robert and then by his son Maurice.<ref name="Verey176_178"/><ref name="Burke254"/>

Much of the rest of the castle is 14th century and was built for [[Thomas de Berkeley, 3rd Baron Berkeley]]: Thorpe's Tower, to the north of the keep, the inner [[gatehouse]] to its southwest, and other buildings of the inner [[Ward (fortification)|bailey]].<ref name="Verey176_178"/>

==Murder of Edward II==
[[Image:Edward II's cell - geograph.org.uk - 585477.jpg|thumb|Covered walkway leading to Edward II's supposed cell within the castle]]
The castle was ransacked in 1326 by the forces of [[Hugh Despenser the Younger|Hugh Despenser]], the favourite of King Edward II. In 1327, Edward was deposed by the [[Isabella of France|Queen]] and her ally [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]], and they made Thomas de Berkeley and his brother-in-law John Maltravers his joint custodians. They brought Edward to Berkeley Castle, and held him there for 5 months from April to September. During that time a band of Edward's supporters attacked, entered the castle and rescued him, only for him to be recaptured soon afterwards. It is possible that his captors then moved him around between several castles to make further rescue more difficult, before returning him to Berkeley Castle in September.<ref name="Doherty115_126"/> Some commentators have claimed that Edwards' escape was actually successful, and that someone else was later murdered in his place.<ref name="GuardianSumption"/><ref name="Doherty224_225"/>

Edward was reputedly murdered there on September 21, 1327 by unknown means, although popular stories of a red hot poker or suffocation persist.<ref name="GuardianSumption"/> The cell where he is supposed to have been imprisoned and murdered can still be seen, along with the adjacent 11 m (36 ft) deep dungeon,<ref name="IECastle"/> which supposedly echoes the events of the murder every year on September 21.<ref name="GuardianBrandon"/>

The account given to [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] at the time was simply that Edward had met with a fatal accident. The body was embalmed and remained lying in state at Berkeley for a month, in the Chapel of St John within the castle keep, before Thomas de Berkeley escorted it to [[Gloucester Abbey]] for burial.<ref name="Verey176_178"/><ref name="Doherty133_138"/> Thomas was later charged with being an accessory to the murder, but his defence was that it was carried out by the agents of Roger Mortimer while he was away from the castle, and in 1337 he was cleared of all charges.<ref name="Doherty164_166"/>

==Later history==
{{refimprove section|date=August 2010}}
[[Image:Berkley Castle by Jan Kip 1712.jpg|thumb|Berkeley Castle in 1712]]
In the 14th century, the Great Hall was given a new roof and it is here the last [[Jester|court jester]] in England, Dickie Pearce, died after falling from the [[Minstrels' gallery]]. His tomb is in St Mary's churchyard which stands besides the castle. Adjoining the Great Hall is one of two of the original chapels, that includes painted wooden [[Vault (architecture)|vaulted]] ceilings and a [[biblical]] passage (from the [[Book of Revelation]]), written in [[Norman French]]. This room also contains an illustrated [[vellum]] book of [[plainsong]] that was used in [[Catholic]] rites, before the family converted to [[Protestantism]] in the 16th century.

During the [[English Civil War]], the castle still held sufficient significance for it to be captured in 1645 by Colonel [[Thomas Rainsborough]], for the [[Roundheads|Parliamentarian]] side and after a siege which saw cannon being fired at point blank range from the adjacent church roof of Saint Mary the Virgin, the Royal garrison surrendered. As was usual, the walls were left breached after this siege but the Berkeley family were allowed to retain ownership on condition that they never repaired the damage to the Keep and Outer Bailey, still enforced today by the original [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]] drawn up at the time; according to [[Pevsner]],{{Full}} the breach is partially filled by a subsequent 'modern' rebuild, but this only amounts to a low garden wall, to stop people falling 28' from the Keep Garden, the original Castle's "motte".

In the 20th century, the [[8th Earl Randall]] repaired and remodelled parts of the castle and added a new porch in the same [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style as the rest of the building. One change included an [[Art Nouveau]] take on a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] bedroom.

The castle is surrounded by beautiful [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethan]] terraced gardens, including [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]'s [[bowling green]] and a [[pine]] that is reputed to have been grown from a cutting taken from a tree at the [[Battle of Culloden]] in 1746.

==Modern times==
{{refimprove section|date=August 2010}}
[[Image:Berkeley Castle lithotint.jpg|thumb|The courtyard in the 1840s]]
The castle is the oldest continuously-occupied castle in [[England]] after the royal fortresses of the [[Tower of London]] and [[Windsor Castle]] and the oldest to be continuously owned and occupied by the same family. The Berkeley family divide their time between the Castle and their other home, [[Spetchley park gardens|Spetchley Park]], just outside [[Worcester]], which has been in the family's ownership since 1606.

With most areas now open to the public, the private apartments occupy about 15% of the building and the rest is managed by the Berkeley Castle Charitable Trust. A [http://www.berkeley-castle.com/donate.html Restoration Appeal] was launched in 2006 to raise £5.5 million needed to renovate and restore the Norman building. The Charitable Trust running the Castle is relatively small.

Two ships of the [[Royal Navy]] have been named [[HMS Berkeley Castle|''Berkeley Castle'']] after the castle, as has a [[Great Western Railway|Great Western]] locomotive.

The castle was used for many scenes for the hit BBC children's television series [[The Ghost Hunter]] and the first televised version of [[The Other Boleyn Girl (2008 film)|The Other Boleyn Girl]].

==See also==
* [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
* [[List of castles in England]]

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="IECastle">{{cite web | title=Berkeley Castle | work=Images of England | url=http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=132188 | accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="Kingsley51_54">{{Cite book | last=Kingsley | first=Nicholas | title=The Country Houses of Gloucestershire, Vol.1 1500-1660 | publisher=Phillimore | location=Chichester | year=2001 | pages=51–54 | isbn=1-86077-124-6 }}</ref>
<ref name="GuardianSumption">{{cite news|last=Sumption|first=Jonathan|coauthors= |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2003/apr/05/featuresreviews.guardianreview8 |title=Plotting the past |publisher=The Guardian |accessdate=25 August 2010 | location=London | date=5 April 2003}}</ref>
<ref name="Verey176_178">{{Cite book | last=Verey | first=David |coauthors=Brooks, Alan | title=Pevsner Architectural Guide, Gloucestershire 2: The Vale and The Forest of Dean | publisher=Yale University Press | location=New Haven | year=2002 | pages=176–178 | isbn=0-300-09733-6 }}</ref>
<ref name="Pine25_26">{{Cite book | last=Pine | first=L.G. | title=The New Extinct Peerage 1884-1971 | publisher=Heraldry Today | location=London | year=1972 | pages=25–26 | isbn=0-900455-23-3}}</ref>
<ref name="Sivier75_76">{{Cite book | last=Sivier | first=David | title=Anglo-Saxon and Norman Bristol | publisher=Tempus | location=Stroud, Gloucestershire | year=2002 | pages=75–76 | isbn=0-7524-2533-1 }}</ref>
<ref name="Bettey15_19">{{Cite book | last=Bettey | first=Joseph | editor1-last=Rogan | editor1-first=John | title=Bristol Cathedral: History and Architecture | publisher=Tempus | location=Charleston | year=2000 | pages=15–19 | isbn=0-7524-1482-8}}</ref>
<ref name="Burke254">{{Cite book | last=Burke | first= | title=Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, Vol.1 | publisher=Burke's Peerage | location=Switzerland | year=1999 | page=254 | isbn=2-940085-02-1}}</ref>
<ref name="GuardianBrandon">{{cite news|last=Brandon|first=David|coauthors= Brooke, Alan|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2009/oct/31/most-haunted-places-britain |title=The most haunted places in Britain |publisher=The Guardian |accessdate=25 August 2010 | location=London | date=31 October 2009}}</ref>
<ref name="Doherty115_126">{{Cite book | last=Doherty | first=Paul | title=Isabella and the Strange Death of Edward II | publisher=Robinson | location=London | year=2003 | pages=115–126 | isbn=1_84119-843-9 }}</ref>
<ref name="Doherty224_225">{{Cite book | last=Doherty | first=Paul | title=Isabella and the Strange Death of Edward II | publisher=Robinson | location=London | year=2003 | pages=224–225 | isbn=1_84119-843-9 }}</ref>
<ref name="Doherty133_138">{{Cite book | last=Doherty | first=Paul | title=Isabella and the Strange Death of Edward II | publisher=Robinson | location=London | year=2003 | pages=133–138 | isbn=1_84119-843-9 }}</ref>
<ref name="Doherty164_166">{{Cite book | last=Doherty | first=Paul | title=Isabella and the Strange Death of Edward II | publisher=Robinson | location=London | year=2003 | pages=164–166 | isbn=1_84119-843-9 }}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://www.berkeley-castle.com/ Official Berkeley Castle website]
*[http://www.berkeley-castle.com/history.html Berkeley Castle history 1]
*[http://www.britannia.com/history/castles/berkeley.html Berkeley Castle history 2]
*[http://www.flickr.com/search/?q=Berkeley%20Castle&w=all Flickr images tagged Berkeley Castle]
*[http://www.soglos.com/art-culture/attraction/26160/Berkeley-Castle-review Berkeley Castle review and photo gallery] on [[SoGlos.com]]
*[http://www.stmarys-berkeley.co.uk/ Saint Mary the Virgin website]

{{coord|51.68797|N|2.45707|W|region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(ST685989)|display=title}}

[[Category:Houses in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Castles in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Gardens in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Butterfly farms]]
[[Category:Reportedly haunted locations in England]]
[[Category:Berkeley family]]

Lot’s Ait

2012-05-12T06:05:19Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

[[File:Lots Ait, Brentford - geograph.org.uk - 967242.jpg|thumb|right]]
[[File:The Thames by Lot's Ait, Brentford - geograph.org.uk - 596699.jpg|thumb|right]]
'''Lot's Ait''' is an [[ait]] ([[island]]) in the [[River Thames]]. It is on the [[Tideway]] near [[Brentford]], in the [[London Borough of Hounslow|Borough of Hounslow]], [[London]], [[England]], and its size is approximately {{convert|51000|sqft|m2|0}}.

Lot's Ait is often grouped with the adjacent [[Brentford Ait]]. It was formerly used for the growing of grass and [[osier]]s: basket willows, used for basketry, furniture, and cart-making, as well as cattle fodder. It was once known as [[Barbus barbus|Barbel]] Island, as this was a particularly fruitful area for fishing. It contained a yard where barges were repaired until 1980, when it was sold. It acquired a wild character with naturalised willows, rotting boats and rusting dock roofs and became a haven for wildlife. In 2002, the island was offered for sale with outline planning permission for a restaurant, a leisure facility and boat storage. It is only accessible by boat, except at low tide when it is possible to walk across from the Brentford shore, and the nearest roads are Goats Wharf, Brentford, and Smith Hill, Brentford.<ref>{{cite web|title= News|url= http://www.brentford-dock.net/archive/2002-8.asp|work= Brentford Dock|publisher= Neil O'Dwyer|year= 2002|month= August|accessdate= 2009-01-05}}</ref>

In 2011, a lease on the island was acquired by a local company, John's Boat Works, which plans to restore the boatyard and put it back into use. <ref>{{cite web|title= Blog|url=http://www.johnsboatworks.co.uk/blog/?p=19|work= John's Boat Works|publisher= John|year= 2011|month= September|accessdate= 2012-01-10}}</ref> In January 2012 a new footbridge was installed to link the island to the Brentford bank of the Thames at Smith Hill. The bridge was designed by Beckett Rankine and built and installed by MSO Marine.<ref>{{cite web|title= Planning|url=http://democraticservices.hounslow.gov.uk/%28S%28czobl0450xbqi155ede3ifez%29%29/mgAi.aspx?ID=55275|work= Agenda Item|publisher= London Borough of Hounslow|year= 2011|month= September|accessdate= 2012-01-10}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Islands in the River Thames]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
<div class="references-small">
*{{cite book |title= The Thames Path: From the Sea to the Source|last= Hatts|first= Leigh|year= 2005|edition= 2nd|publisher= [[Cicerone (publisher)|Cicerone]]|location= [[Milnthorpe]]|isbn= 978-1-85284-436-3|oclc= 276222230}}
*{{Cite web |url= http://www.pla.co.uk/pdfs/maritime/U10_2006_chartlet_Syon_and_Mortlakepdf.pdf|format= PDF|title= Syon and Mortlake Reaches: PLA 307 & 308 Main Surveys (Extract)|accessdate= 2009-01-05|publisher= [[Port of London]]}}
*{{cite book |title= A History of the County of Middlesex: Volume 7: Acton, Chiswick, Ealing and Brentford, West Twyford, Willesden|last= Baker|first= T F T|coauthors= Elrington, C R (editors); Bolton, Diane K; Croot, Patricia E C; Hicks, M A|year= 1982|publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] for the [[University of London]], [[Institute of Historical Research]]|location= [[Oxford]]|oclc= 59178433|chapter= Chiswick: Introduction|pages= 50–51|url= http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=22557|accessdate= 2009-01-05}}
</div>

{{Start box}}
{{River island start|River=[[River Thames]]}}
{{River item line|upstream=[[Isleworth Ait]]
|downstream=[[Brentford Ait]]}}
{{End box}}

{{coord|51|29|05|N|00|17|54|W|region:GB-HNS_type:isle_scale:25000|display=title}}

[[Category:Geography of Hounslow]]
[[Category:Islands of the River Thames]]
[[Category:Islands of London]]

==External links==

* [http://lotsait.com/index.html Lot's Ait.com] official site

{{london-geo-stub}}

Brentford Ait

2012-05-12T06:05:09Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

[[File:Brentford Ait - geograph.org.uk - 921341.jpg|thumb|right|Brentford Ait seen from Kew Bridge]]
'''Brentford Ait''' is a long uninhabited [[ait]] ([[island]]) in the [[River Thames]]. It is on the [[Tideway]] near [[Brentford]], in the [[London Borough of Hounslow|Borough of Hounslow]], [[London]], [[England]].

[[File:Brentford and Lots Aits OS OpenData map.png||left|thumb|Map of Brentford and Lot's Aits]]

Brentford Ait has a gap in the middle known as Hog Hole which is apparent at higher tides. In the 18th century there was a notorious pub on Brentford Ait called the Swan or Three Swans, which was closed in 1796. The Swan Steps lead down to the river at Brentford at the site of the crossing to this pub. The ait was planted with trees in the 1920s to screen Brentford's [[gasworks]] from the view of [[Kew Gardens]]. The ait is covered by willows and alder and is a bird sanctuary with a significant [[heronry]].

==See also==
*[[Islands in the River Thames]]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
*{{cite book |title= The Thames Path: From the Sea to the Source|last= Hatts|first= Leigh|year= 2005|edition= 2nd|publisher= [[Cicerone (publisher)|Cicerone]]|location= [[Milnthorpe]]|isbn= 978-1-85284-436-3|oclc= 276222230}}
*{{Cite web |url= http://www.pla.co.uk/pdfs/maritime/U10_2006_chartlet_Syon_and_Mortlakepdf.pdf|format= PDF|title= Syon and Mortlake Reaches: PLA 307 & 308 Main Surveys (Extract)|accessdate= 2009-01-05|publisher= [[Port of London]]}}
*{{cite book |title= A History of the County of Middlesex: Volume 7: Acton, Chiswick, Ealing and Brentford, West Twyford, Willesden|last= Baker|first= T F T|coauthors= Elrington, C R (editors); Bolton, Diane K; Croot, Patricia E C; Hicks, M A|year= 1982|publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] for the [[University of London]], [[Institute of Historical Research]]|location= [[Oxford]]|oclc= 59178433|chapter= Chiswick: Introduction|pages= 50–51|url= http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=22557|accessdate= 2009-01-05}}
</div>

{{Start box}}
{{River island start|River=[[River Thames]]}}
{{River item line|upstream=[[Lot's Ait]]
|downstream=[[Oliver's Island]]}}
{{End box}}

{{coord|51.4863|-0.2941|region:GB-HNS_type:isle_scale:25000|display=title|format=dms}}

[[Category:Geography of Hounslow]]
[[Category:Islands of the River Thames]]
[[Category:Islands of London]]

{{london-geo-stub}}

Canadian National Vimy Memorial

2012-05-12T05:59:51Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

{{Infobox Military Memorial
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]] [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]
|image = [[Image:Vimy memorial .jpg|300px|alt=A white limestone memorial is built into the side of a hill and surrounded by green grass and backed by a blue sky. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall. Human statues are located at the base of the wall on both ends, the top centre of the wall, at the base between the stone towers and near the top of the stone towers themselves.]]
|caption = The front of the Vimy Memorial.
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and First World War Canadian missing, presumed dead in France.
|unveiled = 26 July 1936 By [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VIII]]
|coordinates = {{coord|50|22|46|N|02|46|25|E|scale:2500|display=title}}
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}} {{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}
|commemorated = 11,169{{#tag:ref|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, there are a number of individuals who are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.<ref name="Peterson">{{cite web |title=Private Herbert Peterson |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=feature/vimy90/events/hpeterson |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=4 April 2007 |accessdate=5 January 2010}}</ref> Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}
|source={{cwgc cemetery|87900}}
}}

The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a memorial site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|250|acre|ha|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the grounds over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]], a military engagement fought as part of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].

The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion whereupon all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and thus became a Canadian nationalistic symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceeded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge under the understanding that the Canadians use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[Trench warfare|trenches]], craters and unexploded munitions still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, there are a number of other memorials and cemeteries contained within the site.

The memorial took monument designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] eleven years to build. [[King Edward VIII]] unveiled the memorial on 26 July 1936, in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]], 50,000 or more Canadian and French veterans, and their families. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] rededicated the memorial on 9 April 2007 during a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The memorial site is one of two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] located outside of [[Canada]] and is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]].

==Background==
===Topography===
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.<ref name="Farr 147"/> The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.<ref name="Farr 147"/><ref name="Geology 396-397">[[#Geology|Rose & Nathanail]] pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3</ref>

===Early conflicts on site===
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.<ref name="Boire 52-53">[[#Boire2|Boire (2007)]] pp. 52–53</ref> The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.<ref name="Boire 56">[[#Boire2|Boire (2007)]] p. 56</ref> The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.<ref name="Tucker 68">[[#Tucker|Tucker]] p. 68</ref> The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.<ref name="Turner 8">[[#Turner|Turner]] p. 8</ref>

The [[United Kingdom|British]] XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.<ref>[[#Boire|Boire (1992)]] p. 15</ref> On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|2000|yd|m|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" >[[#Samuels|Samuels]] pp. 200–202</ref> The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" />{{#tag:ref|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" /><ref name="Sheldon2">[[#Sheldon2|Sheldon]] p. 149</ref>|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref name="Jones NY Times">{{cite news |title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF |newspaper=[[New York Times]]|format=PDF |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=21 August 1916 |accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" /> The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.<ref name="Farr 147">[[#Farr|Farr]] p. 147</ref>

===Battle of Vimy Ridge===
{{main|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}

The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.<ref name="Cook 120">[[#Cook|Cook]] p. 120</ref> The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.<ref name = "Nicholson 229">[[#Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 229</ref> Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.<ref name="Turner 39">[[#Turner|Turner]] p. 39</ref> The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.<ref name="Williams 149">[[#Williams|Williams]] p. 149</ref>

[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines{{spaced ndash}}Black, Red, Blue and Brown. |alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]
The attack began at 5:30 am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[Barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|100|yd|m}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<ref name="Cook 117">[[#Cook|Cook]] p. 117</ref> The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]] and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.<ref name="Nicholson 254">[[#Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 254</ref> The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.<ref name="Nicholson 254" /> The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Canadian Division captured their second objective by approximately 7:30 am.<ref name="Nicholson 255">[[#Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 255</ref><ref name="Campbell 178-179">[[#Campbell|Campbell]] pp. 178–179</ref><ref name="Hayes 200">[[#Hayes|Hayes]] p. 200</ref> The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.<ref name="Hayes 202-203">[[#Hayes|Hayes]] pp. 202–203</ref> Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill 145 to withdraw.<ref name="Godefroy 220">[[#Godefroy|Godefroy (2007a)]] p. 220</ref>{{#tag:ref|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds and grenades.<ref name="Sheldon 300">[[#Sheldon2|Sheldon]] p. 309</ref>|group="Note"}}

On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.<ref name="Campbell 179">[[#Campbell|Campbell]] pp. 179</ref> The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00 am.<ref name="Campbell 179-181">[[#Campbell|Campbell]] pp. 179–181</ref> By 2:00 pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.<ref name="Campbell 182">[[#Campbell|Campbell]] p. 182</ref> By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.<ref name="Godefroy 220" /> On 12 April, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.<ref name="Nicholson 263">[[#Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 263</ref> By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.<ref name="Nicholson 263"/> The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.<ref name="Moran 139">[[#Moran|Moran]] p. 139</ref> The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties with an approximate 4,000 men becoming [[prisoners of war]].<ref name="Gibbs">{{cite news| first=Philip |last=Gibbs |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF |title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans |newspaper=New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |format=PDF |date=11 April 1917 |accessdate= 14 November 2009}}</ref>

The Battle of Vimy Ridge has considerable significance for Canada.<ref name="Inglis 1">[[#Inglis|Inglis]] p. 1</ref> Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement gave the battle importance.<ref name="Vance 233">[[#Vance|Vance]] p. 233</ref> According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."<ref name="Pierce 5">[[#Pierce|Pierce]] p. 5</ref> The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.<ref name="Inglis 2">[[#Inglis|Inglis]] p. 2</ref><ref name="Humphries 66">[[#Humphries|Humphries]] p. 66</ref>

==History==
===Selection===
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions.|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone walled room.]]
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.<ref name="Busch 205">[[#Busch|Busch]] p. 205</ref>{{#tag:ref|The eight sites were Vimy, Bourlon Wood, Le Quesnel, Dury and Courcelette in France, and St. Julien, Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood) and Passchendaele in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/>|group="Note"}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.<ref name="Busch 205">[[Canadian National Vimy Memorial#Busch|Busch]] p. 205</ref> In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.<ref name="Vance 66">[[#Vance|Vance]] p. 66</ref> The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web | title = Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=Memorials/can_battle_committee | accessdate = 12 January 2008}}</ref> Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings and the jury selected 17 submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref name="VAC Design Comp">{{cite web | title = Design Competition | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition | accessdate = 12 January 2008 }}</ref> In October 1921, the commission selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer Walter Seymour Allward as the winner of the competition, and that of Frederick Chapman Clemesha as runner-up.<ref name="Vance 66"/> The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.<ref name="Vance 67">[[#Vance|Vance]] p. 67</ref> The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—that of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.<ref name="Vance 67"/> At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.<ref name="Vance 66"/> Committee member and former Canadian Corps commander, Lieutenant-General [[Arthur Currie]] argued in favour of the government placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]].<ref name="Pierce 5"/><ref name="Hucker 283">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p. 283</ref> In the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site, largely because of its elevation above the plain below.<ref name="Vance 66–69">[[#Vance|Vance]] pp. 66–69</ref>

The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward’s design.<ref name="Inglis 61">[[#Inglis|Inglis]] p. 61</ref> In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.<ref name="Inglis 61"/> In December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|250|acre|ha}} of land on Vimy Ridge, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name="DFAIT">{{cite web | title = Canada Treaty Information | publisher = Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade | date = 26 February 2002 | url = http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.asp?id=102661 | accessdate = 4 January 2008}} {{Dead link|date=April 2012|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name="DFAIT"/>

===Memorial construction===
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|Laying the foundation of the memorial.|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.]]
In 1924, the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] hired Dr. Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, to prepare foundation plans as well as provide general supervision of the foundation work.<ref name="Hucker 285">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p. 285</ref> Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.<ref name="Durflinger 292">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 292</ref><ref name="Hucker 286"/> Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise the construction of the monument and the carving of the sculptures.<ref name="Pierce 6">[[#Pierce|Pierce]] p. 6</ref> Construction of the memorial commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts"/> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.<ref name="Pierce 6"/>

In June 1922, Allward set up a studio in [[London]], [[England]] and toured for almost two years in an attempt to find a stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity for the memorial.<ref name="Hucker 286">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p. 286</ref> He eventually found it in the ruins of the [[Diocletian's Palace]]. Allward observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, a fact that Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Allward's choice, Seget limestone, came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].<ref name="Fabijančić 127">[[#Fabijančić|Fabijančić]] p. 127</ref> The difficulties associated with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the stone, which consequently delayed construction of the memorial.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> The first shipment of stone did not arrive at the memorial site until 1927, and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.<ref name="Hucker 286"/>

While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line as well make the Grange Subway more accessible.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.<ref name="Hucker 286"/>

[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress.|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument; limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of a Seget limestone.<ref name="Picard">[[#Picard|Picard]] (online)</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 human figures on-site, from large blocks of stone. The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.<ref name="Busch 206">[[#Busch|Busch]] p. 206</ref> The carvers conducted their work year-round, inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref name="VAC construction">{{cite web |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/vmemory | title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |date=12 August 1998|accessdate=14 November 2009 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design and Allward was unhappy when the government subsequently asked him to include them.<ref name="Duffy 197">[[#Duffy|Duffy]] p. 197</ref>{{#tag:ref|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.<ref name="Duffy 197"/>|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.<ref name="Duffy 197"/> Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.<ref name="Duffy 197"/> The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.<ref name="Duffy 197"/> The task of inscribing the names did not begin until early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed specifically for the monument.<ref name="Hucker 286"/>

===Pilgrimage and unveiling===
[[Image:Vimy Dedication - aerial shot of ceremony.jpg|thumb|right|The dedication of the Vimy Memorial.|alt=A memorial ceremony. Thousands of people are surround the monument on all sides. A crowd of people are also standing on the main platform of the memorial.]]
In preparation for the 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage, the [[Government of Canada]] made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims, at no extra cost.<ref name = "MacIntyre 197">[[#MacIntyre|MacIntyre]] p. 197</ref> On 16 July 1936, five trans-Atlantic liners departed the port of [[Montreal]] for the unveiling of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in France.{{#tag:ref|The ships were the SS ''Montrose'', SS ''Montcalm'', SS ''Antonia'', SS ''Ascania'' and the SS ''Duchess of Bedford''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=feature/vimy90/media/backgrounders/1936dedication |title=Dedication of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher= Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref>|group="Note"}} About 6,400 people sailed on the five steamships from Canada and 1,365 Canadians came from England.<ref name = "MacIntyre 159">[[#MacIntyre|MacIntyre]] p. 159</ref> Edward VIII, in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|King of Canada]], officially unveiled the monument on 26 July 1936.<ref name="CITEREF_Bell_2007 139">[[#CITEREF_Bell_2007|Bell, Bousfield and Toffoli]] p. 139</ref><ref name="Foot">{{Cite news | last=Foot | first=Richard | title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own| newspaper=[[The Vancouver Sun]] | publication-place=Vancouver | date=4 April 2007 | page=A4 }}</ref><ref name="Lloyd 221">[[#Lloyd|Lloyd]] p. 221</ref> The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name="Foot"/> Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President Albert Lebrun, and over 50,000 Canadian, British, and French veterans and their families attended the event.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web | title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge — Fast Facts | url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/battle | work=VAC Canada Remembers | publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada | date=n.d. | accessdate=26 March 2009}}</ref> The ceremony included a guard of honour made of [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] officers, [[Royal Canadian Navy]] members with rifles, and flyovers by two Canadian squadrons and two French squadrons. Edward VIII gave a speech, starting in French and switching to English, thanking France for its generosity and assuring those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The king then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].<ref name="Morton 221">[[#Morton|Morton & Wright]] p. 221</ref>

===Second World War===
The general safety of the memorial was a cause for concern for the Canadian government. In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government’s level of concern.<ref name="Durflinger 292"/> Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments.<ref name="Durflinger 292"/> When war did break out, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.<ref name="Durflinger 292"/> In late May 1940, following the British retreat in the aftermath of the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown.<ref name="Durflinger 293">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 293</ref> The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.<ref name="Durflinger 300">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 300</ref>
The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in both Canada and the United Kingdom.<ref name="Durflinger 294">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 294</ref> The rumours eventually led the German [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to publish denials.<ref name="Durflinger 297">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 297</ref> [[Adolf Hitler]] even personally toured the Vimy Memorial and its preserved trenches on 2 June 1940, and was photographed doing so, to demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated.<ref>(2000). "Remembrance: The Canadian Unknown Soldier". In: ''After The Battle'', '''109'''. [[ISSN|ISSN 0306-154X]].</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not conclusively confirmed until September 1944 when the [[Welsh Guards]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.<ref name="Durflinger 298">[[#Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 298</ref>

===Restoration and rededication===
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits.|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]
In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major 30 million [[Canadian dollar]] restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name="Valpy">{{cite news |first=Micheal |last=Valpy | title=Setting a legend in stone |url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/archives/article752525.ece |work=[[Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=28 April 2009}}</ref><ref name="Hucker 288">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p. 288</ref> In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name="Valpy"/>

Time, wear and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive problem being water damage.<ref name="Valpy"/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.<ref name="Hucker 288"/> The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure.<ref name="Hucker 288"/> Over time, water entered the monument through its walls and platforms and coursed through the structure, dissolving lime from the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name="Valpy"/> As the water exited, it deposited lime on exterior surface walls obscuring many of the names inscribed on the memorial.<ref name="Hucker 288"/> Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant erosion and deterioration to the platform, terrace and stairs.<ref name="Valpy"/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of the deterioration and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs and platforms of the memorial.<ref name="Valpy"/>

Queen Elizabeth II, escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.<ref name="CITEREF_Bell_2007 140">[[#CITEREF_Bell_2007|Bell, Bousfield and Toffoli]] p.140</ref> Other senior Canadian officials, including [[Prime Minister of Canada|Canadian Prime Minister]] [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, such as [[Prime Minister of France|French Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]], attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV"/> The rededication ceremony comprised the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV">Tom Kennedy, CTV National News, 9 April 2007.</ref>

==Site==
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete.|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the trench lines of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.<ref name="Geology 216">[[#Geology|Rose & Nathanail]] p. 216</ref><ref name="Lloyd 120">[[#Lloyd|Lloyd]] p. 120</ref> The total area of the site is {{convert|250|acre|ha}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and unearthed unexploded munitions make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name="CWGC2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |title=Annual Report 2007-2008 | format=PDF |year=2008 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|page=16}}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.<ref name="Turner 7">[[#Turner|Turner]] p. 7</ref>

The site was founded to principally honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but also contains a number of other memorials. These include memorials dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]] and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission maintained cemeteries on site; [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref name="cwgc CCN2">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/search/cemetery_details.aspx?cemetery=2103985&mode=1 |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details - Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref><ref name="cwgc GRCC">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/search/cemetery_details.aspx?cemetery=68402&mode=1 |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details - Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast| accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref name="archeology 1">[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref name="VAC Museum">{{cite web| url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=22 March 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2009 }}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80 percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref name="VAC Restoration">{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project| url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=feature/vimy90/media/backgrounders/cbmrbackground |accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007}}</ref>

===Vimy memorial===
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|right|A design model of the memorial.|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background.]]
Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.<ref name="Busch 12">[[#Busch|Busch]] p. 12</ref> The memorial contains a large number of stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|24|ft|m}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.<ref name="Pierce 6"/> There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.<ref name="Brandon 10"/> The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.<ref name="Hucker 282"/> Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.<ref name="Hucker 282"/> There is a cannon barrel draped in laurel and olive branches carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize peace.<ref name="Brandon 10">[[#Brandon|Brandon]] p. 10</ref><ref name="Hopkins 188">[[#Hopkins|Hopkins]] p. 188</ref> In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.<ref name="Hucker 282"/> This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.<ref name="Bolling 310">[[#Bolling|Bolling]] p. 310</ref> This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.<ref name="Prost 316">[[#Prost|Prost]] p. 316</ref> The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.<ref name="Pierce 6"/> Allward later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.<ref name="Pierce 6"/> In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada’s sympathy for the weak and oppressed.<ref name = "MacIntyre 156">[[#MacIntyre|MacIntyre]] p. 156</ref>

[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial.|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name.]]
The figure of a cloaked young female stands on top of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. The woman has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level of the former battlefield is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]], a sword and draped in laurel branches.<ref name="Hucker 282">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p. 282</ref> The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.<ref name="Hucker 282"/>{{#tag:ref|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.<ref name="Hucker 286"/>|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.<ref name="Duffy 194">[[#Duffy|Duffy]] p. 194</ref> Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30 tonne block of stone.<ref name="Duffy 194"/> The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.<ref name="Duffy 194"/>

The twin pylons rise to a height 30 metres above the memorial's stone platform. The twin white pylons, one bearing the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France, symbolize the unity and sacrifice of both countries.<ref name="Brandon 10"/> At the top of the two pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name="Valpy"/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace''.<ref name="Brandon 13">[[#Brandon|Brandon]] p. 13</ref> ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.<ref name="Nicholson 33">[[#Nicholson 2|Nicholson (1973)]] p. 33</ref> The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].<ref name="Brandon 12">[[#Brandon|Brandon]] p. 12</ref> The figures of ''Hope'', ''Charity'', ''Honour'' and ''Faith'' are located below ''Justice'' and ''Peace'' on the eastern side, with ''Truth'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western side. Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain and France. Large crosses adorn the outside of each pylon.<ref name="Hopkins 188"/> The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments and a dedicatory inscription to Canada's war dead, in both French and English, also appear on the monument. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base between the two pylons.<ref name="Duffy 194"/> In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.<ref name="Duffy 194"/> In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'' by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.<ref name="Nicholson 33"/>

{{Quote box | quote =It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.<ref name="Mould Fonds 62-63">{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/english/on-line-exhibits/mould/vimy.aspx |accessdate=4 January 2010 |date=n.d. |publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>| source = King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech. | width = 30% | align =right}}
The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]], [[Italy]].<ref name="Brandon 12"/> Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France, and whose final resting place is unknown.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format. Allward sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name="Valpy"/> The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]] and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name="VCs">{{cite web| title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=feature/vimy90/media/backgrounders/vimyvc |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=31 November 2007 |accessdate=5 January 2010}}</ref>

{{Image gallery
|title=Elements of the Vimy Memorial
|lines=4
|width=125
|Vimy Memorial - Front Wall, Breaking of the Sword (postcard).jpg|A large limestone wall from an angled perspective. In the foreground is one grouping of statues and in the farground an additional group of statues. |The front wall representing an impenetrable wall of defence.
|Vimy3 tango7174.jpg|A statue of four people. One man stands tall and erect while three other figures are crouched and kneeling around him.|''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless''.
|Vimy2 tango7174.jpg|A statue of three muscular young men. Two men are standing and one is crouching and breaking a sword.|''Breaking of the Swords''
|Vimy Memorial - Canons.JPG|The mouth of a cannon draped in laurel carved into the upper edge of a stone wall.|Cannons covered in laurel further symbolizing peace.
|Canadian National Vimy Memorial - .Mother Canada.JPG|A statue of a mourning cloaked young woman. In one hand she has a bunch of laurel and holds her chin in the other hand.| ''Mother Canada'' mourning her dead.
|Vimy Memorial - Sarcophagus.jpg|A sword, army helmet and laurel sit on top of a stone sarcophagus that is located in front of a stone wall.|The stone sarcophagus representing Canada's war dead.
|Vimy Memorial - Spirit of Sacrifice figure.jpg|A gaunt man stands in a crucifixion pose. Behind him, a man stands holding a torch aloft. Both men stand between two large stone towers.|The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' passing the torch.
|Vimy1 tango7174.jpg|Two stone towers. A grouping of statues are located at the base between the two towers and at the top of each tower.|The twin pylons representing France and Canada, partners in arms.
|Vimy Memorial - Chorus western side (black and white).jpg|Angelic figures located near the top of two stone pylons.|The statues of ''The Chorus'' on the western side: ''Truth'' and ''Knowledge''.
|Canadian National Vimy Memorial - male defender.JPG|A reclined male statue. The head of the half-naked figure sits in its right hand while its left hand sits on its knee.| ''Mourning Parents'': the male.
|Canadian National Vimy Memorial - female defender (colour).JPG|A reclined topless female statue that is visibly upset. Her hands fiddle with the sheet that covers her from her waist to her feet.|''Mourning Parents'': the female.
|Vimy Memorial - names (black and white).JPG|A stone wall full of carved names.|Names of the missing carved on the memorial walls.
}}

===Moroccan Division Memorial===
[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the members of the French Moroccan Division killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.<ref name="Boire 56"/> General Victor d'Urbal, commander of the French Tenth Army, sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette.<ref name="Simkins 48">[[#Simkins|Simkins]] p. 48</ref> When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Corps made significant territorial gains.<ref name="Simkins 48"/> The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.<ref name="Doughty 159">[[#Doughty|Doughty]] p. 159</ref> The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.<ref name="Boire 56"/> Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.<ref name="Doughty 159"/>

===Grange Subway===
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely and unseen.<ref name="Geology 398">[[#Geology|Rose & Nathanail]] p. 398</ref> A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.<ref name="Turner 90">[[#Turner|Turner]] p. 90</ref>

The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.<ref name="Geology 398"/> As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been an active feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.<ref name="Geology 398"/> In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12 subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.<ref name="Barton 200"/> The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10 metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.<ref name="Barton 200">[[#Barton|Barton]] p. 200</ref> The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.<ref name="Geology 398"/> This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.<ref name="Barton 200"/>

===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===
[[File:Vimy Ridge - Watkins memorial.JPG|thumb|Memorial plaque to Lieutenant Colonel Michael Watkins, MBE]]
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment (United Kingdom)|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistics Corps]] and a leading British [[Bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Beaver |title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html |work=[[The Independent]] |date=14 August 1998 |accessdate=26 April 2009 |location=[[London]]}}</ref> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/>

===Georges Devloo===
The memorial site is accessible by car, taxi and tour bus, but not by public transport. Canadians looking for transportation used to be able to get rides from a senior resident of Vimy, Georges Devloo. Known as the Grandpa of Vimy to the Canadian guides, he would offer car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen |last=Harris |newspaper=[[London Free Press]]| publisher=Sum Media Corp |title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets |accessdate=10 February 2009 |date=13 November 2009}}</ref> Devloo died in February 2009; he had been giving free rides to Canadians for 13 years.<ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne |last=Arsenault
|url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref>

==Sociocultural influence==

The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely published in military and general histories of Canada.<ref name="Inglis 2" /><ref name="Humphries 66"/> Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].<ref name="Thomas">[[#Thomas|Thomas]] p. 5–27</ref> Meanwhile, Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole of the First World War, while concurrently expressing the enormous impact of war in general.<ref name="Hucker 280">[[#Hucker|Hucker]] p.280</ref> Hucker also suggest that the most recent restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.<ref name="Hucker 280"/>

[[Image:Ghosts of Vimy Ridge.jpeg|225px|left|thumb|''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'' by Will Longstaff|alt=A crowd of dark and ghostly soldiers are scattered on a hill of churned ground, shell holes and general battlefield detritus. A memorial, painted in white, is located at the top of the hill.]]The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as a National Historic Site of Canada; it was so designated, one of only two outside of Canada, in 1997.<ref name="VAC NHS">{{cite web |url=http://vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/vimycerm | title=Canadian National Historic Site Designation |date=9 September 1999 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name="longstaff">{{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes.asp |title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate) |date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010 |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref name="Tomb design">{{cite web |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=Memorials/tomb/thetomb/tombconstruct |title=Designing and Constructing |series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier |date= 5 May 2000 |accessdate=8 January 2010 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref>

A 2001 Canadian [[bestseller|bestselling]] [[historical novel]] ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'' by [[Jane Urquhart]] involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial. In 2007, the memorial was a short listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref name="CBC 7WoC">{{cite web| title=Vimy Memorial, France |url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html |accessdate= 7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |date=n.d }}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on a number of occasions, including a 5 cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30 dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian military [[Military awards and decorations|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref name="SM web">{{cite web |title=New military medal to honour combat casualties |url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/08/29/sacrifice-medal.html?ref=rss&Authorized=1&AuthenticationKey=1_45_4c64df9a-89f8-4b1a-94ac-8efd26447be0.pakdllcidpafph |date=29 August 2008 |accessdate= 7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent bas relief sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref name="FR embassy">{{cite web| title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit |url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm |date=January 2004 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Embassy of France in Canada }}</ref>

The Vimy Memorial is featured on the backside of the new Canadian polymer $20 bill to be released by the Bank of Canada in November 2012. <ref name="CTV $20 Bill">{{cite web| title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/TopStories/20120506/twenty-dollar-bill-120506/ |accessdate= 6 May 2012 |publisher=CTV |date=n.d }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[World War I memorials]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="Note"}}

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== References ==
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
*{{cite book |title= Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914-1918 |last= Barton | first=Peter | coauthors= Doyle, Peter; Vandewalle, Johan |year= 2004 |publisher= McGill-Queen's University Press|location= Montreal & Kingston | isbn = 0-7735-2949-7|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=wLZjfmkh3jYC&lpg=PP1&dq=Beneath%20Flanders%20Fields%3A%20The%20Tunnellers'%20War%201914-1918&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Barton
}}
*{{cite book| last1=Bell| first1=Lynne| last2=Bousfield |first2=Arthur |last3=Toffoli |first3=Gary| title=Queen and Consort:Elizabeth and Philip - 60 Years of Marriage| publisher=Dundurn Press| year=2007| location=Toronto| url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=sqFPntVyzK4C&lpg=PP1&dq=Queen%20and%20Consort%3AElizabeth%20and%20Philip%20-%2060%20Years%20of%20Marriage&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true| isbn=978-1-55002-725-9|ref=CITEREF_Bell_2007
}}
*{{cite journal |last = Boire |first = Michael| title = The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 15–24| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf| accessdate = 2 January 2009 |format=PDF|ref=Boire
}}
*{{cite book |last = Boire |first = Michael| year = 2007 | contribution = The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914-1916 | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =51–61 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PP1&dq=Vimy%20Ridge%3A%20A%20Canadian%20Reassessment&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Boire2
}}
*{{cite book |last = Bolling |first = Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers|pages=295–318 | title= Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor-last=Antor |editor-first = Heinz | editor2-last = Brown | editor2-first = Sylvia | editor3-last = Considine | editor3-first = John | editor4-last = Stierstorfer | editor4-first = Klaus|year= 2003 |publisher= de Gruyter|location= Berlin | isbn = 978-3-11-017666-7|url=http://books.google.com/?id=CEocfbvIMMMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Refractions+of+Germany+in+Canadian+Literature+and+Culture#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Bolling
}}
*{{cite book| title= Art or memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art|last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 | publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1|ref=Brandon
}}
*{{cite book| title= Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |last=Busch |first=Briton Cooper |year=2003| publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=LLKqAyUl6TAC&lpg=PP1&dq=Canada%20and%20the%20Great%20War%3A%20Western%20Front%20Association%20Papers&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Busch
}}
*{{cite book | last = Campbell | first = David | year = 2007 | contribution = The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =171–192 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PA171&dq=The%202nd%20Canadian%20Division%3A%20A%20'Most%20Spectacular%20Battle'&pg=PA171#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Campbell
}}
*{{cite book | last = Cook | first = Tim | year = 2007 | contribution = The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike | title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =105–124 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PA171&dq=The%202nd%20Canadian%20Division%3A%20A%20'Most%20Spectacular%20Battle'&pg=PA105#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Cook
}}
*{{cite book| last=Doughty| first=Robert A.| title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War|year=2005| publisher=Belknap Press|publication-place =Cambridge and London|isbn=0-674-01880-X|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=vZRmHkdGk44C&lpg=PP1&dq=Pyrrhic%20Victory%3A%20French%20Strategy%20and%20Operation%20in%20the%20Great%20War&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Doughty
}}
*{{cite journal |last = Duffy |first = Denis| title = Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward | journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–206| publisher = Routledge | date = Summer 2008 | url = http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb009/is_2_38/ai_n29452626/| accessdate = 1 June 2009 |doi = 10.1080/02722010809481708|ref=Duffy
}}
*{{cite book |last = Durflinger |first = Serge| year = 2007 | contribution = Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War| editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =291–305 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=Durflinger
}}
*{{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first= Tony |year= 2003 |publisher= University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=sppa_IWNmosC&printsec=frontcover |accessdate = 2 January 2009|ref=Fabijančić
}}
*{{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first= Don |year= 2007 |publisher= Helion & Company Limited |location= Solihull |isbn=187462299|ref=Farr|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=70hVl257oPIC&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20Silent%20General%3A%20A%20Biography%20of%20Haig's%20Trusted%20Great%20War%20Comrade-in-Arms&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true
}}
*{{cite book |last = Godefroy |first = Andrew| authorlink=Andrew Godefroy| year = 2007 | contribution = The German Army at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =225–238 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PA171&dq=The%202nd%20Canadian%20Division%3A%20A%20'Most%20Spectacular%20Battle'&pg=PA225#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Godefroy
}}
*{{cite book |last = Hayes |first = Geoffrey| year = 2007 | contribution = The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =193–210 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PA171&dq=The%202nd%20Canadian%20Division%3A%20A%20'Most%20Spectacular%20Battle'&pg=PA193#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Hayes
}}
*{{cite book|title= Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement|last= Hopkins|first= J. Castell|year= 1919|publisher= Canadian Annual Review|location= Toronto|ref=Hopkins
}}
*{{cite book |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline|year = 2007 | contribution = The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =279–290 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&lpg=PA171&dq=The%202nd%20Canadian%20Division%3A%20A%20'Most%20Spectacular%20Battle'&pg=PA279#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Hucker
}}
*{{cite book|last = Humphries|first = Mark Osborne| year = 2007| contribution = "Old Wine in New Bottles": A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| publication-place = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =65–85| isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=Humphries}}
*{{cite book|last= Inglis|first= Dave| title = Vimy Ridge: 1917-1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years| year = 1995| publisher=Simon Fraser University| location=Burnaby|url =http://ir.lib.sfu.ca/bitstream/1892/8002/1/b17448906.pdf| accessdate = 2 February 2009|ref=Inglis
}}
*{{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first= David |year= 1998 |publisher= Berg Publishing |location= Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0|ref=Lloyd
}}
*{{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first= David |year= 1967 |publisher= Peter Martin Associates |location= Toronto|ref=MacIntyre
}}
*{{cite book |last = Moran |first = Heather| year = 2007 | contribution = The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =139–154 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=Moran
}}
*{{cite book | last1=Morton | first1=Desmond | first2=Glenn | last2=Wright | title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915-1930 | publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=Morton
}}
*{{cite book |title= Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1962 |publisher= Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location= Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf | format=PDF |accessdate = 1 January 2007| ref=Nicholson}}
*{{cite book |title= “We will remember…”: Overseas Memorials to Canada’s War Dead |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location= Ottawa|ref=”Nicholson 2”
}}
*{{cite news | last=Picard | first=Andréa | title=Restoring Loss at Vimy |periodical =Canadian Architect | publication-date=May 2006 | url=http://www.cdnarchitect.com/issues/ISArticle.asp?aid=1000204056&issue=05012006 |publisher=Business Information Group |accessdate = 1 August 2009|ref=Picard
}}
*{{cite journal |last = Pierce |first = John| title = Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial| journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 4–14| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf| accessdate = 2 February 2009|format=PDF|ref=Pierce
}}
*{{cite book |last = Prost |first = Antoine| year = 1997 | contribution = Monuments to the Dead | editor-last = Nora | editor-first = Pierre | editor2-last = Kritzman | editor2-first = Lawrence | editor3-last = Goldhammer | editor3-first = Arthur | title = Realms of memory: the construction of the French past | publication-place = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | pages =307–332| isbn = 0-231-10634-3|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=_Va9svbIgLwC&lpg=PP1&dq=Realms%20of%20memory%3A%20the%20construction%20of%20the%20French%20past%201997&pg=PA307#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Prost
}}
*{{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1= Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year= 2000 |publisher= Geological Society |location= London |isbn=0-85052-463-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=OEdlfb1VnMUC&lpg=PP1&dq=Geology%20and%20Warfare%3A%20Examples%20of%20the%20Influence%20of%20Terrain%20and%20Geologists%20on%20Military%20Operations&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Geology
}}
*{{cite book| title= Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996| publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2|ref=Samuels}}
*{{cite journal |last = Saunders |first = Nicholas| title =Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001| journal = Antiquity | volume = 76 | issue = 291 | pages = 101–108| publisher = Portland Press| year = 2002 |ref=Saunders
}}
*{{cite book|title= The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914-1917|last= Sheldon| first= Jack|year= 2008|publisher= Pen & Sword Military|location= Barnsley (UK)| isbn = 978-1-84415-680-1|ref=Sheldon2}}
*{{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917-1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=EB3ABsBOAgYC&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20First%20World%20War%3A%20The%20Western%20Front%2C%201917-1918&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Simkins}}
*{{cite journal| first=Denise | last=Thomas |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918-1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995-1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3683/is_199501/ai_n8719631/pg_5/|ref=Thomas
}}
*{{cite book| title= The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia| editor-last = Tucker| editor-first = Spencer| year=1996| publisher= Garland Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0-8153-0399-8|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=EHI3PCjDtsUC&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20European%20powers%20in%20the%20First%20World%20War%3A%20an%20encyclopedia&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Tucker}}
*{{cite book| title= Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander| year=2005| publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5|ref=Turner
}}
*{{cite book| title= Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997| publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3wABF2KyvXEC&lpg=PP1&dq=Death%20So%20Noble%3A%20Memory%2C%20Meaning%2C%20and%20the%20First%20World%20War&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true|ref=Vance
}}
*{{cite book|title= Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General|last= Williams|first= Jeffery|year= 1983|publisher= Secker & Warburg|location= London| isbn = 0-436-57110-2|ref=Williams
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}
{{commons category|Canadian National Vimy Memorial}}
* [http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy Vimy Memorial—Veteran Affairs Canada]
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/newsinreview/may07/PDFs/vimy.pdf CBC: Remembering Vimy Ridge]
* [http://archives.cbc.ca/war_conflict/first_world_war/topics/203-1006/ CBC Archives: King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony]

{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}
{{NHSC}}

{{good article}}

[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]
[[Category:First World War in the Pas-de-Calais]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada]]
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]

[[es:Memorial canadiense de Vimy]]
[[fr:Mémorial de Vimy]]
[[nl:Canadian National Vimy Memorial]]
[[ru:Вимийский мемориал]]

Roger Cloud

2012-05-12T05:59:00Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

'''Roger Cloud''' (1909 in [[DeGraff, Ohio]] – April 20, 1988, in [[Columbus, Ohio]]), was an [[United States of America|American]] politician of the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] party.

Cloud attended high school in his native DeGraff, graduating in 1926 as his class's [[valedictorian]]. {{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}

Having worked as a farmer and a factory worker, Cloud won election to the local school board in DeGraff. In 1940, he won office as a county commissioner in [[Logan County, Ohio]]. He served in this office from 1941 to 1949.

In 1948, Cloud ran successfully for a seat in the [[Ohio House of Representatives]], serving from 1949. Cloud held the office of [[List of Speakers of the Ohio House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]] from 1955 to 1959 and from 1961 to 1967.

In 1965, [[Ohio State Auditor]] [[Roger Tracy]] died and Governor [[Jim Rhodes|James A. Rhodes]] appointed [[Chester W. Goble]] as a temporary replacement. Rhodes chose Cloud to complete Tracy's term as auditor and in 1966, Cloud was elected to the position and served in that office from 1967 to 1971.

In 1970, Cloud was nominated for [[Governor of Ohio]] as incumbent [[Jim Rhodes]] was term-limited. He defeated Congressman [[Buz Lukens|Donald "Buz" Lukens]] in the primary, but lost to Democrat [[John J. Gilligan]]. That year the Ohio Republican Party was caught up in the "Crofters" scandal where the Republican state treasurer, [[John D. Herbert|John Herbert]], had invested state money in improper investments with a big campaign contributor. After this defeat, Cloud retired from politics.

Cloud's wife was the former Llewellyn DeWeese; they were married in 1934.

==References==
James Roger Sharp and Nancy Weatherly Sharp, ''American Legislative Leaders in the Midwest, 1911-1994'' (Greenwood Press, 1997) ISBN 0-313-30214-6 p. 88 [http://books.google.com/books?id=uAYnZlEk-iEC&pg=PA88&dq=%22roger+cloud%22+ohio+speaker&sig=VXJvvYglQ_ktZZSSHEMEbBEvF3I]

==See also==
* [[Election Results, Ohio Governor]]
* [[Election Results, Ohio State Auditor]]
{{OHStateAuditor}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Cloud, Roger
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American politician
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1909
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = April 20, 1988
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cloud, Roger}}
[[Category:1909 births]]
[[Category:1988 deaths]]
[[Category:Speakers of the Ohio House of Representatives]]
[[Category:State Auditors of Ohio]]
[[Category:Ohio Republicans]]

Umtanum Ridge Water Gap

2012-05-12T05:57:38Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

[[Image:Umptanum Ridge Water Gap.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Yakima River as it discharges from the Yakima River Canyon.]]
[[Image:Umptanum Ridge Water Gap.jpg IMG 0950A.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Fly fishing from drift boat on the Yakima River in the Yakima River Canyon.]]

'''Umtanum Ridge Water Gap''' is a geologic feature in central [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] State in the [[United States]].

The Umtanum Ridge Water is a [[water gap]] cut by the [[Yakima River]] through [[Manastash Ridge|Manastash]] and [[Umtanum Ridge]] [[anticline]]s, which are part of the [[Columbia Plateau (ecoregion)#Yakima Folds (10g)|Yakima Fold Belt]] near the western edge of the [[Columbia River Plateau]] located in central Washington. This [[National Natural Landmark]] is characterized by a series of steep-sided ridges in the [[Columbia River Basalt Group|Columbia River basalt]] which are cut through axially by the Yakima River. It is also referred to as the ''Yakima River Canyon'', and is located between the cities of [[Ellensburg, Washington|Ellensburg]] and [[Yakima, Washington|Yakima]]. [[Washington State Route 821]], originally the main route between Ellensburg and Yakima, parallels the river through the canyon.<ref name="B2000">Babcock (2000)</ref><ref name="B2002">Pub:Benchmark (2002)</ref>

==Geologic history==
[[Image:View north from Umtanum Ridge into Yakima Canyon 0960.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A view north from Umtanum Ridge into the Yakima River Canyon from the west of the Yakima River.]]
The great basalt flows of the Columbia Basin and of the Ellensburg Formation, in some places over 5000 meters (17,000 feet) thick, have been [[Fold (geology)|folded]] into ridges ([[anticline]]s) and valleys ([[syncline]]s) running roughly east-west as a result of north-south compression. On its way to join the Columbia River, the Yakima River cuts from the Kittitas Valley southward through four major ridges formed by this compression: the Manastash Ridge, the Umtanum Ridge, the [[Yakima Ridge]], and the [[Ahtanum Ridge]] to reach the Yakima Valley.<ref name="B2000" /><ref name="B2002" />

[[Image:View south from Umptanum Ridge into Yakima Canyon 0961.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A view south from Umtanum Ridge into the Yakima Canyon.]]
The highest ridge through which the Yakima flows, the Umtanum Ridge, rises to 983 meters (3225 feet) within 1 km of the river, which lies at about 470 meters (1542 feet) in elevation at the closest point. This unusual juxtaposition (rivers cutting through ridges rather than flowing through apparently more favorable routes) is an example of ''geologic precedence''. The ancient Yakima River is believed to have been there, flowing southward above the relatively flat basalt layers. As the layers compressed, the anticlines slowly rose. The river continued to follow its historic course, cutting downward through the basalt to maintain a relative level. This view is supported by the significant meanders found in the canyon today; when a river has [[meander]]s, they tend to be preserved in rock as the river eats into a rising anticline.<ref name="B2000" /><ref name="B2002" />

==Locations==
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
|-
! Location<ref name="B2002" />
! Coordinates
|-
|Manastash Ridge
|{{coord|46|51|27|N|120|23|00|W|}}
|-
|Umtanum Ridge at the point where it bifurcates into north & south ridges
|{{coord|46|51|00|N|120|32|40|W|}}
|-
|Umtanum Water Gap of the Yakima Canyon
|{{coord|46|48|38|N|120|26|40|W|}}
|}

==References==
[[Image:May 2008 Yakima River Canyon from the North IMG 1404.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A view from the north near [[Ellensburg, Washington]] toward the Yakima Canyon.]]
{{Reflist|2}}

==Literature==
* {{cite book | last =Allen | first =John Eliot | coauthors =Burns, Marjorie and Sargent, Sam C. | title =Cataclysms on the Columbia : a layman's guide to the features produced by the catastrophic Bretz floods in the Pacific Northwest | publisher =Timber Press | date =c1986 | location =Portland, OR | pages =104 | isbn =0-88192-067-3}}
* {{cite book|author=Alt, David and Hyndman, Donald|isbn=0-87842-160-2|location= |title=Roadside Geology of Washington|year=1984|publisher=Mountain Press Publishing Company}}
* {{cite book|first=David|last=Alt|isbn=0-87842-415-6|location= |title=Glacial Lake Missoula & its Humongous Floods|year=2001|publisher=Mountain Press Publishing Company}}
* {{cite book |last=Babcock |first=Scott |coauthors =& Carson, Bob | title =Hiking Washington's Geology| publisher =The Mountaineers | year =2000|isbn=0-89886-548-4}}
*{{cite book|author=Bjornstad, Bruce|title=On the Trail of the Ice Age Floods: A Geological Guide to the Mid-Columbia Basin |publisher=Keokee Books; San Point, Idaho |year=2006|isbn=0-89886-548-4}}
*{{cite book|first=J Harlen|last=Bretz|id=ISBN |location= |title=The Channeled Scabland of the Columbia Plateau.|year=1923|publisher= ''Journal of Geology'', v.31, p.617-649}}
* {{cite book | last =Mason | first =Charles L.| coauthors =| title = The Geological History of the Wenatchee Valley and Adjacent Vicinity| publisher =World Publishing Company | date =c2006 | location =Wenatchee, Washington | pages =| isbn =0-9719820-1-5 }}
*{{cite book|first=Ted and Marge|last=Mueller|isbn=0-89301-206-8|location= |title=Fire, Faults & Floods|year=1997|publisher=[[University of Idaho Press]], Moscow, Idaho}}
*{{cite book|first=|last=|id=ISBN |location= |title=Channeled Scabland of Eastern Washington:The Geologic Story of the Spokane Flood|year=1982|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C.}}
* {{cite book|first=|last=Benchmark|isbn=0-929591-53-4|location=Medford, Oregon |title= Washington Road and Recreation Atlas|year=2002|publisher=Benchmark Maps}}

[[Category:National Natural Landmarks in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Geology of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Landforms of Kittitas County, Washington]]
[[Category:Landforms of Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Landforms of Yakima County, Washington]]

Nagelbrett-Animation

2012-05-12T05:56:17Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs Dated {{Deletable image-caption}}. (Build KH)

{{For|the executive toy pinscreen|Pin Art}}

{{No footnotes|date=May 2010}}

'''Pinscreen animation''' makes use of a screen filled with movable pins, which can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen. The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel [[animation]].

==Origin==
The technique was developed by [[Alexandre Alexeieff and Claire Parker|Alexandre Alexeïeff]] and his wife [[Alexandre Alexeieff and Claire Parker|Claire Parker]] who were often guests of the [[National Film Board of Canada]]. They made a total of 6 very short films with it, over a period of fifty years. Despite the short running time and the monochrome nature of these films, they won numerous awards over the years.

On August 7, 1972, Alexeïeff and Parker demonstrated the pinscreen to a group of animators at the [[National Film Board of Canada]]. This demonstration was filmed, and released by the NFB as ''Pin Screen''. This film, along with "Pinscreen Tests" (1961), appear on disc 7 of the ''[[Norman McLaren]]: The Master's Edition'' DVD collection.

Until his retirement in 2005, the National Film Board's [[Jacques Drouin]] remained involved in pinscreen animation. Drouin's pinscreen work included the 1976 film ''[[Mindscape/Le paysagiste]]''.<ref name=Furniss>{{cite book|last=Furniss|first=Maureen|title=Art in Motion: Animation Aesthetics|year=1998|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|isbn=978-1-86462-039-9|pages=54–57|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=aQ4mrirF5nkC&pg=PA55&dq=mindscape+drouin&hl=en&sa=X&ei=t6Q9T_3UHKbB0QGJz6isBw&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=mindscape%20drouin&f=false|authorlink=Maureen Furniss|accessdate=17 February 2012|month=December}}</ref> The most recent NFB animator to use the medium is Michèle Lemieux, with her 2012 film ''Here and the Great Elsewhere.''<ref name=here>{{cite web|title=Here and the Great Elsewhere|url=http://www.onf-nfb.gc.ca/eng/collection/film/?id=58938|work=Collection|publisher=National Film Board of Canada|accessdate=17 February 2012}}</ref>

[[Ward Fleming]] patented the vertical three-dimensional image screen, a toy which to date has sold more than 50 million pieces worldwide.<ref>
[http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=4,654,989.PN.&OS=PN/4,654,989&RS=PN/4,654,989 United State Patent]</ref>

==The pinscreen device==
A pinscreen is a white screen that consists of thousands and thousands of pins in small holes. Light shines from the side of this platform causing each and every single pin to cast its own shadow. Each pin, being able to slide easily back and forth through the holes, can cast different shadows. The white screen becomes darker the farther the pins are pushed out. The more the pins are pushed in, the lighter the screen becomes, giving a grayish tone and eventually an all white screen again.

Smaller, cheaper models have since been developed as a 5×7 inch toy version called "[[Pin Art]]", sometimes sold in Science museums or through the Web and printed catalogs.

==The animation technique==
According to Claire Parker, the images created by the pinscreen made it possible to make an animated movie which escaped from the flat, "comic" aspect of cel animation and plunged instead into the dramatic and the poetic by the exploitation of [[chiaroscuro]], or shading effects. To obtain the desired gray tones that are cast from the shadows of the pins, several methods are used.

The original pinscreen used by Alexeïeff had 240,000 pins which were usually pressed with a small tool, one pin at a time or with other specialized instruments. Frames are created one at a time, each frame modifying the one previous to itself. After each frame has been photographed, the images are strung together to create an image without pauses. The pin and frame assembly was built very solidly and mounted in a secure fashion to offer a stable image to the animation camera day after day, week after week as each image of the movie was painstakingly composed.


This form of animation is extremely time consuming and difficult to execute, rendering it the least popular method of animation. An additional reason for its unpopularity is its expensive nature. Individually, the pins are relatively cheap; however, it is not uncommon that a million or more may be used to complete a single screen, quickly increasing the cost for manufacture.

==Digital pinscreen animation==
Because of the cost and labor-intensive animation process, several computer programs have been made with the goal of simulating the images generated by a physical pinscreen.

One of the advantages of using digital pinscreen animation is the recovery of images. With the traditional pinscreen, there is no way to recover a previous image except for creating it all over again with no guarantee of precision. With digital pinscreen, the same image can be retrieved and altered without having to be recreated.

==See also==
* [[Refreshable Braille display]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www3.nfb.ca/animation/objanim/en/techniques/pinscreen.php National Film Board of Canada – Overview of the pinscreen animation technique]
** Watch [http://www.nfb.ca/film/Mindscape ''Mindscape''] and [http://www.nfb.ca/film/here_great_elsewhere_trailer/ a trailer for ''Here and the Great Elsewhere''] at NFB.ca
* ''[http://www.writer2001.com/lopes.htm The Pinscreen in the Era of the Digital Image]'' by Pedro Faria Lopes
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20080328121013/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567360/Animation.html Encarta Article on Animation]
* [http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Alexandre+Alexeieff Pinscreen animations by Alexandre Alexeieff] at [[YouTube]]

{{Animation}}

[[Category:Animation techniques]]
[[Category:Stop motion]]
[[Category:Pinscreen animation]]

[[cs:Špendlíkové plátno]]
[[es:Animación de pantalla de agujas]]
[[fr:Écran d'épingles]]
[[ru:Игольчатый экран]]

Designmatrix

2012-05-12T05:49:10Z

Helpful Pixie Bot: ISBNs (Build KH)

In [[statistics]], a '''design matrix''' is a [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] of [[explanatory variable]]s, often denoted by '''X''', that is used in certain statistical models, e.g., the [[general linear model]].<ref>Everitt,B.S. (2002) ''Cambridge Dictionary of Statistics'', CUP. ISBN 0-521-91099-X {{Please check ISBN|reason=Check digit (X) does not correspond to calculated figure.}}</ref><ref>[[George E. P. Box|Box, G.E.P.]], Tiao, G.C. (1973) ''Bayesian Inference in Statistical Analysis'', Wiley. ISBN 0-471-57427-7 {{Please check ISBN|reason=Check digit (7) does not correspond to calculated figure.}} (Section 8.1.1)</ref>
It can contain [[indicator variable]]s (ones and zeros) that indicate group membership in an [[ANOVA]].

The design matrix represents the [[independent variable]]s in statistical models which describe observed data (often called [[dependent variables]]) in terms of other known variables (explanatory variables). The theory relating to such models makes substantial use of matrix manipulations involving the design matrix: see for example [[linear regression]]. A notable feature of the concept of a design matrix is that it is able to represent a number of different experimental designs and statistical models, e.g., [[ANOVA]], [[ANCOVA]], and [[linear regression]].

==Definition==
In a regression model, written in matrix-vector form as
:<math>y=X\beta+ \epsilon,</math>
the matrix ''X'' is the design matrix.

==Examples==
===Simple Regression===
Example of [[Simple linear regression|simple linear regression]] with 7 observations.
Suppose there are 7 data points {''y''''i'', ''x''''i''}, where ''i'' = 1, 2, …, 7. The model simple linear regression model is
: <math> y_i = \beta_0 + \beta_1 x_i +\epsilon_i, \,</math>
where <math> \beta_0 </math> is the y-intercept and <math>\beta_1</math> is the slope of the regression line. This model can be represented in matrix form as
:<math>
\begin{bmatrix}y_1 \\ y_2 \\ y_3 \\ y_4 \\ y_5 \\ y_6 \\ y_7 \end{bmatrix}
=
\begin{bmatrix}1 & x_1 \\1 & x_2 \\1 & x_3 \\1 & x_4 \\1 & x_5 \\1 & x_6 \\ 1 & x_7 \end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix} \beta_0 \\ \beta_1 \end{bmatrix}
+
\begin{bmatrix} \epsilon_1 \\ \epsilon_2 \\ \epsilon_3 \\ \epsilon_4 \\ \epsilon_5 \\ \epsilon_6 \\ \epsilon_7 \end{bmatrix}
</math>
where the first column of ones in the design matrix represents the y-intercept term while the second column is the x-values associated with the y-value.

===Multiple Regression===
Example of [[Linear Regression|multiple regression]] with covariates <math>w_i</math> and <math>x_i</math>.
Again suppose that the data are 7 observations, and for each observed value to be predicted (<math>y_i</math>), there are two covariates that were also observed <math>w_i</math> and <math>x_i</math>. The model to be considered is
:<math> y_i = \beta_0 + \beta_1 w_i + \beta_2 x_i + \epsilon_i </math>
This model can be written in matrix terms as
:<math>
\begin{bmatrix}y_1 \\ y_2 \\ y_3 \\ y_4 \\ y_5 \\ y_6 \\ y_7 \end{bmatrix} =
\begin{bmatrix} 1 & w_1 & x_1 \\1 & w_2 & x_2 \\1 & w_3 & x_3 \\1 & w_4 & x_4 \\1 & w_5 & x_5 \\1 & w_6 & x_6 \\ 1& w_7 & x_7 \end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix} \beta_0 \\ \beta_1 \\ \beta_2 \end{bmatrix}
+
\begin{bmatrix} \epsilon_1 \\ \epsilon_2 \\ \epsilon_3 \\ \epsilon_4 \\ \epsilon_5 \\ \epsilon_6 \\ \epsilon_7 \end{bmatrix}
</math>

===One-way ANOVA (Cell Means Model)===
Example with a one-way analysis of variance ([[ANOVA]]) with 3 groups and 7 observations. The given data set has the first three observations belonging to the first group, the following two observations belong to the second group and the final two observations are from the third group.
If the model to be fit is just the mean of each group, then the model is
:<math> y_{ij} = \mu_i + \epsilon_{ij}</math>
which can be written
:<math>
\begin{bmatrix}y_1 \\ y_2 \\ y_3 \\ y_4 \\ y_5 \\ y_6 \\ y_7 \end{bmatrix} =
\begin{bmatrix}1 & 0 & 0 \\1 &0 &0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & 1\end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix}\mu_1 \\ \mu_2 \\ \mu_2 \end{bmatrix}
+
\begin{bmatrix} \epsilon_1 \\ \epsilon_2 \\ \epsilon_3 \\ \epsilon_4 \\ \epsilon_5 \\ \epsilon_6 \\ \epsilon_7 \end{bmatrix}
</math>
It should be emphasized that in this model <math>\mu_i</math> represents the mean of the <math>i</math>th group.
===One-way ANOVA (offset from reference group)===
The ANOVA model could be equivalently written as each group parameter <math>\tau_i</math> being an offset from some overall reference. Typically this reference point is taken to be one of the groups under consideration. This makes sense in the context of comparing multiple treatment groups to a control group and the control group is considered the "reference". In this example, group 1 was chosen to be the reference group. As such the model to be fit is
:<math> y_{ij} = \mu + \tau_i + \epsilon_{ij} </math>
with the constraint that <math>\tau_1</math> is zero.
:<math>
\begin{bmatrix}y_1 \\ y_2 \\ y_3 \\ y_4 \\ y_5 \\ y_6 \\ y_7 \end{bmatrix} =
\begin{bmatrix}1 &0 &0 \\1 &0 &0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 1\end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix}\mu \\ \tau_2 \\ \tau_3 \end{bmatrix}
+
\begin{bmatrix} \epsilon_1 \\ \epsilon_2 \\ \epsilon_3 \\ \epsilon_4 \\ \epsilon_5 \\ \epsilon_6 \\ \epsilon_7 \end{bmatrix}
</math>
In this model <math>\mu</math> is the mean of the reference group and <math>\tau_i</math> is the difference from group <math>i</math> to the reference group. <math>\tau_1</math> and is not included in the matrix because its difference from the reference group (itself) is necessarily zero.

==See also==
*[[Hat matrix]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Matrices]]
[[Category:Regression analysis]]
[[Category:Statistical terminology]]

[[ja:計画行列]]