https://de.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Heironymous+RoweWikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]2025-06-06T00:15:35ZBenutzerbeiträgeMediaWiki 1.45.0-wmf.4https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liste_der_Eintr%C3%A4ge_im_National_Register_of_Historic_Places_im_Hardin_County_(Tennessee)&diff=226397222Liste der Einträge im National Register of Historic Places im Hardin County (Tennessee)2022-09-23T00:09:39Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: new illustration, former illustration depicts "Pritchards landing site" in Catahoula Parish, LA - https://64parishes.org/entry/coles-creek-culture</p>
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<div>[[Datei:Map of Tennessee highlighting Hardin County.svg|mini|Lage des Hardin Countys in Tennessee]]<br />
Die '''Liste der Einträge im National Register of Historic Places im Hardin County''' in [[Tennessee]] führt die Bauwerke und historischen Stätten im [[Hardin County (Tennessee)|Hardin&nbsp;County]] auf, die in das [[National Register of Historic Places]] aufgenommen wurden.<ref>[http://www.nationalregisterofhistoricplaces.com/TN/Hardin/state.html Auszug aus dem National Register of Historic Places – Hardin County] Abgerufen am 18. September 2012</ref><br />
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== Derzeitige Einträge ==<br />
{{NRHP-Tabellenkopf|NRISref=2008b}}<br />
{{NRHP-Tabellenzeile<br />
|pos=1<br />
|refnum=77001274<br />
|type=NRHP<br />
|article=Cherry Mansion<br />
|name=Cherry Mansion<br />
|address=101 Main Street<br />
|city=[[Savannah (Tennessee)|Savannah]]<br />
|county=[[Hardin County (Tennessee)]]<br />
|date=1977<br />
|image=Cherry Mansion, 101 Main Street, Savannah (Hardin County, Tennessee).jpg<br />
|lat=35.225556<br />
|lon=-88.256667<br />
|region=US-TN<br />
|description=<!-- Description goes here --><br />
}}<br />
{{NRHP-Tabellenzeile<br />
|pos=2<br />
|refnum=91001594<br />
|type=NRHP<br />
|article=James Graham House<br />
|name=James Graham House<br />
|address=Kreuzung von TN 69 und Airport Road<br />
|city=Savannah<br />
|county=[[Hardin County (Tennessee)]]<br />
|date=1991<br />
|image=<br />
|lat=35.160833<br />
|lon=-88.217222<br />
|region=US-TN<br />
|description=<!-- Description goes here --><br />
}}<br />
{{NRHP-Tabellenzeile<br />
|pos=3<br />
|refnum=80003832<br />
|type=HD<br />
|article=Savannah Historic District (Savannah, Tennessee)<br />
|name=Savannah Historic District<br />
|address=Einzelne Gebäude in der Main Street, Deford Street, Guinn Street, Church Street, College Street, Williams Street und Cook Street sowie 410 und 506 Main Street; weiteres Gebiet zwischen College Street, Main Street, Tennessee Street und Williams Street<br />
|city=Savannah<br />
|county=[[Hardin County (Tennessee)]]<br />
|date=1980<br />
|image=Savannah Historic District, Irregular pattern along Main, Deford, Guinn, Church, College, Williams and Cook Sts 12.JPG<br />
|lat=35.227222<br />
|lon=-88.249722<br />
|region=US-TN<br />
|description=Das Gebiet wurde 1993 und 2009 erweitert<br />
}}<br />
{{NRHP-Tabellenzeile<br />
|pos=4<br />
|refnum=79000279<br />
|type=NHL<br />
|article=Shiloh National Military Park<br />
|name=Shiloh Indian Mounds Site<br />
|address=Östlich von Hurley im [[Shiloh National Military Park]]<br />
|city=[[Hurley (Tennessee)|Hurley]]<br />
|county=[[Hardin County (Tennessee)]]<br />
|date=1979<br />
|image=Shiloh Mounds Aerial Illustration HRoe 2022 350px.jpg<br />
|lat=35.142222<br />
|lon=-88.323889<br />
|region=US-TN<br />
|description=<!-- Description goes here --><br />
}}<br />
{{NRHP-Tabellenzeile<br />
|pos=5<br />
|refnum=66000074<br />
|type=HD<br />
|article=Shiloh National Military Park<br />
|name=Shiloh National Military Park<br />
|address=Abseits der TN 22<br />
|city=[[Pittsburg Landing|Pittsburg&nbsp;Landing]]<br />
|county=[[Hardin County (Tennessee)]]<br />
|date=1966<br />
|image=Iowa Monument, Shiloh National Military Park.JPG<br />
|lat=35.139444<br />
|lon=-88.343056<br />
|region=US-TN<br />
|description=<!-- Description goes here --><br />
}}<br />
{{NRHP-Tabellenzeile<br />
|pos=6<br />
|refnum=88000250<br />
|type=NRHP<br />
|article=Tanyard Branch Furnace (40HR121)<br />
|name=Tanyard Branch Furnace (40HR121)<br />
|address=Adresse nicht veröffentlicht<br />
|city=[[Bath Springs (Tennessee)|Bath Springs]]<br />
|county=[[Hardin County (Tennessee)]]<br />
|date=1988<br />
|image=<br />
|lat=<br />
|lon=<br />
|nolatlon=true<br />
|region=US-TN<br />
|description=<!-- Description goes here --><br />
}}<br />
{{NRHP-Tabellenzeile<br />
|pos=7<br />
|refnum=93000586<br />
|type=NRHP<br />
|article=Meady White House<br />
|name=Meady White House<br />
|address=Main Street<br />
|city=[[Saltillo (Tennessee)|Saltillo]]<br />
|county=[[Hardin County (Tennessee)]]<br />
|date=1993<br />
|image=<br />
|lat=35.3775<br />
|lon=-88.208611<br />
|region=US-TN<br />
|description=<!-- Description goes here --><br />
}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Siehe auch ==<br />
* [[Liste der National Historic Landmarks in Tennessee]]<br />
* [[National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee]]<br />
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== Weblinks ==<br />
{{commonscat|National Register of Historic Places in Hardin County, Tennessee}}<br />
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== Einzelnachweise ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
{{Navigationsleiste Einträge im National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee}}<br />
{{All Coordinates}}<br />
[[Kategorie:Liste (National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee)|Hardin]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Hardin County (Tennessee)|!]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mishipeshu&diff=193193278Mishipeshu2019-10-16T00:11:07Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Undid revision 921427380 by Dr Horncastle (talk)</p>
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<div>{{tone|date=March 2014}}<br />
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[[File:Underwater panther NMAI GGH.jpg|thumb|Underwater Panther, [[George Gustav Heye Center]], [[National Museum of the American Indian]]]]<br />
An '''underwater panther''', called '''''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}''''' or '''''{{lang|oj|Mishibijiw}}''''' in [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]] ({{IPA-all|mɪʃɪbɪʑɪw}}), is one of the most important of several mythological water beings among many [[indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands]] and [[Great Lakes]] region, particularly among the [[Anishinaabe]].<br />
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''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}'' translates into "the Great Lynx". It has the head and paws of a giant cat but is covered in scales and has dagger-like spikes running along its back and tail.{{citation needed (lead) |date=April 2015}} Mishipeshu calls [[Michipicoten Island]] in [[Lake Superior]] his home and is a powerful creature in the mythological traditions of some Native American tribes, particularly [[Anishinaabe]] tribes, the [[Odawa]], [[Ojibwe]], and [[Potawatomi]], of the [[Great Lakes]] region of [[Canada]] and the [[United States]].<ref name="conway"/><ref name="Kohl">{{cite book |last=Kohl |first=Johann |title=Kitchi-Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway |year=1859 |isbn=0-87351-172-7 }}</ref> In addition to the Anishinaabeg, [[Innu]] also have ''Mishibizhiw'' stories.<ref name="Barnes">{{cite web |last=Barnes |first=Michael |url=http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca/living/history/lavase/97frs611.htm |title=Aboriginal Artifacts |work=Final Report — 1997 Archaeological Excavations La Vase Heritage Project |publisher=City of [[North Bay, Ontario]] |accessdate=2008-10-05 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017010624/http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca/living/history/lavase/97FRS611.HTM |archivedate=2007-10-17 }}</ref><br />
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To the [[Algonquin people|Algonquins]], the underwater panther was the most powerful [[underworld]] being. The [[Ojibwe]] traditionally held them to be masters of all water creatures, including snakes. Some versions of the [[Nanabozho]] creation legend refers to whole communities of water [[lynx]].<ref name="Bolgiano">{{cite book |last=Bolgiano |first=Chris |title=Mountain Lion: An Unnatural History of Pumas and People |date=August 1995 |location=[[Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania]] |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=0-8117-1044-0 |chapter=Native Americans and American Lions |chapterurl=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/mountain.htm |url=https://archive.org/details/mountainlionunna00bolg }}</ref><br />
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Some archaeologists{{who|date=April 2015}} believe that underwater panthers were major components of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the prehistoric American Southeast.<ref>{{cite book |last=Townsend |first=Richard F. |title=Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=0-300-10601-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=F. Kent |last1=Reilly |first2=James |last2=Garber |title=Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |location=[[Austin, Texas]] |year=2004 |pages=29–34 |isbn=978-0-292-71347-5 |first3=Vincas P., foreword |last3=Steponaitis }}</ref><br />
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==Name==<br />
In the [[Ojibwe language]], this creature is sometimes called ''{{lang|oj|Mishibizhiw}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishipizhiw}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishipizheu}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishupishu}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishepishu}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Michipeshu}}'',<ref name="conway">{{cite book |last1=Conway |first1=Thor |year=2010 |title=Spirits in Stone |location=[[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario]] |publisher=Heritage Discoveries }}</ref> or ''{{lang|oj|Mishibijiw}}'', which translates as "Great Lynx",<ref>[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> or ''{{lang|oj|Gichi-anami'e-bizhiw}}'' ("Gitche-anahmi-bezheu"), which translates as "the fabulous night panther".<ref name="Kohl"/><ref>"The fabulous night panther" is a translation from [[Anishinaabe language]] into [[French language|French]] to [[German language|German]], which then was translated into English. The direct translation would be something closer to "The greatly revered lynx." See [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> However, it is also commonly referred to as the "Great underground wildcat" or "Great under-water wildcat."<ref name="Barnes"/><ref name="Gidmark">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false |title=Mishi-Peshu |last1=Gidmark |first1=Jill B. |date=November 30, 2000 |work=Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes |location=[[Westport, Connecticut]] |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-30148-4 |page=168 |accessdate=December 25, 2012 |doi=10.1336/0313301484 }}</ref> It is the most important of the underwater animals for the Ojibwa.<ref name="Lemaître">{{cite web |url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/mishipeshu |title=Mishipeshu |work=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |first1=Serge |last1=Lemaître |accessdate=December 25, 2012 }}</ref><br />
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==Description==<br />
[[File:Agawa Rock, panel VIII.jpg|right|thumb|Pictographs of a ''{{lang|oj|mishibizhiw}}'' as well as two giant serpents<ref name=conway/> and a canoe, from [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], [[Ontario]], Canada. Attributed to the Ojibwe.<ref name="Penney">{{cite book |last1=Penney |first1=David W. |title=North American Indian Art |location=London |publisher=Thames and Hudson |year=2004 |isbn=0-500-20377-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/northamericanind00penn }}</ref>{{rp|71}}]]<br />
In [[Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas|mythologies of the indigenous peoples]] of the Great Lakes, underwater panthers are described as water monsters that live in opposition to the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbirds]],<ref name="Strom">{{cite web |url=http://www.kstrom.net/isk/art/morriss/art_miss.html |title=Morrisseau's ''Missipeshu'' – Cultural Preservation |work=Native American Indian Resources |date=August 3, 1996 |accessdate=October 1, 2011 |author=Strom, Karen M. }}</ref> masters of the powers of the air. Underwater Panthers are seen as an opposing yet complementary force to the Thunderbirds, and they are engaged in eternal conflict.<ref name="Penney" />{{rp|60}}<br />
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Underwater panther was an amalgam of features from many animals: the body of a wild feline, often a [[cougar]] or [[lynx]]; the horns of [[deer]] or [[bison]]; upright scales on its back;<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|207}} occasionally [[feather]]s; and parts from other animals as well, depending on the particular myth. Underwater panthers are represented with exceptionally long tails,<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|59}} occasionally with serpentine properties.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|60}} The creatures are thought to roar or hiss in the sounds of storms or rushing rapids.<ref name="Strom" /><br />
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''{{lang|oj|Mishipizheu}}'' were said to live in the deepest parts of lakes and rivers, where they can cause storms.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|60}} Some traditions believed the underwater panthers to be helpful, protective creatures, but more often they were viewed as malevolent beasts that brought death and misfortune. They often need to be placated for safe passage across a lake.<ref name="Strom"/> As late as the 1950s, the Prairie Band of [[Potawatomi]] Indians performed a traditional ceremony to placate the Underworld Panther and maintain balance with the Thunderbird.<ref name="Bolgiano"/><br />
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When ethnographer [[Johann Georg Kohl]] visited the United States in the 1850s, he spoke with a [[Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa|Fond du Lac]] chief, who showed Kohl a piece of copper kept in his [[medicine bag]]. The chief said it was a strand of hair from the ''{{lang|oj|mishibizhiw}}'', and thus considered extremely powerful.<ref name="Kohl"/><br />
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==Copper==<br />
''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}'' is known for guarding the vast amounts of copper in Lake Superior and the [[Great Lakes]] Region. Indigenous people mined copper long before the arrival of Europeans to the area. Later, during the 17th century, missionaries of the [[Society of Jesus]] arrived in the Great Lakes Region. By that time, swiping copper from the region was extremely taboo and forbidden by the Ojibwa tribe. It was even worse to take it from the Great Lynx's home, [[Michipicoten Island]]; this was considered to be stealing from Mishipeshu himself.<ref name="Weird Michigan">{{cite book |title=Weird Michigan: your travel guide to Michigan's local legends and best kept secrets |publisher=Sterling Publishing Co. |author=Godfrey, Linda S. |year=2006 |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4027-3907-1 }}</ref><br />
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==Close encounters==<br />
There are a few stories of encounters with this great beast. A Jesuit missionary named [[Claude Dablon]] told a story about four Ojibwa Indians who embarked on a journey to the home of ''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}'' to take some copper back to their home, and use it to heat water. The very second they pushed off and backed into the water with their canoe, the eerie voice of the water panther surrounded them. The water panther came growling after them, vigorously accusing them of stealing the playthings of his children. All four of the Indians died on the way back to their village, the last one surviving just long enough to tell the tale of what had happened in his final moments before he died.<ref>Jesuit Relations, Volume LIV. Chapter XI. Section 26. pp. 152-153. http://puffin.creighton.edu/jesuit/relations/relations_54.html</ref><br />
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==Depictions in art==<br />
The underwater panther is well represented in [[pictogram]]s. Historical Anishnaabe twined and [[quillwork|quilled]] men's bags often feature an underwater panther on one panel and the Thunderbird on the other.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|59}} [[Norval Morrisseau]] (Ojibwe) painted underwater panthers in his [[Woodlands style]] artworks, contemporary paintings based on Ojibwe oral history and cosmology.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|207}}<ref name="Strom"/> The emblem has been embellished, and appears as a decorative [[motif (visual arts)|motif]] on [[musket]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/847109/Dragon_Sideplates_from_York_Factory_A_New_Twist_on_an_Old_Tail |title=Dragon Sideplates from York Factory, A New Twist on an Old Tail |first1=William A |last1=Fox |volume=2 |number=2 |journal=Manitoba Archaeological Journal |pages=21–35 |accessdate=December 25, 2012 }}</ref><br />
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The [[Canadian Museum of History]] includes an underwater panther in its coat of arms.<ref name="Strom"/><br />
[[File:So-called-alligator-mound-ohio.png|right|250px|[[Alligator Effigy Mound]].]]<br />
In 2003, archaeologist [[Brad Lepper]] suggested that the [[Alligator Effigy Mound]] in [[Granville, Ohio]] represents the underwater panther. Lepper posits that early European settlers, when learning from Native Americans that the mound represented a fierce creature that lived in the water and ate people, mistakenly assumed that the Native Americans were referring to an alligator.<ref name="Lepper">{{cite journal |last=Lepper |first=Brad |title=Alligator Mound: Geoarchaeological and Iconographical Interpretations of a Late Prehistoric Effigy Mound in Central Ohio, USA |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |volume=13 |pages=147–167 |doi=10.1017/S0959774303000106 |year=2003 |last2=Frolking |first2=Tod A. |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=187259 |issue=2 }}</ref><br />
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==In popular culture==<br />
The ''[[Grimm (TV series)|Grimm]]'' episode "[[Grimm (season 4)|Mishipeshu]]" involves the possession of a young [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] by an underwater panther.<br />
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==See also==<br />
* [[Anishinaabe traditional beliefs]]<br />
* [[Nguruvilu]]<br />
* [[Piasa]]<br />
* [[Horned Serpent]]<br />
* [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]]<br />
* [[Bunyip]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/indianrockpainti00dewd |title=Indian Rock Paintings of the Great Lakes |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |author=Dewdney, Selwyn |authorlink=Selwyn Dewdney |year=1975 |location=Toronto |pages=149 |last2=Kidd |first2=Kenneth E.}}<br />
* {{cite news |url=http://farshores.org/alimound.htm |first1=David |last1=Lore |title=Man pounces on panther theory about mound |newspaper=[[The Columbus Dispatch]] |date=January 21, 2001 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311053426/http://farshores.org/alimound.htm |archivedate=March 11, 2007 }}<br />
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==External links==<br />
{{Commons category|Underwater panther}}<br />
* [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/mythic-creatures/water-creatures-of-the-deep/mutating-myths American Museum of Natural History on Mishepishu]<br />
* [http://www.americanindian.si.edu/searchcollections/item.aspx?irn=151435&catids=1&objmat=Twine/string/cord|Basswood%20fiber%20cordage&src=1-4 Odawa twined bag with images of the Underwater Panther, NMAI]<br />
<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Underwater Panther}}<br />
[[Category:Anishinaabe mythology]]<br />
[[Category:Ojibwe legendary creatures]]<br />
[[Category:Algonquian legendary creatures]]<br />
[[Category:Lake Superior]]<br />
[[Category:Legendary creatures of the indigenous peoples of North America]]<br />
[[Category:Mythological hybrids]]<br />
[[Category:Great Lakes tribal culture]]<br />
[[Category:Native American religion]]<br />
[[Category:Water deities]]<br />
[[Category:Mythological felines]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ranguana_Caye&diff=196640368Ranguana Caye2018-03-09T21:56:11Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: add imaqge</p>
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<div>{{advert|date=June 2017}}<br />
[[File:Ranguana Caye Belize HRoe 2016.jpg|thumb|right|Ranguana Caye, Belize in 2016.]]<br />
'''Ranguana Caye''' is a two-acre private island located roughly 20 miles west of [[Placencia]]. According to Peter Eltringham, author of ''The Rough Guide to Belize'', Ranguana Caye has sand softer in comparison to Placencia with taller palm trees.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=658PVaTlgE8C&pg=PA213&lpg=PA213&dq=history+of+ranguana+caye&source=bl&ots=3lYDiW45Fw&sig=cIx3a5GT7my1Dcz8C1Lg4HYr4NU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwidwYKOxIHVAhVhwYMKHXS2Ato4FBDoAQg_MAY#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref>. Those exploring the caye, are required to set up transportation through private boat charters <ref>http://www.belizehub.com/ranguana-caye//</ref>. The island includes a dock and moorings for visiting boats, located just off the [[Belize Barrier Reef]].<ref>http://www.sanpedroscoop.com/2014/07/placencia-southern-cayes-ranguana-roberts-grove.html</ref> A day tour to the island is through Belize Ocean Club, a resort located in [[Maya Beach Village]] near Placencia and managed by Muy'Ono Properties.<ref>http://www.belizeoceanclub.com/snorkel-sip/</ref> Ranguana Caye also features three rustic cabanas for overnight guests, with Bully's Beach Bar, a BBQ grill and composting restroom systems for guests. The resort has no pay phones, but features wifi and radio communication.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/29/travel/a-belize-hideaway-even-for-the-fish.html</ref> Snorkeling the [[Belize Barrier Reef]] and reef fishing are also some activities on the island. <br />
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== History ==<br />
With the 17th-century origins of Belize being two different myths, it is said that Ranguana Caye formally called Cayo Renegado, was "the base of the 'renegade' Spaniard Diego el Mulato."<ref>http://nebula.wsimg.com/92d6aaf58dd3ba4c1b598de5ef394ba2?AccessKeyId=AAD1668736C7E02D1A8C&disposition=0&alloworigin=1</ref> <br />
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== Nearby attractions<ref>http://caribya.com/belize/ranguana.caye.cabins/nearby/</ref> ==<br />
* Placencia Mangroves <br />
* World's Narrowest Mainstreet <br />
* Savannah Forest Station at Paynes Creek<br />
* Laughing Bird Caye<br />
* Marie Sharp's Factory<br />
* Bocawina Falls<br />
* Gulisi Garifuna Museum<br />
* Rosalie's Tortilla Factory<br />
* Drums of Our Father's Monument<br />
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== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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== More on Belize ==<br />
# [[Geography of Belize]]<br />
# [[History of Belize]]<br />
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{{coord missing|Belize}}<br />
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[[Category:Islands of Belize]]<br />
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{{Belize-geo-stub}}</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mishipeshu&diff=193193261Mishipeshu2017-11-21T18:30:39Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Undid revision 811398779 by 145.90.10.94 (talk)</p>
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<div>{{tone|date=March 2014}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Underwater panther NMAI GGH.jpg|thumb|Underwater Panther, [[George Gustav Heye Center]], [[National Museum of the American Indian]]]]<br />
An '''underwater panther''', called '''''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}''''' or '''''{{lang|oj|Mishibijiw}}''''' in [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]] ({{IPA-all|mɪʃɪbɪʑɪw}}), is one of the most important of several mythological water beings among many [[indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands]] and [[Great Lakes]] region, particularly among the [[Anishinaabe]].<br />
<br />
''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}'' translates into "the Great Lynx". It has the head and paws of a giant cat but is covered in scales and has dagger-like spikes running along its back and tail.{{citation needed (lead) |date=April 2015}} Mishipeshu calls [[Michipicoten Island]] in [[Lake Superior]] his home and is a powerful creature in the mythological traditions of some Native American tribes, particularly [[Anishinaabe]] tribes, the [[Odawa]], [[Ojibwe]], and [[Potawatomi]], of the [[Great Lakes]] region of [[Canada]] and the [[United States]].<ref name="conway"/><ref name="Kohl">{{cite book |last=Kohl |first=Johann |title=Kitchi-Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway |year=1859 |isbn=0-87351-172-7 }}</ref> In addition to the Anishinaabeg, [[Innu]] also have ''Mishibizhiw'' stories.<ref name="Barnes">{{cite web |last=Barnes |first=Michael |url=http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca/living/history/lavase/97frs611.htm |title=Aboriginal Artifacts |work=Final Report — 1997 Archaeological Excavations La Vase Heritage Project |publisher=City of [[North Bay, Ontario]] |accessdate=2008-10-05 }}</ref><br />
<br />
To the [[Algonquin people|Algonquins]], the underwater panther was the most powerful [[underworld]] being. The [[Ojibwe]] traditionally held them to be masters of all water creatures, including snakes. Some versions of the [[Nanabozho]] creation legend refers to whole communities of water [[lynx]].<ref name="Bolgiano">{{cite book |last=Bolgiano |first=Chris |title=Mountain Lion: An Unnatural History of Pumas and People |date=August 1995 |location=[[Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania]] |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=0-8117-1044-0 |chapter=Native Americans and American Lions |chapterurl=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/mountain.htm}}</ref><br />
<br />
Some archaeologists{{who|date=April 2015}} believe that underwater panthers were major components of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the prehistoric American Southeast.<ref>{{cite book |last=Townsend |first=Richard F. |title=Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=0-300-10601-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=F. Kent |last1=Reilly |first2=James |last2=Garber |title=Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |location=[[Austin, Texas]] |year=2004 |pages=29–34 |isbn=978-0-292-71347-5 |first3=Vincas P., foreword |last3=Steponaitis }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Name==<br />
In the [[Ojibwe language]], this creature is sometimes called ''{{lang|oj|Mishibizhiw}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishipizhiw}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishipizheu}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishupishu}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishepishu}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Michipeshu}}'',<ref name="conway">{{cite book |last1=Conway |first1=Thor |year=2010 |title=Spirits in Stone |location=[[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario]] |publisher=Heritage Discoveries }}</ref> or ''{{lang|oj|Mishibijiw}}'', which translates as "Great Lynx",<ref>[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> or ''{{lang|oj|Gichi-anami'e-bizhiw}}'' ("Gitche-anahmi-bezheu"), which translates as "the fabulous night panther".<ref name="Kohl"/><ref>"The fabulous night panther" is a translation from [[Anishinaabe language]] into [[French language|French]] to [[German language|German]], which then was translated into English. The direct translation would be something closer to "The greatly revered lynx." See [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> However, it is also commonly referred to as the "Great underground wildcat" or "Great under-water wildcat."<ref name="Barnes"/><ref name="Gidmark">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false |title=Mishi-Peshu |last1=Gidmark |first1=Jill B. |date=November 30, 2000 |work=Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes |location=[[Westport, Connecticut]] |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-30148-4 |page=168 |accessdate=December 25, 2012 |doi=10.1336/0313301484 }}</ref> It is the most important of the underwater animals for the Ojibwa.<ref name="Lemaître">{{cite web |url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/mishipeshu |title=Mishipeshu |work=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |first1=Serge |last1=Lemaître |accessdate=December 25, 2012 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
[[File:Agawa Rock, panel VIII.jpg|right|thumb|Pictographs of a ''{{lang|oj|mishibizhiw}}'' as well as two giant serpents<ref name=conway/> and a canoe, from [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], [[Ontario]], Canada. Attributed to the Ojibwe.<ref name="Penney">{{cite book |last1=Penney |first1=David W. |title=North American Indian Art |location=London |publisher=Thames and Hudson |year=2004 |isbn=0-500-20377-6 }}</ref>{{rp|71}}]]<br />
In [[Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas|mythologies of the indigenous peoples]] of the Great Lakes, underwater panthers are described as water monsters that live in opposition to the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbirds]],<ref name="Strom">{{cite web |url=http://www.kstrom.net/isk/art/morriss/art_miss.html |title=Morrisseau's ''Missipeshu'' – Cultural Preservation |work=Native American Indian Resources |date=August 3, 1996 |accessdate=October 1, 2011 |author=Strom, Karen M. }}</ref> masters of the powers of the air. Underwater Panthers are seen as an opposing yet complementary force to the Thunderbirds, and they are engaged in eternal conflict.<ref name="Penney" />{{rp|60}}<br />
<br />
Underwater panther was an amalgam of features from many animals: the body of a wild feline, often a [[cougar]] or [[lynx]]; the horns of [[deer]] or [[bison]]; upright scales on its back;<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|207}} occasionally [[feather]]s; and parts from other animals as well, depending on the particular myth. Underwater panthers are represented with exceptionally long tails,<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|59}} occasionally with serpentine properties.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|60}} The creatures are thought to roar or hiss in the sounds of storms or rushing rapids.<ref name="Strom" /><br />
<br />
''{{lang|oj|Mishipizheu}}'' were said to live in the deepest parts of lakes and rivers, where they can cause storms.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|60}} Some traditions believed the underwater panthers to be helpful, protective creatures, but more often they were viewed as malevolent beasts that brought death and misfortune. They often need to be placated for safe passage across a lake.<ref name="Strom"/> As late as the 1950s, the Prairie Band of [[Potawatomi]] Indians performed a traditional ceremony to placate the Underworld Panther and maintain balance with the Thunderbird.<ref name="Bolgiano"/><br />
<br />
When ethnographer [[Johann Georg Kohl]] visited the United States in the 1850s, he spoke with a [[Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa|Fond du Lac]] chief, who showed Kohl a piece of copper kept in his [[medicine bag]]. The chief said it was a strand of hair from the ''{{lang|oj|mishibizhiw}}'', and thus considered extremely powerful.<ref name="Kohl"/><br />
<br />
==Copper==<br />
''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}'' is known for guarding the vast amounts of copper in Lake Superior and the [[Great Lakes]] Region. Indigenous people mined copper long before the arrival of Europeans to the area. Later, during the 17th century, missionaries of the [[Society of Jesus]] arrived in the Great Lakes Region. By that time, swiping copper from the region was extremely taboo and forbidden by the Ojibwa tribe. It was even worse to take it from the Great Lynx's home, [[Michipicoten Island]]; this was considered to be stealing from Mishipeshu himself.<ref name="Weird Michigan">{{cite book |title=Weird Michigan: your travel guide to Michigan's local legends and best kept secrets |publisher=Sterling Publishing Co. |author=Godfrey, Linda S. |year=2006 |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4027-3907-1 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Close encounters==<br />
There are a few stories of encounters with this great beast. A Jesuit missionary named [[Claude Dablon]] told a story about four Ojibwa Indians who embarked on a journey to the home of ''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}'' to take some copper back to their home, and use it to heat water. The very second they pushed off and backed into the water with their canoe, the eerie voice of the water panther surrounded them. The water panther came growling after them, vigorously accusing them of stealing the playthings of his children. All four of the Indians died on the way back to their village; the last one surviving just long enough to tell the tale of what had happened in his final moments before he died.<ref>Jesuit Relations, Volume LIV. Chapter XI. Section 26. pp. 152-153. http://puffin.creighton.edu/jesuit/relations/relations_54.html</ref><br />
<br />
==Depictions in art==<br />
The underwater panther is well represented in [[pictogram]]s. Historical Anishnaabe twined and [[quillwork|quilled]] men's bags often feature an underwater panther on one panel and the Thunderbird on the other.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|59}} [[Norval Morrisseau]] (Ojibwe) painted underwater panthers in his [[Woodlands style]] artworks, contemporary paintings based on Ojibwe oral history and cosmology.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|207}}<ref name="Strom"/> The emblem has been embellished, and appears as a decorative [[motif (visual arts)|motif]] on [[musket]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/847109/Dragon_Sideplates_from_York_Factory_A_New_Twist_on_an_Old_Tail |title=Dragon Sideplates from York Factory, A New Twist on an Old Tail |first1=William A |last1=Fox |volume=2 |number=2 |journal=Manitoba Archaeological Journal |pages=21–35 |accessdate=December 25, 2012 }}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Canadian Museum of History]] includes an underwater panther in its coat of arms.<ref name="Strom"/><br />
<br />
In 2003, archaeologist Brad Lepper suggested that the [[Alligator Effigy Mound]] in [[Granville, Ohio]] represents the underwater panther. Lepper posits that early European settlers, when learning from Native Americans that the mound represented a fierce creature that lived in the water and ate people, mistakenly assumed that the Native Americans were referring to an alligator.<ref name="Lepper">{{cite journal |last=Lepper |first=Brad |title=Alligator Mound: Geoarchaeological and Iconographical Interpretations of a Late Prehistoric Effigy Mound in Central Ohio, USA |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |volume=13 |pages=147–167 |doi=10.1017/S0959774303000106 |year=2003 |last2=Frolking |first2=Tod A. |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=187259 |issue=2 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==In popular culture==<br />
The ''[[Grimm (TV series)|Grimm]]'' episode "[[Grimm (season 4)|Mishipeshu]]" involves the possession of a young [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] by an underwater panther.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Anishinaabe traditional beliefs]]<br />
* [[Nguruvilu]]<br />
* [[Piasa]]<br />
* [[Horned Serpent]]<br />
* [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]]<br />
* [[Bunyip]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/indianrockpainti00dewd |title=Indian Rock Paintings of the Great Lakes |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |author=Dewdney, Selwyn |authorlink=Selwyn Dewdney |year=1975 |location=Toronto |pages=149 |last2=Kidd |first2=Kenneth E.}}<br />
* {{cite news |url=http://farshores.org/alimound.htm |first1=David |last1=Lore |title=Man pounces on panther theory about mound |newspaper=[[The Columbus Dispatch]] |date=January 21, 2001 }}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category|Underwater panther}}<br />
* [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/mythic-creatures/water-creatures-of-the-deep/mutating-myths American Museum of Natural History on Mishepishu]<br />
* [http://www.americanindian.si.edu/searchcollections/item.aspx?irn=151435&catids=1&objmat=Twine/string/cord|Basswood%20fiber%20cordage&src=1-4 Odawa twined bag with images of the Underwater Panther, NMAI]<br />
<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Underwater Panther}}<br />
[[Category:Anishinaabe mythology]]<br />
[[Category:Lake Superior]]<br />
[[Category:Legendary creatures of the indigenous peoples of North America]]<br />
[[Category:Mythological hybrids]]<br />
[[Category:Great Lakes tribal culture]]<br />
[[Category:Native American religion]]<br />
[[Category:Water deities]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mishipeshu&diff=193193250Mishipeshu2017-05-12T07:08:39Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Undid revision 779981274 by 71.87.136.25 (talk) WP:CITE</p>
<hr />
<div>{{tone|date=March 2014}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Underwater panther NMAI GGH.jpg|thumb|Underwater Panther, [[George Gustav Heye Center]], [[National Museum of the American Indian]]]]<br />
An '''underwater panther''', called '''''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}''''' or '''''{{lang|oj|Mishibijiw}}''''' in [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]] ({{IPA-all|mɪʃɪbɪʑɪw}}), is one of the most important of several mythological water beings among many [[indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands]] and [[Great Lakes]] region, particularly among the [[Anishinaabe]].<br />
<br />
''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}'' translates into "the Great Lynx". It has the head and paws of a giant cat but is covered in scales and has dagger-like spikes running along its back and tail.{{citation needed (lead) |date=April 2015}} Mishipeshu calls [[Michipicoten Island]] in [[Lake Superior]] his home and is a powerful creature in the mythological traditions of some Native American tribes, particularly [[Anishinaabe]] tribes, the [[Odawa]], [[Ojibwe]], and [[Potawatomi]], of the [[Great Lakes]] region of [[Canada]] and the [[United States]].<ref name="conway"/><ref name="Kohl">{{cite book |last=Kohl |first=Johann |title=Kitchi-Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway |year=1859 |isbn=0-87351-172-7 }}</ref> In addition to the Anishinaabeg, [[Innu]] also have ''Mishibizhiw'' stories.<ref name="Barnes">{{cite web |last=Barnes |first=Michael |url=http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca/living/history/lavase/97frs611.htm |title=Aboriginal Artifacts |work=Final Report — 1997 Archaeological Excavations La Vase Heritage Project |publisher=City of [[North Bay, Ontario]] |accessdate=2008-10-05 }}</ref><br />
<br />
To the [[Algonquin people|Algonquins]], the underwater panther was the most powerful [[underworld]] being. The [[Ojibwe]] traditionally held them to be masters of all water creatures, including snakes. Some versions of the [[Nanabozho]] creation legend refers to whole communities of water [[lynx]].<ref name="Bolgiano">{{cite book |last=Bolgiano |first=Chris |title=Mountain Lion: An Unnatural History of Pumas and People |date=August 1995 |location=[[Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania]] |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=0-8117-1044-0 |chapter=Native Americans and American Lions |chapterurl=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/mountain.htm}}</ref><br />
<br />
Some archaeologists{{who|date=April 2015}} believe that underwater panthers were major components of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the prehistoric American Southeast.<ref>{{cite book |last=Townsend |first=Richard F. |title=Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=0-300-10601-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=F. Kent |last1=Reilly |first2=James |last2=Garber |title=Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |location=[[Austin, Texas]] |year=2004 |pages=29–34 |isbn=978-0-292-71347-5 |first3=Vincas P., foreword |last3=Steponaitis }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Name==<br />
In the [[Ojibwe language]], this creature is sometimes called ''{{lang|oj|Mishibizhiw}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishipizhiw}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishipizheu}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishupishu}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Mishepishu}}'', ''{{lang|oj|Michipeshu}}'',<ref name="conway">{{cite book |last1=Conway |first1=Thor |year=2010 |title=Spirits in Stone |location=[[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario]] |publisher=Heritage Discoveries }}</ref> or ''{{lang|oj|Mishibijiw}}'', which translates as "Great Lynx",<ref>[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> or ''{{lang|oj|Gichi-anami'e-bizhiw}}'' ("Gitche-anahmi-bezheu"), which translates as "the fabulous night panther".<ref name="Kohl"/><ref>"The fabulous night panther" is a translation from [[Anishinaabe language]] into [[French language|French]] to [[German language|German]], which then was translated into English. The direct translation would be something closer to "The greatly revered lynx." See [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> However, it is also commonly referred to as the "Great underground wildcat" or "Great under-water wildcat."<ref name="Barnes"/><ref name="Gidmark">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false |title=Mishi-Peshu |last1=Gidmark |first1=Jill B. |date=November 30, 2000 |work=Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes |location=[[Westport, Connecticut]] |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-30148-4 |page=168 |accessdate=December 25, 2012 |doi=10.1336/0313301484 }}</ref> It is the most important of the underwater animals for the Ojibwa.<ref name="Lemaître">{{cite web |url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/mishipeshu |title=Mishipeshu |work=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |first1=Serge |last1=Lemaître |accessdate=December 25, 2012 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
[[File:Agawa Rock, panel VIII.jpg|right|thumb|Pictographs of a ''{{lang|oj|mishibizhiw}}'' as well as two giant serpents<ref name=conway/> and a canoe, from [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], [[Ontario]], Canada. Attributed to the Ojibwe.<ref name="Penney">{{cite book |last1=Penney |first1=David W. |title=North American Indian Art |location=London |publisher=Thames and Hudson |year=2004 |isbn=0-500-20377-6 }}</ref>{{rp|71}}]]<br />
In [[Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas|mythologies of the indigenous peoples]] of the Great Lakes, underwater panthers are described as water monsters that live in opposition to the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbirds]],<ref name="Strom">{{cite web |url=http://www.kstrom.net/isk/art/morriss/art_miss.html |title=Morrisseau's ''Missipeshu'' – Cultural Preservation |work=Native American Indian Resources |date=August 3, 1996 |accessdate=October 1, 2011 |author=Strom, Karen M. }}</ref> masters of the powers of the air. Underwater Panthers are seen as an opposing yet complementary force to the Thunderbirds, and they are engaged in eternal conflict.<ref name="Penney" />{{rp|60}}<br />
<br />
Underwater panther was an amalgam of features from many animals: the body of a wild feline, often a [[cougar]] or [[lynx]]; the horns of [[deer]] or [[bison]]; upright scales on its back;<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|207}} occasionally [[feather]]s; and parts from other animals as well, depending on the particular myth. Underwater panthers are represented with exceptionally long tails,<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|59}} occasionally with serpentine properties.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|60}} The creatures are thought to roar or hiss in the sounds of storms or rushing rapids.<ref name="Strom" /><br />
<br />
''{{lang|oj|Mishipizheu}}'' were said to live in the deepest parts of lakes and rivers, where they can cause storms.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|60}} Some traditions believed the underwater panthers to be helpful, protective creatures, but more often they were viewed as malevolent beasts that brought death and misfortune. They often need to be placated for safe passage across a lake.<ref name="Strom"/> As late as the 1950s, the Prairie Band of [[Potawatomi]] Indians performed a traditional ceremony to placate the Underworld Panther and maintain balance with the Thunderbird.<ref name="Bolgiano"/><br />
<br />
When ethnographer [[Johann Georg Kohl]] visited the United States in the 1850s, he spoke with a [[Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa|Fond du Lac]] chief, who showed Kohl a piece of copper kept in his [[medicine bag]]. The chief said it was a strand of hair from the ''{{lang|oj|mishibizhiw}}'', and thus considered extremely powerful.<ref name="Kohl"/><br />
<br />
==Copper==<br />
''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}'' is known for guarding the vast amounts of copper in Lake Superior and the [[Great Lakes]] Region. There seems to be substantial evidence that there was a very ancient and unknown people that mined the copper and moved the majority to an undisclosed location.{{citation needed |date=October 2014}} Later, during the 17th century, missionaries of the [[Society of Jesus]] arrived in the Great Lakes Region. By that time, swiping copper from the region was extremely taboo and forbidden by the Ojibwa tribe. It was even worse to take it from the Great Lynx's home, [[Michipicoten Island]]; this was considered to be stealing from Mishipeshu himself.<ref name="Weird Michigan">{{cite book |title=Weird Michigan: your travel guide to Michigan's local legends and best kept secrets |publisher=Sterling Publishing Co. |author=Godfrey, Linda S. |year=2006 |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4027-3907-1 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Close encounters==<br />
There are a few stories of encounters with this great beast. A Jesuit missionary named [[Claude Dablon]] told a story about four Ojibwa Indians who embarked on a journey to the home of ''{{lang|oj|Mishipeshu}}'' to take some copper back to their home, and use it to heat water. The very second they pushed off and backed into the water with their canoe, the eerie voice of the water panther surrounded them. The water panther came growling after them, vigorously accusing them of stealing the playthings of his children. All four of the Indians died on the way back to their village; the last one surviving just long enough to tell the tale of what had happened in his final moments before he finally died.<ref>Jesuit Relations, Volume LIV. Chapter XI. Section 26. pp. 152-153. http://puffin.creighton.edu/jesuit/relations/relations_54.html</ref> During the 1840s there was a copper rush; people there had realized the value of copper which was for the taking around [[Isle Royale]] and [[Keweenaw Peninsula]]. There was great suffering and accidents to which many key people and vessels fell victim. The steamer [[Cumberland]] was lost at the [[Rock of Ages Light|Rock of Ages Reef]] on Isle Royale. Another ship, by the name of Algoma, was sunk in a storm during 1885, and forty-five people sunk to a watery death in the creature's lair.{{citation needed |date=April 2015}}<br />
<br />
==Depictions in art==<br />
The underwater panther is well represented in [[pictogram]]s. Historical Anishnaabe twined and [[quillwork|quilled]] men's bags often feature an underwater panther on one panel and the Thunderbird on the other.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|59}} [[Norval Morrisseau]] (Ojibwe) painted underwater panthers in his [[Woodlands style]] artworks, contemporary paintings based on Ojibwe oral history and cosmology.<ref name="Penney"/>{{rp|207}}<ref name="Strom"/> The emblem has been embellished, and appears as a decorative [[motif (visual arts)|motif]] on [[musket]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.academia.edu/847109/Dragon_Sideplates_from_York_Factory_A_New_Twist_on_an_Old_Tail |title=Dragon Sideplates from York Factory, A New Twist on an Old Tail |first1=William A |last1=Fox |volume=2 |number=2 |journal=Manitoba Archaeological Journal |pages=21–35 |accessdate=December 25, 2012 }}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Canadian Museum of History]] includes an underwater panther in its coat of arms.<ref name="Strom"/><br />
<br />
In 2003, archaeologist Brad Lepper suggested that the [[Alligator Effigy Mound]] in [[Granville, Ohio]] represents the underwater panther. Lepper posits that early European settlers, when learning from Native Americans that the mound represented a fierce creature that lived in the water and ate people, mistakenly assumed that the Native Americans were referring to an alligator.<ref name="Lepper">{{cite journal |last=Lepper |first=Brad |title=Alligator Mound: Geoarchaeological and Iconographical Interpretations of a Late Prehistoric Effigy Mound in Central Ohio, USA |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |volume=13 |pages=147–167 |doi=10.1017/S0959774303000106 |year=2003 |last2=Frolking |first2=Tod A. |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=187259 |issue=2 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==In popular culture==<br />
The ''[[Grimm (TV series)|Grimm]]'' episode "[[Grimm (season 4)|Mishipeshu]]" involves the possession of a young [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] by an underwater panther.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Anishinaabe traditional beliefs]]<br />
* [[Nguruvilu]]<br />
* [[Piasa]]<br />
* [[Horned Serpent]]<br />
* [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]]<br />
* [[Bunyip]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/indianrockpainti00dewd |title=Indian Rock Paintings of the Great Lakes |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |author=Dewdney, Selwyn |authorlink=Selwyn Dewdney |year=1975 |location=Toronto |pages=149 |last2=Kidd |first2=Kenneth E.}}<br />
* {{cite news |url=http://farshores.org/alimound.htm |first1=David |last1=Lore |title=Man pounces on panther theory about mound |newspaper=[[The Columbus Dispatch]] |date=January 21, 2001 }}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category|Underwater panther}}<br />
* [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/mythic-creatures/water-creatures-of-the-deep/mutating-myths American Museum of Natural History on Mishepishu]<br />
* [http://www.americanindian.si.edu/searchcollections/item.aspx?irn=151435&catids=1&objmat=Twine/string/cord|Basswood%20fiber%20cordage&src=1-4 Odawa twined bag with images of the Underwater Panther, NMAI]<br />
<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Underwater Panther}}<br />
[[Category:Anishinaabe mythology]]<br />
[[Category:Lake Superior]]<br />
[[Category:Legendary creatures of the indigenous peoples of North America]]<br />
[[Category:Mythological hybrids]]<br />
[[Category:Great Lakes tribal culture]]<br />
[[Category:Native American religion]]<br />
[[Category:Water deities]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poverty_Point&diff=159084312Poverty Point2016-10-25T22:45:33Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* Die Anlage */ Füge Bilder hinzu</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nationalpark<br />
|title = Poverty Point State Historic Site<br />
|altmap = <br />
|altmap_name = <br />
|latitude = 32.637496<br />
|longitude = -91.407194<br />
|region-ISO = US-LA<br />
|nearest_city = Ebbs, Louisiana<br />
|specific = Einzigartige Erdwerke vom Ende der Archaischen Periode<br />
|area = <br />
|area_unit =<br />
|acres = 400<br />
|length = <br />
|established = <br />
|visitation_num = 15.000<br />
|visitation_year = 2010<br />
|address = <br />
|map = <br />
|map_name = <br />
|img1 = Bird Mound at Poverty Point.jpg<br />
|img1_name = Mound A, der größte Mound in Poverty Point<br />
|img2 = <br />
|img2_name = <br />
|img3 = <br />
|img3_name = <br />
|img4 = <br />
|img4_name = <br />
|img5 = <br />
|img5_name = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Poverty Point''' ist ein [[Archäologie|archäologischer]] Fundort im Nordosten des [[Vereinigte Staaten|US]]-Bundesstaates [[Louisiana]] nahe der Ortschaft [[Epps (Louisiana)|Epps]] im [[West Carroll Parish]]. Auf einem etwa 160&nbsp;[[Hektar|ha]] großen, auf einer Hangkante über der Talebene des [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] liegenden Gelände befinden sich in Größe und Komplexität einzigartige [[Erdwerk]]e einer [[präkolumbisch]]en Indianerkultur. Diese werden auf die Zeit zwischen 18.&nbsp;und 10.&nbsp;Jahrhundert&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. datiert, stammen damit aus dem Ende der [[Archaische Periode (Amerika)|Archaischen Periode]]. Die auffälligsten Erdwerke sind sechs Erdwälle in Form halber [[Konzentrizität|konzentrischer]] Ringe, die mit ihren Enden an den Hangabbruch zu einem Wasserlauf stoßen. Zur Anlage gehören auch sechs als ''[[Mound]]s'' bezeichnete künstliche Hügel, innerhalb und außerhalb der Halbringe.<br />
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Die Erbauer gehörten zu einer [[Jäger und Sammler|Jäger-, Sammler- und Fischer]]-Kultur, in der bereits einfache Keramiken hergestellt wurden. Das Material für ihre steinernen [[Werkzeug]]e bezogen sie aus weit, zum Teil über 2000&nbsp;km entfernten Gegenden. Poverty Point ist das namensgebende Zentrum der ''Poverty Point Culture'', einer [[Kultur (Archäologie)|archäologischen Kultur]], die in Teilen des heutigen Louisiana und in angrenzenden Gebieten in [[Mississippi (Bundesstaat)|Mississippi]] und [[Arkansas]] belegt ist, und die bis nach [[Florida]] ausstrahlte.<br />
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Am Ort der Anlage Poverty Point wurden schon im späten 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhundert prähistorischer [[Artefakt (Archäologie)|Artefakte]] gefunden. Die Struktur als Anlage wurde aber erst in den 1950er Jahren auf [[Luftbildfotografie|Luftbild]]ern erkannt. Seitdem finden fast durchgehend Ausgrabungen statt. Die Anlage ist als ''[[State Park|State Historic Site]]'' ausgewiesen und wird vom ''Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism'' verwaltet.<ref name="shs">[http://www.crt.state.la.us/louisiana-state-parks/historic-sites/poverty-point-state-historic-site/index Louisiana Office of State Parks: Poverty Point State Historic Site]</ref> Seit 1962 ist der Fundort von der [[Bundesregierung (Vereinigte Staaten)|Bundesregierung]] als [[National Historic Landmark]] anerkannt.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/nhl/find/statelists/la/LA.pdf National Park Service: National Historic Landmarks in Louisiana] (PDF; 28&nbsp;kB)</ref> 2014 wurde Poverty Point als [[Weltkulturerbe]] der [[UNESCO]] geschützt. Der Antrag des [[US-Innenministerium]]s wurde damit begründet, Poverty Point sei ein herausragendes Bauwerk einer Jäger- und Sammler-Kultur, die größte Siedlung im Nordamerika seiner Zeit und möglicherweise „die größte Siedlung von Jägern und Sammlern aller Zeiten“.<ref name="unesco">[http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5246/ UNESCO: Poverty Point State Historic Site] auf der Vorschlagsliste des Weltkulturerbes</ref><br />
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Der Name ''Poverty Point'' stammt von einer gleichnamigen [[Plantage]] aus dem 19. Jahrhundert, auf deren Grund die Erdbauten gefunden wurden.<br />
__TOC__<br />
<br />
== Die Anlage ==<br />
[[Datei:Louisiana - Poverty Point - Karte.png|mini|Plan der Anlage heute. Motley Mound liegt noch nördlich des gezeigten Ausschnitts.]]<br />
Poverty Point liegt auf der [[Flussterrasse]] ''Marçon Ridge'' am Hangabbruch zum sie östlich begrenzenden Fluss ''Bayou Marçon''. Westliche Begrenzung dieser bei Poverty Point rund 15&nbsp;km breiten und in Nord-Süd-Richtung etwa 200&nbsp;km langen Terrasse ist der ''[[Boeuf River]]''. Beide Flüsse sind [[Altarm]]e des [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], der heut etwa 25&nbsp;km östlich von Poverty Point fließt. Die Terrasse liegt knapp 30&nbsp;m über dem Meer<ref>{{gnis|1888953}}</ref> und etwa 10 bis 12&nbsp;m über dem umgebenden [[Marsch|Schwemmland]], war also schon in prähistorischer Zeit dauerhaft vor Überflutung geschützt. Während sie im Osten mit einem Hangabbruch direkt an den Bayou Marçon grenzt, geht sie auf der Westseite flach in das umgebende Sumpfland über. Das Erdreich der Terrasse besteht in der Tiefe aus [[Lehm]] und [[Sedimentation|Schwemmmaterial]]. An der Oberfläche befindet sich eine mehrere Meter dicke [[Löss]]-Schicht.<ref>Gibson 2000, S. 67.</ref><br />
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=== Die Wälle ===<br />
[[Datei:Poverty Point Aerial HRoe 2014.jpg|thumb|right|Die Wälle des Poverty Point]]<br />
Die sechs Wälle in Form konzentrischer Halbringe umschließen zusammen mit der Hangkante, an die sie stoßen, einen geschlossenen Innenraum. Sie waren vermutlich rund 1,6 bis 2&nbsp;m hoch (heutige Höhe etwas über 1&nbsp;m) und hatten linsenförmigen Querschnitt. Der Radius des äußeren Walls ist etwa 600&nbsp;m.<ref name="hargrave" /> Der radiale Abstand zwischen den Kämmen der äußeren Wälle beträgt zwischen 45 und 55&nbsp;m und zwischen denen der beiden inneren Wälle etwa 80&nbsp;m.<br />
In den Wällen befinden sich auf für alle gleichen [[Radius|Radial]]-Strahlen etwa 30&nbsp;m breite Lücken, die sie in je sechs Segmente unterteilen.<br />
Im Südwesten führt ein radial annähernd zum südlichsten äußeren Hügel ausgerichteter Schüttdamm über die Wälle und über eine außerhalb befindliche natürliche Mulde.<ref name="gibson5">Soweit nicht anders angegeben, stammen die Beschreibung der Anlage und alle Zahlen aus Gibson 2000, Kapitel 5.</ref><br />
<br />
Alle Erdbauten bestehen überwiegend aus dem Erdreich der Umgebung, das Material für die Wälle wurde teilweise direkt zwischen ihnen entnommen, so dass sich dort flache Gräben bildeten. Die klumpige Struktur lässt heute noch erkennen, dass das Material in [[Korb (Behälter)|Körben]] transportiert wurde. Aus der unterschiedlichen Größe der Klumpen zwischen wenigen Kilogramm bis über 25&nbsp;kg wird abgeleitet, dass Männer, Frauen und Kinder gemeinsam an der Anlage bauten.<ref name="gibson109">Gibson 2000, S. 109 f.</ref><br />
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=== Die Mounds ===<br />
[[Datei:Poverty Point Mounds overview HRoe 2013.jpg|thumb|right|Die Hügel des Poverty Point]]<br />
Um die Wälle gruppieren sich sechs als ''Mounds'' bezeichnete künstliche Hügel, von denen zwei innerhalb und vier außerhalb der Wälle liegen. Ein weiterer Hügel knapp 2&nbsp;km südlich ist heute als wesentlich älter erkannt und stand wohl in keinem direkten Zusammenhang, könnte aber als [[Landmarke]] für die Ausrichtung der Anlage gedient haben. Der größte Mound (''Mound A'') liegt im Westen außerhalb der Wälle, nahezu in Flucht mit der mittleren Unterbrechung. Er besteht aus einer halbhohen vorgelagerten Plattform im Osten, aus der nach Westen eine Rampe auf einen Kegel aufsteigt, die an der Spitze eine kleine Plattform erreicht. Die Gesamtform wurde von frühen Ausgräbern als Vogel mit dem Kopf an der Spitze, der Rampe als Rücken, der Plattform als Schwanz und dem Kegel als ausgebreitete Flügel angesehen, so dass Mound A auch als ''Bird Mound'' bezeichnet wird. Die Interpretation gilt heute als rein spekulativ. Der nächstkleinere ist ''Motley Mound'', mehr als 1&nbsp;km entfernt im Norden. Er könnte ebenfalls in der Form von Mound A angelegt worden sein, ist aber schlecht erhalten oder wurde nie fertiggestellt. Die beiden Mounds im Inneren der Wälle waren grob oval, ''Sarah’s Mound'' (Mound D) ist linsenförmig, während ''Dunbar Mound'' (Mound C) zu einer umlaufenden Plattform aufsteigt, in deren Mitte sich eine Kuppe erhebt. ''Mound B'', außerhalb im Nordwesten, war rund, ''Ballcourt Mound'' (Mound E), außerhalb im Südwesten, hatte eine rechteckige Grundform und war oben abgeflacht. Die Hügel maßen ursprünglich etwa 20&nbsp;m Höhe für den größten Mound A, vermutlich 15&nbsp;m für Motley Mound, 7&nbsp;m für Mound B und gut mannshoch für die anderen.<ref name="gibson5" /><br />
<br />
Die drei äußeren Mounds nahe den Wällen sind nahezu exakt auf einer Nord-Süd-Achse angeordnet. Motley Mound liegt genau nördlich von Dunbar Mound. Bei früheren Vermessungen ging man davon aus, dass sie jeweils eine perfekte Flucht bilden und diskutierte über die verwendete Vermessungstechnik. Inzwischen wurden die Annahmen über die Symmetrie und Exaktheit der Anlage und den Stand der Vermessungstechnik ihrer Erbauer relativiert.<br />
<br />
=== Die Plaza ===<br />
[[Datei:Circular structures at Poverty Point IMG 7433.JPG|mini|Markierung ringförmiger Strukturen auf der Plaza]]<br />
Die als ''Plaza'' bezeichnete Innenfläche der Wallanlage ist in Nord-Süd-Richtung etwa 600&nbsp;m lang und hat eine Fläche von 14&nbsp;ha.<ref name="hargrave" /> Die natürlichen Unebenheiten der Fläche wurde durch Aufschüttungen ausgeglichen, eine von ihr ausgehende, flach und gleichmäßig abfallende Rampe gilt als Zugang zum Wasser.<br />
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Bereits früh wurde angenommen, dass auf der Plaza nur besondere Aktivitäten stattfanden, weil dort bei Untersuchungen und oberflächlichen Grabungen keinerlei Artefakte gefunden wurden. Alltäglicher Gebrauch führt immer zum Verlust von Gegenständen und Hinterlassenschaften von abgenutztem Material. Erst mit [[Geomagnetismus|geomagnetischen]] Untersuchungen mittels hochempfindlicher [[Gradiometrie]] nach dem Jahr 2000 konnten tiefer liegende Strukturen im Boden der Plaza gefunden werden.<ref>Associated Press: ''[http://www.pddnet.com/news/2009/06/what-are-subsurface-circles-poverty-point What are subsurface circles at Poverty Point?]'', 19. Juni 2009.</ref><br />
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Es handelt sich um vier runde Anordnungen von [[Pfostenloch|Pfostenlöchern]], die im Rahmen von Lehrgrabungen ab 2009<ref>Mississippi State University: ''[http://www.amec.msstate.edu/fieldschool/southeast/ Field School in Archaeology]''</ref> näher untersucht wurden. Erste Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Löcher nicht dem bisher von den Wällen bekannten Typ entsprechen, sie sind ungewöhnlich groß und mit fast drei Metern auch auffallend tief.<ref name="hargrave" /> Außerdem wurden bei den Grabungen auf der Plaza große Mengen Artefakte ohne Gebrauchsspuren gefunden.<ref name="laarchaeology20112">Diana M. Greenlee, Fran E. Hamilton: ''[http://www.laarchaeology.org/newsletters/2011%20No.%202.pdf Poverty Point Station Archaeology Program Update] (PDF; 5,1&nbsp;MB)'', Newsletter of the Louisiana Archaeological Society, Vol. 39, No. 2 (Herbst 2011), S. 18 f.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Datierung ===<br />
Zwischen den 50er Jahren des 20. und Anfang des 21. Jahrhunderts wurden viele [[Radiokohlenstoffdatierung]]en an Proben aus Wällen und Mounds durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse variieren erheblich, so dass eine Datierung der Anlage schwierig ist. In den Anfängen der Radiokohlenstoff-Datierung wurden noch zu wenige Proben genommen und diese nicht ausreichend gegen Verunreinigung geschützt. Für die Mounds wurden in den Jahren 2001 bis 2006 neue <sup>14</sup>C-Datierungen erhoben. Durch Ausschluss von Proben, die [[Kalibrierung|kalibriert]] mehr als 100&nbsp;Jahre aus dem sonstigen [[Konfidenzintervall]] herausfallen, wurde daraus 2006 eine grobe Datierung auf die Zeit vom 18.&nbsp;bis zum 10.&nbsp;Jahrhundert&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. vorgenommen.<ref name="amantiquity" /><br />
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Mound B wurde als erster Mound radiokohlenstoff-datiert, diese Daten wurden allerdings schon früh und mit unzuverlässigen Methoden ermittelt, gemeinsam und unmittelbar benachbart erhobene Proben weichen um über 1800&nbsp;Jahre<ref>Kalibrierte Daten aus fünf <sup>14</sup>C-Proben von der südlichen Hälfte des Mound B variieren zwischen 1733&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. und 52&nbsp;n.&nbsp;Chr.; Anthony L. Ortmann: ''Placing the Poverty Mounds in their temporal context.'' In: ''American Antiquity'', Vol 75, No. 3 (2010), S. 659.</ref> voneinander ab und sind grob fehlerhaft. Jüngere Untersuchungen aus dem Jahr 2001 erlauben die Annahme, dass Mound B im Norden das älteste Bauwerk der Anlage ist und innerhalb einer sehr kurzen Bauzeit von Wochen oder wenigen Monaten zu einem unbekannten Zeitpunkt zwischen 1738 und 1522&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. errichtet wurde. Mound E im Süden wurde fast gleichzeitig oder kurz darauf aufgebaut. Mound C ist schwierig zu datieren, weil der Bauplatz zwischen dem Abtragen der obersten Bodenschicht zum Herstellen einer ebenen Fläche und dem Beginn der Aufschüttungen als Wohnplatz verwendet wurde. Er folgte aber vermutlich nach den beiden erstgenannten Mounds. Für Mound A, den größten der künstlichen Hügel, liegen seit 2007 gute Daten vor. Die Konfidenzintervalle weisen darauf hin, dass er wohl erst nach Abschluss von Mound C begonnen wurde.<ref name="Kidder">Tristam R. Kidder, Anthony L. Ortmann, Lee J. Arco: ''Poverty Point and the Archaeology of Singularity.'' In: ''SAA Archaeological Record.'' Volume 8, Issue 5 (November 2008), S. 10.</ref> Neuere Auswertungen datieren den Bau zwischen 1311&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. und 1217&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. und nehmen eine sehr kurze Bauzeit von 30 bis 90 Tagen an.<ref>Anthony L. Ortmann, Tristram R. Kidder: ''Building Mound A at Poverty Point, Louisiana – Monumental Public Architecture, Ritual Practice, and Implications for Hunter-Gatherer Complexity.'' In: ''Geoarchaeology.'' Volume 28, Issue 1 (Januar/Februar 2013), S. 66–86, 75 f.</ref> Mound D ist der jüngste Teil der Anlage, er wurde am Ende der archaischen Periode und vielleicht erst in der [[Woodland-Periode]] erbaut, weil Woodland-Artefakte in den obersten Schichten des Mounds eingelagert gefunden wurden. Das deutet darauf hin, dass dort möglicherweise ursprünglich kein Mound angelegt worden war, sondern er erst nachträglich auf und an die Ringstruktur an der Hangkante aufgeschüttet wurde.<ref name="amantiquity" /><br />
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Die Datierung der Wälle ist aufgrund der Probennahme nach heute überholten Methoden unzuverlässig. Neuere systematische Daten liegen hier bisher nicht vor. Sie wurden wohl im 18. oder 17. Jahrhundert&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. begonnen,<ref name="amantiquity" /> wobei die Daten so über die Wälle verteilt sind, dass die [[Standardfehler|Fehlermarge]] keine Aussagen über die Reihenfolge der Bauten erlaubt.<ref name="gibson5" /><br />
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=== Gesamtbild ===<br />
Die sechs Wälle (je sechs Segmente) und sechs Mounds gelten als Modell der Welt. Sechs ist die Zahl der Richtungen, also der vier Richtungen der Sonne, dazu das Oben des Himmels und das Unten der Erde. Die Halbkreise sind mit ihrer Öffnung zum Sonnenaufgang im Osten ausgerichtet. Die gesamte Anlage strahlt Harmonie aus. Ihre Aufgabe sei gewesen diese zwischen ihren Erbauern und allen Menschen und den Kräften der Natur herzustellen und zu besiegeln. Die Symmetrie sollte Gefahren abweisen.<ref>Gibson 2000, S. 185.</ref> Die Erdwerke sollten die Kräfte von Leben und Tod beeinflussen. Die „harmonischen Proportionen“ der Gesamtanlage, ihre Ausrichtung zur Sonne und die Ringform, die „den Umlauf der Sonne am Tag und im Jahreskreis“ aufnimmt, versprachen „Schutz vor Tod, Leid, Krankheit und anderen Übeln“.<ref name="sassaman" /> Außerdem schufen sie, folgt man Jon Gibson, Heimat; die Zusammenarbeit bei der Herstellung trug seiner Meinung nach zur Gemeinschaftsbildung bei.<ref name="gibson14" /><br />
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Das Gesamtvolumen der Bauten betrug zwischen 650.000 und über 750.000&nbsp;m³ Erdreich<ref name="gibson109" /> oder nach jüngeren Schätzungen 750.000–1.000.000&nbsp;m³.<ref name="Kidder" /> Dies entspricht etwa einem Viertel bis einem Drittel des Volumens der [[Cheops-Pyramide]]. Gemessen an menschlicher Arbeitskraft hätten 100 in Vollzeit arbeitende Männer die Anlage in 21–24 Jahren errichten können. Andere, auf längeren Bauzeiten und/oder Teilzeit beruhenden Berechnungen ergeben:<br /><br />
500 Männer einer Generation (in ein bis zwei Monaten pro Jahr)<br /><br />
100 Männer von drei Generationen (in sechs oder sieben Tagen pro Monat)<br /><br />
100 Männer in 300 Jahren (wenige Tage pro Monat)<br /><br />
Diese Zahlen bestätigen lediglich die Aussage, dass die Anlage in der Zeit der Poverty Point Culture in realistischen Zeiträumen errichtet werden konnte.<ref name="gibson109" /> Es ist jedoch nicht möglich zu sagen, ob über den ganzen Zeitraum daran gearbeitet wurde oder vielleicht nur eine Generation die Hauptleistung getragen hat.<ref>Gibson 2000, S. 96.</ref> Die jüngeren Hinweise auf kurze Bauzeiten einzelner Mounds lassen annehmen, dass jeweils für kurze Bauphasen von einem oder wenigen Monaten Menschen aus einem weiten Umfeld zusammenkamen, um gemeinsam das Erdwerk zu errichten.<ref>Anthony L. Ortmann, Tristram R. Kidder: ''Building Mound A at Poverty Point, Louisiana – Monumental Public Architecture, Ritual Practice, and Implications for Hunter-Gatherer Complexity.'' In: ''Geoarchaeology.'' Volume 28, Issue 1 (Januar/Februar 2013), S. 66–86, 76 ff.</ref><br />
<br />
Im Baumaterial vorwiegend der Wälle und in kleinerem Umfang auch in die Mounds sind hunderttausende [[Artefakt (Archäologie)|Artefakte]] eingelagert. Dabei handelt es sich überwiegend um Überreste der Zubereitung von Nahrungsmitteln und der Werkzeugherstellung, um aufgegebene und abgenutzte steinerne Werkzeuge sowie Scherben keramischer Gefäße. Es wurden aber auch einige wenige [[Schmuck]]gegenstände gefunden, vorwiegend steinerne Perlen und vereinzelt Anhänger aus [[Kupfer]]. Daher wird angenommen, dass die Bewohner in Hütten oder Zeltkonstruktionen in Nähe der Wälle und Mounds lebten und arbeiteten, obwohl keine eindeutigen Nachweise von Pfostenlöchern gefunden werden konnten.<ref name="amantiquity">Anthony L. Ortmann: ''Placing the Poverty Mounds in their temporal context.'' In: ''American Antiquity.'' Vol 75, No. 3 (2010) {{ISSN|0002-7316}}, S. 657–678.</ref><br />
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== Tradition und Vorläufer ==<br />
Die ''Marçon Ridge'' wurde vor rund 11.000&nbsp;Jahren von [[Paläo-Indianer]]n besiedelt. Die frühesten Funde im Gebiet zählen zur [[Clovis-Kultur]] und bestehen in [[Projektilspitze]]n und [[Faustkeil]]en.<ref>Gibson 2000, S. 45.</ref> Während die Angehörigen der Clovis-Kultur im gesamten Verbreitungsgebiet in kleinen Verbänden als [[Jäger und Sammler]] je nach Saison den Nahrungsquellen folgend durch große Gebiete streiften, war die ''Marçon Ridge'' ein so attraktiver Lebensraum, dass sie ganzjährig bewohnt wurde. Der Rücken im Sumpfland war locker mit Baumarten bewaldet, die [[Eichen|Eicheln]], [[Pekannuss|Pekannüsse]] und andere Früchte trugen. Die Wälder waren reich an jagbarem Wild, das zur Flutsaison aus der ganzen Region auf dem Rücken konzentriert war. Allerdings fehlten auf dem Rücken aus Sedimenten und Löss jegliche Steine. Die Clovis-Kultur bezog das Material für ihre Werkzeuge aus rund 800&nbsp;km entfernten Steinbrüchen auf dem [[Edwards Plateau]] in [[Texas]] wo [[Hornstein (Gestein)|Hornstein]] in guter Qualität vorkam, der bereits dieser ersten flächendeckenden amerikanischen Kultur bekannt war. Ebenfalls bekannte Fundstellen für qualitativ gleichwertigen [[Feuerstein]] bei [[Fort Payne]] in [[Alabama]] waren zwar nur rund 400&nbsp;km entfernt, lagen aber auf dem anderen Ufer des Mississippi. Dessen Unterlauf war kurz nach dem Ende der [[Weichseleiszeit|letzten Eiszeit]] (in Nordamerika als ''Wisconsin Glaciation'' bezeichnet) durch den über viele Jahrhunderte langsam abschmelzenden [[Laurentidischer Eisschild|Laurentidischen Eisschild]] ganzjährig so angeschwollen, dass er höchstens in harten Wintern passierbar war, wenn er vollständig zugefroren war.<br />
<br />
Die [[Dalton-Kultur|Dalton-]] und die [[San-Patrice-Kultur]] am Beginn der [[Archaische Periode (Amerika)|Archaischen Periode]] bis etwa 5500&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. unterschieden sich im Stil der Steinwerkzeuge und es wurden neue Quellen für verschiedene Werkzeugsteine erschlossen. Die Bevölkerungszunahme führte dazu, dass sich Gruppen bildeten, die bestimmte Gebiete besiedelten, so dass es „die größte Veränderung war, Nachbarn zu haben.“<ref>Gibson 2000, S. 49.</ref> Die Menschen wachten über die Grenzen ihrer Territorien. Die Beschaffung von Stein für Werkzeuge wurde für die Bewohner der ''Marçon Ridge'' zunehmend schwieriger, so dass sie auf Hornstein-Kies auswichen, der nur rund 50 bis 80&nbsp;km westlich zwischen dem [[Ouachita River|Ouachita]] und dem [[Red River (Mississippi)|Red River]] gefunden wurde. Die Steine waren zwar kleiner, ließen sich aber genauso bearbeiten.<br />
<br />
In der Archaischen Periode, um 5500&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr., trat eine [[Klimaveränderung]] ein. Für mehrere Jahrtausende wurde der Südosten Nordamerikas trockener. Wälder gingen etwas zurück, Wiesen breiteten sich aus, die Strömung des Mississippi verringerte sich, so dass er mehr [[Sedimentation|Sedimente]] ablagerte, wodurch die Flusssohle und in der Folge der Wasserspiegel stiegen und sich das Bett häufiger umlagerte. Die Bewohner der ''Marçon Ridge'' entwickelten neue Techniken zur effizienteren Nutzung von Baumfrüchten und Ölsamen und der [[Fischfang]] nahm an Bedeutung zu. Die Bevölkerungsdichte stieg weiter an und die Menschen bauten einen bescheidenen Austausch von Gütern auf. [[Arkansasstein]] aus den 200&nbsp;km entfernten [[Ouachita Mountains]] und [[Quarz]] wurden in kleinem Rahmen herbeigeschafft. Die Mengen waren so gering, dass es sich um persönliche Geschenke oder [[Brautpreis]]e handeln kann.<ref>Gibson 2000, S. 58 f.</ref><br />
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Im Norden des Südostens, am [[Ohio River]] und seinen Nebenflüssen, wie dem [[Green River (Kentucky)|Green River]] entstanden um 4000&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. große und systematisch angehäufte Strukturen aus Muschelschalen, die so genannten ''[[Køkkenmøddinger|shell middens]]''. In der nach dem Fundort [[Indian Knoll]] benannten ''Indian Knoll phase'' errichteten die dortigen Bewohner runde, halbkreis- oder ringförmige Strukturen aus den Überresten der Nahrungszubereitung. Ob dafür bereits eine planvolle Zusammenarbeit und Leitung erforderlich war oder ob die Grundstruktur aus der Nutzung entstand und dann über längere Zeit ohne Plan oder Führung ausgebaut wurde, ist bislang nicht zu beantworten.<ref>George M. Crothers: ''The Green River in Comparison to the Lower Mississippi Valley during the Archaic: To Build Mounds or not to Build Mounds?'' In: Jon L. Gibson, Philip J. Carr (Hrsg.): ''Signs of Power – The Rise of Cultural Complexity in the Southeast''. University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-1391-5, S. 86–96.</ref><br />
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Ebenfalls um 4000&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. begannen die Menschen gemeinsam an Bauprojekten zu arbeiten, die nach Art, Material und Umfang nur als planvoll angenommen werden können. Die ersten [[Mound]]s entstanden am Unterlauf des Mississippi. Sie waren klein und rund; um 1,50&nbsp;m hoch und mit höchstens 15–20&nbsp;m Durchmesser. Daraus entwickelten sich wesentlich größere Erdbauten, auch solche, die aus mehreren Elementen zusammengesetzt wurden. Die älteste große Anlage war [[Watson Brake]], beim heutigen [[Monroe (Louisiana)|Monroe]] in Louisiana, etwa 95&nbsp;km von Poverty Point entfernt und rund 2000&nbsp;Jahre älter. Watson Brake ist schlecht erhalten und bestand aus einem großen Mound und neun oder zehn kleinen, die einen Kreis von der Größe eines Fußballfeldes bildeten. Im Norden von Poverty Point wurden bei frühen Ausgrabungen im äußersten Ring mehrere Proben genommen, die bereits in die mittelarchaische Zeit datiert wurden. Sie wurden zumeist als Messfehler aufgrund der noch unzureichenden Technik interpretiert, könnten aber auch auf eine kleine Vorgänger-Konstruktion hindeuten.<ref name="amantiquity" /><br />
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Über die Motivation der ersten Mound-Bauer gibt es eine Vielzahl von Spekulationen. Demnach waren die Bauten Symbole oder sie veränderten das Aussehen der Landschaft. Sie schufen Heimat, wie Gibson mutmaßt. Erzählungen heutiger und historischer Indianer-Kulturen bringen die Mounds mit ihrer [[Schöpfung]]sgeschichte und ihrem Schöpfer in Verbindung.<ref name="gibson62" /> Sicher kann angenommen werden, dass die Mounds [[Magie|magisch]] und ihr Bau eine ehrenvolle Tat der Gemeinschaft war, um die Kräfte des Universums positiv zu beeinflussen, und an oder auf den Mounds fanden rituelle Handlungen statt. Die Zeremonien werden als Zusammenkünfte verstreut lebender Gruppen angesehen, mit Bedeutung für den Austausch von Legenden, praktischem Wissen und als Heiratsmarkt.<ref name="gibson62">Gibson 2000, S. 62 ff.</ref><br />
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[[Datei:Poverty pt objects.jpg|mini|''Poverty Point Objects'': Lössballen.]]<br />
[[Datei:Poverty Point clay utensils HRoe 2009.jpg|mini|Ungewöhnlich aufwändig geformte und verzierte ''Poverty Point Objects'']]<br />
[[Datei:Poverty Point female figurines HRoe 2009.jpg|mini|Weibliche Figuren aus Löss und Ton]]<br />
[[Datei:Poverty Point gorgets atlatl weights HRoe 2009.jpg|mini|Verschiedene Steingewichte, teilweise mit Gravuren]]<br />
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== ''Poverty Point Culture'' – die Erbauer ==<br />
Am Ende der Archaischen Periode traten am Unterlauf des Mississippi zwei simultane Veränderungen auf: Die Bewohner bezogen gewaltige Mengen exotischen Gesteins auch aus weit entfernten Quellen und sie begannen mit dem Bau der größten bekannten Anlage aller Jäger- und Sammler-Kulturen. Als Anstoß wurde die Einführung von [[Hämatit]] und [[Magnetit]] aus den [[Boston Mountains]] auf dem Nordufer des [[Arkansas River]]s beschrieben.<ref name="gibson14">Gibson 2000, Kapitel 14</ref> Beide Gesteine sind Eisenerze und haben ein besonders hohes spezifisches Gewicht. Daher eignen sie sich für Steingewichte an Fischernetzen, insbesondere [[Stellnetz]]e und [[Wurfnetz]]e. In Gewässern mit nennenswerter Strömung müssen diese beschwert werden, um nicht aufzutreiben.<br />
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Die Verwendung von kleinen, handhabbaren Gewichten aus dem exotischen Material könnte den Fischfang wesentlich ertragreicher gemacht haben. Wenige spezialisierte Fischer konnten so eine größere Bevölkerung ganzjährig mit den Grundnahrungsmitteln versorgen. Da Fisch, zumal im warmen Klima Louisianas, nicht aufbewahrt werden kann, konnten sie den Ertrag auch nicht sinnvoll für individuelle Zwecke nutzen, sondern stellten ihn der Allgemeinheit zur Verfügung. Dadurch wurde erhebliche Arbeitskraft frei, die für Gemeinschaftsprojekte genutzt werden konnte, um eine Anlage vom Umfang Poverty Points zu errichten.<ref name="gibson220">Gibson 2000, S. 220ff.</ref> Das Vorbild der Fischer könnten auch die Mitglieder der Gemeinschaft, die über Beziehungen zu anderen Sippen in Gebieten mit Steinvorkommen verfügten, veranlasst haben, ihre Ressource nicht individuell zu nutzen, sondern der Gemeinschaft zugänglich zu machen. Die Gesellschaft muss als egalitär gelten, da sich keine Anzeichen für eine [[Sozialstruktur|soziale Schichtung]] erkennen lassen. In Poverty Point und den Außenstellen der Poverty-Point-Kultur wurden keinerlei Horte von exotischem Gestein gefunden und keine Hinweise darauf, dass sich Individuen Steine über den eigenen Bedarf hinaus aneigneten. Stattdessen scheint das Material nach den Aufgaben verteilt worden zu sein; wer für seine Tätigkeit ein Werkzeug aus speziellem Stein brauchte, der bekam es.<ref name="gibson14" /><br />
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Neben Fisch und Wild bestand die Ernährung aus Nüssen wie [[Eichen|Eicheln]], [[Hickory (Pflanze)|Hickory]] und [[Pekannuss]] und Früchten wie [[Weintraube|Trauben]] und [[Amerikanische Persimone|Amerikanischen Persimonen]]. Weiterhin wurde [[Flaschenkürbis]] nachgewiesen. Bei letzterem besteht die Möglichkeit, dass er in der Art eines Gartens angebaut oder seine Verbreitung anderweitig gefördert wurde. Weitere Nahrungsmittel wurden nur in geringem Umfang gefunden.<ref>Gayle J. Fritz: ''Keepers of Louisiana's Levees: Early Mound Builders and Forest Managers.'' In: Tim Denham, Josè Iriarte, Luc Vrydaghs: ''Rethinking Agriculture: Archaeological and Ethnoarchaeological Perspectives''. Lest Coast Press, 2007, ISBN 978-1-59874-260-2, S. 197 f.</ref> An der Küste kamen noch [[Meeresfrüchte]] hinzu.<br />
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=== Artefakte ===<br />
Die Lage von Poverty Point am Unterlauf des Mississippi bot die Möglichkeit, per Boot gewaltige Steinmassen aus dem gesamten Flusssystem zu beziehen. [[Galenit|Bleiglanz]] kam vom oberen Mississippi im heutigen [[Missouri]], [[Wisconsin]] und [[Iowa]], besonders hochwertiger Feuerstein (''grey northern flint'') vom Nebenfluss [[Ohio River|Ohio]], einzelne Stücke Hornstein von dessen Zufluss, dem [[Tennessee River]]. [[Speckstein]] wurde aus dem heutigen Süden [[Tennessee]]s bezogen, entweder über den Tennessee River oder vom Fundort zum [[Golf von Mexiko]] und dann auf dem Meer bis zur Mündung des Mississippis. Aus dem Speckstein wurden Schüsseln und Schalen geschnitten, die aber selten und vermutlich kostbar waren. [[Kupfer]] wurde in kleinen Mengen von den [[Große Seen|Großen Seen]] im heutigen [[Ontario]] im Süden [[Kanada]]s und bis aus [[Nova Scotia]] im Osten Kanadas<ref>Mark A. Hill, Diana M. Greenlee u. a.: ''[http://www.academia.edu/2403581/Sourcing_Poverty_Point_Copper_Testing_the_Lake_Superior_Hypothesis_using_LA-ICPMS_Analysis Sourcing Poverty Point Copper: Testing the Lake Superior Hypothesis using LA-ICPMS Analysis]'', April 2010, 75th Anniversary Meeting of the [[Society for American Archaeology]] in St. Louis, Missouri</ref> bezogen. Daneben wurden weiterhin die bisherigen Quellen für gewöhnlichere Gesteine in der Nähe genutzt.<ref>Gibson 2000, S. 172 f.</ref> Die Gesamtmenge importierten Gesteins wird auf etwa 70&nbsp;Tonnen geschätzt.<ref>Jon Gibson, Philip Carr: ''Signs of power – the rise of cultural complexity in the Southeast''. University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-5085-3, S. 130.</ref><br />
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Je nach Zweck wurden aus den unterschiedlichen Gesteinen vielfältige Werkzeuge angefertigt. Grobe [[Grabstock|Grabstöcke]] mit Steinkopf dienten dazu, essbare Wurzeln auszugraben, [[Faustkeil]]e wurden zu Erdarbeiten eingesetzt, Projektilspitzen auf Wurfspeeren waren die Jagdwaffe. Polierte Steingewichte waren an als ''Atlatl'' bezeichneten [[Speerschleuder]]n befestigt, kleine Formen waren vermutlich an Fischernetzen befestigt. [[Schaber]] und verschiedenste [[Klinge]]n aus scharfkantig und flach abgesplittertem Stein dienten zur Zerkleinerung von Nahrung und der Bearbeitung von Leder. Typische Artefakte für Poverty Point selbst, nicht aber für alle peripheren Orte, sind als ''Microblades'' bezeichnete Klingen aus sehr schmalen [[Abschlag (Archäologie)|Abschlägen]]. Sie weisen häufig nur an einer Seite Abnutzungsspuren auf. Daher wird diskutiert, ob sie in nicht erhaltene hölzerne oder knöcherne Griffe eingelassen waren und zum Abschaben von Knollen und Wurzeln wie der [[Wasser-Gleditschie]] dienten. Diese könnten eine wichtige Quelle von [[Kohlenhydrate]]n der Bevölkerung dargestellt haben.<ref>Kathleen M. Byrd 1991, S. 5 f.</ref><br />
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Die häufig gefundenen tropfenförmigen Steingewichte werden traditionell als Beschwerung von Fischnetzen gedeutet. Eine neuere Analyse sieht sie als Hinweise auf [[Gewichtswebstuhl|Gewichtswebstühle]], da sie immer in größerer Zahl in häuslichem Kontext gefunden werden. Bei Verwendung zum Fischfang, hätten sie auch einzeln und außerhalb der Wohnbereichen verloren gehen und gefunden werden müssen.<ref>Carl P. Lipo, Timothy D. Hunt, [[Robert C. Dunnell]]: ''Formal analyses and functional accounts of groundstone “plummets” from Poverty Point, Louisiana.'' In: ''Journal of Archaeological Science.'' Vol. 39 (2012), S. 84–91, 88f.</ref><br />
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Gefäße sind seltene Funde, sie bestanden überwiegend aus Speckstein, teilweise aus Sandstein, daneben aus Keramik. Die Keramik war einfach, jedoch wurden Scherben mit verschiedenen [[Magerung]]smittel gefunden. Umstritten ist, ob die Keramik an Ort und Stelle produziert oder importiert wurde. Materialanalysen lassen vermuten, dass höchstens ein kleiner Teil der wenigen keramischen Scherben aus lokalem Material bestand.<ref>James B. Stoltman: ''Did Poverty Pointers make Pots?'' In: Rebecca Saunders, Christopher Tinsley Hays: ''Early pottery – technology, function, style, and interaction in the lower Southeast.'' Society for American Archaeology, University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-5127-2, S. 210 ff.</ref> Dabei wird vermutet, dass zunächst in Poverty Point die Herstellung von einfacher Keramik aus lokalem Material erfunden wurde, bevor Keramiktechniken mit Pflanzenfasern als Magerungsmittel importiert wurden. Stattdessen gibt es Hinweise darauf, dass Gefäße überwiegend aus [[Flaschenkürbis]]sen gefertigt wurden; aus demselben Material könnten auch Tassen, Löffel und Schwimmkörper für Netze hergestellt worden sein.<ref>Gayle J. Fritz: ''Keepers of Louisiana's Levees: Early Mound Builders and Forest Managers.'' In: Tim Denham, Josè Iriarte, Luc Vrydaghs: ''Rethinking Agriculture: Archaeological and Ethnoarchaeological Perspectives''. Lest Coast Press, 2007, ISBN 978-1-59874-260-2, S. 198.</ref><br />
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Schmuckstücke wurden in Form von Kettenanhängern aus Keramik, Stein und Kupfer gefunden. Kultischer Charakter kann kleinen Figuren unterstellt werden, die Tiere beziehungsweise [[Androgynie|androgyne]] oder eindeutig weibliche Menschen abbilden. Aus [[Jaspis]] wurden kleine Tierfiguren gefertigt, die als Eulen gedeutet werden. Sie wurden auch an anderen Orten der Poverty-Point-Kultur gefunden und gelten als charakteristische Artefakte auch wenn ihre spezifische Bedeutung unbekannt ist.<ref>Gibson 2000, Kapitel 6</ref> In Steinen und keramischen Gefäßen wurden Ritzungen gefunden. Die meisten stellen Tiere (Vögel, Schildkröten und selten nicht identifizierbare, vierfüßige Tiere) dar oder sind geometrisch dekorativ. Einige bestehen aus komplizierten [[Glyph]]en, die runde und geschwungene Formen der Natur mit geometrischen Figuren kombinieren.<ref>Gibson 2000, S. 189, 192.</ref> Die kleinen figürlichen Darstellungen werden als [[Fetischismus (Religion)|Fetische]] oder [[Talisman]]e interpretiert, die eigene Kräfte entwickeln oder diese symbolisieren.<ref name="gibson14" /><br />
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Die häufigsten Fundobjekte und charakteristischen Artefakte für die Poverty-Point-Kultur sind die so genannten ''Poverty Point Objects'', kurz ''PPO'', aus Löss geformte und getrocknete Erdballen von 2,5 bis 5&nbsp;cm Größe in mehreren typischen Formen. Sie dienten zum Kochen in Erdöfen, indem sie im Feuer erhitzt und dann in teilweise mit Ton ausgeformte Erdgruben zusammen mit der Nahrung gelegt wurden. Die Erdballen gaben die Hitze kontrolliert ab und mit etwas Übung war es möglich, die Temperatur und Garzeit zu steuern.<br />
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=== Kulturraum ===<br />
Die eigentliche Poverty-Point-Kultur erstreckte sich über ein Gebiet von rund 1800&nbsp;km². Die Poverty-Point-Anlage war das kulturelle Zentrum und lag auch geografisch zentral. In allen Richtungen außer im Osten, der Flutebene, lagen auf der Marçon Ridge im Umkreis von etwa vier bis sechs Kilometern mehrere kleine Siedlungen, die den Kern der Kultur bildeten. Weitere kleine Siedlungen und dutzende [[Wohnplatz (Archäologie)|Wohnplätze]] lassen sich in Entfernungen bis etwa 33&nbsp;km nachweisen. Sie werden als [[Peripherie]] angesehen, die den Kern mit Lebensmitteln versorgte. Entlang der Marçon Ridge und vereinzelt auch in den Sümpfen westlich davon wurden weitere Siedlungen gefunden, die der Poverty-Point-Kultur zugerechnet werden. Ihre Entfernung zum Zentrum betrug mehrere Tagesreisen, sie waren sehr unterschiedlich stark an das Zentrum gebunden. Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede existieren bei Materialien, Werkzeugformen und Stilen im künstlerischen Ausdruck.<ref name="gibson14" /><br />
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Die Kultur strahlte weit über dieses Gebiet hinaus: Entsprechende Funde wurden gleichermaßen an der ''Yazoo site'' in der östlichen Flutebene des Mississippis gemacht, wie in ''Grand Marais'' am Mittellauf des [[Ouachita River]]s. Ein Mound mit Poverty-Point-Bezug, allerdings wesentlich kleiner als im Kerngebiet, wurde in ''Catahoula'' am Unterlauf des Ouachita erkannt.<ref name="sassaman" /> Gut erforscht ist die ''Claiborne site'' an der Küste des [[Golf von Mexico]] östlich des heutigen [[New Orleans]].<ref>James E. Bruseth: ''Poverty Point Development as Seen at the Cedarland and Claiborne Sites, Southern Mississippi.'' In: Kathleen M. Byrd 1991, S. 7–25.</ref> Als entfernteste Region mit Povery-Point-Einfluss gilt der ''Elliot’s Point Complex'' an der Nordwest-Küste Floridas. Er besteht aus über 90 einzelnen Fundorten<ref>Nancy Marie White: ''Late Archaic Fischer-Foragers in the Apalachicola-Lower Chattahoochee Valley, Northwest Florida-South Georgie/Alabama.'' In: Jon L. Gibson, Philip J. Carr (Hrsg.): ''Signs of Power – The Rise of Cultural Complexity in the Southeast.'' University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-1391-5, S. 16.</ref> im [[Florida Panhandle]], die durch exotisches Gestein und Koch-Bällchen aus Ton sowie charakteristische Siedlungsstrukturen dem Poverty-Point-Kulturraum zugeordnet werden. Allerdings sind dort die Nachweise der Steinbearbeitung weit seltener als im Kerngebiet der Kultur und in den Küstengebieten liegen die Fundorte an ''shell middens'' statt Mounds.<ref>Prentice M. Thomas, Jr., L. Janice Campbell: ''Elliot’s Point Complex: New Data Regarding the Localized Poverty Point Expression on the Northwest Florida Gulf Coast, 2000 B.C. – 500 B.C.'' In: Kathleen M. Byrd 1991, S. 103–119.</ref><br />
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Weil für den Bau der Erdwerke in den nachgewiesenen kurzen Zeiträumen eine höhere Zahl an Mitarbeitern erforderlich ist, als im eigentlichen Kulturraum unter den damaligen Bedingungen mit ihren Familien Nahrung finden konnten, müssen für die Arbeiten Menschen aus einem weiten Umfeld zusammengekommen sein, was der Verbreitung von Artefakten mit Poverty-Point-Bezug entspricht.<ref>Anthony L. Ortmann, Tristram R. Kidder: ''Building Mound A at Poverty Point, Louisiana – Monumental Public Architecture, Ritual Practice, and Implications for Hunter-Gatherer Complexity.'' In: ''Geoarchaeology.'' Volume 28, Issue 1 (Januar/Februar 2013), S. 66–86, 76.</ref><br />
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=== Motivation und Austausch von Gütern ===<br />
Es gibt verschiedene Theorien, wie die Erbauer von Poverty Point den Bezug der Gesteine von weit entfernten Fundorten organisierten und motivierten. Jon Gibson diskutiert den Austausch mit Handelsgütern, die keine archäologischen Spuren hinterlassen haben, wie [[Speisesalz|Salz]] und Federn des [[Nashornpelikan]]s, die als Schmuck und zu zeremoniellen Zwecken verwendet worden sein könnten. Er verwirft dies jedoch und nimmt an, dass alle Bewohner des Südostens Nordamerikas im Einzugsgebiet des Mississippis und darüber hinaus das Projekt ''Poverty Point'' unterstützen wollten. Die Gegenleistung für den Bezug der Steine war die Errichtung der Anlage, die durch ihre Form und Ausrichtung eine globale Harmonie der Welt herstellen sollte. Er glaubt, die zentrale Motivation der Lieferungen sei die „Macht der Güte“ gewesen.<ref name="gibson14" /> Wenn sich die neueren Analysen bestätigen, dass in Poverty Point eine große Zahl an Gewichtswebstühlen betrieben wurden, dann könnten auch Textilien als Tauschgut in Frage kommen. Auch sie hätten keine direkten Spuren hinterlassen.<ref>Carl P. Lipo, Timothy D. Hunt, Robert C. Dunnell: ''Formal analyses and functional accounts of groundstone “plummets” from Poverty Point, Louisiana.'' In: ''Journal of Archaeological Science.'' Vol. 39 (2012), S. 84–91, 90.</ref><br />
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Allgemeinere Deutungsansätze sprechen davon, dass Poverty Points Einfluss „in symbolischer Macht begründet lag, nicht in der Ausweitung von wirtschaftlicher oder politischer Macht.“<ref name="sassaman">Kenneth E. Sassaman: ''Poverty Point as Structure, Event, Process.'' In: ''Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory.'' Volume 12, No 4 (Dezember 2005), S. 335–364, 337.</ref> Andere Ansätze sehen Poverty Point als Gemeinschaftsprojekt und Symbol für das Aufeinandertreffen und Zusammenwirken von Vorgängerkulturen, also der im Norden und den Mississippi flussaufwärts gelegenen Kulturen mit den Küstenkulturen im Süden und Südosten. Sie hätten demnach ihre jeweiligen Fähigkeiten in das gemeinsame Vorhaben eingebracht. Analog früheren Kulturen der Archaischen Periode hätten auch die Angehörigen der Poverty-Point-Kultur Reisen zur [[Initiation]] in die Gemeinschaft unternommen. Sie hätten jedoch die Entfernungen dieser Fahrten deutlich erweitert und von den realen oder mythischen Orten ihrer Herkunft Materialien mitgebracht.<ref name="sassaman" /><br />
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=== Das Ende der Poverty-Point-Kultur ===<br />
Das Ende der Poverty-Point-Kultur war zugleich der Umbruch von der Archaischen Periode zur [[Woodland-Periode]]. Die Ursachen sind unklar. Neben [[Klimaveränderung|klimatischen Veränderungen]] mit Folgen für die Nahrungsversorgung wird auch diskutiert, ob der Aufwand für die Anlage von Poverty Point mit dem damit verbundenen Sozialsystem und den Wirtschaftsformen die Möglichkeiten der Kultur mittel- und langfristig überforderte. Möglicherweise ließen sich die sozialen Organisationen nicht mehr aufrechterhalten, Handel und überregionale Kontakte wären demnach zusammengebrochen. Der kulturelle und soziale Neuanfang im Poverty-Point-Gebiet wird als [[Tchefuncte-Kultur]] bezeichnet, die bereits der Woodland-Periode zugerechnet wird. Sie ist nicht nur durch die weite Verbreitung und lokale Herstellung von Keramik gekennzeichnet, sondern zeichnet sich durch neue soziale Strukturen aus, die sich in den Artefakten und Siedlungsformen niederschlagen.<ref name="transition">Tristam R. Kidder: ''Climate Change and the Archaic to Woodland Transition (3000–2500&nbsp;cal&nbsp;B.P.) in the Mississippi River Basin.'' In: ''American Antiquity.'' Volume 71, No 2 (2006), S. 195–231, 198.</ref> Im Verlauf der Woodland-Periode wurde der [[Ackerbau]] am Unterlauf des Mississippi eingeführt. Mounds wurden auch in der Woodland-Periode errichtet, jedoch keine komplexen Anlagen wie Poverty Point.<br />
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Als indirekte Nachfolger der Poverty-Point-Kultur gelten die [[Koroa]] und weitere Angehörige der [[Tunica (Sprache)|Tunica]]-Sprachfamile.<ref>Gibson 2000, S. 273.</ref><br />
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[[Datei:PovertyPoint.jpg|mini|Schräg-Luftbild von Poverty Point 1938]]<br />
[[Datei:Poverty point 1938 USACE-3.jpg|mini|hochkant=1|[[Orthofoto|Orthorektifizierte]] Luftaufnahme von Poverty Point 1938. Auf diesen Bildern wurden die Zusammenhänge der Erdbauten erkannt.]]<br />
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== Forschungsgeschichte ==<br />
1832 zogen der Pflanzer Phillip Guier und seine Frau Sarah aus [[Kentucky]] ins nördliche Louisiana und kauften einen Teil des Geländes, um eine Baumwollplantage zu errichten. Ab 1851 ist der Name ''Poverty Point'' für seine Plantage nachgewiesen. Etwa zu diesem Zeitpunkt muss er auch weitere Flächen angekauft haben, so dass die gesamte, noch nicht als solche entdeckte Fundstätte in seinem Besitz war. Trotz der Namensgebung, ''poverty'' heißt Armut, war Guier wirtschaftlich erfolgreich, für 1860 gab er ein Vermögen von 120.000 Dollar an. Seine Frau Sarah und einige spätere Familienangehörige wurden auf Mound D begraben, der deshalb auch als ''Sarah’s Mound'' bezeichnet wird.<ref>West Carroll Gazette: ''[http://files.usgwarchives.net/la/westcarroll/history/towns/povpont.txt The history of Poverty Point now uncovered]'', 21. Oktober 1992.</ref> Die flachen Ringe fielen den Guiers nicht als künstliche Strukturen auf und wurden durch die Bodenbearbeitung mit dem Pflug über Jahrzehnte langsam abgetragen und partiell eingeebnet.<br />
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In den 1830er Jahren notierte ein Siedler namens Jacob Walter seine Beobachtung des großen Mounds A und der an der Oberfläche zu findenden Erdbällchen, den heute so genannten ''Poverty Point Objects''. 1873 fand die erste [[Landesvermessung|Vermessung]] der Region statt, Poverty Point wurde nicht als auffällig erkannt.<ref>Die Darstellung der Forschungsgeschichte stützt sich auf Gibson 2000, Kapitel 2</ref><br />
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Im Winter 1911/12 entdeckte der Archäologe Clarence B. Moore, der auch zahlreiche andere Mounds erforschte, die Anlage und publizierte seinen Bericht von mehreren Mounds, den Erdbällchen und anderen Artefakten.<ref>Zu den Forschungen Moores: Richard A. Weinstein, David B. Kelley, Joe Saunders (Hrsg.): ''The Louisiana and Arkansas expeditions of Clarence Bloomfield Moore.'' Band 1, University of Alabama Press 2001.</ref> 1926 entsandte die [[Smithsonian Institution]] einen Mitarbeiter, der Bruchstücke einer Specksteinschale fand. Eine besondere Bedeutung wurde dem Ort jedoch nicht beigemessen, weshalb die [[Louisiana State Route 577]] durch das Gelände geführt wurde.<br />
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1933 versuchte der Archäologe James A. Ford eine Zeittafel der Kulturen am unteren Mississippi zu erstellen. Obwohl er Poverty Point kannte, er war sogar dort gewesen, ließ er den Fundort aus, weil er die Befunde nicht einordnen konnte. 1935 grub der Arzt und Amateur-Archäologe Clarence Webb einen Graben am Fuß eines Mounds aus, in dem tausende Bruchstücke von Gefäßen aus Speckstein lagen. Sein Fund wurde 1944 publiziert, Webb blieb der Fundstelle verbunden und arbeitete an späteren Grabungen mit. Während des [[Zweiter Weltkrieg|Zweiten Weltkriegs]] wurde die Region nach [[Erdöl]] und [[Erdgas|-gas]] erkundet, ein Ölunternehmer sammelte an Poverty Point große Mengen an Artefakten und arbeitete in den 1950er Jahren mit den Archäologen zusammen.<br />
<br />
Bei den Ausgrabungen der [[Works Progress Administration]] im Rahmen des [[New Deal]]s der 1930er Jahre und in weiteren umfassenden Publikationen zur Siedlungsgeschichte der Region in den 1940er und frühen 1950er Jahren wurde Poverty Point völlig ignoriert. Die Artefakte passten stilistisch zu keiner bekannten Kultur, Form und Größe der bis dahin erkannten Mounds ließen sich nicht einordnen.<br />
<br />
In den 1950er Jahren finanzierte das [[American Museum of Natural History]] in [[New York City|New York]] die erste groß angelegte Ausgrabung. James A. Ford besorgte zur Vorbereitung Luftaufnahmen, die das [[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] in den 1930er Jahren für den Deichbau angefertigt hatte. Er erkannte auf den Bildern erstmals, dass die Geländerippen, die bis dahin für unregelmäßig und natürlichen Ursprungs gehalten worden waren, eine geometrische Anlage darstellten und dass sie, nicht die Mounds, die eigentliche Besonderheit Poverty Points waren. Ford und sein Kollege Robert Neitzel diskutierten, ob es sich ursprünglich um eine geschlossene, achteckige Anlage handelte, die teilweise mit dem Gelände erodiert war, oder ob die Ringe als Halbkreise zu einem schon bei der Erbauung vorhandenen Hangabbruch orientiert waren und darüber, ob alle Mounds zur Anlage mit den Ringen gehörten.<ref name="amantiquity" /> Bei den Grabungen fanden sie hunderttausende PPOs in Feuergruben, daraufhin begannen sie mit den wahrscheinlich ersten Ansätzen [[Experimentelle Archäologie|experimenteller Archäologie]] in Amerika und formten selbst Bällchen aus Löss, experimentierten mit ihnen und wiesen so ihren Zweck nach. Außerdem nahmen sie die ersten <sup>14</sup>C-Datierungen vor, noch mit unzulänglichen Methoden, was in großen Konfidenzintervallen resultierte.<br />
<br />
Bis zu Fords Tod Ende der 1960er Jahre arbeiteten Ford und Webb zusammen und entwarfen Konzepte der Kultur von Poverty Point und der Anlage. Sie gingen noch davon aus, dass es sich um eine Siedlung handeln müsse, die bereits [[Ackerbau]] betrieb und nahmen an, dass [[Mais]] die Ernährungsgrundlage der Menschen gewesen sei. Außerdem spekulierte Ford über Einflüsse aus [[Mesoamerika]], die chronologischen Zusammenhänge und eine Invasion von Angehörigen der erst in der Folge als wesentlich jünger erkannten [[Hopewell-Kultur]] aus dem Norden, die den Anstoß zum Bau der Anlage gegeben hätte.<ref>Gibson 2000, S. 24.</ref><br />
<br />
In den 1970er Jahren stieß Jon Gibson zu den Archäologen um Webb und wurde für die nächsten dreißig Jahre der einflussreichste Experte für die Kultur von Poverty Point. Er entwickelte die Theorie, dass hier das erste [[Häuptlingstum]] auf dem nordamerikanischen Kontinent entstanden wäre. Die These brach in den frühen 1980ern zusammen, als deutlich wurde, dass Poverty Point keine agrarische Gesellschaft war und auch keine Anzeichen für [[Sozialstruktur|Gesellschaftliche Schichten]] und eine Struktur mit Häuptlingen gefunden wurden. Der Ausbau des Fundortes zu einer Gedenkstätte des Staates Louisiana mit Museum ermöglichte neue Grabungen und <sup>14</sup>C-Datierungen. In den 1980 und 90er Jahren wurden auf der ''Marçon Ridge'' und in der umliegenden Region eine Vielzahl peripherer Siedlungen und Lager gefunden, die in engem Austausch mit Poverty Point standen. Die Forschung konzentrierte sich auf die Beziehungen zwischen den Orten der Poverty-Point-Kultur einerseits und dem Austausch, insbesondere von Gestein, mit Menschen außerhalb der Kultur.<br />
<br />
Neuere Probennahmen und Grabungen an den Mounds erlauben seit 2001 eine Überprüfung früherer Datierungen und dadurch weitgehend gesicherte Daten zur Erstellung der Anlage. Neben <sup>14</sup>C-Daten liegen auch [[Thermolumineszenzdatierung]]en von in den Mounds gefundenen keramischen Objekten vor.<ref name="amantiquity" /> 2001 wurde punktuell eine [[Prospektion (Archäologie)#Geomagnetische Messungen|geomagnetische Prospektion]] vorgenommen. Damit konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass Unterschiede in der Zusammensetzung der verbauten Erde, Ansammlungen von organischem Material als Siedlungsabfall und Kochgruben auch zerstörungsfrei von der Oberfläche gefunden werden können.<ref name="hargrave">Michael L. Hargrave, Tad Britt, Matthew Rynolds: ''Magnetic Evidence of Ridge Construction and Use at Poverty Point.'' In: ''American Antiquity.'' Volume 72, No 4 (2007), S. 757–769.</ref> Seit 2002 liegt auch ein detailliertes [[digitales Geländemodell]] vom heutigen Zustand der Anlage vor.<ref name="hargrave" /><br />
<br />
== Poverty Point heute ==<br />
[[Datei:Poverty Point Archaeological Museum.jpg|mini|Das Besucherzentrum mit kleinem Museum]]<br />
Die Anlage wurde 1962 auf Initiative der Archäologen als [[National Historic Landmark]] ausgewiesen.<ref>National Park Service: ''[http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=263&ResourceType=Site National Historic Landmarks Programm – Poverty Point]'', abgerufen am 20. Dezember 2010.</ref> Der Bundesstaat Louisiana kaufte das Gelände 1972 an und [[Widmung (Recht)|widmete]] es als ''State Historic Site''. Die Anlage wird jährlich von etwa 15.000 Menschen besucht.<ref>National Park Service: ''[http://www.nps.gov/oia/topics/worldheritage/Applications/Poverty%20Point.doc Poverty Point State Historic Site – Prerequisites for U.S. World Heritage Nominations] ([[Microsoft Word|MS Word]]; 5,6&nbsp;MB)''</ref> Auf der Freifläche im Zentrum der Ringe steht seit 1975 ein kleines [[Besucherzentrum]] mit Museum, von dem aus täglich mehrmals Führungen, auch mit einer [[Wegebahn]] angeboten werden. Ein etwa vier Kilometer langer Rundweg führt durch das Gelände, vorbei an den am besten erhaltenen Ringen und den großen Mounds.<ref name="shs" /> Im Norden liegen jenseits eines kleinen Wasserlaufs Unterkünfte und Werkstätten für Archäologen des ''Poverty Point Station Archaeology Program'' der [[University of Louisiana at Monroe]].<br />
<br />
1988 schuf der [[Kongress der Vereinigten Staaten|Kongress]] die Voraussetzungen für eine Übernahme durch den Bund als [[National Monuments in den Vereinigten Staaten|National Monument]].<ref name="congress">Public Law 100–560 vom OCT. 31, 1988 (Online: ''[http://www.nps.gov/legal/parklaws/2/laws2-volume_2-natl_monuments.pdf Seite 617 f.]'')</ref> Der Staat Louisiana hätte die Flächen jedoch kostenlos abgeben müssen, was von Louisiana abgelehnt wurde.<ref name="congress" /> Das National Monument ist daher nur eine formale Hülle. Die [[Smithsonian Institution]] nahm die Anlage 2010 in ihren Forschungsverbund auf.<ref>Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism: ''[http://www.crt.state.la.us/Assets/Parks/press-releases/20101109.pdf Poverty Point State Historic Site Designated as an Affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution] (PDF; 133&nbsp;kB)'', Pressemitteilung vom 9. November 2010.</ref> Das erleichtert dem State Historic Site den Zugang zum Verleih von Sammlungsgegenständen für Ausstellungen, zu Fortbildungsveranstaltungen und der Zusammenarbeit bei Forschungs- und Bildungsprogrammen.<ref>Smithsonian Institution: ''[http://www.affiliations.si.edu/DetailPage.Asp?MenuID=44 Affiliate Network – Overview]''</ref><br />
<br />
In den Jahren 2011/2012 wurden die Bäume auf den Mounds der Anlage gefällt. Ihre Wurzeln galten als Gefahr für die Erdwerke, weil sie bei Sturmschäden den Boden aufreißen könnten.<ref>''[http://www.laarchaeology.org/newsletters/2011%20No.%201.pdf New Look for Ancient Mounds] (PDF; 3,3&nbsp;MB)'', Newsletter of the Louisiana Archaeological Society, Vol. 39, No. 1 (Frühjahr 2011), S. 7.</ref> Die Erde zwischen den Wurzelstöcken wurde gesammelt und wird seitdem in den Wintermonaten auf Artefakte untersucht. Damit zeigen die Mounds wieder das Aussehen, das sie mutmaßlich zur Zeit der Nutzung hatten.<br />
<br />
2008 wurde Poverty Point auf die [[Tentativliste]] für die Ausweisung als UNESCO-Welterbe aufgenommen,<ref name="unesco" /> im Januar 2013 wurde die formale Nominierung eingereicht.<ref>United States Department of the Interior: ''[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2013/01/202986.htm?goMobile=0 Nomination of Poverty Point State Historic Site to UNESCO World Heritage List]'', 17. Januar 2013.</ref> Im Juni 2014 nahm das Welterbe-Komitee Poverty Point<ref>UNESCO-Welterbe-Komitee: [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1435/ Monumental Earthworks of Poverty Point]</ref> in die Liste des [[UNESCO-Welterbe]]s auf.<ref>UNESCO-Welterbe-Komitee: [http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana], 22. Juni 2014.</ref> Nachdem keine neueren Datierungen für ''Motley Mound'' im Norden der Anlage vorliegen, wurde er vom Welterbe ausgenommen. Er soll ergänzt werden, wenn zuverlässige Daten vorliegen. Das [[International Council on Monuments and Sites]] hatte in seiner Evaluation von Poverty Point die kulturelle Bedeutung der Anlage als außerordentlich und auszeichnungswürdig eingestuft, äußerte jedoch Kritik am Schutz der Anlage und des Umfeldes. Es empfahl den Highway 577 aus dem Gebiet zu verlegen und einen gesetzlichen Schutz der landwirtschaftlichen Flächen rund um die Anlage vor Bebauung einzuführen. Außerdem sei zu überlegen, ob benachbarte Fundorte des Siedlungskerns in den Schutz einbezogen werden sollten.<ref>ICOMOS: [http://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B1-en.pdf Evaluations of Nominations of Cultural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List WHC-14/38.COM/INF.8B1], 2014.</ref><br />
<br />
== Literatur ==<br />
* Jon Gibson: ''The Ancient Mounds of Poverty Point''. University of Florida Press, Gainesville u. a. 2000, ISBN 0-8130-1833-1.<br />
* Kathleen M. Byrd (Hrsg.): ''The Poverty Point Culture – Local Manifestations, Subsistence Practices, and Trade Networks.'' (= Geoscience & Man. 29). Geoscience Publications, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge 1991, ISBN 0-938909-50-9.<br />
* Jon Gibson: ''Poverty Point – A Terminal Archaic Culture of the Lower Mississippi Valley.'' Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism, Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission, 1996. (Kurzfassung online: ''[http://www.crt.state.la.us/dataprojects/archaeology/virtualbooks/POVERPOI/popo.htm Poverty Point]'')<br />
* James A. Ford, Clarence H. Webb: ''Poverty Point, a Late Archaic Site in Louisiana''. (= Anthropological Papers Vol. 46). Teil 1. American Museum of Natural History, New York 1956. (die Erstbeschreibung der Ausgrabungen von 1953 bis 1955, auch [http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/108/1/A046a01.pdf online, PDF, 55 MB])<br />
* George R. Milner: ''The Moundbuilders – Ancient Peoples of Eastern North America''. Thames & Hudson, New York/ London 2005, ISBN 0-500-28468-7.<br />
* Kathleen O'Neal Gear, W. Michael Gear: ''People of the owl – a novel of prehistoric North America''. Forge, New York 2003, ISBN 0-312-87741-2. (historischer Roman, der in der Poverty-Point-Kultur spielt)<br />
<br />
== Weblinks ==<br />
{{Commonscat}}<br />
* [http://www.crt.state.la.us/louisiana-state-parks/historic-sites/poverty-point-state-historic-site/index Louisiana Office of State Parks: Poverty Point State Historic Site (offizielle Seite)] (englisch)<br />
* {{NPS Link|popo|Poverty Point National Monument}} – formale Seite der Bundesverwaltung ohne eigene Inhalte, Besucher werden auf die Website des Staates Louisiana weitergeleitet<br />
* [http://www.archaeologychannel.org/content/video/poverty.html Poverty Point Earthworks: Evolutionary Milestones of the Americas], Louisiana Educational Television Authority and Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation & Tourism, 1999 – Video, Windows Media Player oder Real Player, Laufzeit 22 min<br />
* {{Webarchiv | url=http://www.deltablues.net/jon.html | wayback=20131207234411 | text=Poverty Point: The First Complex Delta Culture}}, Jon Gibson, 2002 – mit Informationen über die Arbeit der Archäologen<br />
* National Geographic: [http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2014/06/22/poverty-point/ Louisiana’s Best-Kept Secret Now a World Heritage Site], 22. Juni 2014<br />
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== Einzelnachweise ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
{{Navigationsleiste Welterbe Vereinigte Staaten}}<br />
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{{Exzellent|26. Januar 2011|84007410}}<br />
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[[Kategorie:Archäologischer Fundplatz in den Vereinigten Staaten]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Altamerikanistik]]<br />
[[Kategorie:National Historic Landmark (Louisiana)]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Geographie (Louisiana)]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Geschichte von Louisiana]]<br />
[[Kategorie:West Carroll Parish]]<br />
[[Kategorie:National Monument (Vereinigte Staaten)]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Weltkulturerbe in den Vereinigten Staaten]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mound&diff=159084232Mound2016-10-25T22:37:04Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* Nordamerika */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Begriffsklärungshinweis}}<br />
[[Datei:Grave Creek Mound.jpg|miniatur|370px|Grave Creek Mound in Moundsville, [[West Virginia]]]]<br />
Als '''Mound''' werden künstlich geschaffene Hügel überwiegend im Südosten der [[Vereinigte Staaten|Vereinigten Staaten]] bezeichnet, die von verschiedenen Indianerkulturen zu kulturellen und Begräbnis-Zwecken errichtet wurden. Auch die Vorläufer der [[Tempelpyramide|Tempel]]- und Palastpyramiden [[Mesoamerika]]s werden von der Forschung als ''mounds'' bezeichnet.<br />
<br />
== Vorkommen ==<br />
=== Nordamerika ===<br />
Sehr häufig sind Mounds in den Tälern des [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] und seiner Zuflüsse zu finden, am gesamten Lauf des [[Ohio River]]s und am Unterlauf des [[Missouri River|Missouri]], im benachbarten Gebiet des [[Susquehanna River]] und dem [[Wyoming River]], im westlich des [[Allegheny Mountains|Alleghany-Gebirges]] gelegenen [[Virginia]] sowie vom [[Ontariosee]] bis zum [[Sankt-Lorenz-Strom]] entlang. Weiterhin erstrecken sie sich nordwärts durch [[Wisconsin]] und am Rainy River bis in den Norden des [[Kanada|kanadischen]] [[Ontario]]s und im Süden in die Ebenen [[Georgia]]s.<br />
<br />
Das wichtigste Zentrum dieser Hügel lag im heutigen [[Ohio]], wo man mehr als 10.000 solcher Erdhügel und mehr als 1500 [[Ringwall|Ringwälle]] zählt. Auch der südöstliche Teil des Bundesstaats [[Missouri]] ist reich an Mounds, wie das Grenzgebiet zwischen [[Iowa]] und [[Illinois]], wo man auf einer Fläche von 128 km² mehr als 2500 Mounds zählt. Das südliche [[Wisconsin]] ist gekennzeichnet durch die besondere Form der [[Effigy Mounds National Monument|Effigy Mounds]], mit figürlichen ([[Englische Sprache|engl.]] ''effigy'') Formen, die hier Säugetiere, Vögel, Reptilien und vereinzelt menschliche Figuren darstellen.<br />
<br />
[[Datei:USA-Georgia-Etowah Indian Mounds-Mound B.jpg|thumb|Mound B der Etowah Indian Mounds, [[Georgia]]]]<br />
Auch weiter südlich im Gebiet der Mississippizuflüsse [[Yazoo River]], [[Arkansas River]] und [[Red River (Mississippi)|Red River]] finden sich noch zahlreiche Mounds. Die Mounds in [[South Carolina]] und [[Georgia]] sowie in [[Texas]] haben eine etwas andere Form und sind jüngeren Ursprungs, wie die [[Cuecillo]]s (Cu) in [[Mexiko]]. Eine der bekanntesten dieser Anlagen früher [[Indianer]]kulturen ist der [[Great Serpent Mound]]. Die Erbauer der etwa 100.000 erhaltenen [[Erdwerke]] im Südosten der Vereinigten Staaten wurden zunächst schlicht „[[Moundbuilders]]“ genannt, bevor die Erforschung ihrer Bauten und Artefakte eine Unterscheidung in eine Vielzahl einzelner Phasen und Kulturen ermöglichte.<br />
<br />
Manchmal werden die in der Frühzeit parallel errichteten ''[[Shell midden]]s'' aus gewaltigen Haufen an Muschelschalen und Schneckenhäusern vom Umfeld des Ohio Rivers bis an die Küste des [[Golf von Mexico]], sowie die südliche Atlantikküste ebenfalls als Mounds oder ''Shell Mounds'' bezeichnet. Ihre Entstehung ist aber noch weniger geklärt als die der Erd-Mounds und es gilt als möglich, dass ihre Anlage nicht planvoll begonnen wurde, sondern sie aus der Anhäufung von Resten der Nahrungszubereitung entstanden, bevor sie systematisch erhöht wurden. Daher sollten sie auch sprachlich nicht mit den planvoll angelegten Mounds verbunden werden.<ref>George M. Crothers: ''The Green River in Comparison to the Lower Mississippi Valley during the Archaic: To Build Mounds or not to Build Mounds?'' In: Jon L. Gibson, Philip J. Carr (Hrsg.): ''Signs of Power – The Rise of Cultural Complexity in the Southeast''. University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-1391-5, Seiten 86–96</ref><br />
<br />
=== Mittelamerika ===<br />
In Mesoamerika werden vor allem die frühen [[Tempelpyramide|Erdpyramiden]] der [[Olmeken]] ([[La-Venta-Kultur|La Venta]], [[Tres Zapotes]], [[San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan|San Lorenzo]]) und der [[Mokaya-Kultur]] im Gebiet der ehemaligen Provinz [[Soconusco (Chiapas)|Soconusco]] als ''mounds'' bezeichnet. Ab etwa 100 v.&nbsp;Chr. wurden die Erdhügel mehr und mehr durch Steinbauten ersetzt, wobei – wegen der Tradition von Überbauungen – einige der ursprünglichen Erdhügel als Teil der Substruktion erhalten blieben.<br />
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== Entwicklung ==<br />
[[Datei:Watson Brake Aerial Illustration HRoe 2014.jpg|thumb|Illustration der [[Watson Brake]], Blick aus der Luft]]<br />
[[Datei:Poverty Point Aerial HRoe 2014.jpg|thumb|Illustration der [[Poverty Point]], Blick aus der Luft]]<br />
[[Datei:Mound City Chillicothe Ohio HRoe 2008.jpg|mini|Mound City, [[Hopewell-Kultur]].]]<br />
[[Datei:Cahokia Aerial HRoe 2015.jpg|mini|[[Cahokia]], die größte Mississippian Kulturstätte.]]<br />
Mounds entstanden erstmals in der mittleren [[Archaische Periode (Amerika)|archaischen Periode]] zwischen 3500&nbsp;und 3000&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. im Gebiet des unteren [[Mississippi River]]. Anlagen aus einzelnen Mounds und zusammengesetzte mit mehreren wurden in dieser Zeit von [[Jäger und Sammler|Jäger-, Sammler- und Fischer-Kulturen]] errichtet, die sich fast ganzjährig an günstigen Orten aufhielten. Die Mounds wurden nahezu ausschließlich auf Flussterrassen errichtet. Komplexere Fundorte sind [[Watson Brake]] und [[Frenchman’s Bend]], beide beim heutigen Ort [[Monroe (Louisiana)|Monroe]], Louisiana. Nach den mittelarchaischen Mounds brach die Tradition ab, um rund 1300 Jahre später ohne erneute Vorläufer zum komplexesten Erdwerk der archaischen Zeit zu führen: [[Poverty Point]], ebenfalls im nördlichen Louisiana.<br />
<br />
Die Gründe für das Aufkommen der Erdbauten sind Gegenstand der Fachdebatte. Die [[Klimageschichte]] verweist auf die günstigen Bedingungen gegen Ende des [[Atlantikum]]s, was die Nahrungsgrundlage der Menschen verbessert haben könnte. Möglicherweise setzte dadurch eine Bevölkerungszunahme ein, die zur Konkurrenz um Territorien und Ressourcen führte. Mounds wären dann Projekte, die die Gemeinschaft nach innen stärken und nach außen präsentieren sollten.<ref>David G. Anderson: ''Archaic Mounds and then Archaeology of Southeastern Tribal Societies''. In: Jon L. Gibson, Philip J. Carr (Hrsg.): ''Signs of Power – The Rise of Cultural Complexity in the Southeast''. University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-1391-5, Seiten 270–299</ref><br />
<br />
Poverty Point, datiert auf das 18. bis 10. vorchristliche Jahrhundert am Ende der archaischen Periode besteht aus sechs Mounds und sechs konzentrischen, halbrunden Erdwällen an einem Hangabbruch, ausgerichtet nach Osten zum Sonnenaufgang. Die Anlage wurde errichtet von einer Kultur, die seltene, besonders hochwertige Steine aus einer Entfernung von bis zu 2000 km importierte und sich über einen Kulturraum von rund 1800 km² erstreckte. Sie strahlte weit darüber hinaus aus, bis nach Florida. Auch hier brach die Tradition zunächst wieder ab.<br />
<br />
In der frühen [[Woodland-Periode]] ab 800 v. Chr. entstand eine neue Form der Mounds: Die ersten waren kleine runde Grabhügel im heutigen Bundesstaat Ohio. Sie können der nach einem Fundplatz benannten [[Adena-Kultur]] (ca. 800 v. Chr. bis 100 n. Chr.) zugeordnet werden. Die Hügel wurden größer und mit der [[Hopewell-Kultur]] setzte sich die Bautätigkeit ca. 200 v. Chr. bis 700 n. Chr. fort. Es entstanden nicht nur Hügel, sondern großflächige Erdwälle und komplexe Erdwerke aus linearen und runden Strukturen. In der späten Woodland-Stufe ab 600 entstanden im südlichen Wisconsin und den unmittelbaren Nachbarregionen die figürlichen ''Effigy Mounds''. Sie verschwanden ab etwa 1200 wieder, runde Formen wurden hier noch bis 1700 vereinzelt angelegt. Etwa zeitgleich entstand am Unterlauf des Mississippi die [[Mississippi-Kultur]] (vermutlich bis 1700 n.&nbsp;Chr)., deren größte Siedlung [[Cahokia]] war und deren aus den Grabhügeln hervorgegangene Tempelhügelbau wie der des [[Monk’s Mound]] nach Volumen und kulturellen Erscheinungsformen den Höhepunkt der [[Moundbuilders]] darstellt. <br />
<br />
Noch im 18. Jahrhundert wurden vereinzelt Mounds angelegt. Von den [[Choctaw (Volk)|Choctaw]] aus Georgia liegt ein Bericht vor, nachdem der Anstoß zum Bau ihres heiligen Mounds ''Nanih Waiya'' von einem Häuptling ausging, der den Vorschlag seinem Volk unterbreitete und dabei an ihre Verantwortung vor den Ahnen erinnerte. In dem Mound konnten sie dann während des Baus die Gebeine kürzlich verstorbener Angehöriger ablegen, die in der Zeit bis zum Bau eines würdigen Bestattungsortes in Lederhüllen aufbewahrt worden waren. Der Mound hatte nicht nur eine Schutzfunktion für die Gebeine, sondern spielte ebenfalls eine Rolle in ihren Schöpfungsmythen.<ref>Jon L. Gibson: ''The Power of Beneficial Obligation in First Mound-Building Societies''. In: Jon L. Gibson, Philip J. Carr (Hrsg.): ''Signs of Power – The Rise of Cultural Complexity in the Southeast''. University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-1391-5, Seiten 254–269</ref><br />
<br />
== Denkmalschutz ==<br />
Viele Mounds und Gebiete mit hoher Konzentration von Mounds stehen unter dem Schutz der Denkmalsgesetze des Bundes oder der jeweiligen US-Bundesstaaten. Die bedeutendsten Schutzgebiete nach Bundesrecht sind [[Effigy Mounds National Monument]] und [[Ocmulgee National Monument]]. Cahokia ist [[Weltkulturerbe]]. <br />
<br />
== Literatur ==<br />
* George R. Milner: ''The Moundbuilders. Ancient Peoples of Eastern North America.'' Thames & Hudson, London 2005. ISBN 0-500-28468-7.<br />
<br />
== Einzelnachweise ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[[Kategorie:Grabbau in Amerika|Vereinigte Staaten]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianische Kultur]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Archäologischer Fachbegriff]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Altamerikanistik]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Archäologie (Vereinigte Staaten)]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Sakralbau in den Vereinigten Staaten]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Aufgeschütteter Berg]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mound&diff=159083007Mound2016-10-25T21:29:26Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* Entwicklung */ Illustrationen hinzufügen</p>
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<div>{{Begriffsklärungshinweis}}<br />
[[Datei:Grave Creek Mound.jpg|miniatur|370px|Grave Creek Mound in Moundsville, [[West Virginia]]]]<br />
Als '''Mound''' werden künstlich geschaffene Hügel überwiegend im Südosten der [[Vereinigte Staaten|Vereinigten Staaten]] bezeichnet, die von verschiedenen Indianerkulturen zu kulturellen und Begräbnis-Zwecken errichtet wurden. Auch die Vorläufer der [[Tempelpyramide|Tempel]]- und Palastpyramiden [[Mesoamerika]]s werden von der Forschung als ''mounds'' bezeichnet.<br />
<br />
== Vorkommen ==<br />
=== Nordamerika ===<br />
Sehr häufig sind Mounds in den Tälern des [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] und seiner Zuflüsse zu finden, am gesamten Lauf des [[Ohio River]]s und am Unterlauf des [[Missouri River|Missouri]], im benachbarten Gebiet des [[Susquehanna River]] und dem [[Wyoming River]], im westlich des [[Allegheny Mountains|Alleghany-Gebirges]] gelegenen [[Virginia]] sowie vom [[Ontariosee]] bis zum [[Sankt-Lorenz-Strom]] entlang. Weiterhin erstrecken sie sich nordwärts durch [[Wisconsin]] und am Rainy River bis in den Norden des [[Kanada|kanadischen]] [[Ontario]]s und im Süden in die Ebenen [[Georgia]]s.<br />
<br />
Das wichtigste Zentrum dieser Hügel lag im heutigen [[Ohio]], wo man mehr als 10.000 solcher Erdhügel und mehr als 1500 [[Ringwall|Ringwälle]] zählt. Auch der südöstliche Teil des Bundesstaats [[Missouri]] ist reich an Mounds, wie das Grenzgebiet zwischen [[Iowa]] und [[Illinois]], wo man auf einer Fläche von 128 km² mehr als 2500 Mounds zählt. Das südliche [[Wisconsin]] ist gekennzeichnet durch die besondere Form der [[Effigy Mounds National Monument|Effigy Mounds]], mit figürlichen ([[Englische Sprache|engl.]] ''effigy'') Formen, die hier Säugetiere, Vögel, Reptilien und vereinzelt menschliche Figuren darstellen.<br />
<br />
[[Datei:USA-Georgia-Etowah Indian Mounds-Mound B.jpg|thumb|Mound B der Etowah Indian Mounds, [[Georgia]]]]<br />
Auch weiter südlich im Gebiet der Mississippizuflüsse [[Yazoo River]], [[Arkansas River]] und [[Red River (Mississippi)|RedRiver]] finden sich noch zahlreiche Mounds. Die Mounds in [[South Carolina]] und [[Georgia]] sowie in [[Texas]] haben eine etwas andere Form und sind jüngeren Ursprungs, wie die [[Cuecillo]]s (Cu) in [[Mexiko]]. Eine der bekanntesten dieser Anlagen früher [[Indianer]]kulturen ist der [[Great Serpent Mound]]. Die Erbauer der etwa 100.000 erhaltenen [[Erdwerke]] im Südosten der Vereinigten Staaten wurden zunächst schlicht „[[Moundbuilders]]“ genannt, bevor die Erforschung ihrer Bauten und Artefakte eine Unterscheidung in eine Vielzahl einzelner Phasen und Kulturen ermöglichte.<br />
<br />
Manchmal werden die in der Frühzeit parallel errichteten ''[[Shell midden]]s'' aus gewaltigen Haufen an Muschelschalen und Schneckenhäusern vom Umfeld des Ohio Rivers bis an die Küste des [[Golf von Mexico]], sowie die südliche Atlantikküste ebenfalls als Mounds oder ''Shell Mounds'' bezeichnet. Ihre Entstehung ist aber noch weniger geklärt als die der Erd-Mounds und es gilt als möglich, dass ihre Anlage nicht planvoll begonnen wurde, sondern sie aus der Anhäufung von Resten der Nahrungszubereitung entstanden, bevor sie systematisch erhöht wurden. Daher sollten sie auch sprachlich nicht mit den planvoll angelegten Mounds verbunden werden.<ref>George M. Crothers: ''The Green River in Comparison to the Lower Mississippi Valley during the Archaic: To Build Mounds or not to Build Mounds?'' In: Jon L. Gibson, Philip J. Carr (Hrsg.): ''Signs of Power – The Rise of Cultural Complexity in the Southeast''. University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-1391-5, Seiten 86–96</ref><br />
<br />
=== Mittelamerika ===<br />
In Mesoamerika werden vor allem die frühen [[Tempelpyramide|Erdpyramiden]] der [[Olmeken]] ([[La-Venta-Kultur|La Venta]], [[Tres Zapotes]], [[San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan|San Lorenzo]]) und der [[Mokaya-Kultur]] im Gebiet der ehemaligen Provinz [[Soconusco (Chiapas)|Soconusco]] als ''mounds'' bezeichnet. Ab etwa 100 v.&nbsp;Chr. wurden die Erdhügel mehr und mehr durch Steinbauten ersetzt, wobei – wegen der Tradition von Überbauungen – einige der ursprünglichen Erdhügel als Teil der Substruktion erhalten blieben.<br />
<br />
== Entwicklung ==<br />
[[Datei:Watson Brake Aerial Illustration HRoe 2014.jpg|thumb|Illustration der [[Watson Brake]], Blick aus der Luft]]<br />
[[Datei:Poverty Point Aerial HRoe 2014.jpg|thumb|Illustration der [[Poverty Point]], Blick aus der Luft]]<br />
[[Datei:Mound City Chillicothe Ohio HRoe 2008.jpg|mini|Mound City, [[Hopewell-Kultur]].]]<br />
[[Datei:Cahokia Aerial HRoe 2015.jpg|mini|[[Cahokia]], die größte Mississippian Kulturstätte.]]<br />
Mounds entstanden erstmals in der mittleren [[Archaische Periode (Amerika)|archaischen Periode]] zwischen 3500&nbsp;und 3000&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. im Gebiet des unteren [[Mississippi River]]. Anlagen aus einzelnen Mounds und zusammengesetzte mit mehreren wurden in dieser Zeit von [[Jäger und Sammler|Jäger-, Sammler- und Fischer-Kulturen]] errichtet, die sich fast ganzjährig an günstigen Orten aufhielten. Die Mounds wurden nahezu ausschließlich auf Flussterrassen errichtet. Komplexere Fundorte sind [[Watson Brake]] und [[Frenchman’s Bend]], beide beim heutigen Ort [[Monroe (Louisiana)|Monroe]], Louisiana. Nach den mittelarchaischen Mounds brach die Tradition ab, um rund 1300 Jahre später ohne erneute Vorläufer zum komplexesten Erdwerk der archaischen Zeit zu führen: [[Poverty Point]], ebenfalls im nördlichen Louisiana.<br />
<br />
Die Gründe für das Aufkommen der Erdbauten sind Gegenstand der Fachdebatte. Die [[Klimageschichte]] verweist auf die günstigen Bedingungen gegen Ende des [[Atlantikum]]s, was die Nahrungsgrundlage der Menschen verbessert haben könnte. Möglicherweise setzte dadurch eine Bevölkerungszunahme ein, die zur Konkurrenz um Territorien und Ressourcen führte. Mounds wären dann Projekte, die die Gemeinschaft nach innen stärken und nach außen präsentieren sollten.<ref>David G. Anderson: ''Archaic Mounds and then Archaeology of Southeastern Tribal Societies''. In: Jon L. Gibson, Philip J. Carr (Hrsg.): ''Signs of Power – The Rise of Cultural Complexity in the Southeast''. University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-1391-5, Seiten 270–299</ref><br />
<br />
Poverty Point, datiert auf das 18. bis 10. vorchristliche Jahrhundert am Ende der archaischen Periode besteht aus sechs Mounds und sechs konzentrischen, halbrunden Erdwällen an einem Hangabbruch, ausgerichtet nach Osten zum Sonnenaufgang. Die Anlage wurde errichtet von einer Kultur, die seltene, besonders hochwertige Steine aus einer Entfernung von bis zu 2000 km importierte und sich über einen Kulturraum von rund 1800 km² erstreckte. Sie strahlte weit darüber hinaus aus, bis nach Florida. Auch hier brach die Tradition zunächst wieder ab.<br />
<br />
In der frühen [[Woodland-Periode]] ab 800 v. Chr. entstand eine neue Form der Mounds: Die ersten waren kleine runde Grabhügel im heutigen Bundesstaat Ohio. Sie können der nach einem Fundplatz benannten [[Adena-Kultur]] (ca. 800 v. Chr. bis 100 n. Chr.) zugeordnet werden. Die Hügel wurden größer und mit der [[Hopewell-Kultur]] setzte sich die Bautätigkeit ca. 200 v. Chr. bis 700 n. Chr. fort. Es entstanden nicht nur Hügel, sondern großflächige Erdwälle und komplexe Erdwerke aus linearen und runden Strukturen. In der späten Woodland-Stufe ab 600 entstanden im südlichen Wisconsin und den unmittelbaren Nachbarregionen die figürlichen ''Effigy Mounds''. Sie verschwanden ab etwa 1200 wieder, runde Formen wurden hier noch bis 1700 vereinzelt angelegt. Etwa zeitgleich entstand am Unterlauf des Mississippi die [[Mississippi-Kultur]] (vermutlich bis 1700 n.&nbsp;Chr)., deren größte Siedlung [[Cahokia]] war und deren aus den Grabhügeln hervorgegangene Tempelhügelbau wie der des [[Monk’s Mound]] nach Volumen und kulturellen Erscheinungsformen den Höhepunkt der [[Moundbuilders]] darstellt. <br />
<br />
Noch im 18. Jahrhundert wurden vereinzelt Mounds angelegt. Von den [[Choctaw (Volk)|Choctaw]] aus Georgia liegt ein Bericht vor, nachdem der Anstoß zum Bau ihres heiligen Mounds ''Nanih Waiya'' von einem Häuptling ausging, der den Vorschlag seinem Volk unterbreitete und dabei an ihre Verantwortung vor den Ahnen erinnerte. In dem Mound konnten sie dann während des Baus die Gebeine kürzlich verstorbener Angehöriger ablegen, die in der Zeit bis zum Bau eines würdigen Bestattungsortes in Lederhüllen aufbewahrt worden waren. Der Mound hatte nicht nur eine Schutzfunktion für die Gebeine, sondern spielte ebenfalls eine Rolle in ihren Schöpfungsmythen.<ref>Jon L. Gibson: ''The Power of Beneficial Obligation in First Mound-Building Societies''. In: Jon L. Gibson, Philip J. Carr (Hrsg.): ''Signs of Power – The Rise of Cultural Complexity in the Southeast''. University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-1391-5, Seiten 254–269</ref><br />
<br />
== Gedenkstätten ==<br />
Viele Mounds und Gebiete mit hoher Konzentration von Mounds stehen unter dem Schutz der Denkmalsgesetze des Bundes oder der jeweiligen US-Bundesstaaten. Die bedeutendsten Schutzgebiete nach Bundesrecht sind [[Effigy Mounds National Monument]] und [[Ocmulgee National Monument]]. Cahokia ist [[Weltkulturerbe]]. <br />
<br />
== Literatur ==<br />
* George R. Milner: ''The Moundbuilders. Ancient Peoples of Eastern North America.'' Thames & Hudson, London 2005. ISBN 0-500-28468-7.<br />
<br />
== Einzelnachweise ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[[Kategorie:Grabbau in Amerika|Vereinigte Staaten]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianische Kultur]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Archäologischer Fachbegriff]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Altamerikanistik]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Archäologie (Vereinigte Staaten)]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Sakralbau in den Vereinigten Staaten]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Aufgeschütteter Berg]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mississippi-Kultur&diff=159082672Mississippi-Kultur2016-10-25T21:11:26Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Korrekturen, Abbildung hinzufügen</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Datei:Cahokia Aerial HRoe 2015.jpg|mini|[[Cahokia]], die größte Mississippian Kulturstätte.]]<br />
[[Datei:Mississippian Underwater Panther ceramic.JPG|mini|Keramik der Mississippi-Kultur.]]<br />
<br />
Die '''Mississippi-Kultur''' war eine [[Indianer]]kultur, die ab ungefähr 900 n. Chr. auftrat und aus der [[Woodland-Periode]] hervorging. Ihr Zentrum befand sich am mittleren [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]]-Tal, doch erstreckte sie sich auf den Südosten der heutigen [[Vereinigte Staaten|Vereinigten Staaten]] und damit in etwa auf die Bundesstaaten [[Alabama]], [[Arkansas]], [[Georgia]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Louisiana]], [[Kentucky]], [[Michigan]], [[Missouri]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Tennessee]], und [[Texas]]. Kontakte mit der Bevölkerung am Oberlauf des Mississippi im südlichen [[Wisconsin]] ab ca. 1050, durch die sich Kulturtechniken nach Norden verbreiteten, fallen zusammen mit dem Zusammenbruch der dortigen [[Effigy Mounds National Monument|Effigy-Mounds-Kultur]].<br />
<br />
Neben Jagd und Fischfang betrieben die Indianer der Mississippi-Kultur auch Ackerbau. Angebaut wurden unter anderem [[Mais]] und [[Bohne]]n. An Nutztieren wurden [[Haushund|Hunde]] und [[Truthahn|Truthähne]] gehalten. Außerdem wurde reich verzierte Keramik hergestellt. Als einzige Indianerkultur nördlich von [[Mexiko]] baute die Mississippi-Kultur befestigte Städte. Diese waren Machtzentren und Knotenpunkte des weitverzweigten Handelsnetzwerkes. In fast jeder Stadt wurden Erdhügel bzw. -pyramiden errichtet, sogenannte [[Mound]]s. Die wohl größte städtische Siedlung war [[Cahokia]]. Mit acht nachweisbaren Mounds ist [[Ocmulgee National Monument|Ocmulgee]] in [[Georgia|Zentralgeorgia]] die vielgestaltigste Siedlung der Epoche. Die Gesellschaft war komplex und streng hierarchisch organisiert. An ihrer Spitze stand ein Priesterkönig. Parallelen zur gesellschaftlichen Ordnung der [[Azteken]] sind augenfällig.<br />
<br />
Über den Niedergang der Kultur im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert ist wenig bekannt. Als wahrscheinlichste Ursachen gelten [[Seuche]]n und der intensive [[Raubbau (Natur)|Raubbau]] an der Natur (Waldrodung), der zur Vernichtung der eigenen Wirtschafts- und Lebensgrundlagen (Jagd von Wild) führte. Als Nachfahren gelten die [[Natchez (Volk)|Natchez]], [[Alabama (Volk)|Alabama]], [[Apalachee]], [[Caddo (Konföderation)|Caddo]], [[Cherokee]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw (Volk)|Choctaw]], [[Muskogee (Volk)|Creek]], [[Guale]], [[Hitchiti]], [[Houma (Volk)|Houma]], [[Illinois (Volk)|Illinois]], [[Kansa]], [[Miami (Volk)|Miami]], [[Missouri (Volk)|Missouri]], [[Osage]], [[Quapaw]], [[Seminolen]], [[Shawnee]], [[Timucua]], [[Tunica (Volk)|Tunica]], [[Yamasee]] und [[Yuchi]]. Die Mississippi-Kultur ist damit die letzte prähistorische Kultur vor Kontakt mit den Europäern.<br />
<br />
== Weblinks ==<br />
* National Park Service: [http://www.nps.gov/seac/hnc/outline/05-mississippian/index.htm The Mississippian and Late Prehistoric Period (A.D. 900 - 1700)]<br />
* [http://www.indianerwww.de/indian/mound_builder.htm Die Mound Builder-Kulturen: Adena, Hopewell und Mississippi] <br />
* National Park Service: [http://www.nps.gov/archeology/FEATURE/FEATURE.HTM Ancient Architects of the Mississippi]<br />
<br />
[[Kategorie:Archäologische Kultur (Amerika)]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Geschichte der Indianer]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianerstamm in Tennessee]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianerstamm in Ohio]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianerstamm in Arkansas]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianerstamm in Illinois]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianerstamm in Missouri]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianerstamm in Michigan]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianerstamm in Indiana]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianerstamm in Oklahoma]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianerstamm in Texas]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianerstamm in Alabama]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Indianerstamm in Georgia]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liste_der_National_Historic_Landmarks_in_Illinois&diff=159053251Liste der National Historic Landmarks in Illinois2016-10-24T20:18:17Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* Derzeitige NHLs in Illinois */ umfassenderen Darstellung</p>
<hr />
<div>Diese vollständige '''Liste der National Historic Landmarks in Illinois''' führt alle Objekte und Stätten im [[Vereinigte Staaten|US]]-amerikanischen [[Bundesstaat der Vereinigten Staaten|Bundesstaat]] [[Illinois]] auf, die in diesem Bundesstaat als [[National Historic Landmark]] (NHL) eingestuft sind und unter der Aufsicht des [[National Park Service]] stehen. Diese Bauwerke, Distrikte, Objekte und andere Stätten entsprechen bestimmten Kriterien hinsichtlich ihrer nationalen Bedeutung.<ref name = "NHLQA">{{cite web<br />
| last=National Park Service | date= | language=Englisch<br />
| title=National Historic Landmarks Program: Questions and Answers<br />
| url=http://www.nps.gov/nhl/QA.htm |accessdate=2012-09-03}}</ref> Diese Liste führt die Objekte nach den amtlichen Bezeichnungen im [[National Register of Historic Places]].<br />
<br />
== Unterscheidung zum National Register of Historic Places ==<br />
Alle NHLs werden automatisch in das [[National Register of Historic Places]] (NRHP) aufgenommen, eine Liste historischer Bauten, die der National Park Service deklaratorisch als [[Denkmal (Zeugnis)|Denkmal]] anerkennt. Der wesentliche Unterschied zwischen einer NHL und einem allgemeinen NRHP-Eintrag liegt in der landesweiten Bedeutung, die NHLs haben, während die meisten anderen Einträge nur von örtlichem oder bundesstaatlichem Interesse sind.<ref name="NHLQA"/><br />
<br />
== Legende ==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|NHL|true}}<br />
| National Historic Landmark<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHLD|NHLD}}<br />
| National Historic Landmark District<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Derzeitige NHLs in Illinois ==<br />
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="width:90%; font-size: 95%; margin-right:0"<br />
! width="1%" {{NRHP|NHL|}}<br />
! class="unsortable" width="25%" {{NRHP|NHL|}} '''Name der Stätte'''<ref name = "NHLlist">{{Cite web <br />
| last=National Park Service | date=April 2007<br />
| title = National Historic Landmarks Survey: List of National Historic Landmarks by State<br />
| url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/nhl/designations/Lists/LIST13.pdf<br />
| publisher= | format=PDF| accessdate = 2012-09-03| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029201334/http://www.cr.nps.gov/nhl/designations/Lists/LIST13.pdf| archivedate=2013-10-29}}. Genannt ist die offizielle Bezeichnung, unter der das Objekt in das Register eingetragen ist.</ref><br />
! width="8%" class="unsortable" {{NRHP|NHL|}} '''Bild'''<br />
! width="4%" {{NRHP|NHL|}} '''Jahr'''<br><ref name = "NHLlist"/><br />
! width="12%" {{NRHP|NHL|}} '''Ort'''<br><ref name=NHLlist/><ref<br />
name="NHLdat">{{cite web | last = National Park Service <br />
| title=National Historic Landmark Program: NHL Database<br />
| publisher= | url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/default.cfm<br />
| date= | accessdate=2012-09-03}}</ref><br />
! width="12%" {{NRHP|NHL|}} '''County'''<br><ref name=NHLlist/><br />
! width="50%" {{NHL color}} class=unsortable|'''Beschreibung'''<ref name=NHLdat/><br />
|--<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|1|true}}<br />
! [[Robert S. Abbott House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Robert_S._Abbott_House,_4742_Martin_Luther_King_Drive,_Chicago_Cook_County,_Illinois.jpg|100px|Robert S. Abbott House]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| [[Chicago]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.808068|EW=-87.616135 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Robert S. Abbott House}}</small><br />
|| [[Cook County (Illinois)|Cook County]]<br />
|| Haus von [[Robert Sengstacke Abbott]], Gründer der Zeitung [[Chicago Defender]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|2|true}}<br />
! [[Adler Planetarium]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Adler fg02.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1987<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.866454|EW=-87.607416 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Adler Planetarium}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Erstes und ältestes Planetarium der westlichen Hemisphäre<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|3|true}}<br />
! [[Auditorium Building]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Auditorium Building Chicago.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1975<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.875756|EW=-87.624370 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Auditorium Building}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Entworfen von den Architekten [[Dankmar Adler]] und [[Louis Sullivan|Louis&nbsp;Sullivan]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHLD|4}}<br />
! [[Bishop Hill Colony]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Jansonist Colony, Steeple Building, Main & Bishop Hill Streets, Bishop Hill (Henry County, Illinois).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1970<br />
|| [[Bishop Hill|Bishop&nbsp;Hill]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.2003|EW=-90.1189 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Bishop Hill Colony}}</small><br />
|| [[Henry County (Illinois)|Henry County]]<br />
|| Historischer Distrikt schwedischer Einwanderer, der auf seine Gründung im Jahr 1846 zurückgeht<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|5|true}}<br />
! [[Cahokia|Cahokia Mounds]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Cahokia Aerial HRoe 2015.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1964<br />
|| [[Collinsville (Illinois)|Collinsville]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=38.653889|EW=-90.064444 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Cahokia Mounds}}</small><br />
|| [[St. Clair County (Illinois)|St.&nbsp;Clair&nbsp;County]]<br />
|| Größte archäologische Stätte der [[Mississippi-Kultur|Mississippikultur]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|6|true}}<br />
! [[Sullivan Center]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Carson Pirie Scott building, Chicago, Illinois - Louis Sullivan.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1975<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.881894|EW=-87.627780 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Sullivan Center}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Vom Architekten Louis Sullivan entworfenes und später nach ihm benanntes Gebäude<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|7|true}}<br />
! [[James Charnley House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:James Charnley Residence HABS ILL,16-CHIG,12-1.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1998<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.907264|EW=-87.627597 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=James Charnley House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Gemeinsam von den Architekten Louis Sullivan und [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] entworfen<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|8|true}}<br />
! [[Chicago Board of Trade Building]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Chicago Board Of Trade Building.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1978<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.878123|EW=-87.632131 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Chicago Board of Trade Building}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Von [[Holabird & Roche]] entworfener und 1930 errichteter Wolkenkratzer der [[Chicago Board of Trade|Chicago&nbsp;Board&nbsp;of&nbsp;Trade]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|9|true}}<br />
! [[Church of the Holy Family (Cahokia, Illinois)|Church of the Holy Family]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Church of the Holy Family, State Route 157, Cahokia (St. Clair County, Illinois).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1970<br />
|| [[Cahokia (Illinois)|Cahokia]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=38.57035|EW=-90.18844 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Church of the Holy Family}}</small><br />
|| St. Clair County<br />
|| 1799 errichtete Kirche<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|10|true}}<br />
! [[Columbus Park (Chicago)|Columbus Park]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Columbus Park Boathouse.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 2003<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.873889|EW=-87.769722 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Columbus Park}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Teil des [[Chicago Park District]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|11|true}}<br />
! [[Arthur Compton House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:20080909 Arthur H. Compton House.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.792435|EW=-87.596263 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Arthur Compton House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Wohnhaus des Nobelpreisträgers [[Arthur Holly Compton]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|12|true}}<br />
! [[Coonley House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Avery Coonley House, 300 Scottswood Road, 281 Bloomingbank Road, Riverside (Cook County, Illinois).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1970<br />
|| [[Riverside (Illinois)|Riverside]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.818629|EW=-87.828618 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Coonley House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Von dem Architekten [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] entworfen<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|13|true}}<br />
! [[Crow Island School]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Crow Island School.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1990<br />
|| [[Winnetka (Illinois)|Winnetka]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=42.101111|EW=-87.746113 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Crow Island School}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Von ''Larry Perkins'' und [[Eliel Saarinen]] entworfenes Schulgebäude<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|14|true}}<br />
! [[Dana-Thomas House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Dana Thomas Windows.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| [[Springfield (Illinois)|Springfield]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=39.793930|EW=-89.652075 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Dana-Thomas House}}</small><br />
|| [[Sangamon County|Sangamon&nbsp;County]]<br />
|| Von Frank Lloyd Wright entworfenes Gebäude<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|15|true}}<br />
! [[David Davis Mansion]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Bloomington Il David Davis Mansion3.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1975<br />
|| [[Bloomington (Illinois)|Bloomington]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=40.481624|EW=-88.980419 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=David Davis Mansion}}</small><br />
|| [[McLean County (Illinois)|McLean&nbsp;County]]<br />
|| Früheres Wohnhaus von [[David Davis (Politiker, 1815)|David Davis]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|16|true}}<br />
! [[Charles G. Dawes House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Dawes 1.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| [[Evanston (Illinois)|Evanston]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=42.042526|EW=-87.673084 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Charles G. Dawes House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Früheres Wohnhaus von [[Charles Gates Dawes]], nach dem der [[Dawes-Plan]] benannt wurde<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|17|true}}<br />
! [[John Deere House and Shop]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:John Deere Shop3.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1964<br />
|| [[Grand Detour|Grand&nbsp;Detour]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.896618|EW=-89.414648 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=John Deere House and Shop}}</small><br />
|| [[Ogle County]]<br />
|| Ort der Erfindung des ersten Stahlpflugs durch [[John Deere]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|18|true}}<br />
! [[Oscar Stanton De Priest House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Oscar Stanton DePriest House.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1975<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.809769|EW=-87.617957 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Oscar Stanton De Priest House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Wohnhaus von [[Oscar Stanton De Priest]], einem afroamerikanischen republikanischen Abgeordneten des [[Repräsentantenhaus der Vereinigten Staaten|US-Repräsentantenhauses]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|19|true}}<br />
! [[Jean Baptiste Point Du Sable Homesite]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Dusablelandmark.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.8877390|EW=-87.623409 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Jean Baptiste Point Du Sable Homesite}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Wohnhaus des Pelzhändlers [[Jean Baptiste Point du Sable]], der heute als der erste ständige Einwohner des heutigen Chicago gilt<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|20|true}}<br />
! [[Eads Bridge]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Eads Bridge 1875.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1964<br />
|| [[East St. Louis|East&nbsp;St.&nbsp;Louis]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=38.627417|EW=-90.185585 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Eads Bridge}}</small><br />
|| St. Clair County<br />
|| Kombinierte Straßen- und Bahnbrücke über den [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]]; bei der 1874 erfolgten Fertigstellung die längste Bogenbrücke; auch in Missouri gelistet<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|21|true}}<br />
! [[Farm Creek Section]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Farm Creek Section from DS 1.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1997<br />
|| [[East Peoria|East&nbsp;Peoria]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=40.6755|EW=-89.4898 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Farm Creek Section}}</small><br />
|| [[Tazewell County (Illinois)|Tazewell&nbsp;County]]<br />
|| Stätte freiliegender geologischer Gesteinsschichten<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|22|true}}<br />
! [[Farnsworth House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Mies van der Rohe photo Farnsworth House Plano USA 4.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 2006<br />
|| [[Plano (Illinois)|Plano]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.634989|EW=-88.535722 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Farnsworth House}}</small><br />
|| [[Kendall County (Illinois)|Kendall County]]<br />
|| Von [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] entworfenes Landhaus<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|23|true}}<br />
! [[Pleasant Home]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Oak Park Il Pleasant Home10.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1996<br />
|| [[Oak Park (Illinois)|Oak Park]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.885278|EW=-87.800556 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Pleasant Home}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Auch als ''John Farson House'' bekanntes Haus, das von dem Architekten [[George W. Maher]] entworfen wurde<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|24|true}}<br />
! [[Fort de Chartres]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Fort de Chartres powder magazine 1-02Aug07.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1960<br />
|| [[Prairie du Rocher|Prairie&nbsp;du&nbsp;Rocher]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=38.084652|EW=-90.157968 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Fort de Chartres}}</small><br />
|| [[Randolph County (Illinois)|Randolph&nbsp;County]]<br />
|| 1720 errichtetes französisches Fort, dessen Pulvermagazin zu den ältesten noch erhaltenen Gebäude in Illinois gehört<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHLD|25}}<br />
! [[Fort Sheridan Historic District]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Fort Sheridan, Illinois.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1984<br />
|| [[Fort Sheridan]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=42.2125|EW=-87.810556 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Fort Sheridan Historic District}}</small><br />
|| [[Lake County (Illinois)|Lake County]]<br />
|| Ursprünglich von der [[United States Army|US Army]] errichteter Militärposten<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|26|true}}<br />
! [[John J. Glessner House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Glessner House.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.857886|EW=-87.620784 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=John J. Glessner House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1886 von dem Architekten [[Henry Hobson Richardson]] entworfenes Wohnhaus<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|27|true}}<br />
! [[Ulysses S. Grant Home]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:USGrantHomeGalena.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1960<br />
|| [[Galena (Illinois)|Galena]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=42.410104|EW=-90.422924 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Ulysses S. Grant Home}}</small><br />
|| [[Jo Daviess County|Jo&nbsp;Daviess&nbsp;County]]<br />
|| Wohnhaus von [[Ulysses S. Grant]], dem Oberbefehlshabers des [[United States Army im Sezessionskrieg|Unionsheeres]] im [[Sezessionskrieg|Bürgerkrieg]] und späteren 18. [[Liste der Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten|US-Präsidenten]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL||28|true}}<br />
! [[Grosse Point Light]]house<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Grosse Point Lighthouse.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1999<br />
|| Evanston <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=42.063889|EW=-87.676111 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Grosse Point Lighthouse}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1873 errichteter Leuchtturm am Ufer des [[Michigansee]]s<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|29|true}}<br />
! [[Haymarket Riot|Haymarket Martyrs’ Monument]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Haymarket Martyr's Memorial.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1997<br />
|| [[Forest Park (Illinois)|Forest Park]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.8408442|EW=-87.8192813 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Haymarket Martyrs’ Monument}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Denkmal für die Opfer des Haymarket Massakers auf dem [[German Waldheim Cemetery]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|30|true}}<br />
! [[Hegeler Carus Mansion]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc"></span><br />
|| 2007<br />
|| [[La Salle (Illinois)|La Salle]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.335836|EW=-89.087053 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Hegeler Carus Mansion}}</small><br />
|| [[LaSalle County]]<br />
|| Entworfen von dem Chicagoer Architekten [[William W. Boyington]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|31|true}}<br />
! [[Heller House|Isidore H. Heller House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Isidore Heller House - East (front) and North elevations - HABS ILL,16-CHIG,48-1.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 2004<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.801333|EW=-87.597089 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Heller House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Von dem Architekten ''Frank Lloyd Wright'' entworfenes Wohnhaus des Bankiers ''Isidore H. Heller''<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|32|true}}<br />
! [[Arthur Heurtley House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Oak Park Il Heurtley House4.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 2000<br />
|| Oak Park <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.892722|EW=-87.799822 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Arthur Heurtley House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Erstes von dem Architekten ''Frank Lloyd Wright'' vollständig im Stil der [[Prairie Houses]] entworfenes Gebäude<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|33|true}}<br />
! [[Hull House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:UIC Hull House.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1965<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.871399|EW=-87.647133 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Hull House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Eines der ersten Häuser der [[Settlement-Bewegung]] in den USA<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|34|true}}<br />
! [[Illinois and Michigan Canal Locks and Towpath|Illinois&nbsp;and&nbsp;Michigan&nbsp;Canal&nbsp;Locks&nbsp;and&nbsp;Towpath]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Ill-mich canal.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1964<br />
|| [[Joliet (Illinois)|Joliet]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.569722|EW=-88.069722 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Illinois and Michigan Canal Locks and Towpath}}</small><br />
|| [[Will County]]<br />
|| Acht Wasserbauwerke und Kanalabschnitte des heutigen [[Illinois Waterway]]<ref>[http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=221&ResourceType=Structure Illinois and Michigan Canal Locks And Towpath] Abgerufen am 3. September 2012</ref><br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|35|true}}<br />
! [[Nicholas Jarrot Mansion]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Nicholas Jarrot Mansion, State Route 157, Cahokia (St. Clair County, Illinois).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 2001<br />
|| Cahokia <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=38.57011|EW=-90.18711 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Nicholas Jarrot Mansion}}</small><br />
|| St. Clair County<br />
|| 1807–1810 errichtetes Gebäude im [[Federal Style]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|36|true}}<br />
! [[Kennicott Grove]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Robert Kennicott House, Glenview (Cook County, Illinois).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| [[Glenview (Illinois)|Glenview]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=42.086865|EW=-87.870023 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Kennicott Grove}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Wohnhaus des Naturforschers [[Robert Kennicott]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|37|true}}<br />
! [[Kincaid Mounds State Historic Site]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Chromesun kincaid site 01.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1964<br />
|| [[Brookport (Illinois)|Brookport]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=37.080575|EW=-88.491783 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Kincaid Mounds State Historic Site}}</small><br />
|| [[Massac County]]<br />
|| Archäologische Grabungsstätte<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|38|true}}<br />
! [[Second Leiter Building]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Leiter II Building, South State & East Congress Streets, Chicago, Cook County, IL.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.8744774|EW=-87.6273773 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Second Leiter Building}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1889 errichtetes von dem Architekten [[William Le Baron Jenney]] entworfenes Kaufhaus<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|39|true}}<br />
! [[Frank R. Lillie House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:20080909 Frank R. Lillie House.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.789545|EW=-87.593114 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Frank R. Lillie House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Früheres Wohnhaus des [[Embryologie|Embryologen]] [[Frank Rattray Lillie]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|40|true}}<br />
! [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Lincoln Home.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1960<br />
|| [[Springfield (Illinois)|Springfield]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=39.795352|EW=-89.644724 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Lincoln Home National Historic Site}}</small><br />
|| Sangamon County<br />
|| Das einzige Haus, das [[Abraham Lincoln]], dem 16. [[Liste der Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten|US-Präsidenten]] je gehört hatte<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|41|true}}<br />
! [[Alfred Caldwell Lily Pool]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:20100801 Alfred Caldwell Lily Pool from southsoutheast-2 cropped.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 2006<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.9253|EW=-87.6341 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Alfred Caldwell Lily Pool}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Beispiel für einen Parkteich im [[Prairie Houses|Prairie&nbsp;Houses]]-Stil des Landschaftsarchitekten [[Alfred Caldwell|Alfred&nbsp;Caldwell]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|42|true}}<br />
! [[Oak Ridge Cemetery#Abraham Lincolns Grab|Lincolns Grab]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Lincoln's Tomb.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1960<br />
|| Springfield <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=39.823333|EW=-89.655833 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Abraham Lincolns Grab}}</small><br />
|| Sangamon County<br />
|| Das Grab des 16. Präsidenten ''Abraham&nbsp;Lincoln''<ref>[http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=219&ResourceType=Structure Lincoln Tomb] Abgerufen am 3. September 2012</ref><br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|43|true}}<br />
! [[Vachel Lindsay House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Vachel Lindsay House.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1971<br />
|| Springfield <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=39.795926|EW=-89.649441 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Vachel Lindsay House}}</small><br />
|| Sangamon County<br />
|| Früheres Wohnhaus des Schriftstellers [[Nicholas Vachel Lindsay|Nicholas&nbsp;Vachel&nbsp;Lindsay]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|44|true}}<br />
! [[Owen Lovejoy House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Owen Lovejoy Homestead. 1905..jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1997<br />
|| [[Princeton (Illinois)|Princeton]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.373056|EW=-89.450833 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Owen Lovejoy House}}</small><br />
|| [[Bureau County]]<br />
|| Wohnhaus des Kongressabgeordneten und Abolitionisten [[Owen Lovejoy]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|45|true}}<br />
! [[Marquette Building]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:2010-03-03 1968x2952 chicago marquette building.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 2010<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.880193|EW=-87.629371 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Marquette Building}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1895 errichtetes von [[Holabird & Roche]] entworfenes Bürogebäude<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|46|true}}<br />
! [[Marshall Field and Company Building]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:20070502 108 North State Street (2).JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1978<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.883532|EW=-87.627850 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Marshall Field and Company Building}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1892 errichtetes von dem Architekten [[Daniel Burnham]] entworfenes Kaufhaus<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|47|true}}<br />
! [[Mazon Creek fossil beds]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc"><!--Bild--></span><br />
|| 1997<br />
|| [[Morris (Illinois)|Morris]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.321|EW=-88.346 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Mazon Creek fossil beds}}</small><br />
|| [[Grundy County (Illinois)|Grundy County]]<br />
|| [[Fossillagerstätte]] aus der Zeit des [[Pennsylvanium]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|48|true}}<br />
! [[Pierre Menard House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Pierre Menard House, County Highway 6, Fort Gage (Randolph County, Illinois).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1970<br />
|| [[Ellis Grove]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=37.9647|EW=-89.9099 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Pierre Menard House}}</small><br />
|| [[Randolph County (Illinois)|Randolph County]]<br />
|| Früheres Wohnhaus von [[Pierre Menard]] (1766–1844), dem ersten [[Liste der Vizegouverneure von Illinois|Vizegouverneur]] von Illinois (1818–1822)<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|49|true}}<br />
! [[Robert A. Millikan House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:20080909 Robert A. Millikan House.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.792918|EW=-87.596283 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Robert A. Millikan House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Wohnhaus des Physikers [[Robert Andrews Millikan]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|50|true}}<br />
! [[Modoc Rock Shelter]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc"><!--Bild--></span><br />
|| 1961<br />
|| [[Modoc (Illinois)|Modoc]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=38.062778|EW=-90.063611 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Modoc Rock Shelter}}</small><br />
|| Randolph County<br />
|| Archäologische Stätte<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|51|true}}<br />
! [[Montgomery Ward Company Complex]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Montgomery Ward Catalogue House.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1978<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.896450|EW=-87.643396 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Montgomery Ward Company Complex}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Frühere Zentrale des Versandhauses [[Montgomery Ward (Versandhandel)|Montgomery Ward]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|52|true}}<br />
! [[Morrow Plots]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:UIUC morrow plot.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1968<br />
|| Urbana <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=40.102556|EW=-88.225817 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Morrow Plots}}</small><br />
|| Champaign County<br />
|| Experimentelles Maisfeld der [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHLD|53}}<br />
! [[Nauvoo Historic District]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Joseph Smith House, Nauvoo (Hancock County, Illinois).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1961<br />
|| [[Nauvoo (Illinois)|Nauvoo]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=40.551389|EW=-91.371667 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Nauvoo Historic District}}</small><br />
|| [[Hancock County (Illinois)|Hancock County]]<br />
|| Historischer Siedlungsplatz der [[Mormonentum|Mormonen]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHLD|54}}<br />
! [[New Philadelphia Town Site]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc"><!--Bild--></span><br />
|| 2009<br />
|| [[Barry (Illinois)|Barry]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=39.695833|EW=-90.959722 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=New Philadelphia Town Site}}</small><br />
|| [[Pike County (Illinois)|Pike County]]<br />
|| 1836 als erste von einem Afroamerikaner gegründete Siedlung<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|55|true}}<br />
! [[Old Kaskaskia Village]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Old Kaskaskia Village from W.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1964<br />
|| [[Ottawa (Illinois)|Ottawa]]<br />
|| LaSalle County<br />
|| Archäologische Stätte; am besten dokumentiertes Ureinwohnerdord im Tal des [[Illinois River (Mississippi River)|Illinois&nbsp;River]] - für die Öffentlichkeit nicht zugänglich<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|56|true}}<br />
! [[Old Main, Knox College]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Old Main Knox College.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1961<br />
|| [[Galesburg (Illinois)|Galesburg]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=40.941423|EW=-90.370568 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Old Main, Knox College}}</small><br />
|| [[Knox County (Illinois)|Knox County]]<br />
|| Altes Hauptgebäude des [[Knox College]]; am besten erhaltene Stätte der zahlreichen [[Lincoln-Douglas-Debatten]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|57|true}}<br />
! [[Old State Capitol (Springfield, Illinois)|Old State Capitol]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Illinoisoldcapitol.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1961<br />
|| Springfield <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=39.799238|EW=-89.648143 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Old State Capitol}}</small><br />
|| Sangamon County<br />
|| Fünftes [[Liste der Capitols in den Vereinigten Staaten|State Capitol]] von Illinois<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|58|true}}<br />
! [[Union Stock Yards|Union Stock Yards Gate]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Union Stock Yard Gate.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1981<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.816627|EW=-87.648364 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Union Stock Yards Gate}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Eingangstor zu den Schlachthöfen von Chicago; entworfen von dem Architekten [[John Wellborn Root|John&nbsp;Wellborn&nbsp;Root]]<ref>[http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceID=1223&resourceType=Structure Union Stock Yards Gate] Abgerufen am 3. September 2012</ref><br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|59|true}}<br />
! [[Symphony Center|Orchestra Hall]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Orchestra Hall Chicago.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1994<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.879200|EW=-87.624429 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Orchestra Hall}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1904 errichtetes und von ''Daniel Burnham'' entworfenes Konzerthaus<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHLD|60}}<br />
! [[Principia College Historic District]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc"><!--Bild--></span><br />
|| 1993<br />
|| [[Elsah]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=38.94890|EW=-90.34753 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Principia College Historic District}}</small><br />
|| [[Jersey County]]<br />
|| 1940 fertiggestelltes von den Architekten ''Bernard&nbsp;Maybeck'' und ''Henry&nbsp;Gutterson'' im ''Colonial&nbsp;Revival-'' bzw. ''Tudor&nbsp;Revival-Stil'' entworfenes Ensemble von Gebäuden des ''Principia&nbsp;College''<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHLD|61}}<br />
! [[PullmanDistrict|Pullman Historic District]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Hotel Florence, 11111 South Forrestville Avenue, Chicago (Cook County, Illinois).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1970<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.697222|EW=-87.609444 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Pullman Historic District}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Ehemalige Wohnsiedlung für die Beschäftigten der [[Pullman Palace Car Company|Pullman&nbsp;Palace&nbsp;Car&nbsp;Company]], in der sich auch das ''Hotel&nbsp;Florence'' befindet<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|62|true}}<br />
! [[Reliance Building]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Reliance Building, Chicago, Illinois (November 2005).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.882382|EW=-87.627844 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Reliance Building}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Von 1890 bis 1895 errichtetes und von den Architekten ''John&nbsp;Wellborn&nbsp;Root'', ''Charles&nbsp;B.&nbsp;Atwood'' und ''Daniel&nbsp;Hudson&nbsp;Burnham'' entworfenes Bürogebäude<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHLD|63}}<br />
! [[Riverside Historic District (Illinois)|Riverside Historic District]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Avery Coonley House, 300 Scottswood Road, 281 Bloomingbank Road, Riverside (Cook County, Illinois).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1970<br />
|| [[Riverside (Illinois)|Riverside]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.8318|EW=-87.8135 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Riverside Historic District}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1869 als eine der ersten [[Planstadt|Planstädte]] der USA fertiggestellt<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|64|true}}<br />
! [[Frederick C. Robie House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Robie House HABS1.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1963<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.790332|EW=-87.596214 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Frederick C. Robie House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1908 von ''Frank Lloyd Wright'' im Stil der ''Prairie&nbsp;Houses'' entworfenes und 1910 fertiggestelltes Wohnhaus<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|65|true}}<br />
! [[Rock Island Arsenal]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Rock Island Arsenal, Building No. 1, Gillespie Avenue between Terrace Drive & Hedge Lane, Rock Island,( Rock Island County, Illinois).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1988<br />
|| [[Rock Island (Illinois)|Rock Island]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.516944|EW=-90.541944 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Rock Island Arsenal}}</small><br />
|| [[Rock Island County]]<br />
|| Ehemaliges Gelände des [[Fort Armstrong (Illinois)|Fort Armstrong]]; heute größte regierungseigene Waffenfabrik der USA; im [[Sezessionskrieg|Bürgerkrieg]] Kriegsgefangenenlager<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|66|true}}<br />
! [[Rookery Building]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc"><!--Bild--></span><br />
|| 1975<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.879284|EW=-87.632273 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Rookery Building}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1886 errichtetes von den Architekten ''Daniel&nbsp;Burnham'' und ''John&nbsp;Wellborn&nbsp;Root'' entworfendes Bürogebäude<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|67|true}}<br />
! [[Room 405, George Herbert Jones Laboratory|George Herbert Jones Laboratory]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:George Herbert Jones Laboratory.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1967<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.788422|EW=-87.6010245 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=George Herbert Jones Laboratory}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Das Laboratorium, in dem zuerst das Element [[Plutonium]] isoliert und dessen [[Atommasse]] ermittelt wurde<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|68|true}}<br />
! [[Sears, Roebuck, and Company Complex]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Sears Merchandise Building Tower.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1978<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.868541|EW=-87.710573 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Sears, Roebuck, and Company Complex}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Frühere Zentrale des [[Sears]]-Konzerns<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|69|true}}<br />
! [[Shedd Aquarium]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:JohnGSheddAquarium.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1987<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.867182|EW=-87.619236 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Shedd Aquarium}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Ehemals weltgrößtes Aquarium der Welt<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL||70|true}}<br />
! [[Chicago Pile]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Stagg Field reactor.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1965<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.790494|EW=-87.601043 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Chicago Pile}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Weltweit erster [[Kernreaktor]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHLD|71}}<br />
! [[Printing House Row District]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:20070110 Donahue Building and Plymouth and Polk.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.876545|EW=-87.62812 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Printing House Row District}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Früheres Zeitungsviertel in der südlichen Innenstadt von Chicago; heute überwiegend Wohnviertel<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|72|true}}<br />
! [[Crown Hall]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Crown Hall 060514.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 2001<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.833611|EW=-87.6272222 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Crown Hall}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1950–1956 errichtetes und von [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe|Ludwig&nbsp;Mies&nbsp;van&nbsp;der&nbsp;Rohe]] entworfenes Hauptgebäude des ''College of Architecture, Planning and Design'' des [[Illinois&nbsp;Institute&nbsp;of&nbsp;Technology]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|73|true}}<br />
! [[Starved Rock]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Starved Rock SP IL Starved Rock.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1960<br />
|| Ottawa <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.321389|EW=-88.990278 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Starved Rock}}</small><br />
|| La Salle County<br />
|| Sandsteinfelsen am [[Illinois River (Mississippi River)|Illinois River]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|74|true}}<br />
! [[Lorado Taft Midway Studios]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:20070601 Lorado Taft Midway Studio (3).JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1965<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.785402|EW=-87.602750 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Lorado Taft Midway Studios}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1906 aus einer umgebauten Scheune entstandenes Atelier des Bildhauers [[Lorado Taft|Lorado&nbsp;Taft]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|true}}<br />
! [[F. F. Tomek House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:TomekHouse.JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1999<br />
|| Riverside <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.832153|EW=-87.8171 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=F. F. Tomek House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1904 errichtetes von dem Architekten ''Frank&nbsp;Lloyd&nbsp;Wright'' im Stil der ''Prairie&nbsp;Houses'' entworfenes Gebäude<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|76|true}}<br />
! [[Lyman Trumbull House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc"><!--Bild--></span><br />
|| 1975<br />
|| [[Alton (Illinois)|Alton]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=38.897389|EW=-90.176415 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Lyman Trumbull House}}</small><br />
|| [[Madison County (Illinois)|Madison County]]<br />
|| Wohnhaus des früheren [[Senat der Vereinigten Staaten|US-Senators]] [[Lyman Trumbull]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|77|true}}<br />
! [[U 505]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:U-505chicago.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1989<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.864543|EW=-87.615713 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=U 505}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Das einzige von der [[United States Navy|US-Navy]] im Zweiten Weltkrieg aufgebrachte deutsche U-Boot befindet sich heute im [[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)|Museum of Science and Industry]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|78|true}}<br />
! [[Unity Temple]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Oak Park Il Unity Temple9.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1970<br />
|| Oak Park <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.888613|EW=-87.796798 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Unity Temple}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| 1905–1908 von ''Frank Lloyd Wright'' errichteter Tempel der ''Unitarisch-Universalistischen Kirche''<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|79|true}}<br />
! [[University of Illinois Observatory]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Champaign-Urbana area IMG 1138.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1989<br />
|| [[Urbana (Illinois)|Urbana]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=40.104081|EW=-88.225712 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=University of Illinois Observatory}}</small><br />
|| [[Champaign County (Illinois)|Champaign&nbsp;County]]<br />
|| Observatorium der [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|80|true}}<br />
! [[The Wayside (Henry Demarest Lloyd House)|The Wayside]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Wayside Dining Room.jpeg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1966<br />
|| [[Winnetka (Illinois)|Winnetka]] <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=42.114222|EW=-87.732475 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=The Wayside}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Früheres Wohnhaus des Journalisten [[Henry Demarest Lloyd]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|81|true}}<br />
! [[Ida B. Wells-Barnett House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:20070601 Wells House (2).JPG|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1974<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.8277944|EW=-87.6175043 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Ida B. Wells-Barnett House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Früheres Wohnhaus der Bürgerrechtlerin [[Ida B. Wells]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|82|true}}<br />
! [[Frances Willard House (Evanston, Illinois)|Frances Willard House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Frances E Willard House, 1730 Chicago Avenue, Evanston (Cook County, Illinois).jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1965<br />
|| Evanston <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=42.048287|EW=-87.678481 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Frances Willard House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Früheres Wohnhaus von [[Frances Willard]], einer Mitbegründerin der [[Woman’s Christian Temperance Union]]<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|83|true}}<br />
! [[Daniel Hale Williams House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Dr. Daniel Hale Willaims House.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1975<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.818425|EW=-87.615284 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Daniel Hale Williams House}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Das frühere Wohnhaus von [[Daniel Hale Williams]], dem ersten [[Afroamerikaner|afroamerikanischen]] [[Kardiologie|Kardiologen]] und Herzchirurgen<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|84|true}}<br />
! [[Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Frank Lloyd Wright Home Studio.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1976<br />
|| Oak Park <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.893387|EW=-87.800182 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Früheres Wohnhaus und Studio von ''Frank&nbsp;Lloyd&nbsp;Wright''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Frühere NHLs in Illinois ==<br />
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="width:90%; font-size: 95%; margin-right:0"<br />
! width="1%" {{NRHP|NHL|}}<br />
! class="unsortable" width="25%" {{NRHP|NHL|}} '''Name der Stätte'''<br />
! width="8%" class="unsortable" {{NRHP|NHL|}} '''Bild'''<br />
! width="4%" {{NRHP|NHL|}} '''Jahr'''<br><br />
! width="12%" {{NRHP|NHL|}} '''Ort'''<br><br />
! width="12%" {{NRHP|NHL|}} '''County'''<br><br />
! width="50%" {{NHL color}} class=unsortable|'''Beschreibung'''<br />
|--<br />
|-<br />
! <small>1</small><br />
! [[Soldier Field]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:Soldier Field Chicago aerial view.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1987<br />
|| Chicago <br /><small>{{Coordinate |text=DMS |NS=41.8625|EW=-87.616667 |type=landmark |region=US-IL |name=Soldier Field}}</small><br />
|| Cook County<br />
|| Verlor im Jahr 2006 den Status als NHL<br />
|-<br />
! {{NRHP|NHL|2|true}}<br />
! [[Milwaukee Clipper]]<br />
| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:MilwaukeeClipperStarboardBow.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
| 1989<br />
| [[Muskegon]]<br />
| [[Muskegon County|Muskegon&nbsp;County]], [[Michigan]]<br />
| Die ''Milwaukee Clipper'' war, als sie zu einer NHL erklärt wurde, ein Museumsschiff am Navy Pier in Chicago. 1990 wurde das Schiff nach Hammond, Indiana und 1997 nach Muskegon, Michigan gebracht.<ref name="fmr">{{cite web |url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=1860&ResourceType=Structure|title=Milwaukee Clipper (Passenger Steamship) |work=National Historic Landmarks Program |publisher=National Park Service |accessdate=2012-09-03 |language=Englisch}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! <small>3</small><br />
! [[President (Dampfschiff)|President]] (Schiff)<br />
|| <br />
|| 1989<br />
|| [[St. Elmo (Illinois)|St. Elmo]] (früher)<br />
|| [[Fayette County (Illinois)|Fayette County]] (früher)<br />
|| Verlor im Jahr 2011 den Status als NHL<br />
|-<br />
! <small>4</small><br />
! [[USS Silversides (SS-236)]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">[[Datei:USS Silversides;0823601.jpg|100px]]</span><br />
|| 1972<br />
|| Chicago (früher)<br />
|| Cook County (früher)<br />
|| Liegt heute als Museum in Muskegon, Michigan<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Siehe auch ==<br />
* [[National Register of Historic Places in Illinois]]<br />
<br />
== Einzelnachweise ==<br />
<div style="font-size:94%"><references/></div><br />
<br />
== Weblinks ==<br />
*{{cite web | publisher=National Park Service<br />
| url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nhl/designations/Lists/IL01.pdf<br />
| format=PDF; 23&nbsp;kB | title=National Historic Landmarks Survey: <!-- --> List of National Historic Landmarks by State--Illinois <br />
| language=Englisch | accessdate=2012-09-01| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318101747/http://www.nps.gov/history/nhl/designations/Lists/IL01.pdf| archivedate=2009-03-18}}<br />
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/nhl/ National Historic Landmarks Program - National Park Service]<br />
<br />
{{Navigationsleiste Listen der National Historic Landmarks in den Vereinigten Staaten}}<br />
<br />
[[Kategorie:National Historic Landmark (Illinois)|!]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Liste (National Historic Landmarks)|Illinois]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cahokia&diff=158930834Cahokia2016-10-21T03:21:51Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Hinzufügen von Abbildungen</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Begriffsklärungshinweis}}<br />
{{Coordinate |article=/ |map=right |maplevel=adm1st |NS=38/39/17/N |EW=90/03/34/W |type=landmark |region=US-IL}}<br />
<br />
[[Datei:Monks Mound in July.JPG|300px|mini|Monk’s Mound ist die größte Erdpyramide nördlich von Mexiko]]<br />
<br />
'''Cahokia''' gilt als das Hauptzentrum der [[Mississippi-Kultur]] und war die größte [[präkolumbisch]]e Stadt nördlich von [[Mexiko]]. Die Stadt maß beinahe 5&nbsp;km von West nach Ost und über 3,5&nbsp;km von Nord nach Süd, und hatte eine Fläche von mehr als 15&nbsp;km². Der Park, in dem sich die einstige Stadt befindet, umfasst eine Fläche von 390 [[Hektar|ha]] oder 3,9&nbsp;km².<ref>''Cahokia mounds. Illinois'', in: Donald Langmead, Christine Garnaut (Hrsg.): ''Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats'', 2001, S. 49-52, hier: S. 52.</ref><br />
<br />
Cahokia ist von einer, soweit bekannt, schriftlosen Kultur hervorgebracht worden. Die Stadt befand sich unweit vom heutigen [[St. Louis]] im [[US-Bundesstaat]] [[Illinois]]. Sie existierte ab etwa 700 n. Chr. und war eine [[Planstadt|geplante Stadt]]. Um 1000 stieg ihre Bevölkerung rapide an, was möglicherweise damit zusammenhing, dass der aufkommende [[Mais]]anbau eine sicherere und reichhaltigere Nahrungsgrundlage bildete. Aber auch andere Lebensmittel, wie [[Amarant (Pflanzengattung)|Amarant]], ließen sich nachweisen. Die Bewohner von Cahokia bauten Nahrungsmittel auf einer Fläche von vielleicht 13&nbsp;km² an.<br />
<br />
Schätzungen über die Einwohnerzahl reichen von 8.000 bis 20.000, mitunter auch bis 40.000. Darüber hinaus weisen viele Funde auf eine [[Hierarchie|Hierarchisierung]] der Gesellschaft hin. Die Herren der Stadt lebten in Häusern auf einigen der bis zu 120 [[Mound]]s. Andere von ihnen dienten als Begräbnisstätten.<br />
<br />
== Name ==<br />
Der Name der Stadt ist nicht überliefert. Stattdessen wurde sie von Europäern nach einer Gruppe der [[Illinois (Volk)|Illinois]] benannt, dem zu dieser Zeit in der Region lebenden Indianerstamm [[Cahokia (Volk)|Cahokia]], der allerdings erst lange nach dem Untergang Cahokias dort auftauchte.<br />
<br />
== Mounds, Stadtstruktur ==<br />
[[Datei:Cahokia Aerial HRoe 2015.jpg|mini|Cahokia Grundlinie transects Woodhenge, Monk's Mound und mehrere andere große Hügel auf der Ost-West-Achse der Stadt.]]<br />
Die Mounds erstreckten sich über ein Gebiet von 15 Quadratkilometern. Im Zentrum der Stadt befand sich ein 81 Hektar großes Gebiet, das von einer 3,2&nbsp;km langen und 3,6&nbsp;m hohen, aus Holzblöcken bestehenden Mauer umgeben war, und das 17 Mounds umschloss. In dessen Zentrum stand wiederum als größter der [[Monk’s Mound]], eine 30,6&nbsp;m hohe, oben abgeflachte [[Mound|Erdpyramide]], die eine Grundfläche von 291 × 236&nbsp;m bedeckte, also über 5&nbsp;ha. Rund um diesen geschützten Zentralbereich lebten Tausende von Menschen in Gruppen, deren Zentrum zeremonielle Pfähle waren.<br />
<br />
Der Pyramidenstumpf, der seinen Namen Monk’s Mound nach einem in der Nähe befindlichen Trappistenkloster erhielt, ist das größte künstliche Gebilde aus [[präkolumbisch]]er Zeit nördlich von Mexiko. Man schätzt, dass 14 Millionen Körbe Erde bewegt werden mussten, um den Hügel mit seinem Volumen von 692.000 Kubikmetern nach und nach aufzuschichten. Dabei entstanden über 200 Jahre vier Stufen, die jeweils mit Kanälen durchsetzt waren, um das Regenwasser abzuleiten. Oben auf dem Mound stand ein hölzernes Gebäude von 31 mal 14&nbsp;m Grundfläche und einer Höhe von 15&nbsp;m. 1998 entdeckte man etwa 12&nbsp;m tief unter der Oberfläche des Mounds eine Sandsteinlage. Diese großen Sandsteinmengen können nicht aus der Region stammen, müssen also über größere Entfernungen transportiert worden sein.<br />
<br />
Die Planung der Stadt repräsentierte den Versuch, die Ordnung der Welt widerzuspiegeln, mit einem nördlichen Teil als Vater Himmel und einem südlichen als Mutter Erde. Diese wurden von einer westöstlich verlaufenden Straße getrennt. Eine weitere Hauptstraße lief nordostwärts. Ihre Kreuzung befand sich an der zentralen Plaza, dem Hauptplatz mit dem größten Mound. An den äußeren Enden der Straßen befanden sich vier Kreise aus Holzstämmen (Red Cedar), deren Anordnung anscheinend astronomischen Zwecken diente.<br />
<br />
[[Datei:Mound 72 sacrifice ceremony HRoe 2013.jpg|mini|Mound 72 Massenopferung von 53 jungen Frauen.]]<br />
Unter Mound 72 fand man einen etwa 40-jährigen Mann, der um 1050 verstorben war. Er lag unter 20.000 Muscheln und 800 unbenutzten Pfeilen begraben. Mit ihm zusammen fand man vier Männer, denen die Hände und Köpfe abgetrennt worden waren, dazu 53 erwürgte Frauen im Alter von 15 bis 25 Jahren. Insgesamt sind bisher 280 Skelette ausgegraben worden, davon allein 50 in einem tiefen Brunnen – viele von ihnen offensichtlich vor ihrem Ableben verletzt. Es handelt sich vermutlich um [[Menschenopfer]],<ref>Young & Fowler, 2000, S. 270 f</ref> wie sie von den [[Azteken]] bekannt sind.<ref>Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site: ''[http://www.cahokiamounds.com/explore/cahokia-mounds/number/72/ Mound 72''] (abgerufen am 30. Juni 2011)</ref><br />
<br />
== Woodhenge ==<br />
Die Ausgrabungen haben gezeigt, dass man sich mit [[Astronomie]] beschäftigte. Archäologen sprachen daher von „Woodhenge“, weil analog zum englischen [[Stonehenge]] hölzerne Pfähle der Ermittlung der Frühjahrs- und Herbst-[[Tagundnachtgleiche]] dienten, somit der Entwicklung von einer Art Kalender. In einer bäuerlichen Gesellschaft ist die Bestimmung von Jahreszeiten und den Terminen von Aussaat und Ernte von größter Bedeutung. Nachdem bei Straßenbauarbeiten Woodhenge entdeckt wurde, beschloss man, die Staatsstraße 55 weiter nach Osten zu verlegen.<br />
<br />
== Fernhandel und Verarbeitung ==<br />
Die Stadt kontrollierte möglicherweise einen weit in den Norden, bis nach [[Minnesota]] reichenden Handel mit [[Feuerstein]], [[Kupfer]] und Muscheln. Der Handel Cahokias reichte bis nach [[Kansas]] im Westen und nach [[Tennessee]] im Osten. Rohwaren kamen in die Stadt und wurden dort verfeinert. Diese Produkte wiederum tauchten in weitem Umkreis wieder auf, so dass man von einem Handelsnetz ausgeht.<br />
<br />
== Bevölkerungswachstum, Stadtbefestigung ==<br />
[[Datei:Cahokia reconstructed palisade HRoe 01.jpg|miniatur|Rekonstruktion eines Mauerabschnitts]]<br />
<br />
Warum sich die innere Stadt, möglicherweise Wohnstatt der Führungsgruppen, im 11. Jahrhundert mit einem großen Wall umgab, der alle 70&nbsp;m von einem Wachturm gesichert wurde, ist unklar. Offenbar geschah dies aber in großer Eile, denn er durchschnitt auch bewohnte Gebiete. Nachweisbar ist das Anwachsen der Orte in der ferneren Umgebung um 1200, was Cahokia möglicherweise zur Anlage des größeren Walls veranlasst hat. Die innere Mauer wurde jedenfalls bis 1300 noch dreimal erneuert.<br />
<br />
Der Archäologe Timothy Pauketat warf die These auf, dass Cahokia im 11. Jahrhundert binnen weniger Jahrzehnte explosionsartig anwuchs, so dass aus einer größeren Siedlung mit vielleicht 1000 Einwohnern plötzlich eine Stadt mit weit über 10.000 wurde. Tatsächlich gibt es in der lokalen Überlieferung Hinweise darauf, dass die Bauern in den verstreuten Siedlungen der Region ihre Dörfer auf Initiative eines großen Häuptlings verließen, um in Cahokia zu leben. Die Häuptlinge galten demnach als die ''Brüder der Sonne'', und es wird angenommen, dass sie ursprünglich die Überflutungsgebiete, die jährlich von den Hochwässern mit fruchtbarem Schlamm versorgt wurden, beaufsichtigten und die notwendigen Arbeiten organisierten.<br />
<br />
== Niedergang ==<br />
Nach 1200 begann der Niedergang Cahokias, dessen Gründe unklar sind. Vielfach wurden ökologische Gründe im Zusammenhang mit der Überforderung der Umgebung durch den Maisanbau genannt, was zu einer starken Entwaldung geführt haben könnte. So erweist sich, dass man zunehmend auf Weichhölzer zum Bau zurückgreifen musste, vielleicht weil die Hartholzbestände abgeholzt waren. Auch die Überforderung der städtischen Infrastruktur durch die schnell anwachsenden Bevölkerungsmassen wurden in Erwägung gezogen. Möglicherweise war auch ein Bürgerkrieg die Ursache, oder die Zerstörung eines der großen Mounds durch eine Schlammlawine.<br />
<br />
[[Datei:Cahokiaoverhead.png|mini|Künstlerische Rekonstruktion des Mönchhügels bei Cahokia, 1907]]<br />
<br />
Warum die Stadt um 1400 endgültig verlassen wurde, ist letztlich nicht bekannt. Die Bevölkerung ging deutlich zurück, Cahokia wurde bedeutungslos, schließlich verlassen.<br />
<br />
== Entdeckung und Gefährdung ==<br />
Als die ersten Europäer in die Gegend kamen, hielten sie die Hügel für natürliche Erscheinungen, der große Mound wurde erstmals 1810 beschrieben.<ref>John Man: ''Atlas of the year 1000'', Harvard University Press, 1999, S. 20.</ref> Landwirtschaft, Industrieabfälle und -abgase und Straßenbau gefährden bis heute weniger die zentrale Stätte, als die umgebenden kleineren Siedlungen.<br />
<br />
== Weltkulturerbe ==<br />
Seit den 1960er-Jahren haben Grabungskampagnen die Bedeutung der Stadt immer deutlicher gemacht. Die ''Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site'' gehört seit 1982 zum [[Weltkulturerbe]] der [[UNESCO]], besitzt ein eigenes Museum, befindet sich in einem 890 Hektar großen Park, der von der Illinois Historic Preservation Agency verwaltet wird, und ist öffentlich zugänglich. Der Zusammenhang mit den heutigen [[Indianer]]n ist unklar, jedoch scheint sich die Stadt (wieder) einer gewissen Verehrung zu erfreuen.<br />
<br />
== Literatur ==<br />
* Timothy R. Pauketat, Thomas E. Emerson: ''Cahokia. Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World'', University of Nebraska Press 1997.<br />
* Thomas E. Emerson und R. Barry Lewis (Hg.): ''Cahokia and the hinterlands: middle Mississippian cultures of the Midwest'', Urbana: University of Illinois Press 2000.<br />
* William R. Iseninger: ''Cahokia Mounds. America’s First City'', Charleston: The History Press 2010.<br />
* Biloine Young, Melvin Fowler: ''Cahokia: The Great Native American Metropolis''. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois 2000 ISBN 0-252-06821-1<br />
* Melvin L. Fowler: ''The Cahokia Atlas. A Historical Atlas of Cahokia Archaeology'', Urbana 1997 (überarbeitete Auflage der 1. Aufl.. von 1989)<br />
* Timothy R. Pauketat: ''Ancient Cahokia and the Mississippians'', 2004.<br />
* George R. Milner: ''Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society'', Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington 1998, ISBN 1-56098-814-2.<br />
* Biloine Whiting Young, Melvin L. Fowler: ''Cahokia, the Great Native American Metropolis'', Champaign: University of Illinois Press 1999.<br />
* John E. Kelly, James A. Brown: ''Cahokia. The Processes and Principles of the Creation of an Early Mississippian City'', in: Andrew T. Creekmore III, Kevin D. Fisher: ''Making Ancient Cities. Space and Place in Early Urban Societies'', Cambridge University Press, 2014, S. 292-356.<br />
<br />
== Weblinks ==<br />
{{Commonscat|Cahokia}}<br />
* [http://www.cahokiamounds.com/ Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site] – offizielle Webseite (englisch)<br />
* [http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/0,1518,551650,00.html Artikel auf Spiegel Online]<br />
* Universität Bayreuth – Geoökologie: {{Webarchiv | url=http://www.geo.uni-bayreuth.de/kolloq/?id=2002_ss&id2=2 | wayback=20070612051727 | text=William Woods: ''Cahocia Soils''}} – Veränderungen im Mississippi-Flussbett als Ursache für das Ende von Cahokia (englisch)<br />
* [http://www.indianerwww.de/indian/cahokia.htm www.indianerwww.de: Cahokia]<br />
* [http://www.cahokiamounds.com/byname.html Cahokia Site Mounds Listed by Common Name]<br />
* [http://www.museum.state.il.us/vrmuseum/jshape/cahokia2.html interaktive Karte des „alten Cahokia“]<br />
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/march/12/cahokia.htm Artikel in der Washington Post]<br />
* [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/cahokia/hodges-text ''Cahokia. America’s Forgotten City''], in: National Geographic, Januar 2011.<br />
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oAqMiO8ItrM&feature=related KETC | Living St. Louis | Cahokia Archeologists], Reportage von 2008<br />
* {{Welterbe|198}}<br />
<br />
== Einzelnachweise ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
{{Navigationsleiste Welterbe Vereinigte Staaten}}<br />
<br />
[[Kategorie:Weltkulturerbe in den Vereinigten Staaten]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Historische präkolumbische Stadt]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Geschichte der Indianer]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Archäologischer Fundplatz in den Vereinigten Staaten]]<br />
[[Kategorie:National Historic Landmark (Illinois)]]<br />
[[Kategorie:St. Clair County (Illinois)]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Madison County (Illinois)]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watson_Brake&diff=158929944Watson Brake2016-10-21T00:42:11Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Farbe Abbildung zeigt mehr Detail der archäologischen Stätte</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Datei:Watson Brake Mounds - Map.png|mini|hochkant=1.66|Schematischer Plan der Mounds von Watson Brake]]<br />
'''Watson Brake''' ist ein [[Archäologie|archäologischer]] Fundort aus der mittleren [[Archaische Periode (Amerika)|Archaischen Periode]] südlich von [[Monroe (Louisiana)|Monroe]], im [[Ouachita Parish]], [[Louisiana]]. Gefunden wurde ein komplexes [[Erdwerk]] aus elf als [[Mound]]s bezeichneten künstlichen Erdhügeln unterschiedlicher Höhe, die durch mehrere lang gestreckte Rücken zu einem Oval mit etwa 300&nbsp;m in Ost-West- und rund 200&nbsp;m in Nord-Süd-Richtung auf einer Gesamtfläche von etwa neun Hektar verbunden sind. Die Mounds einer [[Jäger und Sammler|Jäger-, Sammler- und Fischerkultur]] werden auf 3500–3000&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. datiert und stellen damit das älteste bekannte komplexe Bauwerk in Amerika da.<br />
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Die Anlage ist nach einem gleichnamigen Wasserlauf benannt, der wiederum den Namen eines früheren Grundeigentümers Watson mit einem altenglischen Begriff für [[Brache|Brachland]] kombiniert.<br />
<br />
== Die Anlage ==<br />
[[File:Watson Brake Aerial Illustration HRoe 2014.jpg|thumb|Illustration der ursprünglichen Anlage, Blick aus der Luft]]<br />
Auf einer [[Flussterrasse]] über dem [[Ouachita River]] liegen elf Mounds um eine nahezu ebene Fläche. Heute ist der Flusslauf rund 500&nbsp;m von der Anlage entfernt, in prähistorischen Zeiten verlief ein Nebenarm direkt unterhalb der Mounds, der im Laufe der Zeit vom Zufluss abgeschnitten wurde, verlandete und heute ein sumpfiges Tiefland bildet. Sie teilen sich in ein nördliches und ein südliches Halboval auf, im Westen befindet sich eine größere Lücke, im Osten eine kleinere an einem Einschnitt in der Hangkante. Der höchste Mound A erreicht eine Höhe von 7,50&nbsp;m über dem Zentrum, der niedrigste Mound K von nur rund 1&nbsp;m. Die heutigen Höhen entsprechen wohl etwa den ursprünglichen Verhältnissen, ein unterschiedlich guter Erhaltungszustand gilt aber als wahrscheinlich.<ref name=saunders2005>Soweit nicht anders angegeben, beruht dieses Kapitel auf Saunders et al. 2005</ref><br />
<br />
Die Anlage wurde in mehreren Bauphasen errichtet. Die ersten Anfänge fanden um 3500&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. statt, als die Mounds K und B, sowie möglicherweise auch bereits Mound A begonnen wurden. In der Folge siedelten die Erbauer südlich und westlich der ersten Mounds und häuften Abfälle der Nahrungsmittelzubereitung an, die als ein [[Stratigraphie (Archäologie)|Stratum]] gefunden wurden, das besonders reich an organischem Material war. Die Anlage im heutigen Sinne wurde ab etwa 3350&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. errichtet, Mound J folgte wohl erst um 3000&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. Etwa die Hälfte der Mounds wurde mehrfach nach langen Unterbrechungen erhöht, was sich daran zeigt, dass die [[Pedogenese|Bodenbildung]] bereits eingesetzt hatte. Die Mounds E, G, H, K und L hatten nur eine Bauphase, was zumindest bezüglich des zweitgrößten Mounds E überrascht. Die Mounds C und F weisen zwei durch einen jungen Bodenhorizont getrennte Schichten auf, I und J haben drei, B und D vier Schichten. Der höchste Mound A weist mindestens sieben Schichten auf, die jeweils durch einen Bodenhorizont getrennt sind. Es ist aber nicht ganz klar, ob Bohrung und Proben das ursprüngliche Geländeniveau vor Errichtung des Mounds erreicht haben, so dass möglicherweise noch tiefere Schichten existieren. Das Baumaterial der Mounds ist das umgebende Erdreich, die nördlichen Mounds sind im Wesentlichen aus dem Material der östlichen Hangkante zusammengesetzt und reich an Kies aus der Flussterrasse, die südlichen Mounds liegen wohl etwas zu weit von der Hangkante entfernt, weshalb das Material für ihren Bau aus der unmittelbaren Umgebung südwestlich entnommen wurde und kaum Geröll enthält.<br />
<br />
Die Rücken, welche die Mounds verbinden, sind nur partiell aus Erdmaterial der Umgebung errichtet, große Teile bestehen aus den Überresten der Nahrungszubereitung, insbesondere den Bruchstücken von zersprungenen [[Kochstein]]en und eine Vielzahl an Objekten aus [[Tonmineral|Ton]], die ebenfalls zum Kochen und Backen dienten.<br />
<br />
Das Gesamtvolumen der Anlage beträgt etwa 33.900&nbsp;m³<ref name=saunders2004>Joe Saunders: ''Are we Fixing to Make the Same Mistake Again?'' In: Jon L. Gibson, Philip J. Carr (Hrsg.): ''Signs of Power – The Rise of Cultural Complexity in the Southeast''. University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-1391-5, Seiten 146–161</ref> oder etwas mehr als zehn Olympische Schwimmbecken. Vergleichsversuche mit menschlicher Arbeitskraft ordnen dieses Volumen als ohne weiteres erreichbar ein für eine Kultur auf dem Stand der mittleren archaischen Periode. Bei einer Arbeitszeit von mehreren Monaten pro Jahr zwischen den wichtigsten Phasen des Nahrungserwerbs, hätten zwischen 35 und 40 Personen die Anlage in nur sieben Jahren errichten können.<ref>Jon L. Gibson: ''The Power of Beneficial Obligation in First Mound-Building Societies''. In: Jon L. Gibson, Philip J. Carr (Hrsg.): ''Signs of Power – The Rise of Cultural Complexity in the Southeast''. University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-1391-5, Seiten 254–269; 265</ref> Nachdem die Daten auf eine weit verteilte Errichtung in mehreren Phasen über rund 500 Jahre deuten, relativieren sich diese Anforderungen noch erheblich.<br />
<br />
== Die Bewohner von Watson Brake ==<br />
Eine Analyse der gefundenen [[Artefakt (Archäologie)|Artefakt]]e erlaubt einen Einblick in die Lebensbedingungen und -führung der prähistorischen Bewohner der Region. Sie lebten überwiegend von aquatischen Lebensmitteln aus dem unmittelbar an die Anlage angrenzenden Wasserlauf. Fischgräten machen mehr als die Hälfte des Gewichts der gefundenen Spuren tierischer Nahrung aus, die im Verhältnis zum Fleischanteil wesentlich schweren Knochen von [[Weißwedelhirsch]]en kommen auf 30 Gewichtsprozent, weitere Nahrungsklassen wie Kleinsäuger oder Wasservögel liegen jeweils bei unter 10 %. Flussschnecken und Muscheln wurden nur in kleiner Zahl, aber großer Artenvielfalt gefunden, außerdem waren die Schalen sehr klein, was auf starke Entnahme und Übernutzung der Bestände hindeutet. Pflanzliche Nahrungsmittel lieferten die Wurzeln von [[Zürgelbäume]]n und [[Gänsefüße]]n sowie die Früchte des [[Hickory (Pflanze)|Hickory]] und der [[Weinreben|Weinrebe]]. Dabei zeigen morphologische Untersuchungen, dass es sich um natürliche Varietäten und noch nicht um [[Kulturpflanze]]n handelt.<ref name=saunders2005 /> Es gibt auch keine Anzeichen für die Lagerung von Vorräten, was ebenfalls auf eine reine Existenz als nomadische Jäger und Sammler deutet.<ref name=saunders2004 /><br />
<br />
Durch Untersuchung von [[Statolith]]en aus den Fischabfällen konnte bestimmt werden, dass alle Jahreszeiten in etwa ausgeglichenem Verhältnis vorkommen. Watson Brake war also ganzjährig genutzt, wobei unbekannt ist, ob es sich um echte [[Sesshaftigkeit]] handelt oder Jäger und Sammler sporadisch aber weitgehend gleichmäßig über das Jahr verteilt an der Anlage vorbei kamen und ob es sich im letzten Fall immer um dieselben Personen handelte.<br />
<br />
Ihre [[Steingerät]]e stellten die Bewohner selbst aus dem Geröll der Flussterrasse her, wie die unzähligen [[Abschlag (Archäologie)|Abschläge]] und Splitter der Werkzeugherstellung zeigen. Einige wenige Steinwerkzeuge sind aus [[Sandstein]] oder [[Versteinerter Wald|verkieseltem Holz]] gefertigt, diese Materialien kommen wenige Kilometer entfernt in der unmittelbaren Umgebung vor. Unter den Werkzeugen herrschten [[Projektilspitze]]n, Bohrer und Klingen vor. Die Projektilspitzen konnten teilweise bekannten Typen zugeordnet werden, so handelt es sich bei knapp der Hälfte der identifizierten Typen um ''Evans''-Points mit breiter Flanke und seitlichen Einzügen, gleich vielen ''Ellis''-Points und eine ''Pontchartrain''-Spitze, die ungewöhnlich groß und breit ist. Außerdem wurden [[Kern (Archäologie)|Kern]]e gefunden, aus denen bereits Abschläge gewonnen worden waren und die auch weiterhin zur Produktion neuer Klingen dienten. Weitere Werkzeuge waren Hämmer, [[Mahlstein]]e und verschiedene Reibesteine. Aus dem lokalen Material wurden auch [[Künstliche Perle]]n gefertigt, die als Schmuckstücke dienten. Dafür waren schmale Steinbohrer erforderlich, die in großer Zahl gefunden wurden. Im Klima des nördlichen Louisianas erhalten sich Artefakte aus organischem Material nur schlecht. Nachweisen lassen sich [[Ahle]]n aus Knochen oder Geweihen, ein knöcherner Spatel, Angelhaken sowie ein fertiger und mehrere angefangene Schmuckanhänger aus Knochen.<br />
<br />
Die meisten Funde sind zersprungene Kochsteine und verschiedene Objekte aus gebranntem Ton, die zur Zubereitung der Speisen dienten. Außerdem wurden sechs Feuergruben gefunden und drei Pfostenlöcher. Letztere lagen auf den Rücken beziehungsweise in einem Bodenhorizont im Inneren eines Mounds. Umgeben waren die Werkzeugfunde von tausenden Splittern und Abschlägen aus der Produktion der Steingeräte. Insgesamt wurden 32,640 bearbeitete Steine und Bruchstücke gefunden, mit einem Gesamtgewicht von 16,9 Kilogramm. Davon waren nur 392 fertige oder klar erkennbare Werkzeuge und 175 Kerne, der Rest Bruchstücke und Abschläge aus der Produktion. Die Steinfunde verteilten sich über die meisten Strati in den Mounds und Rücken, nur die oberen Schichte der höheren Mounds waren relativ fundarm. Dies deutet wie die Verteilung der Feuergruben darauf hin, dass Ringe und niedrige Mounds den Menschen als Wohnflächen dienten, welche teilweise in späteren Bauphasen wieder mit Erde überdeckt wurden.<br />
<br />
Die von Mounds und Rücken umschlossene Freifläche ist nahezu leer von jeglichen Artefakten, die Funddichte steigt an den Flanken der Mounds und Rücken schnell auf das durchschnittliche Niveau in und auf den Erdwerken an. Entweder die Freifläche wurde aus oder für kultische Zwecke sauber gehalten oder die Bewohner der Anlage betraten sie aus denselben Gründen niemals. Es sind keine Gräber in Watson Brake bekannt, im Baumaterial eingebettet wurden jedoch einige wenige zerstreute menschliche Knochenreste gefunden. Die Archäologen interpretieren das als unwillkürlichen Eingriff in frühere Bestattungen beim Abgraben des Baumaterials.<br />
<br />
Im Ergebnis kommen die Ausgräber von Watson Brake zu dem Schluss, dass es sich um eine egalitäre Jäger- und Sammler-Kultur gehandelt hat, die noch keine Anzeichen für eine [[Sozialstruktur|Soziale Schichtung]] aufweist. Die Verwendung von ausschließlich lokalen Steinen spricht gegen überregionalen Austausch von Gütern oder Handel. Die Gunst des Standortes mit unerschöpflichen natürlichen Ressourcen erlaubte ihnen über reine [[Subsistenz]] hinaus die Errichtung der Mounds.<ref name=saunders2004 /><br />
<br />
== Bedeutung und Tradition ==<br />
Die Mounds von Watson Brake waren 1997 die ersten Mounds im Südosten Nordamerikas, die mittels naturwissenschaftlicher Methoden eindeutig in die mittlere archaische Periode [[Datierung|datiert]] werden konnten.<ref name=science1997 /> Bis dato galten die Mounds von [[Poverty Point]] als die ältesten Erdwerke Nordamerikas, wobei deren Alter noch mit rund 1500&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. angenommen wurde. Die Datierung des Beginns von Poverty Point wurde nach neuen Probennahmen seit 2001 und durch wesentlich verbesserte Methoden inzwischen selbst um etwas über 200 Jahre nach vorne auf das 18.&nbsp;Jahrhundert v.&nbsp;Chr. korrigiert. Bis zur Veröffentlichung der ersten Datierungen Watson Brakes in die mittlere archaische Periode waren die Kulturen dieser Epoche als hoch mobile, kleine Jäger- und Sammler-Gruppen angesehen worden, die wenig Anreize zu sozialem Wandel oder der Herausbildung von sozialer Führung hatten. Der Bau von großen Erdwerken nach einem wohl durchdachten Plan passte nicht diese Vorstellungen.<ref name=pringle /><br />
<br />
In ersten Stellungnahmen sprachen Archäologen von einem radikalen Einschnitt in die wissenschaftlichen Theorien:<br />
<br />
{{Zitat|Text=<!--It is rare that archaeologists ever find something that so totally changes our picture of the past, as it is true for this case.-->Nur selten finden Archäologen etwas, das unser Bild von der Vergangenheit so vollkommen verändert wie in diesem Fall.|Autor=Vincas P. Steponaitis, damals Präsident der [[Society of American Archaeology]]<ref name=pringle>Heather Pringle: ''Oldest Mound Complex Found at Louisiana Site''. In: ''Science'', Volume 277 (19. September 1997), Seiten 1761–1762, {{ISSN|0036-8075}}, {{EnS}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
Watson Brake ist darüber hinaus die komplexeste aller inzwischen bekannt gewordenen Mound-Anlagen, die in mittelarchäischer Zeit zwischen 4000&nbsp;und 3000&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. errichtet wurden.<ref name=saunders2005 /> Sie reichen von einem einzelnen Mound bis zu Gruppen von bis zu acht Mounds und eben Watson Brake mit elf. Die mittelarchäischen Mound-Anlagen unterscheiden sich auch in den gefundenen Artefakten. Nur westlich des Flusses wurden Projektilspitzen von ''Evans''-Typ mit besonders breiten Flanken und seitlichen Einzügen nachgewiesen, nur im Nordosten Louisianas wurden die Objekte aus gebranntem Ton gefunden, die als Hilfsmittel bei der Zubereitung von Speisen gelten. Einer der Mounds von [[Frenchman’s Bend]] ist der einzige, in dem Menschen mehrmals eine ebene Oberfläche geschaffen haben, die anschließend als Boden eines Wohnplatzes genutzt, bevor der Mound lange später erhöht wurde. Unter zwei Mounds, ebenfalls bei Frenchman's Bend und ''Monte Sano'' sind Pfostenlöcher einer Holzkonstruktion nachgewiesen, bei Monte Sano auch eine Feuerstelle, die für eine [[Feuerbestattung]] genutzt wurde. Joe W. Saunders, der Leiter der Ausgrabungen von Watson Brake kommt zum Schluss, dass „die einzige gemeinsame Eigenschaft der mittelarchaischen Mounds die Mounds selbst sind“.<ref>Saunders et al., 2005, Seite 663</ref> Er stellt fest, dass die Mounds nicht Ausdruck einer verfestigten Kultur waren und in der mittleren Archaischen Periode unabhängige, gleichzeitige kulturelle Strömungen existierten, von denen der Bau von Mounds nur eine war.<br />
<br />
Die Kultur der Erbauer ist schwer zu erfassen, weil nahezu ausschließlich die Mounds ergraben sind. Es sind keine Begräbnisstätten mit möglichen [[Grabbeigabe]]n bekannt und Siedlungs- oder Jagdplätze ohne Mounds sind soweit gefunden, bislang nicht näher untersucht. Außerdem wurden viele Mounds nur über Artefakte, aber nicht mit naturwissenschaftlichen Methoden datiert.<ref>Michael Russo: ''Southeastern Archaic Mounds''. In: Kenneth E. Sassaman, David G. Anderson: ''Archaeology of the Mid-Holocene Southeast'', University Press of Florida, 1993, ISBN 0-8130-1434-4, Seiten 259–287</ref><br />
<br />
Die Tradition der Mounds brach um 3000&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. ab und wurde erst rund 1300 Jahre später am Ende der archaischen Periode wieder aufgenommen. Der Grund für diese Unterbrechung und die Wiederaufnahme ist unbekannt. In der Zwischenzeit entwickelte sich der Fernhandel von besonders gutem Steinmaterial und anderen Gütern. Dann entstanden die Anlagen von Poverty Point westlich und [[Jaketown Site]] östlich des Mississippi Rivers. Die Erbauer dieser Regionen konzentrierten sich auf jeweils eine Anlage und verzichteten weitgehend darauf, weitere unabhängige Mounds zu errichten.<br />
<br />
Unabhängig von den Mounds am Unterlauf des Mississippis entstand ebenfalls in der Mitte der archaischen Periode um 3000&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. über 1000&nbsp;km nordöstlich am [[Ohio River]] und seinen Nebenflüssen eine weitere Tradition der Errichtung monumentaler Anlagen. Hier bauten die Menschen jedoch nicht aus Erdreich, sondern sie häuften gewaltige Mengen an Muschelschalen, einem wesentlichen Teil ihrer Ernährung, zu so genannten [[Køkkenmøddinger|Shell middens]] an. Die Kultur, die nach dem Fundort [[Indian Knoll]] als ''Indian Knoll phase'' bezeichnet wird, gilt als ein weiterer Anfang in der Herausbildung komplexerer Gesellschaften im Südosten Nordamerikas, wobei angenommen wird, dass die middens zunächst unwillkürlich aus Abfällen der Nahrungsmittelzubereitung an geeigneten und häufig besuchten Wohnplätzen entstanden und erst im Laufe der Zeit systematisch erweitert wurden.<ref>George M. Crothers: ''The Green River in Comparison to the Lower Mississippi Valley during the Archaic: To Build Mounds or not to Build Mounds?'' In: Jon L. Gibson, Philip J. Carr (Hrsg.): ''Signs of Power – The Rise of Cultural Complexity in the Southeast''. University of Alabama Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8173-1391-5, Seiten 86–96</ref> In Indian Knoll wurden über 1100 Gräber, teils mit [[Grabbeigabe]]n gefunden, die einen Einblick in die Kultur bieten, wie er in Watson Brake fehlt, da hier keine Gräber bekannt sind.<br />
<br />
== Forschungsgeschichte ==<br />
Die Mounds von Watson Brake wurden erstmals 1981 von einer Anwohnerin bemerkt, nachdem ein Teil des Geländes bei einem [[Kahlschlag]] von Bäumen befreit wurde, und 1984 zeichnete ein Archäologe einen ersten Plan der Anlage, die im folgenden Jahr erstmals in einer Veröffentlichung erwähnt wurde. Erste Datierungen beruhten auf Oberflächenfunden und nahmen eine Entstehung im zweiten Jahrtausend&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. an, am Ende der Archaischen Periode und damit im Zeitrahmen der bekannten Anlage von Poverty Point rund 100&nbsp;km westlich. Allerdings fehlten die typischen Erd- und Tonbällchen, die in der ''Poverty Point Culture'' zum Erhitzen von Nahrung verwendet wurden. 1992 wurde eine [[Bodenkunde|bodenkundliche]] Untersuchung des größten Mounds vorgenommen, die ein etwas früheres Datum um 2000&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Chr. wahrscheinlich machte. Alle diese Datierungen galten als umstritten, allgemein wurden die Mounds von Poverty Point als die ältesten, gesicherten angenommen.<ref name=pringle /> 1997 wurden die Ergebnisse von Bohrungen in Mounds und verbindenden Rücken veröffentlicht, zusammen mit den ersten [[Radiokohlenstoffdatierung|<sup>14</sup>C-Datierungen]] anhand von Material aus den Bohrkernen. Die <sup>14</sup>C-Daten siedelten Watson Brake um noch einmal weit über 1000 Jahre früher in der Mitte der Archaischen Periode an, mit einem Alter von 5400 bis 5000 Jahren [[Before Present]].<ref name=science1997>Joe W. Saunders, Rolfe D. Mandel, et al.: ''A Mound Complex in Louisiana at 5400–5000 Years Before the Present''. In: [[Science]], Volume 277 (19. September 1997), Seiten 1796–1799</ref> Bei den Bohrungen wurden auch bereits einzelne Artefakte aus dem Material der Mounds geborgen, darunter Projektilspitzen vom ''Evans''-Typ mit seitlichen Einzügen, die zur Datierung in die mittlere Archaische Periode passen.<br />
<br />
Vor 1998 konnte die südliche Hälfte des Fundortes nicht untersucht werden, da der frühere Grundeigentümer keinen Zutritt gewährte. Erst als das Grundstück von einem Förderverein angekauft und dem Staat Louisiana übertragen wurde, hatten Archäologen Zugang zur gesamten Anlage. Ein umfangreiches, multidisziplinäres Programm führte zu einer gründlichen Untersuchung unter Leitung der [[University of Louisiana at Monroe]], die 2004 abgeschlossen und 2005 publiziert wurde. Die Daten verschoben die ersten Ansätze der Anlage um weitere rund 100 Jahre nach vorne und ergaben durch die Auswertung von Bohrprofilen Hinweise auf die Baugeschichte. Außerdem wurden Artefakte untersucht und bestimmt.<br />
<br />
== Literatur ==<br />
* Joe W. Saunders, Rolfe D. Mandel, et al.: ''Watson Brake, a Middle Archaic Mound Complex in Northeast Louisiana''. In: ''American Antiquity'', Vol. 70, No. 4 (Oktober 2005), Seiten 631-668<br />
<br />
== Weblinks ==<br />
{{Commonscat}}<br />
<br />
== Einzelnachweise ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
{{Coordinate|article=/|NS=32.368367|EW=-92.131104|type=landmark|region=US-LA}}<br />
[[Kategorie:Archäologischer Fundplatz in den Vereinigten Staaten]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Altamerikanistik]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Geographie (Louisiana)]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Geschichte von Louisiana]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Ouachita Parish]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drei_Schwestern_(Ackerbau)&diff=152467966Drei Schwestern (Ackerbau)2013-02-21T01:46:54Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* External links */ cat</p>
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<div>[[File:2009NativeAmericanRev.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Three Sisters as featured on the reverse of the 2009 Native American U.S. dollar coin]]<br />
<br />
The '''Three Sisters''' are the three main agricultural crops of various [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] groups in [[North America]]: [[Squash (vegetable)|squash]], [[maize]] (corn), and climbing [[bean]]s (typically [[tepary bean]]s or [[common bean]]s).<br />
<br />
In one technique known as [[companion planting]], the three crops are planted close together. Flat-topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Mt. Pleasant|first=Jane|editor=John E. Staller, Robert H. Tykot, and Bruce F. Benz|encyclopedia=Histories of maize: Multidisciplinary approaches to the prehistory, linguistics, biogeography, domestication, and evolution of maize|title=The science behind the Three Sisters mound system: An agronomic assessment of an indigenous agricultural system in the northeast|year=2006|location=Amsterdam |pages=529–537}}</ref> Each mound is about 30 cm (12 in) high and 50 cm (20 in) wide, and several maize seeds are [[sowing|planted]] close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the [[Atlantic Northeast]], rotten fish or eels are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s1485865.htm "The Three Sisters."] Phil Dudman. October 19, 2005. [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC North Coast NSW]].</ref><ref>[http://www.motherearthnews.com/Nature-and-Environment/2001-02-01/The-Three-Sisters.aspx "The Three Sisters."] John Vivian. February/March 2001. [[Mother Earth News]].</ref> When the maize is 15 cm (6 inches) tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between the two kinds of seeds.<br />
<br />
The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the [[nitrogen]] to the [[soil]] that the other plants utilize, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the [[sunlight]], helping prevent establishment of [[weed]]s. The squash leaves also act as a "living [[mulch]]", creating a [[microclimate]] to retain [[moisture in the soil]], and the [[spine (botany)|prickly hairs]] of the vine deter [[pest (organism)|pests]]. Maize lacks the [[amino acid]]s [[lysine]] and [[tryptophan]], which the human body needs to make [[protein]]s and [[niacin]], but beans contain both and therefore maize and beans together provide a balanced diet.<br />
<br />
Native Americans throughout North America are known for growing variations of Three Sisters gardens. The [[milpa]]s of [[Mesoamerica]] are farms or gardens that employ companion planting on a larger scale.<ref>Mann, Charles. ''1491''. 2005. pp. 220-221. Vintage Books.</ref> The [[Anasazi]] are known for adopting this garden design in a [[deserts and xeric shrublands|drier environment]]. The [[Tewa people|Tewa]] and other Southwest tribes often included a "fourth sister" known as "Rocky Mountain bee plant" (''[[Cleome serrulata]]''), which attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.<ref>Hemenway, T. (2000) Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Pub Co. White River Junction, VT. p. 149. (ISBN 1-890132-52-7)</ref><br />
<br />
The Three Sisters planting method is featured on the reverse of the 2009 US [[Sacagawea dollar|Sacagawea Native American dollar coin]].<ref>[http://usmint.gov/mint_programs/nativeamerican/index.cfm?action=NADesign 2009 Native American $1 Coin], US Mint. Accessed 2009-07-08.</ref><br />
<br />
==Gallery==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Corncobs edit1.jpg|[[Maize]]<br />
File:Bean vvs.jpg|[[Beans]]<br />
File:Cucurbita pepo var. styriaca05.jpg|[[Squash (vegetable)|Squash]]<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest]]<br />
* [[Companion planting]]<br />
* [[Eastern Agricultural Complex]]<br />
* [[Intercropping]]<br />
* [[Milpa]]<br />
* [[Polyculture]]<br />
* [[Agroforestry]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.naz.edu:9000/~ethnobot/ebot2003/kevinwhite/materialuse/threesister.gif Artistic Rendition]<br />
<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Plants used in Native American cuisine]]<br />
[[Category:Crops originating from the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Aboriginal cuisine in Canada]]<br />
[[Category:History of agriculture in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Organic gardening]]<br />
[[Category:Permaculture]]<br />
<br />
[[am:ሦስቱ እኅትማማች]]<br />
[[be:Тры сястры (сельская гаспадарка)]]<br />
[[es:Las tres hermanas (cultivo)]]<br />
[[fr:Trois sœurs (agriculture)]]<br />
[[nl:Drie zusters]]<br />
[[ru:Три сестры (сельское хозяйство)]]<br />
[[chr:ᏦᎢ ᎠᎾᏓᎸᎢ]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drei_Schwestern_(Ackerbau)&diff=152467964Drei Schwestern (Ackerbau)2012-12-05T18:14:07Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Undid revision 526560059 by 74.142.124.55 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:2009NativeAmericanRev.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Three Sisters as featured on the reverse of the 2009 Native American U.S. dollar coin]]<br />
<br />
The '''Three Sisters''' are the three main agricultural crops of various [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] groups in [[North America]]: [[Squash (vegetable)|squash]], [[maize]] (corn), and climbing [[bean]]s (typically [[tepary bean]]s or [[common bean]]s).<br />
<br />
In one technique known as [[companion planting]], the three crops are planted close together. Flat-topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Mt. Pleasant|first=Jane|editor=John E. Staller, Robert H. Tykot, and Bruce F. Benz|encyclopedia=Histories of maize: Multidisciplinary approaches to the prehistory, linguistics, biogeography, domestication, and evolution of maize|title=The science behind the Three Sisters mound system: An agronomic assessment of an indigenous agricultural system in the northeast|year=2006|location=Amsterdam |pages=529–537}}</ref> Each mound is about 30 cm (12 in) high and 50 cm (20 in) wide, and several maize seeds are [[sowing|planted]] close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the [[Atlantic Northeast]], rotten fish or eels are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s1485865.htm "The Three Sisters."] Phil Dudman. October 19, 2005. [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC North Coast NSW]].</ref><ref>[http://www.motherearthnews.com/Nature-and-Environment/2001-02-01/The-Three-Sisters.aspx "The Three Sisters."] John Vivian. February/March 2001. [[Mother Earth News]].</ref> When the maize is 15 cm (6 inches) tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between the two kinds of seeds.<br />
<br />
The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the [[nitrogen]] to the [[soil]] that the other plants utilize, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the [[sunlight]], helping prevent establishment of [[weed]]s. The squash leaves also act as a "living [[mulch]]", creating a [[microclimate]] to retain [[moisture in the soil]], and the [[spine (botany)|prickly hairs]] of the vine deter [[pest (organism)|pests]]. Maize lacks the [[amino acid]]s [[lysine]] and [[tryptophan]], which the human body needs to make [[protein]]s and [[niacin]], but beans contain both and therefore maize and beans together provide a balanced diet.<br />
<br />
Native Americans throughout North America are known for growing variations of Three Sisters gardens. The [[milpa]]s of [[Mesoamerica]] are farms or gardens that employ companion planting on a larger scale.<ref>Mann, Charles. ''1491''. 2005. pp. 220-221. Vintage Books.</ref> The [[Anasazi]] are known for adopting this garden design in a [[deserts and xeric shrublands|drier environment]]. The [[Tewa people|Tewa]] and other Southwest tribes often included a "fourth sister" known as "Rocky Mountain bee plant" (''[[Cleome serrulata]]''), which attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.<ref>Hemenway, T. (2000) Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Pub Co. White River Junction, VT. p. 149. (ISBN 1-890132-52-7)</ref><br />
<br />
The Three Sisters planting method is featured on the reverse of the 2009 US [[Sacagawea dollar|Sacagawea Native American dollar coin]].<ref>[http://usmint.gov/mint_programs/nativeamerican/index.cfm?action=NADesign 2009 Native American $1 Coin], US Mint. Accessed 2009-07-08.</ref><br />
<br />
==Gallery==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Corncobs edit1.jpg|[[Maize]]<br />
File:Bean vvs.jpg|[[Beans]]<br />
File:Cucurbita pepo var. styriaca05.jpg|[[Squash (vegetable)|Squash]]<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest]]<br />
* [[Companion planting]]<br />
* [[Eastern Agricultural Complex]]<br />
* [[Intercropping]]<br />
* [[Milpa]]<br />
* [[Polyculture]]<br />
* [[Agroforestry]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.naz.edu:9000/~ethnobot/ebot2003/kevinwhite/materialuse/threesister.gif Artistic Rendition]<br />
<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Native American cuisine]]<br />
[[Category:Crops originating from the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Native American topics]]<br />
[[Category:Aboriginal cuisine in Canada]]<br />
[[Category:History of agriculture in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Organic gardening]]<br />
[[Category:Permaculture]]<br />
<br />
[[am:ሦስቱ እኅትማማች]]<br />
[[be:Тры сястры (сельская гаспадарка)]]<br />
[[es:Las tres hermanas (cultivo)]]<br />
[[fr:Trois sœurs (agriculture)]]<br />
[[nl:Drie zusters]]<br />
[[ru:Три сестры (сельское хозяйство)]]<br />
[[chr:ᏦᎢ ᎠᎾᏓᎸᎢ]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indischer_Elefant&diff=153176326Indischer Elefant2012-08-21T03:07:43Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Taxobox<br />
| <br />
| status = EN<br />
| status_system = iucn3.1<br />
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn/><br />
| image =IndianElephant.jpg<br />
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia<br />
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]<br />
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia<br />
| ordo = [[Proboscidea]]<br />
| familia = [[Elephantidae]]<br />
| genus = ''[[Elephas]]''<br />
| species = ''[[Elephas maximus]]''<br />
| subspecies = '''''E. m. indicus'''''<br />
| trinomial = ''Elephas maximus indicus''<br />
| trinomial_authority = [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1798<br />
}}<br />
{{for|the species also referred to as Indian elephant|Asian elephant}}<br />
The '''Indian elephant''' (''Elephas maximus indicus'') is one of three recognized [[subspecies]] of the [[Asian elephant]], and native to mainland [[Asia]]. Since 1986, ''Elephas maximus'' has been listed as [[endangered species|endangered]] by [[IUCN]] as the population has declined by at least 50% over the last three generations, estimated to be 60–75 years. The species is pre-eminently threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation.<ref name=iucn>{{IUCN |assessors=Choudhury, A., Lahiri Choudhury, D.K., Desai, A., Duckworth, J.W., Easa, P.S., Johnsingh, A.J.T., Fernando, P., Hedges, S., Gunawardena, M., Kurt, F., Karanth, U., Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A., Wikramanayake, E. |year=2008 |id=7140 |taxon=Elephas maximus |version=2010.4}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Characteristics ==<br />
In general, Asian elephants are smaller than [[African elephant]]s and have the highest body point on the head. The tip of their trunk has one finger-like process. Their back is convex or level.<ref>Shoshani, J., Eisenberg, J.F. (1982) [http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-182-01-0001.pdf ''Elephas maximus'']. Mammalian Species 182: 1–8</ref> Indian elephants reach a shoulder height of between {{convert|2|and|3.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}, weigh between {{convert|2000|and|5000|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, and have 19 pairs of ribs. Their skin color is lighter than of ''[[Elephas maximus maximus|maximus]]'' with smaller patches of [[depigmentation]], but darker than of ''[[Elephas maximus sumatranus|sumatranus]]''. Females are usually smaller than males, and have short or no [[tusks]].<ref name="Shoshani">Shoshani, J. (2006) [http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=oCpiZA61tyQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&ots=2IMfIdn35g&sig=9LKyLo77Kb4BehHoiX_CSJsREXs#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Taxonomy, Classification, and Evolution of Elephants''] In: Fowler, M. E., Mikota, S. K. (eds.) Biology, medicine, and surgery of elephants. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0813806763. Pp. 3–14</ref> <br />
<br />
The largest Indian elephant was {{convert|3.43|m|ft}} high at the shoulder.<ref>Pillai, N.G. (1941) ''On the height and age of an elephant''. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 42: 927–928</ref> In 1985, two large elephant bulls were spotted for the first time in [[Bardia National Park]], and named ''Raja Gaj'' and ''Kanchha''. They roamed the park area together and made occasional visits to the females. ''Raja Gaj'' stood {{convert|11.3|ft|m|abbr=on}} tall at the shoulder and had a massive body weight. His appearance has been compared to that of a [[mammoth]] due to his high bi-domed shaped head. His forehead and domes were more<br />
prominent than in other Asian bull elephants.<ref>Furaha tenVelde, P. (1997) [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/17-41-tenVelde.pdf ''The wild elephants of the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal'']. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 17: 41–44</ref> <br />
<br />
Indian elephants have smaller ears, but relatively broader [[skull]]s and larger trunks than African elephants. Toes are large and broad. Unlike their African cousins, their [[abdomen]] is proportionate with their body weight but the African elephant has a large abdomen as compared to the skulls.<br />
<br />
== Distribution and habitat==<br />
[[File:WildElephants,Munnar.JPG|thumb|Wild elephants in [[Munnar]], [[Kerala]]]]<br />
[[File:An elephant herd at Jim Corbett National Park.jpg|thumb|An elephant herd in [[Jim Corbett National Park]]]]<br />
[[File:Bandipur 4.jpg|thumb|A wild elephant in [[Bandipur National Park]]]]<br />
[[File:Elephant in Nagarhole National Park.jpg|thumb|Elephant bathing in [[Nagarhole National Park]]]]<br />
Indian elephants are native to mainland Asia: [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Malay Peninsular]], [[Laos]], [[China]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Vietnam]]. They inhabit grasslands, dry [[Deciduous forests|deciduous]], moist deciduous, [[Evergreen forests|evergreen]] and semi-evergreen forests. In the early 1990s, their estimated population size was<ref name="sukumar93">Sukumar, R. (1993) [http://books.google.com/books?id=95MoRwdQlcYC&printsec=frontcover&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false ''The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management''] Second edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052143758X</ref><br />
* 26,390–30,770 in [[India]], where populations are restricted to four general areas:<br />
** in the Northwest — at the foot of the Himalayas in [[Uttaranchal]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]], ranging from [[Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary]] to the [[Yamuna River]];<br />
** in the Northeast — from the eastern border of Nepal in northern [[West Bengal]] through western [[Assam]] along the Himalaya foothills as far as the [[Mishmi Hills]], extending into eastern [[Arunachal Pradesh]], the plains of upper Assam, and the foothills of [[Nagaland]], to the [[Garo Hills]] of [[Meghalaya]] through the [[Khasi Hills]], to parts of the lower [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]] plains and [[Karbi Anglong plateau|Karbi Plateau]]; isolated herds occur in [[Tripura]], [[Mizoram]], [[Manipur]], and in the [[Barak Valley]] districts of Assam:<br />
** in the central part — in [[Orissa]], [[Jharkhand]], and in the southern part of West Bengal, with some animals wandering into [[Chattisgarh]];<br />
** in the South — eight populations are fragmented from each other in northern [[Karnataka]], in the crestline of Karnataka–[[Western Ghats]], in [[Bhadra]]–[[Malnad]], in [[Brahmagiri]]–[[Nilgiris]]–[[Eastern Ghats]], in [[Nilambur]]–[[Silent Valley]]–[[Coimbatore]], in [[Anamalai]]–[[Parambikulam]], in [[Periyar]]–[[Srivilliputhur]], and one in [[Agasthyamalai]];<br />
* 100–125 in Nepal, where their range is restricted to a few protected areas in the [[Terai]] along the border with India. In 2002, estimates ranged from 106 to 172 resident and migratory elephants, with most of them in [[Bardia National Park]];<ref>Bhatta, S. R. (2006) [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/25-87-Bhatta.pdf ''Efforts to conserve the Asian elephant in Nepal'']. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 25: 87–89.</ref><br />
* 150–250 in Bangladesh, where only isolated populations survive in the [[Chittagong Hills]];<br />
* 250–500 in Bhutan, where their range is limited to protected areas in the south along the border with India;<br />
* 4,000–5,000 in Myanmar, where populations are highly fragmented, and occur in the northern and western hill ranges, in [[Pegu Yoma]] of central Myanmar, [[Tanintharyi Region|Tenasserim]] and [[Shan State]];<br />
* 2,500–3,200 in Thailand, mainly in the mountains along the border with Myanmar, with smaller fragmented populations occurring in the peninsula in the south;<br />
* 2,100–3,100 in Malaysia;<br />
* 500–1,000 Laos, where they remain widely but patchily distributed in forested areas, both in the highlands and lowlands;<br />
* 200–250 in China, where they survive only in the prefectures of [[Xishuangbanna]], [[Simao]], and [[Lincang]] of southern [[Yunnan]];<br />
* 250–600 in Cambodia, where they primarily inhabit the mountains of the south-west and in [[Mondulkiri Province|Mondulkiri]] and [[Ratanakiri Province]]s;<br />
* 70–150 in the southern parts of Vietnam.<br />
<br />
== Ecology and behaviour ==<br />
The movement and habitat utilization patterns of an elephant population were studied in southern India during 1981–83 within a {{convert|1130|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} study area. The area encompasses a diversity of vegetation types — from dry thorn forest at {{convert|250|to|400|m|ft|abbr=on}} of altitude through deciduous forest ({{convert|400|to|1400|m|ft|abbr=on}}) to stunted evergreen ''shola'' forest and grassland ({{convert|1400|to|1800|m|ft|abbr=on}}). Five different elephant clans, each consisting of between 50 and 200 individuals had home ranges of between {{convert|105|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and {{convert|320|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, which overlapped. Seasonal habitat preferences were related to the availability of water and the palatability of food plants. During the dry months of January to April, elephants congregated at high densities of up to five individuals per km<sup>2</sup> in river valleys where browse plants had a much higher [[protein]] content than the coarse tall grasses on hill slopes. With the onset of rains in May, they dispersed over a wider area at lower densities, largely into the tall grass forests, to feed on the fresh grasses, which then had a high protein value. During the second wet season from September to December, when the tall grasses became fibrous, they moved into lower elevation short grass open forests. The normal movement pattern could be upset during years of adverse environmental conditions. However, the movement pattern of elephants in this region has not basically changed for over a century, as inferred from descriptions recorded during the 19th century.<ref>Sukumar, R. (1989) [http://www.asiannature.org/pdf_resources/JournalofTropicalEcologyA1989.pdf ''Ecology of the Asian elephant in southern India. l. Movement and habitat utilization patterns'']. Journal of Tropical Ecology 5: 1–18</ref><br />
<br />
In the [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]] three elephant clans had overall home ranges of {{convert|562|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, {{convert|670|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and {{convert|799|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in the beginning of the 1990s. During three years of survey, their annual home ranges overlapped to a large extent with only minor shifts in the home ranges between years.<ref>Baskaran, N., Desai, A. A. (1996) [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/15-41-Bskaran.pdf ''Ranging behaviour of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, South India'']. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 15: 41–57</ref><br />
<br />
Elephants are classified as [[megaherbivore]]s and consume up to {{convert|150|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of plant matter per day.<ref>Samansiri, K. A. P., Weerakoon, D. K. (2007) [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/27-27-Samansiri.pdf ''Feeding Behaviour of Asian Elephants in the Northwestern Region of Sri Lanka'']. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Number 2: 27–34</ref> They are generalist feeders, and both [[Grazing|grazers]] and [[Browsing (predation)|browsers]]. In a study area of {{convert|1130|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in southern India, elephants were recorded to feed on 112 different plant species, most commonly of the order [[Malvales]], and the [[Leguminosae|legume]], [[Palmae|palm]], [[Cyperaceae|sedge]] and [[Graminae|true grass]] families. They graze on the [[Themeda|tall grasses]], but the portion consumed varies with season. When the new flush appears in April, they remove the tender blades in small clumps. Later, when grasses are higher than {{convert|0.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}, they uproot entire clumps, dust them skilfully and consume the fresh leave tops, but discard the roots. When grasses are mature in autumn, they clean and consume the succulent basal portions with the roots, and discard the fibrous blades. From the bamboos, they eat seedlings, culms and lateral shoots. During the dry season from January to April, browse constitutes a major food resource. They take both leaves and twigs preferring the fresh foliage, and consume thorn bearing shoots of [[acacia]] species without any obvious discomfort. They feed on the bark of [[Acacia suma|white thorn]] and other flowering plants, and consume the fruits of [[Limonia (plant)|wood apple]], [[tamarind]], [[Careya arborea|kumbhi]] and [[Phoenix (plant)|date palm]].<ref>Sukumar, R. (1990) [http://www.asiannature.org/pdf_resources/JournalofTropicalEcologyB1989.pdf ''Ecology of the Asian Elephant in southern India. II. Feeding habits and crop raiding patterns'']. Journal of Tropical Ecology (1990) 6: 33–53</ref><br />
<br />
In Nepal’s [[Bardia National Park]], elephants consume large amounts of the [[Saccharum spontaneum|floodplain grass]], particularly during the [[monsoon]] season. They browse more in the dry season with bark constituting a major part of their diet in the cool part of that season.<ref>Pradhan, N.M.B., Wegge, P., Moe, S.R., Shrestha, A.K. (2008) ''Feeding ecology of two endangered sympatric megaherbivores: Asian elephant Elephas maximus and greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in lowland Nepal''. Wildlife Biology 14: 147–154</ref> During a study in a tropical moist mixed deciduous forested area of {{convert|160|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in Assam, elephants were observed to feed on about 20 species of grasses, plants and trees. Grasses such as ''[[Imperata cylindrica]]'' and ''[[Leersia]] hexandra'' constituted by far the most predominant component of their diet.<ref>Borah, J., Deka, K. (2008) [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/28-41-Borah.pdf ''Nutritional Evaluation of Forage Preferred by Wild Elephants in the Rani Range Forest, Assam, India'']. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 28: 41–43</ref><br />
<br />
== Threats ==<br />
[[File:വാഴപ്പള്ളിക്ഷേത്രം ആന1.JPG|thumb|A Temple elephant after bath, Kerala, India]]<br />
Loss of significant extents of elephant range and suitable habitat continues; their free movement is impeded by reservoirs, hydroelectric projects and associated canals, irrigation dams, numerous pockets of cultivation and plantations, highways, railway lines, mining and industrial development.<ref name="sukumar93" /><br />
<br />
Elephant conservation in northern West Bengal has been set back due to high-levels of human–elephant conflict and elephant mortality owing to railway accidents. The railway track between [[Siliguri]] and [[Alipurduar]] passes through 74 km of various forest divisions. Every day, 20 trains run on this track at high speeds. Elephants that pass through from one forest patch to another dash against the trains and die. A total of 39 dead elephants were reported during the period of 1958 to 2008, of which ten were reported killed between 2004 to 2008.<ref>Roy, M. Baskaran, N., Sukumar, R. (2009) [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/31-36-39-Roy.pdf ''The Death of Jumbos on Railway Tracks in Northern West Bengal'']. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 31: 36–39</ref><br />
<br />
In Bangladesh, forested areas that served as prime elephant habitat have undergone drastic reduction, which had a severe impact on the wild elephant population. Habitat loss and fragmentation is attributed to the increasing human population and its need for fuel wood and timber. [[Illegal logging|Illegal timber extraction]] plays a significant role in deforestation and habitat degradation. As a result of the shrinking habitat, elephants have become more and more prone to coming into direct conflict with humans.<ref name="Islam06">Islam, M. A. (2006) [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/25-21-Islam.pdf ''Conservation of the Asian elephant in Bangladesh'']. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 25: 21–26</ref><br />
<br />
In [[Burma]] (Myanmar), demand for elephant [[ivory]] for making tourist items is higher than ever before. The military government shows little interest in reducing the [[ivory trade]], while the elephants in the country have become the silent victims. After the world-wide ivory ban, prices of raw ivory in the country skyrocketed from $76 a kilo for large tusks in 1989/90 to over $200 a kilo by the mid-1990s. Foreign tourists are responsible for the massive rise in price of ivory tusks which fuels the [[Poaching|illegal killing]] of elephants. There is also a sizeable trade in ivory chopsticks and carvings, [[Wildlife trade#Illegal_wildlife_trade|smuggled]] by traders from Myanmar into China.<ref>Vigne, L., Martin, E. (2002) [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/21-85-Vigne.pdf ''Myanmar’s ivory trade threatens wild elephants'']. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 21: 85–86</ref> In [[Burma]], some young wild-born elephants are removed from their mothers, who are often killed in the process, for use in [[Thailand]]'s tourism industry.<ref name=dm120721>{{cite news | url = http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2176957/The-agonising-blows-expose-evil-secrets-Thailands-elephant-tourism-The-Duchess-Cornwalls-brother-tells-baby-elephants-brutally-starved-tortured.html | title = The agonising blows that expose the evil secrets of Thailand's elephant tourism con: The Duchess of Cornwall's brother tells how baby elephants are brutally starved and tortured | first = Mark | last = Shand | date = 21 July 2012 | work = Daily Mail | accessdate = 22 July 2012 }}</ref> The calves are often subjected to a 'breaking in' process, which may involve being tied up, confined, starved, beaten and tortured, as a result of which two-thirds may perish.<ref name=guard120724>{{cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/jul/24/tourism-elephant-trade-burma-thailand | title = Tourism driving illegal elephant trade in Burma and Thailand – video | work = guardian.co.uk | date = 24 July 2012 }}</ref> Some calves are placed alongside unrelated female elephants to suggest they are with their mothers.<ref name=dm120721/><br />
<br />
== Conservation ==<br />
''Elephas maximus'' is listed on [[CITES Appendix I]].<ref name=iucn/><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Elephants in Kerala culture]]<br />
* [[Mela shikar]], a traditional method of capturing wild elephants in North-east India<br />
* [[Sri Lankan Elephant]] <br />
* [[Sumatran Elephant]]<br />
* [[Borneo Elephant]] <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
*G. P. Sanderson (1907) ''Thirteen years among the wild beasts of India: their haunts and habits from personal observation : with an account of the modes of capturing and taming elephants''. John Grant, Edinburg. 8th edition in 2000 by Asian Educational Services, New Delhi. ISBN 812061464X 9788120614642<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
*[http://panda.org/elephants/asian/indian WWF: ''Indian elephant'']<br />
* [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Elephas_maximus.html Animal Diversity Web: ''Elephas maximus'' Asiatic elephant]<br />
* [http://www.honoluluzoo.org/indian_elephant.htm Honolulu Zoo: ''Indian Elephant'']<br />
*[http://web.mac.com/nadjagrimm/iWeb/JWDC/Elephants%20.html Paintings of Indian Elephants]<br />
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[[Category:Elephants]]<br />
[[Category:Mammals of Bangladesh]]<br />
[[Category:Mammals of Bhutan]]<br />
[[Category:Mammals of Burma]]<br />
[[Category:Mammals of Cambodia]]<br />
[[Category:Mammals of China]]<br />
[[Category:Mammals of India]]<br />
[[Category:Mammals of Laos]]<br />
[[Category:Mammals of Malaysia]]<br />
[[Category:Mammals of Nepal]]<br />
[[Category:Mammals of Thailand]]<br />
[[Category:Mammals of Vietnam]]<br />
[[Category:National symbols of India]]<br />
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[[bn:ভারতীয় হাতি]]<br />
[[bg:Индийски слон]]<br />
[[da:Indisk elefant]]<br />
[[es:Elephas maximus indicus]]<br />
[[ga:Eilifint Indiach]]<br />
[[ko:인도코끼리]]<br />
[[hi:भारतीय हाथी]]<br />
[[it:Elephas maximus indicus]]<br />
[[kn:ಭಾರತದ ಆನೆ]]<br />
[[ml:ഇന്ത്യൻ ആന]]<br />
[[ms:Gajah India]]<br />
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[[zh-yue:印度象]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drei_Schwestern_(Ackerbau)&diff=152467948Drei Schwestern (Ackerbau)2012-06-12T23:51:22Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Undid revision 497295678 by Spoonkymonkey (talk)then provide actual cited info instead of removing it, if you have problem w. source, take to WP:RSN</p>
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<div>[[File:2009NativeAmericanRev.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Three Sisters as featured on the reverse of the 2009 Native American U.S. dollar coin]]<br />
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The '''Three Sisters''' are the three main agricultural crops of various [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] groups in [[North America]]: [[Squash (vegetable)|squash]], [[maize]], and climbing [[bean]]s (typically [[tepary bean]]s or [[common bean]]s).<br />
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In one technique known as [[companion planting]], the three crops are planted close together. Flat-topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Mt. Pleasant|first=Jane|editor=John E. Staller, Robert H. Tykot, and Bruce F. Benz|encyclopedia=Histories of maize: Multidisciplinary approaches to the prehistory, linguistics, biogeography, domestication, and evolution of maize|title=The science behind the Three Sisters mound system: An agronomic assessment of an indigenous agricultural system in the northeast|year=2006|location=Amsterdam |pages=529–537}}</ref> Each mound is about 30 cm (12 in) high and 50 cm (20 in) wide, and several maize seeds are [[sowing|planted]] close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the [[Atlantic Northeast]], rotten fish or eels are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s1485865.htm "The Three Sisters."] Phil Dudman. October 19, 2005. [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC North Coast NSW]].</ref><ref>[http://www.motherearthnews.com/Nature-and-Environment/2001-02-01/The-Three-Sisters.aspx "The Three Sisters."] John Vivian. February/March 2001. [[Mother Earth News]].</ref> When the maize is 15 cm (6 inches) tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between the two kinds of seeds.<br />
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The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the [[nitrogen]] to the [[soil]] that the other plants utilize, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the [[sunlight]], helping prevent establishment of [[weed]]s. The squash leaves also act as a "living [[mulch]]", creating a [[microclimate]] to retain [[moisture in the soil]], and the [[spine (botany)|prickly hairs]] of the vine deter [[pest (organism)|pests]]. Maize lacks the [[amino acid]]s [[lysine]] and [[tryptophan]], which the human body needs to make [[protein]]s and [[niacin]], but beans contain both and therefore maize and beans together provide a balanced diet.<br />
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Native Americans throughout North America are known for growing variations of Three Sisters gardens. The [[milpa]]s of [[Mesoamerica]] are farms or gardens that employ companion planting on a larger scale.<ref>Mann, Charles. ''1491''. 2005. pp. 220-221. Vintage Books.</ref> The [[Anasazi]] are known for adopting this garden design in a [[deserts and xeric shrublands|drier environment]]. The [[Tewa people|Tewa]] and other Southwest tribes often included a "fourth sister" known as "Rocky Mountain bee plant" (''[[Cleome serrulata]]''), which attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.<ref>Hemenway, T. (2000) Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Pub Co. White River Junction, VT. p. 149. (ISBN 1-890132-52-7)</ref><br />
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The Three Sisters planting method is featured on the reverse of the 2009 US [[Sacagawea dollar|Sacagawea Native American dollar coin]].<ref>[http://usmint.gov/mint_programs/nativeamerican/index.cfm?action=NADesign 2009 Native American $1 Coin], US Mint. Accessed 2009-07-08.</ref><br />
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==Gallery==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Corncobs edit1.jpg|[[Maize]]<br />
File:Bean vvs.jpg|[[Beans]]<br />
File:Cucurbita pepo var. styriaca05.jpg|[[Squash (vegetable)|Squash]]<br />
</gallery><br />
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==See also==<br />
* [[Eastern Agricultural Complex]]<br />
* [[Companion planting]]<br />
* [[Intercropping]]<br />
* [[Milpa]]<br />
* [[Polyculture]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
* [http://www.naz.edu:9000/~ethnobot/ebot2003/kevinwhite/materialuse/threesister.gif Artistic Rendition]<br />
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{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
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[[Category:Native American cuisine]]<br />
[[Category:Crops originating from the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Indigenous peoples in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Aboriginal cuisine in Canada]]<br />
[[Category:History of agriculture in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Organic gardening]]<br />
[[Category:Permaculture]]<br />
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[[am:ሦስቱ እኅትማማች]]<br />
[[be:Тры сястры (сельская гаспадарка)]]<br />
[[es:Las tres hermanas (cultivo)]]<br />
[[fr:Trois sœurs (agriculture)]]<br />
[[nl:Drie zusters]]<br />
[[ru:Три сестры (сельское хозяйство)]]<br />
[[chr:ᏦᎢ ᎠᎾᏓᎸᎢ]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Capul%C3%ADkultur&diff=169223827Capulíkultur2012-03-22T19:14:49Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: </p>
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<div>[[Image:Capulí contortionist Santiago.jpg|thumb|300px|right| Capulí sculpture of a contortionist]]<br />
The '''Capulí culture''' refers to an [[Archaeological culture|archaeological classification]] for a group in [[Pre-Columbian]] [[South America]] on the Andean plain in what is now northern [[Ecuador]] and southern [[Colombia]]. The Capulí preceded the Piartal and Tuza cultures in the archaeological record<ref name=ENCYCPREHIST>{{cite encyclopedia |author= |year=2001 |article=|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Prehistory|volume= 5 : Middle America |editor1-first=Peter Neal|editor1-last=Peregrine|editor1-link=Peter N. Peregrine|editor2-first=Melvin|editor2-last=Ember|editor2-link=Melvin Ember|location=New York |publisher=Springer,|pages=167-170|isbn=0-306-46259-1 |oclc=84088734}}</ref> ranging from around 800 to 1500 CE. The Capulí culture left a strong record through its [[pottery]]. The Capulí had distinctive black on dark red pottery with rectilinear geometric designs. The anthropormorphic pottery statues of the Capulí can be striking. Women are depicted with a wrap that extends from the armpit to the ankle while men have [[loincloth]]s and are often shown with an object such as a drum or animal. These figures are often called ''coqueros'' because they are depicted with wads of [[coca]] leaves in their mouths. Scholars have associated the figures with shamans and possible funary rituals.<ref name=ENCYCPREHIST/> <br />
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Capulí goldwork is similar to that of later Ecuadoran and Columbian cultures. Smiths hammered and soldered high-carat gold into geometric and zoomorphic designs. <br />
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Capulí graves contained a mix of grave goods including conch shells and stone axes. Some graves in [[Nariño]] are extremely deep, as much as 40m. Those [[Carchi]] only exceeded 10m in the early Capulí period and were later only 2m deep. Graves were ellipsoid in shape, wider than deep, and burial chambers seem to have been kept open while tunnels were backfilled.<ref name=ENCYCPREHIST/><br />
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[[File:WLA lacma Capuli ceramic coquero.jpg|thumb|left|Coquero]]<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://mod.precolombino.cl/mods/culturas/cultura.php?id=21 Capulí page at the Chilean Museum for Pre-Columbian Art website]<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Capuli Culture}}<br />
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[[Category:Pre-Columbian cultures]]<br />
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of the Andes]]<br />
[[Category:Prehistory of Ecuador]]<br />
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[[pl:Kultura Capulí]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Capul%C3%ADkultur&diff=169223825Capulíkultur2012-03-22T02:24:19Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: </p>
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<div>[[Image:Capulí contortionist Santiago.jpg|thumb|300px|right| Capulí sculpture of a contortionist]]<br />
The '''Capulí culture''' refers to an [[Archaeological culture|archaeological classification]] for a group in [[Pre-Columbian]] [[South America]] on the Andean plain in what is now northern [[Ecuador]] and southern [[Colombia]]. The Capulí preceded the Piartal and Tuza cultures in the archaeological record<ref>Encyclopedia of Prehistory - Volume 5: Middle America. Eds. [[Peter N. Peregrine]] and Melvin Ember. Springer, 2001: p 167.</ref> ranging from around 800 to 1500 CE. The Capulí culture left a strong record through its [[pottery]]. The Capulí had distinctive black on dark red pottery with rectilinear geometric designs. The anthropormorphic pottery statues of the Capulí can be striking. Women are depicted with a wrap that extends from the armpit to the ankle while men have [[loincloth]]s and are often shown with an object such as a drum or animal. These figures are often called ''coqueros'' because they are depicted with wads of [[coca]] leaves in their mouths. Scholars have associated the figures with shamans and possible funary rituals.<ref>Encyclopedia of Prehistory, 168.</ref> <br />
<br />
Capulí goldwork is similar to that of later Ecuadoran and Columbian cultures. Smiths hammered and soldered high-carat gold into geometric and zoomorphic designs. <br />
<br />
Capulí graves contained a mix of grave goods including conch shells and stone axes. Some graves in [[Nariño]] are extremely deep, as much as 40m. Those [[Carchi]] only exceeded 10m in the early Capulí period and were later only 2m deep. Graves were ellipsoid in shape, wider than deep, and burial chambers seem to have been kept open while tunnels were backfilled.<ref>Encyclopedia of Prehistory, p 170.</ref><br />
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[[File:WLA lacma Capuli ceramic coquero.jpg|thumb|left|Coquero]]<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://mod.precolombino.cl/mods/culturas/cultura.php?id=21 Capulí page at the Chilean Museum for Pre-Columbian Art website]<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Capuli Culture}}<br />
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[[Category:Pre-Columbian cultures]]<br />
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of the Andes]]<br />
[[Category:Prehistory of Ecuador]]<br />
[[Category:Prehistory of Peru]]<br />
[[Category:Article Feedback 5]]<br />
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[[pl:Kultura Capulí]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quwaiq&diff=143761395Quwaiq2012-03-22T02:16:24Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: </p>
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<div>[[File:Aleppo queik River.jpg |thumb|right|Queiq River in downtown Aleppo, 2011]]<br />
The '''Queiq''' (also '''Qoueiq'''<ref name="Liverani1995">{{cite book|last=Liverani|first=Mario|title=Neo-Assyrian geography|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IaoMAQAAMAAJ|accessdate=30 September 2011|year=1995|publisher=Università di Roma, Dipartimento di scienze storiche, archeologiche e antropologiche dell'Antichità|page=121}}</ref>, '''Quweiq''' or '''Qoueiq''' ({{lang-ar|قويق}} quwayq {{IPA-ar|quˈwajq|}}; [[North Syrian Arabic|North Syrian vernacular]]: ʼwēʼ {{IPA-ar|ʔwɛːʔ|}}) (ancient '''Chalos'''), also called '''Aleppo River''' is a river and valley of the [[Aleppo Governorate]], [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]]. It is a {{convert|129|km|mi}}-long river that flows through the northern [[Syria]]n city of [[Aleppo]]. It arises from the southern [[Aintab plateau]] in southeastern [[Turkey]]. The Akpınar River in the [[Kilis]] plain is one of the headwaters of the Queiq. The former town of [[Qinnasrin]] lay on its banks.<ref name="Phenix2008">{{cite book|last=Phenix|first=Robert R.|title=The sermons on Joseph of Balai of Qenneshrin: rhetoric and interpretation in fifth-century Syriac literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZjVBzkqQjhEC&pg=PA53|accessdate=30 September 2011|date=20 December 2008|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|isbn=978-3-16-149676-9|page=53}}</ref> It partly flows along the western rim of the [[Matah Depression]].<ref name="Wagner2011">{{cite book|last=Wagner|first=Wolfgang|title=Groundwater in the Arab Middle East|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0dFttVkr2uwC&pg=PA165|accessdate=30 September 2011|date=25 July 2011|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-19350-7|page=165}}</ref> The valley has been occupied for thousands of years and in ancient times the Queiq valley was noted for its flint industries and pottery.<ref name="PeregrineEmber2002">{{cite book|authorlink1=Peter N. Peregrine|last1=Peregrine|first1=Peter Neal|last2=Ember|first2=Melvin|last3=inc|first3=Human Relations Area Files,|title=Encyclopedia of Prehistory: South and Southwest Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=C-TQpUtI-dgC&pg=PA42|accessdate=30 September 2011|year=2002|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-306-46262-7|page=42}}</ref><br />
<br />
The river dried up completely in the late 1960s because of irrigation projects on the Turkish side of the border. Recently, water from the [[Euphrates]] has been diverted to revive the dead river, and thus revive agriculture in the plains south of Aleppo, but many Syrians remain bitter with the Turks with their handling of the river.<ref name="Gren2002">{{cite book|last=Gren|first=Erik|title=Orientalia Suecana|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1bUMAQAAMAAJ|accessdate=30 September 2011|year=2002|publisher=Almquist & Wiksell Periodical Co.|page=37}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Gallery==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Old Alepo Jabri Square.JPG|The flood of Queiq River in February 1922<br />
File:Aleppo 1950s.JPG|The river crossing the [[Aleppo Public Park]] n the 1950s<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{coord|36|11|16|N|37|8|24.5|E|display=title}}<br />
<br />
{{Syria-geo-stub}}<br />
{{Aleppo Governorate}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Aleppo]]<br />
[[Category:Aleppo Governorate]]<br />
[[Category:Rivers of Syria]]<br />
[[Category:Rivers of Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:International rivers of Asia]]<br />
<br />
[[ar:نهر قويق]]<br />
[[fa:رودخانه قویق]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drei_Schwestern_(Ackerbau)&diff=152467940Drei Schwestern (Ackerbau)2011-10-28T20:49:38Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:2009NativeAmericanRev.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Three Sisters as featured on the reverse of the 2009 Native American U.S. dollar coin]]<br />
<br />
The '''Three Sisters''' are the three main agricultural crops of various [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] groups in [[North America]]: [[Squash (vegetable)|squash]], [[maize]], and climbing [[bean]]s (typically [[tepary bean]]s or [[common bean]]s).<br />
<br />
In one technique known as [[companion planting]], the three crops are planted close together. Flat-topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops. Each mound is about 30 cm (12 in) high and 50 cm (20 in) wide, and several maize seeds are [[sowing|planted]] close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the [[Atlantic Northeast]], rotten fish or eels are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s1485865.htm "The Three Sisters."] Phil Dudman. October 19, 2005. [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC North Coast NSW]].</ref><ref>[http://www.motherearthnews.com/Nature-and-Environment/2001-02-01/The-Three-Sisters.aspx "The Three Sisters."] John Vivian. February/March 2001. [[Mother Earth News]].</ref> When the maize is 15 cm (6 inches) tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between the two kinds of seeds.<br />
<br />
The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the [[nitrogen]] to the [[soil]] that the other plants utilize, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the [[sunlight]], helping prevent establishment of [[weed]]s. The squash leaves also act as a "living [[mulch]]", creating a [[microclimate]] to retain [[moisture in the soil]], and the [[spine (botany)|prickly hairs]] of the vine deter [[pest (organism)|pests]]. Maize lacks the [[amino acid]]s [[lysine]] and [[tryptophan]], which the human body needs to make [[protein]]s and [[niacin]], but beans contain both and therefore maize and beans together provide a balanced diet.<br />
<br />
Native Americans throughout North America are known for growing variations of Three Sisters gardens. The [[milpa]]s of [[Mesoamerica]] are farms or gardens that employ companion planting on a larger scale.<ref>Mann, Charles. ''1491''. 2005. pp. 220-221. Vintage Books.</ref> The [[Anasazi]] are known for adopting this garden design in a more [[xeric]] environment. The [[Tewa people|Tewa]] and other Southwest tribes often included a "fourth sister" known as "Rocky Mountain bee plant" (''[[Cleome serrulata]]''), which attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.<ref>Hemenway, T. (2000) Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Pub Co. White River Junction, VT. p. 149. (ISBN 1-890132-52-7)</ref><br />
<br />
The Three Sisters planting method is featured on the reverse of the 2009 US [[Sacagawea dollar|Sacagawea Native American dollar coin]].<ref>[http://usmint.gov/mint_programs/nativeamerican/index.cfm?action=NADesign 2009 Native American $1 Coin], US Mint. Accessed 2009-07-08.</ref><br />
<br />
==Gallery==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Corncobs edit1.jpg|[[Maize]]<br />
File:Bean vvs.jpg|[[Beans]]<br />
File:Cucurbita pepo var. styriaca05.jpg|[[Squash (vegetable)|Squash]]<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Eastern Agricultural Complex]]<br />
* [[Companion planting]]<br />
* [[Intercropping]]<br />
* [[Milpa]]<br />
* [[Polyculture]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.naz.edu:9000/~ethnobot/ebot2003/kevinwhite/materialuse/threesister.gif Artistic Rendition]<br />
* [http://images.parkseed01.com/parksgardens/pem000505/sistapem000505he.html page with detailed instructions]<br />
<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Native American cuisine]]<br />
[[Category:Crops originating from the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Indigenous peoples in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Aboriginal cuisine in Canada]]<br />
[[Category:History of agriculture in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Organic gardening]]<br />
[[Category:Permaculture]]<br />
<br />
[[am:ሦስቱ እኅትማማች]]<br />
[[be:Тры сястры (сельская гаспадарка)]]<br />
[[es:Las tres hermanas (cultivo)]]<br />
[[fr:Trois sœurs (agriculture)]]<br />
[[nl:Drie zusters]]<br />
[[ru:Три сестры (сельское хозяйство)]]<br />
[[chr:ᏦᎢ ᎠᎾᏓᎸᎢ]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drei_Schwestern_(Ackerbau)&diff=152467933Drei Schwestern (Ackerbau)2011-08-27T03:43:11Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Undid revision 446732084 by 184.3.127.147 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:2009NativeAmericanRev.jpg|thumb|right|200px|2009 Native American dollar reverse with Three Sisters on it]]<br />
<br />
The '''Three Sisters''' are the three main agricultural crops of some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] groups in [[North America]]: [[Squash (vegetable)|squash]], [[maize]], and climbing [[bean]]s (typically [[tepary bean]]s or [[common bean]]s).<br />
<br />
In one technique known as [[companion planting]], the three crops are planted close together. Flat-topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops. Each mound is about 30 cm (1 ft) high and 50 cm (20 in) wide, and several maize seeds are [[sowing|planted]] close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the [[Atlantic Northeast]], rotten fish or eel are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s1485865.htm "The Three Sisters."] Phil Dudman. October 19, 2005. [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC North Coast NSW]].</ref><ref>[http://www.motherearthnews.com/Nature-and-Environment/2001-02-01/The-Three-Sisters.aspx "The Three Sisters."] John Vivian. February/March 2001. [[Mother Earth News]].</ref> When the maize is 15 cm (6 inches) tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between beans and squash. [[Milpa]]s are farms or gardens that employ companion planting on a larger scale.<ref>Mann, Charles. ''1491''. 2005. pp. 220-221. Vintage Books.</ref><br />
<br />
The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the [[nitrogen]] to the [[soil]] that the other plants utilize and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the [[sunlight]], which helps prevent [[weed]]s. The squash leaves act as a "living [[mulch]]", creating a [[microclimate]] to retain [[moisture in the soil]], and the [[spine (botany)|prickly hairs]] of the vine deter [[pest (organism)|pests]]. Maize lacks the [[amino acid]]s [[lysine]] and [[tryptophan]], which the body needs to make [[protein]]s and [[niacin]], but beans contain both and therefore together they provide a balanced diet.<br />
<br />
Native Americans throughout North America are known for growing variations of three sisters gardens. The [[Anasazi]] are known for adopting this garden design in a more [[xeric]] environment. The [[Tewa people|Tewa]] and other Southwest tribes often included a "fourth sister" known as "Rocky Mountain bee plant" (''[[Cleome serrulata]]''), which attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.<ref>Hemenway, T. (2000) Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Pub Co. White River Junction, VT. p. 149. (ISBN 1-890132-52-7)</ref><br />
<br />
The three sisters planting method is featured on the 2009 reverse of new issues of the US [[Sacagawea dollar]] coin.<ref>[http://usmint.gov/mint_programs/nativeamerican/index.cfm?action=NADesign 2009 Native American $1 Coin], US Mint. Accessed 2009-07-08.</ref><br />
<br />
==Gallery==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Corncobs edit1.jpg|[[Maize]]<br />
File:Bean vvs.jpg|[[Beans]]<br />
File:Cucurbita pepo var. styriaca05.jpg|[[Squash (vegetable)|Squash]]<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Eastern Agricultural Complex]]<br />
* [[Companion planting]]<br />
* [[Intercropping]]<br />
* [[Milpa]]<br />
* [[Polyculture]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.naz.edu:9000/~ethnobot/ebot2003/kevinwhite/materialuse/threesister.gif Artistic Rendition]<br />
* [http://images.parkseed01.com/parksgardens/pem000505/sistapem000505he.html page with detailed instructions]<br />
<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Native American cuisine]]<br />
[[Category:Crops originating from the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Indigenous peoples in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Aboriginal cuisine in Canada]]<br />
[[Category:History of agriculture in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Organic gardening]]<br />
[[Category:Permaculture]]<br />
<br />
[[am:ሦስቱ እኅትማማች]]<br />
[[be:Тры сястры (сельская гаспадарка)]]<br />
[[es:Las tres hermanas (cultivo)]]<br />
[[fr:Trois sœurs (agriculture)]]<br />
[[nl:Drie zusters]]<br />
[[ru:Три сестры (сельское хозяйство)]]<br />
[[chr:ᏦᎢ ᎠᎾᏓᎸᎢ]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mishipeshu&diff=193193120Mishipeshu2011-05-07T14:51:57Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Undid revision 427849173 by 63.152.147.120 (talk)already in paragraph</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Underwater panther NMAI GGH.jpg|thumb|260px|Underwater Panther, [[National Museum of the American Indian]] [[George Gustav Heye Center]]]]<br />
'''Underwater panthers''' were powerful creatures in the mythological traditions of some Native American tribes, particularly tribes of the [[Great Lakes]] region.<ref name=Kohl>Kohl</ref> In [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]], the creature is sometimes called '''Mishibizhiw''' ("Mishipizhiw", "Mishipizheu", "Mishupishu", "Mishepishu"), "Mishibijiw" to the [[Anishinaabe language|Algonquin]], which translates as "Great Lynx,"<ref>[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> or '''Gichi-anami'e-bizhiw''' ("Gitche-anahmi-bezheu"), which translates as "the fabulous night panther."<ref name=Kohl /><ref>"The fabulous night panther" is a translation from [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]] into [[French language|French]] to [[German language|German]], which then was translated into English. The direct translation would be something closer to "The greatly revered lynx". See [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> However, it is also commonly referred to as the "Great Lynx," "Great underground wildcat," or "Great under-water wildcat."<ref name=Barnes>Barnes</ref><ref>"Mishi-Peshu" [http://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; 10.1336/0313301484. 568 pages, p. 168.</ref> Sometimes it is referred to as the ''Spirit Otter''.{{citation needed|date=September 2010}} <br />
<br />
Underwater panthers were major components of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the prehistoric American Southeast.<ref> {{cite book | last = Townsend | first = Richard F. | title = [[Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand]]| publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | date = 2004 | isbn = 0300106017}}</ref><ref> {{cite book | editors = F. Kent Reilly and James Garber | title = [[Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms]] | publisher = [[University of Texas Press]] | date = 2004 | pages = 29–34 | isbn = 9780292713475 | author = edited by F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber ; foreword by Vincas P. Steponaitis.}}</ref><br />
<br><br><br><br><br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
[[Image:Underwater panther bowl 1.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Underwater Panther-Great Serpent bowl, Late [[Mississippian culture]], AD 1300-1500, from Rhodes Place, [[Crittenden County, Arkansas]], USA]]<br />
[[Image:Underwater Panther rock painting (crop).jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pictographs of a ''mishibizhiw'' as well as two snakes and a canoe, from [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], [[Ontario]], Canada. Attributed to the [[Ojibwa]]]]<br />
[[Water monster]]s appear in the mythology of most cultures. In some [[Native American mythologies]], they were given a combination of traits of [[wild cat]]s such as the [[mountain lion]], or in some cases the [[lynx]], and those of [[snake]]s. The underwater panther was an amalgam of features from many animals: the horns of [[deer]] or [[bison]]; snake scales; bird [[feathers]]; the body and tail of a [[mountain lion]]; and parts from other animals as well, depending on the particular myth. ''Mishipizheu'' were said to live in the deepest parts of lakes and rivers. Some traditions believed the underwater panthers to be helpful, protective creatures, but more often they were viewed as malevolent beasts that brought death and misfortune.<br />
<br />
To the [[Algonquins]], the underwater panther (Mishibijiw) was the most powerful [[underworld]] being. The [[Ojibwa]] reportedly held them to be masters of all water creatures as well as of snakes. Some versions of the ''[[Nanabozho]]'' creation legend refer to whole communities of water [[lynx]].<ref>Bolgiano</ref> <br />
<br />
[[Potawatomi]] [[medicine bag]]s sometimes had an image of the underwater panther on one side and the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbird]], master of the powers of the air, on the other. As late as the 1950s, the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Indians performed a traditional ceremony to placate the Underworld Panther and maintain balance with the Thunderbird.<ref>Bolgiano</ref> In addition to the [[Anishinaabe]]g – the Algonquins, Ojibwas, Potawatomis – ''Mishibizhiw'' stories are also to be found among the [[Innu|Montagnais]].<ref name=Barnes /><br />
<br />
When ethnographer [[Johann Kohl]] visited the United States in the 1850s, he spoke with a [[Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa|Fond du Lac]] chief, who showed Kohl a piece of copper kept in his [[medicine bag]]. The chief said it was a strand of hair from the ''mishibizhiw'', and thus considered extremely powerful.<ref name=Kohl /><br />
<br />
=="Alligator" mound==<br />
{{main|Alligator Effigy Mound}}<br />
[[Image:Mississippian Underwater Panther ceramic.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Ceramic effigy jug of the underwater panther, [[Mississippian culture]], from [[Parkin Archeological State Park#Culture of the Parkin Phase people|Rose Mound]] in [[Cross County, Arkansas]], ca. 1400-1600 CE. Height: 8" (20 cm)]]<br />
In 2003 archaeologist Brad Lepper suggested that the [[Alligator Effigy Mound]] in [[Granville, Ohio]] represents the underwater panther. Lepper suggests that early European settlers, when learning from Native Americans that the mound represented a fierce creature that lived in the water and ate people, mistakenly assumed that the Native Americans were referring to an alligator.<ref>Lepper.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Nguruvilu]]<br />
*[[Piasa]]<br />
*[[Horned Serpent]]<br />
*[[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex#Great Serpent|Distribution of belief in the Underwater Panther]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*{{cite web|last=Barnes|first=Michael|url=http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca/living/history/lavase/97frs611.htm| title=Aboriginal Artifacts|work=Final Report - 1997 Archaeological Excavations La Vase Heritage Project|publisher=City of [[North Bay, Ontario]]|accessdate=2008-10-05}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Bolgiano | first = Chris | title = Mountain Lion: An Unnatural History of Pumas and People | year = 1995 | month = August | publisher = Stackpole Books | location = | isbn = 0-8117-1044-0 | chapter = Native Americans and American Lions | chapterurl = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/mountain.htm}}<br />
*Dewdney, Selwyn. Kidd, Kenneth E. ''Indian Rock Paintings of the Great Lakes'' (Toronto, Ontario: [[University of Toronto Press]] (for the Quetico Foundation), 1975), p. 149.<br />
* {{cite web|last=Fox|first=William A. |url=http://www.adamsheritage.com/articles/fox/dragon_sideplates.htm| title=Dragon Sideplates from York Factory: A New Twist on an Old Tail.|publisher=Adams Heritage|accessdate=2006-07-13}}<br />
*[http://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; 10.1336/0313301484, 584 pages, p. 168.<br />
* {{cite book | last = Kohl | first = Johann | title = Kitchi-Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway | year = 1859 | month = | publisher = | location = | id = | chapter = | chapterurl = | isbn = 0873511727 }}<br />
* {{cite journal|last =Lepper|first=Brad|title=[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=187259 Alligator Mound: Geoarchaeological and Iconographical Interpretations of a Late Prehistoric Effigy Mound in Central Ohio, USA]|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume=13 |pages=147–167|doi=10.1017/S0959774303000106|year=2003|last2 =Frolking|first2 =Tod A.}} <br />
* {{cite news|first=David|last=Lore|title=Man pounces on panther theory about mound|publisher=The Columbus Dispatch|date=2001-01-21}} [http://farshores.org/alimound.htm copy]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commonscat|Horned serpent and underwater panther representations}}<br />
*[http://www.artsmia.org/viewer/detail.php?id=89843&i=3&v=1 Ceramic underwater panther figurine, c. 1500, Arkansas].<br />
*[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/mythiccreatures/water/myths.php American Museum of Natural History on Mishepishu]<br />
*[http://www.monstropedia.org/index.php?title=Mishipeshu Mishipeshu at Monstropedia.]<br />
<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Mississippian culture]]<br />
[[Category:Legendary creatures of the indigenous peoples of North America]]<br />
[[Category:Water deities]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeology of the Americas]]<br />
[[Category:Anishinaabe mythology]]<br />
[[Category:Native American history]]<br />
[[Category:Mythological hybrids]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Panthère d'eau]]<br />
[[ru:Подводная Пантера]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mishipeshu&diff=193193118Mishipeshu2011-05-06T08:11:05Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Undid revision 427714196 by 63.152.147.120 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Underwater panther NMAI GGH.jpg|thumb|260px|Underwater Panther, [[National Museum of the American Indian]] [[George Gustav Heye Center]]]]<br />
'''Underwater panthers''' were powerful creatures in the mythological traditions of some Native American tribes, particularly tribes of the [[Great Lakes]] region.<ref name=Kohl>Kohl</ref> In [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]], the creature is sometimes called '''Mishibizhiw''' ("Mishipizhiw", "Mishipizheu", "Mishupishu", "Mishepishu"), "Mishibijiw" to the [[Anishinaabe language|Algonquin]], which translates as "Great Lynx,"<ref>[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> or '''Gichi-anami'e-bizhiw''' ("Gitche-anahmi-bezheu"), which translates as "the fabulous night panther."<ref name=Kohl /><ref>"The fabulous night panther" is a translation from [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]] into [[French language|French]] to [[German language|German]], which then was translated into English. The direct translation would be something closer to "The greatly revered lynx". See [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> However, it is also commonly referred to as the "Great Lynx," "Great underground wildcat," or "Great under-water wildcat."<ref name=Barnes>Barnes</ref><ref>"Mishi-Peshu" [http://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; 10.1336/0313301484. 568 pages, p. 168.</ref> Sometimes it is referred to as the ''Spirit Otter''.{{citation needed|date=September 2010}} <br />
<br />
Underwater panthers were major components of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the prehistoric American Southeast.<ref> {{cite book | last = Townsend | first = Richard F. | title = [[Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand]]| publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | date = 2004 | isbn = 0300106017}}</ref><ref> {{cite book | editors = F. Kent Reilly and James Garber | title = [[Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms]] | publisher = [[University of Texas Press]] | date = 2004 | pages = 29–34 | isbn = 9780292713475 | author = edited by F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber ; foreword by Vincas P. Steponaitis.}}</ref><br />
<br><br><br><br><br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
[[Image:Underwater panther bowl 1.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Underwater Panther-Great Serpent bowl, Late [[Mississippian culture]], AD 1300-1500, from Rhodes Place, [[Crittenden County, Arkansas]], USA]]<br />
[[Image:Underwater Panther rock painting (crop).jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pictographs of a ''mishibizhiw'' as well as two snakes and a canoe, from [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], [[Ontario]], Canada. Attributed to the [[Ojibwa]]]]<br />
[[Water monster]]s appear in the mythology of most cultures. In some [[Native American mythologies]], they were given a combination of traits of [[wild cat]]s such as the [[mountain lion]], or in some cases the [[lynx]], and those of [[snake]]s. The underwater panther was an amalgam of features from many animals: the horns of [[deer]] or [[bison]]; snake scales; bird [[feathers]]; the body and tail of a [[mountain lion]]; and parts from other animals as well, depending on the particular myth. ''Mishipizheu'' were said to live in the deepest parts of lakes and rivers. Some traditions believed the underwater panthers to be helpful, protective creatures, but more often they were viewed as malevolent beasts that brought death and misfortune.<br />
<br />
To the [[Algonquins]], the underwater panther (Mishibijiw) was the most powerful [[underworld]] being. The [[Ojibwa]] reportedly held them to be masters of all water creatures as well as of snakes. Some versions of the ''[[Nanabozho]]'' creation legend refer to whole communities of water [[lynx]].<ref>Bolgiano</ref> <br />
<br />
[[Potawatomi]] [[medicine bag]]s sometimes had an image of the underwater panther on one side and the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbird]], master of the powers of the air, on the other. As late as the 1950s, the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Indians performed a traditional ceremony to placate the Underworld Panther and maintain balance with the Thunderbird.<ref>Bolgiano</ref> In addition to the [[Anishinaabe]]g – the Algonquins, Ojibwas, Potawatomis – ''Mishibizhiw'' stories are also to be found among the [[Innu|Montagnais]].<ref name=Barnes /><br />
<br />
When ethnographer [[Johann Kohl]] visited the United States in the 1850s, he spoke with a [[Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa|Fond du Lac]] chief, who showed Kohl a piece of copper kept in his [[medicine bag]]. The chief said it was a strand of hair from the ''mishibizhiw'', and thus considered extremely powerful.<ref name=Kohl /><br />
<br />
=="Alligator" mound==<br />
{{main|Alligator Effigy Mound}}<br />
[[Image:Mississippian Underwater Panther ceramic.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Ceramic effigy jug of the underwater panther, [[Mississippian culture]], from [[Parkin Archeological State Park#Culture of the Parkin Phase people|Rose Mound]] in [[Cross County, Arkansas]], ca. 1400-1600 CE. Height: 8" (20 cm)]]<br />
In 2003 archaeologist Brad Lepper suggested that the [[Alligator Effigy Mound]] in [[Granville, Ohio]] represents the underwater panther. Lepper suggests that early European settlers, when learning from Native Americans that the mound represented a fierce creature that lived in the water and ate people, mistakenly assumed that the Native Americans were referring to an alligator.<ref>Lepper.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Nguruvilu]]<br />
*[[Piasa]]<br />
*[[Horned Serpent]]<br />
*[[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex#Great Serpent|Distribution of belief in the Underwater Panther]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*{{cite web|last=Barnes|first=Michael|url=http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca/living/history/lavase/97frs611.htm| title=Aboriginal Artifacts|work=Final Report - 1997 Archaeological Excavations La Vase Heritage Project|publisher=City of [[North Bay, Ontario]]|accessdate=2008-10-05}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Bolgiano | first = Chris | title = Mountain Lion: An Unnatural History of Pumas and People | year = 1995 | month = August | publisher = Stackpole Books | location = | isbn = 0-8117-1044-0 | chapter = Native Americans and American Lions | chapterurl = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/mountain.htm}}<br />
*Dewdney, Selwyn. Kidd, Kenneth E. ''Indian Rock Paintings of the Great Lakes'' (Toronto, Ontario: [[University of Toronto Press]] (for the Quetico Foundation), 1975), p. 149.<br />
* {{cite web|last=Fox|first=William A. |url=http://www.adamsheritage.com/articles/fox/dragon_sideplates.htm| title=Dragon Sideplates from York Factory: A New Twist on an Old Tail.|publisher=Adams Heritage|accessdate=2006-07-13}}<br />
*[http://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; 10.1336/0313301484, 584 pages, p. 168.<br />
* {{cite book | last = Kohl | first = Johann | title = Kitchi-Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway | year = 1859 | month = | publisher = | location = | id = | chapter = | chapterurl = | isbn = 0873511727 }}<br />
* {{cite journal|last =Lepper|first=Brad|title=[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=187259 Alligator Mound: Geoarchaeological and Iconographical Interpretations of a Late Prehistoric Effigy Mound in Central Ohio, USA]|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume=13 |pages=147–167|doi=10.1017/S0959774303000106|year=2003|last2 =Frolking|first2 =Tod A.}} <br />
* {{cite news|first=David|last=Lore|title=Man pounces on panther theory about mound|publisher=The Columbus Dispatch|date=2001-01-21}} [http://farshores.org/alimound.htm copy]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commonscat|Horned serpent and underwater panther representations}}<br />
*[http://www.artsmia.org/viewer/detail.php?id=89843&i=3&v=1 Ceramic underwater panther figurine, c. 1500, Arkansas].<br />
*[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/mythiccreatures/water/myths.php American Museum of Natural History on Mishepishu]<br />
*[http://www.monstropedia.org/index.php?title=Mishipeshu Mishipeshu at Monstropedia.]<br />
<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Mississippian culture]]<br />
[[Category:Legendary creatures of the indigenous peoples of North America]]<br />
[[Category:Water deities]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeology of the Americas]]<br />
[[Category:Anishinaabe mythology]]<br />
[[Category:Native American history]]<br />
[[Category:Mythological hybrids]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Panthère d'eau]]<br />
[[ru:Подводная Пантера]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drei_Schwestern_(Ackerbau)&diff=152467920Drei Schwestern (Ackerbau)2010-10-15T00:44:02Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: Undid revision 390788329 by 99.234.156.29 (talk)rvt ip vand</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:2009NativeAmericanRev.jpg|thumb|right|200px|2009 Native American dollar reverse with Three Sisters on it]]<br />
<br />
The '''Three Sisters''' are the three main agricultural crops of some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] groups in [[North America]]: [[Squash (vegetable)|squash]], [[maize]], and climbing [[bean]]s (typically [[tepary bean]]s or [[common bean]]s).<br />
<br />
In one technique known as [[companion planting]], the three crops are planted close together. Flat-topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops. Each mound is about 30 cm (1 ft) high and 50 cm (20 in) wide, and several maize seeds are [[sowing|planted]] close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the [[Atlantic Northeast]], rotten fish or eel are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s1485865.htm "The Three Sisters."] Phil Dudman. October 19, 2005. [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC North Coast NSW]].</ref><ref>[http://www.motherearthnews.com/Nature-and-Environment/2001-02-01/The-Three-Sisters.aspx "The Three Sisters."] John Vivian. February/March 2001. [[Mother Earth News]].</ref> When the maize is 15 cm (6 inches) tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between beans and squash. [[Milpa]]s are farms or gardens that employ companion planting on a larger scale.<ref>Mann, Charles. ''1491''. 2005. pp. 220-221. Vintage Books.</ref><br />
<br />
The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the [[nitrogen]] to the [[soil]] that the other plants utilize and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the [[sunlight]], which helps prevent [[weed]]s. The squash leaves act as a "living [[mulch]]", creating a [[microclimate]] to retain [[moisture in the soil]], and the [[spine (botany)|prickly hairs]] of the vine deter [[pest (organism)|pests]]. Maize lacks the [[amino acid]]s [[lysine]] and [[tryptophan]], which the body needs to make [[protein]]s and [[niacin]], but beans contain both and therefore together they provide a balanced diet.<br />
<br />
Native Americans throughout North America are known for growing variations of three sisters gardens. The [[Anasazi]] are known for adopting this garden design in a more [[xeric]] environment. The [[Tewa]] and other Southwest tribes often included a "fourth sister" known as "[[Rocky Mountain bee plant]]" (''Cleome serrulata''), which attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.<ref>Hemenway, T. (2000) Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Pub Co. White River Junction, VT. p. 149. (ISBN 1-890132-52-7)</ref><br />
<br />
The three sisters planting method is featured on the 2009 reverse of new issues of the US [[Sacagawea dollar]] coin.<ref>[http://usmint.gov/mint_programs/nativeamerican/index.cfm?action=NADesign 2009 Native American $1 Coin], US Mint. Accessed 2009-07-08.</ref><br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Corncobs edit1.jpg|[[Maize]]<br />
File:Bean vvs.jpg|[[Beans]]<br />
File:Cucurbita pepo var. styriaca05.jpg|[[Squash (vegetable)|Squash]]<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Eastern Agricultural Complex]]<br />
* [[Companion planting]]<br />
* [[Intercropping]]<br />
* [[Milpa]]<br />
* [[Polyculture]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.naz.edu:9000/~ethnobot/ebot2003/kevinwhite/materialuse/threesister.gif Artistic Rendition]<br />
* [http://images.parkseed01.com/parksgardens/pem000505/sistapem000505he.html page with detailed instructions]<br />
<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Native American cuisine]]<br />
[[Category:Crops originating from the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Indigenous peoples in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Aboriginal cuisine in Canada]]<br />
[[Category:Agriculture in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Farming history]]<br />
[[Category:Organic gardening]]<br />
[[Category:Permaculture]]<br />
<br />
[[am:ሦስቱ እኅትማማች]]<br />
[[es:Las tres hermanas]]<br />
[[fr:Trois sœurs (agriculture)]]<br />
[[nl:Drie zusters]]<br />
[[chr:ᏦᎢ ᎠᎾᏓᎸᎢ]]<br />
[[ru:Три сестры (сельское хозяйство)]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mishipeshu&diff=193193109Mishipeshu2010-09-13T18:09:05Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: citation needed</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Underwater panther NMAI GGH.jpg|thumb|260px|Underwater Panther, [[National Museum of the American Indian]] [[George Gustav Heye Center]]]]<br />
'''Underwater panthers''' were powerful creatures in the mythological traditions of some Native American tribes, particularly tribes of the [[Great Lakes]] region.<ref name=Kohl>Kohl</ref> In [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]], the creature is sometimes called '''Mishibizhiw''' ("Mishipizhiw", "Mishipizheu", "Mishupishu", "Mishepishu"), which translates as "Great Lynx,"<ref>[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> or '''Gichi-anami'e-bizhiw''' ("Gitche-anahmi-bezheu"), which translates as "the fabulous night panther."<ref name=Kohl /><ref>"The fabulous night panther" is a translation from [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]] into [[French language|French]] to [[German language|German]], which then was translated into English. The direct translation would be something closer to "The greatly-revered lynx". See [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> However, it is also commonly referred to as the "Great Lynx," "Great underground wildcat," or "Great under-water wildcat."<ref name=Barnes>Barnes</ref><ref>"Mishi-Peshu" [http://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; 10.1336/0313301484. 568 pages, p. 168.</ref> Sometimes it now is referred to as the ''Spirit Otter''.{{citation needed|September 2010}} <br />
<br />
Underwater panthers were major components of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the prehistoric American Southeast.<ref> {{cite book | last = Townsend | first = Richard F. | title = [[Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand]]| publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | date = 2004 | isbn = 0300106017}}</ref><ref> {{cite book | editors = F. Kent Reilly and James Garber | title = [[Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms]] | publisher = [[University of Texas Press]] | date = 2004 | pages = 29–34 | isbn = 9780292713475 | author = edited by F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber ; foreword by Vincas P. Steponaitis.}}</ref><br />
<br><br><br><br><br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
[[Image:Underwater panther bowl 1.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Underwater Panther-Great Serpent bowl, Late [[Mississippian culture]], AD 1300-1500, from Rhodes Place, [[Crittenden County, Arkansas]], USA]]<br />
[[Image:Underwater Panther rock painting (crop).jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pictographs of a ''mishibizhiw'' as well as two snakes and a canoe, from [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], [[Ontario]], Canada. Attributed to the [[Ojibwa]]]]<br />
[[Water monster]]s appear in the mythology of most cultures. In some [[Native American mythologies]], they were given a combination of traits of [[wild cat]]s such as the [[mountain lion]], or in some cases the [[lynx]], and those of [[snake]]s. The underwater panther was an amalgam of features from many animals: the horns of [[deer]] or [[bison]]; snake scales; bird [[feathers]]; the body and tail of a [[mountain lion]]; and parts from other animals as well, depending on the particular myth. ''Mishipizheu'' were said to live in the deepest parts of lakes and rivers. Some traditions believed the underwater panthers to be helpful, protective creatures, but more often they were viewed as malevolent beasts that brought death and misfortune.<br />
<br />
To the [[Algonquins]], the underwater panther was the most powerful [[underworld]] being. The [[Ojibwa]] reportedly held them to be masters of all water creatures as well as of snakes. Some versions of the ''[[Nanabozho]]'' creation legend refer to whole communities of water [[lynx]].<ref>Bolgiano</ref> <br />
<br />
[[Potawatomi]] [[medicine bag]]s sometimes had an image of the underwater panther on one side and the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbird]], master of the powers of the air, on the other. As late as the 1950s, the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Indians performed a traditional ceremony to placate the Underworld Panther and maintain balance with the Thunderbird.<ref>Bolgiano</ref> In addition to the [[Anishinaabe]]g – the Algonquins, Ojibwas, Potawatomis – ''Mishibizhiw'' stories are also to be found among the [[Montagnais]].<ref name=Barnes /><br />
<br />
When ethnographer [[Johann Kohl]] visited the United States in the 1850s, he spoke with a [[Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa|Fond du Lac]] chief, who showed Kohl a piece of copper kept in his [[medicine bag]]. The chief said it was a strand of hair from the ''mishibizhiw'', and thus considered extremely powerful.<ref name=Kohl /><br />
<br />
=="Alligator" mound==<br />
{{main|Alligator Effigy Mound}}<br />
[[Image:Mississippian Underwater Panther ceramic.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Ceramic effigy jug of the underwater panther, [[Mississippian culture]], from [[Parkin Archeological State Park#Culture of the Parkin Phase people|Rose Mound]] in [[Cross County, Arkansas]], ca. 1400-1600 CE. Height: 8" (20 cm)]]<br />
In 2003 archaeologist Brad Lepper suggested that the [[Alligator Effigy Mound]] in [[Granville, Ohio]] represents the underwater panther. Lepper suggests that early European settlers, when learning from Native Americans that the mound represented a fierce creature that lived in the water and ate people, mistakenly assumed that the Native Americans were referring to an alligator.<ref>Lepper.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Nguruvilu]]<br />
*[[Piasa]]<br />
*[[Horned Serpent]]<br />
*[[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex#Great Serpent|Distribution of belief in the Underwater Panther]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*{{cite web|last=Barnes|first=Michael|url=http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca/living/history/lavase/97frs611.htm| title=Aboriginal Artifacts|work=Final Report - 1997 Archaeological Excavations La Vase Heritage Project|publisher=City of [[North Bay, Ontario]]|accessdate=2008-10-05}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Bolgiano | first = Chris | title = Mountain Lion: An Unnatural History of Pumas and People | year = 1995 | month = August | publisher = Stackpole Books | location = | isbn = 0-8117-1044-0 | chapter = Native Americans and American Lions | chapterurl = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/mountain.htm}}<br />
*Dewdney, Selwyn. Kidd, Kenneth E. ''Indian Rock Paintings of the Great Lakes'' (Toronto, Ontario: [[University of Toronto Press]] (for the Quetico Foundation), 1975), p. 149.<br />
* {{cite web|last=Fox|first=William A. |url=http://www.adamsheritage.com/articles/fox/dragon_sideplates.htm| title=Dragon Sideplates from York Factory: A New Twist on an Old Tail.|publisher=Adams Heritage|accessdate=2006-07-13}}<br />
*[http://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; 10.1336/0313301484, 584 pages, p. 168.<br />
* {{cite book | last = Kohl | first = Johann | title = Kitchi-Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway | year = 1859 | month = | publisher = | location = | id = | chapter = | chapterurl = | isbn = 0873511727 }}<br />
* {{cite journal|last =Lepper|first=Brad|title=[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=187259 Alligator Mound: Geoarchaeological and Iconographical Interpretations of a Late Prehistoric Effigy Mound in Central Ohio, USA]|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume=13 |pages=147–167|doi=10.1017/S0959774303000106|year=2003|last2 =Frolking|first2 =Tod A.}} <br />
* {{cite news|first=David|last=Lore|title=Man pounces on panther theory about mound|publisher=The Columbus Dispatch|date=2001-01-21}} [http://farshores.org/alimound.htm copy]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commonscat|Horned serpent and underwater panther representations}}<br />
*[http://www.artsmia.org/viewer/detail.php?id=89843&i=3&v=1 Ceramic underwater panther figurine, c. 1500, Arkansas].<br />
*[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/mythiccreatures/water/myths.php American Museum of Natural History on Mishepishu]<br />
*[http://www.monstropedia.org/index.php?title=Mishipeshu Mishipeshu at Monstropedia.]<br />
<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Mississippian culture]]<br />
[[Category:Native American legendary creatures]]<br />
[[Category:Water deities]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeology of the Americas]]<br />
[[Category:Anishinaabe mythology]]<br />
[[Category:Native American history]]<br />
[[Category:Mythological hybrids]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Panthère d'eau]]<br />
[[ru:Подводная Пантера]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mishipeshu&diff=193193105Mishipeshu2010-07-23T18:47:54Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* External links */ typo</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Underwater panther NMAI GGH.jpg|thumb|260px|Underwater Panther, [[National Museum of the American Indian]] [[George Gustav Heye Center]]]]<br />
'''Underwater panthers''' were powerful creatures in the mythological traditions of some Native American tribes, particularly tribes of the [[Great Lakes]] region.<ref name=Kohl>Kohl</ref> In [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]], the creature is sometimes called '''Mishibizhiw''' ("Mishipizhiw", "Mishipizheu", "Mishupishu", "Mishepishu"), which translates as "Great Lynx,"<ref>[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> or '''Gichi-anami'e-bizhiw''' ("Gitche-anahmi-bezheu"), which translates as "the fabulous night panther."<ref name=Kohl /><ref>"The fabulous night panther" is a translation from [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]] into [[French language|French]] to [[German language|German]], which then was translated into English. The direct translation would be something closer to "The greatly-revered lynx". See [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> However, it is also commonly referred to as the "Great Lynx," "Great underground wildcat," or "Great under-water wildcat."<ref name=Barnes>Barnes</ref><ref>"Mishi-Peshu" [http://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; 10.1336/0313301484. 568 pages, p. 168.</ref><br />
<br />
Underwater panthers were major components of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the prehistoric American Southeast.<ref> {{cite book | last = Townsend | first = Richard F. | title = [[Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand]]| publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | date = 2004 | isbn = 0300106017}}</ref><ref> {{cite book | editors = F. Kent Reilly and James Garber | title = [[Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms]] | publisher = [[University of Texas Press]] | date = 2004 | pages = 29–34 | isbn = 9780292713475 | author = edited by F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber ; foreword by Vincas P. Steponaitis.}}</ref><br />
<br><br><br><br><br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
[[Image:Underwater panther bowl 1.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Underwater Panther-Great Serpent bowl, Late [[Mississippian culture]], AD 1300-1500, from Rhodes Place, [[Crittenden County, Arkansas]], USA]]<br />
[[Image:Underwater Panther rock painting (crop).jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pictographs of a ''mishibizhiw'' as well as two snakes and a canoe, from [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], [[Ontario]], Canada. Attributed to the [[Ojibwa]]]]<br />
[[Water monster]]s appear in the mythology of most cultures. In some [[Native American mythologies]], they were given a combination of traits of [[wild cat]]s such as the [[mountain lion]], or in some cases the [[lynx]], and those of [[snake]]s. The underwater panther was an amalgam of features from many animals: the horns of [[deer]] or [[bison]]; snake scales; bird [[feathers]]; the body and tail of a [[mountain lion]]; and parts from other animals as well, depending on the particular myth. ''Mishipizheu'' were said to live in the deepest parts of lakes and rivers. Some traditions believed the underwater panthers to be helpful, protective creatures, but more often they were viewed as malevolent beasts that brought death and misfortune.<br />
<br />
To the [[Algonquins]], the underwater panther was the most powerful [[underworld]] being. The [[Ojibwa]] reportedly held them to be masters of all water creatures as well as of snakes. Some versions of the ''[[Nanabozho]]'' creation legend refer to whole communities of water [[lynx]].<ref>Bolgiano</ref> <br />
<br />
[[Potawatomi]] [[medicine bag]]s sometimes had an image of the underwater panther on one side and the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbird]], master of the powers of the air, on the other. As late as the 1950s, the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Indians performed a traditional ceremony to placate the Underworld Panther and maintain balance with the Thunderbird.<ref>Bolgiano</ref> In addition to the [[Anishinaabe]]g – the Algonquins, Ojibwas, Potawatomis – ''Mishibizhiw'' stories are also to be found among the [[Montagnais]].<ref name=Barnes /><br />
<br />
When ethnographer [[Johann Kohl]] visited the United States in the 1850s, he spoke with a [[Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa|Fond du Lac]] chief, who showed Kohl a piece of copper kept in his [[medicine bag]]. The chief said it was a strand of hair from the ''mishibizhiw'', and thus considered extremely powerful.<ref name=Kohl /><br />
<br />
=="Alligator" mound==<br />
{{main|Alligator Effigy Mound}}<br />
[[Image:Mississippian Underwater Panther ceramic.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Ceramic effigy jug of the underwater panther, [[Mississippian culture]], from [[Parkin Archeological State Park#Culture of the Parkin Phase people|Rose Mound]] in [[Cross County, Arkansas]], ca. 1400-1600 CE. Height: 8" (20 cm)]]<br />
In 2003 archaeologist Brad Lepper suggested that the [[Alligator Effigy Mound]] in [[Granville, Ohio]] represents the underwater panther. Lepper suggests that early European settlers, when learning from Native Americans that the mound represented a fierce creature that lived in the water and ate people, mistakenly assumed that the Native Americans were referring to an alligator.<ref>Lepper.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Nguruvilu]]<br />
*[[Piasa]]<br />
*[[Horned Serpent]]<br />
*[[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex#Great Serpent|Distribution of belief in the Underwater Panther]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*{{cite web|last=Barnes|first=Michael|url=http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca/living/history/lavase/97frs611.htm| title=Aboriginal Artifacts|work=Final Report - 1997 Archaeological Excavations La Vase Heritage Project|publisher=City of [[North Bay, Ontario]]|accessdate=2008-10-05}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Bolgiano | first = Chris | title = Mountain Lion: An Unnatural History of Pumas and People | year = 1995 | month = August | publisher = Stackpole Books | location = | isbn = 0-8117-1044-0 | chapter = Native Americans and American Lions | chapterurl = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/mountain.htm}}<br />
* {{cite web|last=Fox|first=William A. |url=http://www.adamsheritage.com/articles/fox/dragon_sideplates.htm| title=Dragon Sideplates from York Factory: A New Twist on an Old Tail.|publisher=Adams Heritage|accessdate=2006-07-13}}<br />
*[http://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; 10.1336/0313301484, 584 pages, p. 168.<br />
* {{cite book | last = Kohl | first = Johann | title = Kitchi-Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway | year = 1859 | month = | publisher = | location = | id = | chapter = | chapterurl = | isbn = 0873511727 }}<br />
* {{cite journal|last =Lepper|first=Brad|title=[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=187259 Alligator Mound: Geoarchaeological and Iconographical Interpretations of a Late Prehistoric Effigy Mound in Central Ohio, USA]|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume=13 |pages=147–167|doi=10.1017/S0959774303000106|year=2003|last2 =Frolking|first2 =Tod A.}} <br />
* {{cite news|first=David|last=Lore|title=Man pounces on panther theory about mound|publisher=The Columbus Dispatch|date=2001-01-21}} [http://farshores.org/alimound.htm copy]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commonscat|Horned serpent and underwater panther representations}}<br />
*[http://www.artsmia.org/viewer/detail.php?id=89843&i=3&v=1 Ceramic underwater panther figurine, c. 1500, Arkansas].<br />
*[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/mythiccreatures/water/myths.php American Museum of Natural History on Mishepishu]<br />
*[http://www.monstropedia.org/index.php?title=Mishipeshu Mishipeshu at Monstropedia.]<br />
<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Mississippian culture]]<br />
[[Category:Native American legendary creatures]]<br />
[[Category:Water deities]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeology of the Americas]]<br />
[[Category:Anishinaabe mythology]]<br />
[[Category:Native American history]]<br />
[[Category:Mythological hybrids]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Panthère d'eau]]<br />
[[ru:Подводная Пантера]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mishipeshu&diff=193193104Mishipeshu2010-07-23T18:47:28Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* External links */ template</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Underwater panther NMAI GGH.jpg|thumb|260px|Underwater Panther, [[National Museum of the American Indian]] [[George Gustav Heye Center]]]]<br />
'''Underwater panthers''' were powerful creatures in the mythological traditions of some Native American tribes, particularly tribes of the [[Great Lakes]] region.<ref name=Kohl>Kohl</ref> In [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]], the creature is sometimes called '''Mishibizhiw''' ("Mishipizhiw", "Mishipizheu", "Mishupishu", "Mishepishu"), which translates as "Great Lynx,"<ref>[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> or '''Gichi-anami'e-bizhiw''' ("Gitche-anahmi-bezheu"), which translates as "the fabulous night panther."<ref name=Kohl /><ref>"The fabulous night panther" is a translation from [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]] into [[French language|French]] to [[German language|German]], which then was translated into English. The direct translation would be something closer to "The greatly-revered lynx". See [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> However, it is also commonly referred to as the "Great Lynx," "Great underground wildcat," or "Great under-water wildcat."<ref name=Barnes>Barnes</ref><ref>"Mishi-Peshu" [http://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; 10.1336/0313301484. 568 pages, p. 168.</ref><br />
<br />
Underwater panthers were major components of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the prehistoric American Southeast.<ref> {{cite book | last = Townsend | first = Richard F. | title = [[Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand]]| publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | date = 2004 | isbn = 0300106017}}</ref><ref> {{cite book | editors = F. Kent Reilly and James Garber | title = [[Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms]] | publisher = [[University of Texas Press]] | date = 2004 | pages = 29–34 | isbn = 9780292713475 | author = edited by F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber ; foreword by Vincas P. Steponaitis.}}</ref><br />
<br><br><br><br><br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
[[Image:Underwater panther bowl 1.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Underwater Panther-Great Serpent bowl, Late [[Mississippian culture]], AD 1300-1500, from Rhodes Place, [[Crittenden County, Arkansas]], USA]]<br />
[[Image:Underwater Panther rock painting (crop).jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pictographs of a ''mishibizhiw'' as well as two snakes and a canoe, from [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], [[Ontario]], Canada. Attributed to the [[Ojibwa]]]]<br />
[[Water monster]]s appear in the mythology of most cultures. In some [[Native American mythologies]], they were given a combination of traits of [[wild cat]]s such as the [[mountain lion]], or in some cases the [[lynx]], and those of [[snake]]s. The underwater panther was an amalgam of features from many animals: the horns of [[deer]] or [[bison]]; snake scales; bird [[feathers]]; the body and tail of a [[mountain lion]]; and parts from other animals as well, depending on the particular myth. ''Mishipizheu'' were said to live in the deepest parts of lakes and rivers. Some traditions believed the underwater panthers to be helpful, protective creatures, but more often they were viewed as malevolent beasts that brought death and misfortune.<br />
<br />
To the [[Algonquins]], the underwater panther was the most powerful [[underworld]] being. The [[Ojibwa]] reportedly held them to be masters of all water creatures as well as of snakes. Some versions of the ''[[Nanabozho]]'' creation legend refer to whole communities of water [[lynx]].<ref>Bolgiano</ref> <br />
<br />
[[Potawatomi]] [[medicine bag]]s sometimes had an image of the underwater panther on one side and the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbird]], master of the powers of the air, on the other. As late as the 1950s, the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Indians performed a traditional ceremony to placate the Underworld Panther and maintain balance with the Thunderbird.<ref>Bolgiano</ref> In addition to the [[Anishinaabe]]g – the Algonquins, Ojibwas, Potawatomis – ''Mishibizhiw'' stories are also to be found among the [[Montagnais]].<ref name=Barnes /><br />
<br />
When ethnographer [[Johann Kohl]] visited the United States in the 1850s, he spoke with a [[Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa|Fond du Lac]] chief, who showed Kohl a piece of copper kept in his [[medicine bag]]. The chief said it was a strand of hair from the ''mishibizhiw'', and thus considered extremely powerful.<ref name=Kohl /><br />
<br />
=="Alligator" mound==<br />
{{main|Alligator Effigy Mound}}<br />
[[Image:Mississippian Underwater Panther ceramic.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Ceramic effigy jug of the underwater panther, [[Mississippian culture]], from [[Parkin Archeological State Park#Culture of the Parkin Phase people|Rose Mound]] in [[Cross County, Arkansas]], ca. 1400-1600 CE. Height: 8" (20 cm)]]<br />
In 2003 archaeologist Brad Lepper suggested that the [[Alligator Effigy Mound]] in [[Granville, Ohio]] represents the underwater panther. Lepper suggests that early European settlers, when learning from Native Americans that the mound represented a fierce creature that lived in the water and ate people, mistakenly assumed that the Native Americans were referring to an alligator.<ref>Lepper.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Nguruvilu]]<br />
*[[Piasa]]<br />
*[[Horned Serpent]]<br />
*[[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex#Great Serpent|Distribution of belief in the Underwater Panther]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*{{cite web|last=Barnes|first=Michael|url=http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca/living/history/lavase/97frs611.htm| title=Aboriginal Artifacts|work=Final Report - 1997 Archaeological Excavations La Vase Heritage Project|publisher=City of [[North Bay, Ontario]]|accessdate=2008-10-05}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Bolgiano | first = Chris | title = Mountain Lion: An Unnatural History of Pumas and People | year = 1995 | month = August | publisher = Stackpole Books | location = | isbn = 0-8117-1044-0 | chapter = Native Americans and American Lions | chapterurl = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/mountain.htm}}<br />
* {{cite web|last=Fox|first=William A. |url=http://www.adamsheritage.com/articles/fox/dragon_sideplates.htm| title=Dragon Sideplates from York Factory: A New Twist on an Old Tail.|publisher=Adams Heritage|accessdate=2006-07-13}}<br />
*[http://books.google.com/books?doi=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; 10.1336/0313301484, 584 pages, p. 168.<br />
* {{cite book | last = Kohl | first = Johann | title = Kitchi-Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway | year = 1859 | month = | publisher = | location = | id = | chapter = | chapterurl = | isbn = 0873511727 }}<br />
* {{cite journal|last =Lepper|first=Brad|title=[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=187259 Alligator Mound: Geoarchaeological and Iconographical Interpretations of a Late Prehistoric Effigy Mound in Central Ohio, USA]|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume=13 |pages=147–167|doi=10.1017/S0959774303000106|year=2003|last2 =Frolking|first2 =Tod A.}} <br />
* {{cite news|first=David|last=Lore|title=Man pounces on panther theory about mound|publisher=The Columbus Dispatch|date=2001-01-21}} [http://farshores.org/alimound.htm copy]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commonscat|Horned serpent and underwater panther representations}}<br />
*[http://www.artsmia.org/viewer/detail.php?id=89843&i=3&v=1 Ceramic underwater panther figurine, c. 1500, Arkansas].<br />
*[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/mythiccreatures/water/myths.php American Museum of Natural History on Mishepishu]<br />
*[http://www.monstropedia.org/index.php?title=Mishipeshu Mishipeshu at Monstropedia.]<br />
<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Mississippian culture]]<br />
[[Category:Native American legendary creatures]]<br />
[[Category:Water deities]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeology of the Americas]]<br />
[[Category:Anishinaabe mythology]]<br />
[[Category:Native American history]]<br />
[[Category:Mythological hybrids]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Panthère d'eau]]<br />
[[ru:Подводная Пантера]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chert_(Gestein)&diff=77826094Chert (Gestein)2010-07-18T07:47:04Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* Prehistoric and historic uses */ add image</p>
<hr />
<div>{{for|the Spanish municipality|Xert}}<br />
[[Image:ChertUSGOVjpg.jpg|thumb|Chert]]<br />
'''Chert''' ({{pron-en|ˈtʃɜrt}}) is a fine-grained [[silica]]-rich [[microcrystalline]], [[cryptocrystalline]] or [[microfibrous]] [[sedimentary rock]] that may contain small [[fossil]]s. It varies greatly in color (from white to black), but most often manifests as gray, brown, grayish brown and light green to rusty red; its color is an expression of trace elements present in the rock, and both red and green are most often related to traces of iron (in its oxidized and reduced forms respectively). <br />
<br />
==Occurrence==<br />
[[Image:Chert beds EverettPA.jpg|thumb|Chert (dark bands) in the [[Devonian]] Corriganville-New Creek limestone, Everett, Pennsylvania]]<br />
Chert occurs as oval to irregular '''[[nodule (geology)|nodule]]s''' in [[greensand]], [[limestone]], [[chalk]], and [[dolostone]] formations as a replacement mineral, where it is formed as a result of some type of [[diagenesis]]. Where it occurs in [[chalk]], it is usually called [[flint]]. It also occurs in thin beds, when it is a primary deposit (such as with many [[jasper]]s and [[radiolarite]]s). Thick beds of chert occur in deep [[geosyncline|geosynclinal]] deposits. These thickly bedded cherts include the [[novaculite]] of the [[Ouachita Mountains]] of [[Arkansas]], [[Oklahoma]], and similar occurrences in [[Texas]] in the [[United States]]. The [[banded iron formation]]s of [[Precambrian]] age are composed of alternating layers of chert and [[iron oxide]]s. <br />
<br />
Chert also occurs in diatomaceous deposits and is known as diatomaceous chert. Diatomaceous chert consists of beds and lenses of [[diatomite]] which were converted during [[diagenesis]] into dense, hard chert. Beds of marine diatomaceous chert comprising strata several hundred meters thick have been reported from sedimentary sequences such as the [[Miocene]] [[Monterey Formation]] of California and occur in rocks as old as the Cretaceous.<ref>*Sam Boggs, Jr., "Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy", Prentice Hall, 2006, 4th Ed., ISBN 0131547283</ref><br />
<br />
==Concerning the terms "chert", "chalcedony" and "flint"==<br />
There is much confusion concerning the exact meanings and differences among the terms "chert", "[[chalcedony]]" and "[[flint]]" (as well as their numerous varieties). In [[petrology]] the term "chert" is used to refer generally to all rocks composed primarily of microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline and microfibrous quartz. The term does not include quartzite. Chalcedony is a microfibrous (microcrystaline with a fibrous structure) variety of quartz.<br />
<br />
Strictly speaking, the term "flint" is reserved for varieties of chert which occur in chalk and marly limestone formations. <ref>George R. Rapp, "Archaeomineralogy", 2002. ISBN 3-540-42579-9</ref><ref>Barbara E. Luedtke, "The Identification of Sources of Chert Artifacts", American Antiquity, Vol. 44, No.4 (Oct., 1979), 744-757.</ref> Among non-geologists (in particular among archaeologists), the distinction between "flint" and "chert" is often one of quality - chert being lower quality than flint. This usage of the terminology is prevalent in America and is likely caused by early immigrants who imported the terms from England where most true flint (that found in chalk formations) was indeed of better quality than "common chert" (from limestone formations).<br />
<br />
Among petrologists, chalcedony is sometimes considered separately from chert due to its fibrous structure. Since many cherts contain both microcrystaline and microfibrous quartz, it is sometimes difficult to classify a rock as completely chalcedony, thus its general inclusion as a variety of chert.<br />
<br />
==Chert and Precambrian fossils==<br />
[[Image:MichiganBIF.jpg|thumb|Precambrian [[Banded Iron Formation]] specimen from Upper Michigan showing red chert layers.]]<br />
The [[cryptocrystalline]] nature of chert, combined with its above average ability to resist [[weathering]], [[Recrystallization (geology)|recrystallisation]] and [[metamorphism]] has made it an ideal rock for preservation of early life forms.<ref>[http://www.uni-muenster.de/GeoPalaeontologie/Palaeo/Palbot/seite1.html THE EARLIEST LIFE: Annotated listing]</ref><br />
<br />
For example:<br />
*The 3.2 Ga chert of the [[Fig Tree Formation]] in the Barbeton Mountains between [[Swaziland]] and [[South Africa]] preserved non-colonial [[unicellular]] bacterial-like fossils.<ref>[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/marsmet98/pdf/7033.pdf Fig Tree Formation of South Africa]</ref><br />
*The [[Gunflint Chert]] of western Ontario (1.9 to 2.3 Ga) preserves not only [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[cyanobacteria]] but also organisms believed to be ammonia-consuming and some that resemble [[green algae]] and fungus-like organisms.<ref>[http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/paleochron/05_e.php Gunflint chert]</ref><br />
*The [[Apex Chert]] (3.4 Ga) of the [[Pilbara craton]], [[Australia]] preserved eleven taxa of [[prokaryotes]].<ref>[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2003/pdf/1267.pdf BIOGENICITY OF MICROFOSSILS IN THE APEX CHERT]</ref><br />
*The [[Bitter Springs Formation]] of the [[Amadeus Basin]], Central Australia, preserves 850 Ma cyanobacteria and algae.<ref>[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/precambrian/bittersprings.html Cyanobacertial fossils of the Bitter Springs Chert, UMCP Berkley]</ref> <br />
*The [[Devonian]] [[Rhynie chert]] (400 Ma) of Scotland has the oldest remains of land flora, and the preservation is so perfect that it allows cellular studies of the fossils.<br />
<br />
==Prehistoric and historic uses==<br />
[[File:Mill Creek chert hoe and other artifacts Parkin HRoe 01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Mill Creek chert]] hoe from the [[Parkin Archeological State Park|Parkin Site]] in [[Arkansas]]]]<br />
In prehistoric times, chert was often used as a raw material for the construction of [[stone tool]]s. Like [[obsidian]], as well as some [[rhyolite]]s, [[felsite]]s, [[quartzite]]s, and other [[tool stone]]s used in [[lithic reduction]], chert fractures in a [[Hertzian cone]] when struck with sufficient force. This results in [[conchoidal]] fractures, a characteristic of all minerals with no [[Cleavage (crystal)|cleavage]] planes. In this kind of fracture, a cone of force propagates through the material from the point of impact, eventually removing a full or partial cone; this result is familiar to anyone who has seen what happens to a plate-glass window when struck by a small object, such as an airgun projectile. The partial Hertzian cones produced during lithic reduction are called [[lithic flake|flake]]s, and exhibit features characteristic of this sort of breakage, including [[striking platform]]s, [[bulb of force|bulbs of force]], and occasionally [[eraillure]]s, which are small secondary flakes detached from the flake's bulb of force.<br />
<br />
When a chert stone is struck against steel, sparks result. This makes it an excellent tool for starting fires, and both flint and common chert were used in various types of fire-starting tools, such as [[tinderbox]]es, throughout history. A primary historic use of common chert and flint was for [[flintlock]] [[firearms]], in which the chert striking a metal plate produces a spark that ignites a small reservoir containing [[black powder]], discharging the firearm. <br />
<br />
In some areas, chert is [[ubiquitous]] as stream gravel and fieldstone and is currently used as construction material and road surfacing. Part of chert's popularity in road surfacing or driveway construction is that rain tends to firm and compact chert while other fill often gets muddy when wet. However, where cherty gravel ends up as fill in concrete, the slick surface can cause localized failure. Hauled prices for chert of less than $10 – $15 per ton are not uncommon in many parts of the U.S.<br />
<br />
Chert has been used in late 19th-century and early 20th-century [[headstone]]s or grave markers in Tennessee and other regions.<br />
<br />
==Varieties of chert==<br />
There are numerous varieties of chert, classified based on their visible, microscopic and physical characteristics.<ref>W.L. Roberts, T.J. Campbell, G.R. Rapp Jr., "Encyclopedia of Mineralogy, Second Edition", 1990. ISBN 0-442-27681-8</ref><ref>R.S. Mitchell, "Dictionary of Rocks", 1985. ISBN 0-442-26328-7</ref> Some of the more common varieties are:<br />
*[[Flint]] is a compact microcrystaline quartz. It is found in [[chalk]] or marly limestone formations and is formed by a replacement of calcium carbonate with [[silica]]. It is commonly found as nodules. This variety was often used in past times to make bladed tools.<br />
*"Common chert" is a variety of chert which forms in limestone formations by replacement of calcium carbonate with silica. This is the most abundantly found variety of chert. It is generally considered to be less attractive for producing gem stones and bladed tools than [[flint]].<br />
*[[Jasper]] is a variety of chert formed as primary deposits, found in or in connection with magmatic formations which owes its red color to iron(III) inclusions. Jasper frequently also occurs in black, yellow or even green (depending on the type of iron it contains). Jasper is usually opaque to near opaque.<br />
*[[Radiolarite]] is a variety of chert formed as primary deposits and containing [[radiolarian]] microfossils.<br />
*[[Chalcedony]] is a microfibrous quartz.<br />
*[[Agate]] is distinctly banded chalcedony with successive layers differing in colour or value.<br />
*[[Onyx]] is a banded agate with layers in parallel lines, often black and white.<br />
*[[Opal]] is a hydrated silicon dioxide. It is often of a [[Neogene|Neogenic]] origin. In fact is not a mineral (it is a [[mineraloid]]) and it is generally not considered a variety of chert, although some varieties of opal (opal-C and opal-CT) are microcrystaline and contain much less water (sometime none). Often people without petrological training confuse opal with chert due to similar visible and physical characteristics.<br />
*[[Magadi-type chert]] is a variety that forms from a sodium silicate precursor in highly alkaline lakes such as [[Lake Magadi]] in Kenya.<br />
*Porcelanite is a term used for fine-grained siliceous rocks with a texture and a fracture resembling those of unglazed porcelain.<br />
*[[Siliceous sinter]] is porous, low-density, light-colored siliceous rock deposited by waters of hot springs and geysers.<br />
Other lesser used terms for chert (most of them archaic) include firestone, silex, silica stone, and flintstone.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Nodule (geology)]] not to be confused with [[Concretion]]<br />
*[[Agate]]<br />
*[[Chalcedony]]<br />
*[[Eolith]]<br />
*[[Flint]]<br />
*[[Jasper]]<br />
*[[Obsidian]]<br />
*[[Onyx]]<br />
*[[Opal]]<br />
*[[Whinstone]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
*[http://www.globalcommunity.org/wtt/walk_photos/3200.htm Photo & note re: Fig Tree Formation]<br />
*[http://www2.bc.edu/~strother/GE_146/labs/lab7/Archaean.html Microphotographs of Fig Tree fossils]<br />
*Schopf, J.W. (1999) ''Cradle of Life: The Discovery of Earth's Earliest Fossils'', Princeton University Press, 336 p. ISBN 0-691-00230-4<br />
* [http://virtual.parkland.edu//lstelle1/len/biface_guide/chert/documents/chert_types.html An Archaeological Guide To Chert Types Of East-Central Illinois]<br />
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{{Silica minerals}}<br />
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{{Commonscat|Chert}}<br />
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[[Category:Petrology]]<br />
[[Category:Minerals]]<br />
[[Category:Mineralogy]]<br />
[[Category:Sedimentary rocks]]<br />
[[Category:Lithics]]<br />
[[Category:Quartz varieties]]<br />
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[[zh:燧石]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bussell_Island&diff=90666016Bussell Island2010-02-23T20:50:52Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* References */ refine cat</p>
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<div>{{Infobox nrhp<br />
| name =Bussell Island Site<br />
| nrhp_type = <br />
| image = Harrington-round-grave-burial-tn1.jpg<br />
| caption = "Round Grave" burial on Bussell Island, excavated in 1919<br />
| lat_degrees = 35<br />
| lat_minutes = 46<br />
| lat_seconds = 49<br />
| lat_direction = N<br />
| long_degrees = 84<br />
| long_minutes = 15<br />
| long_seconds = 22<br />
| long_direction = W<br />
| locmapin = <br />
| location = <br />
| nearest_city = [[Lenoir City, Tennessee]] <br />
| area = <br />
| built = <br />
| architecture = <br />
| added =March 29, 1978<ref name=nps>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/listings/20090821.htm|title=National Register Information System|date=2009-10-01|work=National Register of Historic Places|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><br />
| visitation_num = <br />
| visitation_year = <br />
| refnum = 78002606<br />
| governing_body = [[Tennessee Valley Authority]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Bussell Island''', formerly '''Lenoir Island''', is an island located at the mouth of the [[Little Tennessee River]] near the U.S. city of [[Lenoir City, Tennessee]]. The island was inhabited by various [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] cultures for thousands of years before the arrival of early European explorers, and is currently home to [[Tellico Dam]] and a recreational area. Part of the island was added to the [[National Register of Historic Places]] for its archaeological potential in 1978.<ref name=nps /> <br />
<br />
Native American habitation of Bussell Island dates to the Late [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic period]] (c. 3000–1000 B.C.).<ref name=braly>Bobby Braly and Shannon Koerner, [http://web.utk.edu/~anthrop/research/TennesseeArchaeology/02_History_of_Tennessee_Archaeology.pdf A History of Archaeology in Tennessee]. ''Tennessee Archaeology: A Synthesis'' (Chapter 2). p. 12-14.</ref> The island is believed to have been the location of the capital of Coste—a [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian-period]] chiefdom visited by Spanish explorer [[Hernando de Soto (explorer)|Hernando de Soto]] in 1540<ref>David Dye, [http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/imagegallery.php?EntryID=S060 Soto Expedition]. ''Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture'', 2002. Retrieved: 2009-12-07.</ref>—and was later part of the domain of the [[Overhill Cherokee]]. In 1887 and 1919, archaeologists conducted extensive excavations at Bussell Island and identified its archaeological importance.<ref name=braly /> The island was drastically modified in the 1970s when the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] (TVA) built Tellico Dam. <br />
<br />
==Location==<br />
[[Image:Bussell-island-vicinity-tn1.jpg|left|404px|thumb|Bussell Island vicinity, with the dotted blue line showing the island's original east and southwest shorelines]]<br />
<br />
Bussell Island is situated where the Little Tennessee River joins the [[Tennessee River]], just over {{convert|601|mi|km}} upstream from the mouth of the latter. The island originally stretched for about a mile up the Little Tennessee, but the construction of Tellico Dam across the island's west river channel in the 1970s created a reservoir that flooded the southern two-thirds of the island. To contain the reservoir, an earthen levee was built along the island's new south shore and across the island's east river channel, connecting the island to the mainland. TVA's construction of a canal connecting the Tellico and Fort Loudoun reservoirs severed this section of the mainland, thus creating a new island that stretches for about a mile east-to-west, and touches three TVA lakes—Fort Loudoun, [[Watts Bar Lake|Watts Bar]], and Tellico.<br />
<br />
Lenoir City is located along the Tennessee River opposite Bussell Island. [[U.S. Route 321]] (Lamar Alexander Parkway) crosses the island's new eastern half, and State Route 444 (Tellico Parkway) traverses the center of the island, with the two roads intersecting on the island's eastern tip. US-321 crosses via the J. Carmichael Bridge, which spans both [[Fort Loudoun Dam]] and the canal.<br />
<br />
John W. Emmert, who conducted excavations on the island in 1887, stated that the original island covered {{convert|200|acre|ha}}, and rose to a maximum of {{convert|15|ft|m}} above the river. Emmert described the island's banks as "steep" with "heavy timber and much cane growing along them." Emmert also noted that the island was occasionally submerged when the Little Tennessee flooded, and noted that his excavation work was interrupted by one such flood which submerged the island to upwards of {{convert|12|ft|m}}.<ref name=bureau>U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, ''Twelth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1890–'91'' (Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1894), pp. 397–403.</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Prehistory===<br />
[[Image:Harrington-steatite-vessel-bussell-tn1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Steatite vessel fragment belonging to the "Round Grave" people, uncovered in 1919]]<br />
<br />
The earliest known inhabitants of Bussell Island lived during the Late Archaic period (c. 3000–1000 B.C.), and occupied the island sporadically throughout the [[Woodland period]] (1000 B.C. – 1000 A.D.). Archaeologist Mark R. Harrington, who conducted extensive excavations in the area in 1919, called these early inhabitants "Round Grave" people, due to their practice of burying their dead in small, round graves. The Round Grave people used tools made of animal bone and stone, and used both [[steatite]] vessels and simple pottery.<ref name=braly /><ref name=harrington1>M.R. Harrington, ''Cherokee and Earlier Remains on Upper Tennessee River'' (New York: Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, 1922), pp. 50, 61–82, 277–279.</ref><br />
<br />
The successors to the Round Grave people at Bussell Island were a people Harrington simply called the "Second Culture." This culture was part of what is now known as the [[Mississippian culture]], which flourished in the upper Tennessee Valley between 900 A.D. and 1600 A.D. The Mississippian people of the upper Tennessee Valley are known for their large platform mounds and conical burial mounds, including several found on Bussell Island and the surrounding mainland. Bussell Island's Mississippian inhabitants used triangular flint arrowheads, celt axes, and wore ornaments made from copper and seashells (the latter suggesting trade with coastal regions).<ref name=harrington2>Harrington, pp. 166–167.</ref><br />
<br />
===Coste===<br />
[[Image:Tali-coste-chiaha-chiaves-sp1.jpg|left|275px|thumb|Detail from Chiaves' 1584 map of "La Florida," showing [[Chiaha]], Coste, and Tali]]<br />
<br />
In 1540, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto embarked on an expedition across what is now the Southeastern United States, then called "La Florida," in hopes of finding a route to Mexico. Marching north from Florida, De Soto passed through modern South Carolina and North Carolina before turning west and crossing the [[Blue Ridge Mountains]] via the [[Nolichucky River|Nolichucky Valley]] into East Tennessee. After resting for several weeks at the prominent village of [[Chiaha]] (near modern [[Douglas Dam]]), De Soto continued down the [[French Broad River]] and Tennessee River to the village of Coste, centered around Bussell Island, arriving at its outskirts on July 1, 1540.<ref name=hudson1>Charles Hudson, ''Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun'' (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1997), 204–207.</ref><br />
<br />
De Soto held a friendly meeting with the chief of Coste on July 2, but relations quickly soured after the Spaniards pillaged some of the Costeans' storehouses, and several Costeans attacked the Spaniards with clubs. De Soto then devised a ruse in which he kidnapped the chief and held him hostage for several days. After the chief promised to assign guides and porters to the expedition, De Soto departed on July 9. The expedition continued up the Little Tennessee to the village of Tali (near modern [[Vonore, Tennessee|Vonore]]), and eventually found its way south to [[Coosa chiefdom|Coosa]], in northern Georgia.<ref name=hudson1 /> <br />
<br />
The inhabitants of Coste, like the inhabitants of Chiaha, spoke a [[Muskogean language]] similar to that used by the later Creek and Koasati tribes (linguist Charles Hudson suggests that the term "Koasati" may have been derived from "Coste").<ref>Charles Hudson, ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions: Explorations of the Carolinas and Tennessee, 1566–1568'' (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 2005), p. 104.</ref> Coste was probably part of the Coosa chiefdom's sphere of influence, which stretched from the upper Tennessee valley south into central [[Alabama]].<ref>Hudson, ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions, p. 10.</ref> In 1567, another Spanish explorer, [[Juan Pardo (explorer)|Juan Pardo]], visited the villages of [[Chilhowee (Cherokee town)#Chalahume|Chalahume]] and [[Citico (Cherokee_town)#Satapo|Satapo]] further up the Little Tennessee Valley, but turned back before reaching Coste.<ref>Hudson, ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions'', pp. 36–45.</ref><br />
<br />
===Cherokee and Euro-American history===<br />
[[Image:Harrington-cherokee-grave-tn1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Cherokee grave, excavated in 1919]]<br />
<br />
In the mid-18th century, more than a dozen Cherokee villages—known as the [[Overhill Cherokee|Overhill towns]]—were scattered along the lower {{convert|55|mi|km}} of the Little Tennessee River, among them the villages of [[Chota (Cherokee town)|Chota]] and [[Tanasi]].<ref>Gerald Schroedl, [http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/imagegallery.php?EntryID=O020 Overhill Cherokees]. ''Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture'', 2002. Retrieved: 2009-12-07.</ref> The village of [[Mialoquo]], the lowermost of the Overhill towns, was located about {{convert|17|mi|km}} upstream from Bussell Island.<ref>Kurt Russ and Jefferson Chapman, ''Archaeological Investigations at the Eighteenth Century Overhill Cherokee Town of Mialoquo (40MR3)'' (University of Tennessee Department of Anthropology, Report of Investigations 37, 1983).</ref> Harrington's excavations on Bussell Island uncovered numerous Cherokee graves—identified by the graves' "rectangular" shape and the presence of European trade goods such as glass beads—although no known major Cherokee villages were located on the island.<ref name=harrington1 /> [[Henry Timberlake]], who travelled up the Little Tennessee in 1761, met a Cherokee chief named "Slave Catcher" near the mouth of the Little Tennessee, but makes no mention of the island.<ref>Henry Timberlake, Samuel Williams (ed.), ''Memoirs, 1756–1765'' (Marietta, Georgia: Continental Book Co., 1948), p. 56.</ref> <br />
<br />
Throughout most of the 19th century, Bussell Island was known as "Lenoir Island," named after [[William Ballard Lenoir]], who established a large plantation and [[Lenoir Cotton Mill|cotton mill]] at what is now Lenoir City. In 1887, John W. Emmert conducted the first major excavations at Bussell Island for the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology. By the time Harrington excavated the island in 1919, the island had come into the possession of the Bussell family, who operated a ferry along the opposite river shore in Lenoir City.<ref>Harrington, p. 34.</ref><br />
<br />
===Tellico Dam project===<br />
[[Image:Tellico-dam-dike-tn1.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Earthen levee along Bussell Island's new south shoreline]]<br />
<br />
The Tennessee Valley Authority, charged with building a series of dams to generate hydroelectricity and control flooding in the 1930s, initially wanted to build Fort Loudoun Dam downstream from the mouth of the Little Tennessee, thus creating a reservoir that would expand across both the upper Tennessee River and lower Little Tennessee River, but engineers were unable to locate a suitable downstream site for a dam. They instead built the dam about a mile upstream, and made plans to build a dam at the mouth of the Little Tennessee—known as the Fort Loudoun Extension—which would divert water to the Fort Loudoun reservoir and increase that dam's generating capacity. Due to lack of funding, however, the Fort Loudoun Extension project was shelved until the 1960s.<ref name=murchison>Kenneth Murchison, ''The Snail Darter Case: TVA Versus the Endangered Species Act'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007), p. 15.</ref><br />
<br />
TVA revived interest in the Fort Loudoun Extension—renamed the Tellico Dam project—in 1964, although they met immediate opposition from a hodgepodge group of environmentalists, historical conservationists, and Native Americans.<ref name=murchison /> Construction of the dam began in 1969, but litigation stalled its completion until 1979, allowing the University of Tennessee to conduct extensive excavations at sites throughout the Tellico Basin. As a result of these excavations, several sites were added to the National Register of Historic Places for their archaeological potential, among them Bussell Island, designated 40LD17.<ref>Jefferson Chapman, ''Tellico Archaeology: 12,000 Years of Native American History'' (Knoxville, Tenn.: Tennessee Valley Authority, 1985).</ref> <br />
<br />
==Excavations==<br />
===J.W. Emmert (1887)===<br />
{{Commons|Category:Bussell Island|Bussell Island}}<br />
Emmert's excavations for the American Bureau of Ethnology took place in 1887, and were discussed in the bureau's ''12th Annual Report'', published in 1894. Emmert focused on two mounds on the north end of the island, known simply as Mound 1 and Mound 2. Mound 1 was {{convert|100|ft|m}} in diameter and {{convert|6.5|ft|m}} high, and described as "thoroughly worked over." Emmert uncovered 14 skeletons in Mound 1, along with pottery fragments, flint chips, glass beads, and an iron bracelet. Mound 2 was slightly larger than Mound 1, but was flanked by a diamond-shaped terrace {{convert|570|ft|m}} long and {{convert|8|ft|m}} high which Emmert believed to be man-made. Excavators uncovered 67 skeletons in Mound 2, as well as a burnt-clay tumulus surrounded by irregular cedar-post formations.<ref name=bureau /> <br />
<br />
===M.R. Harrington (1919)===<br />
[[Image:Harrington-pottery-vessel-bussell-tn1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pottery vessel uncovered by Harrington in 1919]]<br />
<br />
In 1919, Tennessee state archaeologist Mark Harrington boated down the Tennessee River to investigate a series of mound structures scattered along the river between Lenoir City and Hiwassee Island (about 100 miles downstream from Bussell). Like Emmert, Harrington focused on the north end of the island, although he noted that the mounds Emmert excavated had been leveled. Of the 41 burials uncovered by Harrington, 9 were of the older "Round Grave" culture, whereas the remainder were attributed to the later Cherokee inhabitants. Harrington suggested that the large diamond-shaped terrace mentioned by Emmert was actually a massive [[midden]] deposit that had accumulated over several centuries.<ref name=harrington1 /><br />
<br />
Harrington described the graves of the Round Grave culture as measuring 2 to 3 feet in diameter, with the bodies folded and compacted to fit in the graves. Typical burial goods included bone awls, steatite bowls, and animal teeth. The Cherokee graves were rectangular, with the bodies laid in a flexed position. Typical Cherokee burial items included earthenware vessels, glass beads, and pipes.<ref name=harrington1 /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:South Appalachian Mississippian culture]]<br />
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Tennessee]]<br />
[[Category:Tennessee Valley Authority]]<br />
[[Category:Loudon County, Tennessee]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drei_Schwestern_(Ackerbau)&diff=152467906Drei Schwestern (Ackerbau)2010-02-06T21:37:52Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: refine cat</p>
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<div>[[File:2009NativeAmericanRev.jpg|thumb|right|200px|2009 Native American dollar reverse with Three Sisters on it]]<br />
<br />
The '''Three Sisters''' are the three main agricultural crops of some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] groups in [[North America]]: [[Squash (vegetable)|squash]], [[maize]], and climbing [[bean]]s (typically [[tepary bean]]s or [[common bean]]s).<br />
<br />
In one technique known as [[companion planting]], the three crops are planted close together. Flat-topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops. Each mound is about 30 cm (1 ft) high and 50 cm (20 in) wide, and several maize seeds are [[sowing|planted]] close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the [[Atlantic Northeast]], rotten fish or eel are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s1485865.htm "The Three Sisters."] Phil Dudman. October 19, 2005. [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC North Coast NSW]].</ref><ref>[http://www.motherearthnews.com/Nature-and-Environment/2001-02-01/The-Three-Sisters.aspx "The Three Sisters."] John Vivian. February/March 2001. [[Mother Earth News]].</ref> When the maize is 15 cm (6 inches) tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between beans and squash. [[Milpa]]s are farms or gardens that employ companion planting on a larger scale.<ref>Mann, Charles. ''1491''. 2005. pp. 220-221. Vintage Books.</ref><br />
<br />
The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the [[nitrogen]] to the [[soil]] that the other plants utilize and the squash spreads along the ground, monopolizing the [[sunlight]] to prevent [[weed]]s. The squash leaves act as a "living [[mulch]]," creating a [[microclimate]] to retain [[moisture in the soil]], and the [[spine (botany)|prickly hairs]] of the vine deter [[pest (organism)|pests]]. Maize lacks the [[amino acid]]s [[lysine]] and [[tryptophan]], which the body needs to make [[protein]]s and [[niacin]], but beans contain both and therefore together they provide a balanced diet.<br />
<br />
Native Americans throughout North America are known for growing variations of three sisters gardens. The [[Anasazi]] are known for adopting this garden design in a more [[xeric]] environment. The [[Tewa]] and other Southwest tribes often included a "fourth sister" known as "[[Rocky Mountain bee plant]]" (''Cleome serrulata''), which attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.<ref>Hemenway, T. (2000) Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Pub Co. White River Junction, VT. p. 149. (ISBN 1-890132-52-7)</ref><br />
<br />
The three sisters planting method is featured on the 2009 reverse of new issues of the US [[Sacagawea dollar]] coin.<ref>[http://usmint.gov/mint_programs/nativeamerican/index.cfm?action=NADesign 2009 Native American $1 Coin], US Mint. Accessed 2009-07-08.</ref><br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Corncobs edit1.jpg|[[Maize]]<br />
File:Bean vvs.jpg|[[Beans]]<br />
File:Cucurbita pepo var. styriaca05.jpg|[[Squash (vegetable)|Squash]]<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Eastern Agricultural Complex]]<br />
* [[Companion planting]]<br />
* [[Intercropping]]<br />
* [[Milpa]]<br />
* [[Polyculture]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.evergreen.ca/en/lg/h-corn.html History of the Three Sisters: Corn, Beans and Squash]<br />
* [http://www.naz.edu:9000/~ethnobot/ebot2003/kevinwhite/materialuse/threesister.gif Artistic Rendition]<br />
* [http://images.parkseed01.com/parksgardens/pem000505/sistapem000505he.html page with detailed instructions]<br />
<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Native crops of the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Indigenous peoples in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Aboriginal cuisine in Canada]]<br />
[[Category:Agriculture in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Farming history]]<br />
[[Category:Organic gardening]]<br />
[[Category:Permaculture]]<br />
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[[am:ሦስቱ እኅትማማች]]<br />
[[es:Las tres hermanas]]<br />
[[fr:Trois sœurs (agriculture)]]<br />
[[nl:Drie zusters]]<br />
[[chr:ᏦᎢ ᎠᎾᏓᎸᎢ]]<br />
[[ru:Три сестры (сельское хозяйство)]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bussell_Island&diff=90666014Bussell Island2010-02-03T12:12:45Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* External links */ templates</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox nrhp<br />
| name =Bussell Island Site<br />
| nrhp_type = <br />
| image = Harrington-round-grave-burial-tn1.jpg<br />
| caption = "Round Grave" burial on Bussell Island, excavated in 1919<br />
| lat_degrees = <br />
| lat_minutes = <br />
| lat_seconds = <br />
| lat_direction = <br />
| long_degrees = <br />
| long_minutes = <br />
| long_seconds = <br />
| long_direction = <br />
| locmapin = <br />
| location = <br />
| nearest_city = [[Lenoir City, Tennessee]] <br />
| area = <br />
| built = <br />
| architecture = <br />
| added =March 29, 1978<ref name=nps>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/listings/20090821.htm|title=National Register Information System|date=2009-10-01|work=National Register of Historic Places|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><br />
| visitation_num = <br />
| visitation_year = <br />
| refnum = 78002606<br />
| governing_body = [[Tennessee Valley Authority]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Bussell Island''', formerly '''Lenoir Island''', is an island located at the mouth of the [[Little Tennessee River]] near the U.S. city of [[Lenoir City, Tennessee]]. The island was inhabited by various [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] cultures for thousands of years before the arrival of early European explorers, and is currently home to [[Tellico Dam]] and a recreational area. Part of the island was added to the [[National Register of Historic Places]] for its archaeological potential in 1978.<ref name=nps /> <br />
<br />
Native American habitation of Bussell Island dates to the Late [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic period]] (c. 3000–1000 B.C.).<ref name=braly>Bobby Braly and Shannon Koerner, [http://web.utk.edu/~anthrop/research/TennesseeArchaeology/02_History_of_Tennessee_Archaeology.pdf A History of Archaeology in Tennessee]. ''Tennessee Archaeology: A Synthesis'' (Chapter 2). p. 12-14.</ref> The island is believed to have been the location of the capital of Coste—a [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian-period]] chiefdom visited by Spanish explorer [[Hernando de Soto (explorer)|Hernando de Soto]] in 1540<ref>David Dye, [http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/imagegallery.php?EntryID=S060 Soto Expedition]. ''Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture'', 2002. Retrieved: 2009-12-07.</ref>—and was later part of the domain of the [[Overhill Cherokee]]. In 1887 and 1919, archaeologists conducted extensive excavations at Bussell Island and identified its archaeological importance.<ref name=braly /> The island was drastically modified in the 1970s when the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] (TVA) built Tellico Dam. <br />
<br />
==Location==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Bussell-island-vicinity-tn1.jpg|left|404px|thumb|Bussell Island vicinity, with the dotted blue line showing the island's original east and southwest shorelines]]<br />
<br />
Bussell Island is situated where the Little Tennessee River joins the [[Tennessee River]], just over {{convert|601|mi|km}} upstream from the mouth of the latter. The island originally stretched for about a mile up the Little Tennessee, but the construction of Tellico Dam across the island's west river channel in the 1970s created a reservoir that flooded the southern two-thirds of the island. To contain the reservoir, an earthen levee was built along the island's new south shore and across the island's east river channel, connecting the island to the mainland. TVA's construction of a canal connecting the Tellico and Fort Loudoun reservoirs severed this section of the mainland, thus creating a new island that stretches for about a mile east-to-west, and touches three TVA lakes—Fort Loudoun, [[Watts Bar Lake|Watts Bar]], and Tellico.<br />
<br />
Lenoir City is located along the Tennessee River opposite Bussell Island. [[U.S. Route 321]] (Lamar Alexander Parkway) crosses the island's new eastern half, and State Route 444 (Tellico Parkway) traverses the center of the island, with the two roads intersecting on the island's eastern tip. US-321 crosses via the J. Carmichael Bridge, which spans both [[Fort Loudoun Dam]] and the canal.<br />
<br />
John W. Emmert, who conducted excavations on the island in 1887, stated that the original island covered {{convert|200|acre|ha}}, and rose to a maximum of {{convert|15|ft|m}} above the river. Emmert described the island's banks as "steep" with "heavy timber and much cane growing along them." Emmert also noted that the island was occasionally submerged when the Little Tennessee flooded, and noted that his excavation work was interrupted by one such flood which submerged the island to upwards of {{convert|12|ft|m}}.<ref name=bureau>U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, ''Twelth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1890–'91'' (Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1894), pp. 397–403.</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Prehistory===<br />
[[Image:Harrington-steatite-vessel-bussell-tn1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Steatite vessel fragment belonging to the "Round Grave" people, uncovered in 1919]]<br />
<br />
The earliest known inhabitants of Bussell Island lived during the Late Archaic period (c. 3000–1000 B.C.), and occupied the island sporadically throughout the [[Woodland period]] (1000 B.C. – 1000 A.D.). Archaeologist Mark R. Harrington, who conducted extensive excavations in the area in 1919, called these early inhabitants "Round Grave" people, due to their practice of burying their dead in small, round graves. The Round Grave people used tools made of animal bone and stone, and used both [[steatite]] vessels and simple pottery.<ref name=braly /><ref name=harrington1>M.R. Harrington, ''Cherokee and Earlier Remains on Upper Tennessee River'' (New York: Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, 1922), pp. 50, 61–82, 277–279.</ref><br />
<br />
The successors to the Round Grave people at Bussell Island were a people Harrington simply called the "Second Culture." This culture was part of what is now known as the [[Mississippian culture]], which flourished in the upper Tennessee Valley between 900 A.D. and 1600 A.D. The Mississippian people of the upper Tennessee Valley are known for their large platform mounds and conical burial mounds, including several found on Bussell Island and the surrounding mainland. Bussell Island's Mississippian inhabitants used triangular flint arrowheads, celt axes, and wore ornaments made from copper and seashells (the latter suggesting trade with coastal regions).<ref name=harrington2>Harrington, pp. 166–167.</ref><br />
<br />
===Coste===<br />
[[Image:Tali-coste-chiaha-chiaves-sp1.jpg|left|275px|thumb|Detail from Chiaves' 1584 map of "La Florida," showing [[Chiaha]], Coste, and Tali]]<br />
<br />
In 1540, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto embarked on an expedition across what is now the Southeastern United States, then called "La Florida," in hopes of finding a route to Mexico. Marching north from Florida, De Soto passed through modern South Carolina and North Carolina before turning west and crossing the [[Blue Ridge Mountains]] via the [[Nolichucky River|Nolichucky Valley]] into East Tennessee. After resting for several weeks at the prominent village of [[Chiaha]] (near modern [[Douglas Dam]]), De Soto continued down the [[French Broad River]] and Tennessee River to the village of Coste, centered around Bussell Island, arriving at its outskirts on July 1, 1540.<ref name=hudson1>Charles Hudson, ''Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun'' (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1997), 204–207.</ref><br />
<br />
De Soto held a friendly meeting with the chief of Coste on July 2, but relations quickly soured after the Spaniards pillaged some of the Costeans' storehouses, and several Costeans attacked the Spaniards with clubs. De Soto then devised a ruse in which he kidnapped the chief and held him hostage for several days. After the chief promised to assign guides and porters to the expedition, De Soto departed on July 9. The expedition continued up the Little Tennessee to the village of Tali (near modern [[Vonore, Tennessee|Vonore]]), and eventually found its way south to [[Coosa chiefdom|Coosa]], in northern Georgia.<ref name=hudson1 /> <br />
<br />
The inhabitants of Coste, like the inhabitants of Chiaha, spoke a [[Muskogean language]] similar to that used by the later Creek and Koasati tribes (linguist Charles Hudson suggests that the term "Koasati" may have been derived from "Coste").<ref>Charles Hudson, ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions: Explorations of the Carolinas and Tennessee, 1566–1568'' (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 2005), p. 104.</ref> Coste was probably part of the Coosa chiefdom's sphere of influence, which stretched from the upper Tennessee valley south into central [[Alabama]].<ref>Hudson, ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions, p. 10.</ref> In 1567, another Spanish explorer, [[Juan Pardo (explorer)|Juan Pardo]], visited the villages of [[Chilhowee (Cherokee town)#Chalahume|Chalahume]] and [[Citico (Cherokee_town)#Satapo|Satapo]] further up the Little Tennessee Valley, but turned back before reaching Coste.<ref>Hudson, ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions'', pp. 36–45.</ref><br />
<br />
===Cherokee and Euro-American history===<br />
[[Image:Harrington-cherokee-grave-tn1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Cherokee grave, excavated in 1919]]<br />
<br />
In the mid-18th century, more than a dozen Cherokee villages—known as the [[Overhill Cherokee|Overhill towns]]—were scattered along the lower {{convert|55|mi|km}} of the Little Tennessee River, among them the villages of [[Chota (Cherokee town)|Chota]] and [[Tanasi]].<ref>Gerald Schroedl, [http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/imagegallery.php?EntryID=O020 Overhill Cherokees]. ''Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture'', 2002. Retrieved: 2009-12-07.</ref> The village of [[Mialoquo]], the lowermost of the Overhill towns, was located about {{convert|17|mi|km}} upstream from Bussell Island.<ref>Kurt Russ and Jefferson Chapman, ''Archaeological Investigations at the Eighteenth Century Overhill Cherokee Town of Mialoquo (40MR3)'' (University of Tennessee Department of Anthropology, Report of Investigations 37, 1983).</ref> Harrington's excavations on Bussell Island uncovered numerous Cherokee graves—identified by the graves' "rectangular" shape and the presence of European trade goods such as glass beads—although no known major Cherokee villages were located on the island.<ref name=harrington1 /> [[Henry Timberlake]], who travelled up the Little Tennessee in 1761, met a Cherokee chief named "Slave Catcher" near the mouth of the Little Tennessee, but makes no mention of the island.<ref>Henry Timberlake, Samuel Williams (ed.), ''Memoirs, 1756–1765'' (Marietta, Georgia: Continental Book Co., 1948), p. 56.</ref> <br />
<br />
Throughout most of the 19th century, Bussell Island was known as "Lenoir Island," named after [[William Ballard Lenoir]], who established a large plantation and [[Lenoir Cotton Mill|cotton mill]] at what is now Lenoir City. In 1887, John W. Emmert conducted the first major excavations at Bussell Island for the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology. By the time Harrington excavated the island in 1919, the island had come into the possession of the Bussell family, who operated a ferry along the opposite river shore in Lenoir City.<ref>Harrington, p. 34.</ref><br />
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===Tellico Dam project===<br />
[[Image:Tellico-dam-dike-tn1.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Earthen levee along Bussell Island's new south shoreline]]<br />
<br />
The Tennessee Valley Authority, charged with building a series of dams to generate hydroelectricity and control flooding in the 1930s, initially wanted to build Fort Loudoun Dam downstream from the mouth of the Little Tennessee, thus creating a reservoir that would expand across both the upper Tennessee River and lower Little Tennessee River, but engineers were unable to locate a suitable downstream site for a dam. They instead built the dam about a mile upstream, and made plans to build a dam at the mouth of the Little Tennessee—known as the Fort Loudoun Extension—which would divert water to the Fort Loudoun reservoir and increase that dam's generating capacity. Due to lack of funding, however, the Fort Loudoun Extension project was shelved until the 1960s.<ref name=murchison>Kenneth Murchison, ''The Snail Darter Case: TVA Versus the Endangered Species Act'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007), p. 15.</ref><br />
<br />
TVA revived interest in the Fort Loudoun Extension—renamed the Tellico Dam project—in 1964, although they met immediate opposition from a hodgepodge group of environmentalists, historical conservationists, and Native Americans.<ref name=murchison /> Construction of the dam began in 1969, but litigation stalled its completion until 1979, allowing the University of Tennessee to conduct extensive excavations at sites throughout the Tellico Basin. As a result of these excavations, several sites were added to the National Register of Historic Places for their archaeological potential, among them Bussell Island, designated 40LD17.<ref>Jefferson Chapman, ''Tellico Archaeology: 12,000 Years of Native American History'' (Knoxville, Tenn.: Tennessee Valley Authority, 1985).</ref> <br />
<br />
==Excavations==<br />
===J.W. Emmert (1887)===<br />
{{Commons|Category:Bussell Island|Bussell Island}}<br />
Emmert's excavations for the American Bureau of Ethnology took place in 1887, and were discussed in the bureau's ''12th Annual Report'', published in 1894. Emmert focused on two mounds on the north end of the island, known simply as Mound 1 and Mound 2. Mound 1 was {{convert|100|ft|m}} in diameter and {{convert|6.5|ft|m}} high, and described as "thoroughly worked over." Emmert uncovered 14 skeletons in Mound 1, along with pottery fragments, flint chips, glass beads, and an iron bracelet. Mound 2 was slightly larger than Mound 1, but was flanked by a diamond-shaped terrace {{convert|570|ft|m}} long and {{convert|8|ft|m}} high which Emmert believed to be man-made. Excavators uncovered 67 skeletons in Mound 2, as well as a burnt-clay tumulus surrounded by irregular cedar-post formations.<ref name=bureau /> <br />
<br />
===M.R. Harrington (1919)===<br />
[[Image:Harrington-pottery-vessel-bussell-tn1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pottery vessel uncovered by Harrington in 1919]]<br />
<br />
In 1919, Tennessee state archaeologist Mark Harrington boated down the Tennessee River to investigate a series of mound structures scattered along the river between Lenoir City and Hiwassee Island (about 100 miles downstream from Bussell). Like Emmert, Harrington focused on the north end of the island, although he noted that the mounds Emmert excavated had been leveled. Of the 41 burials uncovered by Harrington, 9 were of the older "Round Grave" culture, whereas the remainder were attributed to the later Cherokee inhabitants. Harrington suggested that the large diamond-shaped terrace mentioned by Emmert was actually a massive [[midden]] deposit that had accumulated over several centuries.<ref name=harrington1 /><br />
<br />
Harrington described the graves of the Round Grave culture as measuring 2 to 3 feet in diameter, with the bodies folded and compacted to fit in the graves. Typical burial goods included bone awls, steatite bowls, and animal teeth. The Cherokee graves were rectangular, with the bodies laid in a flexed position. Typical Cherokee burial items included earthenware vessels, glass beads, and pipes.<ref name=harrington1 /><br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|35.78036|-84.25604}}<br />
<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Mississippian culture]]<br />
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Tennessee]]<br />
[[Category:Tennessee Valley Authority]]<br />
[[Category:Loudon County, Tennessee]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drei_Schwestern_(Ackerbau)&diff=152467905Drei Schwestern (Ackerbau)2010-02-03T11:56:09Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* External link(s) */ template</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:2009NativeAmericanRev.jpg|thumb|right|200px|2009 Native American dollar reverse with Three Sisters on it]]<br />
<br />
The '''Three Sisters''' are the three main agricultural crops of some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] groups in [[North America]]: [[Squash (vegetable)|squash]], [[maize]], and climbing [[bean]]s (typically [[tepary bean]]s or [[common bean]]s).<br />
<br />
In one technique known as [[companion planting]], the three crops are planted close together. Flat-topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops. Each mound is about 30 cm (1 ft) high and 50 cm (20 in) wide, and several maize seeds are [[sowing|planted]] close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the [[Atlantic Northeast]], rotten fish or eel are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s1485865.htm "The Three Sisters."] Phil Dudman. October 19, 2005. [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC North Coast NSW]].</ref><ref>[http://www.motherearthnews.com/Nature-and-Environment/2001-02-01/The-Three-Sisters.aspx "The Three Sisters."] John Vivian. February/March 2001. [[Mother Earth News]].</ref> When the maize is 15 cm (6 inches) tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between beans and squash. [[Milpa]]s are farms or gardens that employ companion planting on a larger scale.<ref>Mann, Charles. ''1491''. 2005. pp. 220-221. Vintage Books.</ref><br />
<br />
The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the [[nitrogen]] to the [[soil]] that the other plants utilize and the squash spreads along the ground, monopolizing the [[sunlight]] to prevent [[weed]]s. The squash leaves act as a "living [[mulch]]," creating a [[microclimate]] to retain [[moisture in the soil]], and the [[spine (botany)|prickly hairs]] of the vine deter [[pest (organism)|pests]]. Maize lacks the [[amino acid]]s [[lysine]] and [[tryptophan]], which the body needs to make [[protein]]s and [[niacin]], but beans contain both and therefore together they provide a balanced diet.<br />
<br />
Native Americans throughout North America are known for growing variations of three sisters gardens. The [[Anasazi]] are known for adopting this garden design in a more [[xeric]] environment. The [[Tewa]] and other Southwest tribes often included a "fourth sister" known as "[[Rocky Mountain bee plant]]" (''Cleome serrulata''), which attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.<ref>Hemenway, T. (2000) Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Pub Co. White River Junction, VT. p. 149. (ISBN 1-890132-52-7)</ref><br />
<br />
The three sisters planting method is featured on the 2009 reverse of new issues of the US [[Sacagawea dollar]] coin.<ref>[http://usmint.gov/mint_programs/nativeamerican/index.cfm?action=NADesign 2009 Native American $1 Coin], US Mint. Accessed 2009-07-08.</ref><br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Corncobs edit1.jpg|[[Maize]]<br />
File:Bean vvs.jpg|[[Beans]]<br />
File:Cucurbita pepo var. styriaca05.jpg|[[Squash (vegetable)|Squash]]<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Eastern Agricultural Complex]]<br />
* [[Companion planting]]<br />
* [[Intercropping]]<br />
* [[Milpa]]<br />
* [[Polyculture]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.evergreen.ca/en/lg/h-corn.html History of the Three Sisters: Corn, Beans and Squash]<br />
* [http://www.naz.edu:9000/~ethnobot/ebot2003/kevinwhite/materialuse/threesister.gif Artistic Rendition]<br />
* [http://images.parkseed01.com/parksgardens/pem000505/sistapem000505he.html page with detailed instructions]<br />
<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
{{Mississippian and related cultures}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Indigenous peoples in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Native American cuisine]]<br />
[[Category:Aboriginal cuisine in Canada]]<br />
[[Category:Agriculture in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Farming history]]<br />
[[Category:Organic gardening]]<br />
[[Category:Permaculture]]<br />
<br />
[[am:ሦስቱ እኅትማማች]]<br />
[[es:Las tres hermanas]]<br />
[[fr:Trois sœurs (agriculture)]]<br />
[[nl:Drie zusters]]<br />
[[chr:ᏦᎢ ᎠᎾᏓᎸᎢ]]<br />
[[ru:Три сестры (сельское хозяйство)]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cactus_Hill&diff=104033587Cactus Hill2010-02-02T03:18:43Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* See also */ cat and template</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Cactus Hill''' is an archaeological site in southeastern [[Virginia]], in the [[United States]]. The site, on sand dunes above the [[Nottoway River]], about 45 miles south of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]], is owned by the [[International Paper|International Paper Corporation]].<br />
<br />
The site has yielded multiple levels of early occupation. [[Archaic stage]] material is underlain by fluted stone tools associated with the [[Clovis culture]] dated to 10,920 BP. A lower level yields artifacts including unfluted bifacial stone tools with dates ranging from c. 15,000 to 17,000 years ago. White-pine charcoal from a hearth context on this level dates to 15,070 radiocarbon years BP<ref>[http://www.athenapub.com/cacthill.htm Athena Review 2,3: Recent Finds in Archaeology: Pre-Clovis occupation on Virginia's Nottoway River<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. Further charcoal deposits retrieved at the site date to as early as 19,700 years ago, although these deposits may have been made by forest fires. Cactus Hill is arguably the oldest archaeological dig in North America.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/cactus.html Archaeology magazine update on Cactus Hill]<br />
*[http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20000415/fob1.asp Science News Online: Early New World Settlers Rise in East]<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
*[[Models of migration to the New World]]<br />
*[[Solutrean hypothesis]]<br />
<br />
{{Coord missing|Virginia|date=July 2009}}<br />
<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Clovis sites]]<br />
[[Category:Archaic period in the Americas]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Virginia]]<br />
<br />
{{archaeology-stub}}<br />
<br />
[[fr:Cactus Hill]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drei_Schwestern_(Ackerbau)&diff=152467904Drei Schwestern (Ackerbau)2010-01-15T18:48:44Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: move pics, add gallery, new pics, add see also</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:2009NativeAmericanRev.jpg|thumb|right|200px|2009 Native American dollar reverse with Three Sisters on it]]<br />
<br />
The '''Three Sisters''' are the three main agricultural crops of some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] groups in [[North America]]: [[Squash (vegetable)|squash]], [[maize]], and climbing [[bean]]s (typically [[tepary bean]]s or [[common bean]]s).<br />
<br />
In one technique known as [[companion planting]], the three crops are planted close together. Flat-topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops. Each mound is about 30 cm (1 ft) high and 50 cm (20 in) wide, and several maize seeds are [[sowing|planted]] close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the [[Atlantic Northeast]], rotten fish or eel are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s1485865.htm "The Three Sisters."] Phil Dudman. October 19, 2005. [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC North Coast NSW]].</ref><ref>[http://www.motherearthnews.com/Nature-and-Environment/2001-02-01/The-Three-Sisters.aspx "The Three Sisters."] John Vivian. February/March 2001. [[Mother Earth News]].</ref> When the maize is 15 cm (6 inches) tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between beans and squash. [[Milpa]]s are farms or gardens that employ companion planting on a larger scale.<ref>Mann, Charles. ''1491''. 2005. pp. 220-221. Vintage Books.</ref><br />
<br />
The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the [[nitrogen]] to the [[soil]] that the other plants utilize and the squash spreads along the ground, monopolizing the [[sunlight]] to prevent [[weed]]s. The squash leaves act as a "living [[mulch]]," creating a [[microclimate]] to retain [[moisture in the soil]], and the [[spine (botany)|prickly hairs]] of the vine deter [[pest (organism)|pests]]. Maize lacks the [[amino acid]]s [[lysine]] and [[tryptophan]], which the body needs to make [[protein]]s and [[niacin]], but beans contain both and therefore together they provide a balanced diet.<br />
<br />
Native Americans throughout North America are known for growing variations of three sisters gardens. The [[Anasazi]] are known for adopting this garden design in a more [[xeric]] environment. The [[Tewa]] and other Southwest tribes often included a "fourth sister" known as "[[Rocky Mountain bee plant]]" (''Cleome serrulata''), which attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.<ref>Hemenway, T. (2000) Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Pub Co. White River Junction, VT. p. 149. (ISBN 1-890132-52-7)</ref><br />
<br />
The three sisters planting method is featured on the 2009 reverse of new issues of the US [[Sacagawea dollar]] coin.<ref>[http://usmint.gov/mint_programs/nativeamerican/index.cfm?action=NADesign 2009 Native American $1 Coin], US Mint. Accessed 2009-07-08.</ref><br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Corncobs edit1.jpg|[[Maize]]<br />
File:Bean vvs.jpg|[[Beans]]<br />
File:Cucurbita pepo var. styriaca05.jpg|[[Squash (vegetable)|Squash]]<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Eastern Agricultural Complex]]<br />
* [[Companion planting]]<br />
* [[Intercropping]]<br />
* [[Milpa]]<br />
* [[Polyculture]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
===External link(s)===<br />
* [http://www.evergreen.ca/en/lg/h-corn.html History of the Three Sisters: Corn, Beans and Squash]<br />
* [http://www.naz.edu:9000/~ethnobot/ebot2003/kevinwhite/materialuse/threesister.gif Artistic Rendition]<br />
* [http://images.parkseed01.com/parksgardens/pem000505/sistapem000505he.html page with detailed instructions]<br />
<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Indigenous peoples in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Native American cuisine]]<br />
[[Category:Aboriginal cuisine in Canada]]<br />
[[Category:Agriculture in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Farming history]]<br />
[[Category:Organic gardening]]<br />
[[Category:Permaculture]]<br />
<br />
[[am:ሦስቱ እኅትማማች]]<br />
[[es:Las tres hermanas]]<br />
[[fr:Trois sœurs (agriculture)]]<br />
[[nl:Drie zusters]]<br />
[[chr:ᏦᎢ ᎠᎾᏓᎸᎢ]]<br />
[[ru:Три сестры (сельское хозяйство)]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drei_Schwestern_(Ackerbau)&diff=152467903Drei Schwestern (Ackerbau)2010-01-15T18:39:46Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: cat and template</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cucurbita pepo var. styriaca05.jpg|thumb|[[Squash (vegetable)|Squash]]]]<br />
[[File:Cornfield2.jpg|thumb|[[Maize]].]]<br />
[[File:Stokboon.jpg|thumb|[[Bean]]s.]]<br />
[[File:2009NativeAmericanRev.jpg|thumb|2009 Native American dollar reverse with Three Sisters on it]]<br />
The '''Three Sisters''' are the three main agricultural crops of some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] groups in [[North America]]: [[Squash (vegetable)|squash]], [[maize]], and climbing [[bean]]s (typically [[tepary bean]]s or [[common bean]]s).<br />
<br />
In one technique known as [[companion planting]], the three crops are planted close together. Flat-topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops. Each mound is about 30 cm (1 ft) high and 50 cm (20 in) wide, and several maize seeds are [[sowing|planted]] close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the [[Atlantic Northeast]], rotten fish or eel are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/northcoast/stories/s1485865.htm "The Three Sisters."] Phil Dudman. October 19, 2005. [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC North Coast NSW]].</ref><ref>[http://www.motherearthnews.com/Nature-and-Environment/2001-02-01/The-Three-Sisters.aspx "The Three Sisters."] John Vivian. February/March 2001. [[Mother Earth News]].</ref> When the maize is 15 cm (6 inches) tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between beans and squash. [[Milpa]]s are farms or gardens that employ companion planting on a larger scale.<ref>Mann, Charles. ''1491''. 2005. pp. 220-221. Vintage Books.</ref><br />
<br />
The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the [[nitrogen]] to the [[soil]] that the other plants utilize and the squash spreads along the ground, monopolizing the [[sunlight]] to prevent [[weed]]s. The squash leaves act as a "living [[mulch]]," creating a [[microclimate]] to retain [[moisture in the soil]], and the [[spine (botany)|prickly hairs]] of the vine deter [[pest (organism)|pests]]. Maize lacks the [[amino acid]]s [[lysine]] and [[tryptophan]], which the body needs to make [[protein]]s and [[niacin]], but beans contain both and therefore together they provide a balanced diet.<br />
<br />
Native Americans throughout North America are known for growing variations of three sisters gardens. The [[Anasazi]] are known for adopting this garden design in a more [[xeric]] environment. The [[Tewa]] and other Southwest tribes often included a "fourth sister" known as "[[Rocky Mountain bee plant]]" (''Cleome serrulata''), which attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.<ref>Hemenway, T. (2000) Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Pub Co. White River Junction, VT. p. 149. (ISBN 1-890132-52-7)</ref><br />
<br />
The three sisters planting method is featured on the 2009 reverse of new issues of the US [[Sacagawea dollar]] coin.<ref>[http://usmint.gov/mint_programs/nativeamerican/index.cfm?action=NADesign 2009 Native American $1 Coin], US Mint. Accessed 2009-07-08.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Companion planting]]<br />
* [[Intercropping]]<br />
* [[Milpa]]<br />
* [[Polyculture]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
===External link(s)===<br />
* [http://www.evergreen.ca/en/lg/h-corn.html History of the Three Sisters: Corn, Beans and Squash]<br />
* [http://www.naz.edu:9000/~ethnobot/ebot2003/kevinwhite/materialuse/threesister.gif Artistic Rendition]<br />
* [http://images.parkseed01.com/parksgardens/pem000505/sistapem000505he.html page with detailed instructions]<br />
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{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
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[[Category:Indigenous peoples in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Native American cuisine]]<br />
[[Category:Aboriginal cuisine in Canada]]<br />
[[Category:Agriculture in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Farming history]]<br />
[[Category:Organic gardening]]<br />
[[Category:Permaculture]]<br />
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[[am:ሦስቱ እኅትማማች]]<br />
[[es:Las tres hermanas]]<br />
[[fr:Trois sœurs (agriculture)]]<br />
[[nl:Drie zusters]]<br />
[[chr:ᏦᎢ ᎠᎾᏓᎸᎢ]]<br />
[[ru:Три сестры (сельское хозяйство)]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bedford_Village_Archeological_Site&diff=70218432Bedford Village Archeological Site2010-01-15T01:09:40Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* External links */ add template</p>
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<div>{{Infobox nrhp<br />
| name = Site 36BD90<br />
| nrhp_type = <br />
| image = Reconstructed building in Old Bedford Village.jpg<br />
| caption = Reconstructed building on the site<br />
| location = On the grounds of Bedford Village in [[Bedford Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania|Bedford Township]], [[Bedford County, Pennsylvania|Bedford County]], [[Pennsylvania]]<ref name=nomination>Beckerman, Ira. National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Site 36BD90. [[National Park Service]], n.d.</ref><br />
| lat_degrees = 39<br />
| lat_minutes = 48<br />
| lat_seconds = 7.2<br />
| lat_direction = N<br />
| long_degrees = 79<br />
| long_minutes = 51<br />
| long_seconds = 36<br />
| long_direction = W<br />
| coord_display = inline,title<br />
| coord_parameters = region:US_type:landmark<br />
| locmapin = Pennsylvania<br />
| architect = <br />
| architecture = <br />
| added = June 4, 1984<br />
| area = {{convert|4.75|acre}}<br />
| governing_body = Local<br />
| refnum = 84003102<ref name=nris>{{cite web|url=http://www.nr.nps.gov/|title=National Register Information System|date=2009-03-13|work=National Register of Historic Places|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Bedford Village Archeological Site''' (also known as "Site 36BD90") is an [[archaeological site]] in central [[Bedford County, Pennsylvania|Bedford County]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[United States]]. Located in [[Bedford Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania|Bedford Township]] north of the [[borough (Pennsylvania)|borough]] of [[Bedford, Pennsylvania|Bedford]], it was once occupied by a [[Monongahela tribe|Monongahela]] village. Today, the site is the location of Old Bedford Village, an [[open air museum]].<ref name=nomination />{{rp|2}}<br />
<br />
==Profile==<br />
The Monongahela village once located at the site was composed of circular houses surrounded by a [[stockade]],<ref name=nomination />{{rp|4}} an arrangement common in such villages.<ref name=deffenbaugh>George, Richard L. National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Deffenbaugh Site (36FA57). [[National Park Service]], 1981-07-31, 3.</ref> It was built at the highest point of a terrace along the [[Raystown Branch Juniata River|Raystown Branch]] of the [[Juniata River]], above the marshy areas of the river's floodplain.<ref name=nomination />{{rp|2}} This location is atypical for the Monongahela, who typically settled in upland areas for defensive purposes.<ref name=deffenbaugh /> Villagers built their houses similarly to those in other settlements; one house in the village is known to have been of a diameter of {{convert|7|m}}, like those in many other Monongahela villages. Based on archaeological evidence, it is believed that the site was occupied for a short period of time — perhaps two generations — at some point between the years 1250 and 1600.<ref name=nomination />{{rp|4}}<br />
<br />
==Historical period==<br />
After European settlement of the area, the hardwood forest at the site was cleared and the area was farmed for many years. Agriculture ended at the site in the mid-1970s, when the Bedford County Redevelopment Authority received a [[Federal grants (USA)|federal grant]] to construct a [[open air museum|living history museum]] at the site. The resulting attraction, known as Old Bedford Village, was built in 1975 and 1976.<ref name=nomination />{{rp|2}}<br />
<br />
==Excavation==<br />
Before the creation of Old Bedford Village, the site was locally known as a source of artifacts, but no wider attention was paid to the site's archaeological potential until after the museum was established. Testing at the northern portion of the site in 1977 revealed evidence of a Monongahela village and of pre-Monongahela occupation dating back to the [[Archaic period in the Americas|Late Archaic period]].<ref name=nomination />{{rp|2}} In the summers of 1979 and 1980, [[Pennsylvania State University]] conducted much more extensive excavations at different locations in Old Bedford Village, revealing stockade trenches around much of the site.<ref name=nomination />{{rp|3}}<br />
<br />
It is believed that the site was extensively impacted by the construction of Old Bedford Village: buildings and utility lines were erected atop much of the site, and a gravel road now runs across the area. Moreover, the heavy machinery used in construction may have buried [[midden]]s on the edge of the village's terrace. However, approximately three-fourths of the site remained undamaged after construction, and it is unlikely that any more areas will be impacted by the museum.<ref name=nomination />{{rp|3}}<br />
<br />
==Significance==<br />
The Bedford Village Site represents an unusual mix of phases in Native American history in the region. As one of the most eastern Monongahela sites ever discovered, it represents the possibility of transition between the Monongahela and other peoples of central Pennsylvania. Moreover, the site's location in a floodplain has been cited as evidence for climate change in North America: it has been proposed that cooling weather around the year 1500 caused the Monongahela to abandoned their hilltop homes in favor of warmer weather in river valleys.<ref name=nomination />{{rp|5}}<br />
<br />
Questions of influence from other cultures are especially significant because artifacts has also been found at the site of the [[Shenks Ferry culture]] of eastern Pennsylvania. While such evidence is minimal,<ref name=nomination />{{rp|5}} it suggests a short-term Shenks Ferry occupation at a date later than that of the Monongahela; among the remains of the Shenks Ferry occupation is a large midden located on top of the Monongahela stockade.<ref name=nomination />{{rp|4}}<br />
<br />
The wide range and degree of preservation at the Bedford Village site led to its listing on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1984.<ref name=nris /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*Hatch, James W. "An Archaeological Assessment of Construction Impacts at Old Bedford Village, Bedford County, Pennsylvania. [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania|Harrisburg]]: William Penn Memorial Museum, 1979.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.oldbedfordvillage.com Old Bedford Village website]<br />
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{{Monongahela villages in Pennsylvania}}<br />
{{National Register of Historic Places}}<br />
{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places]]<br />
[[Category:Bedford County, Pennsylvania]]<br />
[[Category:Monongahela villages]]<br />
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mishipeshu&diff=193193097Mishipeshu2010-01-08T00:43:51Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: new cat</p>
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<div>[[File:Underwater panther NMAI GGH.jpg|thumb|260px|Underwater Panther, [[National Museum of the American Indian]] [[George Gustav Heye Center]]]]<br />
'''Underwater panthers''' were powerful creatures in the mythological traditions of some Native American tribes, particularly tribes of the [[Great Lakes]] region.<ref name=Kohl>Kohl</ref> In [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]], the creature is sometimes called '''Mishibizhiw''' ("Mishipizhiw", "Mishipizheu", "Mishupishu", "Mishepishu"), which translates as "Great Lynx,"<ref>[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> or '''Gichi-anami'e-bizhiw''' ("Gitche-anahmi-bezheu"), which translates as "the fabulous night panther."<ref name=Kohl /><ref>"The fabulous night panther" is a translation from [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]] into [[French language|French]] to [[German language|German]], which then was translated into English. The direct translation would be something closer to "The greatly-revered lynx". See [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> However, it is also commonly referred to as the "Great Lynx," "Great underground wildcat," or "Great under-water wildcat." <ref name=Barnes>Barnes</ref><ref>"Mishi-Peshu" [http://books.google.com/books?id=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; DOI 10.1336/0313301484. 568 pages, p. 168.</ref><br />
<br />
Underwater panthers were major components of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the prehistoric American Southeast. <ref> {{cite book | last = Townsend | first = Richard F. | title = [[Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand]]| publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | date = 2004 | isbn = 0300106017}}</ref> <ref> {{cite book | editors = F. Kent Reilly and James Garber | title = [[Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms]] | publisher = [[University of Texas Press]] | date = 2004 | pages = 29–34 | isbn = 9780292713475 | author = edited by F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber ; foreword by Vincas P. Steponaitis.}}</ref><br />
<br><br><br><br><br />
==Description==<br />
[[Image:Underwater panther bowl 1.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Underwater Panther-Great Serpent bowl, Late [[Mississippian culture]], AD 1300-1500, from Rhodes Place, [[Crittenden County, Arkansas]], USA.]]<br />
[[Image:Underwater Panther rock painting (crop).jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pictographs of a ''mishibizhiw'' as well as two snakes and a canoe, from [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], [[Ontario, Canada]]. Attributed to the [[Ojibwa]].]]<br />
Water monsters appear in the mythology of most cultures. In some [[Native American mythologies]], they were given a combination of traits of wild cats such as the mountain lion, or in some cases the lynx, and those of snakes. The underwater panther was an amalgam of features from many animals: the horns of [[deer]] or [[bison]]; snake scales; bird [[feathers]]; the body and tail of a [[mountain lion]]; and parts from other animals as well, depending on the particular myth. ''Mishipizheu'' were said to live in the deepest parts of lakes and rivers. Some traditions believed the underwater panthers to be helpful, protective creatures, but more often they were viewed as malevolent beasts that brought death and misfortune.<br />
<br />
To the [[Algonquins]], the underwater panther was the most powerful [[underworld]] being. The [[Ojibwa]] reportedly held them to be masters of all water creatures as well as of snakes. Some versions of the ''[[Nanabozho]]'' creation legend refer to whole communities of water [[lynx]].<ref>Bolgiano</ref> <br />
<br />
[[Potawatomi]] [[medicine bag]]s sometimes had an image of the underwater panther on one side and the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbird]], master of the powers of the air, on the other. As late as the 1950s, the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Indians performed a traditional ceremony to placate the Underworld Panther and maintain balance with the Thunderbird.<ref>Bolgiano</ref> In addition to the [[Anishinaabe]]g -- the Algonquins, Ojibwas, Potawatomis -- ''Mishibizhiw'' stories are also to be found among the [[Montagnais]].<ref name=Barnes /><br />
<br />
When ethnographer [[Johann Kohl]] visited the United States in the 1850s, he spoke with a [[Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa|Fond du Lac]] chief, who showed Kohl a piece of copper kept in his [[medicine bag]]. The chief said it was a strand of hair from the ''mishibizhiw'', and thus considered extremely powerful.<ref name=Kohl /><br />
<br />
=="Alligator" mound==<br />
{{main|Alligator Effigy Mound}}<br />
[[Image:Mississippian Underwater Panther ceramic.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Ceramic effigy jug of the underwater panther, [[Mississippian culture]], from [[Parkin Archeological State Park#Culture of the Parkin Phase people|Rose Mound]] in [[Cross County, Arkansas]], ca. 1400-1600 CE. Height: 8" (20 cm)]]<br />
In 2003 archaeologist Brad Lepper suggested that the [[Alligator Effigy Mound]] in [[Granville, Ohio]] represents the underwater panther. Lepper suggests that early European settlers, when learning from Native Americans that the mound represented a fierce creature that lived in the water and ate people, mistakenly assumed that the Native Americans were referring to an alligator.<ref>Lepper.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Piasa]]<br />
*[[Horned Serpent]]<br />
*[[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex#The Great Serpent|Distribution of belief in the Underwater Panther]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*{{cite web|last=Barnes|first=Michael|url=http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca/living/history/lavase/97frs611.htm| title=Aboriginal Artifacts|work=Final Report - 1997 Archaeological Excavations La Vase Heritage Project|publisher=City of [[North Bay, Ontario]]|accessdate=2008-10-05}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Bolgiano | first = Chris | title = Mountain Lion: An Unnatural History of Pumas and People | year = 1995 | month = August | publisher = Stackpole Books | location = | isbn = 0-8117-1044-0 | chapter = Native Americans and American Lions | chapterurl = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/mountain.htm}}<br />
* {{cite web|last=Fox|first=William A. |url=http://www.adamsheritage.com/articles/fox/dragon_sideplates.htm| title=Dragon Sideplates from York Factory: A New Twist on an Old Tail.|publisher=Adams Heritage|accessdate=2006-07-13}}<br />
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=-gLBOIhjsPQC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mishi-peshu&source=bl&ots=NNnev31kdp&sig=Lx3UhQHsHdHyfwwazxPlELqbPVQ&hl=en&ei=MBD3SpaXKIWo8AavkqjzCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Mishi-peshu&f=false Gidmark, Jill B. (11/30/2000) ''Encyclopedia of American literature of the sea and Great Lakes'' Greenwood Press] ISBN 0-313-30148-4; ISBN 978-0-313-30148-3; DOI 10.1336/0313301484, 584 pages, p. 168.<br />
* {{cite book | last = Kohl | first = Johann | title = Kitchi-Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway | year = 1859 | month = | publisher = | location = | id = | chapter = | chapterurl = }}<br />
* {{cite journal|last =Lepper|first=Brad|title=[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=187259 Alligator Mound: Geoarchaeological and Iconographical Interpretations of a Late Prehistoric Effigy Mound in Central Ohio, USA]|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume=13 |pages=147–167|doi=10.1017/S0959774303000106|year=2003}} <br />
* {{cite news|first=David|last=Lore|title=Man pounces on panther theory about mound|publisher=The Columbus Dispatch|date=2001-01-21}} [http://farshores.org/alimound.htm copy]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.artsmia.org/viewer/detail.php?id=89843&i=3&v=1 Ceramic underwater panther figurine, c. 1500, Arkansas].<br />
*[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/mythiccreatures/water/myths.php American Museum of Natural History on Mishepishu]<br />
*[http://www.monstropedia.org/index.php?title=Mishipeshu Mishipeshu at Monstropedia.]<br />
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{{Pre-Columbian North America}}<br />
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[[Category:Mississippian culture]]<br />
[[Category:Native American legendary creatures]]<br />
[[Category:Water deities]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeology of the Americas]]<br />
[[Category:Anishinaabe mythology]]<br />
[[Category:Native American history]]<br />
[[Category:Mythological hybrids]]<br />
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[[fr:Panthère d'eau]]<br />
[[ru:Подводная Пантера]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bussell_Island&diff=90666013Bussell Island2010-01-07T23:15:15Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: new cat</p>
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<div>{{Infobox nrhp<br />
| name =Bussell Island Site<br />
| nrhp_type = <br />
| image = Harrington-round-grave-burial-tn1.jpg<br />
| caption = "Round Grave" burial on Bussell Island, excavated in 1919<br />
| lat_degrees = <br />
| lat_minutes = <br />
| lat_seconds = <br />
| lat_direction = <br />
| long_degrees = <br />
| long_minutes = <br />
| long_seconds = <br />
| long_direction = <br />
| locmapin = <br />
| location = <br />
| nearest_city = [[Lenoir City, Tennessee]] <br />
| area = <br />
| built = <br />
| architecture = <br />
| added =March 29, 1978<ref name=nps>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/listings/20090821.htm|title=National Register Information System|date=2009-10-01|work=National Register of Historic Places|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><br />
| visitation_num = <br />
| visitation_year = <br />
| refnum = 78002606<br />
| governing_body = [[Tennessee Valley Authority]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Bussell Island''', formerly '''Lenoir Island''', is an island located at the mouth of the [[Little Tennessee River]] near the U.S. city of [[Lenoir City, Tennessee]]. The island was inhabited by various [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] cultures for thousands of years before the arrival of early European explorers, and is currently home to [[Tellico Dam]] and a recreational area. Part of the island was added to the [[National Register of Historic Places]] for its archaeological potential in 1978.<ref name=nps /> <br />
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Native American habitation of Bussell Island dates to the Late [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic period]] (c. 3000–1000 B.C.).<ref name=braly>Bobby Braly and Shannon Koerner, [http://web.utk.edu/~anthrop/research/TennesseeArchaeology/02_History_of_Tennessee_Archaeology.pdf A History of Archaeology in Tennessee]. ''Tennessee Archaeology: A Synthesis'' (Chapter 2). p. 12-14.</ref> The island is believed to have been the location of the capital of Coste—a [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian-period]] chiefdom visited by Spanish explorer [[Hernando de Soto (explorer)|Hernando de Soto]] in 1540<ref>David Dye, [http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/imagegallery.php?EntryID=S060 Soto Expedition]. ''Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture'', 2002. Retrieved: 2009-12-07.</ref>—and was later part of the domain of the [[Overhill Cherokee]]. In 1887 and 1919, archaeologists conducted extensive excavations at Bussell Island and identified its archaeological importance.<ref name=braly /> The island was drastically modified in the 1970s when the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] (TVA) built Tellico Dam. <br />
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==Location==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Bussell-island-vicinity-tn1.jpg|left|404px|thumb|Bussell Island vicinity, with the dotted blue line showing the island's original east and southwest shorelines]]<br />
<br />
Bussell Island is situated where the Little Tennessee River joins the [[Tennessee River]], just over {{convert|601|mi|km}} upstream from the mouth of the latter. The island originally stretched for about a mile up the Little Tennessee, but the construction of Tellico Dam across the island's west river channel in the 1970s created a reservoir that flooded the southern two-thirds of the island. To contain the reservoir, an earthen levee was built along the island's new south shore and across the island's east river channel, connecting the island to the mainland. TVA's construction of a canal connecting the Tellico and Fort Loudoun reservoirs severed this section of the mainland, thus creating a new island that stretches for about a mile east-to-west, and touches three TVA lakes—Fort Loudoun, [[Watts Bar Lake|Watts Bar]], and Tellico.<br />
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Lenoir City is located along the Tennessee River opposite Bussell Island. [[U.S. Route 321]] (Lamar Alexander Parkway) crosses the island's new eastern half, and State Route 444 (Tellico Parkway) traverses the center of the island, with the two roads intersecting on the island's eastern tip. US-321 crosses via the J. Carmichael Bridge, which spans both [[Fort Loudoun Dam]] and the canal.<br />
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John W. Emmert, who conducted excavations on the island in 1887, stated that the original island covered {{convert|200|acre|ha}}, and rose to a maximum of {{convert|15|ft|m}} above the river. Emmert described the island's banks as "steep" with "heavy timber and much cane growing along them." Emmert also noted that the island was occasionally submerged when the Little Tennessee flooded, and noted that his excavation work was interrupted by one such flood which submerged the island to upwards of {{convert|12|ft|m}}.<ref name=bureau>U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, ''Twelth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1890–'91'' (Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1894), pp. 397–403.</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Prehistory===<br />
[[Image:Harrington-steatite-vessel-bussell-tn1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Steatite vessel fragment belonging to the "Round Grave" people, uncovered in 1919]]<br />
<br />
The earliest known inhabitants of Bussell Island lived during the Late Archaic period (c. 3000–1000 B.C.), and occupied the island sporadically throughout the [[Woodland period]] (1000 B.C. – 1000 A.D.). Archaeologist Mark R. Harrington, who conducted extensive excavations in the area in 1919, called these early inhabitants "Round Grave" people, due to their practice of burying their dead in small, round graves. The Round Grave people used tools made of animal bone and stone, and used both [[steatite]] vessels and simple pottery.<ref name=braly /><ref name=harrington1>M.R. Harrington, ''Cherokee and Earlier Remains on Upper Tennessee River'' (New York: Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, 1922), pp. 50, 61–82, 277–279.</ref><br />
<br />
The successors to the Round Grave people at Bussell Island were a people Harrington simply called the "Second Culture." This culture was part of what is now known as the [[Mississippian culture]], which flourished in the upper Tennessee Valley between 900 A.D. and 1600 A.D. The Mississippian people of the upper Tennessee Valley are known for their large platform mounds and conical burial mounds, including several found on Bussell Island and the surrounding mainland. Bussell Island's Mississippian inhabitants used triangular flint arrowheads, celt axes, and wore ornaments made from copper and seashells (the latter suggesting trade with coastal regions).<ref name=harrington2>Harrington, pp. 166–167.</ref><br />
<br />
===Coste===<br />
[[Image:Tali-coste-chiaha-chiaves-sp1.jpg|left|275px|thumb|Detail from Chiaves' 1584 map of "La Florida," showing [[Chiaha]], Coste, and Tali]]<br />
<br />
In 1540, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto embarked on an expedition across what is now the Southeastern United States, then called "La Florida," in hopes of finding a route to Mexico. Marching north from Florida, De Soto passed through modern South Carolina and North Carolina before turning west and crossing the [[Blue Ridge Mountains]] via the [[Nolichucky River|Nolichucky Valley]] into East Tennessee. After resting for several weeks at the prominent village of [[Chiaha]] (near modern [[Douglas Dam]]), De Soto continued down the [[French Broad River]] and Tennessee River to the village of Coste, centered around Bussell Island, arriving at its outskirts on July 1, 1540.<ref name=hudson1>Charles Hudson, ''Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun'' (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1997), 204–207.</ref><br />
<br />
De Soto held a friendly meeting with the chief of Coste on July 2, but relations quickly soured after the Spaniards pillaged some of the Costeans' storehouses, and several Costeans attacked the Spaniards with clubs. De Soto then devised a ruse in which he kidnapped the chief and held him hostage for several days. After the chief promised to assign guides and porters to the expedition, De Soto departed on July 9. The expedition continued up the Little Tennessee to the village of Tali (near modern [[Vonore, Tennessee|Vonore]]), and eventually found its way south to [[Coosa chiefdom|Coosa]], in northern Georgia.<ref name=hudson1 /> <br />
<br />
The inhabitants of Coste, like the inhabitants of Chiaha, spoke a [[Muskogean language]] similar to that used by the later Creek and Koasati tribes (linguist Charles Hudson suggests that the term "Koasati" may have been derived from "Coste").<ref>Charles Hudson, ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions: Explorations of the Carolinas and Tennessee, 1566–1568'' (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 2005), p. 104.</ref> Coste was probably part of the Coosa chiefdom's sphere of influence, which stretched from the upper Tennessee valley south into central [[Alabama]].<ref>Hudson, ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions, p. 10.</ref> In 1567, another Spanish explorer, [[Juan Pardo (explorer)|Juan Pardo]], visited the villages of [[Chilhowee (Cherokee town)#Chalahume|Chalahume]] and [[Citico (Cherokee_town)#Satapo|Satapo]] further up the Little Tennessee Valley, but turned back before reaching Coste.<ref>Hudson, ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions'', pp. 36–45.</ref><br />
<br />
===Cherokee and Euro-American history===<br />
[[Image:Harrington-cherokee-grave-tn1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Cherokee grave, excavated in 1919]]<br />
<br />
In the mid-18th century, more than a dozen Cherokee villages—known as the [[Overhill Cherokee|Overhill towns]]—were scattered along the lower {{convert|55|mi|km}} of the Little Tennessee River, among them the villages of [[Chota (Cherokee town)|Chota]] and [[Tanasi]].<ref>Gerald Schroedl, [http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/imagegallery.php?EntryID=O020 Overhill Cherokees]. ''Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture'', 2002. Retrieved: 2009-12-07.</ref> The village of [[Mialoquo]], the lowermost of the Overhill towns, was located about {{convert|17|mi|km}} upstream from Bussell Island.<ref>Kurt Russ and Jefferson Chapman, ''Archaeological Investigations at the Eighteenth Century Overhill Cherokee Town of Mialoquo (40MR3)'' (University of Tennessee Department of Anthropology, Report of Investigations 37, 1983).</ref> Harrington's excavations on Bussell Island uncovered numerous Cherokee graves—identified by the graves' "rectangular" shape and the presence of European trade goods such as glass beads—although no known major Cherokee villages were located on the island.<ref name=harrington1 /> [[Henry Timberlake]], who travelled up the Little Tennessee in 1761, met a Cherokee chief named "Slave Catcher" near the mouth of the Little Tennessee, but makes no mention of the island.<ref>Henry Timberlake, Samuel Williams (ed.), ''Memoirs, 1756–1765'' (Marietta, Georgia: Continental Book Co., 1948), p. 56.</ref> <br />
<br />
Throughout most of the 19th century, Bussell Island was known as "Lenoir Island," named after [[William Ballard Lenoir]], who established a large plantation and [[Lenoir Cotton Mill|cotton mill]] at what is now Lenoir City. In 1887, John W. Emmert conducted the first major excavations at Bussell Island for the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology. By the time Harrington excavated the island in 1919, the island had come into the possession of the Bussell family, who operated a ferry along the opposite river shore in Lenoir City.<ref>Harrington, p. 34.</ref><br />
<br />
===Tellico Dam project===<br />
[[Image:Tellico-dam-dike-tn1.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Earthen levee along Bussell Island's new south shoreline]]<br />
<br />
The Tennessee Valley Authority, charged with building a series of dams to generate hydroelectricity and control flooding in the 1930s, initially wanted to build Fort Loudoun Dam downstream from the mouth of the Little Tennessee, thus creating a reservoir that would expand across both the upper Tennessee River and lower Little Tennessee River, but engineers were unable to locate a suitable downstream site for a dam. They instead built the dam about a mile upstream, and made plans to build a dam at the mouth of the Little Tennessee—known as the Fort Loudoun Extension—which would divert water to the Fort Loudoun reservoir and increase that dam's generating capacity. Due to lack of funding, however, the Fort Loudoun Extension project was shelved until the 1960s.<ref name=murchison>Kenneth Murchison, ''The Snail Darter Case: TVA Versus the Endangered Species Act'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007), p. 15.</ref><br />
<br />
TVA revived interest in the Fort Loudoun Extension—renamed the Tellico Dam project—in 1964, although they met immediate opposition from a hodgepodge group of environmentalists, historical conservationists, and Native Americans.<ref name=murchison /> Construction of the dam began in 1969, but litigation stalled its completion until 1979, allowing the University of Tennessee to conduct extensive excavations at sites throughout the Tellico Basin. As a result of these excavations, several sites were added to the National Register of Historic Places for their archaeological potential, among them Bussell Island, designated 40LD17.<ref>Jefferson Chapman, ''Tellico Archaeology: 12,000 Years of Native American History'' (Knoxville, Tenn.: Tennessee Valley Authority, 1985).</ref> <br />
<br />
==Excavations==<br />
===J.W. Emmert (1887)===<br />
{{Commons|Category:Bussell Island|Bussell Island}}<br />
Emmert's excavations for the American Bureau of Ethnology took place in 1887, and were discussed in the bureau's ''12th Annual Report'', published in 1894. Emmert focused on two mounds on the north end of the island, known simply as Mound 1 and Mound 2. Mound 1 was {{convert|100|ft|m}} in diameter and {{convert|6.5|ft|m}} high, and described as "thoroughly worked over." Emmert uncovered 14 skeletons in Mound 1, along with pottery fragments, flint chips, glass beads, and an iron bracelet. Mound 2 was slightly larger than Mound 1, but was flanked by a diamond-shaped terrace {{convert|570|ft|m}} long and {{convert|8|ft|m}} high which Emmert believed to be man-made. Excavators uncovered 67 skeletons in Mound 2, as well as a burnt-clay tumulus surrounded by irregular cedar-post formations.<ref name=bureau /> <br />
<br />
===M.R. Harrington (1919)===<br />
[[Image:Harrington-pottery-vessel-bussell-tn1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pottery vessel uncovered by Harrington in 1919]]<br />
<br />
In 1919, Tennessee state archaeologist Mark Harrington boated down the Tennessee River to investigate a series of mound structures scattered along the river between Lenoir City and Hiwassee Island (about 100 miles downstream from Bussell). Like Emmert, Harrington focused on the north end of the island, although he noted that the mounds Emmert excavated had been leveled. Of the 41 burials uncovered by Harrington, 9 were of the older "Round Grave" culture, whereas the remainder were attributed to the later Cherokee inhabitants. Harrington suggested that the large diamond-shaped terrace mentioned by Emmert was actually a massive [[midden]] deposit that had accumulated over several centuries.<ref name=harrington1 /><br />
<br />
Harrington described the graves of the Round Grave culture as measuring 2 to 3 feet in diameter, with the bodies folded and compacted to fit in the graves. Typical burial goods included bone awls, steatite bowls, and animal teeth. The Cherokee graves were rectangular, with the bodies laid in a flexed position. Typical Cherokee burial items included earthenware vessels, glass beads, and pipes.<ref name=harrington1 /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|35.78036|-84.25604}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Mississippian culture]]<br />
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Tennessee]]<br />
[[Category:Tennessee Valley Authority]]<br />
[[Category:Loudon County, Tennessee]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liste_der_National_Historic_Landmarks_in_Arkansas&diff=72746466Liste der National Historic Landmarks in Arkansas2009-05-30T22:55:03Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: /* National Historic Landmarks in Arkansas */ add images</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''list of National Historic Landmarks in Arkansas''' contains the landmarks designated by the [[U.S. Federal Government]] for the [[U.S. state]] of [[Arkansas]].<br />
There are 17 [[National Historic Landmark]]s (NHLs) in Arkansas.<br />
<br />
This page includes a list of Arkansas state historic sites, which overlap. Also included is a list of [[National Park Service]] administered areas in Arkansas.<br />
<br />
==National Historic Landmarks in Arkansas==<br />
This is a complete list of the 17 [[National Historic Landmark]]s in Arkansas.<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; margin-right:0"<br />
! width="1%" {{NHL color}} |<br />
! width="17%" {{NHL color}}|Landmark name<ref name="NHLlist">{{Citation | last=National Park Service | date=April 2007<br />
| title = National Historic Landmarks Survey: List of <!--<br />
-->National Historic Landmarks by State<br />
| url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/nhl/designations/Lists/LIST07.pdf<br />
| publisher= | format=PDF| accessdate=2007-05-20}}.</ref><br />
! width="9%" class="unsortable" {{NHL color}} |'''Image'''<br />
! width="5%" {{NHL color}} |Date [[designated|<font color=0>desig.]]<ref name=NHLlist/><br />
! width="12%" {{NHL color}}|Locality<ref name=NHLlist/><ref<br />
name="NHLdat">{{cite web | last = National Park Service <br />
| title=National Historic Landmark Program: NHL Database<br />
| publisher= | url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/default.cfm<br />
| date= | accessdate=2007-09-22 }}</ref><br />
! width="8%" {{NHL color}}|County<ref name=NHLlist/><br />
! width="43%" {{NHL color}} class="unsortable"|Description<!--<br />
--><ref name=NHLdat/><br />
|--<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|1}}<br />
| [[Arkansas Post National Memorial|Arkansas Post]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">image pending</span><br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1960|10|09}}<br />
|| [[Gillett, Arkansas|Gillett]] <br /> <small>{{coord|34.01907|-91.34835|name=Arkansas Post National Memorial|type:landmark}}</small> || [[Arkansas County, Arkansas|Arkansas]] || Commemorates the first semi-permanent European settlement in the Lower Mississippi Valley (1686); an American Revolutionary War skirmish (1783); the first territorial capital of Arkansas (1819–1821); and the American Civil War Battle of Fort Hindman (1863)<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|2}}<br />
| [[Bathhouse Row]] || [[Image:Hot Springs Hale Bathhouse 2006.jpg|100px|Hale Bathhouse]]<br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1987|05|28}}<br />
|| [[Hot Springs, Arkansas|Hot Springs]] <br /> <small>{{coord|34.51212|-93.05361|name=Bathhouse Row|type:landmark}}</small><br />
|| [[Garland County, Arkansas|Garland]] || In [[Hot Springs National Park]]; largest collection of bathhouses in the United States; remains of the only federally-run spa<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|3}}<br />
| [[Louisiana Purchase State Park|Beginning Point of the Louisiana Purchase Survey]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">image pending</span><br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1993|04|19}}<br />
|| [[Blackton, Arkansas|Blackton]] <br /> <small>{{coord|34.64489|-91.05139|name=Louisiana Purchase Survey Marker|type:landmark}}</small><br />
|| [[Lee County, Arkansas|Lee]] - [[Monroe County, Arkansas|Monroe]] - [[Phillips County, Arkansas|Phillips]] border<br />
|| Point from which the lands acquired through the [[Louisiana Purchase]] of 1803 were subsequently surveyed<ref>{{cite web<br />
| title =Beginning Point of the Louisiana Purchase Survey<br />
| publisher =National Park Service<br />
| url =http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=1208&ResourceType=Site<br />
| accessdate =2007-09-20 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHLD|4}}<br />
| [[Camden Expedition Sites]] || <span style="color:#fcfcfc">image pending</span><br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1994|04|19}}<br />
|| 8 or 9 sites || several counties<br />
|| [[Camden Expedition]] Civil War battle sites:<br />
*[[Confederate State Capitol building (Arkansas)|Confederate State Capitol]]<br />
*[[Elkin's Ferry Battleground]]<br />
*[[Fort Southerland]]<br />
*[[Fort Lookout]]<br />
*[[Jenkins' Ferry State Park|Jenkins' Ferry Battlefield]]<br />
*[[Marks' Mills State Park|Marks' Mills Battlefield]]<br />
*[[Poison Spring State Park|Poison Spring Battlefield]]<br />
*[[Prairie d'Ane Battlefield]], and, possibly,<br />
*[[The Tower Building of the Little Rock Arsenal|U.S. Arsenal Building]]<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|5}}<br />
| [[Centennial Baptist Church]] || <span style="color:#fcfcfc">image pending</span> <br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|2003|07|31}}<br />
|| [[Helena, Arkansas|Helena]]<br />
|| [[Phillips County, Arkansas|Phillips]]<br />
|| Where Elias Camp Morris preached, unofficial headquarters for National Baptist Convention<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|6}}<br />
| [[USS Hoga (YT-146)|USS Hoga (''CITY OF OAKLAND'')(Tug)]]|| [[Image:USS Nevada 2nd grounding off Waipio Point Nara 80-G-33020.jpg|100px|The sinking USS ''Nevada'' is pushed to safety into soft sand by USS ''Hoga'']] <br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1989|06|30}}<br />
|| [[North Little Rock, Arkansas|North Little Rock]]<br />
|| [[Pulaski County, Arkansas|Pulaski]]<br />
|| Tugboat; at [[Pearl Harbor]] fought ship fires and helped push sinking [[USS Nevada (BB-36)|USS ''Nevada'']] out of the ship channel; served Oakland harbor for many years<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|7}}<br />
| [[Daisy Bates House]] || <span style="color:#fcfcfc">image pending</span> <br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|2001|01|03}}<br />
|| [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]]<br />
|| [[Pulaski County, Arkansas|Pulaski]]<br />
|| Supporting site for desegregation of Little Rock Central High School<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|8}}<br />
| [[Eaker Site]] || <span style="color:#fcfcfc">image pending</span> <br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1996|06|19}}<br />
|| [[Blytheville, Arkansas|Blytheville]]<br />
|| [[Mississippi County, Arkansas|Mississippi]]<br />
|| Archaeological site; shows evidence of pre-historic Nodena populations and also Quapaw occupation<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHS|9}}<br />
| [[Fort Smith National Historic Site|Fort Smith]]<br />
|| [[Image:Fort Smith, Commissary Building, 100 South Garrison Avenue, Fort Smith (Sebastian County, Arkansas).jpg|100px|1940 HABS photo]]<br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1960|12|19}}<br />
|| [[Fort Smith, Arkansas|Fort Smith]] <br /> <small>{{coord|35|20|36|N|94|25|22|W|format=dec|name=Fort Smith}}</small> <br />
|| [[Sebastian County, Arkansas|Sebastian]]<br />
|| Protects the remains of two 19th-century U.S. military forts and the Federal Court for the Western District of Arkansas.<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|10}}<br />
| [[Joseph Taylor Robinson House]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">image pending</span> <br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1992|10|12}}<br />
|| [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]]<br />
|| [[Pulaski County, Arkansas|Pulaski]]<br />
|| Home of influential Arkansas governor and U.S. senator<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|11}}<br />
| [[Little Rock Central High School]]<br />
|| [[Image:Central High in Little Rock 11.jpg|100px|Central High School]]<br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1982|05|20}}<br />
|| [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] <br /> <small>{{coord|34.73775|-92.29775|name=Little Rock High School|type:landmark}}</small><br />
|| [[Pulaski County, Arkansas|Pulaski]]<br />
|| Focal point of the Little Rock Integration Crisis of 1957<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|12}}<br />
| [[Menard-Hodges Site]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">image pending</span><br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1982|04|11}}<br />
|| [[Nady, Arkansas|Nady]] <br /><br />
|| [[Arkansas County, Arkansas|Arkansas]]<br />
|| Site includes two large mounds and several house mounds.<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|13}}<br />
| [[Nodena Site]] <br />
|| [[File:Nodena HRoe 2009.jpg|100px|Nodena Site illustration]]<br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1964|02|19}}<br />
|| [[Wilson, Arkansas|Wilson]] <br /><br />
|| [[Mississippi County, Arkansas|Mississippi]]<br />
|| Located on Nodena Plantation; type site for an important [[Late Mississippian]] cultural component, the Nodena phase; date from about 1400-1700 AD; first excavations in 1897.<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|14}}<br />
| [[Old State House (Little Rock)|Old State House]]<br />
|| [[Image:Old State Capitol Building, Markham & Center Streets, Little Rock (Pulaski County, Arkansas).jpg|100px|1934 HABS photo]]<br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1997|12|09}}<br />
|| [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] <br /> <small>{{coord|34.74856|-92.27333|name=Old State House|type:landmark}}</small><br />
|| [[Pulaski County, Arkansas|Pulaski]]<br />
|| Oldest surviving state capitol building west of the Mississippi River.<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|15}}<br />
| [[Parkin Archeological State Park|Parkin Indian Mound]]<br />
|| [[File:Casqui Parkin Site HROE 2009 01.jpg|100px|Parkin Site illustration]]<br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1964|07|19}}<br />
|| [[Parkin, Arkansas|Parkin]] <br /> <small>{{coord|35|16|37.4|N|90|33|16.5|W|name=Parkin Archeological State Park}}</small><br />
|| [[Cross County, Arkansas|Cross]]<br />
|| A [[Late Mississippian]] and protohistoric palisaded village with one mound; may be the town of [[Casqui]] mentioned by 16th century Spanish explorer [[Hernando de Soto (explorer)|Hernando de Soto]].<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|16}}<br />
| [[Rohwer War Relocation Center|Rohwer Relocation Center Cemetery]]<br />
|| <span style="color:#fcfcfc">image pending</span><br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1992|07|06}}<br />
|| [[Rohwer, Arkansas|Rohwer]] <br /> <small>{{coord|33.76456|-91.28016|name=Rohwer Relocation Center Memorial Cemetery|type:landmark}}</small><br />
|| [[Desha County, Arkansas|Desha]]<br />
|| Site of a World War II Japanese American internment camp<br />
|-<br />
| {{NRHPlegend|NHL|17}}<br />
| [[Toltec Mounds Site]]<br />
|| [[Image:Chromesun toltec mounds photo01.jpg|100px|photo]]<br />
|style="font-size:88%"| {{dts|link=off|1978|06|02}}<br />
|| [[Scott, Arkansas|Scott]] <br /> <small>{{coord|34|38|49|N|92|03|55|W|name=Toltec Mounds}}</small><br />
|| [[Lonoke County, Arkansas|Lonoke]]<br />
|| One of the most significant remnants of Native American life in the state.<br />
|----<br />
|colspan=7|<small>Table notes: see <ref>Numbers represent an ordering by significant words. Various colorings, defined [[Wikipedia:NRHP colors legend|here]], differentiate the [[National Monument]]s, [[National Historic Sites]], [[National Historic Landmark Districts]] and other higher designations from other NHL buildings, structures, sites or objects.</ref> below.</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Arkansas State Historic Sites==<br />
A cross-reference list of Arkansas State Historic Parks and other sites, which overlaps with the above list of NHLs, will appear here. The following is an incomplete list:<br />
*[[Conway Cemetery Historic State Park]]<br />
*[[Delta Heritage Trail State Park]]<br />
*[[Louisiana Purchase State Park]] (includes Beginning Point of Louisiana Purchase, an NHL listed above)<br />
*[[Old Washington Historic State Park]] (includes Old State Capitol, an NHL listed above)<br />
*[[Poison Spring State Park]] (includes Poison Spring Battlefield, an NHL listed above)<br />
*[[Prairie Grove Battlefield State Park]]<br />
<br />
==Historic areas administered by the National Park Service==<br />
[[National Historic Sites]], [[National Historical Parks]], [[U.S. National Monument|National Monuments]], and certain other [[List of areas in the United States National Park System|areas listed in the National Park system]] are historic landmarks of national importance that are highly protected already, often before the inauguration of the NHL program in 1960, and are then often not also named NHLs ''per se''. There are four of these in Georgia. The National Park Service lists these four together with the NHLs in the state,<ref name = "NHLlist_p117">These are listed on p.111 of "National Historic Landmarks Survey: List of National Historic Landmarks by State"</ref> The [[Arkansas Post National Memorial]], the [[Fort Smith National Historic Site]] (shared with Oklahoma) and the [[Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site]] are also NHLs and are listed above. The remaining one is:<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="width:98%"<br />
! width="1%" |<br />
! width="18%" |'''Landmark name'''<br /><br />
! width="13%" |'''Image'''<br />
!date width="3%" |'''Date established'''<ref>Date of listing as National Monument or similar designation, from various sources in articles indexed.</ref><br />
! width="9%" |'''Location''' <br />
! width="8%" |'''County''' <br />
! width="48%" |'''Description'''<br />
|--<br />
! {{NRHPlegend|NMP|1}}<br />
| [[Pea Ridge National Military Park]]<br />
|<br />
| [[20 Jul]] [[1956]]<br />
| [[Pea Ridge, Arkansas|Pea Ridge]]<br />
| [[Benton County, Arkansas|Benton]]<br />
| Site of [[Battle of Pea Ridge]], March 7 and 8, 1862, a Union victory in the [[American Civil War]]<br />
|--<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other National Park Service-administered areas in Arkansas are the [[Buffalo National River]] and the [[Hot Springs National Park]] (not historic ''per se'' but which includes [[Bathhouse Row]], an NHL listed above).<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of Registered Historic Places in Arkansas]]<br />
*[[List of National Historic Landmarks by state]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{GeoGroupTemplate}}<br />
*{{cite web|publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/nhl/designations/Lists/AR01.pdf |format=PDF|title=National Historic Landmarks Survey: List of National Historic Landmarks by State--Arkansas (17)|accessdate=2007-10-02}}<br />
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/nhl/ National Historic Landmarks Program, at National Park Service]<br />
{{-}}<br />
{{Registered Historic Places}}<br />
{{NHLbyState}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Lists of National Historic Landmarks by state|Arkansas]]<br />
[[Category:Lists of places|National Historic Landmarks in Arkansas]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Landmarks in Arkansas| ]]<br />
[[Category:Arkansas-related lists|National Historic Landmarks]]<br />
<br />
[[de:Liste der National Historic Landmarks in Arkansas]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mishipeshu&diff=193193065Mishipeshu2008-09-30T10:29:13Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: resize and reposition pics, added links and categories</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Mississippian Underwater Panther ceramic.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Hollow ceramic jug showing the underwater panther, from the [[Mississippian culture]], found at [[Parkin Archeological State Park#Culture of the Parkin Phase people|Rose Mound]] in [[Cross County, Arkansas]], U.S., 1400-1600. height: 8 inches (20 cm).]]<br />
'''Underwater panthers''' were powerful creatures in the mythological traditions of some Native American tribes, particularly tribes of the [[Great Lakes]] region.<ref name=Kohl>Kohl</ref> In [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]], the creature is sometimes called '''Mishibizhiw''' ("Mishipizhiw", "Mishipizheu", "Mishupishu", "Mishepishu"), which translates as "Great Lynx,"<ref>[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> or '''Gichi-anami'e-bizhiw''' ("Gitche-anahmi-bezheu"), which translates as "the fabulous night panther."<ref name=Kohl /><ref>"The fabulous night panther" is a translation from [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]] into [[French language|French]] to [[German language|German]], which then was translated into English. The direct translation would be something closer to "The greatly-revered lynx". See [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> However, it is also commonly referred to as the "Great underground wildcat," "Great under-water wildcat," and sometimes as "copper cat."<ref name=Barnes>Barnes</ref> Underwater panthers were major components of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the prehistoric American Southeast. <ref> {{cite book | last = Townsend | first = Richard F. | title = [[Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand]]| publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | date = 2004 | isbn - 0-300-10601-7}}</ref> <ref> {{cite book | editors = F. Kent Reilly and James Garber | title = [[Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms]] | publisher = [[University of Texas Press]] | date = 2004 | pages = pp. 29-34 | isbn - 978-0-292-71347-5}}</ref><br />
<br><br><br><br><br />
==Description==<br />
[[Image:Underwater panther bowl 1.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Underwater Panther-Great Serpent bowl, Late [[Mississippian culture]], AD 1300-1500, from Rhodes Place, [[Crittenden County, Arkansas]], USA.]]<br />
[[Image:Underwater Panther rock painting (crop).jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pictographs of a ''mishibizhiw'' as well as two snakes and a canoe, from [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], [[Ontario, Canada]]. Attributed to the [[Ojibwa]].]]<br />
Water monsters appear in the mythology of most cultures, but in some [[Native American mythologies]] they tended to combine traits of wild cats such as the mountain lion, or in some cases the lynx, with those of snakes. The underwater panther was an amalgam of features from many animals: the horns of [[deer]] or [[bison]]; snake scales; bird [[feathers]]; the body and tail of a [[mountain lion]]; and parts from other animals as well, depending on the particular myth. Mishipizheu were said to live in the deepest parts of lakes and rivers. Some traditions believed the underwater panthers to be helpful, protective creatures, but more often they were viewed as malevolent beasts that brought death and misfortune.<br />
<br />
To the [[Algonquins]], the underwater panther was the most powerful underworld being. The [[Ojibwa]] reportedly held them to be masters of all water creatures as well as of snakes. Some versions of the [[Nanabozho]] creation legend refer to whole communities of water [[lynx]]. [[Potawatomi]] [[medicine bag]]s sometimes had an image of the underwater panther on one side and the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbird]], master of the powers of the air, on the other. As late as the 1950s, the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Indians performed their traditional ceremony to placate the Underworld Panther and maintain balance with the Thunderbird.<ref>Bolgiano</ref> In addition to the [[Anishinaabe]]g -- the Algonquins, Ojibwas, Potawatomis -- ''Mishibizhiw'' stories are also to be found among the [[Montagnais]].<ref name=Barnes /><br />
<br />
When ethnographer [[Johann Kohl]] visited the United States in the 1850s, he spoke with a [[Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa|Fond du Lac]] Chief, who showed Kohl a piece of copper that was kept in his [[medicine bag]], citing that it was a strand of hair from the ''mishibizhiw'', and thus considered extremely powerful.<ref name=Kohl /><br />
<br />
=="Alligator" mound==<br />
[[Image:Alligator Mound.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Alligator Mound, [[Licking County]], Ohio, a typical effigy mound.]] <br />
In a 2003 article in the ''Cambridge Archaeological Survey'', Brad Lepper makes the case that the Alligator Mound in [[Granville, Ohio]], is not an alligator at all but rather an effigy of an underwater panther, particularly since the tribes of Ohio were unlikely to have been familiar with alligators. The confusion is thought to be the result of misinterpretation by early European settlers, who upon inquiring of Native Americans regarding the underwater panther, were told that it was a fierce creature that lived in the water and eats people, which they assumed to be alligators.<ref>Lepper.</ref><br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Piasa]]<br />
*[[Horned Serpent]]<br />
*[[Sirrush]]<br />
*[[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex#The Great Serpent|Distribution of belief in the Underwater Panther]]<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
*{{cite web|last=Barnes|first=Michael|url=http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca//lavase/97FRS611.HTM| title=Aboriginal artifacts|work=Final Report - 1997 Archaeological Excavations La Vase Heritage Project|publisher=City of [[North Bay, Ontario]]|accessdate=2006-07-13}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Bolgiano | first = Chris | title = Mountain Lion: An Unnatural History of Pumas and People | year = 1995 | month = August | publisher = Stackpole Books | location = | id = ISBN 0-8117-1044-0 | chapter = Native Americans and American Lions | chapterurl = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/mountain.htm}}<br />
* {{cite web|last=Fox|first=William A. |url=http://www.adamsheritage.com/articles/fox/dragon_sideplates.htm| title=Dragon Sideplates from York Factory: A New Twist on an Old Tail.|publisher=Adams Heritage|accessdate=2006-07-13}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Kohl | first = Johann | title = Kitchi-Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway | year = 1859 | month = | publisher = | location = | id = | chapter = | chapterurl = }}<br />
* {{cite journal|last =Lepper|first=Brad|title=[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=187259 Alligator Mound: Geoarchaeological and Iconographical Interpretations of a Late Prehistoric Effigy Mound in Central Ohio, USA]|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|year|2003|volume=13 |pages=147–167|doi=10.1017/S0959774303000106|year=2003}} <br />
* {{cite news|first=David|last=Lore|title=Man pounces on panther theory about mound|publisher=The Columbus Dispatch|date=[[2001-01-21]]}} [http://farshores.org/alimound.htm copy]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.artsmia.org/viewer/detail.php?id=89843&i=3&v=1 Ceramic underwater panther figurine, c. 1500, Arkansas].<br />
*[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/mythiccreatures/water/myths.php American Museum of Natural History on Mishepishu]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Native American legendary creatures]]<br />
[[Category:Water deities]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeology of the Americas]]<br />
[[Category:Anishinaabe mythology]]<br />
[[Category:Native American history]]<br />
[[Category:Pre-Columbian cultures]]</div>Heironymous Rowehttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mishipeshu&diff=193193064Mishipeshu2008-09-15T01:59:39Z<p>Heironymous Rowe: added link to Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, with citations</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Mississippian Underwater Panther ceramic.JPG|right|300px|thumb|Hollow ceramic jug showing the underwater panther, from the [[Mississippian culture]], found at Rose Mound in [[Cross County, Arkansas]], U.S., 1400-1600. height: 8 inches (20 cm).]]<br />
'''Underwater panthers''' were powerful creatures in the mythological traditions of some Native American tribes, particularly tribes of the [[Great Lakes]] region.<ref name=Kohl>Kohl</ref> In [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]], the creature is sometimes called '''Mishibizhiw''' ("Mishipizhiw", "Mishipizheu", "Mishupishu", "Mishepishu"), which translates as "Great Lynx,"<ref>[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> or '''Gichi-anami'e-bizhiw''' ("Gitche-anahmi-bezheu"), which translates as "the fabulous night panther."<ref name=Kohl /><ref>"The fabulous night panther" is a translation from [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]] into [[French language|French]] to [[German language|German]], which then was translated into English. The direct translation would be something closer to "The greatly-revered lynx". See [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary]</ref> However, it is also commonly referred to as the "Great underground wildcat," "Great under-water wildcat," and sometimes as "copper cat."<ref name=Barnes>Barnes</ref> Underwater panthers were major components of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] of American prehistory. <ref> {{cite book | last = Townsend | first = Richard F. | title = [[Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand]]| publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | date = 2004 | isbn - 0-300-10601-7}}</ref> <ref> {{cite book | editors = F. Kent Reilly and James Garber | title = [[Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms]] | publisher = [[University of Texas Press]] | date = 2004 | pages = pp. 29-34 | isbn - 978-0-292-71347-5}}</ref><br />
<br><br><br><br><br />
==Description==<br />
Water monsters appear in the mythology of most cultures, but in some [[Native American mythologies]] they tended to combine traits of wild cats such as the mountain lion, or in some cases the lynx, with those of snakes. The underwater panther was an amalgam of features from many animals: the horns of [[deer]] or [[bison]]; snake scales; bird [[feathers]]; the body and tail of a [[mountain lion]]; and parts from other animals as well, depending on the particular myth. Mishipizheu were said to live in the deepest parts of lakes and rivers. Some traditions believed the underwater panthers to be helpful, protective creatures, but more often they were viewed as malevolent beasts that brought death and misfortune.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Underwater Panther rock painting (crop).jpg|right|270px|thumb|Pictographs of a ''mishibizhiw'' as well as two snakes and a canoe, from [[Lake Superior Provincial Park]], [[Ontario, Canada]]. Attributed to the [[Ojibwa]].]]<br />
[[Image:Alligator Mound.JPG|thumb|270px|right|Alligator Mound, [[Licking County]], Ohio, a typical effigy mound.]]<br />
To the [[Algonquins]], the underwater panther was the most powerful underworld being. The [[Ojibwa]] reportedly held them to be masters of all water creatures as well as of snakes. Some versions of the [[Nanabozho]] creation legend refer to whole communities of water [[lynx]]. [[Potawatomi]] [[medicine bag]]s sometimes had an image of the underwater panther on one side and the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbird]], master of the powers of the air, on the other. As late as the 1950s, the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Indians performed their traditional ceremony to placate the Underworld Panther and maintain balance with the Thunderbird.<ref>Bolgiano</ref> In addition to the [[Anishinaabe]]g -- the Algonquins, Ojibwas, Potawatomis -- ''Mishibizhiw'' stories are also to be found among the [[Montagnais]].<ref name=Barnes /><br />
<br />
When ethnographer [[Johann Kohl]] visited the United States in the 1850s, he spoke with a [[Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa|Fond du Lac]] Chief, who showed Kohl a piece of copper that was kept in his [[medicine bag]], citing that it was a strand of hair from the ''mishibizhiw'', and thus considered extremely powerful.<ref name=Kohl /><br />
<br />
=="Alligator" mound== <br />
In a 2003 article in the ''Cambridge Archaeological Survey'', Brad Lepper makes the case that the Alligator Mound in [[Granville, Ohio]], is not an alligator at all but rather an effigy of an underwater panther, particularly since the tribes of Ohio were unlikely to have been familiar with alligators. The confusion is thought to be the result of misinterpretation by early European settlers, who upon inquiring of Native Americans regarding the underwater panther, were told that it was a fierce creature that lived in the water and eats people, which they assumed to be alligators.<ref>Lepper.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
[[Image:Underwater panther bowl 1.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Underwater Panther-Great Serpent bowl, Late [[Mississippian culture]], AD 1300-1500, from Rhodes Place, [[Crittenden County, Arkansas]], USA.]]<br />
*{{cite web|last=Barnes|first=Michael|url=http://www.city.north-bay.on.ca//lavase/97FRS611.HTM| title=Aboriginal artifacts|work=Final Report - 1997 Archaeological Excavations La Vase Heritage Project|publisher=City of [[North Bay, Ontario]]|accessdate=2006-07-13}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Bolgiano | first = Chris | title = Mountain Lion: An Unnatural History of Pumas and People | year = 1995 | month = August | publisher = Stackpole Books | location = | id = ISBN 0-8117-1044-0 | chapter = Native Americans and American Lions | chapterurl = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/mountain.htm}}<br />
* {{cite web|last=Fox|first=William A. |url=http://www.adamsheritage.com/articles/fox/dragon_sideplates.htm| title=Dragon Sideplates from York Factory: A New Twist on an Old Tail.|publisher=Adams Heritage|accessdate=2006-07-13}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Kohl | first = Johann | title = Kitchi-Gami: Life Among the Lake Superior Ojibway | year = 1859 | month = | publisher = | location = | id = | chapter = | chapterurl = }}<br />
* {{cite journal|last =Lepper|first=Brad|title=[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=187259 Alligator Mound: Geoarchaeological and Iconographical Interpretations of a Late Prehistoric Effigy Mound in Central Ohio, USA]|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|year|2003|volume=13 |pages=147–167|doi=10.1017/S0959774303000106|year=2003}} <br />
* {{cite news|first=David|last=Lore|title=Man pounces on panther theory about mound|publisher=The Columbus Dispatch|date=[[2001-01-21]]}} [http://farshores.org/alimound.htm copy]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Piasa]]<br />
*[[Horned Serpent]]<br />
*[[Sirrush]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.artsmia.org/viewer/detail.php?id=89843&i=3&v=1 Ceramic underwater panther figurine, c. 1500, Arkansas].<br />
*[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/mythiccreatures/water/myths.php American Museum of Natural History on Mishepishu]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Native American legendary creatures]]<br />
[[Category:Water deities]]<br />
[[Category:Archaeology of the Americas]]<br />
[[Category:Anishinaabe mythology]]</div>Heironymous Rowe