Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Wasserkrise von Kapstadt

2018-01-29T17:41:10Z

Gregorydavid: /* Day Zero */ definition of Day Zero

{{ITN nom}}
{{Use South African English|date=January 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
[[File:Cape Town water graph Jan 2018.svg|thumb|500px|Graph of total water stored in the Western Cape's largest six dams from 30 June 2013 to 15 January 2018. The graph illustrates the declining water storage levels over the course of the Cape Town water crisis. Data obtained from the [http://cip.csag.uct.ac.za/monitoring/bigsix.html Climate Systems Analysis Group] (CSAG)]]

The '''Cape Town water crisis''' is a drought that began in 2015 and is resulting in a severe water shortage in the [[Western Cape]] region of [[South Africa]], most notably affecting the city of [[Cape Town]]. Despite water saving measures, dam levels are predicted to decline to critically low levels, and the city has made plans for "Day Zero" on 12 April 2018,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ewn.co.za/2018/01/23/day-zero-brought-forward-ct-officials-prepare-for-worst|title=Day Zero Brought Forward, CT Officials Prepare for Worst|first=Kevin|last=Brandt|date=23 January 2018}}</ref> when municipal water supply will largely be shut off.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cape Town water crisis: WWF helps you understand the basics|date=19 January 2018|first=Christina|last=Pitt|url=https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/cape-town-water-crisis-wwf-helps-you-understand-the-basics-20180119}}</ref> If this happens, Cape Town will be the first major city to run out of water.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cape Town could be the first major city in the world to run out of water|first=Zaheer|last=Cassim|work=USA Today|date=19 January 2018}}</ref>

== Background ==
The Cape Town region experiences a warm [[Mediterranean climate]]. Water is supplied largely from the six major dams of the [[Western Cape Water Supply System]] in mountainous areas close to the city. The dams are recharged by rain falling in their catchment areas, largely during the cooler winter months of May to August, and dam levels decline during the warm, dry summer months of December to February during which urban and agricultural water use increases.

Since 1995, Cape Town's population has grown from 2.4 million residents to an estimated 4.3 million by 2018, representing a 79 percent population increase in 23 years whilst dam water storage only increased by 15 percent in the same period.<ref name="GUwater" /> In 2016/2017, 64.5 percent of the city's water supply went to houses, flats and complexes, while 3.6 percent went to informal settlements.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://africacheck.org/reports/do-formal-residents-use-65-of-cape-towns-water-with-half-going-to-gardens-pools/|title=Do Formal Residents Use 65% of Cape Town's Water?|publisher=Africa Check|first=Gopolang|last=Makou|date=21 August 2017}}</ref>

The possibility of the city exceeding its water supply was highlighted as early as 1990.<ref>{{cite news|title=Cape Town will run out of water in 17 years|first=Barry|last=Streek|date=26 April 1990|work=Cape Times|quote=Water supplies for the Cape Town area are expected to dry up in 17 years time, the Water Research Commission (WRC) disclosed yesterday. "It is estimated that known fresh water supplies for the Cape Town metropolitan area will be fully committed by the year 2007," it said in its annual report tabled in Parliament yesterday. "Thereafter the reclamation of purified sewage effluent to augment supplies is a distinct possibility".}}</ref>

In 2009, the storage capacity of the dams supplying Cape Town was increased by 17 percent from 768 to 898 million cubic metres through the completion of the [[Berg River Dam]].<ref name="Cape Town">{{cite web|publisher=City of Cape Town|url=http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/Pages/CapeTownsWaterSupplyBoosted.aspx|title=Cape Town's water supply boosted|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327102756/http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/Pages/CapeTownsWaterSupplyBoosted.aspx|archive-date=27 March 2009|date=17 March 2009}}</ref> Despite the increased storage capacity, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry predicted that the growing demand from the city would exceed supply by 2013 without water conservation and demand management measures by the city, and that even with those measures, further water sources would be required by 2019.<ref name="WCWRSNewsletterMarch09">{{cite web|publisher=Department of Water Affairs and Forestry| url=http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Other/WMA/19/WCWRSNewsletterMarch09.pdf|title=Western Cape Water Reconciliation Strategy Newsletter 5|date=March 2009}}</ref>

== Severity of the drought==
Research on long-term weather data done by the [[University of Cape Town]] found that the period from 2015-2017 has been the driest 3-year period since 1933, and 2017 was the driest year since 1933, and possibly earlier, since comparable data before 1933 was not available. It also found that a drought of this severity will statistically occur only once every 311 years.<ref name="csag">{{cite web|url=https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/how-severe-is-cape-towns-drought-a-detailed-look-at-the-data-20180123|title=How severe is Cape Town's drought? A detailed look at the data|date=23 January 2018|publisher=News24|first=Piotr|last=Wolski}}</ref>

== Timeline ==
After good rains in 2013 and 2014, the city of [[Cape Town]] began experiencing a drought in 2015, the first of three consecutive years of dry winters brought on by the [[El Niño]] weather pattern and [[climate change]].<ref name="AfricaC">{{Cite web |url=https://africacheck.org/2016/02/03/frequently-asked-questions-about-south-africas-drought |title= Frequently asked questions about South Africa's drought |date=3 February 2016 |publisher=Africa Check |language=English |publication-place=Cape Town |access-date=2017-06-01}}</ref> Water levels in the city's dams declined from 71.9 percent in 2014 to 50.1 percent in 2015.<ref name="GUwater">{{Cite web |url=http://www.groundup.org.za/article/whats-causing-cape-towns-water-crisis/ |title=What's causing Cape Town's water crisis? |last=Bohatch |first=Trevor |date=16 May 2017 |publisher=Ground Up |location=Cape Town |language=English |access-date=2017-06-01}}</ref>

Significant droughts in other parts of South Africa ended in August 2016 through heavy rain and flooding in the interior of the country,<ref name="encarain">{{Cite web |url=http://www.enca.com/africa/southern-africa-faces-floods-after-drought |title=Southern Africa faces floods after drought |last=Masinde |first=Muthoni |date=18 August 2016 |access-date=2017-06-01}}</ref> but the drought in the Western Cape remained.

By the end of the dry season in May 2017, the drought was declared the city's worst in a century, with dams having less than 10 percent of their usable capacity.<ref name="cnn2017">{{Cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2017/05/31/africa/cape-town-drought/index.html |title=Cape Town contends with worst drought in over a century |last=Van Dam |first=Derek |website=CNN.com |publisher=[[CNN]] |publication-date=31 May 2017 |access-date=2017-06-01}}</ref> Level 4 water restrictions were imposed, limiting the consumption of water to 100 litres per person per day.<ref name="level4">{{cite web|url=https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/city-of-cape-town-approves-level-4-water-restrictions-20170531|title=City of Cape Town approves Level 4 water restrictions|date=31 May 2017|first=Jenna|last=Etheridge}}</ref>

In June 2017 a [[Cape Storm (2017)|significant storm]] hit the area, dropping up to 50 mm of rain, but not enough to break the drought.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/cape-storm-isnt-a-quick-fix-for-drought-warns-city-of-cape-town-20170607|title=Cape storm isn't a quick fix for drought, warns City of Cape Town|work=News24|access-date=2017-06-15}}</ref> Overall rainfall in 2017 was the lowest since 1933.<ref name="csag"/>

[[File:Cape Water map dams.png|thumb|300px|A map of Cape Town's major dams.]]
{| class="wikitable" align= cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em; text-align:center; font-size:95%"
|-
!colspan=6 style="background:#ccccff"| Water levels as a percentage of total dam capacity by year.<ref name="GUwater" />
</tr>
|-
! Major dams !! 22 January 2018<ref name="dashboard">{{cite web|title=City of Cape Town: Water Dashboard|url=http://resource.capetown.gov.za/documentcentre/Documents/City%20research%20reports%20and%20review/damlevels.pdf|publisher=City of Cape Town|date=22 January 2018|accessdate=25 January 2018}}</ref>!! May 2017 !! May 2016 !! May 2015 !! May 2014
|-
| [[Berg River Dam]]|| 55.0|| 32.4|| 27.2|| 54.0|| 90.5
|-
| [[Steenbras Dam|Steenbras Lower]]|| 45.5|| 26.5|| 37.6|| 47.9|| 39.6
|-
| [[Steenbras Dam – Upper|Steenbras Upper]]|| 90.2|| 56.7|| 56.9|| 57.8|| 79.1
|-
| [[Theewaterskloof Dam]] || 14.2|| 15|| 31.3|| 51.3|| 74.5
|-
| [[Voelvlei Dam]]|| 18.6|| 17.2|| 21.3|| 42.5|| 59.5
|-
| [[Wemmershoek Dam]]|| 52.3|| 36|| 48.5|| 50.5|| 58.8
|-
| Total stored (megalitres)|| 244 555|| 190 300|| 279 954|| 450 429 || 646 137
|-
| '''Total % Storage''' || '''27.2'''|| '''21.2'''|| '''31.2'''|| '''50.1'''|| '''71.9'''
|}

With the dry summer season approaching, the city increased its existing water restrictions to Level 5 on 3 September 2017, banning most outdoor and non-essential use of water, encouraging the use of [[greywater]] for toilet flushing, and aiming to limit the per capita water consumption to 87 litres per day, for a total of 500 million litres per day.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/level-5-water-restrictions-implemented-in-cape-town-20170903|title=Level 5 water restrictions implemented in Cape Town|work=News24|access-date=2017-09-04}}</ref>

By early-October 2017, following a low rainfall winter, Cape Town had an estimated five months before water levels would be depleted.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://features.dailymaverick.co.za/cape-of-storms-to-come/|title=Cape Of Storms To Come|last=DIANA NEILLE, MARELISE VAN DER MERWE & LEILA DOUGAN|first=|date=|website=features.dailymaverick.co.za|language=en-US|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2017-11-03}}</ref> In the same month, the [[City of Cape Town]] issued an emergency water plan to be rolled-out in multiple phases depending on the severity of the water shortage. Phase 1 was "water rationing through extreme pressure reduction" which involved temporary water cuts and rationing. Phase 1 was implemented immediately with unannounced water cuts to a number of outlying neighbourhoods. In Phase 2 water will be shut off to most of the system except to places of key water access. Phase 3 is the point at which the city can no longer draw water from surface dams in the Western Cape Water Supply System and there is a limited period of time before the water supply system fails.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2017-10-04-op-ed-the-city-of-cape-towns-critical-water-shortages-disaster-plan/#.WfwyhGiCyUl|title=Op-Ed: The City of Cape Town's Critical Water Shortages Disaster Plan {{!}} Daily Maverick|last=De Lille|first=Patricia|date=4 October 2017|website=www.dailymaverick.co.za|publisher=City of Cape Town|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2017-11-03}}</ref>

In mid-October 2017 the [[City of Cape Town]] was criticised by [[Desalination|water desalination]] companies for the slow pace of contract negotiations, high level of bureaucracy, lack of urgency, and the inadequate scale of the proposed water supply projects.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.iol.co.za/weekend-argus/news/city-of-cape-towns-water-bungle-11575998|title=City of Cape Town's water 'bungle' {{!}} Weekend Argus|last=Morris|first=Michael|date=14 October 2017|work=Weekend Argus|access-date=2017-11-03|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|language=en}}</ref> On 26 October 2017 it was announced that the Cape Town city manager would be given special powers to take drought-related actions that would not have to follow the city's normal decision making and approval process. This announcement came after a review of the city's decision making processes that found "certain aspects of the Preferential Procurement Policy Framework Act, the Municipal Finance Management Act and Supply Chain Management regulations, as well as the council's own Supply Chain Management Policy, failed to adequately provide for the City of Cape Town to 'deal effectively and timeously' with the disaster."<ref name="Polweb">{{Cite web |url=http://www.politicsweb.co.za/news-and-analysis/cape-town-city-manager-given-special-powers-to-dea |title= Cape Town city manager given special powers to deal with water crisis - NEWS & ANALYSIS |last= News24 |date= 26 October 2017 |website= www.politicsweb.co.za |language= en |access-date= 2017-12-01}}</ref>

On 24 January 2018, the Western Cape provincial cabinet stated that it was the responsibility of the national government to fund the expansion of the water system as the "provision of bulk water supply is a national government mandate." The provincial cabinet also announced that it was drawing up plans with the [[South African Police Service]] for a strategy to deploy officers at water distribution points across the city after day zero.<ref name="Jan24">{{Cite web |url=https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/national/2018-01-24-government-must-refund-cape-town-for-cost-of-managing-the-water-crisis/ |title=Government must refund Cape Town for cost of managing the water crisis |date=24 January 2018 |language=en-ZA |access-date=2018-01-26}}</ref>

Level 6 restrictions will start on 1 February, limiting consumption to 50 litres per person per day.

==Day Zero==
In mid-January 2018, Cape Town Mayor [[Patricia de Lille]] announced that the city will be forced to shut off most of the municipal water supply if conditions do not change, naming 22 April 2018 as "Day Zero", and shortly afterwards revising Day Zero forward to 12 April.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://time.com/5103259/cape-town-water-crisis/ |title=Cape Town Is 90 Days Away From Running Out of Water |last=Baker |first=Aryn |date=15 January 2018 |work=Time|access-date=19 January 2018 |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/drought-stricken-cape-town-south-africa-run-water/story?id=52402170 |title=Drought-stricken Cape Town, South Africa, could run out of water by April's 'day zero' |last=Thom |first=Liezl |date=17 January 2018 |work=ABC News |access-date=19 January 2018 |quote=}}</ref> Plans for Day Zero, when municipal water supplies are switched off, include 200 water collection points around the city where residents can collect a daily ration of 25 litres of water per person. Water supply will be maintained in the city's CBD, in informal settlements (where water is already collected from central locations) and essential services such as hospitals.
Day Zero is defined as the day average level of major dams in Cape Town reach 10% of their cumulative design capacity and taps in Cape Town are closed.

== Impact ==
[[File:Western Cape Water Saving 2017.jpg|thumb|Poster issued by the [[Western Cape government]] calling for people to conserve water due to the 2017 water shortage.]]
In response to the water shortage, the agricultural sector reduced water consumption by 50 percent, contributing to the loss of 37,000 jobs in the sector nationally, and leading to an estimated 50,000 being pushed below the poverty line due to job losses and inflation due to increases in the price of food.<ref name=":0" />

==External links==
* [http://resource.capetown.gov.za/documentcentre/Documents/City%20research%20reports%20and%20review/damlevels.pdf City of Cape Town Dam Levels Dashboard]
* [http://coct.co/water-dashboard/ City of Cape Town Day Zero Dashboard]
* [http://www.capetown.gov.za/Family%20and%20home/residential-utility-services/residential-water-and-sanitation-services/this-weeks-dam-levels City of Cape Town This Week's Dam Levels]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Climate of South Africa]]
[[Category:Droughts in Africa]]
[[Category:2018 in South Africa]]
[[Category:2017 in South Africa]]
[[Category:2016 in South Africa]]
[[Category:2015 in South Africa]]
[[Category:2018 in the environment]]
[[Category:2017 in the environment]]
[[Category:2016 in the environment]]
[[Category:2015 in the environment]]
[[Category:2018 droughts]]
[[Category:2017 droughts]]
[[Category:2016 droughts]]
[[Category:2015 droughts]]
[[Category:Climate change in South Africa]]

Grenzkriege

2008-08-17T08:07:23Z

Gregorydavid: Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Insurgents defend a stronghold in the forested Water Kloof during the 8th Xhosa war of 1851. Mostly naked amaXhosa, Kat River Khoi-khoi and some army deserters are depicted.]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 to 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==The first wars, causes and developments==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they could not fully capitalize on their superior firepower. Chasing the highly mobile Xhosa meant the Boers had to leave their own homes and families undefended, so the local militia strategy was severely limited. Professional troops however were not burdened by such considerations. So, when the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers. The balance of power changed and in 1811 British and Boer operations began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the [[Grahamstown|town]] which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the Xhosa were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

After first war ([[1779]]-[[1781]]), the border was established between the [[Great Fish River|Fish]] and Sundays Rivers. After the second war ([[1789]]-[[1793]]), the boundary was moved west to Sundays River. The third war ([[1799]]-[[1803]]) established the Sundays River boundary. The fourth war ([[1811]]-[[1812]]) was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
The first wars of several with the [[Xhosa]] had already been fought by the time that the Cape Colony had been ceded to the [[United Kingdom]]. The Xhosa that crossed the colonial frontier had been expelled from the district between the [[Sundays River]] and [[Fish River, Eastern Cape|Great Fish River]] known as the [[Zuurveld]], which became a neutral ground of sorts. For some time before 1811, the Xhosa had taken possession of the neutral ground and attacked the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, [[John Graham (Albany)|Colonel John Graham]] took the area with a mixed-race army in December 1811, and finally the Xhosa were driven beyond the Fish River. On the site of Colonel Graham’s headquarters arose a town bearing his name: Graham's Town, subsequently becoming [[Grahamstown]].

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the Xhosa arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened. The Xhosa prophet-chief [[Maqana Nxele]] (or Makana) emerged at this time and promised “to turn bullets into water.” He led the Xhosa armies in several attacks. On [[22 April]] [[1819]], Maqana with 10,000 amaXhosa attacked Graham’s Town, then held by a garrison of 350 troops. The garrison was able to repulse the attack only after timely support was received from a Khoi-khoi group led by Jan Boesak. Maqana suffered the loss of 1,000 soldiers.

Maqana was eventually captured and imprisoned on [[Robben Island]]. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River. The land between the Fish and the [[Keiskamma River|Keiskamma]] rivers became a neutral buffer zone, which the British tried to populate with loyal Africans. The Albany district was established in 1820 and populated with some [[1820 Settlers|5,000 Britons]]. The Grahamstown battle site is still known as Egazini, or Place of Blood, and a monument was erected here for fallen amaXhosa soldiers.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
[[Image:Eastern Frontier, Cape of Good Hope, ca 1835.png|thumb|right|250px|The Eastern Frontier, ca 1835]]
On the eastern border, further trouble arose between the government and the [[Xhosa]], towards whom the policy of the Cape government was marked by much vacillation. On [[11 December]] [[1834]], a government commando party killed a chief of high rank, incensing the Xhosa: an army of 10,000 men, led by [[Macomo]], a brother of the chief who had been killed, swept across the frontier, pillaged and burned the homesteads and killed all who resisted. Among the worst sufferers was a colony of freed Khoikhoi who, in 1829, had been settled in the [[Kat River]] valley by the British authorities. Inhabitants of the farms and villages took to the safety of Graham's Town, where women and children found refuge in the church.

There were few available soldiers in the colony, but the governor, [[Benjamin d'Urban|Sir Benjamin d'Urban]] acted quickly and all available forces were mustered under [[Harry Smith (army)|Colonel Sir Harry Smith]], who reached Graham’s Town on [[6 January]] [[1835]], six days after news of the uprising had reached Cape Town. Retaliatory attacks against the amaXhosa were launched from the town, and hostilities continued for nine months until [[17 September]] 1836 with the signing of a new peace treaty. All the country as far as the [[River Kei]] was acknowledged to be British, and its inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for the seat of government was selected and named [[King William’s Town]].

The conflict was the catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5,700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people. In retaliation sixty thousand amaXhosa cattle were taken or retaken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]].

By the end of the war 7,000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of instigating the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]].

The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting. In 1847 the Keiskamma to upper Kei region was once again annexed as the [[British Kaffraria]] Colony with [[King William's Town]] as capital.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
Also known as Mlanjeni's War. Prophet Mlanjeni predicted that the amaXhosa would be unaffected by the colonists' bullets. The amaXhosa invaded the colony after an attempt to arrest the Ngqika chief Sandile. A Khoi-khoi farmer of the Kat River settlement, Hermanus Matroos, was then issued with rifles and ammunition by the Fort Beaufort armoury. Matroos was privy to the plans of the amaXhosa and defected to them just as the war started.

Some of Matroos's subjects were coerced to join the rebellion, while others who were unarmed and open to amaXhosa attacks had little option than to follow him. Soon after Matroos and his supporters attacked the town of [[Fort Beaufort]]. The town was prepared and successfully defended itself, killing Matroos in the process. The rebellion however soon spread westwards as small land tenants of the missions and farm labourers, some armed with farmers' ammunition, looted stock and formed a rebel camp in the Blinkwater area.<ref>{{cite web
| last =Abbink
| first =J
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Mirjam de Bruijn, Klaas van Walraven
| title =Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History
| work =
| publisher =LULE
| date =2008
| url =http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=DJ54bFqJtV8C&dq
| accessdate =2008-01-01}}</ref>
After Matroos's death Willem Uithaalder became commander of the Khoi-khoi rebels, and retreated to strongholds in the Amatolas.

Insurgents led by Maqoma established themselves in the forested Water Kloof. From this base they managed to plunder surrounding farms and torch the homesteads. Maqoma's stronghold was situated on Mount Misery, a natural fortress on a narrow neck wedged between the Water Kloof and Harry's Kloof. The Water Kloof conflicts lasted two years. Maqoma also led an attack on Fort Fordyce and inflicted heavy losses on the forces of Sir [[Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet|Harry Smith]].

In 1852, [[HMS Birkenhead (1845)|HMS Birkenhead]] was wrecked at [[Gansbaai]] while bringing reinforcements to the war at the request of [[Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet|Sir Harry Smith]]. Of the 450 people who perished in the incident, most of these were soldiers of the [[73rd Regiment of Foot]].
* [http://www.ioltravel.co.za/article/view/3851608 Prophet Mlanjeni apparently started this war]
* [[Thomas Baines]] became South Africa’s first official war artist and recorded the Eighth Frontier War (1850-1853).

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==Cattle Killings, 1856-1858==
In April 1856 the sixteen-year-old [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] [[prophet]]ess [[Nongqawuse]] believed she had received a message from her ancestors that promised deliverance from their hardships if they destroyed their cattle. The return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] was predicted to occur on 18 February, 1857. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], mainly chief Kreli of the Gcalekas, heeded the demand and enforced it on others, only to be disappointed on the destined day. The cattle killings continued into 1858, leading to the starvation of thousands.[http://africanhistory.about.com/od/glossaryc/g/def_CattleKill.htm]

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.

The last war was a feeble attempt by the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] returning from diamond fields to regain control of their land. All [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] territory then became part of the Cape Colony<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
| title =Xhosa Wars
| encyclopedia = Reader's Digest Family Encyclopedia of World History
| publisher = The Reader's Digest Assoiation
| date = 1996
| accessdate = 2007-08-02 }}</ref>.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}
* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxele, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

==See also==
{|
|- valign=top
|
*[[Albany, South Africa]]
*[[Hintsa ka Khawuta]]
*[[History of Cape Colony from 1806 to 1870]]
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
|
*[[Kaffraria]], and [[British Kaffraria]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]
|}

[[Category:18th century conflicts]]
[[Category:19th century conflicts]]
[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[no:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2008-08-17T08:05:40Z

Gregorydavid: link Harry Smith

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Insurgents defend a stronghold in the forested Water Kloof during the 8th Xhosa war of 1851. Mostly naked amaXhosa, Kat River Khoi-khoi and some army deserters are depicted.]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 to 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==The first wars, causes and developments==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they could not fully capitalize on their superior firepower. Chasing the highly mobile Xhosa meant the Boers had to leave their own homes and families undefended, so the local militia strategy was severely limited. Professional troops however were not burdened by such considerations. So, when the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers. The balance of power changed and in 1811 British and Boer operations began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the [[Grahamstown|town]] which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the Xhosa were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

After first war ([[1779]]-[[1781]]), the border was established between the [[Great Fish River|Fish]] and Sundays Rivers. After the second war ([[1789]]-[[1793]]), the boundary was moved west to Sundays River. The third war ([[1799]]-[[1803]]) established the Sundays River boundary. The fourth war ([[1811]]-[[1812]]) was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
The first wars of several with the [[Xhosa]] had already been fought by the time that the Cape Colony had been ceded to the [[United Kingdom]]. The Xhosa that crossed the colonial frontier had been expelled from the district between the [[Sundays River]] and [[Fish River, Eastern Cape|Great Fish River]] known as the [[Zuurveld]], which became a neutral ground of sorts. For some time before 1811, the Xhosa had taken possession of the neutral ground and attacked the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, [[John Graham (Albany)|Colonel John Graham]] took the area with a mixed-race army in December 1811, and finally the Xhosa were driven beyond the Fish River. On the site of Colonel Graham’s headquarters arose a town bearing his name: Graham's Town, subsequently becoming [[Grahamstown]].

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the Xhosa arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened. The Xhosa prophet-chief [[Maqana Nxele]] (or Makana) emerged at this time and promised “to turn bullets into water.” He led the Xhosa armies in several attacks. On [[22 April]] [[1819]], Maqana with 10,000 amaXhosa attacked Graham’s Town, then held by a garrison of 350 troops. The garrison was able to repulse the attack only after timely support was received from a Khoi-khoi group led by Jan Boesak. Maqana suffered the loss of 1,000 soldiers.

Maqana was eventually captured and imprisoned on [[Robben Island]]. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River. The land between the Fish and the [[Keiskamma River|Keiskamma]] rivers became a neutral buffer zone, which the British tried to populate with loyal Africans. The Albany district was established in 1820 and populated with some [[1820 Settlers|5,000 Britons]]. The Grahamstown battle site is still known as Egazini, or Place of Blood, and a monument was erected here for fallen amaXhosa soldiers.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
[[Image:Eastern Frontier, Cape of Good Hope, ca 1835.png|thumb|right|250px|The Eastern Frontier, ca 1835]]
On the eastern border, further trouble arose between the government and the [[Xhosa]], towards whom the policy of the Cape government was marked by much vacillation. On [[11 December]] [[1834]], a government commando party killed a chief of high rank, incensing the Xhosa: an army of 10,000 men, led by [[Macomo]], a brother of the chief who had been killed, swept across the frontier, pillaged and burned the homesteads and killed all who resisted. Among the worst sufferers was a colony of freed Khoikhoi who, in 1829, had been settled in the [[Kat River]] valley by the British authorities. Inhabitants of the farms and villages took to the safety of Graham's Town, where women and children found refuge in the church.

There were few available soldiers in the colony, but the governor, [[Benjamin d'Urban|Sir Benjamin d'Urban]] acted quickly and all available forces were mustered under [[Harry Smith (army)|Colonel Sir Harry Smith]], who reached Graham’s Town on [[6 January]] [[1835]], six days after news of the uprising had reached Cape Town. Retaliatory attacks against the amaXhosa were launched from the town, and hostilities continued for nine months until [[17 September]] 1836 with the signing of a new peace treaty. All the country as far as the [[River Kei]] was acknowledged to be British, and its inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for the seat of government was selected and named [[King William’s Town]].

The conflict was the catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5,700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people. In retaliation sixty thousand amaXhosa cattle were taken or retaken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]].

By the end of the war 7,000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of instigating the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]].

The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting. In 1847 the Keiskamma to upper Kei region was once again annexed as the [[British Kaffraria]] Colony with [[King William's Town]] as capital.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
Also known as Mlanjeni's War. Prophet Mlanjeni predicted that the amaXhosa would be unaffected by the colonists' bullets. The amaXhosa invaded the colony after an attempt to arrest the Ngqika chief Sandile. A Khoi-khoi farmer of the Kat River settlement, Hermanus Matroos, was then issued with rifles and ammunition by the Fort Beaufort armoury. Matroos was privy to the plans of the amaXhosa and defected to them just as the war started.

Some of Matroos's subjects were coerced to join the rebellion, while others who were unarmed and open to amaXhosa attacks had little option than to follow him. Soon after Matroos and his supporters attacked the town of [[Fort Beaufort]]. The town was prepared and successfully defended itself, killing Matroos in the process. The rebellion however soon spread westwards as small land tenants of the missions and farm labourers, some armed with farmers' ammunition, looted stock and formed a rebel camp in the Blinkwater area.<ref>{{cite web
| last =Abbink
| first =J
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Mirjam de Bruijn, Klaas van Walraven
| title =Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History
| work =
| publisher =LULE
| date =2008
| url =http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=DJ54bFqJtV8C&dq
| accessdate =2008-01-01}}</ref>
After Matroos's death Willem Uithaalder became commander of the Khoi-khoi rebels, and retreated to strongholds in the Amatolas.

Insurgents led by Maqoma established themselves in the forested Water Kloof. From this base they managed to plunder surrounding farms and torch the homesteads. Maqoma's stronghold was situated on Mount Misery, a natural fortress on a narrow neck wedged between the Water Kloof and Harry's Kloof. The Water Kloof conflicts lasted two years. Maqoma also led an attack on Fort Fordyce and inflicted heavy losses on the forces of Sir [[Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet|Harry Smith]].

In 1852, [[HMS Birkenhead (1845)|HMS Birkenhead]] was wrecked at [[Gansbaai]] while bringing reinforcements to the war at the request of [[Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet|Sir Harry Smith]]. Of the 450 people who perished in the incident, most of these were soldiers of the [[73rd Regiment of Foot]].
* [http://www.ioltravel.co.za/article/view/3851608 Prophet Mlanjeni apparently started this war]
* [[Thomas Baines]] became South Africa’s first official war artist and recorded the Eighth Frontier War (1850-1853).

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==Cattle Killings, 1856-1858==
In April 1856 the sixteen-year-old [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] [[prophet]]ess [[Nongqawuse]] believed she had received a message from her ancestors that promised deliverance from their hardships if they destroyed their cattle. The return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] was predicted to occur on 18 February, 1857. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], mainly chief Kreli of the Gcalekas, heeded the demand and enforced it on others, only to be disappointed on the destined day. The cattle killings continued into 1858, leading to the starvation of thousands.[http://africanhistory.about.com/od/glossaryc/g/def_CattleKill.htm]

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.

The last war was a feeble attempt by the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] returning from diamond fields to regain control of their land. All [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] territory then became part of the Cape Colony<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
| title =Xhosa Wars
| encyclopedia = Reader's Digest Family Encyclopedia of World History
| publisher = The Reader's Digest Assoiation
| date = 1996
| accessdate = 2007-08-02 }}</ref>.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}
* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxele, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

==See also==
{|
|- valign=top
|
*[[Albany, South Africa]]
*[[Hintsa ka Khawuta]]
*[[History of Cape Colony from 1806 to 1870]]
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
|
*[[Kaffraria]], and [[British Kaffraria]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]
|}

[[Category:18th century conflicts]]
[[Category:19th century conflicts]]
[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[no:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Schwarze

2008-06-18T18:04:18Z

Gregorydavid: also Chinese now categorised as black in South Africa

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{redirect|Black man|the novel|Black Man}}
{{race}}
'''''Black people''''' is a term which is usually used to define a [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial group]] of [[Human|human beings]] with dark [[skin color]] but the term has also been used to categorise a number of diverse populations into one common group. Some definitions of the term include only people of relatively recent [[Sub Saharan Africa]]n descent (see [[African diaspora]]), while others extend the term to any of the populations characterized by dark skin color, a definition that also includes certain populations in [[Oceania]] and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>Various isolated populations in Southeast Asia sometimes classified as black include the [[Austronesian]]s and [[Papuan]]s, the [[Andamanese]] islanders, the [[Semang]] people of the [[Malay peninsula]], the [[Aeta]] people of [[Luzon]], and some other small populations of indigenous peoples. </ref><ref>black. (n.d.). ''Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1)''. Retrieved [[April 13]], [[2007]], from [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/black Dictionary.com website]</ref>

==The human race==
{{offtopic}}
[[Image:Kenyan man 2.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Maasai]] man in [[Kenya]]]]
{{main|Human|Race and genetics}}
In the early twentieth century many scientists held the view that biologically distinct races existed. The races corresponded to the major continental regions of [[Africa]], [[Europe]], [[Asia]] and [[the Americas]]. These races were distinguished from each other based on a few visible traits such as skin color and hair texture. Black people were largely defined by their dark skin and sometimes curly hair. The belief at that time was that not only did the races differ in appearance but in behavior, intellect and origins. Some scientists such as [[Carleton S. Coon]] believed the different races to have evolved separately over millions of years and that racial differences were thus extremely significant.

Today most scholars have abandoned these views and see race as a social construct with no biological basis. Breakthroughs in genetics and the mapping of the [[human genome]] in the late twentieth century have helped dispel many of the earlier myths about race. At least 99.9% of any one person's [[DNA]] is exactly the same as any other person's, regardless of ethnicity.<ref>{{cite journal|last = Ho|first = Mae-Wan |authorlink = Mae-Wan Ho|title = The Human Genome Map: the Death of Genetic Determinism and Beyond |journal = Synthesis/Regeneration |volume=25 |date= Summer [[2001]]|url=http://www.greens.org/s-r/25/25-19.html|publisher = Gateway Green Alliance}}</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=June 2008}} Of the 0.1% variation, there is an 8% variation between ethnic groups within a race, such as between the [[French people|French]] and the [[Dutch people|Dutch]]. On average, only 7% of all human genetic variation lies between major human races such as those of Africa, Asia, Europe, and [[Oceania]]. 85% of all genetic variation lies within any local group. The proportion of genetic variation within continental groups (~93%) is therefore far greater than that between the various continental groups (~7%).<ref>{{cite journal|last = Pearce|first = Neil|coauthors = et al|title = Genetics, race, ethnicity, and health|journal = British Medical Journal|volume = 328|pages = 1070–1072|date= [[1 May]] [[2004]]| url =http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/328/7447/1070?etoc | doi = 10.1136/bmj.328.7447.1070 |publisher = BMJ Publishing Group Ltd|pmid = 15117796}}</ref> Or to put it another way, "any two individuals within a particular population are about as different genetically as any two people selected from any two populations in the world"<ref>''Genetic Similarities Within and Between Human Populations'' (2007) by D. J. Witherspoon, S. Wooding, A. R. Rogers, E. E. Marchani, W. S. Watkins, M. A. Batzer, and L. B. Jorde*. ''Genetics'' '''176'''(1): 351–359. {{doi|10.1534/genetics.106.067355}}. Retrieved [[18 August]] [[2007]].</ref>

Because of these facts, there is general agreement among biologists that human racial differences are too small to qualify races as separate [[sub-species]]. However there is still much controversy regarding the significance of these small differences. For example, some scholars argue that even though there is more variation within populations than between them, the small between-population variation may have implications in medical science.<ref>{{cite news| last = Wade| first = Nicholas| title = Race Is Seen as Real Guide to Track Roots of Disease| publisher = New York Times| date= [[July 30]], [[2002]]| url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9C01E0DC1038F933A05754C0A9649C8B63}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Lewontin| first = R.C.| authorlink =Richard Lewontin| title = Confusions About Human Races| url=http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Lewontin/}}</ref>

===Single origin hypothesis===
{{See also|Recent single origin hypothesis}}
Based from genetic evidence, contemporary [[world population]] is assumed to be descended from a relatively small population of ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' living in Africa some 70,000 years ago—in [[population bottleneck]] scenarios, this group may have been as small as 2,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite news | last =Whitehouse | first =David | author-link=David Whitehouse| title = When humans faced extinction| publisher = BBC| date= [[9 June]] [[2003]]| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2975862.stm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Brush with extinction| publisher =ABC News Online| url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/indepth/featureitems/s876996.htm}}</ref> The differences in physical appearance between the various peoples of the world is as a result of adaptations to the different environments encountered by various populations subsequent to this split.

The African population exhibits a great degree of physical variation. Even though most sub-Saharan Africans share a skin color that is dark relative to many other peoples of the world, they do differ significantly in physical appearance. Examples include the [[Dinka]], some of the tallest people in the world and the [[Mbuti]], the shortest people in the world. Others such as the [[Khoisan]] people have an [[epicanthal fold]] similar to the peoples of Central Asia. A recent study found that Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest skin color diversity within population.<ref>
{{cite journal| last = Relethford| first = J.H.| title = Human Skin Color Diversity Is Highest in Sub-Saharan African Population| journal = Human Biology| volume = 72| pages = 773–80|url =http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11126724| date = October 2000}}</ref>

==Dark skin==
{{further|[[Human skin color]] }}
[[Image:Albino boy tanzania.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A black woman and her [[albinistic]] son from [[Tanzania]] ]]

The evolution of dark skin is tied with the question of loss of body hair.
By 1.2 million years ago, all people having descendants today had exactly the receptor protein of today's Africans; their skin was dark, and the intense sun killed off the progeny with any lighter skin that resulted from mutational variation in the receptor protein.<ref>Rogers, Alan R., David Iltis, and Stephen Wooding. 2004. "Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair." Current Anthropology 45 (1): 105-108.</ref> This is significantly earlier than the [[speciation]] of ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' from ''[[Homo erectus]]'' some 250,000 years ago.

Dark skin helps protect against [[skin cancer]] that develops as a result of [[ultraviolet|ultraviolet light]] radiation, causing mutations in the skin. Furthermore, dark skin prevents an essential B vitamin, [[folate]], from being destroyed. Therefore, in the absence of modern medicine and diet, a person with dark skin in the tropics would live longer, be more healthy and more likely to reproduce than a person with light skin. White Australians have some of the highest rates of skin cancer as evidence of this expectation.<ref>{{cite web| title = Australia Struggles with Skin Cancer| url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Australia_Struggles_with_Skin_Cancer.asp}}</ref> Conversely, as dark skin prevents sunlight from penetrating the skin it hinders the production of [[vitamin D|vitamin D3]]. Hence when humans migrated to less sun-intensive regions in the north, low [[vitamin D|vitamin D3]] levels became a problem and lighter skin colors started appearing. The people of Europe, who have low levels of [[melanin]], naturally have an almost colorless skin pigmentation, especially when untanned. This low level of pigmentation allows the blood vessels to become visible and gives the characteristic pale pink color of white people. The difference in skin color between black and whites is however a minor genetic difference accounting for just one letter in 3.1 billion letters of DNA.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/15/AR2005121501728_pf.html "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin"]. ''[[Washington Post]]''.</ref>

==In Sub-Saharan Africa==
{{see|Demographics of Africa}}
[[Image:Sub-Saharan-Africa.png|right|thumb|Sub-Saharan Africa is colored green, while North Africa is gray.]]
[[Sub-Saharan Africa]] is the term used to describe African countries located south of the [[Sahara]]. It is used as a cultural and ecological distinction from [[North Africa]]. Because the indigenous people of this region are primarily dark skinned it is sometimes used as a [[politically correct]] term or [[euphemism]] for "Black Africa".<ref>{{cite journal| first = Lansana | last = Keita| title = Race, Identity and Africanity: A Reply to Eboussi Boulaga| journal = CODESRIA Bulletin, Nos | volume = 1 & 2| pages = 16| date= 2004| publisher = Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa}}</ref> Some criticize the use of the term in defining the part of Africa inhabited by black people because the Sahara cuts across countries such as [[Mauritania]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]], and [[Sudan]], leaving some parts of them in North Africa and some in Sub-Saharan Africa.

[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] argues that the term sub-Saharan Africa has racist overtones:

{{quote|Sub-Saharan Africa is a racist byword for "primitive", a place which has escaped advancement. Hence, we see statements like “no written languages exist in Sub-Saharan Africa.” “Ancient Egypt was not a Sub-Saharan African civilization.” Sub-Sahara serves as an exclusion, which moves, jumps and slides around to suit negative generalization of Africa.<ref name=Shahadah/>}}

However, some black Africans prefer to be culturally distinguished from those who live in the north of the continent.<ref>{{cite book| last = Keith B. | first = Richburg| title = Out of America: A Black Man Confronts Africa| publisher = Harvest/HBJ Book| date = Reprint edition ([[July 1]], [[1998]])| isbn = 0156005832 }}</ref>

===South Africa===
[[Image:Coloured-family.jpg|thumb|left|Extended [[Coloured]] family with roots in [[Cape Town]], [[Kimberley]] and [[Pretoria]].]]

In [[South Africa]] during the [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|apartheid era]], the population was classified into four groups: ''Black'', ''White'', ''[[Asia]]n'' (mostly [[India]]n), and ''[[Coloured]]''.  The Coloured group included people of mixed [[Bantu]], [[Khoisan]], and [[European ethnic groups|European]] descent (with some [[Cape Malays|Malay]] ancestry, especially in the [[Western Cape]]). The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa.

The [[apartheid]] bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the [[Population Registration Act]] to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether a person was to be considered Colored or Black, the "pencil test" was employed. This involved inserting a pencil in a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough for the pencil to get stuck.<ref>{{cite news | last = Nullis| first = Clare | title = Township tourism booming in South Africa| publisher = The Associated Press| date= 2007| url = http://www.canada.com/topics/travel/features/story.html?id=59ec6285-c9fb-41ab-93f9-419f62733f07&k=67896}}</ref>

During the apartheid era, the Coloureds were oppressed and discriminated against. However, they did have limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than Blacks. In the post-apartheid era the government's policies of [[affirmative action]] have favored Blacks over Coloureds. Some South Africans categorized as Black openly state that Coloureds did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. The popular saying by Coloured South Africans to illustrate this dilemma is:

{{quote|Not white enough under apartheid and not black enough under the ANC ([[African National Congress]])}}

Other than by appearance, Coloureds can be distinguished from Blacks by language. Most speak [[Afrikaans]] or English as a [[first language]], as opposed to [[Bantu languages]] such as [[Zulu language|Zulu]] or [[Xhosa]]. They also tend to have more European-sounding names than Bantu names.<ref>{{cite news | last = du Preez| first = Max| title = Coloureds - the most authentic SA citizens| publisher = The Star|date=April 13, 2006| url = http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857}}</ref>

==In the Middle East==
{{See also|Afro-Arab}}
Black African and [[Near East]]ern peoples have interacted since prehistoric times.<ref>[http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=70522 Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6510675.stm Remembering East African slave raids]</ref> Some historians estimate that as many as 14 million black slaves crossed the [[Red Sea]], [[Indian Ocean]], and [[Sahara Desert]] from 650 to 1900 CE.<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-85410331.html The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is – and it's not over]</ref>

The [[Afro-Asiatic languages]], which include [[Semitic languages]] such as [[Arabic]] and [[Hebrew]], are believed by some scholars to have originated in [[Ethiopia]].<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0011-3204%28199802%2939%3A1%3C139%3ATALPAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian?] Daniel F. Mc Call. (JSTOR)</ref> This is because the region has very diverse language groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin.

In more recent times, about 1000 CE, interactions between blacks and Arabs resulted in the incorporation of several Arabic words into [[Swahili]], which became a useful ''[[lingua franca]]'' for merchants. Some of this because of the slave trade; the history of [[Islam and slavery]] shows that the [[Madh'hab|major juristic schools]] traditionally accepted the institution of [[slavery]].<ref name="Lewis">Lewis 1994, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html Ch.1]</ref> As a result, Arab influence spread along the east coast of Africa and to some extent into the interior (see [[East Africa]]). [[Timbuktu]] was a trading outpost that linked [[west Africa]] with [[Berber people|Berber]], Arab, and Jewish traders throughout the [[Arab World]]. As a result of these interactions many Arab people in the [[Middle East]] have black ancestry and many blacks on the east coast of Africa and along the Sahara have Arab ancestry.<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1180338 Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations]</ref>

According to Dr. Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazil's [[Universidade do Estado da Bahia]], Afro-multiracials in the Arab world self-identify in ways that resemble [[Latin America]]. He claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking [[Latin Americans]], consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry.<ref>{{cite web| last = Musselman| first = Anson | title = The Subtle Racism of Latin America| publisher = UCLA International Institute| url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125}}</ref>

Moore also claims that a film about [[Egyptian President]] [[Anwar Sadat]] had to be canceled when Sadat discovered that an [[African-American]] had been cast to play him. In fact, the 1983 television movie ''Sadat'', starring [[Louis Gossett, Jr.]], was not canceled. The [[government of Egypt|Egyptian government]] refused to let the drama air in Egypt, partially on the grounds of the casting of Gossett.<ref>[http://www.hollywood.com/celebrity/Louis_Gossett_Jr/192411 Louis Gosset Jr.] Hollywood.com</ref> The objections, however, did not come from Sadat, who had been assassinated two years earlier.

Sadat's mother was a black [[Sudan]]ese woman and his father was a lighter-skinned [[Egyptians|Egyptian]]. In response to an advertisement for an acting position he remarked, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=PoW4pO4q9VwC&printsec=frontcover#PPP1,M1 Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone] pages 5-7,31 ISBN 0714634875</ref>

[[Fathia Nkrumah]] was another Egyptian intimately tied with black Africa. She was the late wife of [[Ghana]]ian revolutionary [[Kwame Nkrumah]], whose marriage was seen as helping plant the seeds of cooperation between Egypt and other African countries as they struggled for independence from European colonization, which in turn helped advance the formation of the [[African Union]].<ref>[http://ausummit-accra.org.gh/index1.php?linkid=289&adate=04%2F07%2F2007&archiveid=140&page=1 African Union Summit]</ref>

In general, Arab had a more positive view of black women than black men, even if the women were of slave origin. More black women were enslaved than men, and, because the [[Qur'an]] was interpreted to permit [[Ma malakat aymanukum and sex|sexual relations between a male master and his female slave]] outside of marriage,<ref>See [[Tahfeem ul Qur'an]] by [[Maududi|Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]], Vol. 2 pp. 112-113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses {{Quran-usc-range|23|1|6}}: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications</ref><ref>[[Tafsir ibn Kathir]] 4:24</ref> many [[mixed race]] children resulted. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab captor's child, she became “umm walad” or “mother of a child”, a status that granted her privileged rights. The child would have prospered from the wealth of the father and been given rights of inheritance.<ref name="Arab Slave Trade">{{cite web|url=http://www.arabslavetrade.com|publisher="[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]]"|title="Slavery in Arabia"|}}</ref> Because of [[patrilineality]], the children were born free and sometimes even became successors to their ruling fathers, as was the case with Sultan [[Ahmad al-Mansur]], (whose mother was a [[Fulani]] concubine), who ruled [[Morocco]] from 1578-1608. Such tolerance, however, was not extended to wholly black persons, even when technically "free," and the notion that to be black meant to be a slave became a common belief.<ref>{{cite web| last = Hunwick| first = John| title = Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery| url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Hunwick.pdf}}</ref> The term "[[Abd (Arabic)|abd]]," ({{lang-ar
|عبد}},) "slave," remains a common term for black people in the Middle East, often though not always derogatory.<ref>{{cite news|| first = Theola
| last = Labbé
| coauthors = Omar Fekeiki
| title = A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight
| work = Washington Post
| url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A6645-2004Jan10
| date = 2004-1-11
| accessdate = 2008-01-29
}}</ref>

==In the Americas==
Approximately 12 million Africans were shipped to [[the Americas]] during the [[Atlantic slave trade]] from 1492 to 1888. Today their descendants number approximately 150 million.<ref>[http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/galci/Archive.htm "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 ], ''Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative'', [[February 4]], [[2006]]</ref> Many have a multiracial background of African, Amerindian, European and Asian ancestry. The various regions developed complex social conventions with which their multi-ethnic populations were classified.

===United States===
[[Image:Malcolmxmartinlutherking.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] (left) and [[Malcolm X]] (right) at the [[United States Capitol|U. S. Capitol]] on [[March 26]], [[1964]].]]
{{main|African American}}
{{see also|African Immigration to the United States}}

In the first 200 years that blacks had been in the [[United States]], they commonly referred to themselves as Africans. In Africa, people primarily identified themselves by tribe or ethnic group (closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals would be [[Asante]], [[Yoruba]], [[Kikongo]] or [[Wolof]]. But when Africans were brought to [[the Americas]] they were forced to give up their tribal affiliations for fear of uprisings. The result was the Africans had to intermingle with other Africans from different tribal groups. This is significant as Africans came from a vast geographic region, the [[West Africa]]n coastline stretching from [[Senegal]] to [[Angola]] and in some cases from the south east coast such as [[Mozambique]]. A new identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various tribal groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the [[Black church]] and [[AAVE|Black English]]. This new identity was now based on skin color and African ancestry rather than any one tribal group.<ref name=Shahadah>{{cite web| last = Shahadah| first = Owen 'Alik| authorlink =Owen 'Alik Shahadah| title =Linguistics for a new African reality| url=http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm}}</ref>

In March of 1807, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared [[Abolition of the Slave Trade Act|the trans-atlantic slave trade illegal]], as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect [[January 1]], [[1808]], the earliest date on which [[United States Congress|Congress]] had the power to do so under [[wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Section 9|Article I, Section 9]] of the [[United States Constitution]].)

By that time, the majority of blacks were U.S.-born, so use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared its continued use would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the US. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating blacks back to Africa. In 1835 black leaders called upon black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "[[Negro]]" or "Colored American". A few institutions however elected to keep their historical names such as [[African Methodist Episcopal Church]]. "Negro" and "colored" remained the popular terms until the late 1960s.<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1594200831/ African American Journeys to Africa page63-64]</ref>

The term ''black'' was used throughout but not frequently as it carried a certain stigma.
In his 1963 "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech,<ref>{{cite video|url=http://video.google.com/url?docid=1732754907698549493&esrc=sr1&ev=v&q=I+Have+a+Dream&vidurl=http://video.google.com/videoplay%3Fdocid%3D1732754907698549493%26q%3DI%2BHave%2Ba%2BDream&usg=AL29H20jaXzESJi0-5ByuawvRj8e-fNr-w| people = Martin Luther King, Jr.| title = I Have a Dream| medium = Google Video| location = Washington, D.C.|date=August 28, 1963 }}</ref> [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] uses the terms ''Negro'' 15 times and ''black'' 4 times. Each time he uses ''black'' it is in parallel construction with ''white'' (e.g., black men and white men).<ref>{{cite journal| last = Tom W.| first = Smith| title = Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"| journal = The Public Opinion Quarterly| volume = 56| pages = 496–514| url=http://www.soc.iastate.edu/soc522a/PDF%20readings/Smith.pdf|date = Winter, 1992| publisher = Oxford University Press.| doi = 10.1086/269339}}</ref> With the successes of the [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement]] a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of ''Negro'', ''black'' was promoted as standing for racial pride, militancy and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "[[Black Power]]" by Kwame Toure ([[Stokely Carmichael]]) and the release of James Brown's song "[[Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud]]".

In 1988 [[Jesse Jackson]] urged Americans to use the term [[African American]] because the term has a historical cultural base. Since then African American and black have essentially a coequal status. There is still much controversy over which term is more appropriate. Some strongly reject the term African American in preference for black citing that they have little connection with Africa. Others believe the term black is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones.<ref>{{cite news| last = McWhorter| first = John H.| title = Why I'm Black, Not African American| publisher = Los Angeles Times|date=September 8, 2004| url = http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_latimes-why_im_black.htm}}</ref> Surveys show that when interacting with each other African Americans prefer the term black, as it is associated with intimacy and familiarity. The term "African American" is preferred for public and formal use.<ref>{{cite book| last = Miller| first = Pepper| coauthors = Herb Kemp| title = What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market| publisher = Paramount Market Publishing, Inc| date= 2006| isbn = 0972529098}}</ref> The appropriateness of this term is further confused, however, by increases in black immigrants from [[African immigration to the United States|Africa]] the Caribbean and Latin America. The more recent immigrants, may sometimes view themselves, and be viewed, as culturally distinct from native descendants of African slaves.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DB1F3EF93AA1575BC0A9629C8B63 "'African American' Becomes a Term for Debate"], New York Times, [[August 29]], [[2004]].</ref>

The [[Race (United States Census)|U.S. census race definitions]] says a black is a person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro," or who provide written entries such as African American, Afro American, [[Kenyan]], [[Nigerian]], or [[Haitian]]. However, the [[Census Bureau]] notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.<ref>[http://www.census.gov/mso/www/c2000basics/00Basics.pdf 2000 US Census basics]</ref>

A considerable portion of the [[U.S. population]] identified as ''black'' actually have some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] or [[European American]] ancestry. For instance, genetic studies of African American people show an ancestry that is on average 17-18% European.<ref>[http://www.isteve.com/2002_How_White_Are_Blacks.htm How White Are Blacks? How Black Are Whites? by Steve Sailer]</ref>

====One drop rule====
Historically the United States used a [[colloquial]] term, the ''[[one drop rule]]'', to designate a black as any person with any known African ancestry.<ref name=Davis>{{cite web| last = James| first = F. Davis| title = Who is Black? One Nation's Definition| url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html| publisher = [[PBS]]}}</ref> The one drop rule was virtually unique to the United States and was applied almost exclusively to blacks. Outside of the US, definitions of who is black vary from country to country but generally, multiracial people are not required by society to identify themselves as black (cf. [[mulatto]] and related terms). The most significant consequence of the one drop rule was that many African Americans who had significant European ancestry, whose appearance was very European, would identify themselves as black.

The one drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves<ref>[[Clarence Page]], [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/essays/page_5-1.html A Credit to His Races], ''[[The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer]]'', [[May 1]], [[1997]].</ref> and been maintained as an attempt to keep the white race pure,<ref>[http://backintyme.com/essays/?p=25 "Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule" ] by Frank Sweet</ref> but one of its [[unintended consequence]]s was uniting the African American community and preserving an African identity.<ref name=Davis/> Some of the most prominent civil rights activists were multiracial but yet stood up for equality for all. It is said that [[W.E.B. Du Bois]] could have easily passed for white yet he became the preeminent scholar in Afro-American studies.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nakao| first = Annie| title = Play explores corrosive prejudice within black community| publisher = San Francisco Chronicle| date=January 28 2004| url =http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/chronicle/archive/2004/01/28/DDGL74I9TF1.DTL}}</ref> He chose to spend his final years in Africa and immigrated to [[Ghana]] where he died aged 95. [[Booker T. Washington]] had a white father,<ref>{{cite web| title = Mixed Historical Figures| url=http://www.mixedfolks.com/historical.htm}}</ref> and [[Malcolm X]] and [[Louis Farrakhan]] both had at least one white grandparent. That said, [[colorism]], or intraracial discrimination based on skin tone, does affect the black community. It is a sensitive issue or a taboo subject. Open discussions are often labeled as "airing dirty laundry".<ref>{{cite web| last = Crawford| first = Larry D.| title = Racism, Colorism and Power| url=http://www.nbufront.org/html/FRONTalView/ArticlesPapers/Crawford_RacismColorismPower.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| first = Trina | last = Jones| title =Shades of Brown: The Law of Skin Color| journal = Duke Law Journal| volume = 49 | pages = 1487|url=http://www.law.duke.edu/shell/cite.pl?49+Duke+L.+J.+1487| date = October 1972| publisher = [[Duke University School of Law]]| doi =10.2307/1373052}}</ref>

Many people in the United States are rejecting the one drop rule and are questioning whether a person with one black parent should be considered black or [[Multiracial|biracial]]. Although politician [[Barack Obama]] self-identifies as black, 55 percent of whites and 61 percent of Hispanics classified him as biracial instead of black after being told that his mother is white. Blacks were less likely to acknowledge a multiracial category, with 66% labeling Obama as black.<ref>{{cite news| title = Obama and 'one drop of non-white blood'| publisher = BBS News|date=April 13 2007| url = http://bbsnews.net/article.php/20061222014017231}}</ref> Forty-two percent of African-Americans described [[Tiger Woods]] as black, as did 7% of white Americans.<ref>{{cite web| last = White| first =John Kennet| title =Barack Obama and the Politics of Race| place =Catholic University of America| url=http://www.mindstorminteractive.net/clients/idonline/index.htm}}</ref>

====Blackness====
The concept of [[blackness]] in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream [[African American culture]] and values. This concept is not so much about skin color or tone but more about culture and behavior. [[Spike Lee]] may be considered authentically black by some for his contribution to black consciousness through film. [[Muhammad Ali]] may also be considered authentically black as a global symbol of the black identity.
[[Image:Barack Obama.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Barack Obama]]]]
Blackness can be contrasted with "[[acting white]]" in which black individuals are said to behave more like mainstream white Americans than fellow blacks. This includes choice in fashion, the way one speaks or listening to stereotypically white music.<ref>[http://www.kent.edu/Magazine/Spring2007/ActingWhite.cfm Acting White. By Melissa Edler] Kent State Magazine.</ref>

The notion of blackness can also be extended to non-blacks. [[Toni Morrison]] once described [[Bill Clinton]] as the first black president.<ref>[http://dir.salon.com/story/books/int/2002/02/20/clinton/index.html Blacks and Bill Clinton]</ref> This was because of his warm relations with African Americans, his poor upbringing and also because he is a jazz musician. [[Christopher Hitchens]] was offended by the notion of Clinton as the first black president noting "we can still define blackness by the following symptoms: alcoholic mothers, under-the-bridge habits...the tendency to sexual predation and shameless perjury about the same"<ref>No One Left to Lie to by Christopher Hitchens, 1999, pg 47</ref> Some black activists were also offended, claiming Clinton used his knowledge of black culture to exploit blacks like no other president ever has<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_go1637/is_200204/ai_n6880693 Find Articles 404 File not found]</ref> for political gain, while not serving black interests. They note his lack of action during the [[Rwanda genocide]],<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/usa/story/0,12271,1182431,00.html US chose to ignore Rwandan genocide | Special reports | Guardian Unlimited]</ref> his [[welfare reform]] which led to the worst [[child poverty]] since the 1960s<ref>[http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/jun1999/welf-j02.shtml Clinton's welfare reform has increased child poverty]</ref> along with the fact that number of blacks in jail increased during his administration.<ref>[http://www.counterpunch.org/gray1207.html Kevin Alexander Gray: Soul Brother? Clinton and Black Americans]</ref>

The question of blackness arose in the early stages of [[Barack Obama]]'s campaign for the [[United States presidential election, 2008|2008 presidential campaign]]. Some have questioned whether Obama, who is likely to be the first black presidential candidate of a major [[United States of America|American]] political party, is black enough, since his mother is [[white American]] and his father is a Kenyan immigrant. Obama refers to himself as black and African American using both terms interchangeably.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/02/11/60minutes/main2458530.shtml Transcript Excerpt: Sen. Barack Obama, Read A Transcript Excerpt Of Steve Kroft’s Interview With Sen. Obama - CBS News]</ref> Polls at the start of the campaign showed [[Hillary Clinton]] to be more popular amongst black voters than Obama. On the other hand, much of Obama's support is derived from white liberals.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/15/AR2007021501270.html Black Like Me?]</ref><ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/02/27/obama.black.vote/ Is black America ready to embrace Obama?]</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/11/opinion/11sun3.html?ex=1182916800&en=dcb064089b4834fe&ei=5070 Decoding the Debate Over the Blackness of Barack Obama] New York Times</ref> By early 2008 however, Obama's support in the black community began surging, with polls showing him leading Clinton by 50 points among black men. Even among black women (once Clinton's most loyal constituency), polls show Obama leading Clinton by 11 points.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/01/18/poll.2008/index.html?section=cnn_latest Poll: Obama makes big gains among black voters - CNN.com]</ref> Ultimately Obama would go on to capature about 90% of the black vote against Hillary Clinton.<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080223/ap_on_el_pr/superdelegates_4]</ref> Illinois state senate president Emil Jones expressed anger when Bill Clinton disparaged Obama, noting that it was black people who saved Bill Clinton's presidency during impeachment. The Clintons owe the African American community, he argued, not the reverse, and suggested that perhaps to return the favour, the Clintons should support Obama.<ref>[http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0108/7845.html Racial tensions roil Democratic race - Ben Smith - Politico.com]</ref>

===Race in Brazil===
{{main|Race in Brazil}}
[[Image:Capoeira-in-the-street-2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Capoeira]], an Afro-Brazilian [[martial art]].]]
Unlike in the United States, race in Brazil is based on skin color and physical appearance rather than ancestry. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between a pure black and a very light mulatto over a dozen racial categories would be recognized in conformity with the combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred to appearance, not heredity.<ref name="skidmore">{{cite journal| first = Thomas E. | last = Skidmore | title = Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil| journal = Working Paper| volume = 173|url=http://www.nd.edu/~kellogg/publications/workingpapers/WPS/173.pdf| date = April 1992}}</ref>

There is some disagreement among scholars over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that upward mobility and education results in reclassification of individuals into lighter skinned categories. The popular claim is that in Brazil poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree arguing that whitening of one's social status may be open to people of mixed race, but a typically black person will consistently be identified as black regardless of wealth or social status.<ref name=Telles>{{cite book| last = Edward E. | first = Telles| title = Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil| pages = 95-98| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]| date= 2004| isbn =0691118663 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| first = Edward E. | last = Telles| title = Racial Ambiguity Among the Brazilian Population| journal = Ethnic and Racial Studies|url=http://www.ccpr.ucla.edu/ccprwpseries/ccpr_012_01.pdf| volume = 25| pages = 415–441| date= [[3 May]] [[2002]]| publisher = California Center for Population Research| doi = 10.1080/01419870252932133}}</ref>

====Statistics====
{{see also|Race and genetics#Admixture in Latin America}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;"
|+Demographics of Brazil
|-
! Year!! White !! Brown!! Black
|-
| 1835
| 24.4% || 18.2%||51.4%
|-
| 2000
| 53.7% ||38.5%||6.2%
|-
|}
From the year 1500 to 1850 an estimated 3.5 million Africans were forcibly shipped to Brazil.<ref name=Telles/> An estimated 80 million Brazilians, almost half the population, are at least in part descendants of these Africans. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-descendants outside of Africa. In contrast to the US there were no segregation or anti-[[miscegenation]] laws in Brazil and as a result intermarriage has affected a large majority of the Brazilian population. Even much of the white population has either African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census 54% identified themselves as white, 6.2% identified themselves as black and 39.5% identified themselves as [[Pardo]] (brown)- a broad multiracial category.<ref>{{cite web| title = CIA World Factbook: Brazil| url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html#People}}</ref>

A philosophy of whitening emerged in Brazil in the 19th century. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However, statisticians estimate that in 1835 half the population was black, one fifth was Pardo (brown) and one fourth white. By 2000 the black population had fallen to only 6.2% and the Pardo had increased to 40% and white to 55%. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multiracial category by intermarriage.<ref name="skidmore"/> A recent study found that at least 29% of the middle class white Brazilian population had some recent African ancestry.<ref>[http://www.funpecrp.com.br/gmr/year2007/vol2-6/gmr0330_full_text.htm Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians]</ref>

====Race relations====
Because of the ideology of miscegenation, Brazil has avoided the polarization of Society into black and white. The bitter and sometimes violent racial tensions that divide the US are notably absent in Brazil.
However the philosophy of the racial democracy in Brazil has drawn criticism from some quarters. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white. One-third of the population lives under the poverty line of which blacks and other non-whites account for 70 percent of the poor.<ref>{{cite web| last = Barrolle| first = Melvin Kadiri| title = African 'Americans' in Brazil| publisher =New America Media| url=http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=5b8d531de860940110af2433244782c6}}</ref>

In the US blacks earn 75% of what whites earn, in Brazil non-whites earn less than 50% of what whites earn. Some have posited that Brazil does in fact practice the one drop rule when social economic factors are considered. This because the gap income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared with the large gap between whites and non-whites. Other factors such as illiteracy and education level show the same patterns.<ref>{{cite web| last = Roland| first = Edna Maria Santos| title = The Economics of Racism: People of African Descent in Brazil| url=http://www.falapreta.org.br/durban/racism.doc}}</ref>
Unlike in the US where African Americans were united in the civil rights struggle, in Brazil the philosophy of whitening has helped divide blacks from other non-whites and prevented a more active civil rights movement.

Though Afro-Brazilians make up half the population there are very few black politicians. The city of [[Salvador, Bahia]] for instance is 80% Afro-Brazilian but has never had a black mayor. Critics indicate that in US cities like [[Detroit]] and [[New Orleans]] that have a black majority, have never had white mayors since first electing black mayors in the 1970s.<ref>Charles Whitaker, "[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1077/is_n4_v46/ai_9329550/pg_3 Blacks in Brazil: The Myth and the Reality]," ''[[Ebony (magazine)|Ebony]]'', February 1991</ref>

Non-white people also have limited media visibility. The Latin American media, in particular the Brazilian media, has been accused of hiding its black and indigenous population. For example the [[telenovelas]] or [[Soap Opera|soaps]] are said to be a hotbed of white, largely blonde and blue/green-eyed actors who resemble [[Scandinavia]]ns or other northern Europeans more than they resemble the typical whites of Brazil, who are mostly of [[Southern European]] descent.<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3069253/site/newsweek/%5B/url%5D Soap operas on Latin TV are lily white]</ref><ref>
[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A19009-2000Aug1&notFound=true The Blond, Blue-Eyed Face of Spanish TV]</ref><ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/08/19/pride_or_prejudice/ Skin tone consciousness in Asian and Latin American populations]</ref>

These patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some to advocate for the use of the Portuguese term 'negro' to encompass non-whites so as to renew a black consciousness and identity, in effect an African descent rule.<ref>[http://www.newamerica.net/publications/articles/2006/brazil_separates_into_a_world_of_black_and_white Brazil Separates Into a World of Black and White], ''Los Angeles Times'', [[September 3]], [[2006]]</ref>

==In Asia and Australasia==
[[Image:Vanuatu blonde.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Pacific Islander boy: a [[Melanesian]] from [[Vanuatu]]<ref>[http://news.softpedia.com/news/Naturally-Blonde-Blacks-48181.shtml Naturally blonde blacks]</ref>]]
There are several groups of dark-skinned people who live in various parts of [[Asia]], [[Australia]] and [[Oceania]]. They include the [[Indigenous Australians]], the [[Melanesians]] (now divided into [[Austronesian]]-speaking populations and [[Papuan]]s, and including the great genetic diversity of [[New Guinea]]), the [[Andamanese]] people of the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] of [[India]], the [[Semang]] people of the [[Malay peninsula]], the [[Aeta]] people of [[Luzon]], the [[Ati (tribe)|Ati]] of [[Panay]], and various indigenous peoples sometimes collectively known as [[Negritos]].

By their external physical appearance ([[phenotype]]) such people resemble Africans with dark skin and sometimes tightly coiled hair. Genetically they are distant from Africans and are more closely related to the surrounding Asian populations in the same way that Africans are more closely linked genetically to Europeans despite differences in skin colour.<ref>{{cite journal| first = Kumarasamy | last = Thangaraj| coauthors = et al| title = Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population|url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/CB_2002_p1-18.pdf| journal =Current Biology | volume = 13, Number 2| pages = 86–93(8)| date= [[21 January]] [[2003]]| doi = 10.1080%2F00438240600564987| doilabel = 10.1080/00438240600564987}}</ref>

The [[Black War]] refers to a period of conflict between the [[Great Britain|British]] colonists and [[Tasmanian Aborigine]]s in [[Van Diemen's Land]] (now [[Tasmania]]) in the early years of the 1800s.

The Australian [[Aboriginal Flag]] was designed by [[Harold Thomas]], an artist and an Aboriginal, in 1971. The flag was designed to be an eye-catching rallying symbol for the Aboriginal people and a symbol of their race and identity. The black represents the Aboriginal people, the red the earth and their spiritual relationship to the land, and the yellow the sun, the giver of life.

==In Europe==

{{main|Afro-European}}

For many centuries throughout the [[Age of Discovery]] and the [[Colonialism|colonial empires]], black people came from the colonies to the "mother country", either voluntarily (sometimes for education) or under duress (sometimes as slaves). Even prior to that, the [[Arab slave trade]] brought large numbers of Africans to the furthest reaches of Europe; for example, [[Peter the Great]] took as a protégé [[Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], whose descendants number poet [[Alexandr Pushkin]] and [[Hugh Grosvenor, Earl Grosvenor|Hugh Grosvenor]], [[heir apparent]] to [[Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster|Britain's wealthiest aristocrat]].<ref>[http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/specials/rich_list/ Sunday Times Rich List 2007 - Business]</ref> Most of the black people living in [[Europe]], however, have their origins in relatively recent waves of immigration. Since the decolonisation of the mid-twentieth century, substantial black populations have moved to certain countries in Europe; other European countries have very few black people. At present, black people have limited visibility in mainstream European society, except in a handful of roles such as sporting activities.

===Britain===
[[Image:NaomiCampbell.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Naomi Campbell]]]]
''See also: [[British African-Caribbean community]] and [[Black British]]''

According to [[National Statistics]], as of the 2001 census, there are over a million black people in the [[United Kingdom]]; 1% of the total population describe themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other".<ref>[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=273 National Statistics Online]</ref> The largest single number comes from [[Nigeria]], just over 88 000<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/uk/05/born_abroad/countries/html/overview.stm BBC NEWS | UK | Born Abroad | Countries of birth]</ref>. Britain encouraged workers from the [[Caribbean]] after [[World War II]]; the first symbolic movement was those who came on the ship the ''[[Empire Windrush]]''. The preferred official [[umbrella term]] is "black and minority ethnic" (BME), but sometimes the term "black" is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism, as in the [[Southall Black Sisters]], which started with a mainly [[British Asian]] constituency. Black Britons tend to live in the cities, whereas the white population is moving more to suburbs and the countryside (see [[white flight]]).

===Eastern Europe===
As African states [[decolonisation|became independent]] in the 1960s, the [[Soviet Union]] offered them the chance to study in Russia; over 40 years, 400,000 African students came, and many settled there.<ref>[http://www.mediarights.org/film/black_russians MediaRights: Film: Black Russians]</ref><ref>[http://www.africana.ru/Golden/info/black_russians_project_engl.htm Лили Голден и Лили Диксон. Телепроект "Черные русские": синопсис. Info on "Black Russians" film project in English]</ref> This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the [[Eastern bloc]].

===Russia===
A cultural classification of people as "black" exists in [[Russia]]. Certain groups of people who are ethnically different, and generally darker, than ethnic urbanite [[Russians]] (since many Russians from the countryside can be dark) are pejoratively referred to as "blacks" (''chernye''), and face specific sorts of [[social exclusion]] (see [[Racism in Russia]]). [[Romani people|Roma]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgians]], and [[Tatar]]s fall into this category.<ref> ''The Unmaking of Soviet Life: Everyday Economies After Socialism'' By Caroline Humphrey [[Cornell University]] 2002 p36-37</ref> Those referred to as "black" are from the [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet republics]], predominantly [[peoples of the Caucasus]], e.g. [[Chechens]].<ref>Lisa Taylor, [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/63/333.html Emergency—Explosion of State and Popular Racism follows Moscow Blasts], International Solidarity with Workers in Russia (ISWoR), [[13 September]] [[1999]].</ref> Although "Caucasian" is used in [[American English]] to mean "[[white people]]", in [[Russian language|Russian]] – and [[List of dialects of the English language|most other varieties of English]] – it only refers to the [[Caucasus]], not European people in general.

==Debates on historical populations==
===Race of ancient Egyptians===
{{main|Race of ancient Egyptians}}
{{see also|Egyptians}}
[[Image:Egyptian races.jpg|thumb|1820 drawing of a fresco of the tomb of [[Seti I]], depicting (from left): Libyan, Nubian, Asiatic, Egyptian.<ref>[http://personalwebs.coloradocollege.edu/~ctorresrouff/walkerlabpubs/buzon2006current.pdf Biological and Ethnic Identity in New Kingdom Nubia]</ref>]]
A controversy over the skin color and ethnic origins of the [[ancient Egypt]]ians was sparked as part of the [[Afrocentrism|Afrocentric]] debate.<ref name = "hrsvxs">[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/afrocent_roth.html Building bridges to Afrocentrism]</ref> [[Afrocentrism|Afrocentrist]] scholars such as [[Cheikh Anta Diop]] contend that [[ancient Egypt]] was primarily a "black civilization". One source cited in support of their argument is [[Herodotus]], who wrote around 450 B.C. that "Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips, broad nose, woolly hair and they are burnt of skin."<ref>{{cite web |title=Huge Ancient Egyptian Photo Gallery| url=http://www.freemaninstitute.com/RTGhistory.htm}}</ref> However, Classical scholar [[Frank M. Snowden, Jr.|Frank Snowden, Jr.]] cautions against the reliance on accounts by ancient writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples, as they held different connotations from those of modern-day terminology in the West. He also points out that other ancient writers clearly distinguished between Egyptians and Ethiopians.<ref>{{cite book | last=Snowden, Jr. | first=Frank M. | editor=Mary R. Lefkowitz and Guy MacLean Rogers (eds.) | title=Black Athena Revisited | location=Chapel Hill | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | year=1996 | pages=113-14 | quote=....the Afrocentrists are mistaken in assuming that the terms ''Afri'' (Africans) and various color adjectives for dark pigmentation as used by Greeks and Romans are always the classical equivalents of Negores or blacks in modern usage.... That the pigmentation of the Egyptians was seen as lighter than that of Ethiopians is also attested by the adjective ''subfusucli'' ("somewhat dark") which Ammianus Marcellinus (22.16.23) chose to describe the Egyptians....}}</ref>

Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. In any case they contend, the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the ancient Greeks.<ref>{{cite book | last=Keita, Boyce | first=Shomarka, A.J.| editor=Theodore Celenko(ed) | title=Egypt in Africa | location=Chapel Hill | publisher=Indianapolis Museum of Art | year=1996 | pages=25-27 | quote=....''The descriptions and terms of ancient Greek writers have sometimes been used to comment on Egyptian origins. This is problematic since the ancient writers were not doing population biology. However, we can examine one issue. The Greeks called all groups south of Egypt "Ethiopians." Were the Egyptians more related to any of these "Ethiopians" than to the Greeks? As noted, cranial and limb studies have indicated greater similarity to Somalis, Kushites and Nubians, all "Ethiopians" in ancient Greek terms.''....}}</ref>

Ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in modern media as Caucasians, and many blacks, Afrocentrists in particular, have been critical of this.<ref>{{cite web| title = The Identity Of Ancient| url=http://www.calumet.purdue.edu/mcnair/cynthia_research.pdf}}</ref> According to [[Egyptology|Egyptologists]], ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern, Northeast African, and Saharan influences.<ref name = "hrsvxs"/><ref>[http://homelink.cps-k12.org/teachers/filiopa/files/AC383EB269C648AAAA659593B9FC358C.pdf Were the Ancient Egyptians black or white]</ref> Anthropological and archaeological evidence shows that an [[Africoid]] element was evident in ancient Egypt,<ref>{{cite video| people = [[Basil Davidson]]| title=The Nile|url=http://www.lincoln.edu/history/his307/davidson/1/dif3.wmv}}</ref> which was predominant in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] in the [[First dynasty of Egypt]].<ref>Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships, by S.O.Y. Keita, History in Africa, 20: 129-154 (1993)</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Keita | first=S.O.Y. | title=Further studies of crania from ancient northern Africa: an analysis of crania from First Dynasty Egyptian tombs. | journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology | year=1992 | month=March | volume=87 | issue= 3 | pages=245–254 | url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110482899/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 | accessdate= 2007-09-23 | quote=The predominant craniometric pattern in the [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] [First Dynasty] royal tombs is "southern" (tropical African variant)... However, lower Egyptian, Maghrebian, and European patterns are observed also, thus making for great diversity... The centroid values of the various upper Egyptian series viewed collectively are seen to vary over time. The general trend from Badari to Nakada times, and then from the Nakadan to the First Dynasty epochs demonstrate change toward the northern-Egyptian centroid value on Function I with similar values on Function 11. This might represent an average change from an Africoid (Keita, 1990) to a northern-Egyptian-Maghreb modal pattern.... This northern modal pattern, which can be called coastal northern African, is noted in general terms to be intermediate, by the centroid scores of Function I, to equatorial African and northern European phenotypes. | doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330870302}}</ref>

===Biblical perspective===
{{further|[[Hamitic]]}}
According to some historians, the tale in [[Curse of Ham|Genesis 9]] in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.<ref>Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry, (Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 28-117</ref> According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the [[Noah's Flood|Deluge]] and giving rise to three separate races.<ref>{{cite web| title = The Descendants of Noah| url=http://www.bible-truth.org/GEN10.HTM}}</ref>

The biblical passage, [[Book of Genesis]] 9:20-27, which deals with the [[sons of Noah]], however, makes no reference to race. The reputed [[curse of Ham]] is not on [[Sons of Noah|Ham]], but on [[Canaan]], one of Ham's sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.<ref>{{cite book| last = Redford| first = Donald B. | title = Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times| pages = 23-87| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]| date= 1993| isbn = 0691000867 }}</ref><ref name=Goldenberg>{{cite book| last = Goldenberg| first = David M.| title = The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]| date = New Ed edition ([[July 18]], [[2005]])| isbn = 0691123705 }}</ref> The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also is not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define blacks, nor assign them to racial hierarchies.<ref name=Goldenberg/>

Historians believe that by the 19th century, the belief that blacks were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery.<ref name=FRLee>Felicia R. Lee, ''[http://www.racematters.org/noahscurseslaverysrationale.htm Noah's Curse Is Slavery's Rationale]'', Racematters.org, [[November 1]], [[2003]]</ref> According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College:

{{quote|in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.<ref name=FRLee/>}}

Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such [[racist]] interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like [[Philo]] and [[Origen]], who equated blackness with darkness of the soul.<ref>Goldenberg, D. M. (2005) ''The Curse of Ham: Race & Slavery in Early Judaism, Christian'', Princeton University Press</ref>

==See also==

* [[List of topics related to Black and African people]]
* [[Africans]]
* [[African-American]]
* [[Afro-Latin American|Afro-Latino]]
* [[Negritos]]
* [[Afro-Australian]]
* [[Black pride]], [[Black Power]], [[Black nationalism]], [[Black separatism]], [[Black supremacy]]
* [[Stereotypes of blacks]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/vor?type=phrase&alts=0&group=typecat&lookup=Champaign%2072.13.3&collection=Perseus:collection:Greco-Roman Negro warrior, Ancient Greek Alabastron, 500 BC]
* [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Ethiopian_soldier_Louvre_MNC476.jpg Ethiopian warrior, Ancient Greek Alabastron, 480-470 BC]
{{sisterlinks}}

[[Category:Black Africa]]
[[Category:Black African diaspora]]
[[Category:Race]]

[[cs:Černoch]]
[[de:Schwarzafrikaner]]
[[es:Negro (persona)]]
[[fr:Race noire]]
[[gl:Negro (raza)]]
[[hr:Negroid]]
[[id:Ras Negroid]]
[[he:שחורים]]
[[lt:Juodaodis]]
[[pl:Czarna rasa człowieka]]
[[pt:Negro (etnia)]]
[[ru:Негроидная раса]]
[[sk:Negroidná rasa]]
[[fi:Negridi]]
[[vi:Đại chủng Phi]]
[[zh:黑色人种]]

Grenzkriege

2007-12-11T13:08:04Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819 */

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they could not fully capitalize on their superior firepower. Chasing the highly mobile Xhosa meant the Boers had to leave their own homes and families undefended, so the local militia strategy was severely limited. Professional troops however were not burdened by such considerations. So, when the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers. The balance of power changed and in 1811 British and Boer operations began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the [[Grahamstown|town]] which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

After first war ([[1779]]-[[1781]], the frontier border was established between the [[Great Fish River|Fish]] and Sundays Rivers. After the second war ([[1789]]-[[1793]]), the boundary was moved west to Sundays River. The third war ([[1799]]-[[1803]]) established the Sundays River boundary.The fourth war ([[1811]]-[[1812]]) was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

==Raids==
In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]].

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
The Xhosa prophet [[Maqana Nxele]] emerged at this time and promised “to turn bullets into water.” He led the Xhosa armies in several attacks, including the one on [[Grahamstown]] in [[1819]], and was subsequently captured and imprisoned on [[Robben Island]]

When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
* [http://www.ioltravel.co.za/article/view/3851608 Prophet Mlanjeni apparently started this war]
* [[Danger Point]] was the place at Gansbaai where the [[HMS Birkenhead (1845)|HMS Birkenhead]] was wrecked in 1852 while on its way to convey troops to fight in this war.
* [[Thomas Baines]] became South Africa’s first official war artist and recorded the Eighth Frontier War (1850-1853).

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==Cattle Killings, 1856-1857==
In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.[http://africanhistory.about.com/od/glossaryc/g/def_CattleKill.htm]

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.

The last war was a feeble attempt by the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] returning from diamond fields to regain control of their land. All [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] territory then became part of the Cape Colony<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
| title =Xhosa Wars
| encyclopedia = Reader's Digest Family Encyclopedia of World History
| publisher = The Reader's Digest Assoiation
| date = 1996
| accessdate = 2 August 2007 }}</ref>.

==See also==
*[[Hintsa ka Khawuta]]
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}
* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxele, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[no:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Thomas Stanley, 1. Baron Stanley

2007-11-12T22:41:53Z

Gregorydavid: add links

'''Thomas Stanley, 1st Baron Stanley''' [[Order of the Garter|KG]] (c. [[1405]]-[[20 February]] [[1459]]), was an [[England|English]] politician.

Stanley was the son of Sir [[John Stanley]] and [[Isabell Harington]], daughter of [[Robert de Harington]] and [[Isabel Loring]]. He served as [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]] from 1431 to 1436 and also represented [[Lancashire (UK Parliament constituency)|Lancashire]] in the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] between 1447 and 1451 and 1453 and 1454. In 1456 he was summoned to the [[House of Lords]] as '''Lord Stanley'''. A year later he was further honoured when he was made a [[Knight of the Garter]].

Lord Stanley married [[Joan Goushill]], daughter of Sir Robert Goushill and [[Elizabeth FitzAlan]], daughter of [[Richard Fitzalan, 11th Earl of Arundel]]. They had six children. He died in February 1459 and was succeeded in the barony by his eldest son [[Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby|Thomas]], who was created [[Earl of Derby]] in 1485. His third son the Hon. Sir John Stanley was the ancestor of the [[Baron Stanley of Alderley|Barons Stanley of Alderley]].

{{start box}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box | title = [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]] | years = 1431–1436 | before = - | after = - }}
{{s-reg|en}}
{{succession box | title=[[Baron Stanley]] | before=New Creation | after=[[Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby|Thomas Stanley]] | years= 1456–1459 }}
{{s-reg|im}}
{{succession box | title=[[King of Mann]] | before=[[John II Stanley of the Isle of Man|John II Stanley]] | | after=[[Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby|Thomas II Stanley]] | years= 1437–1459 }}
{{end box}}

==References==
*Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). ''Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage'' (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990.
*[http://www.angeltowns.com/town/peerage/ Leigh Rayment's Peerage Page]
*[http://www.thepeerage.com/ www.thepeerage.com]

[[Category:1460 deaths|Stanley, Thomas Stanley, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of England|Stanley, Thomas Stanley, 1st Baron]]

Royal Albert Bridge

2007-09-03T09:04:18Z

Gregorydavid: /* Construction */ trusses are simply supported, deck is continuous

{{for|other bridges bearing the name Albert|Albert Bridge}}
:'''Brunel truss''', '''Brunel truss bridge''', ''and'' '''lenticular truss''' ''redirect here.''

[[Image:Saltashrab.jpg|thumb|250px|The Royal Albert bridge seen from [[Saltash railway station]]. This photo shows the pre-2006 position of the walkways.]]

The '''Royal Albert Bridge''' (sometimes called the '''Brunel Bridge''' or '''Saltash Bridge''') spans the [[River Tamar]] in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] between [[Plymouth]], on the [[Devon]] bank, and [[Saltash]] on the [[Cornwall|Cornish]] bank. It carries the [[Cornish Main Line]] in and out of Cornwall.

A short distance to the north of Brunel's bridge, the Tamar is crossed by the [[Tamar Bridge]] carrying the [[A38 road|A38]], one of the two [[trunk road]]s connecting Cornwall to Devon.

== Construction ==
[[Image:Royal albert bridge hist.jpg|thumb|250px|The Royal Albert bridge in 1859]]
[[Image:Brunel_museum_rab_bench.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bench seat at the [[Brunel Museum]], [[Rotherhithe]], London incorporating a model of the Royal Albert Bridge, [[Saltash]]]]
The bridge was designed in [[1855]] by [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]] for the [[Cornwall Railway]] Company after [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] rejected his original plan for a train [[ferry]] across the [[Hamoaze]]. The bridge consists of two main spans of 455 feet (139 m), 100 feet (30 m) above mean high spring tide, plus seventeen much shorter approach spans. Opened by [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]] on [[2 May]] [[1859]], it was completed in the year of the great engineer's death.

The structure was the third in a series of three notable [[wrought iron]] bridges built in the period, and was influenced by the preceding two, both by [[Robert Stephenson]]. The two central sections of the bridge are novel adaptations of the design employed for the [[High Level Bridge]] across the [[River Tyne]] in [[Newcastle Upon Tyne]]. These two spans are lecticular trusses with the top chord of each truss comprising a heavy tubular arch in compression, while the bottom chord comprises a pair of catenary shaped members. Each of the trusses is simply supported and therefore no horizontal thrust is exerted on the piers. Between these two chords are supporting cross bracing members and suspension members which trail beneath the bottom chord to carry the railway deck which is a continuous plate beam.

The method of construction was similar to the [[Britannia Bridge]] across the [[Menai Strait]] in north [[Wales]], in that the spans were constructed on land, then floated into position and raised. Unlike the Britannia, however, the central piers were built up in height three feet (1 m) at a time, and the spans raised that distance, until the design height was achieved. (For the Britannia, the piers were built to full height, and then the span hoisted to design height.) The difficulty of its construction rates it as one of Brunel's great railway achievements.

== Inscription ==

The words ''I.K. BRUNEL, ENGINEER, 1859'' appear in large type on either end of the bridge, added as a tribute after his death. In 1921, new access platforms were added that obscured the lettering. In 2006, [[Network Rail]] relocated the platforms, allowing the name to be seen again.

[[Image:Tamar Bridge and Brunel or Royal Albert Bridge panorama.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Panorama of the Royal Albert Bridge and the Tamar Bridge]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.royalalbertbridge.co.uk Official Site for the bridge with many pictures]
*[http://www.royal-albert-bridge.co.uk The ''Royal Albert Bridge'' website]
* {{Structurae|id=s0000063|title=Royal Albert Bridge}}
*[http://www.brunel-museum.org.uk The Brunel Museum] - Based in Rotherhithe, London the museum is housed in the building that contained the pumps to keep the Thames Tunnel dry.

==References==

* Binding, John (1997). ''Brunel's Royal Albert Bridge: A Study of the Design and Construction of his 'Gateway to Cornwall' at Saltash''. Truro: Twelveheads Press. ISBN 0-906294-39-8.
* Charles Matthew Norrie (1956). ''Bridging the Years - a short history of British Civil Engineering''. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.
* [[http://www.networkrailmediacentre.co.uk/Content/Detail.asp?ReleaseID=1840&NewsAreaID=17&SearchCategoryID=-1 Brunel's Royal Albert Bridge unveiled in all its splendour]] Network Rail press release

==Mentions in popular culture==

The Royal Albert Bridge is crossed and marveled at by major characters in the alternate history novel, ''Stars & Stripes Forever'', by [[Harry Harrison]]. It is referred to as "The Amazing Bridge Across the Tamar River " and is pictured in an accurate woodcut-style drawing by Angela Tomlinson. Details of its design and construction are briefly discussed.{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

The bridge is depicted in several paintings by mariner and painter [[Alfred Wallis]].{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

It is mentioned in the [[Show of Hands]] song "Cousin Jack".{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

{{Brunel}}

 
{{coor title dms|50|24|27.27|N|04|12|12.20|W|region:GB_type:landmark}}
[[Category:Bridges in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Bridges in Devon]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Devon]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 1859]]
[[Category:Plymouth]]
[[Category:Railway bridges]]
[[Category:Truss bridges]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Devon]]
[[Category:Grade I listed bridges]]
[[Category:Works of Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]

[[fr:Royal Albert Bridge]]
[[ja:ロイヤルアルバート橋]]

Royal Albert Bridge

2007-09-02T09:48:59Z

Gregorydavid: add Category:Truss bridges

{{for|other bridges bearing the name Albert|Albert Bridge}}
:'''Brunel truss''', '''Brunel truss bridge''', ''and'' '''lenticular truss''' ''redirect here.''

[[Image:Saltashrab.jpg|thumb|250px|The Royal Albert bridge seen from [[Saltash railway station]]. This photo shows the pre-2006 position of the walkways.]]

The '''Royal Albert Bridge''' (sometimes called the '''Brunel Bridge''' or '''Saltash Bridge''') spans the [[River Tamar]] in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] between [[Plymouth]], on the [[Devon]] bank, and [[Saltash]] on the [[Cornwall|Cornish]] bank. It carries the [[Cornish Main Line]] in and out of Cornwall.

A short distance to the north of Brunel's bridge, the Tamar is crossed by the [[Tamar Bridge]] carrying the [[A38 road|A38]], one of the two [[trunk road]]s connecting Cornwall to Devon.

== Construction ==
[[Image:Royal albert bridge hist.jpg|thumb|250px|The Royal Albert bridge in 1859]]
[[Image:Brunel_museum_rab_bench.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bench seat at the [[Brunel Museum]], [[Rotherhithe]], London incorporating a model of the Royal Albert Bridge, [[Saltash]]]]
The bridge was designed in [[1855]] by [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]] for the [[Cornwall Railway]] Company after [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] rejected his original plan for a train [[ferry]] across the [[Hamoaze]]. The bridge consists of two main spans of 455 feet (139 m), 100 feet (30 m) above mean high spring tide, plus seventeen much shorter approach spans. Opened by [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]] on [[2 May]] [[1859]], it was completed in the year of the great engineer's death.

The structure was the third in a series of three notable [[wrought iron]] bridges built in the period, and was influenced by the preceding two, both by [[Robert Stephenson]]. The two central sections of the bridge are novel adaptations of the design employed for the [[High Level Bridge]] across the [[River Tyne]] in [[Newcastle Upon Tyne]], being spans composed of a tubular arch in compression; a suspension chain in tension and acting to hold in the bridge abutments. Between these two chords are supporting cross bracing members and suspension members which trail beneath the suspension chain to carry the railway deck. The method of construction was similar to the [[Britannia Bridge]] across the [[Menai Strait]] in north [[Wales]], in that the spans were constructed on land, then floated into position and raised. Unlike the Britannia, however, the central piers were built up in height three feet (1 m) at a time, and the spans raised that distance, until the design height was achieved. (For the Britannia, the piers were built to full height, and then the span hoisted to design height.) The difficulty of its construction rates it as one of Brunel's great railway achievements.

== Inscription ==

The words ''I.K. BRUNEL, ENGINEER, 1859'' appear in large type on either end of the bridge, added as a tribute after his death. In 1921, new access platforms were added that obscured the lettering. In 2006, [[Network Rail]] relocated the platforms, allowing the name to be seen again.

[[Image:Tamar Bridge and Brunel or Royal Albert Bridge panorama.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Panorama of the Royal Albert Bridge and the Tamar Bridge]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.royalalbertbridge.co.uk Official Site for the bridge with many pictures]
*[http://www.royal-albert-bridge.co.uk The ''Royal Albert Bridge'' website]
* {{Structurae|id=s0000063|title=Royal Albert Bridge}}
*[http://www.brunel-museum.org.uk The Brunel Museum] - Based in Rotherhithe, London the museum is housed in the building that contained the pumps to keep the Thames Tunnel dry.

==References==

* Binding, John (1997). ''Brunel's Royal Albert Bridge: A Study of the Design and Construction of his 'Gateway to Cornwall' at Saltash''. Truro: Twelveheads Press. ISBN 0-906294-39-8.
* Charles Matthew Norrie (1956). ''Bridging the Years - a short history of British Civil Engineering''. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.
* [[http://www.networkrailmediacentre.co.uk/Content/Detail.asp?ReleaseID=1840&NewsAreaID=17&SearchCategoryID=-1 Brunel's Royal Albert Bridge unveiled in all its splendour]] Network Rail press release

==Mentions in popular culture==

The Royal Albert Bridge is crossed and marveled at by major characters in the alternate history novel, ''Stars & Stripes Forever'', by [[Harry Harrison]]. It is referred to as "The Amazing Bridge Across the Tamar River " and is pictured in an accurate woodcut-style drawing by Angela Tomlinson. Details of its design and construction are briefly discussed.{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

The bridge is depicted in several paintings by mariner and painter [[Alfred Wallis]].{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

It is mentioned in the [[Show of Hands]] song "Cousin Jack".{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

{{Brunel}}

 
{{coor title dms|50|24|27.27|N|04|12|12.20|W|region:GB_type:landmark}}
[[Category:Bridges in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Bridges in Devon]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Devon]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 1859]]
[[Category:Plymouth]]
[[Category:Railway bridges]]
[[Category:Truss bridges]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Devon]]
[[Category:Grade I listed bridges]]
[[Category:Works of Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]

[[fr:Royal Albert Bridge]]
[[ja:ロイヤルアルバート橋]]

Royal Albert Bridge

2007-09-02T07:34:14Z

Gregorydavid: delete category: Self anchored suspension bridge

{{for|other bridges bearing the name Albert|Albert Bridge}}
:'''Brunel truss''', '''Brunel truss bridge''', ''and'' '''lenticular truss''' ''redirect here.''

[[Image:Saltashrab.jpg|thumb|250px|The Royal Albert bridge seen from [[Saltash railway station]]. This photo shows the pre-2006 position of the walkways.]]

The '''Royal Albert Bridge''' (sometimes called the '''Brunel Bridge''' or '''Saltash Bridge''') spans the [[River Tamar]] in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] between [[Plymouth]], on the [[Devon]] bank, and [[Saltash]] on the [[Cornwall|Cornish]] bank. It carries the [[Cornish Main Line]] in and out of Cornwall.

A short distance to the north of Brunel's bridge, the Tamar is crossed by the [[Tamar Bridge]] carrying the [[A38 road|A38]], one of the two [[trunk road]]s connecting Cornwall to Devon.

== Construction ==
[[Image:Royal albert bridge hist.jpg|thumb|250px|The Royal Albert bridge in 1859]]
[[Image:Brunel_museum_rab_bench.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bench seat at the [[Brunel Museum]], [[Rotherhithe]], London incorporating a model of the Royal Albert Bridge, [[Saltash]]]]
The bridge was designed in [[1855]] by [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]] for the [[Cornwall Railway]] Company after [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] rejected his original plan for a train [[ferry]] across the [[Hamoaze]]. The bridge consists of two main spans of 455 feet (139 m), 100 feet (30 m) above mean high spring tide, plus seventeen much shorter approach spans. Opened by [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]] on [[2 May]] [[1859]], it was completed in the year of the great engineer's death.

The structure was the third in a series of three notable [[wrought iron]] bridges built in the period, and was influenced by the preceding two, both by [[Robert Stephenson]]. The two central sections of the bridge are novel adaptations of the design employed for the [[High Level Bridge]] across the [[River Tyne]] in [[Newcastle Upon Tyne]], being spans composed of a tubular arch in compression; a suspension chain in tension and acting to hold in the bridge abutments. Between these two chords are supporting cross bracing members and suspension members which trail beneath the suspension chain to carry the railway deck. The method of construction was similar to the [[Britannia Bridge]] across the [[Menai Strait]] in north [[Wales]], in that the spans were constructed on land, then floated into position and raised. Unlike the Britannia, however, the central piers were built up in height three feet (1 m) at a time, and the spans raised that distance, until the design height was achieved. (For the Britannia, the piers were built to full height, and then the span hoisted to design height.) The difficulty of its construction rates it as one of Brunel's great railway achievements.

== Inscription ==

The words ''I.K. BRUNEL, ENGINEER, 1859'' appear in large type on either end of the bridge, added as a tribute after his death. In 1921, new access platforms were added that obscured the lettering. In 2006, [[Network Rail]] relocated the platforms, allowing the name to be seen again.

[[Image:Tamar Bridge and Brunel or Royal Albert Bridge panorama.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Panorama of the Royal Albert Bridge and the Tamar Bridge]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.royalalbertbridge.co.uk Official Site for the bridge with many pictures]
*[http://www.royal-albert-bridge.co.uk The ''Royal Albert Bridge'' website]
* {{Structurae|id=s0000063|title=Royal Albert Bridge}}
*[http://www.brunel-museum.org.uk The Brunel Museum] - Based in Rotherhithe, London the museum is housed in the building that contained the pumps to keep the Thames Tunnel dry.

==References==

* Binding, John (1997). ''Brunel's Royal Albert Bridge: A Study of the Design and Construction of his 'Gateway to Cornwall' at Saltash''. Truro: Twelveheads Press. ISBN 0-906294-39-8.
* Charles Matthew Norrie (1956). ''Bridging the Years - a short history of British Civil Engineering''. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.
* [[http://www.networkrailmediacentre.co.uk/Content/Detail.asp?ReleaseID=1840&NewsAreaID=17&SearchCategoryID=-1 Brunel's Royal Albert Bridge unveiled in all its splendour]] Network Rail press release

==Mentions in popular culture==

The Royal Albert Bridge is crossed and marveled at by major characters in the alternate history novel, ''Stars & Stripes Forever'', by [[Harry Harrison]]. It is referred to as "The Amazing Bridge Across the Tamar River " and is pictured in an accurate woodcut-style drawing by Angela Tomlinson. Details of its design and construction are briefly discussed.{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

The bridge is depicted in several paintings by mariner and painter [[Alfred Wallis]].{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

It is mentioned in the [[Show of Hands]] song "Cousin Jack".{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

{{Brunel}}

 
{{coor title dms|50|24|27.27|N|04|12|12.20|W|region:GB_type:landmark}}
[[Category:Bridges in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Bridges in Devon]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Devon]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 1859]]
[[Category:Plymouth]]
[[Category:Railway bridges]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Devon]]
[[Category:Grade I listed bridges]]
[[Category:Works of Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]

[[fr:Royal Albert Bridge]]
[[ja:ロイヤルアルバート橋]]

Grenzkriege

2007-07-27T12:00:00Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836 */ Hintsa ka Khawuta

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids==
In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]].

==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779-1781==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1789-1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxele, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
The Xhosa prophet [[Maqana Nxele]] emerged at this time and promised “to turn bullets into water.” He led the Xhosa armies in several attacks, including the one on [[Grahamstown]] in [[1819]], and was subsequently captured and imprisoned on [[Robben Island]]

When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==See also==
*[[Hintsa ka Khawuta]]

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
* [http://www.ioltravel.co.za/article/view/3851608 Prophet Mlanjeni apparently started this war]
* [[Danger Point]] was the place at Gansbaai where the [[HMS Birkenhead (1845)|HMS Birkenhead]] was wrecked in 1852 while on its way to convey troops to fight in this war.
* [[Thomas Baines]] became South Africa’s first official war artist and recorded the Eighth Frontier War (1850-1853).

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==Cattle Killings, 1856-1857==
In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.[http://africanhistory.about.com/od/glossaryc/g/def_CattleKill.htm]

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Schwarze

2007-07-17T14:02:26Z

Gregorydavid: /* Apartheid era in South Africa */ no need to refer to {{main|Coloureds}} here, that is not what the heading says..

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
[[Image:Afro diversity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Though most Africans possess relatively dark skin, they exhibit much variation in physical appearance. Clockwise from upper left: South Africa, Sudan, Kenya, Congo.]]

'''Black''' is a [[Race|racial]], [[Politics|political]], [[Sociology|sociological]] or [[Culture|cultural]] classification of '''people'''. No people are naturally the literal color of [[black]], but many people who have dark [[Human skin color|skin color]] are conventionally considered to be so.

Some assert that only people of relatively recent [[Africa]]n descent are black, while others argue that ''black'' may refer to individuals with dark skin color, regardless of ethnic origin, eg. some people in [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Australasia]].<ref>black. (n.d.). ''Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1)''. Retrieved [[April 13]], [[2007]], from [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/black Dictionary.com website]</ref>{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

==The human race==
{{main|Race and genetics}}
In the early twentieth century many scientists held the view that biologically distinct races existed. The races corresponded to the major continental regions of [[Africa]], [[Europe]], [[Asia]] and [[the Americas]]. These races were distinguished from each other based on a few visible traits such as skin color and hair texture. Black people were largely defined by their dark skin and sometimes frizzy hair. The belief at that time was that not only did the races differ in appearance but in behavior, intellect and origins. Some scientists such as [[Carleton S. Coon]] believed the different races to have evolved separately over millions of years and that racial differences were thus extremely significant.

Today most scholars have abandoned these views and see race as a social construct with no biological basis. Breakthroughs in genetics and the mapping of the [[human genome]] in the late twentieth century have helped dispel many of the earlier myths about race. Ninety-nine point nine percent of any one person's DNA is exactly the same as any other person regardless of ethnicity. [[Identical twins]], but not [[fraternal twins]], are an exception as the their DNA is a 100% match.<ref>{{cite journal|last = Ho|first = Mae-Wan |authorlink = Mae-Wan Ho|title = The Human Genome Map, the Death of Genetic Determinism and Beyond |journal = ISIS Report|date = 14 February 2001|url=http://www.greens.org/s-r/25/25-19.html|publisher = The Institute of Science in Society}}</ref> Of the remaining 0.1% variation, there is an 8% variation between ethnic groups within a race, such as between the [[French people|French]] and the [[Dutch people|Dutch]]. Only 7% of all human genetic variation lies on average between major human races such as those of Africa, Asia, Europe, and [[Oceania]]. Eighty-five percent of all genetic variation lies within any local group. Thus there is more genetic variation within a race than between the various "races".<ref>{{cite journal|last = Pearce|first = Neil|coauthors = et al|title = Genetics, race, ethnicity, and health|journal = British Medical Journal|volume = 328|pages = 1070-1072|date = 1 May 2004| url =http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/328/7447/1070?etoc|publisher = BMJ Publishing Group Ltd}}</ref>

Because the genetic difference between any two random individuals is roughly the same, a few traits such as skin color and appearance are arbitrary ways to classify race. There is general agreement among biologists that human racial differences are too small to qualify races as separate sub-species. However there is still much controversy regarding the interpretation of these small differences. Some scholars argue that even though there is more variation within a population than between populations, the small between-population variation may have implications in medical science.<ref>{{cite news| last = Wade| first = Nicholas| title = Race Is Seen as Real Guide to Track Roots of Disease| publisher = New York Times| date = July 30, 2002| url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9C01E0DC1038F933A05754C0A9649C8B63}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last = Lewontin| first = R.C.| authorlink =Richard Lewontin| title = Confusions About Human Races| url=http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Lewontin/}}</ref>

==Single origin hypothesis==
{{See also|Recent single origin hypothesis}}
[[Image:Kenyan man 2.jpg|200px|right|thumb|A [[Maasai]] man in [[Kenya]]]]
The low level of genetic variation across populations surprised many in the scientific community. Scientists believe the reason for this low level of variation is because the entire world population of 6.5 billion is descended from a small group of people, probably numbering no more than 2,000, who lived in Africa 70,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite news | last =Whitehouse | first =David | author-link=David Whitehouse| title = When humans faced extinction| publisher = BBC| date = 9 June, 2003| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2975862.stm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Brush with extinction| publisher =ABC News Online| url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/indepth/featureitems/s876996.htm}}</ref> From this small group, an even smaller group left Africa by crossing the [[Red Sea]] and proceeded to populate the rest of the world. The differences in physical appearance between the various peoples of the world is as a result of adaptations to the different environments that the early pioneers who left Africa made in order to conquer the new lands to which they traveled.

The African population retains the great degree of physical variation. Even though all Africans share a skin color that is dark relative to other peoples of the world, they actually differ significantly in physical appearance. Examples include the [[Dinka]], some of the tallest people in the world and the [[Mbuti]], the shortest people in the world. Others such as the [[Khoisan]] people have an [[epicanthal fold]] similar to the peoples of Central Asia. A recent study found that Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest skin color diversity within population.<ref>
{{cite journal| last = Relethford| first = J.H.| title = Human Skin Color Diversity Is Highest in Sub-Saharan African Population| journal = Human Biology| volume = 72| pages = 773-80|url =http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11126724| date = October 2000}}</ref>

===Dark skin===
{{further|[[Human skin color]] }}
[[Image:Albino boy tanzania.jpg|thumb|left|A Black mother and her [[albino]] son from [[Tanzania]] ]]

Scientists now believe that humans first appeared in Africa between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web| title =Atlas of Human Journey| url=https://www3.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html}}</ref> Dark skin helped protect against [[skin cancer]] that develops as a result of [[ultraviolet|ultraviolet light]] radiation, causing mutations in the skin. Furthermore, dark skin prevents an essential B vitamin, [[folate]], from being destroyed. Therefore, in the absence of modern medicine and diet, a person with dark skin in the tropics would live longer, be more healthy and more likely to reproduce than a person with light skin. Scientists point to the fact that white Australians have some of the highest rates of skin cancer as evidence of this expectation.<ref>{{cite web| title = Australia Struggles with Skin Cancer| url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Australia_Struggles_with_Skin_Cancer.asp}}</ref> Conversely, as dark skin prevents sunlight from penetrating the skin it hinders the production of [[vitamin D|vitamin D3]]. Hence when humans migrated to less sun-intensive regions in the north, low [[vitamin D|vitamin D3]] levels became a problem and lighter skin colors started appearing. The people of Europe, who have low levels of [[melanin]], naturally have an almost colorless skin pigmentation, especially when untanned. This low level of pigmentation allows the blood vessels to become visible and gives the characteristic pale pink color of white people. The difference in skin color between black and whites is however a minor genetic difference accounting for just one letter in 3.1 billion letters of DNA.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/15/AR2005121501728_pf.html "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin"]. ''[[Washington Post]]''.</ref>

==Africans in the Americas==
Approximately 12 million Africans were shipped to the Americas during the [[Atlantic slave trade]] from 1492 to 1888. Today their descendants number approximately 150 million.<ref>[http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/galci/Archive.htm "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 ], ''Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative'', February 4, 2006</ref> Many have a multiracial background of African, Amerindian, European and Asian ancestry. The various regions developed complex social conventions with which their multi-ethnic populations were classified.

==United States==
{{main|African American}}
In the first 200 years that blacks had been in the US they commonly referred to themselves as Africans. In Africa, people primarily identified themselves by tribe or ethnic group and not by skin color. Individuals would be [[Asante]], [[Yoruba]], [[Kikongo]] or [[Wolof]]. But when Africans were brought to the Americas they were forced to give up their tribal affiliations for fear of uprisings. The result was the Africans had to intermingle with other Africans from different tribal groups. This is significant as Africans came from a vast geographic region, a coastline stretching from [[Senegal]] to [[Angola]] and in some cases from the south east coast such as from [[Mozambique]]. A new identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various tribal groups and also European elements such as [[Black church|Christianity]] and [[AAVE|English]]. This new identity was now based on skin color and African ancestry rather than any one tribal group.<ref name=Shahadah>{{cite web| last = Shahadah| first = Owen 'Alik| authorlink =Owen 'Alik Shahadah| title =Linguistics for a new African reality| url=http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm}}</ref>

When the trans-atlantic slave trade was declared illegal in [[1807]] the vast majority of blacks were US born, hence use of the term African became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared its continued use would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the US. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating blacks back to Africa. In 1835 Black leaders called upon Black Americans to remove the title of African from their institutions and replace it with Negro or Colored American. A few institutions however elected to keep their historical names such as [[African Methodist Episcopal Church]]. Negro and colored remained the popular terms until the late 1960s.<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1594200831/ African American Journeys to Africa page63-64]</ref>

The term ''black'' was used throughout but not frequently as it carried a certain stigma.
In the 1963, ''[[I Have a Dream]]'' speech,<ref>{{cite video|url=http://video.google.com/url?docid=1732754907698549493&esrc=sr1&ev=v&q=I+Have+a+Dream&vidurl=http://video.google.com/videoplay%3Fdocid%3D1732754907698549493%26q%3DI%2BHave%2Ba%2BDream&usg=AL29H20jaXzESJi0-5ByuawvRj8e-fNr-w| people = Martin Luther King, Jr.| title = I Have a Dream| medium = Google Video| location = Washington, D.C.|date=August 28, 1963 }}</ref> [[Martin Luther King, Jr.|Martin Luther King]] uses the terms ''Negro'' 15 times and ''black'' 4 times. Each time he uses ''black'' it is in parallel construction with ''white'' (e.g., black men and white men).<ref>{{cite journal| last = Tom W.| first = Smith| title = Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"| journal = The Public Opinion Quarterly| volume = 56| pages = 496-514| url=http://www.soc.iastate.edu/soc522a/PDF%20readings/Smith.pdf|date = Winter, 1992| publisher = Oxford University Press.}}</ref> With the successes of the [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement]] a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of ''Negro'', ''black'' was promoted as standing for racial pride, militancy and power. Some of the turning points included [[Kwame Toure]]'s ([[Stokely Carmichael]]) use of the term "[[Black Power]]" and the release of James Brown's song "[[Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud]]".

In 1988 [[Jesse Jackson]] urged Americans to use the term [[African American]] because the term has a historical cultural base. Since then African American and black have essentially a coequal status. There is still much controversy over which term is more appropriate. Some strongly reject the term African American in preference for black citing that they have little connection with Africa. Others believe the term black is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones.<ref>{{cite news| last = McWhorter| first = John H.| title = Why I'm Black, Not African American| publisher = Los Angeles Times|date=September 8, 2004| url = http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_latimes-why_im_black.htm}}</ref> Surveys show that when interacting with each other African Americans prefer the term black, as it is associated with intimacy and familiarity. The term "African American" is preferred for public and formal use.<ref>{{cite book| last = Miller| first = Pepper| coauthors = Herb Kemp| title = What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market| publisher = Paramount Market Publishing, Inc| date = 2006| isbn = 0972529098}}</ref>

===One drop rule===
According to the United States' [[colloquial]] term ''[[one drop rule]]'', a black is any person with any known African ancestry.<ref name=Davis>{{cite web| last = James| first = F. Davis| title = Who is Black? One Nation's Definition| url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html| publisher = [[PBS]]}}</ref> The one drop rule is virtually unique to the United States and was applied almost exclusively to blacks. Outside of the US, definitions of who is black vary from country to country but generally, multiracial people are not required by society to identify themselves as black. The most significant consequence of the one drop rule was that many African Americans who had significant European ancestry, whose appearance was very European, would identify themselves as black.

The one drop rule originated as a racist attempt to keep the white race pure; however, one of its unintended consequences was uniting the African American community and preserving an African identity.<ref name=Davis/> Some of the most prominent civil rights activists were multiracial but yet stood up for equality for all. It is said that [[W.E.B. Du Bois]] could have easily passed for white yet he became the preeminent scholar in Afro-American studies.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nakao| first = Annie| title = Play explores corrosive prejudice within black community| publisher = San Francisco Chronicle| date=January 28 2004| url =http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/chronicle/archive/2004/01/28/DDGL74I9TF1.DTL}}</ref> He chose to spend his final years in Africa and immigrated to [[Ghana]] where he died aged 95. Other scholars such as [[Booker T. Washington]] and [[Frederick Douglass]] both had white fathers.<ref>{{cite web| title = Mixed Historical Figures| url=http://www.mixedfolks.com/historical.htm}}</ref> Even the more radical activists such as [[Malcolm X]] and [[Louis Farrakhan]] both had white grandparents. That said, [[colorism]], or intraracial discrimination based on skin tone, does affect the black community. It is a sensitive issue or a taboo subject. Open discussions are often labeled as "airing dirty laundry".<ref>{{cite web| last = Crawford| first = Larry D.| title = Racism, Colorism and Power| url=http://www.nbufront.org/html/FRONTalView/ArticlesPapers/Crawford_RacismColorismPower.html}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal| first = Trina | last = Jones| title =Shades of Brown: The Law of Skin Color| journal = Duke Law Journal| volume = 49 | pages = 1487|url=http://www.law.duke.edu/shell/cite.pl?49+Duke+L.+J.+1487| date = October 1972| publisher = [[Duke University School of Law]]}}</ref>

Many people in the United States are increasingly rejecting the one drop rule, and are questioning whether even as much as 50% black ancestry should be considered black. Although politician [[Barack Obama]] self-identifies as black, 55 percent of whites and 61 percent of others classified him as [[Multiracial|biracial]] instead of black after being told that his mother is white. Blacks were less likely to acknowledge a multiracial category, with 66% labeling Obama as black.<ref>{{cite news| title = Obama and 'one drop of non-white blood'| publisher = BBS News|date=April 13 2007| url = http://bbsnews.net/article.php/20061222014017231}}</ref> However when it came to [[Tiger Woods]], only 42% of African-Americans described him as black, as did only 7% of White Americans.<ref>{{cite web| last = White| first =John Kennet| title =Barack Obama and the Politics of Race| place =Catholic University of America| url=http://www.mindstorminteractive.net/clients/idonline/index.htm}}</ref>

===Blackness===
The concept of [[blackness]] in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream [[African American culture]] and values. This concept is not so much about skin color or tone but more about culture and behavior. [[Spike Lee]] may be considered authentically Black by some for his contribution to Black consciousness through film. [[Muhammad Ali]] may also be considered authentically black as a global symbol of the Black identity.

Blackness can be contrasted with [[acting white]] in which black individuals are said to behave more like mainstream white Americans than fellow blacks. This includes choice in fashion, the way one speaks or listening to stereotypically white music.<ref>[http://www.kent.edu/Magazine/Spring2007/ActingWhite.cfm Acting White. By Melissa Edler] Kent State Magazine.</ref>

The notion of blackness can also be extended to non-blacks. [[Toni Morrison]] once described [[Bill Clinton]] as the first black president.<ref>[http://dir.salon.com/story/books/int/2002/02/20/clinton/index.html Blacks and Bill Clinton]</ref> This because of his warm relations with African Americans, his poor upbringing and also because he is a Jazz musician. [[Paula Abdul]] is sometimes mistaken for being black in part because of her association with black music and dance.

The question of blackness arose in the early stages of [[Barack Obama]]'s campaign for the [[United States presidential election, 2008|2008 presidential campaign]]. Some have questioned whether Obama is black enough since his upbringing was unlike that of many African Americans. His father is from Kenya and he was raised in Hawaii and Indonesia. Polls at the start of the campaign showed [[Hillary Clinton]] to be more popular amongst black voters than Obama, which can be ascribed to the influence of Bill Clinton's "Blackness". On the other hand much of Obama's support is derived from white liberals.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/15/AR2007021501270.html Black Like Me?]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/02/27/obama.black.vote/ Is black America ready to embrace Obama?]</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/11/opinion/11sun3.html?ex=1182916800&en=dcb064089b4834fe&ei=5070 Decoding the Debate Over the Blackness of Barack Obama] New York Times</ref>

==Race in Brazil==
{{main|Race in Brazil}}
[[Image:Capoeira-in-the-street-2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Capoeira]], an Afro-Brazilian [[martial art]].]]
Unlike in the United States race in Brazil is based on skin color and physical appearance rather than ancestry. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between a pure black and a very light mulatto over a dozen racial categories would be recognized in conformity with the combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred to appearance, not heredity.<ref name="skidmore">{{cite journal| first = Thomas E. | last = Skidmore | title = Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil| journal = Working Paper| volume = 173|url=http://www.nd.edu/~kellogg/publications/workingpapers/WPS/173.pdf| date = April 1992}}</ref>

There is some disagreement among scholars over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that upward mobility and education results in reclassification of individuals into lighter skinned categories. The popular claim is that in Brazil poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree arguing that whitening of one's social status may be open to people of mixed race, but a typically black person will consistently be identified as black regardless of wealth or social status.<ref name=Telles>{{cite book| last = Edward E. | first = Telles| title = Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil| pages = 95-98| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]| date = 2004| isbn =0691118663 }}</ref><ref name=Telles/><ref>{{cite journal| first = Edward E. | last = Telles| title = Racial Ambiguity Among the Brazilian Population| journal = Ethnic and Racial Studies|url=http://www.ccpr.ucla.edu/ccprwpseries/ccpr_012_01.pdf| volume = 25| pages = 415-441| date = 3 May 2002| publisher = California Center for Population Research}}</ref>

===Statistics===
:''see also [[Race and genetics#Admixture in Latin America|Admixture in Latin America]]''
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! colspan="4" | Demographics of Brazil
|-
! Year!! White !! brown!! black
|-
| 1835
| 24.4% || 18.2%||51.4%
|-
| 2000
| 53.7% ||38.5%||6.2%
|-
|}
From the year 1500 to 1850 an estimated 3.5 million Africans were forcibly shipped to Brazil.<ref name=Telles/> An estimated 80 million Brazilians, almost half the population, are at least in part descendants of these Africans. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-descendants outside of Africa. In contrast to the US there were no segregation or anti-[[miscegenation]] laws in Brazil. As a result miscegenation has affected a large majority of the Brazilian population. Even much of the white population has either African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census 54% identified themselves as white, 6.2% identified themselves as black and 39.5% identified themselves as [[Pardo]] (brown)- a broad multiracial category.<ref>{{cite web| title = CIA World Factbook: Brazil| url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html#People}}</ref>

A philosophy of whitening emerged in Brazil in the 19th century. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However statisticians estimate that in 1835 half the population was black, one fifth was Pardo (brown) and one fourth white. By 2000 the black population had fallen to only 6.2% and the Pardo had increased to 40% and white to 55%. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multiracial category by miscegenation.<ref name="skidmore"/>. A recent study found that at least 29% of the middle class white Brazilian population had some recent African ancestry.<ref>[http://www.funpecrp.com.br/gmr/year2007/vol2-6/gmr0330_full_text.htm Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians]</ref>

===Race relations===
Because of the ideology of miscegenation, Brazil has avoided the polarization of Society into black and white. The bitter and sometimes violent racial tensions that divide the US are notably absent in Brazil.
However the philosophy of the racial democracy in Brazil has drawn criticism from some quarters. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white. One-third of the population lives under the poverty line of which blacks and other non-whites account for 70 percent of the poor.<ref>{{cite web| last = Barrolle| first = Melvin Kadiri| title = African 'Americans' in Brazil| publisher =New America Media| url=http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=5b8d531de860940110af2433244782c6}}</ref>

In the US blacks earn 75% of what what whites earn, in Brazil non-whites earn less than 50% of what whites earn. Some have posited that Brazil does in fact practice the one drop rule when social economic factors are considered. This because the gap income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared with the large gap between whites and non-whites. Other factors such as illiteracy and education level show the same patterns.<ref>{{cite web| last = Roland| first = Edna Maria Santos| title = The Economics of Racism: People of African Descent in Brazil| url=http://www.falapreta.org.br/durban/racism.doc}}</ref>
Unlike in the US where African Americans were united in the civil rights struggle, in Brazil the philosophy of whitening has helped divide blacks from other non-whites and prevented a more active civil rights movement.

Though Afro-Brazilians make up half the population there are very few black politicians. The city of [[Salvador, Bahia]] for instance is 80% Afro-Brazilian but has never had a black mayor. Critics indicate that in US cities like [[Detroit]] and [[New Orleans]] that have a black majority, have never had white mayors since first electing black mayors in the 1970s.<ref>Charles Whitaker, "[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1077/is_n4_v46/ai_9329550/pg_3 Blacks in Brazil: The Myth and the Reality]," ''[[Ebony (magazine)|Ebony]]'', February 1991</ref>

Non-white people also have limited media visibility. The Latin American media, in particular the Brazilian media, has been accused of hiding its black and indigenous population. For example the [[telenovelas]] or [[Soap Opera|soaps]] are said to be a hotbed of white, largely blonde and blue/green-eyed actors who resemble [[Scandinavia]]ns or other northern Europeans more than they resemble the typical whites of Brazil, who are mostly of [[Southern European]] descent. <ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3069253/site/newsweek/%5B/url%5D Soap operas on Latin TV are lily white]</ref><ref>
[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A19009-2000Aug1&notFound=true The Blond, Blue-Eyed Face of Spanish TV]</ref> <ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/08/19/pride_or_prejudice/ Skin tone consciousness in Asian and Latin American populations]</ref>

These patterns of discrimination against non-whites has lead some to advocate for the use of the Portuguese term 'negro' to encompass non-whites so as to renew a black consciousness and identity, in effect an African descent rule.<ref>[http://www.newamerica.net/publications/articles/2006/brazil_separates_into_a_world_of_black_and_white Brazil Separates Into a World of Black and White], ''Los Angeles Times'', September 3, 2006</ref>

==Blacks and the middle east==
{{See also|Afro-Arab}}
[[Image:Sadat5.jpg|thumb|right|200px| [[Anwar Sadat]]'s mother was a black woman from Sudan]]
Africans and Middle Easterners have interacted since prehistoric times. [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] which include the [[semitic languages]] such as [[Arabic]] and [[Hebrew]] are believed by some scholars to have originated in [[Ethiopia]]. This is because the region has very diverse language groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin.

In more recent times, about 1000 CE, interactions between blacks and Arabs resulted in the incorporation of several Arabic words into [[Swahili]] which became a useful language for merchants. As a result Arab influence spread along the east coast of Africa and to some extent into the interior.

In West Africa [[Timbuktu]] was trading outpost that linked west Africa with Berber, Arab, and Jewish traders throughout north Africa.

As a result of these interactions many in the middle east have black ancestry and many Africans on the east coast of Africa and along the Sahara have Arabic ancestry.<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1180338 Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations]</ref>
According to Dr. Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazil's Universidade do Estado da Bahia, Afro-multiracials in the Arab world self-identify in ways that resemble Latin America. Moore recalled that a film about [[Egyptian President]] [[Anwar Sadat]] had to be cancelled when Sadat discovered that an African-American had been cast to play him. (In fact, the 1983 television movie ''Sadat'', starring [[Louis Gossett, Jr.]], was not cancelled; although the Egyptian government refused to let the drama air in Egypt, partially on the grounds of the casting of Gossett, the objections did not come from Sadat, who had been assassinated two years earlier.) Sadat considered himself white, according to Moore. Moore claimed that black-looking Arabs, much like black looking Latin Americans consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry.<ref>{{cite web| last = Musselman| first = Anson | title = The Subtle Racism of Latin America| publisher = UCLA International Institute| url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125}}</ref> Sadat's mother was black woman from Sudan and his father was an Egyptian Arab. He shied away from mentioning her in his autobiography, and when he was president she was almost never seen in public. He may have been ashamed at the way his mother was treated when he was growing up, and consequently he may have been sensitive about his complexion. In response to an advertisement for an acting position he would remark, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=PoW4pO4q9VwC&printsec=frontcover#PPP1,M1 Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone] pages 5-7,31 ISBN 0714634875</ref>

In general, Arabs had a more positive view of black women than black men, even if the women were of slave origin. More black women were taken across the Sahara to North Africa than men, and some even gave birth to the children of Arab rulers. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab captor's child, she became “umm walad” or “mother of a child”, a status that granted her privileged rights. The child, however, would have prospered from the wealth of the father and been given rights of inheritance.<ref name="Arab Slave Trade">{{cite web|url=http://www.arabslavetrade.com|publisher="[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]]"|title="Slavery in Arabia"|}}</ref> Because of [[patrilineality]], the children were born free and sometimes even became successors to their ruling fathers, as was the case with Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, (whose mother was a Fulani concubine), who ruled Morocco from 1578-1608. Such tolerance, however, was not extended to wholly black persons, even when technically "free," and the notion that to be black meant to be a slave became a common belief.<ref>{{cite web| last = Hunwick| first = John| title = Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery| url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Hunwick.pdf}}</ref>

==Apartheid era in South Africa==
[[Image:Coloured-family.jpg|285 px|thumb|right|This extended family has too much non-[[Africa]]n descent to have been classified as black under [[South Africa]]'s former [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|apartheid]] laws.]]
In [[South Africa]] during the [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|apartheid era]], the population was classified into four groups: ''Black'', ''White'', ''[[Asia]]n'' (mostly [[India]]n), and ''[[Coloured]]''.  The [[Coloured]] group included people of mixed [[Bantu]], [[Khoisan]], and [[Europe]]an descent (with some [[Cape Malays|Malay]] ancestry, especially in the [[Western Cape]]). There is still much discomfort in publicly discussing the Coloured identity in South Africa. Even the use of the term coloured is quite sensitive.
The Coloureds occupy an intermediary position between blacks and whites in South Africa.

The apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the ''Population Registration Act'' to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether a person was to be considered colored or black, the ''pencil test'' was employed. This involved inserting a pencil in a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough for the pencil to get stuck.<ref>{{cite news | last = Nullis| first = Clare | title = Township tourism booming in South Africa| publisher = The Associated Press| date = 2007| url = http://www.canada.com/topics/travel/features/story.html?id=59ec6285-c9fb-41ab-93f9-419f62733f07&k=67896}}</ref>

During the apartheid era the coloureds were also oppressed and discriminated against. However they did have limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than blacks. In the post apartheid era the government's policies of affirmative action have favored blacks over coloureds. Some Black South Africans openly state that coloureds did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. The popular saying by coloured South Africans to illustrate this dilemma is:

{{quote|Not white enough under apartheid and not black enough under the ANC}}

Other than by appearance coloureds can be distinguished from blacks by language. Most speak [[Afrikaans]] or English as a first language as opposed to Bantu tribal languages such as [[Zulu]] or [[Xhosa]]. They also tend to have more European sounding names than Bantu names.<ref>{{cite news | last = du Preez| first = Max| title = Coloureds - the most authentic SA citizens| publisher = The Star|date=April 13, 2006| url = http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857}}</ref>

==Sub-Saharan Africa==
[[Image:Definition of races US census.png|thumb|right|350px|Map depicting the geographical origins of [[Race (United States Census)|racial classifications]] as used by the [[United States Census Bureau]] in 2000. Self identification options also included "Some other race" and the option of selecting one or more races.<ref name="census">http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_309540.htm Quickfacts: U.S. Bureau of the Census</ref>]]
Sub-Saharan Africa is the term used to describe African countries located south of the Sahara desert. It is used as a cultural and ecological distinction from [[North Africa]]. Because the indigenous people of this region are primarily dark skinned it is sometimes used as a [[politically correct]] term or [[euphemism]] for Black Africa.<ref>{{cite journal| first = Lansana | last = Keita| title = Race, Identity and Africanity: A Reply to Eboussi Boulaga| journal = CODESRIA Bulletin, Nos | volume = 1 & 2| pages = 16| date = 2004| publisher = Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa}}</ref>
Some criticize the use of the term in defining black Africans because the Sahara desert spans across many countries such as Chad, Mali, Sudan, Niger, and Mauritania that belong to both North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa.

Some also argue that it is a racist [[Code word (figure of speech)|code word]].
[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] argues that the term [[sub-Saharan Africa]] is a product of European [[imperialism]]:

{{quote|Sub-Saharan Africa is a racist byword for "primitive", a place which has escaped advancement. Hence, we see statements like “no written languages exist in Sub-Saharan Africa.” “Ancient Egypt was not a Sub-Saharan African civilization.” Sub-Sahara serves as an exclusion, which moves, jumps and slides around to suit negative generalization of Africa.<ref name=Shahadah/>}}

However some Africans actually prefer to be culturally distinguished from their northern neighbors.<ref>{{cite book| last = Keith B. | first = Richburg| title = Out of America: A Black Man Confronts Africa| publisher = Harvest/HBJ Book| date = Reprint edition (July 1, 1998)| isbn = 0156005832 }}</ref>

The [[Race (United States Census)|U.S. census race definitions]] says a black is a person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro," or who provide written entries such as African American, Afro American, Kenyan, Nigerian, or Haitian. However, the Census Bureau notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.<ref name="census"/>

==Ancient Egyptians==
{{main|Ancient Egypt and race}}
[[Image:Egyptian races.jpg|thumb|250px|From left: Libyan, Nubian, Syrian, and Egyptian]]
There is considerable controversy over who the [[Ancient Egyptians]] were. Afrocentrist scholars such as [[Cheikh Anta Diop]] argue that ancient Egypt was primarily a black civilization. As evidence they cite quotes from Herodotus, who stated around 450 B.C.:

<blockquote>The Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips,
broad nose, woolly hair and they are burnt of skin."<ref>{{cite web |title=Huge Ancient Egyptian Photo Gallery| url=http://www.freemaninstitute.com/RTGhistory.htm}}</ref></blockquote>

Mainstream scholars tend to avoid the issue of race but contend that Ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern and African influences.<ref>[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/afrocent_roth.html Building bridges to Afrocentrism]</ref><ref>[http://homelink.cps-k12.org/teachers/filiopa/files/AC383EB269C648AAAA659593B9FC358C.pdf Were the Ancient Egyptians black or white]</ref> They also state that the Egyptians viewed themselves as a distinct people separate from their neighbors.

Ancient Egypt was at the time the most advanced of civilizations. Egyptians in the media were often portrayed as Caucasians.<ref>{{cite web| title = The Identity Of Ancient| url=http://www.calumet.purdue.edu/mcnair/cynthia_research.pdf}} Note: Large file, slow connection</ref> However recent evidence has begun to shed light on the influence of black Africa in ancient Egypt. Based on archaeological evidence black or [[Africoid]] people were present in Ancient Egypt. What remains controversial is when they arrived, their exact roles, significance and influence.<ref>{{cite video| people = [[Basil Davidson]]| title=http://www.lincoln.edu/history/his307/davidson/1/dif3.wmv The Nile]}}</ref>

==Biblical perspective==
{{further|[[Hamitic myth]]}}
According to some historians, the tale in [[Curse of Ham|Genesis 9]] in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.<ref>Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry, (Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 28-117</ref> According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the [[Noah's Flood|Deluge]] and giving rise to three separate races.<ref>{{cite web| title = The Descendants of Noah| url=http://www.bible-truth.org/GEN10.HTM}}</ref>

The biblical passage, [[Book of Genesis]] 9:20-27, which deals with the [[sons of Noah]], however, makes no reference to race. The reputed [[curse of Ham]] is not on [[Sons of Noah|Ham[[, but on [[Canaan]], one of Ham's sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.<ref>{{cite book| last = Redford| first = Donald B. | title = Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times| pages = 23-87| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]| date = 1993| isbn = 0691000867 }}</ref><ref name=Goldenberg>{{cite book| last = Goldenberg| first = David M.| title = The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]| date = New Ed edition (July 18, 2005)| isbn = 0691123705 }}</ref> The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also in not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define blacks, nor assign them to racial hierarchies.<ref name=Goldenberg/>

Historians believe that by the 19th century, the belief that blacks were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery.<ref name=FRLee>Felicia R. Lee, ''[http://www.racematters.org/noahscurseslaverysrationale.htm Noah's Curse Is Slavery's Rationale]'', Racematters.org, November 1, 2003</ref> According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College:

{{quote|in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.<ref name=FRLee/>}}

Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such [[racist]] interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like [[Philo]] and [[Origen]], who equated blackness with darkness of the soul.<ref>Goldenberg, D. M. (2005) ''The Curse of Ham: Race & Slavery in Early Judaism, Christian'', Princeton University Press</ref>

==Asia and Australasia==
[[Image:Vanuatu blonde.jpg|thumb|right|160px| [[Blond]] black from the South Pacific<ref>[http://news.softpedia.com/news/Naturally-Blonde-Blacks-48181.shtml Naturally blonde blacks]</ref> ]]
There are several groups of dark-skinned people who live in various parts of Asia, Australia and the South Pacific. They include the [[Indigenous Australians]], the [[Melanesians]] and various indigenous peoples sometimes collectively known as [[Negritos]]. The term "negrito" is sometimes considered pejorative.

By their external physical appearance such people resemble Africans with dark skin and sometimes tightly coiled hair. Genetically they are distant from Africans and are more closely related to the surrounding Asian populations.<ref>{{cite journal| first = Kumarasamy | last = Thangaraj| coauthors = et al| title = Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population|url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/CB_2002_p1-18.pdf| journal =Current Biology | volume = 13, Number 2| pages = 86-93(8)| date = 21 January 2003}}</ref>

The Dutch colonial officials considered the [[Taiwanese aborigines]] to be "Indians" or "blacks", based on their prior colonial experience in what is currently Indonesia.
[[Image:Australian Aboriginal Flag.svg|140px|thumb|left|[[Australian Aboriginal flag]] ]]
The [[Black War]] refers to a period of conflict between the [[Great Britain|British]] colonists and [[Tasmanian Aborigine]]s in [[Van Diemen's Land]] (now [[Tasmania]]) in the early years of the 1800s.

The Aboriginal Flag was designed by [[Harold Thomas]], an artist and an Aboriginal, in 1971. The flag was designed to be an eye-catching rallying symbol for the Aboriginal people and a symbol of their race and identity.The black represents the Aboriginal people, the red the earth and their spiritual relationship to the land, and the yellow the sun, the giver of life.

==Gallery==
''The following individuals are black by virtually all definitions cited in this article. ''
<gallery>
Image:Wangari Maathai potrait by Martin Rowe.jpg|[[Wangari Maathai]] 
Image:Michael Jordan.jpg|[[Michael Jordan]]
Image:Nakempte Boys.jpg|[[Oromo]] [[Ethiopia]]n boys
Image:Kofi Annan.jpg|[[Kofi Annan]]
Image:Portia Simpson-Miller Official Photograph.jpg| [[Portia Simpson-Miller]]
Image:San tribesman headshot.jpg|[[San people|San]] man
Image:Condoleezza Rice.jpg|[[Condoleezza Rice]]
Image:Dionne Warwick 20030603.jpg|[[Dionne Warwick]]
</gallery>
''The following individuals are considered black by some, multiracial by others:''
<gallery>
Image:ObamaBarack.jpg|[[Barack Obama]]
Image:AnaZuyoung.jpg|[[Blasian]] girl
Image:Tiger Woods02.jpg|[[Tiger Woods]]
Image:Chavez World Social Forum 2005.jpg|[[Hugo Chávez]]
</gallery>
''The following individuals are black to those who define the term by appearance rather than African ancestry''
<gallery>
Image:Vanuatu woman.jpg|[[Vanuatu]] woman
Image:William Laney.jpg|[[William Lanne]], a [[Tasmanian Aborigines|Tasmanian aboriginal]]
Image:birrinbirrin.jpg| [[Indigenous Australian]]
Image:Ati_woman.jpg| [[Ati (tribe)|Ati]] woman from the [[Philippines]]
</gallery>

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

== See also==
* [[African American]]
* [[Brown people]]
* [[Colorism]]
* [[Human genetic variation]]
* [[Recent single-origin hypothesis]]
* [[Race]]
* [[Race (historical definitions)]]
[[Category:Pan-Africanism|*]]
[[Category:African diaspora]]
[[Category:Words referring to ethnic groups]]
[[Category:Social issues]]
[[Category:Social groups]]
[[Category:Race]]
[[Category:Definition]]

[[de:Schwarzafrikaner]]
[[es:Negro (persona)]]
[[fr:Race noire]]
[[he:שחורים]]
[[pl:Czarna rasa człowieka]]
[[ru:Негр]]
[[ru:Негроидная раса]]
[[zh:黑色人种]]

Sibusiso Bengu

2007-07-04T11:21:18Z

Gregorydavid: add link

'''Sibusiso Mandlenkosi Emmanuel Bengu''' (b [[8 May]] [[1934 in South Africa|1934]]) is a prominent [[South Africa]]n [[politician]].

Bengu was born in [[Kranskop]], [[KwaZulu-Natal]] and become a [[teacher]] in [[1952 in South Africa|1952]]. Sibusiso founded the [[Dlangezwa High School]] near [[Empangeni]] in [[1969 in South Africa|1969]] and was principal until [[1976 in South Africa|1976]]. He completed a PhD in political sciences at the [[University of Geneva]] in [[1974 in South Africa|1974]] and in [[1977 in South Africa|1977]] he was appointed a professor at the [[University of Zululand]]. He served as Secretary-General of [[Inkatha Freedom Party]] but due to diffences he clashed with [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]].

Sibusiso left South Africa in [[1978 in South Africa|1978]] and served as secretary for research and social action for the [[Lutheran World Foundation]]. While he was abroad met and became friends with the [[Oliver Tambo]], then acting President of the [[African National Congress]], where the children of both the Thambo and Bengu families were educated while the ANC conducted its policy of ''[[Liberation before education]]'' in South Africa and in the process disrupting the education of thousands of children at the time. He returned in [[1991 in South Africa|1991]] to become first black Vice-chancellor of a South African university, [[Fort Hare University]]. Sibusiso became [[Department of Education (South Africa)|Minister of Education]] in [[1994 in South Africa]] for the new democratic government. He introduced the controversial [[Curriculm 2005]] on [[24 March]] [[1997]]. Due to many calls for his resignation he was finally released from his post in [[1999 in South Africa|1999]] and sent to [[Germany]] to become South Africa's [[ambassador]].

He is married to Funeka and has four daughters and one son.

{{SouthAfrica-politician-stub}}

[[Category:1934 births|Bengu, Sibusiso]]
[[Category:Living people|Bengu, Sibusiso]]
[[Category:South African politicians|Bengu, Sibusiso]]
[[Category:People from KwaZulu-Natal Province|Bengu, S]]

[[id:Sibusiso Bengu]]

Thomas Baines (Maler)

2007-07-02T11:17:14Z

Gregorydavid: He became South Africa’s first official war artist and recorded the Eighth Frontier War (1850-1853).

[[Image:Portrait of Thomas Baines00.jpg|thumb| ''Portrait of Thomas Baines'', (185-?) photograph; 37 x 29.4 cm. [[National Library of Australia]]. ]]

'''(John) Thomas Baines''' ([[27 November]] [[1820]] – [[8 May]] [[1875]]) was an [[England|English]] [[artist]] and [[explorer]] of [[British colonies|British colonial]] [[southern Africa]] and [[Australia]]. Born in [[King's Lynn]] in [[Norfolk]], [[United Kingdom]], Baines was apprenticed to a coach painter at an early age. When he was 22 he left [[England]] for [[South Africa]] aboard the "Olivia" (captained by a family friend William Roome) and worked for a while in [[Cape Town]] as a scenic and portrait artist, and as official war artist during the so-called [[Xhosa Wars|Eighth Frontier War]] for the British Army.

In [[1855]] Baines joined [[Augustus Gregory]]’s 1855–1857 [[Royal Geographical Society]] sponsored expedition across northern Australia as official artist and storekeeper. The expedition’s purpose was to explore the [[Victoria River]] district in the north-west and to evaluate the entire northern area of Australia in terms of its suitability for colonial settlement. His association with the North Australian Expedition was the highpoint of his career, and he was warmly commended for his contribution to it, to the extent that [[Mount Baines]] and the [[Baines River]] were named in honour of him.

[[Image:Thomas Baines, Thomas Baines with Aborigines near the mouth of the Victoria River, N.T, 1857.jpg|thumb|Thomas Baines, ''Thomas Baines with Aborigines near the mouth of the Victoria River, N.T.'', 1857: oil on canvas ; 45 x 65.5 cm. [[National Library of Australia]]. ]]

In [[1858]] Baines accompanied [[David Livingstone]] along the [[Zambezi]], and was one of the first white men to view [[Victoria Falls]]. In [[1869]] Baines led one of the first [[gold prospecting]] expeditions to [[Mashonaland]] in what later became [[Rhodesia]].

From 1861 to 1862 Baines and [[James Chapman (explorer)|James Chapman]] undertook an expedition to [[South West Africa]]. Chapman’s ''Travels in the Interior of South Africa'' (1868) and Baines' ''Explorations in South-West Africa'' (1864), provide a rare account of different perspectives on the same trip. This was the first expedition during which extensive use was made of both photography and painting, and in addition both men kept journals in which, amongst other things, they commented on their own and each other’s practice.

In [[1870]] Baines was granted a concession to explore for gold between the [[Gweru]] and [[Hunyani]] rivers by [[Lobengula]], leader of the [[Matabele]] nation. Thomas Baines died in [[Durban]] in [[1875]].

Baines is today best known for his detailed [[painting]]s and [[sketch (drawing)|sketches]] which give a unique insight into colonial life in southern Africa and Australia. Many of his pictures are held by the [[National Library of Australia]], [[National Archives of Zimbabwe]], [[National Maritime Museum]], [[Brenthurst Library]] and the [[Royal Geographical Society]].

====Publications====
[[Image:thos baines02.jpg|thumb|Self-portrait at age 38. Oil on canvas. William Fehr Collection]]
[[Image:thos baines00.jpg|thumb|Baobab Tree, South Africa. Watercolour painted 29 December 1861]]

* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn1162218 Thomas Baines, ''Explorations in South-West Africa: being an account of a journey in the years 1861 and 1862 from Walvisch Bay, on the Western Coast to Lake Ngami and the Victoria Falls'' (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1864).]
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn2528146 Thomas Baines, ''The gold regions of south eastern Africa'' (London: Edward Stanford, 1877).]
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn138517 J.P.R. Wallis (ed.), ''The northern goldfields diaries of Thomas Baines'' (London: Chatto & Windus, 1946).]
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn617591 Fay Jaff, ''They came to South Africa'' (Cape Town: Timmins, 1963).]
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn2025352 J.P.R. Wallis, ''Thomas Baines, his life and explorations in South Africa, Rhodesia and Australia, 1820-1875'' (Cape Town: A.A. Balkema, 1976).]
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn1932108 Russell Braddon, ''Thomas Baines and the North Australian Expedition'' (Sydney: Collins in association with the Royal Geographical Society, 1986).]
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn485415 Jane Carruthers and Marion Arnold, ''The life and work of Thomas Baines'' (Vlaeberg, South Africa: Fernwood Press, 1995).]
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn3561922 Historic Houses Trust, ''Cape Town, halfway to Sydney 1788-1870: treasures from The Brenthurst Library Johannesburg'' (Sydney: Historic Houses Trust, 2005).]
* William Barry Lord lavishly illustrated by Thomas Baines ''Shifts and Expedients of Camp Life, Travel and Exploration'' (1876)

====External links====
{{commonscat}}
* [http://www.nla.gov.au/catalogue/pictures/ Baines' works in the [[National Library of Australia]], [[Canberra]] ]
* [http://www.nmm.ac.uk/mag/pages/mnuInDepth/Biography.cfm?biog=155 Baines' works in the [[National Maritime Museum]], [[Greenwich]] ]
* [http://www.nla.gov.au/pub/nlanews/2005/oct05/article1.html Jane Carruthers, 'Thomas Baines: Artist-Explorer of Australia and Southern Africa', ''NLA News'', October 2005, Volume XVI, Number 1]
* [http://www.howgego.co.uk/explorers/john_thomas_baines.htm Thos. Baines biography]

[[Category:Explorers of Africa|Baines, Thomas]]
[[Category:Explorers of Australia|Baines, Thomas]]
[[Category:English painters|Baines, Thomas]]
[[Category:Australian painters|Baines, Thomas]]
[[Category:South African painters|Baines, Thomas]]
[[Category:People from King's Lynn|Baines, Thomas]]
[[Category:1820 births|Baines, Thomas]]
[[Category:1875 deaths|Baines, Thomas]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society|Baines, Thomas]]

Grenzkriege

2007-07-02T11:14:22Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853 */ link to Thomas Baines

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids==
In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]].

==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779-1781==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1789-1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxele, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
The Xhosa prophet [[Maqana Nxele]] emerged at this time and promised “to turn bullets into water.” He led the Xhosa armies in several attacks, including the one on [[Grahamstown]] in [[1819]], and was subsequently captured and imprisoned on [[Robben Island]]

When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
* [http://www.ioltravel.co.za/article/view/3851608 Prophet Mlanjeni apparently started this war]
* [[Danger Point]] was the place at Gansbaai where the [[HMS Birkenhead (1845)|HMS Birkenhead]] was wrecked in 1852 while on its way to convey troops to fight in this war.
* [[Thomas Baines]] became South Africa’s first official war artist and recorded the Eighth Frontier War (1850-1853).

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==Cattle Killings, 1856-1857==
In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.[http://africanhistory.about.com/od/glossaryc/g/def_CattleKill.htm]

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Sibusiso Bengu

2007-07-02T09:05:43Z

Gregorydavid: Liberation before education did not apply to all kids

'''Sibusiso Mandlenkosi Emmanuel Bengu''' (b [[8 May]] [[1934 in South Africa|1934]]) is a prominent [[South Africa]]n [[politician]].

Bengu was born in [[Kranskop]], [[KwaZulu-Natal]] and become a [[teacher]] in [[1952 in South Africa|1952]]. Sibusiso founded the [[Dlangezwa High School]] near [[Empangeni]] in [[1969 in South Africa|1969]] and was principal until [[1976 in South Africa|1976]]. He completed a PhD in political sciences at the [[University of Geneva]] in [[1974 in South Africa|1974]] and in [[1977 in South Africa|1977]] he was appointed a professor at the [[University of Zululand]]. He served as Secretary-General of [[Inkatha Freedom Party]] but due to diffences he clashed with [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]].

Sibusiso left South Africa in [[1978 in South Africa|1978]] and served as secretary for research and social action for the [[Lutheran World Foundation]]. While he was abroad met and became friends with the [[Oliver Tambo]], then acting President of the [[African National Congress]], where the children of both the Thambo and Bengu families were educated while the ANC conducted its policy of ''Liberation before education'' in South Africa and in the process disrupting the education of thousands of children at the time. He returned in [[1991 in South Africa|1991]] to become first black Vice-chancellor of a South African university, [[Fort Hare University]]. Sibusiso became [[Department of Education (South Africa)|Minister of Education]] in [[1994 in South Africa]] for the new democratic government. He introduced the controversial [[Curriculm 2005]] on [[24 March]] [[1997]]. Due to many calls for his resignation he was finally released from his post in [[1999 in South Africa|1999]] and sent to [[Germany]] to become South Africa's [[ambassador]].

He is married to Funeka and has four daughters and one son.

{{SouthAfrica-politician-stub}}

[[Category:1934 births|Bengu, Sibusiso]]
[[Category:Living people|Bengu, Sibusiso]]
[[Category:South African politicians|Bengu, Sibusiso]]
[[Category:People from KwaZulu-Natal Province|Bengu, S]]

[[id:Sibusiso Bengu]]

Sibusiso Bengu

2007-07-02T08:44:01Z

Gregorydavid: Department of Education (South Africa)

'''Sibusiso Mandlenkosi Emmanuel Bengu''' (b [[8 May]] [[1934 in South Africa|1934]]) is a prominent [[South Africa]]n [[politician]].

Bengu was born in [[Kranskop]], [[KwaZulu-Natal]] and become a [[teacher]] in [[1952 in South Africa|1952]]. Sibusiso founded the [[Dlangezwa High School]] near [[Empangeni]] in [[1969 in South Africa|1969]] and was principal until [[1976 in South Africa|1976]]. He completed a PhD in political sciences at the [[University of Geneva]] in [[1974 in South Africa|1974]] and in [[1977 in South Africa|1977]] he was appointed a professor at the [[University of Zululand]]. He served as Secretary-General of [[Inkatha Freedom Party]] but due to diffences he clashed with [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]].

Sibusiso left South Africa in [[1978 in South Africa|1978]] and served as secretary for research and social action for the [[Lutheran World Foundation]]. While he was abroad met and became friends with the [[Oliver Tambo]], then acting President of the [[African National Congress]]. He returned in [[1991 in South Africa|1991]] to become first black Vice-chancellor of a South African university, [[Fort Hare University]]. Sibusiso became [[Department of Education (South Africa)|Minister of Education]] in [[1994 in South Africa]] for the new democratic government. He introduced the controversial [[Curriculm 2005]] on [[24 March]] [[1997]]. Due to many calls for his resignation he was finally released from his post in [[1999 in South Africa|1999]] and sent to [[Germany]] to become South Africa's [[ambassador]].

He is married to Funeka and has four daughters and one son.

{{SouthAfrica-politician-stub}}

[[Category:1934 births|Bengu, Sibusiso]]
[[Category:Living people|Bengu, Sibusiso]]
[[Category:South African politicians|Bengu, Sibusiso]]
[[Category:People from KwaZulu-Natal Province|Bengu, S]]

[[id:Sibusiso Bengu]]

Concert for Diana

2007-07-02T06:49:09Z

Gregorydavid: lowercase

{{infobox music festival |
| music_festival_name = Concert for Diana
| image = [[Image:Concertfordiana2007.png|100px]]
| location = [[Wembley Stadium]], [[London]], [[England]], [[UK]]
| founders = [[Prince William]] and [[Prince Harry]]
| years_active= 2007
| dates = [[July 1]], [[2007]]
| genre = [[Concert]]
| website = [http://www.concertfordiana.com/home/index.aspx www.concertfordiana.com]
}}

'''Concert for Diana (The People's Princess)''' was a concert held at the new [[Wembley Stadium]] in [[London]], [[England]], [[United Kingdom]] in honour of the late [[Diana, Princess of Wales]] on [[July 1]], [[2007]], which would have been her 46th birthday. 2007 is also the 10th anniversary of [[Death of Diana, Princess of Wales|her death]]. The concert was hosted by Diana's sons, [[Prince William]] and [[Prince Harry]] who helped to organise for many of the world's most famous entertainers and singers to perform at the concert.

The concert was broadcast in 140 different countries across the world<ref name="abc"> "[http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory?id=3083105 Kanye West, Rod Stewart to perform at Diana concert]". ''ABC News''. Retrieved [[July 1]], [[2007]].</ref> with an estimated audience of 500 million.<ref>"[http://uk.news.launch.yahoo.com/dyna/article.html?a=/01072007/325/pop-stars-pay-tribute-princess-diana.html&e=l_news_dm Pop stars pay tribute to Princess Diana]". ''Yahoo News''. Retrieved [[July 1]], [[2007]].</ref><ref>"[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/showbiz/showbiznews.html?in_article_id=465530&in_page_id=1773 Chelsy and Harry get close at the Diana concert ... but Kate and William keep their distance]". ''Daily Mail''. Retrieved [[July 1]], [[2007]].</ref> 22,500 tickets were made available for purchase in December for the concert and sold out in just 17 minutes.<ref name="abc"/> 63,000 people turned out to [[Wembley Stadium]] to watch the performances to commemorate Diana.<ref name="abc"/><ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6257986.stm Sir Elton launches Diana concert]". ''BBC News''. Retrieved [[July 1]], [[2007]].</ref><ref>"[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?xml=/portal/2007/06/30/nosplit/ftfront130.xml The sons & the stars]". ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved [[July 1]], [[2007]].</ref> At the end of the performances, a video montage of Diana as a child was presented, accompanied by the [[Queen (band)|Queen]] song ''[[These Are the Days of Our Lives]].''

==Performers and speakers==
===Order of performances===
#[[Elton John|Sir Elton John]] - "[[Your Song]]", "[[Saturday Night's Alright For Fighting]]", "[[Tiny Dancer]]" and "Are You Ready For Love?"
#[[Duran Duran]] - "[[(Reach Up for the) Sunrise]]", "[[Wild Boys (song)|Wild Boys]]" and "[[Rio (song)|Rio]]"
#[[James Morrison (singer)|James Morrison]] - "[[You Give Me Something|You Give Me Something]]" and "[[Wonderful World (James Morrison song)|Wonderful World]]"
#[[Lily Allen]] - "[[LDN (song) |LDN]]" and "[[Smile (Lily Allen song)|Smile]]"
#[[Fergie (singer)|Fergie]] - "[[Glamorous (song)|Glamorous]]" and "[[Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)|Big Girls Don't Cry]]"
#[[The Feeling]] - "[[Fill My Little World]]" and "[[Love It When You Call]]"
#[[Pharrel Williams]] - "[[Drop It Like It's Hot]]" and "[[She Wants To Move| She Wants To Move (Remix)]]"
#[[Nelly Furtado]] - "[[Say It Right]]", "[[I'm Like a Bird]]" and "[[Maneater (Nelly Furtado song)|Maneater]]"
#[[English National Ballet]] - "[[Swan Lake]]" (Act IV)
#[[Status Quo]] - "[[Rockin' All Over The World (song)|Rockin' All Over The World]]"
#[[Joss Stone]] - "[[You Had Me]]" and "[[Under Pressure]]" ([[Queen]])
#[[Roger Hodgson]] - [[Supertramp]] Medley "[[Dreamer (Supertramp song)|Dreamer]]", "[[The Logical Song]]" and "[[Breakfast in America (song)|Breakfast in America]]" and "[[Give a Little Bit]]"
#[[Orson]] - "[[Happiness (Orson song)|Happiness]]" and "[[No Tomorrow]]"
#[[Tom Jones (singer)|Sir Tom Jones]] and [[Joe Perry (musician)|Joe Perry]] - "[[Kiss (song)|Kiss]]", "[[I Bet You Look Good On The Dancefloor]]" and "Ain't That A Lot of Love?" (with [[Joss Stone]])
#[[Will Young]] - "[[Switch It On]]"
#[[Natasha Bedingfield]] - "[[Unwritten (song)|Unwritten]]"
#[[Bryan Ferry]] - "Slave to Love", "[[Make You Feel My Love]]" ([[Bob Dylan]]) and "[[Let's Stick Together]] (Extended)" ([[Wilbert Harrison]])
#[[Anastacia]] - "[[Superstar (Jesus Christ Superstar song)|Superstar]]" from ''[[Jesus Christ Superstar]]''
#[[Connie Fisher]] and [[Andrea Ross]] - "[[Memory (song)|Memory]]" from ''[[Cats (musical)|Cats]]''
#[[Andrea Bocelli]] - "[[The Music of the Night]]" from ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)|The Phantom of the Opera]]''
#[[Josh Groban]] and [[Sarah Brightman]] - "All I Ask of You" from ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)|The Phantom of the Opera]]''
#[[Donny Osmond]], [[Jason Donovan]] and [[Lee Mead]] - "[[Any Dream Will Do (song)|Any Dream Will Do]]" from ''[[Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat]]''
#[[Rod Stewart]] - "[[Maggie May]]", "[[Baby Jane (song)|Baby Jane]]" and "[[Sailing (Rod Stewart song)|Sailing]]"
#[[Kanye West]] - "[[Gold Digger]]", " [[Touch the Sky]]", "[[Stronger (Kanye West song)|Stronger]]", "[[Diamonds from Sierra Leone]]" and "[[Jesus Walks]]"
#[[Sean Combs|Diddy]] - "[[I%27ll_Be_Missing_You|I'll Be Missing You]]"
#[[Take That]] - "[[Shine (Take That song)|Shine]]", "[[Patience (Take That song)|Patience]]" and "[[Back For Good]]"
#[[Ricky Gervais]] and [[Mackenzie Crook]] - "[[Free Love Freeway]]"

===Order of speakers===
#[[Prince William of Wales]] and [[Prince Harry of Wales]]
#[[Sienna Miller]] and [[Dennis Hopper]]
#[[Kiefer Sutherland]]
#[[Ryan Seacrest]], [[Simon Cowell]] and [[Randy Jackson]]
#[[Natasha Kaplinsky]]
#[[Dennis Hopper]]
#[[Fearne Cotton]]
#[[Gillian Anderson]]
#[[Boris Becker]] and [[John McEnroe]]
#[[Cat Deeley]]
#[[Kiefer Sutherland]]
#[[Patsy Kensit]]
#[[Jamie Oliver]]
#[[David Beckham]]
#[[Ben Stiller]] (pre-recorded message)
#[[Ricky Gervais]]
#[[Prince William of Wales]] and [[Prince Harry of Wales]]
#[[Nelson Mandela]] (pre-recorded message)

==Notable spectators==
*[[Prince William of Wales]]
*[[Prince Harry of Wales]]
*[[Princess Beatrice of York]]
*[[Princess Eugenie of York]]
*Members of the [[Spencer family]]
*[[Kate Middleton]]
*[[Chelsy Davy]]

==Planning==
*[[Football (soccer)|Football]] star, [[David Beckham]] attended the concert to introduce [[Take That]].
*[[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] and the [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]] were set to play at the concert, however these acts were lost to the upcoming [[Live Earth]] concert. The concert organizers were apparently trying to secure their top acts, and are also being pressured into rethinking their lineup to appeal to younger people, and compare to Live Earth.<ref>"[http://www.starpulse.com/news/index.php/2007/04/23 Princess Diana Concert loses top acts to Live Earth]". ''Starplus''.</ref>
*[[Kate Middleton]], the former girlfriend of Prince William, and [[Chelsy Davy]], the current girlfriend of Prince Harry, attended the concert. It has been rumoured that they were involved in helping to plan the event.<ref>"[http://www.theroyalist.net/content/view/2286/1/ William Invites Kate To The Concert For Diana]". ''The Royal List''.</ref>

==Broadcasting==
The concert was broadcast in 140 countries.

In the [[United Kingdom]] the concert was broadcast on [[BBC One]], [[BBC HD]] and [[BBC Radio 2]] (from 4 p.m. [[Western European Summer Time|BST]]).

In the [[United States]] [[MHD_%28TV_network%29|MHD]], [[VH1]] and [http://www.Vh1.com VH1.com] broadcast the concert from 11 a.m. [[Eastern Time Zone (North America)|EDT]]) and [[NBC]] broadcast a highlights show between 8 p.m.-9 p.m. EDT.

[[VH1 Latin America]] broadcast the concert in [[Latin America]], the [[Caribbean]] and [[Central America]]. [[M-Net]] carried it in [[Africa]], [[Foxtel]] in [[Australia]] (with a highlights package broadcast by the [[Nine Network]]), [[STAR TV (Asia)|Star TV]] throughout [[Asia]], except [[Japan]] where is was shown by [[WOWOW]].

A number of different broadcasters showed the concert in [[Europe]]. Some countries saw the entire show live, others had only highlights.

[[Jamie Theakston]], [[Fearne Cotton]] and [[Claudia Winkleman]] interviewed acts backstage for the [[BBC]] and many other television channels across the world. In the [[United States]], [[VH1]]'s coverage was helmed by [[Aamer Haleem]] and [[Kate Thornton]] with [[Dave Berry (presenter)|Dave Berry]] interviewing performers backstage.

==Video On Demand==

* VH1's [http://www.vh1.com/events/concerts/diana/?source=globalnav minisite] for the Concert For Diana has videos of all the performances from the concert on their VSPOT video on demand service in the United States

* CTV's [http://www.ctv.ca/mini/diana2007/ Concert For Diana] minisite has VOD for the performances for Canadian viewers.

* The BBC's [http://www.bbc.co.uk/concertfordiana/ Concert For Diana] minisite has no VOD of the concert.

==Ricky Gervais==
Like many 'as-live' music events, the Concert for Diana was plagued by a number technical problems, the most glaring of which occured during comedian Ricky Gervais's stand up routine, before Elton John's musical finale. As a planned four minute routine became ten minutes and finally fifteen, viewers saw a visibly flustered Gervais padding for time before a stagehand held up signs saying 'two minutes', 'then 'one minute' and finally 'link to the BBC'. Gervais's last words before handing back to an equally unprepared [[Claudia Winkleman]] and [[Jamie Theakston]] were 'this is a shambles'. The delay led Elton John to drop his hit "[[Crocodile Rock]]" from his set{{Fact|date=July 2007}}.

==Charities==
The money from the concert will go to a number of charities such as [[Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund]], [[Centrepoint (charity)|Centrepoint]] and [[Sentebale]], a charity founded in April 2006, by Prince Harry and Lesotho's Prince Seeiso. It helps vulnerable children and young people in [[Lesotho]] - particularly those orphaned as a result of AIDS.<ref>"[http://www.sentebale.org/home/index.html Sentebale]". ''Sentebale''.</ref>

During the airing of the concert, [[Princess Diana]] was hailed for her generous charity work with the [[Chain of Hope]], [[Luton Indoor Bowling Club]], and [[British Deaf Association]] charities. She was also celebrated for her work with the [[British Red Cross]] in helping get the word out on land mines in [[Angola]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.concertfordiana.com/home/ Concert for Diana official news and information site]
* [http://www.wembley-forum.co.uk/ Wembley Stadium Chat for Concert for Diana event]

[[Category:Benefit concerts]]
[[Category:2007 in music]]

[[nl:Concert for Diana]]
[[pt:Concert for Diana]]

African Renaissance Stadium

2007-06-30T13:55:51Z

Gregorydavid: #REDIRECT Green Point Stadium

#REDIRECT [[Green Point Stadium]]

Kapstadt-Stadion

2007-06-30T13:52:53Z

Gregorydavid:

Das '''Green Point Stadium''' ist ein Mehrzweckstadion in [[Kapstadt]], [[Südafrika]]. Es hat 18.000 Plätze und ist das Heimatstadion des [[Santos Football Club]]. Außer Sportereignissen finden dort auch Rockkonzerte statt, so z.B.
* im November 2003 das [[46664 (Nelson Mandela)|46664 Benefiz Konzert]] zur Bekämpfung von [[Aids]], u.a. mit den [[Eurythmics]], [[Peter Gabriel]] und [[Bob Geldof]].
* im März 2006 das Coca-Cola Colab Massive Mix Festival, u.a. mit [[Metallica]] und [[Fatboy Slim]]

==African Renaissance Stadium==
Das Green Point Stadium wird für die [[Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft 2010]] durch das neue, größere African Renaissance Stadium ersetzt.

{{Koordinate Artikel|33_54_20_S_18_24_31_E_type:landmark_region:ZA-WC|33° 54' 20" S, 18° 24' 31" O}}
Das '''African Renaissance Stadium''' wird eine Multifunktionsarena in [[Kapstadt]], [[Südafrika]]. Derzeit ist das mit 68.000 Plätzen vorgesehene Stadion in der Planungsphase. Während der [[Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft 2010]] sollen hier einige Spiele, unter anderem die Eröffnungsbegegnung, ausgetragen werden. Das Stadion wird das bekannte [[Green Point Stadium]] mit 18.000 Plätzen im Stadtteil Green Point, direkt an der [[Victoria and Alfred Waterfront]] ersetzen. Die Eröffnung ist für 2008 geplant. Nach der WM sollen in dem Stadion Spiele der Fußballmannschaften aus Kapstadt ausgetragen werden und die Plätze auf 55.000 reduziert werden.

Während der Planungsphase gab es große Bedenken seitens der Anwohner und erhebliche Spannungen zwischen der Kapstädter Bürgermeisterin [[Helen Zille]] und dem Premier des [[Westkap|Westkaps]] [[Ebrahim Rasool]], der Zille vorwarf den Bau zu gefähren, der Stadionneubau wurde jedoch anschließend genehmigt. Wann mit dem Stadionumbau begonnen wird, steht derzeit noch nicht fest.
== Weblinks ==
*Stadion mit [[Google Earth]] anzeigen
*Stadium Webcam[[http://www.kapstadt.com/allgemeines/webcam-kapstadt-stadium-2010/]] von Kapstadt.com
[[Kategorie:Fußballstadion in Südafrika]]
[[Kategorie:Kapstadt]]

{{Koordinate Artikel|33_54_19_S_18_24_31_E_type:landmark_region:ZA-WC|33° 54' 19" S, 18° 24' 31" O}}

[[en:Green Point Stadium]]
[[fr:African Renaissance Stadium]]
[[nl:Greenpoint Stadium]]
[[pt:African Renaissance Stadium]]

[[Kategorie:Fußballstadion in Südafrika]]
[[Kategorie:Kapstadt]]

Massaker von Bisho

2007-06-29T08:41:44Z

Gregorydavid: /* Goldstone Commission */ Ronnie Kasrils

The '''Bisho massacre''' occurred on [[7 September]] [[1992]] in [[Bhisho|Bisho]], in the nominally independent [[Bantustan|homeland]] of [[Ciskei]] in [[South Africa]]. Twenty-eight [[African National Congress]] supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the Ciskei Defence Force during a protest march when they attempted to enter Bisho to demand its reincorporation into South Africa during the final years of [[apartheid]].

==Background==
Bisho (now spelled ''Bhisho'') was the capital of the Ciskei, a nominally independent homeland ([[bantustan]]) for the [[Xhosa]] people in South Africa. The system of racially segregated homelands had been a core of apartheid, but between 1990 and 1994, negotiations were taking place between the government of South Africa and the African National Congress (ANC) to end the apartheid system.

With multi-racial democratic elections as the likely outcome of the negotiations, the ANC wished to organise and mobilise its supporters in the Ciskei, particularly as it lay in the [[Eastern Cape]] area, a traditional stronghold for ANC supporters. However, its military leader Brigadier [[Oupa Gqozo]] resisted this and prevented the ANC from organising.

==Protest march and massacre==
On [[3 September]], the ANC sent a memorandum to President [[Frederik Willem de Klerk|F. W. de Klerk]] demanding that he replace Gqozo with an interim administration which would permit free democratic activity in Ciskei, but De Klerk refused, on the grounds that the Ciskei did not fall under South Africa’s jurisdiction.<ref name=sparks>{{cite book|first=Allister|last=Sparks|title=Tomorrow is Another Country|year=1994|publisher=Struik}}</ref> At the time, negotiations had broken down, with the ANC withdrawing following the [[Boipatong massacre]] and accusing de Klerk's government of fomenting the violence.

As a result, the ANC began a campaign of "mass action", organising a protest march to occupy Bisho and force Gqozo's resignation. Gqozo sought a court interdict to prevent the march, and the magistrate ruled that it could take place at the homeland's independence stadium, outside Bisho, but could not enter the capital. The ANC refused to recognise the jurisdiction of the Ciskei court.

On [[7 September]], about 80 000 protesters gathered outside Bisho, signalling the wide opposition to Gqozo's rule. The meeting was led by senior ANC leaders including [[South African Communist Party]] Secretary General [[Chris Hani]], [[Cyril Ramaphosa]], [[Steve Tshwete]] and [[Ronnie Kasrils]].

When Kasrils led a group trying to break through the Ciskei Defence Force lines to enter Bisho, Ciskei Defence Force soldiers opened fire on the marchers with automatic weapons, killing 28 marchers and one soldier, and injuring over 200. More than 425 rounds were fired, the first fusillade lasting one-and-a-half minutes, and the second lasting a minute.<ref name=buffalocity>{{cite web|url=http://www.buffalocity.gov.za/visitors/massacre.stm|title=Bhisho Massacre|publisher=Buffalo City Municipality|accessdate=2007-02-20}}</ref>

Various inquiries agreed that the order to fire came from Colonel Vakele Archibald Mkosana, who incorrectly told his commanders by radio that his troops were under fire, and was given permission to return fire. Rifleman Mzamile Thomas Gonya was also found to have opened fire with a grenade launcher, killing one marcher.<ref name=dispatch>{{cite news|title=Two face trial for Bisho massacre|publisher=Dispatch Online|date=June 1, 2001|author=Feni, Lulamile & Flanagan, Louise|url=http://www.dispatch.co.za/2001/06/01/easterncape/AAMASACR.HTM}}</ref>

==Goldstone Commission==
The [[Goldstone Commission]] was tasked with investigating the massacre, and Justice [[Richard Goldstone]] condemned Gqozo for preventing political activity in Ciskei as well as for the lethal brutality of the Ciskei Defence Force troops. It dismissed his claim that the demonstrators had fired first, and it was later found that a Ciskei soldier who died during the shooting had been shot by a fellow soldier. It recommended strong action against Gqozo and those responsible. It also condemned [[Ronnie Kasrils]] for his irresponsible action in leading marchers breaking through the razor wire and provoking the forces into opening fire.<ref name=sahistory>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1992-09-23.htm|title=Goldstone Commission investigates the Bisho Massacre|accessdate=2007-02-20|publisher=South African History Online}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
Ultimately, the massacre led to new negotiations between the ANC and the government. [[Nelson Mandela]] met de Klerk on [[26 September]] and signed a Record of Understanding, establishing an independent body to oversee police operations.<ref name=Mandela>{{cite book|title=[[Long Walk to Freedom (book)|Long Walk to Freedom]]|first=Nelson|last=Mandela|year=1994}}</ref>

Gqozo remained in power in Ciskei but resigned shortly before the [[South African general election, 1994|elections]] of [[27 April]] [[1994]].

A granite monument was erected on the site of the massacre, outside Independence Stadium, off Maitland Road between Bhisho and [[King William's Town]]. It was unveiled by Archbishop [[Desmond Tutu]] in 1997. The victims were buried in Ginsberg township outside King William's Town.

==Truth Commission hearing and prosecution==
Only two applications for amnesty for the massacre were received by the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]], from Colonel Mkosana, who gave the order to open fire, and Rifleman Gonya, who fired a grenade launcher. Gqozo agreed to testify before the TRC, but failed to appear after being admitted to a psychiatric hospital suffering from depression.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=SAPA|url=http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/media/1996/9609/s960909e.htm|date=September 9, 1996|title=Gqozo's to Testify at TRC Hearing on Bisho Massacre}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=SAPA|url=http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/media/1996/9610/s961001a.htm|date=October 1, 1996|title=Gqozo's Lawyers Deny TRC Contact on Hearing Date}}</ref>

In 2000, both Mkosana and Gonya were denied amnesty on the grounds that their actions were reckless and disproportionate and not associated with a political motive.<ref name=amnesty>{{cite web|url=http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/decisions/2000/ac20122.htm|title=Amnesty Committee|pblisher=Trth and Reconciliation Commission|year=2000|accessdate=2007-02-20}}</ref>

Following their failure to receive amnesty, Mkosana and Gonya were charged with one count of murder and Mkosana with 28 counts of culpable homicide. They were found not guilty on all charges on the grounds of self-defence.<ref name=dispatch/><ref name=dispatch2>{{cite news|title=Mkosana, Gonya freed on all charges|publisher=Dispatch Online|date=March 14, 2002 |first=Louise|last=Flanagan|url=http://www.dispatch.co.za/2002/03/14/easterncape/AAAFREE.HTM}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Massacres in South Africa]]
[[Category:Events associated with apartheid]]

[[fi:Bishon verilöyly]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-25T11:22:20Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853 */ HMS Birkenhead

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids==
In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]].

==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779-1781==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1789-1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxele, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
The Xhosa prophet [[Maqana Nxele]] emerged at this time and promised “to turn bullets into water.” He led the Xhosa armies in several attacks, including the one on [[Grahamstown]] in [[1819]], and was subsequently captured and imprisoned on [[Robben Island]]

When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
* [http://www.ioltravel.co.za/article/view/3851608 Prophet Mlanjeni apparently started this war]
* [[Danger Point]] was the place at Gansbaai where the [[HMS Birkenhead (1845)|HMS Birkenhead]] was wrecked in 1852 while on its way to convey troops to fight in this war.
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==Cattle Killings, 1856-1857==
In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-20T20:20:52Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847 */

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids==
In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]].

==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779-1781==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1789-1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxele, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
The Xhosa prophet [[Maqana Nxele]] emerged at this time and promised “to turn bullets into water.” He led the Xhosa armies in several attacks, including the one on [[Grahamstown]] in [[1819]], and was subsequently captured and imprisoned on [[Robben Island]]

When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

We crossed the Keiskamma River and went on to Fort Peddie, besieged and attacked by 8 000 Xhosas in the 7th Frontier war.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
* [http://www.ioltravel.co.za/article/view/3851608 Prophet Mlanjeni apparently started this war]
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==Cattle Killings, 1856-1857==
In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-20T20:13:46Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819 */

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids==
In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]].

==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779-1781==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1789-1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxele, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
The Xhosa prophet [[Maqana Nxele]] emerged at this time and promised “to turn bullets into water.” He led the Xhosa armies in several attacks, including the one on [[Grahamstown]] in [[1819]], and was subsequently captured and imprisoned on [[Robben Island]]

When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
* [http://www.ioltravel.co.za/article/view/3851608 Prophet Mlanjeni apparently started this war]
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==Cattle Killings, 1856-1857==
In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-20T20:00:22Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853 */

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids==
In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]].

==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779-1781==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1789-1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxele, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
* [http://www.ioltravel.co.za/article/view/3851608 Prophet Mlanjeni apparently started this war]
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==Cattle Killings, 1856-1857==
In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-20T19:31:46Z

Gregorydavid: move Cattle Killing content

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids==
In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]].

==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779-1781==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1789-1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxele, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==Cattle Killings, 1856-1857==
In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}

{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-20T19:06:05Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812 */

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}
==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779-1781==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1789-1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxele, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-20T19:05:19Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812 */ external link

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}
==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779-1781==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1789-1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.

* [http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/SSAXhosa.html Nxle, Xhosa prophet who predicted that Xhosa ancestors would rise from the dead and win the battle]

==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-08T17:27:16Z

Gregorydavid: /* References */ Irregular units

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}
==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779-1781==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1789-1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Irregular units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

''Italic text''

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-08T14:45:22Z

Gregorydavid: add dates

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}
==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779-1781==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1789-1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

''Italic text''

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-08T14:38:06Z

Gregorydavid: Reference: List of wars

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}
==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://www.justdone.co.za/ROH/List_Wars.asp List of wars]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

''Italic text''

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-08T14:29:31Z

Gregorydavid: /* References */ Units > Commandos

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}
==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

→→==References==
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Commandos of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

''Italic text''

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-08T14:27:24Z

Gregorydavid: /* References */ Burgher Units of the 7th Xhosa War

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}
==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol021jh.html Burgher Units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

''Italic text''

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-08T14:21:31Z

Gregorydavid: ==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}
==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

''Italic text''

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-08T14:19:40Z

Gregorydavid: /* References */ link to reference

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}
==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://rapidttp.com/milhist/vol013jh.html Units of the 7th Xhosa War]
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

''Italic text''

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-08T14:09:42Z

Gregorydavid: 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.{{Fact|article|date=June 2007}}
==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1793==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 8th Xhosa War, 1851-1853==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
This 9th War started after the harassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.



===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2007}}
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

''Italic text''

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-06T06:04:47Z

Gregorydavid: add 1st to 3rd wars

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

{{ main|Nongqawuse }}

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.
==The 1st Xhosa War, 1779==
The frontier border was established between the Fish and Sundays Rivers.
==The 2nd Xhosa War, 1793==
The frontier border moved west to Sundays River.
==The 3rd Xhosa War, 1799-1803==
The frontier border was established at Sundays River.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5 700 horses, 115 000 head of cattle and 162 000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7 000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==

Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
This 9th War started after the harrassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.


===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===

==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

''Italic text''

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-06T05:55:17Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819 */ add content

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

{{ main|Nongqawuse }}

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened and triggered the fifth Xhosa War. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River, and tried to populate a buffer zone with loyal Africans.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5 700 horses, 115 000 head of cattle and 162 000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7 000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==

Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
This 9th War started after the harrassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.


===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===

==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

''Italic text''

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-06T05:51:08Z

Gregorydavid: ==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

{{ main|Nongqawuse }}

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.
==The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812==
This was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5 700 horses, 115 000 head of cattle and 162 000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7 000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==

Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
This 9th War started after the harrassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.


===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===

==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

''Italic text''

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-06T05:39:41Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879 */ revise spelling

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from 1779 and 1879 in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in 1811 they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

{{ main|Nongqawuse }}

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of 1834 to 1835 sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In 1856 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5 700 horses, 115 000 head of cattle and 162 000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7 000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==

Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March, 1846. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of 1848 the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
This 9th War started after the harrassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Gcaleka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Gcaleka chief refused.


===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===

==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

''Italic text''

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-05T22:36:33Z

Gregorydavid: ==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==

[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from [[1779]] and [[1879]] in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in [[1806]], British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in [[1811]] they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to [[1811]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

{{ main|Nongqawuse }}

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of [[1834]] to [[1835]] sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In [[1856]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.
==The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819==
==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5 700 horses, 115 000 head of cattle and 162 000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7 000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==

Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in [[March]], [[1846]]. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of [[1848]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
This 9th War started after the harrassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Galeka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Galeka chief refused.


===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===

==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880-1881==
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

''Italic text''

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-05T18:54:54Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879 */

{{neutrality}}
[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from [[1779]] and [[1879]] in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in [[1806]], British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in [[1811]] they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to [[1811]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

{{ main|Nongqawuse }}

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of [[1834]] to [[1835]] sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In [[1856]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5 700 horses, 115 000 head of cattle and 162 000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7 000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==

Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in [[March]], [[1846]]. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of [[1848]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
This 9th War started after the harrassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Galeka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Galeka chief refused.


===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===

==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880 - 1881==
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

''Italic text''

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-05T18:50:40Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879 */

{{neutrality}}
[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from [[1779]] and [[1879]] in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in [[1806]], British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in [[1811]] they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to [[1811]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

{{ main|Nongqawuse }}

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of [[1834]] to [[1835]] sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In [[1856]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5 700 horses, 115 000 head of cattle and 162 000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7 000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==

Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in [[March]], [[1846]]. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of [[1848]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
This 9th War started after the harrassing of the [[Fingoes]] by [[Kreli]]'s [[Galeka]]s and when summoned to meet [[Frere]] at [[King William's Town]], the Galeka cief refused.


===Battle of Umzintanzani - 2 December 1877===
===Battle of Quintana - 7 February 1878===

==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880 - 1881==
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

''Italic text''

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-05T17:08:53Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 7th Xhosa War, 1846 */ [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]

{{neutrality}}
[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from [[1779]] and [[1879]] in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in [[1806]], British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in [[1811]] they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colons were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to [[1811]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

{{ main|Nongqawuse }}

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of [[1834]] to [[1835]] sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In [[1856]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5 700 horses, 115 000 head of cattle and 162 000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7 000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==

Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in [[March]], [[1846]]. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1836-05-14.html Fort Peddie]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of [[1848]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
The last war was a feeble attempt by the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] returning from diamond fields to regain control of their land. All [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] territory the became part of the Cape Colony.
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880 - 1881==
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

''Italic text''

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-05T17:01:33Z

Gregorydavid: /* The 7th Xhosa War, 1846 */ wikify

{{neutrality}}
[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from [[1779]] and [[1879]] in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in [[1806]], British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in [[1811]] they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colons were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to [[1811]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

{{ main|Nongqawuse }}

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of [[1834]] to [[1835]] sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In [[1856]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5 700 horses, 115 000 head of cattle and 162 000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7 000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==

Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in [[March]], [[1846]]. The [[Ngqikas]] were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the [[Tambukies]]. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by [[General Somerset]] on the [[Gwangu]], a few miles from [[Fort Peddie]]. However, the war continued until [[Sandili]], the chief of the [[Ngqika]], surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of [[1848]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
The last war was a feeble attempt by the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] returning from diamond fields to regain control of their land. All [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] territory the became part of the Cape Colony.
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880 - 1881==
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

''Italic text''

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-05T16:57:43Z

Gregorydavid: alter caption

{{neutrality}}
[[Image:Xhosa1851.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A painting depicting the Xhosa wars of 1851]]
The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from [[1779]] and [[1879]] in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==
The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in [[1806]], British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in [[1811]] they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colons were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to [[1811]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

{{ main|Nongqawuse }}

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of [[1834]] to [[1835]] sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In [[1856]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5 700 horses, 115 000 head of cattle and 162 000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7 000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==

Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in [[March]], [[1846]]. The Ngqikas were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the Tambukies. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by General Somerset on the Gwangu, a few miles from Fort Peddie. However, the war continued until Sandili, the chief of the Ngqika, surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of [[1848]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
The last war was a feeble attempt by the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] returning from diamond fields to regain control of their land. All [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] territory the became part of the Cape Colony.
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880 - 1881==
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

''Italic text''

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Wahlen in Südafrika 1994

2007-06-03T10:18:01Z

Gregorydavid: /* External links */

{{election south africa}}
[[Image:VoteMural-enh.jpg|thumb|Mural of the election in Cape Town.|150px|left]]
The '''South African general election of 1994''' was the first free [[general election|election]] held in [[South Africa]] after the end of [[apartheid]], therefore also the first held on a non-racial basis and with [[universal suffrage]]. The election was conducted under the direction of the [[Independent Electoral Commission]] (IEC).

Millions queued in lines over a three day voting period. Altogether 19,726,579 votes were counted and 193,081 were rejected as invalid. The [[African National Congress]], whose slate incorporated the labour confederation [[Congress of South African Trade Unions|COSATU]] and the [[South African Communist Party]], fell slightly short of a two-thirds majority. ANC leaders opted to form a tripartite [[Government of National Unity]] with the [[National Party (South Africa)]] and the [[Inkatha Freedom Party]].

The date [[27 April]] is now a [[Public holidays in South Africa|public holiday in South Africa]], [[Freedom Day (South Africa)|Freedom Day]].

==National Assembly results==
{| {{fintabell}}
|- style="border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" bgcolor="#cccccc"
! '''Party (abbr.)'''
! '''Votes'''
! '''%'''
! '''Seats'''
|-
| [[African National Congress]] (ANC)
| align="right" | 12,237,655
| align="right" | 62.65
| align="right" | 252
|-
| [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] (NP)
| align="right" | 3,983,690
| align="right" | 20.39
| align="right" | 82
|-
| [[Inkatha Freedom Party]] (IFP)
| align="right" | 2,058,294
| align="right" | 10.54
| align="right" | 43
|-
| [[Freedom Front (South Africa)|Freedom Front]] (FF-VF)
| align="right" | 424,555
| align="right" | 2.17
| align="right" | 9
|-
| [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]] (DP)
| align="right" | 338,426
| align="right" | 1.73
| align="right" | 7
|-
| [[Pan-Africanist Congress|Pan Africanist Congress of Azania]] (PAC)
| align="right" | 243,478
| align="right" | 1.25
| align="right" | 5
|-
| [[African Christian Democratic Party]] (ACDP)
| align="right" | 88,104
| align="right" | 0.45
| align="right" | 2
|-
| [[Africa Muslim Party]] (AMP)
| align="right" | 34,466
| align="right" | 0.18
|-
| [[African Moderates Congress Party]] (AMCP)
| align="right" | 27,690
| align="right" | 0.14
|-
| [[Dikwankwetla Party of South Africa]] (DPSA)
| align="right" | 19,451
| align="right" | 0.10
|-
| [[Federal Party (South Africa)|Federal Party]] (FP)
| align="right" | 17,663
| align="right" | 0.09
|-
| [[Minority Front (South Africa)|Minority Front]] (MF)
| align="right" | 13,433
| align="right" | 0.07
|-
| [[Sport Organisation for Collective Contributions and Equal Rights]] (SOCCER)
| align="right" | 10,575
| align="right" | 0.05
|-
| [[African Democratic Movement]] (ADM)
| align="right" | 9,886
| align="right" | 0.05
|-
| [[Women's Rights Peace Party]] (WRPP)
| align="right" | 6,434
| align="right" | 0.03
|-
| [[Ximoko Progressive Party]] (XPP)
| align="right" | 6,320
| align="right" | 0.03
|-
| [[Keep It Straight and Simple Party]] (KISS)
| align="right" | 5,916
| align="right" | 0.03
|-
| [[Workers' List Party]] (WLP)
| align="right" | 4,169
| align="right" | 0.02
|-
| [[Luso-South African Party]] (LUSO)
| align="right" | 3,293
| align="right" | 0.02
|-
| '''Total'''
| align="right" | 19533498
| align="right" | 100
| align="right" | 400
|}

==Provincial Legislatures results==
{| class="wikitable"
!Political party
!Votes
!%
!Seats
|-
| African National Congress (ANC)
| align="right" | 12,137,307
| align="right" | 62.3
| align="right" | 266
|-
| National Party (NP)
| align="right" | 3,492,467
| align="right" | 17.9
| align="right" | 82
|-
| Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP)
| align="right" | 2,047,083
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 44
|-
| Freedom Front (FF-VF)
| align="right" | 639,643
| align="right" | 3.3
| align="right" | 14
|-
| Democratic Party (DP)
| align="right" | 538,655
| align="right" | 2.8
| align="right" | 12
|-
| Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC)
| align="right" | 271,793
| align="right" | 1.4
| align="right" | 3
|-
| African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP)
| align="right" | 117,825
| align="right" | 0.6
| align="right" | 3
|-
| Minority Front (MF)
| align="right" | 48,951
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 1
|-
| Africa Muslim Party (AMP)
| align="right" | 51,773
| align="right" | 0.3
|-
| African Democratic Movement (ADM)
| align="right" | 34,233
| align="right" | 0.2
|-
| Dikwankwetla Party of South Africa (DPSA)
| align="right" | 21,877
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| [[Islamic Party (South Africa)|Islamic Party]] (IP)
| align="right" | 16,762
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| Federal Party (FP)
| align="right" | 16,279
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| [[United People's Front]] (UPF)
| align="right" | 10,123
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| Ximoko Progressive Party (XPP)
| align="right" | 8,238
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| Women's Rights Peace Party (WRPP)
| align="right" | 7,279
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Wes-Kaap Federaliste Party]] (WKFP)
| align="right" | 6,337
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Workers International to Rebuild the Fourth International]] (SA) (WI)
| align="right" | 5,481
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| Luso-South African Party (LUSO)
| align="right" | 5,423
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[South African Women's Party]] (SAWP)
| align="right" | 2,641
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Green Party of South Africa|Green Party]] (GRP)
| align="right" | 2,611
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Merit Party]] (MP)
| align="right" | 2,028
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Right Party]] (RP)
| align="right" | 921
| align="right" | 0.0
|}

==See also==
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/South_African_general_election%2C_1994 Election results at Wikisource]

{{South African elections}}
==External links==
*U.S. Department of the Army, ''South Africa Country Study'', "[http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/77.htm The 1994 Elections]"
* [http://www.elections.org.za/Elections94.asp IEC results for 1994 election]
* [http://www.uiowa.edu/~electdis/SouthAfrica.htm Proportional representation and alternative systems]
[[Category:Elections in South Africa]]
[[Category:1994 elections]]

Wahlen in Südafrika 1994

2007-06-03T10:17:13Z

Gregorydavid: /* External links */ * [http://www.uiowa.edu/~electdis/SouthAfrica.htm Propotional representation and alternative systems]

{{election south africa}}
[[Image:VoteMural-enh.jpg|thumb|Mural of the election in Cape Town.|150px|left]]
The '''South African general election of 1994''' was the first free [[general election|election]] held in [[South Africa]] after the end of [[apartheid]], therefore also the first held on a non-racial basis and with [[universal suffrage]]. The election was conducted under the direction of the [[Independent Electoral Commission]] (IEC).

Millions queued in lines over a three day voting period. Altogether 19,726,579 votes were counted and 193,081 were rejected as invalid. The [[African National Congress]], whose slate incorporated the labour confederation [[Congress of South African Trade Unions|COSATU]] and the [[South African Communist Party]], fell slightly short of a two-thirds majority. ANC leaders opted to form a tripartite [[Government of National Unity]] with the [[National Party (South Africa)]] and the [[Inkatha Freedom Party]].

The date [[27 April]] is now a [[Public holidays in South Africa|public holiday in South Africa]], [[Freedom Day (South Africa)|Freedom Day]].

==National Assembly results==
{| {{fintabell}}
|- style="border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" bgcolor="#cccccc"
! '''Party (abbr.)'''
! '''Votes'''
! '''%'''
! '''Seats'''
|-
| [[African National Congress]] (ANC)
| align="right" | 12,237,655
| align="right" | 62.65
| align="right" | 252
|-
| [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] (NP)
| align="right" | 3,983,690
| align="right" | 20.39
| align="right" | 82
|-
| [[Inkatha Freedom Party]] (IFP)
| align="right" | 2,058,294
| align="right" | 10.54
| align="right" | 43
|-
| [[Freedom Front (South Africa)|Freedom Front]] (FF-VF)
| align="right" | 424,555
| align="right" | 2.17
| align="right" | 9
|-
| [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]] (DP)
| align="right" | 338,426
| align="right" | 1.73
| align="right" | 7
|-
| [[Pan-Africanist Congress|Pan Africanist Congress of Azania]] (PAC)
| align="right" | 243,478
| align="right" | 1.25
| align="right" | 5
|-
| [[African Christian Democratic Party]] (ACDP)
| align="right" | 88,104
| align="right" | 0.45
| align="right" | 2
|-
| [[Africa Muslim Party]] (AMP)
| align="right" | 34,466
| align="right" | 0.18
|-
| [[African Moderates Congress Party]] (AMCP)
| align="right" | 27,690
| align="right" | 0.14
|-
| [[Dikwankwetla Party of South Africa]] (DPSA)
| align="right" | 19,451
| align="right" | 0.10
|-
| [[Federal Party (South Africa)|Federal Party]] (FP)
| align="right" | 17,663
| align="right" | 0.09
|-
| [[Minority Front (South Africa)|Minority Front]] (MF)
| align="right" | 13,433
| align="right" | 0.07
|-
| [[Sport Organisation for Collective Contributions and Equal Rights]] (SOCCER)
| align="right" | 10,575
| align="right" | 0.05
|-
| [[African Democratic Movement]] (ADM)
| align="right" | 9,886
| align="right" | 0.05
|-
| [[Women's Rights Peace Party]] (WRPP)
| align="right" | 6,434
| align="right" | 0.03
|-
| [[Ximoko Progressive Party]] (XPP)
| align="right" | 6,320
| align="right" | 0.03
|-
| [[Keep It Straight and Simple Party]] (KISS)
| align="right" | 5,916
| align="right" | 0.03
|-
| [[Workers' List Party]] (WLP)
| align="right" | 4,169
| align="right" | 0.02
|-
| [[Luso-South African Party]] (LUSO)
| align="right" | 3,293
| align="right" | 0.02
|-
| '''Total'''
| align="right" | 19533498
| align="right" | 100
| align="right" | 400
|}

==Provincial Legislatures results==
{| class="wikitable"
!Political party
!Votes
!%
!Seats
|-
| African National Congress (ANC)
| align="right" | 12,137,307
| align="right" | 62.3
| align="right" | 266
|-
| National Party (NP)
| align="right" | 3,492,467
| align="right" | 17.9
| align="right" | 82
|-
| Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP)
| align="right" | 2,047,083
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 44
|-
| Freedom Front (FF-VF)
| align="right" | 639,643
| align="right" | 3.3
| align="right" | 14
|-
| Democratic Party (DP)
| align="right" | 538,655
| align="right" | 2.8
| align="right" | 12
|-
| Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC)
| align="right" | 271,793
| align="right" | 1.4
| align="right" | 3
|-
| African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP)
| align="right" | 117,825
| align="right" | 0.6
| align="right" | 3
|-
| Minority Front (MF)
| align="right" | 48,951
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 1
|-
| Africa Muslim Party (AMP)
| align="right" | 51,773
| align="right" | 0.3
|-
| African Democratic Movement (ADM)
| align="right" | 34,233
| align="right" | 0.2
|-
| Dikwankwetla Party of South Africa (DPSA)
| align="right" | 21,877
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| [[Islamic Party (South Africa)|Islamic Party]] (IP)
| align="right" | 16,762
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| Federal Party (FP)
| align="right" | 16,279
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| [[United People's Front]] (UPF)
| align="right" | 10,123
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| Ximoko Progressive Party (XPP)
| align="right" | 8,238
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| Women's Rights Peace Party (WRPP)
| align="right" | 7,279
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Wes-Kaap Federaliste Party]] (WKFP)
| align="right" | 6,337
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Workers International to Rebuild the Fourth International]] (SA) (WI)
| align="right" | 5,481
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| Luso-South African Party (LUSO)
| align="right" | 5,423
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[South African Women's Party]] (SAWP)
| align="right" | 2,641
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Green Party of South Africa|Green Party]] (GRP)
| align="right" | 2,611
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Merit Party]] (MP)
| align="right" | 2,028
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Right Party]] (RP)
| align="right" | 921
| align="right" | 0.0
|}

==See also==
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/South_African_general_election%2C_1994 Election results at Wikisource]

{{South African elections}}
==External links==
*U.S. Department of the Army, ''South Africa Country Study'', "[http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/77.htm The 1994 Elections]"
* [http://www.elections.org.za/Elections94.asp IEC results for 1994 election]
* [http://www.uiowa.edu/~electdis/SouthAfrica.htm Propotional representation and alternative systems]
[[Category:Elections in South Africa]]
[[Category:1994 elections]]

Wahlen in Südafrika 1994

2007-06-03T09:54:12Z

Gregorydavid: * [http://www.elections.org.za/Elections94.asp IEC results for 1994 election]

{{election south africa}}
[[Image:VoteMural-enh.jpg|thumb|Mural of the election in Cape Town.|150px|left]]
The '''South African general election of 1994''' was the first free [[general election|election]] held in [[South Africa]] after the end of [[apartheid]], therefore also the first held on a non-racial basis and with [[universal suffrage]]. The election was conducted under the direction of the [[Independent Electoral Commission]] (IEC).

Millions queued in lines over a three day voting period. Altogether 19,726,579 votes were counted and 193,081 were rejected as invalid. The [[African National Congress]], whose slate incorporated the labour confederation [[Congress of South African Trade Unions|COSATU]] and the [[South African Communist Party]], fell slightly short of a two-thirds majority. ANC leaders opted to form a tripartite [[Government of National Unity]] with the [[National Party (South Africa)]] and the [[Inkatha Freedom Party]].

The date [[27 April]] is now a [[Public holidays in South Africa|public holiday in South Africa]], [[Freedom Day (South Africa)|Freedom Day]].

==National Assembly results==
{| {{fintabell}}
|- style="border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" bgcolor="#cccccc"
! '''Party (abbr.)'''
! '''Votes'''
! '''%'''
! '''Seats'''
|-
| [[African National Congress]] (ANC)
| align="right" | 12,237,655
| align="right" | 62.65
| align="right" | 252
|-
| [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] (NP)
| align="right" | 3,983,690
| align="right" | 20.39
| align="right" | 82
|-
| [[Inkatha Freedom Party]] (IFP)
| align="right" | 2,058,294
| align="right" | 10.54
| align="right" | 43
|-
| [[Freedom Front (South Africa)|Freedom Front]] (FF-VF)
| align="right" | 424,555
| align="right" | 2.17
| align="right" | 9
|-
| [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]] (DP)
| align="right" | 338,426
| align="right" | 1.73
| align="right" | 7
|-
| [[Pan-Africanist Congress|Pan Africanist Congress of Azania]] (PAC)
| align="right" | 243,478
| align="right" | 1.25
| align="right" | 5
|-
| [[African Christian Democratic Party]] (ACDP)
| align="right" | 88,104
| align="right" | 0.45
| align="right" | 2
|-
| [[Africa Muslim Party]] (AMP)
| align="right" | 34,466
| align="right" | 0.18
|-
| [[African Moderates Congress Party]] (AMCP)
| align="right" | 27,690
| align="right" | 0.14
|-
| [[Dikwankwetla Party of South Africa]] (DPSA)
| align="right" | 19,451
| align="right" | 0.10
|-
| [[Federal Party (South Africa)|Federal Party]] (FP)
| align="right" | 17,663
| align="right" | 0.09
|-
| [[Minority Front (South Africa)|Minority Front]] (MF)
| align="right" | 13,433
| align="right" | 0.07
|-
| [[Sport Organisation for Collective Contributions and Equal Rights]] (SOCCER)
| align="right" | 10,575
| align="right" | 0.05
|-
| [[African Democratic Movement]] (ADM)
| align="right" | 9,886
| align="right" | 0.05
|-
| [[Women's Rights Peace Party]] (WRPP)
| align="right" | 6,434
| align="right" | 0.03
|-
| [[Ximoko Progressive Party]] (XPP)
| align="right" | 6,320
| align="right" | 0.03
|-
| [[Keep It Straight and Simple Party]] (KISS)
| align="right" | 5,916
| align="right" | 0.03
|-
| [[Workers' List Party]] (WLP)
| align="right" | 4,169
| align="right" | 0.02
|-
| [[Luso-South African Party]] (LUSO)
| align="right" | 3,293
| align="right" | 0.02
|-
| '''Total'''
| align="right" | 19533498
| align="right" | 100
| align="right" | 400
|}

==Provincial Legislatures results==
{| class="wikitable"
!Political party
!Votes
!%
!Seats
|-
| African National Congress (ANC)
| align="right" | 12,137,307
| align="right" | 62.3
| align="right" | 266
|-
| National Party (NP)
| align="right" | 3,492,467
| align="right" | 17.9
| align="right" | 82
|-
| Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP)
| align="right" | 2,047,083
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 44
|-
| Freedom Front (FF-VF)
| align="right" | 639,643
| align="right" | 3.3
| align="right" | 14
|-
| Democratic Party (DP)
| align="right" | 538,655
| align="right" | 2.8
| align="right" | 12
|-
| Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC)
| align="right" | 271,793
| align="right" | 1.4
| align="right" | 3
|-
| African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP)
| align="right" | 117,825
| align="right" | 0.6
| align="right" | 3
|-
| Minority Front (MF)
| align="right" | 48,951
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 1
|-
| Africa Muslim Party (AMP)
| align="right" | 51,773
| align="right" | 0.3
|-
| African Democratic Movement (ADM)
| align="right" | 34,233
| align="right" | 0.2
|-
| Dikwankwetla Party of South Africa (DPSA)
| align="right" | 21,877
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| [[Islamic Party (South Africa)|Islamic Party]] (IP)
| align="right" | 16,762
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| Federal Party (FP)
| align="right" | 16,279
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| [[United People's Front]] (UPF)
| align="right" | 10,123
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| Ximoko Progressive Party (XPP)
| align="right" | 8,238
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| Women's Rights Peace Party (WRPP)
| align="right" | 7,279
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Wes-Kaap Federaliste Party]] (WKFP)
| align="right" | 6,337
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Workers International to Rebuild the Fourth International]] (SA) (WI)
| align="right" | 5,481
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| Luso-South African Party (LUSO)
| align="right" | 5,423
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[South African Women's Party]] (SAWP)
| align="right" | 2,641
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Green Party of South Africa|Green Party]] (GRP)
| align="right" | 2,611
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Merit Party]] (MP)
| align="right" | 2,028
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| [[Right Party]] (RP)
| align="right" | 921
| align="right" | 0.0
|}

==See also==
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/South_African_general_election%2C_1994 Election results at Wikisource]

{{South African elections}}
==External links==
*U.S. Department of the Army, ''South Africa Country Study'', "[http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/77.htm The 1994 Elections]"
* [http://www.elections.org.za/Elections94.asp IEC results for 1994 election]
[[Category:Elections in South Africa]]
[[Category:1994 elections]]

Grenzkriege

2007-06-03T06:15:00Z

Gregorydavid: add Tambookie Campaign

{| class="messagebox" style="max-width: 28em; background: #FFF0D9;"
|-
| [[Image:Unbalanced scales.svg|none|40px]]
|<center>'''The [[Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|neutrality]] of this article is [[Wikipedia:NPOV dispute|disputed]].''' {{#if:{{{date|}}}| This article has been tagged since {{{date}}}.}}<includeonly>
{{#if:{{{date|}}}|[[Category:NPOV disputes from {{{date}}}]]|[[Category:NPOV disputes|{{PAGENAME}}]]}}</includeonly></center>
|}<noinclude>
{{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/doc}}
</noinclude>

The '''Xhosa Wars''', also known as the '''Kaffir Wars''' or '''Cape Frontier Wars''', were a series of nine wars between the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people and [[Europe]]an settlers from [[1779]] and [[1879]] in what is now the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]]. The wars were responsible for the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.

==First wars==

The competition between the [[Boers]] and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they failed because their strategy of pursuing the enemy didn't take into account the Boer desire to protect their families. When the [[United Kingdom|British]] entered the Cape in [[1806]], British troops under [[Harry Smith (army)|Harry Smith]] were sent to help the [[Boer]] settlers, and in [[1811]] they began to clear the land of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] people. About four thousand British colons were stationed on the [[Great Fish River]].

The [[Xhosa]] had been expelled from the district between the [[Great Fish River]] and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to [[1811]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]], however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel [[John Graham (Albany)|John Graham]] took the field with a mixed force in 1811 with his plan to use "A proper degree of terror."[http://www.ecampus.com/book/0869752359] and in the end the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were driven beyond the [[Great Fish River]]. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which bears his name.

A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On [[22 April]] [[1817]], led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked [[Grahamstown|Graham’s Town]], then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.

==Raids and cattle killing==

{{ main|Nongqawuse }}

In the 1830s the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] began stealing Boer and English [[cattle]]. This resulted in retaliation and in the war of [[1834]] to [[1835]] sixty thousand cattle were taken by [[1820 Settlers|colonists]]. In [[1856]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] listened to the advice of [[Nongqawuse]]. The sixteen-year-old [[prophet]]ess told of the return of the [[Ancestor worship|ancestors]] if the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] killed all their cattle. This resulted in the near starvation of the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] and only made them weaker.

==The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836==

Catalyst for [[Piet Retief]]'s manifesto and the [[Great Trek]]. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5 700 horses, 115 000 head of cattle and 162 000 sheep were plundered by [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] tribes people.

By the end of the war 7 000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor [[Benjamin d'Urban]] took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, [[Lord Glenelg]], who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of being the instigators of the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.

==The 7th Xhosa War, 1846==

Known as the "War of the Axe". Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A [[Khoikhoi]] escort, manacled to an [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] thief, was murdered while transporting the man to [[Grahamstown]] to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in [[March]], [[1846]]. The Ngqikas were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by the Tambukies. The [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] were defeated on [[June 7]], [[1846]] by General Somerset on the Gwangu, a few miles from Fort Peddie. However, the war continued until Sandili, the chief of the Ngqika, surrendered. Other chiefs gradually followed this action, and by the beginning of [[1848]] the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting.

==The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879==
The last war was a feeble attempt by the [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] returning from diamond fields to regain control of their land. All [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] territory the became part of the Cape Colony.
==The Tambookie Campaign, 1880 - 1881==
==See also==
*[[Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Xhosa|amaXhosa]]
*[[Zulu War]]

==References==
*[http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/lectures/22sa-boe.htm HIS 311 Lecture on Southern Africa 1800-1875]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/kilo/kaffir1818.htm Fifth Kaffir War 1818-1819]
*{{Sect1911}}

[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]

''Italic text''

[[da:Xhosa-krigene]]
[[it:Guerre di Frontiera del Capo]]
[[pl:Wojny Xhosa]]

Vrye Weekblad

2007-04-30T07:45:07Z

Gregorydavid: /* History */ link Kriegler

'''''Vrye Weekblad''''' was a groundbreaking progressive, anti-apartheid Afrikaans national weekly newspaper that was launched in November 1988 and forced to close in February 1994. The paper was driven into bankruptcy by the legal costs of defending its charge that South African police general [[Lothar Neethling]] had supplied poison to security police to kill activists. [http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/media/1997/9709/s970917g.htm]

==History==

''Vrye Weekblad'' (Afrikaans, "The Free Weekly") was started as a result of frustration on the part of Afrikaner journalists who found that the mainstream Afrikaans and English language media lacked the courage to take on the apartheid state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vryeafrikaan.co.za/lees.php?id=234|title=Vrye Weekblad en die alternatiewe media: toe en nou|publisher=Die Vrye Afrikaan|format=HTML|language=afrikaans|accessdate=2007-03-17}}</ref> The paper was collectively owned by the founder members, who included editor [[Max du Preez]] and journalist [[Jacques Pauw]][http://www.sabcnews.com/specialassignment/theteam.html]. The editorial staff for the first edition of February 1989 comprised Karien Norval, Du Preez, Elsabe Wessels, Chris du Plessis, Pauw, Victor Munnik, and Koos Coetzee.[http://www.ais.up.ac.za/human/bookmonth/july06/index.htm]

From the outset the state viewed the upstart paper as a threat. The minister of Justice, Kobie Coetzee, raised the cost of registering the newspaper from R10 to R30,000. As the owners could not pay, the first few editions of ''Vrye Weekblad'' appeared on the street illegally, and they were taken to court.

In 1990 the newspaper's offices were bombed by right-wing operatives working for the secret Army unit, the so-called Civil Co-operation Bureau.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30617FB3E5C0C758EDDAE0894D8494D81|title=For an Afrikaner Weekly, Success Brings Bombs|publisher=The New York Times|format=HTML|language=english|accessdate=2007-03-17}}</ref>

In 1991 Judge [http://www.constitutionalcourt.org.za/text/judges/former/justicejohannkriegler/1.html Johann Kriegler] ruled in favour of ''Vrye Weekblad''' in the Rand Supreme Court.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20616F839550C7A8DDDA80894D9494D81|title=South African Judge Throws Out Police Suit Against 2 Papers|publisher=The New York Times|format=HTML|language=english|accessdate=2007-03-17}}</ref> But the Appeals Court overturned Kriegler's decision and ordered the paper to pay R90,000- and costs. The ensuing legal battle cost both sides R2 million over five years and forced the paper to close.

The African National Congress (ANC) criticized journalist Jacques Pauw's report in the January 17, 1992 issue that [[Patrick Lekota]] had offered money to a right-winger to assassinate Glory "September" Sidebe. Sidebe was a former ANC member who worked with Vlakplaas death squads, while Lekota was then a member of the ANC's National Executive Committee.[http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1992/pr0217c.html]

Just prior to its closure the paper was published out of an old bank building in Newtown, Johannesburg.

==The Vlakplaas revelations==

Late in 1989, ''Vrye Weekblad'' got hold of [[Captain]] Dirk Coetzee, the commander in charge of the South African Police's secret elite unit, Section C1, who were stationed at ''Vlakplaas'', a farm outside of [[Pretoria]]. This elite section formed part of President [[P.W. Botha]]'s so-called Total Strategy, and were supposed to disable opponents to Botha's [[apartheid]] [[regime]], whenever the country's courts were unable to do so. Section C1's methods included [[assasination]], [[kidnapping]], [[poisoning]] and [[execution]]. Coetzee also revealed that [[General]] Lothar Neethling had supplied poison to the police, which would drug and eventually kill anti-apartheid activists. Well aware that it could have serious consequences for the newspaper, ''Vrye Weekblad'' decided not to withdraw Neethling's name from their reports.

The newspaper organized for Coetzee to be safely taken out of South Africa and he eventually found [[assylum]] in [[The Netherlands]]. On [[November 17]], [[1989]], the story about ''Vlakplaas'' broke on the front page of ''Vrye Weekblad''. The story was also used by other alternative newspapers in South Africa, although the local mainstream media preferred to ignore the story or deny its truthfulness. Across the world, however, the reports of ''Vlakplaas'' received widespread coverage.

The revelations about Section C1 prompted more revelations from other policemen and army officials about the dirty activities at ''Vlakplaas'' and other government institutions. In 1994, [[Colonel]] Eugene de Kock (who operated ''Vlakplaas'' at the time of the revelations), was given two life-sentences and were sentenced to an additional 212 years in prison, on charges of among other things, [[murder]], attempted murder, [[culpable homicide]], kidnapping, [[assault]] and [[corruption]].

==Important revelations==
According to Du Preez's submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, ''Vrye Weekblad'' revealed:[http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/special/media/media04.htm]

* November 1988: Eugene de Kock is the new commanding officer of the Vlakplaas and committed a number of murders, including those of eight people in [[Piet Retief]]
* December 1989: [[Siphiwe Mthimkulu]] was tortured and poisoned by the Eastern Cape security police and was seen in the company of policemen on April 14, 1982
* January 1990: police tortured prisoners and supported [[Inkatha]] vigilantes against [[United Democratic Front]] supporters, and murdered activist [[David Mazwai]]
* February 1990: a professor was an agent of the National Intelligence Service, leading to a fine of R7,000 in terms of the Protection of Information Act
* May 1990: the secret Civil Co-operation Bureau (CCB) was run by the South African Defence Force. Later CCB member Pieter Botes explained how he bombed [[Albie Sachs]] in [[Maputo]] in 1988, how the CCB operated against the [[South West African People's Organisation]] and assassinated [[Anton Lubowski]]
* August 1991: police agent Larry Barnett transferred large amounts of money from the South African Police to Inkatha, and provided Inkatha with weapons
* June 1992: dirty secrets of the State Security Council

==See also==
[[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]]

==Bibliography==
* Du Preez, Max. 2005. ''Oranje, Blanje, Blues: 'n Nostalgiese Trip - Vrye Weekblad 88-94.'' Zebra Press.
* Du Preez, Max. 2003. ''Pale Native: Memories of a Renegade Reporter.'' Zebra Press.

==References==

<div class="references-small"><references/></div>

==External links==
* [http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/media/1997/9709/s970917g.htm 1997. "Police General should be charged with murder, says Max du Preez." South African Press Association]

[[Category:South Africa]]

[[af:Vrye Weekblad]]