Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Dana Ulery

2016-09-23T01:42:26Z

GcSwRhIc: rm per WP:CREDENTIALS

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Dana L. Ulery
| image =Dana_Ulery.jpg
| caption = 
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1938|1|2|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[East St. Louis]], [[Missouri]], [[United States|USA]]
| nationality = [[United States]]
| fields = [[Computer science]]
| workplaces = [[United States Army Research Laboratory]], [[Georgia Institute of Technology]], [[University of Delaware]], [[DuPont]], [[Cairo University]], [[American University in Cairo]], [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]
| education = BA, Grinnell College, 1959; MS, University of Delaware, 1972; PhD, University of Delaware, 1975.
| alma_mater = [[Grinnell College]], [[University of Delaware]]
| thesis_title = Computer science's reincarnation of finite differences
| thesis_url =
| thesis_year = 1976
| footnotes =
}}
'''Dana Ulery''' (born January 2, 1938) is an American [[computer scientist]] and pioneer in [[Computational science|scientific computing]] applications. She began her career in 1961 as the first woman engineer at the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] (Pasadena, CA), designing and developing algorithms to model [[Deep Space Network|NASA’s Deep Space Network]] capabilities <ref>{{cite journal|authors=S. L. Kresser and R. J. Sippel|title=Publications of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory July 1961 through June 1962|date=15 October 1962|issue=Bibliography No. 39-3|page=47|url=https://pub-lib.jpl.nasa.gov/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-697/Bibliography39-03_1961-1962.pdf|accessdate=16 October 2013|publisher=Jet Propulsion Laboratory|location=Pasadena, California|quote=U01 Evaluation of Goldstone Polar-Mount Antenna Systematic Errors from Star Tracks, Ulery, D., Fearey, J., Technical Memorandum 33-45, May 5, 1961 (Unclassified)}}</ref> and automating real-time tracking systems for the [[Ranger program|Ranger]] and [[Mariner program|Mariner]] space missions using a North American Aviation Recomp II, 40-bit word size computer.<ref>{{cite book|title=RECOMP II Operating Manual|year=1963|publisher=Autonetics, Data Systems Division|location=Anaheim, California|url=http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/autonetics/recomp/RECOMP_II_Operating_Man_1963.pdf|author=Autonetics Industrial Products}}</ref> Over the course of her career, she has held positions as an applied science and technology researcher and manager in industry, academia, and government.<ref name="bio" /> In 2007, she retired from her position as Chief Scientist of the Computational and Information Sciences Directorate at the [[United States Army Research Laboratory|United States Army Research Laboratory(ARL)]].

Ulery was among the first group of female managers at the US Army Research Laboratory. In these positions, she was also appointed Chair of the [[United States Army Materiel Command|US Army Materiel Command]] Knowledge Management Council,<ref name="buildingknowledge">{{cite journal|last=Ulery|first=Dana L.|title=Building Knowledge Ecosystems for Enabling Army Transformation|journal=Army AL&T|date=January–February 2002|pages=6–7|url=http://asc.army.mil/docs/pubs/alt/2002/1_JanFeb/articles/06_Building_Knowledge_Ecosystems_For_Enabling_200201.pdf#zoom=100,0,0|accessdate=16 October 2013}}</ref> and in 2002 was awarded the Army Knowledge Award for Best Transformation Initiative. She is listed in [[American Men and Women of Science]], [[Marquis Who's Who|Who’s Who of American Women, Who’s Who in the East, Who’s Who in the World, and Who’s Who in America]].

Ulery received her BA from [[Grinnell College]] in 1959, with a double major in English Literature and Mathematics.<ref name="buildingknowledge" /> She earned her MS and PhD in Computer Science from the [[University Of Delaware|University of Delaware]], in 1972 and 1975 respectively.<ref name="bio">{{cite journal|title=Dana Lynn Ulery|journal=American Men & Women of Science: A Biographical Directory of Today's Leaders in Physical, Biological, and Related Sciences|year=2008|url=http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/bic1/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?documentId=GALE%7CK3099148691}}</ref> In 1976, she accepted visiting faculty appointments at [[Cairo University|Cairo University in Egypt]] and the [[American University in Cairo]]. On her return to the U.S., she joined the Engineering Services Division of the [[DuPont Company]], where she worked as a computer scientist and technical manager.<ref name="bio" /> In the early 1980s, Ulery led initiatives to develop and deploy [[enterprise application systems]] to evaluate and control product quality at DuPont sites.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marquardt |first1=Donald W.|last2=Ulery|first2=Dana L.|title=Product Quality Management |year=1991| publisher= E.I. du Pont de Nemours, Quality Management & Technology Center |location=Wilmington,DE | oclc=29224881 |url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/product-quality-management/oclc/029224881}}</ref> For these achievements she was awarded the DuPont Engineering Award for Leadership of Corporate Quality Computer Systems. Ulery also played an active role in establishment of EDI standards, international standards for electronically exchanging technical information used by business and government. She initiated and led multidisciplinary programs at ARL to advance research in multi-source [[Information integration|information fusion]] and [[Situation awareness|situational understanding]] applied to non-traditional battle environments and homeland defense.<ref name=W911NF-07-R-0001-05>{{cite book|title=ARL/ARO Core Broad Agency Announcement for Basic and Applied Scientific Research for Fiscal Years 2007 through 2011|publisher=U.S. Army RDECOM Acquisition Center, RTP Contracting Division|location=Research Triangle Park, NC|author=U.S. Army Research Laboratory|date=October 2006|url=http://www.arl.army.mil/www/pages/8/research/ARL_BAA_amend_05_Final_20100802.pdf|accessdate=16 October 2013}}</ref>

In the 1990s, Ulery served for many years as Pan American Delegate to the United Nations Electronic Data Interchange for Administration, Commerce, and Trade ([[EDIFACT|UN/EDIFACT]]).<ref name="bio" /> She was Chair of the UN/EDIFACT Multimedia Objects Working Group and Chair of the UN/EDIFACT Product Data Working Group, leading early international development of standards for [[electronic commerce]].

== Publications ==
* {{Cite thesis |last=Ulery |first=Dana L |title=Lineal a language-oriented system for solving problems in linear algebra. |type=M.S. |chapter= |url= |author= |year=1972 |publisher=University of Delaware |accessdate= |docket= |oclc=3716008 }}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Ulery |first=Dana L |title=Computer science's reincarnation of finite differences |type=Ph.D. |chapter= |url= |author= |year=1976 |publisher=University of Delaware |accessdate= |docket= |oclc=33892757 }}

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n93-84658 Works by Dana Ulery in Worldcat libraries]
* [http://www.arl.army.mil/www/default.cfm US Army Research Laboratory]
* [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/ NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory ]
* [http://www.x12.org/ Electronic Commerce standards]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ulery, Dana}}
[[Category:Women computer scientists]]
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American computer scientists]]
[[Category:Quality management]]
[[Category:Women in technology]]
[[Category:Grinnell College alumni]]
[[Category:University of Delaware alumni]]

Herbert Alonzo Howe

2016-09-22T23:51:43Z

GcSwRhIc: d-da doesn't display m/d/y correctly

{{Infobox person
|name = Herbert Alonzo Howe
|image =
|image_size = 200px
|caption =
|birth_name =
|birth_date = November 22, 1858
|birth_place = Brockport, New York
|death_date = {{death date and age|1926|11|02|1858|11|22|mf=yes}}
|death_place = Denver, Colorado
|death_cause = Stroke<ref name="Menzel1926"/>
|resting_place = Fairmont Cemetery, Denver
|resting_place_coordinates =
|residence =
|nationality = United States
|ethnicity =
|other_names =
|known_for =
|education = A.B., A.M., Sc.D.
|alma_mater = University of Chicago University of Cincinnati [[Boston University]]
|credits =
|occupation = Astronomer, educator
|home_town =
|party =
|boards =
|spouse = Fannie McClurg Shattuck
|children = Julian O., Hubert S., Warren F., Ernest J.
|parents = Alonzo J. Howe Julia M. Osgood
|website =
}}
'''Herbert Alonzo Howe''' (November 22, 1858 – November 2, 1926) was an American astronomer and educator.

==Biography==
Born in [[Brockport, New York]], he was the son of Alonzo J. Howe, a professor at the [[old University of Chicago]], and Julia M. Osgood.<ref name="DerbyWhite1898"/> During his youth he developed an interest in the stars, witnessing the spectacular [[Leonid meteor shower]] of November, 1866.<ref name="Menzel1926"/> He matriculated to the old University of Chicago,<ref name="DerbyWhite1898"/> where he graduated with an A.B. in 1875 at the age of sixteen.<ref name="dinsmore1927"/> Joining the staff of the [[Cincinnati Observatory]] as an assistant, he worked primarily on computing [[orbital elements]] and observing [[double star]]s.<ref name="DerbyWhite1898"/> In 1877, he was awarded his A.M. degree from the [[University of Cincinnati]] under Professor [[Ormond Stone]].<ref name="dinsmore1927"/>

Long hours of work had left him with health issues, and in 1880 he had two severe [[pulmonary hemorrhage]]s. As a consequence, he began to consider moving to a different climate. Fortunately, the chancellor of the recently formed [[University of Denver]] in [[Denver, Colorado]] offered Howe a position as teacher. His move to Colorado greatly improved his health, so he decided to remain with the institution despite the lack of astronomical observing facilities at the site.<ref name="dinsmore1927"/> He was made professor of mathematics and astronomy,<ref name="DerbyWhite1898"/> becoming the first astronomy professor for the university.<ref name="Fisher2012"/>

He was married to Fannie Shattuck, the daughter of the state superintendent of instruction, in 1884. The same year, he received his Sc.D. degree from the university<ref name="DerbyWhite1898"/> with thesis work on solutions for the [[Kepler problem]] on orbit determination.<ref name="Howe1999"/> In 1888, the university received a gift of $50,000 from Humphrey Chamberlin, an amateur astronomer, which Howe used to fund an observatory. Construction began in 1889, based around a {{Convert|20|in|m|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} aperture lens that Howe purchased from [[Alvan Clark|Alvin Clarke & Sons]]. At the time of assembly, the [[refractor telescope]] was the fifth largest instrument of its kind in the United States. Howe was named director of the [[Chamberlin Observatory]] in 1892, and trial observations with the telescope began in July 1894.<ref name="Fisher2012"/>

Most of Howe's work at the observatory consisted of observations of neglected nebulae from the [[New General Catalogue]], measurements of double stars, and positional work on comets and asteroids.<ref name="Menzel1926"/> In 1892, Howe was named the dean of the College of Liberal Arts, serving in this capacity until 1926. Unfortunately, his work in this capacity limited the time he could spend on astronomy.<ref name="Howe1999"/> In 1899, he served as the acting chancellor of the university. He received an LLD from Denver University in 1910, and a second LLD from [[Colorado College]] in 1913. By 1926 his health was starting to fail, so he began to train his eventual successor at the observatory, [[Albert William Recht|Albert Recht]].<ref name="Fisher2012"/>

==Bibliography==
* ''A study of the sky'' (1896)
* ''Elements of descriptive astronomy'' (1897)

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="DerbyWhite1898">{{Citation
| first1 = George
| last1 = Derby
| first2 = James Terry
| last2 = White
| title = The National Cyclopedia of American Biography
| publisher = J. T. White
| page = 157
| volume = 8
| year = 1898
| location = New York
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=1uI-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157
| postscript= .
}}</ref>

<ref name="Fisher2012">{{Citation
| first1 = Steve
| last1 = Fisher
| title = A Brief History of South Denver and University Park
| publisher = The History Press
| pages = 42–45
| year = 2012
| isbn = 1609492331
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=9ev-riG-iAoC&pg=PA42
| postscript= .
}}</ref>

<ref name="dinsmore1927">{{Citation
| first1 = Dinsmore
| last1 = Alter
| author-link = Dinsmore Alter
| title = Herbert Alonzo Howe
| work = Popular Astronomy
| page = 191
| year = 1927
| bibcode = 1927PA.....35..191A
| postscript= .
}}</ref>

<ref name="Menzel1926">{{Citation
| first1 = D. H.
| last1 = Menzel
| author-link = Donald Howard Menzel
| title = Herbert Alonzo Howe, 1858-1926
| work = Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
| volume = 38
| issue = 226
| page = 379
|date=December 1926
| doi = 10.1086/123640
| bibcode = 1926PASP...38..379M
| postscript= .
}}</ref>

<ref name="Howe1999">{{Citation
| last1 = Howe
| first1 = H. J.
| last2 = Stencel
| first2 = R. E.
| last3 = Fisher
| first3 = S.
| display-authors = 1
| title = Denver's Pioneer Astronomer: Herbert Alonso Howe (1858-1926)
| work = Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society
| volume = 31
| page = 840
|date=May 1999
| bibcode = 1999AAS...194.1003H
| postscript= .
}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
*{{Citation
| first1 = Ron
| last1 = Pearson
| title = The Extra-Galactic Discoveries of Dr. Herbert A. Howe, Chamberlin Observatory, Denver, Colorado
| work = The Denver Observer
|date=February 2006
| url = http://www.denverastrosociety.org/dfiles/pearson/howe_gx.html
| accessdate= 2013-03-07
| postscript= .
}}
*[http://digital.library.du.edu/findingaids/view?docId=ead/m010.xml;query=;brand=default Guide to the Herbert Alonzo Howe papers at the University of Denver] Retrieved 2014-09-26.
* [http://digitalcollections.ucsc.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p265101coll10/id/1445/rec/1 Portrait of Herbert Alonzo Howe from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Howe, Herbert Alonzo}}
[[Category:1858 births]]
[[Category:1926 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Brockport, New York]]
[[Category:American astronomers]]
[[Category:University of Chicago alumni]]
[[Category:University of Cincinnati alumni]]
[[Category:Boston University alumni]]
[[Category:Boston University faculty]]

John Samuel Foley

2016-09-21T12:19:11Z

GcSwRhIc: removed Category:People from Baltimore, Maryland; added Category:Religious leaders from Baltimore, Maryland using HotCat

{{About|the Roman Catholic bishop|other uses|John Foley (disambiguation){{!}}John Foley}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| type =
| honorific-prefix =
| name = John Samuel Foley
| honorific-suffix =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| title =
| image = John S. Foley, D.D., Bishop of Detroit, Michigan.jpg
| image_size =
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| caption =
| church =
| archdiocese = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit]]
| province =
| metropolis =
| diocese =
| see =
| elected =
| appointed =
| term =
| term_start = February 11, 1888
| quashed =
| term_end = January 5, 1918
| predecessor =
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| ordination =
| ordinated_by =
| consecration =
| consecrated_by =
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| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1833|11|5}}
| birth_place = [[Baltimore, Maryland]]
| death_date ={{Death date and age|1918|1|5|1833|11|5}}
| death_place =
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| nationality =
| religion = [[Roman Catholic]]
| residence =
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}}
'''John Samuel Foley''' (November 5, 1833 – January 5, 1918) was an [[United States|American]] [[prelate]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. He served as [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit|Bishop of Detroit]] from 1888 until his death in 1918.

==Biography==
John Foley was born in [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], to Matthew and Elizabeth (née Murphy) Foley, who were both natives of [[Enniscorthy]], [[County Wexford]], [[Ireland]].<ref name=leake>{{cite book|last=Leake|first=Paul|title=History of Detroit|publisher=The Lewis Publishing Company|place=Chicago|year=1912}}</ref> His older brother was Bishop [[Thomas Patrick Roger Foley|Thomas Foley]], who served as [[Coadjutor Bishop]] of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago|Chicago]] (1870-1879).<ref name=catholic>{{cite news|work=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]|title=Detroit|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04758b.htm}}</ref> After attending local [[parochial school]]s in Baltimore, he completed his studies in the [[classics]] and [[philosophy]] at [[St. Mary's Seminary and University|St. Mary's College]] in 1850.<ref name=leake/> He then studied [[theology]] at [[St. Mary's Seminary and University|St. Mary's Seminary]] until 1853, when he was sent by Archbishop [[Francis Kenrick]] to further his studies in [[Rome]] at the [[Pontifical Roman Athenaeum S. Apollinare|Pontifical Athenaeum ''S. Apollinare'']], from where he obtained his [[Licentiate of Sacred Theology]] in 1857.<ref name=tentler>{{cite book|last=Tentler|first=Leslie Woodcock|title=Seasons of Grace: A History of the Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit|publisher=Wayne State University Press|date=December 1992}}</ref>

While in Rome, Foley was [[Holy Orders|ordained]] to the [[Priesthood (Catholic Church)|priesthood]] by Cardinal [[Costantino Patrizi]] on December 20, 1856, at the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran|Lateran Basilica]].<ref name=hierarchy>{{cite news|work=Catholic-Hierarchy.org|title=Bishop John Samuel Foley|url=http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bfoleyj.html}}</ref> Upon his return to Maryland in November 1857, he served as [[pastor]] of [http://www.saintbrigid-canton.com/ St. Brigid's Church] in Baltimore.<ref name=leake/> He was transferred to [http://www.stpaulec.org/ St. Paul's Church] at [[Ellicott City, Maryland|Ellicott City]] in 1858, and then to [[St. Peter the Apostle Church|St. Peter's Church]] in Baltimore as a [[curate]] in 1864.<ref name=leake/> In 1865 he founded and became first pastor of [http://www.archbalt.org/parishes/find-parish/parish.cfm?customel_datapageid_1124=13410 St. Martin's Church].<ref name=leake/> Foley also served as [[Principal (education)|principal]] of the House of the Good Shepherd, and assisted Archbishop [[Martin John Spalding]] in establishing new [[Mission (Christian)|missions]] and [[Catholic school|schools]] and developing [[Charitable organization|charitable]] institutions. A childhood friend of Cardinal [[James Gibbons]], he was [[secretary]] of the [[Plenary Councils of Baltimore|Third Plenary Council of Baltimore]] in 1884 and co-authored the ''[[Baltimore Catechism]]''.<ref name=tentler/> He was nominated as [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington|Bishop of Wilmington]], [[Delaware]], in 1886 but his name was rejected by the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples|Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith]].<ref name=tentler/>

On February 11, 1888, Foley was appointed the third [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit|Bishop of Detroit]], [[Michigan]], by [[Pope Leo XIII]].<ref name=hierarchy/> He received his [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|episcopal]] [[consecration]] on the following November 4 from Cardinal Gibbons, with Bishops [[John Loughlin (bishop)|John Loughlin]] and [[Edgar Philip Prindle Wadhams|Edgar Wadhams]] serving as [[Consecrator|co-consecrators]], at Baltimore.<ref name=hierarchy/> He was Detroit's first American-born bishop, with his two predecessors both hailing from [[Germany]].<ref name=detroit>{{cite news|work=[[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit]]|title=History - 1701 to 2001|url=http://www.aodonline.org/AODOnline/History+and+Archives+12437/History+of+the+Archdiocese+-+Summary.htm}}</ref> During his tenure, he established a [[seminary]] for [[Polish American]]s, and later healed a long and damaging [[Schism (religion)|schism]] among them.<ref name=catholic/> In 1900, Foley wrote a letter for the [[Detroit Century Box]] [[time capsule]].<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://detroiths.pastperfect-online.com/33029cgi/mweb.exe?request=record;id=50AAD530-9612-4AA1-81E1-141031418930;type=301 |title= Letter written by John Samuel Foley |publisher= Detroit Historical Society}}</ref> In 1907 the priests and [[laity]] of the diocese, in honor of the [[golden jubilee]] of his priestly ordination, presented Foley with St. Francis's Home for Orphan Boys, built at a cost of $250,000.<ref name=catholic/> He established the first [[Parish (Catholic Church)|parish]] for [[African American]]s, [[Sacred Heart Roman Catholic Church (Detroit, Michigan)|St. Peter Claver's Church]], in 1911, although [[chapel]]s and missions for African American Catholics had existed since the late 1870s.<ref name=detroit/> The development of the automobile industry in Detroit led to a massive increase in population, and the number of Catholics more than tripled during Foley's tenure.<ref name=tentler/> Although the number of diocesan priests nearly doubled, there still [[Priest shortage|were not enough]] to administer to the growing population.<ref name=tentler/> Despite his popularity and personal charm, he was generally regarded as an ineffective bishop with an unsuccessful administration.<ref name=tentler/>

Foley later died at age 84. His 30-year-long tenure remains the longest in the history of the Archdiocese of Detroit.<ref name=detroit/>

==See also==
*[[Eloise Cemetery]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-rel|ca}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Caspar Henry Borgess]]|
title=[[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit|Bishop of Detroit]] |
years=1888–1918 |
after=[[Michael Gallagher (bishop)|Michael Gallagher]]
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit|state=collapsed}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Foley, John Samuel}}
[[Category:1833 births]]
[[Category:1918 deaths]]
[[Category:Religious leaders from Baltimore, Maryland]]
[[Category:American people of Irish descent]]
[[Category:American Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:19th-century Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:20th-century Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops of Detroit]]
[[Category:St. Mary's Seminary and University alumni]]

Wasser-Tupelobaum

2016-09-19T16:06:14Z

GcSwRhIc: removed Category:Cornaceae; added Category:Nyssa using HotCat

{{italic title}}
{{taxobox
|name = ''Nyssa aquatica''
|image = Nyssa aquatica.jpg
|image_caption = A stand of ''Nyssa aquatica'' (water tupelo)
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Asterids]]
|ordo = [[Cornales]]
|familia = [[Cornaceae]] ([[Nyssaceae]])
|genus = ''[[Nyssa (plant)|Nyssa]]''
| species = '''''N. aquatica'''''
|binomial = ''Nyssa aquatica''
|binomial_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|range_map = Nyssa aquatica map.png
|range_map_caption = Natural range.
}}
'''''Nyssa aquatica''''', commonly called the '''water tupelo''',<ref name=GRIN>{{cite web|url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?25450|title=ARS Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) - species account ''Nyssa aquatica''}}</ref> '''cottongum''',<ref name=HortusIII>{{cite book|author=Bailey, L.H.; Bailey, E.Z.; the staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium |year=1976 |title= Hortus third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=978-0-02-505470-7}}</ref> '''wild olive''',<ref name=HortusIII/> '''large tupelo''',<ref name=HortusIII/> '''sourgum''',{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}} '''tupelo-gum''',<ref name=GRIN/> or '''water-gum''',<ref name=GRIN/> is a large, long-lived tree in the [[tupelo|tupelo genus ''(Nyssa)'']] that grows in [[swamp]]s and [[floodplain]]s in the [[Southeastern United States]].<ref name="usfs">[http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/nyssa/aquatica.htm U.S. Forest Service silvics manual - ''Nyssa aquatica'' treatment]</ref>

''Nyssa aquatica'' [[Trunk (botany)|trunk]]s have a swollen base that tapers up to a long, clear bole, and its root system is periodically under water.<ref name="usfs"/> Water tupelo trees often occurs in pure stands.

[[File:Nyssa aquatica-linedrawing2.jpg|thumb|left|175px|''Nyssa aquatica'' foliage.]]

==Names==
''Nyssa aquatica'''s [[genus]] name ''(Nyssa)'' refers to a [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[naiad|water nymph]];<ref name=Werthner>{{cite book|last=Werthner|first=William B.|title=Some American Trees: An intimate study of native Ohio trees|year=1935|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=xviii + 398 pp.}}</ref> the species [[binomial nomenclature|epithet]] ''aquatica'', meaning ‘aquatic’, refers to its swamp and wetland habitat.

One of the species' common names, '''tupelo, '''is of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] origin, coming from the [[Creek language|Creek]] words ''ito'' ‘tree’ and ''opilwa'' ‘swamp’; it was in use by the mid-18th century<ref>{{cite book|title=New Oxford American Dictionary, 2nd Edition}}</ref>

[[File:Nyssa aquatica tree.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Swollen [[Trunk (botany)|trunk]] base, in [[swamp]] habitat.]]

==Uses==
A large mature tree can produce commercial timber used for furniture and crates. The swollen base of the ''Nyssa aquatica'' is the source of a favored wood of [[wood carving|wood carvers.]]

Many kinds of wildlife eat the fruit, and it is a favored [[honey]] tree.<ref name="usfs"/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{clear}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Trees}}
{{Commons category|Nyssa aquatica}}
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch?keywordquery=Nyssa+aquatica&mode=sciname&submit.x=14&submit.y=8 USDA Plants Profile for ''Nyssa aquatica'' (water tupelo)]
*[http://rnrstreamer.lsu.edu/ecosystems/webtour/species/watertupelo/watertupelo.htm Louisiana State University: page on ''Nyssa aquatica'' in America],
*[http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/species/frame/nyaq2.htm bioimages.vanderbilt.edu - ''Nyssa aquatica'' images]
*[http://woodworkingnetwork.com/Tupelo/2004-09-12/Wood.aspx?oid=934727&fid=WWN-WOOD-OF-THE-MONTH&aid=62 woodworkingnetwork.com: "All About Tupelo Wood"]

[[Category:Nyssa]]
[[Category:Freshwater plants]]
[[Category:Trees of the Southeastern United States]]
[[Category:Trees of mild maritime climate]]
[[Category:Trees of the United States]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]

Sumpf-Tupelobaum

2016-09-19T16:06:10Z

GcSwRhIc: removed Category:Cornaceae; added Category:Nyssa using HotCat

{{refimprove|date=May 2012}}
{{Taxobox
| image = Swamp_tupelo.jpg
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
| unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
| unranked_ordo = [[Asterids]]
| ordo = [[Cornales]]
| familia = [[Cornaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Tupelo|Nyssa]]''
| species = '''''N. biflora'''''
| binomial = ''Nyssa biflora''
| binomial_authority = [[Thomas Walter (botanist)|Walter]]
}}
'''''Nyssa biflora''''', commonly referred to as the '''swamp tupelo''', or '''swamp black-gum'''<ref>{{Cite web|title = Nyssa biflora Walter|url = http://www.gbif.org/species/5383713|website = [[Global Biodiversity Information Facility]] (GBIF)|access-date = 2016-02-20|last = }}</ref> is a species of [[tupelo]] that lives in [[wetland]] habitats. Swamp tupelo grows chiefly in the coastal plains from Delaware, eastern Maryland, and southeastern Virginia, south to southern Florida and west to eastern Texas. Its range extends north up the Mississippi Valley to southern Arkansas and west and south Tennessee.<ref name=silvics>{{USDA|article=Silvics of North America, Volume 2, Nyssa sylvatica|url=http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/nyssa/silvatica.htm|author=Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala}}</ref>

The swamp tupelo grows in humid warm climates. It not only tolerates flooding but actually thrives under those conditions. It is seldom found on sites that are not inundated much of the growing season. Swamp tupelo grows in headwater [[swamp]]s, [[strand (swamp)|strand]]s, ponds, river bottoms, bays, [[estuary|estuaries]], and low coves. Normally it does not grow in the deeper parts of swamps or overflow river bottoms.<ref name=silvics/>

The type of water regime is more important to growth of swamp tupelo than the soil type. Best growth is achieved on sites where the soil is continuously saturated with very shallow moving water. Growth can be reduced as much as 50 percent when the water is stagnant, as in ponds. Intermittent flooding, with periodic drying cycles, or continuous deep flooding even by moving water, also reduces growth.<ref name=silvics/>

Trees and shrubs commonly associated with swamp tupelo are [[Acer rubrum|red maple]] (''Acer rubrum''), [[Cephalanthus occidentalis|buttonbush]] (''Cephalanthus occidentalis''), [[Cliftonia monophylla|buckwheat-tree]] (''Cliftonia monophylla''), [[Cornus (genus)|dogwood]] (''Cornus'' spp.), [[Cyrilla racemiflora|swamp cyrilla]] (''Cyrilla racemiflora''), [[Forestiera acuminata|swamp-privet]] (''Forestiera acuminata''), [[Fraxinus caroliniana|Carolina ash]] (''Fraxinus caroliniana''), [[Gordonia lasianthus|loblolly-bay]] (''Gordonia lasianthus''), [[Ilex cassine|dahoon]] (''Ilex cassine''), [[Ilex glabra|inkberry]] (''I. glabra''), [[Ilex vomitoria|yaupon]] (''I. vomitoria''), [[Lyonia lucida|fetterbush lyonia]] (''Lyonia lucida''), and [[Myrica|bayberry]] (''Myrica'' spp.).<ref name=silvics/>

The swamp tupelo has minute greenish-white flowers that appear in the spring with the leaves, usually in late April. Insects, primarily bees, are the major pollinating vector, but pollen is also spread by wind. The fruit, a [[drupe]], changes from green to a dark blue as it ripens, usually in early November.<ref name=silvics/> The seeds normally overwinter and germinate the following spring. [[Germination]] does not take place under water, but submerged seeds germinate once the water subsides below the soil surface. Germination is rapid in moist, drained conditions at {{convert|21|C|F}} and higher. After germination, seedlings must grow rapidly to keep the [[apex (botany)|apex]] and leaves above water, because prolonged submergence during active growth will kill them. Submergence during the dormant season, however, has no adverse effect.<ref name=silvics/>

Swamp tupelo normally develops a [[taproot]] and has a swollen base to the mean height of the growing season water level. Water [[root]]s, which develop under flooded conditions, help support the tree and capture nutrients. These specialized roots tolerate high [[carbon dioxide]] concentrations, oxidize the [[rhizosphere]], and carry on [[anaerobic respiration]]. Thus, they are the key to the species ability to thrive under flooded conditions.<ref name=silvics/>

==See also==
*[[Black Tupelo]]
*[[Dogwood]]
*[[Peppermint Tree]]
*[[Poison Ivy]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Nyssa]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1788]]
[[Category:Trees of the Eastern United States]]
[[Category:Trees of the Southeastern United States]]

{{Asterid-stub}}
{{taxonbar}}

Schwarzer Tupelobaum

2016-09-19T16:05:55Z

GcSwRhIc: removed Category:Cornaceae; added Category:Nyssa using HotCat

{{Refimprove|date=June 2010}}
{{Clear}}
{{Italic title}}
{{taxobox
| name = ''Nyssa sylvatica'' Black tupelo
| image = Nyssa sylvatica2.jpg
| image_caption = ''Nyssa sylvatica'' foliage and young fruit
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| ordo = [[Cornales]]
| familia = [[Cornaceae]] (or [[Nyssaceae]])
| genus = ''[[Nyssa (plant)|Nyssa]]''
| species = '''''N. sylvatica'''''
| binomial = ''Nyssa sylvatica''
| binomial_authority = Marshall
| range_map = Nyssa sylvatica range map.jpg
| range_map_caption = Natural range
| unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
| unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
| unranked_ordo = [[Asterids]]
}}

'''''Nyssa sylvatica''''', commonly known as '''black tupelo,''' '''tupelo,''' or '''blackgum''', is a medium-sized [[deciduous]] [[tree]] native to eastern [[North America]] from the coastal [[Northeast USA]] and southern [[Ontario]] south to central [[Florida]] and eastern [[Texas]], as well as [[Mexico]].

==Names==
''Nyssa sylvatica'''s [[genus]] name ''(Nyssa)'' refers to a [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[naiad|water nymph]];<ref name=Werthner>{{cite book|last=Werthner|first=William B.|title=Some American Trees: An intimate study of native Ohio trees|year=1935|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=xviii + 398 pp.}}</ref> the species [[binomial nomenclature|epithet]] ''sylvatica'' refers to its woodland habitat.<ref name=Werthner />

The species' common name '''tupelo '''is of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] origin, coming from the [[Creek language|Creek]] words ''ito'' ‘tree’ and ''opilwa'' ‘swamp’; it was in use by the mid-18th century<ref>{{cite book|title=New Oxford American Dictionary, 2nd Edition}}</ref>

While these trees are often known as simply "tupelo", the fuller name '''black tupelo '''helps distinguish it from the other species of the [[tupelo]] genus ''(Nyssa)'', some of which have overlapping ranges, such as [[Nyssa aquatica|water tupelo (''N. aquatica'')]] and [[swamp tupelo]] (''[[N. biflora]]''). The name "tupelo" is used primarily in the [[Southern United States|American South]]; northward and in [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachia]], the tree is more commonly called the '''black gum''' or the '''sour gum''', although no part of the plant is particularly gummy.<ref name=Werthner /> Both of these names contrast it with a different tree species with a broadly overlapping range, the [[Liquidambar styraciflua|sweet gum ''(Liquidambar styraciflua)'']], which does produce an aromatic resin.<ref name=Werthner /> Another common name used occasionally in the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]] is ''pepperidge.''<ref name=Werthner />

On [[Martha's Vineyard]], in [[Massachusetts]], this species is called "beetlebung", perhaps for its use in making the mallet known as a beetle, used for hammering [[bung]]s (stoppers) into barrels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://extension.psu.edu/natural-resources/forests/news/2014/why-do-they-call-it-a-gum-tree| author=Paxton, William C. |date=2014|title=Why Do They Call It a Gum Tree?|publisher=Penn State Extension|accessdate=2014-09-14}}</ref>

==Description==

[[Image:Nyssa sylvatica JPG1b.jpg|right|thumb|''Nyssa sylvatica'' leaves in the autumn.]]
[[File:NyssaSylvaticaTrunk.jpg|thumb|right|Trunk of a mature ''Nyssa sylvatica'' tree]]
''Nyssa sylvatica'' grows to {{convert|20|-|25|m|ft}} tall, rarely to {{convert|35|m|ft}}, with a trunk diameter of {{convert|50|-|100|cm|in}}, rarely up to {{convert|170|cm|in}}. These trees typically have a straight trunk with the branches extending outward at right angles.<ref name=Werthner /> The [[bark]] is dark gray and flaky when young, but it becomes furrowed with age, resembling [[alligator]] hide on very old stems. The twigs of this tree are reddish-brown, usually hidden by a greyish skin. The pith is chambered with greenish partitions.

The [[leaf|leaves]] of this species are variable in size and shape. They can be oval, elliptical, or obovate, and {{convert|5|–|12|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on}} long. They have lustrous upper surfaces, with entire, often wavy margins. The foliage turns purple in autumn, eventually becoming an intense bright scarlet. Deer are extremely fond of the leaves on seedlings and saplings, to the point where large populations of them can make establishment of the tree almost impossible. For comparison, mature trees are largely left alone.

The [[flower]]s are very small, in greenish-white in clusters at the top of a long stalk and a rich source or nectar for bees. They are often [[dioecious]] so a male and female tree in proximity is required to set seed, however, many trees are also [[Polygamo-dioecious#Polygamous|polygamo-dioecious]], which means they have both male and female flowers on the same tree. The [[fruit]] is a black-blue, ovoid stone fruit, about 10 mm long with a thin, oily, bitter-to-sour tasting flesh and very popular with small bird species. There are from one to three fruits together on a long slender stalk. They are a valuable energy food for birds, especially the [[American robin]].

''Nyssa sylvatica'' forms a large deep taproot when young that makes transplanting difficult. Because of this, it is fairly uncommon in cultivation and the nursery trade.

Additional characteristics include:
* Bark: Light reddish brown, deeply furrowed and scaly. Branchlets at first pale green to orange, sometimes smooth, often downy, later dark brown.
* Wood: Pale yellow, sapwood white; heavy, strong, very tough, hard to split, not durable in contact with the soil. Used for turnery. Sp. gr., 0.6353; weight of cu. ft., 39.59.
* Winter buds: Dark red, obtuse, one-fourth of an inch long. Inner scales enlarge with the growing shoot, becoming red before they fall.
* Leaves: Alternate, often crowded at the end of the lateral branches, simple, linear, oblong to oval, two to five inches (127 mm) long, one-half to three inches (76 mm) broad, wedge-shaped or rounded at base, entire, with margin slightly thickened, acute or acuminate. They come out of the bud conduplicate, coated beneath with rusty tomentum, when full grown are thick, dark green, very shining above, pale and often hairy beneath. Feather-veined, midrib and primary veins prominent beneath. In autumn they turn bright scarlet, or yellow and scarlet. Petioles one-quarter to one-half an inch long, slender or stout, terete or margined, often red.
* Flowers: May, June, when leaves are half grown. Polygamodiœcious, yellowish green, borne on slender downy peduncles. Staminate in many-flowered heads; pistillate in two to several flowered clusters.
* Calyx: Cup-shaped, five-toothed.
* Corolla: Petals five, imbricate in bud, yellow green, ovate, thick, slightly spreading, inserted on the margin of the conspicuous disk.
* Stamens: Five to twelve. In staminate flowers exserted, in pistillate short, often wanting.
* Pistil: Ovary inferior, one to two-celled; style stout, exserted, reflexed above the middle. Entirely wanting in sterile flower. Ovules, one in each cell.
* Fruit: Fleshy drupe, one to three from each flower cluster. Ovoid, two-thirds of an inch long, dark blue, acid. Stone more or less ridged. October.<ref name=Keeler>{{cite book
| last =Keeler
| first =Harriet L.
| title =Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them
| publisher =Charles Scriber's Sons
| year =1900
| location =New York
| pages =186–189 }}</ref>

{{clear}}

==Distribution==
''Nyssa sylvatica'' grows in various uplands and in alluvial stream bottoms from southwestern [[Maine]] and [[New York (state)|New York]], to extreme southern [[Ontario]], central [[Michigan]], [[Illinois]], and central [[Missouri]], south to southern Florida, eastern [[Texas]], and eastern [[Oklahoma]]. It also occurs locally in central and southern [[Mexico]].<ref>[http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/nyssyl/all.html Coladonato, Milo 1992. ''Nyssa sylvatica''. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.] Retrieved 2012-09-30.</ref> Optimum development is made on lower slopes and terraces in the [[Southeastern United States]].<ref name="Black Tupelo">[http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/nyssa/silvatica.htm “Black Tupelo”] US Forest Service. Retrieved 2012-09-30.</ref>

==Ecology==
''Nyssa sylvatica'' is found in a variety of [[Highland|upland]] and [[wetland]] [[habitat]]s in its extensive range. Its flowers are an important source of [[honey]] and its [[fruit]]s are important to many [[bird]] species. Hollow trunks provide nesting or denning opportunities for [[bee]]s and various [[mammals]]. It is the longest living non-clonal flowering plant in Eastern North America, capable of obtaining ages of over 650 years.<ref>http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~adk/oldlisteast/#spp Eastern OLDLIST</ref>

===Habitats===
''Nyssa sylvatica'' is found in a wide range of climates, due to its extensive distribution. It commonly grows in both the creek bottoms of the southern coastal plains, to altitudes of about {{convert|900|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} in the [[Appalachian Mountains|Southern Appalachians]]. These trees grow best on well-drained, light-textured soils on the low ridges of second bottoms and on the high flats of silty alluvium. In the uplands it grows best on the loams and clay loams of lower slopes and coves.

The species occurs 35 different forest cover types.<ref name="Black Tupelo"/> When found on drier upper slopes and ridges, it is seldom of log size or quality.<ref name="Black Tupelo"/>

===Wildlife===
[[Image:Nyssa sylvatica with mature fruit.jpg|right|thumb|''Nyssa sylvatica'' with mature fruit, starting to show fall coloring]]
''Nyssa sylvatica'' is an important food source for many migrating birds in the fall. Its early color change ([[foliar fruit flagging]]) is thought to attract birds to the available fruit, which ripen before many other fall fruits and berries. The fruit is quite marked, dark blue, in clusters of two or three. The sour fruits are eagerly sought by many kinds of birds, including: [[American robin]], [[Swainson's thrush]], [[gray-cheeked thrush]], [[hermit thrush]], [[wood thrush]], [[northern cardinal]], [[northern mockingbird]], [[blue jay]], [[red-bellied woodpecker]], [[yellow-bellied sapsucker]], [[northern flicker]], [[pileated woodpecker]], [[eastern phoebe]], [[brown thrasher]], [[eastern bluebird]], [[European starling]], [[scarlet tanager]], [[gray catbird]], [[cedar waxwing]], and [[American crow]],{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} all primarily eastern North American birds migrating or residing year-round within the tree's range.

The limbs of these trees often deteriorate early, and the decayed holes make excellent dens for [[squirrel]]s, [[raccoon]]s, [[Virginia opossum]]s, as well as nesting sites for [[honeybee]]s.

{{clear}}

==Uses==
[[File:2014-11-02 12 47 05 Black Tupelo during autumn at The College of New Jersey in Ewing, New Jersey.JPG|right|thumb|''Nyssa sylvatica'' turning scarlet in autumn]]

===Cultivation===
''Nyssa sylvatica'' is cultivated as an [[ornamental tree]] in parks and large gardens, where it is often used as a specimen or shade tree. The tree is best when grown in sheltered but not crowded positions, developing a pyramidal shape in youth, and spreading with age. The stem rises to the summit of the tree in one tapering unbroken shaft, the branches come out at right angles to the trunk and either extend horizontally or droop a little, making a long-narrow, cone-like head.

The leaves are short-petioled and so have little individual motion, but the branches sway as a whole. The spray is fine and abundant and lies horizontally so that the foliage arrangement is not unlike that of the [[beech]] ''(Fagus)''. Its often spectacular autumnal coloring, with intense reds to purples, is highly valued in landscape settings. It is the most fiery and brilliant of the 'brilliant group' that includes [[Acer (genus)|maple]], [[Cornus (plant)|dogwood]], [[sassafras]], and [[Liquidambar|sweet gum]], as well as various species of [[tupelo]].<ref name=Keeler />

===Honey production===
''Nyssa sylvatica'' is a major source of wild honey in many areas within its range. Hollow sections of black gum trunks were formerly used as [[Beehive|bee gums]] by [[beekeeper]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Crane, Ethel Eva|title=The World History of Beekeeping and Honey Hunting|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WVh3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA305|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=305}}</ref>

===Wood===
The wood of ''Nyssa sylvatica'' is heavy, hard, cross-grained, and difficult to split, especially after drying. This resistance to splitting led to its use for making [[mallet|maul]]s, [[pulley]]s, [[wheel|wheel hub]]s, [[roller (agricultural tool)|agricultural roller]]s, [[bowl (vessel)|bowl]]s, and [[road surface|paving blocks]].<ref name=Werthner /> The wood is also used for pallets, rough floors, pulpwood, and firewood. Since the wood is very tough, resistant to wear, it has been used for [[Shuttle (weaving)|shuttles]] in weaving.

==References==
{{Commons category|Nyssa sylvatica}}
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Trees}}
* [http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=NYSY USDA Plant Profile - ''Nyssa sylvatica'']
* {{ThePlantList}}
* [http://www.fw.vt.edu/dendro/dendrology/syllabus/nsylvatica.htm Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Source]
* [http://www.hcs.ohio-state.edu/hcs/TMI/Plantlist/ny_atica.html Ohio State University Source]
* [http://www.hrt.msu.edu/ash.alt/tupelo.htm Michigan State University Source]
* [http://www.hort.net/profile/nys/nyssy/ Hort.net profile]
* [http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/species/frame/nysy.htm ''Nyssa sylvatica'' images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu]
* [http://www.plantmaps.com/nrm/nyssa-sylvatica-black-tupelo-native-range-map.php Interactive Distribution Map for Nyssa sylvatica]

{{taxonbar}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nyssa Sylvatica}}
[[Category:Nyssa]]
[[Category:Trees of the Eastern United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the Appalachian Mountains]]
[[Category:Trees of the Northeastern United States]]
[[Category:Trees of the Great Lakes region (North America)]]
[[Category:Trees of the Southeastern United States]]
[[Category:Trees of Ontario]]
[[Category:Trees of the North-Central United States]]
[[Category:Trees of the Southern United States]]
[[Category:Trees of the South-Central United States]]
[[Category:Trees of Hidalgo (state)]]
[[Category:Trees of Puebla]]
[[Category:Trees of Veracruz]]
[[Category:Trees of Chiapas]]
[[Category:Trees of humid continental climate]]
[[Category:Garden plants of North America]]
[[Category:Ornamental trees]]

Schwarzer Tupelobaum

2016-09-19T15:55:32Z

GcSwRhIc: /* Honey production */ fix redirect

{{Refimprove|date=June 2010}}
{{Clear}}
{{Italic title}}
{{taxobox
| name = ''Nyssa sylvatica'' Black tupelo
| image = Nyssa sylvatica2.jpg
| image_caption = ''Nyssa sylvatica'' foliage and young fruit
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| ordo = [[Cornales]]
| familia = [[Cornaceae]] (or [[Nyssaceae]])
| genus = ''[[Nyssa (plant)|Nyssa]]''
| species = '''''N. sylvatica'''''
| binomial = ''Nyssa sylvatica''
| binomial_authority = Marshall
| range_map = Nyssa sylvatica range map.jpg
| range_map_caption = Natural range
| unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
| unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
| unranked_ordo = [[Asterids]]
}}

'''''Nyssa sylvatica''''', commonly known as '''black tupelo,''' '''tupelo,''' or '''blackgum''', is a medium-sized [[deciduous]] [[tree]] native to eastern [[North America]] from the coastal [[Northeast USA]] and southern [[Ontario]] south to central [[Florida]] and eastern [[Texas]], as well as [[Mexico]].

==Names==
''Nyssa sylvatica'''s [[genus]] name ''(Nyssa)'' refers to a [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[naiad|water nymph]];<ref name=Werthner>{{cite book|last=Werthner|first=William B.|title=Some American Trees: An intimate study of native Ohio trees|year=1935|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=xviii + 398 pp.}}</ref> the species [[binomial nomenclature|epithet]] ''sylvatica'' refers to its woodland habitat.<ref name=Werthner />

The species' common name '''tupelo '''is of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] origin, coming from the [[Creek language|Creek]] words ''ito'' ‘tree’ and ''opilwa'' ‘swamp’; it was in use by the mid-18th century<ref>{{cite book|title=New Oxford American Dictionary, 2nd Edition}}</ref>

While these trees are often known as simply "tupelo", the fuller name '''black tupelo '''helps distinguish it from the other species of the [[tupelo]] genus ''(Nyssa)'', some of which have overlapping ranges, such as [[Nyssa aquatica|water tupelo (''N. aquatica'')]] and [[swamp tupelo]] (''[[N. biflora]]''). The name "tupelo" is used primarily in the [[Southern United States|American South]]; northward and in [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachia]], the tree is more commonly called the '''black gum''' or the '''sour gum''', although no part of the plant is particularly gummy.<ref name=Werthner /> Both of these names contrast it with a different tree species with a broadly overlapping range, the [[Liquidambar styraciflua|sweet gum ''(Liquidambar styraciflua)'']], which does produce an aromatic resin.<ref name=Werthner /> Another common name used occasionally in the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]] is ''pepperidge.''<ref name=Werthner />

On [[Martha's Vineyard]], in [[Massachusetts]], this species is called "beetlebung", perhaps for its use in making the mallet known as a beetle, used for hammering [[bung]]s (stoppers) into barrels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://extension.psu.edu/natural-resources/forests/news/2014/why-do-they-call-it-a-gum-tree| author=Paxton, William C. |date=2014|title=Why Do They Call It a Gum Tree?|publisher=Penn State Extension|accessdate=2014-09-14}}</ref>

==Description==

[[Image:Nyssa sylvatica JPG1b.jpg|right|thumb|''Nyssa sylvatica'' leaves in the autumn.]]
[[File:NyssaSylvaticaTrunk.jpg|thumb|right|Trunk of a mature ''Nyssa sylvatica'' tree]]
''Nyssa sylvatica'' grows to {{convert|20|-|25|m|ft}} tall, rarely to {{convert|35|m|ft}}, with a trunk diameter of {{convert|50|-|100|cm|in}}, rarely up to {{convert|170|cm|in}}. These trees typically have a straight trunk with the branches extending outward at right angles.<ref name=Werthner /> The [[bark]] is dark gray and flaky when young, but it becomes furrowed with age, resembling [[alligator]] hide on very old stems. The twigs of this tree are reddish-brown, usually hidden by a greyish skin. The pith is chambered with greenish partitions.

The [[leaf|leaves]] of this species are variable in size and shape. They can be oval, elliptical, or obovate, and {{convert|5|–|12|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on}} long. They have lustrous upper surfaces, with entire, often wavy margins. The foliage turns purple in autumn, eventually becoming an intense bright scarlet. Deer are extremely fond of the leaves on seedlings and saplings, to the point where large populations of them can make establishment of the tree almost impossible. For comparison, mature trees are largely left alone.

The [[flower]]s are very small, in greenish-white in clusters at the top of a long stalk and a rich source or nectar for bees. They are often [[dioecious]] so a male and female tree in proximity is required to set seed, however, many trees are also [[Polygamo-dioecious#Polygamous|polygamo-dioecious]], which means they have both male and female flowers on the same tree. The [[fruit]] is a black-blue, ovoid stone fruit, about 10 mm long with a thin, oily, bitter-to-sour tasting flesh and very popular with small bird species. There are from one to three fruits together on a long slender stalk. They are a valuable energy food for birds, especially the [[American robin]].

''Nyssa sylvatica'' forms a large deep taproot when young that makes transplanting difficult. Because of this, it is fairly uncommon in cultivation and the nursery trade.

Additional characteristics include:
* Bark: Light reddish brown, deeply furrowed and scaly. Branchlets at first pale green to orange, sometimes smooth, often downy, later dark brown.
* Wood: Pale yellow, sapwood white; heavy, strong, very tough, hard to split, not durable in contact with the soil. Used for turnery. Sp. gr., 0.6353; weight of cu. ft., 39.59.
* Winter buds: Dark red, obtuse, one-fourth of an inch long. Inner scales enlarge with the growing shoot, becoming red before they fall.
* Leaves: Alternate, often crowded at the end of the lateral branches, simple, linear, oblong to oval, two to five inches (127 mm) long, one-half to three inches (76 mm) broad, wedge-shaped or rounded at base, entire, with margin slightly thickened, acute or acuminate. They come out of the bud conduplicate, coated beneath with rusty tomentum, when full grown are thick, dark green, very shining above, pale and often hairy beneath. Feather-veined, midrib and primary veins prominent beneath. In autumn they turn bright scarlet, or yellow and scarlet. Petioles one-quarter to one-half an inch long, slender or stout, terete or margined, often red.
* Flowers: May, June, when leaves are half grown. Polygamodiœcious, yellowish green, borne on slender downy peduncles. Staminate in many-flowered heads; pistillate in two to several flowered clusters.
* Calyx: Cup-shaped, five-toothed.
* Corolla: Petals five, imbricate in bud, yellow green, ovate, thick, slightly spreading, inserted on the margin of the conspicuous disk.
* Stamens: Five to twelve. In staminate flowers exserted, in pistillate short, often wanting.
* Pistil: Ovary inferior, one to two-celled; style stout, exserted, reflexed above the middle. Entirely wanting in sterile flower. Ovules, one in each cell.
* Fruit: Fleshy drupe, one to three from each flower cluster. Ovoid, two-thirds of an inch long, dark blue, acid. Stone more or less ridged. October.<ref name=Keeler>{{cite book
| last =Keeler
| first =Harriet L.
| title =Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them
| publisher =Charles Scriber's Sons
| year =1900
| location =New York
| pages =186–189 }}</ref>

{{clear}}

==Distribution==
''Nyssa sylvatica'' grows in various uplands and in alluvial stream bottoms from southwestern [[Maine]] and [[New York (state)|New York]], to extreme southern [[Ontario]], central [[Michigan]], [[Illinois]], and central [[Missouri]], south to southern Florida, eastern [[Texas]], and eastern [[Oklahoma]]. It also occurs locally in central and southern [[Mexico]].<ref>[http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/nyssyl/all.html Coladonato, Milo 1992. ''Nyssa sylvatica''. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.] Retrieved 2012-09-30.</ref> Optimum development is made on lower slopes and terraces in the [[Southeastern United States]].<ref name="Black Tupelo">[http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/nyssa/silvatica.htm “Black Tupelo”] US Forest Service. Retrieved 2012-09-30.</ref>

==Ecology==
''Nyssa sylvatica'' is found in a variety of [[Highland|upland]] and [[wetland]] [[habitat]]s in its extensive range. Its flowers are an important source of [[honey]] and its [[fruit]]s are important to many [[bird]] species. Hollow trunks provide nesting or denning opportunities for [[bee]]s and various [[mammals]]. It is the longest living non-clonal flowering plant in Eastern North America, capable of obtaining ages of over 650 years.<ref>http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~adk/oldlisteast/#spp Eastern OLDLIST</ref>

===Habitats===
''Nyssa sylvatica'' is found in a wide range of climates, due to its extensive distribution. It commonly grows in both the creek bottoms of the southern coastal plains, to altitudes of about {{convert|900|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} in the [[Appalachian Mountains|Southern Appalachians]]. These trees grow best on well-drained, light-textured soils on the low ridges of second bottoms and on the high flats of silty alluvium. In the uplands it grows best on the loams and clay loams of lower slopes and coves.

The species occurs 35 different forest cover types.<ref name="Black Tupelo"/> When found on drier upper slopes and ridges, it is seldom of log size or quality.<ref name="Black Tupelo"/>

===Wildlife===
[[Image:Nyssa sylvatica with mature fruit.jpg|right|thumb|''Nyssa sylvatica'' with mature fruit, starting to show fall coloring]]
''Nyssa sylvatica'' is an important food source for many migrating birds in the fall. Its early color change ([[foliar fruit flagging]]) is thought to attract birds to the available fruit, which ripen before many other fall fruits and berries. The fruit is quite marked, dark blue, in clusters of two or three. The sour fruits are eagerly sought by many kinds of birds, including: [[American robin]], [[Swainson's thrush]], [[gray-cheeked thrush]], [[hermit thrush]], [[wood thrush]], [[northern cardinal]], [[northern mockingbird]], [[blue jay]], [[red-bellied woodpecker]], [[yellow-bellied sapsucker]], [[northern flicker]], [[pileated woodpecker]], [[eastern phoebe]], [[brown thrasher]], [[eastern bluebird]], [[European starling]], [[scarlet tanager]], [[gray catbird]], [[cedar waxwing]], and [[American crow]],{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} all primarily eastern North American birds migrating or residing year-round within the tree's range.

The limbs of these trees often deteriorate early, and the decayed holes make excellent dens for [[squirrel]]s, [[raccoon]]s, [[Virginia opossum]]s, as well as nesting sites for [[honeybee]]s.

{{clear}}

==Uses==
[[File:2014-11-02 12 47 05 Black Tupelo during autumn at The College of New Jersey in Ewing, New Jersey.JPG|right|thumb|''Nyssa sylvatica'' turning scarlet in autumn]]

===Cultivation===
''Nyssa sylvatica'' is cultivated as an [[ornamental tree]] in parks and large gardens, where it is often used as a specimen or shade tree. The tree is best when grown in sheltered but not crowded positions, developing a pyramidal shape in youth, and spreading with age. The stem rises to the summit of the tree in one tapering unbroken shaft, the branches come out at right angles to the trunk and either extend horizontally or droop a little, making a long-narrow, cone-like head.

The leaves are short-petioled and so have little individual motion, but the branches sway as a whole. The spray is fine and abundant and lies horizontally so that the foliage arrangement is not unlike that of the [[beech]] ''(Fagus)''. Its often spectacular autumnal coloring, with intense reds to purples, is highly valued in landscape settings. It is the most fiery and brilliant of the 'brilliant group' that includes [[Acer (genus)|maple]], [[Cornus (plant)|dogwood]], [[sassafras]], and [[Liquidambar|sweet gum]], as well as various species of [[tupelo]].<ref name=Keeler />

===Honey production===
''Nyssa sylvatica'' is a major source of wild honey in many areas within its range. Hollow sections of black gum trunks were formerly used as [[Beehive|bee gums]] by [[beekeeper]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Crane, Ethel Eva|title=The World History of Beekeeping and Honey Hunting|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WVh3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA305|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=305}}</ref>

===Wood===
The wood of ''Nyssa sylvatica'' is heavy, hard, cross-grained, and difficult to split, especially after drying. This resistance to splitting led to its use for making [[mallet|maul]]s, [[pulley]]s, [[wheel|wheel hub]]s, [[roller (agricultural tool)|agricultural roller]]s, [[bowl (vessel)|bowl]]s, and [[road surface|paving blocks]].<ref name=Werthner /> The wood is also used for pallets, rough floors, pulpwood, and firewood. Since the wood is very tough, resistant to wear, it has been used for [[Shuttle (weaving)|shuttles]] in weaving.

==References==
{{Commons category|Nyssa sylvatica}}
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Trees}}
* [http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=NYSY USDA Plant Profile - ''Nyssa sylvatica'']
* {{ThePlantList}}
* [http://www.fw.vt.edu/dendro/dendrology/syllabus/nsylvatica.htm Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Source]
* [http://www.hcs.ohio-state.edu/hcs/TMI/Plantlist/ny_atica.html Ohio State University Source]
* [http://www.hrt.msu.edu/ash.alt/tupelo.htm Michigan State University Source]
* [http://www.hort.net/profile/nys/nyssy/ Hort.net profile]
* [http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/species/frame/nysy.htm ''Nyssa sylvatica'' images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu]
* [http://www.plantmaps.com/nrm/nyssa-sylvatica-black-tupelo-native-range-map.php Interactive Distribution Map for Nyssa sylvatica]

{{taxonbar}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nyssa Sylvatica}}
[[Category:Cornaceae]]
[[Category:Trees of the Eastern United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the Appalachian Mountains]]
[[Category:Trees of the Northeastern United States]]
[[Category:Trees of the Great Lakes region (North America)]]
[[Category:Trees of the Southeastern United States]]
[[Category:Trees of Ontario]]
[[Category:Trees of the North-Central United States]]
[[Category:Trees of the Southern United States]]
[[Category:Trees of the South-Central United States]]
[[Category:Trees of Hidalgo (state)]]
[[Category:Trees of Puebla]]
[[Category:Trees of Veracruz]]
[[Category:Trees of Chiapas]]
[[Category:Trees of humid continental climate]]
[[Category:Garden plants of North America]]
[[Category:Ornamental trees]]

Balgonie Castle

2016-09-15T15:41:12Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted 1 edit by 109.150.7.70 (talk) to last revision by GreenC bot. (TW)

{{refimprove|date=July 2011}}
{{confused|Balconie Castle}}
{{infobox military structure
|image = [[Image:BalgonieCastle04.jpg|300px]]
|caption = Balgonie Castle seen from the south west, with the original tower house on the left
|map_type = Scotland Fife
|map_caption = Location within Fife
|location = [[Milton of Balgonie]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]] GB {{gbmapping|NO313007}}
|built = 1360s with later additions
|builder = Sibbald family Sir Robert Lundie [[Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven|Sir Alexander Leslie]]
|latitude = 56.1938
|longitude = -3.1092
|coordinates_region = GB
|coordinates_display = inline,title
|owner = Raymond Stanley Morris, [[Laird]] of Balgonie and Eddergoll. and Stuart Morris of Balgonie and Eddergoll, yr.
}}

'''Balgonie Castle''' is located on the south bank of the [[River Leven, Fife|River Leven]] near [[Milton of Balgonie]], {{convert|3.5|km}} east of [[Glenrothes]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]. The keep dates from the 14th century, and the remaining structures were added piecemeal until the 18th century. The keep has been recently restored, although other parts of the castle are roofless ruins. Balgonie is a Scheduled Ancient Monument.

==History==
The lands of Balgonie were held by the Sibbalds from at least 1246. Probably in the 1360s, the Sibbalds built a barmkin, or fortified courtyard, with a [[tower house]] at the north-west corner. The lands and the castle were left to a daughter, who married Sir [[Robert Lundie]], who extended the castle in 1496, following his appointment as [[Lord High Treasurer of Scotland]]. Sir Robert built a two-storey range of buildings to the east of the keep, enlarging the accommodation with a long hall and a [[solar (room)|solar]]. This range incorporated an earlier corner tower and the 14th-century chapel. [[James IV of Scotland|King James IV]] visited Balgonie on 20 August 1496, and gave 18 shillings to the masons as a gift.<ref>''Accounts Lord High Treasurer of Scotland'', vol.1 (1877), 290.</ref>

[[Image:BalgonieCastle05.jpg|thumb|The west elevation of the tower house or keep]]

In 1627 the castle was sold to the Boswells, who sold it on in 1635 to [[Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven|Sir Alexander Leslie]], a Scottish soldier who had fought for the Swedish army during the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618-1648), rising to the rank of [[Field Marshal]], and who led the [[Covenanter]]s during the Scottish [[Bishops Wars]]. Leslie was created [[Lord Balgonie]] and [[Earl of Leven]] in 1641, and finally retired in 1654. He carried out further improvement of his home, adding a two-storey building at the south-east corner of the courtyard.

[[File:Scotia_Depicta_-_Balgonie_Castle_-Plate-.jpg|thumb|left| Etching of the castle by [[James Fittler]] from Scotia Depicta, published 1804]]

The initials FSAL and DAR, for Field Marshal Sir Alexander Leslie, and his wife Dame Agnes Renton, were found inscribed within the south-east block, suggesting that this was built prior to Leslie's elevation to the peerage. He also rebuilt the late 15th century north range with an extra storey, and laid out a park around the castle, remnants of which remain.

The next additions were carried out by [[John Leslie, 1st Duke of Rothes|John Leslie, 7th Earl of Rothes]], who disputed the earldom of Leven with [[David Melville, 3rd Earl of Leven|David Melville]] following the death of the second earl in 1664. Lord Rothes, with the aid of [[John Mylne (1611-1667)|John Mylne junior]], the king's master mason, built a grand stair linking the keep and north range, where previously a wooden bridge stood. On his death in 1681 David Melville inherited Balgonie, along with the earldom of Leven. He too added a range of buildings in 1706, this time a three-storey section linking the north range with the south-east block. The work was completed by master mason Gilbert Smith.

[[Rob Roy MacGregor]] captured Balgonie Castle during a raid in 1716, although the castle was soon returned to the Melvilles. [[David Melville, 6th Earl of Leven]] made minor improvements in the 1720s, including the insertion of [[sash window]]s. Further buildings were also added within the courtyard.

[[Image:BalgonieCastle02.jpg|thumb|The roofless east range]]
In 1824 the castle was sold to [[James Balfour (died 1845)|James Balfour]] of [[Whittingehame]], father of [[James Maitland Balfour]], and grandfather of [[Arthur Balfour]], who served as British Prime Minister from 1902-1905. He was unable to arrest the decay which was advancing, and in the mid nineteenth century the roofs were removed to avoid paying tax on the property. Much vandalism occurred in the 1960s, and it was not until 1971 that restoration of the castle, then owned by David Maxwell, began. Work continued through the 1970s and 1980s, aided by European funding as part of European Architectural Heritage Year, in 1975. The keep and chapel have now been fully restored, and the castle is once again lived in by its current owner and laird, Raymond Morris, originally of Walsall, and his family. The castle is open to the public, and the restored chapel and great hall can be hired for events such as weddings. The current owners have expressed their intent to continue the restoration of the entire building.

==The castle==
[[Image:Balgonieplan.png|thumb|Plan of Balgonie Castle with approximate dates of construction]]
The castle is still entered via the 15th century gatehouse. This is semi-ruinous above ground level, but a guardroom and prison can be seen within. The gate opens onto a courtyard, containing a well, around which the buildings are arranged.

The ground and first floors of the keep are vaulted, the first floor containing the hall, which unusually had no great fireplace. This would originally have been entered via a moveable timber stair, prior to the construction of the present stone stair. Above the hall are two further floors, each with a fireplace and connected by a turnpike stair. The keep is topped by a pitched roof with crow stepped gables. Outside, the parapet walk and cannon spouts are of 17th-century origin, and contemporary with the enlarged windows. Some of the smaller trefoil-headed original windows survive.

In the basement of the north range is the vaulted chapel, although the remainder of the range, and the east buildings, are roofless. Walls and chimney stacks remain. The remains of earlier buildings within the courtyard were uncovered during excavations in 1978. It appears that these were demolished in the early 17th century to allow rebuilding.<ref>Reported in the NMRS Archaeology Notes for the site [http://lmid1.rcahms.gov.uk/pls/portal/newcanmore.details_gis?inumlink=31389].</ref>

Beyond the castle walls, the extensive boundary walls of the deer park survive, although damaged in parts. Large mature trees remain from the 17th century landscaping.

==Hauntings==
Several hauntings have been reported within the castle. One spectre, nicknamed 'Green Jeanie', is said to be the ghost of one of the Lundie occupants. A 17th-century soldier, a dog, and a hooded man have also been claimed to be seen. A skeleton was found in the floor of the great hall, during works in 1912.<ref>Hauntings are described in Coventry, 2001.</ref><ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://heritage.scotsman.com/spookystories/Moat-haunted.2814420.jp |title=Moat haunted - News - Scotsman.com |publisher=heritage.scotsman.com |date=2006-09-29 |accessdate=2012-03-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.fifetoday.co.uk/news/local-headlines/beware_the_witching_hour_1_148947 |title=Beware the witching hour - Local Headlines |publisher=Fife Today |date=2007-10-30 |accessdate=2012-03-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/heritage/scotland-s-specters-haunted-castles-part-1-1-2280035 |title=Scotland’s specters: Haunted castles, part 1 - Heritage |publisher=Scotsman.com |date= |accessdate=2012-05-07}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of places in Fife]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
*Coventry, Martin ''The Castles of Scotland (3rd Edition)'', Goblinshead, 2001
*Gifford, John ''The Buildings of Scotland: Fife'', Penguin, 1988
*Lindsay, Maurice ''The Castles of Scotland'', Constable & Co. 1986
*Pride, G L ''The Kingdom of Fife: An Illustrated Architectural Guide'', [[Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland|RIAS]], 1990
*[[Historic Scotland]] Listed Building Report [http://data.historic-scotland.gov.uk/pls/htmldb/f?p=2200:15:0::::BUILDING:16664]
*[[National Monuments Record of Scotland]] Site Reference NO30SW 4.00 [http://lmid1.rcahms.gov.uk/pls/portal/newcanmore.details_gis?inumlink=31389]

==External links==
{{commons}}
*[http://www.balgoniecastle.co.uk/ Balgonie Castle website]
*[http://digital.nls.uk/74582244 Engraving of Balgonie Castle] by [[James Fittler]] in the digitised copy of Scotia Depicta, or the antiquities, castles, public buildings, noblemen and gentlemen's seats, cities, towns and picturesque scenery of Scotland, 1804 at [[National Library of Scotland]]


[[Category:Castles in Fife]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Fife]]
[[Category:Listed castles in Scotland]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Scotland]]
[[Category:Reportedly haunted locations in Scotland]]
[[Category:Clan Leslie]]

John Pickering (Jurist)

2016-09-13T11:16:59Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted 2 edits by 2602:306:3747:AF20:6164:FAE5:5193:D918 (talk): Unsourced. (TW)

{{refimprove|date=December 2014}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = John Pickering
| office1 = Judge of the [[United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire]]
| termstart1 = 1795
| termend1 = 1804
| preceded1 = [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]]
| succeeded1 = [[John Samuel Sherburne]]
| office2 = Judge of the [[New Hampshire Superior Court]]
| termstart2 = 1790
| termend2 = 1795
| office3 = Member of the [[New Hampshire House of Representatives]]
| termstart3 = 1783
| termend3 = 1787
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1737|09|22}}
| birth_place = [[Newington, New Hampshire]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1805|04|11|1737|09|22}}
| death_place = [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire|Portsmouth]], [[New Hampshire]]
| resting_place = North Cemetery, [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]]
| alma_mater = [[Harvard College]]
| profession = Attorney
}}
'''John Pickering''' (September 22, 1737 – April 11, 1805) served as chief justice of the [[New Hampshire Superior Court of Judicature]], and as judge for the [[United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire]]. He was the first federal official to be removed from office upon conviction by [[impeachment]].

==Early life==
Born in [[Newington, New Hampshire]], Pickering studied law at [[Harvard College]] and was admitted to the bar after graduating in 1761. He was in private practice in [[Greenland, New Hampshire]] and [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]].

==Start of career==
Pickering served as a member of the [[New Hampshire House of Representatives]] from 1783 to 1787. In 1787 he was elected to the New Hampshire delegation to the [[History of the United States Constitution#Constitutional Convention|Constitutional Convention]], but he declined to serve, instead continuing to practice law in Portsmouth.

In 1790, Pickering was appointed to the [[New Hampshire Superior Court]], where he eventually served as Chief Justice. He was elected a Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1791.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter P|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterP.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=July 28, 2014}}</ref>

==Federal judge==
In 1795, an attempt to remove Pickering from the New Hampshire Superior Court due to illness became bogged down in political problems, and therefore the state convinced President [[George Washington]] to appoint him to the relatively low workload post of the Federal District Court. On February 10, 1795, Washington nominated Pickering to a seat on the [[United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire]] vacated by [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]]. The following day, Pickering was confirmed by the [[United States Senate]] and received his commission. Pickering assumed the office in April 1795.

By 1800, Pickering had begun to show definite signs of mental deterioration. This became severe enough of an impediment that on April 25, 1801 court staff wrote to the judges of the [[United States Circuit Court for the First Circuit]]{{efn|This was a [[United States circuit court]] created along with the [[Judiciary Act of 1801]]—otherwise called the Midnight Judges Act—which had moved from the three-circuit grouping embodied in the [[Judiciary Act of 1789]] (Eastern, Middle, and Southern Circuits) to a six-circuit grouping (First through Sixth Circuits).}} requesting that they send a temporary replacement. The First Circuit appointed [[Jeremiah Smith (lawyer)|Jeremiah Smith]], circuit judge, pursuant to § 25 of the Judiciary Act of 1801 to take over Pickering's caseload. With the passage of the [[Judiciary Act of 1802]], which explicitly repealed the 1801 Act,{{efn|The six-circuit system was retained, though because the 1802 Act expressly repealed the 1801 Act, its provisions formed "new" judicial circuits whose boundaries were—except for the classification of district courts in Maine, Kentucky and Tennessee—identical to those in the 1801 Act.}} there were no more circuit judgeships{{efn|The 1802 Act, § 4, specified that the circuit court would be held by the district judge for the district where court was to be held, and by an allotted Supreme Court justice who would be [[riding circuit]]. That is, when the First Circuit would hold its two annual sessions in New Hampshire, Judge Pickering and Justice [[William Cushing]] were to preside.}} and the circuit courts' powers were reverted to what they were prior to the 1802 Act.<ref name="turner1949">{{cite journal|last1=Turner|first1=Lynn W.|title=The Impeachment of John Pickering|journal=American Historical Review|date=April 1949|volume=54|issue=3|pages=485–507|jstor=1843004|subscription=yes}}</ref>{{rp|488}}<ref>Act of Apr. 29, 1802, ch. 31, {{USStat|2|156}}.</ref>

==Impeachment==
On February 3, 1803, President [[Thomas Jefferson]] sent evidence to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] against Pickering, accusing him of having made unlawful rulings and being of bad moral character due to intoxication while on the bench in connection with a [[Libel (admiralty law)|libel]] for unpaid duties against the ''Eliza''. The House voted to impeach Pickering on March 2, 1803 on charges of drunkenness and unlawful rulings.<ref name="turner1949" />{{rp|491}} Political controversy raged, with [[Federalist]]s accusing [[Democratic-Republicans]] of trying to usurp the Constitution by attempting to remove the Judge from office though he had committed neither high crimes nor misdemeanors as required by the Constitution.<ref name="turner1949" />

The [[United States Senate|Senate]] tried Pickering ''in absentia'', beginning January 4, 1804. The Senate convicted Pickering of all charges by a vote of 19 to 7 on March 12, 1804, thereby immediately removing him from office.<ref name="turner1949" />{{rp|504}}

==Death and burial==
Pickering died in Portsmouth on April 11, 1805. He was buried at North Cemetery in Portsmouth.<ref>{{Findagrave|95521101}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite wikisource|plaintitle=History of the United States 1801-09|wslink=History of the United States 1801-09/The First Administration of Thomas Jefferson|chapter=II:7|first=Henry|last=Adams}} For an account of Pickering's impeachment.

==External links==
* {{FJC Bio|1884}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-legal}}
{{succession box | before=[[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]] | title=[[United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire|Judge of the District Court for the District of New Hampshire]] | years=1795-1804 | after=[[John Samuel Sherburne]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pickering, John}}
[[Category:1737 births]]
[[Category:1805 deaths]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:New Hampshire state court judges]]
[[Category:Judges of the United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Impeached United States federal judges]]
[[Category:Impeached United States officials removed from office]]
[[Category:United States federal judges appointed by George Washington]]
[[Category:18th-century judges]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:Chief Justices of the New Hampshire Supreme Court]]

Stephen Elliott (Botaniker)

2016-09-08T18:07:27Z

GcSwRhIc: add AAAS with source

[[File:Stephen Elliot, Garden & Forest v7 1894.png|thumb|Stephen Elliot, from Garden & Forest Magazine, Volume 7 (1894), page 204<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/107742#page/217/mode/1up |title=Stephen Elliott |volume=7 |journal=Garden and Forest |author=Charles Sprague Sargent |year=1894 |page=204}}</ref>]]
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2011}}
'''Stephen Elliott''' (November 11, 1771 in [[Beaufort, South Carolina]] – March 28, 1830 in [[Charleston, South Carolina]]) was an American [[legislator]], [[banker]], [[educator]], and [[botanist]] who is today remembered for having written one of the most important works in American [[botany]], ''A Sketch of the Botany of South-Carolina and Georgia''.<ref name="huh">"Stephen Elliott (1771-1830) Papers" In: Archives of the Gray Herbarium. In: The Harvard University Herbaria. (see External links below).</ref> The plant genus ''[[Elliottia]]'' is named after him.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/tl-2/browse.cfm?vol=1#page/789 |title=Taxonomic Literature Online |accessdate=8 January 2015}}</ref>

==Life==
Stephen Elliott was born in [[Beaufort, South Carolina]] on November 11, 1771. He grew up there, then moved to [[New Haven, Connecticut]] to attend [[Yale University]]. He graduated in 1791 as the [[valedictorian]] of his class. From Yale, he returned to [[South Carolina]] to work the [[plantations in the American South|plantation]] that he had inherited.

He was [[Election|elected]] to the legislature in South Carolina in 1793 or 1796 (sources disagree) and served until about 1800.<ref name=biography>[http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libraries/archives/ELLIOT.htm Biography of Stephen Elliott] In: [http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libraries/Grayarc.htm Archives of the Gray Herbarium] {{wayback|url=http://www.huh.harvard.edu/libraries/Grayarc.htm |date=20090530072632 }} In: [http://www.huh.harvard.edu The Harvard University Herbaria]</ref> He then left the legislature and devoted himself to the management of his plantation. He was re-elected to the legislature in 1808 and worked to have a bank established by the state. When the bank was founded in 1812, he resigned from the legislature and was appointed president of what was then called the "Bank of the State of South Carolina", a position that he held for the rest of his life.

His leisure was devoted to literature and science, and he cultivated the [[Research|study]] of [[botany]] with enthusiasm. Elliott was elected a Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1808.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter E|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterE.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=September 8, 2016}}</ref> In 1813 he was instrumental in founding the Literary and Philosophical Society of South Carolina, of which he was president. He gave free lectures on botany, and was for some time editor of the ''Southern Review''. In 1825 he aided in establishing the [[Medical University of South Carolina|Medical College of South Carolina]], and was elected professor of [[natural history]] and [[botany]], which he taught until his death in 1830.<ref name=biography /><ref name=appletons>{{Appletons|wstitle=Elliott, Stephen|year=1900|inline=1}}</ref>

Stephen Elliott engaged in a long and active [[Letter (message)|correspondence]] with many of the botanists of his time, but wrote an especially large number of letters to [[Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst Muhlenberg|Henry Muhlenberg]] of [[Pennsylvania]]. The material that Elliott collected on numerous [[field trip]]s and his intimate knowledge of the [[Phytochorion|southeastern flora]] was of great value to botanists elsewhere. Elliott's [[herbarium]] was one of the largest in America during his lifetime. Its [[Biological specimen|specimen]]s proved invaluable to [[John Torrey]], [[Asa Gray]], and others. The herbarium is preserved at the [[Charleston Museum]].<ref name="ewan1971"/>

{{botanist|Elliott}}

==''A Sketch of the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia''==
His [[classic]] work, ''A Sketch of the Botany of South-Carolina and Georgia'' contained the first [[Plant taxonomy|botanical descriptions]] of many [[species]]. It was these descriptions which [[Valid name (botany)|validated]] many of the names published as [[nomen nudum|nomina nuda]] by Henry Muhlenberg. Initially published in several installments from 1816 to 1824, these were later combined into two volumes: volume I in 1821 and volume II in 1824. These dates were dates of last installment, not dates of original publication.<ref name="ewan1971">Joseph Ewan. "Editors Introduction" In: 1971 reprint of ''A Sketch of the Botany of South-Carolina and Georgia'' In ''Classica Botanica Americana'' (series). Hafner Publishing Company: New York. 1971.</ref> It was prepared with the assistance of James McBride.<ref name=appletons/>

In 1900, ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' described him as "the father of southern botany."<ref>{{cite journal|date=August 3, 1900|author1=Science, American Association for the Advancement of|title=The Last Quarter-A Reminiscence and an Outlook|journal=Science|volume=12|issue=292|pages=162–3|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Nn8CAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA162&lpg=RA1-PA162&dq=%22Stephen+Elliot%22+herbarium|doi=10.1126/science.ns-12.296.162-a|pmid=17799745}}</ref>
In 1901, Frank Lamson-Scribner wrote the following about Elliott's ''Sketch'':
<blockquote>Not until one has prepared a book where almost every line contains a statement of fact learned from original observation can he fully appreciate the amount of patience and labor involved in the preparation of such a work as the ''Sketch of the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia''...today it remains indispensable to the working systematic botanists of our country.<ref name="pageV">Joseph Ewan. "Editors Introduction" In: 1971 reprint of ''A Sketch of the Botany of South-Carolina and Georgia'' In ''Classica Botanica Americana'' (series). Hafner Publishing Company: New York. 1971. page V</ref></blockquote>

==Family==
His son [[Stephen Elliott (bishop)|Stephen]] grew up to become a [[Protestant Episcopal]] bishop.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=Uq4YAAAAYAAJ&dq=A+Sketch+of+the+Botany+of+South-Carolina+and+Georgia&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=YTLnFPoRXe&sig=J5hu5kCGXzFMaNVIczdZ7QtXpeo&hl=en&ei=oS7sSfqxK6fEtAOHkqHhAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1 A Sketch of the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Elliott, Stephen}}
[[Category:1771 births]]
[[Category:1830 deaths]]
[[Category:American botanists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:Yale University alumni]]
[[Category:Members of the South Carolina General Assembly]]
[[Category:People from Beaufort, South Carolina]]

Toxicodendron vernix

2015-07-06T14:34:30Z

GcSwRhIc: fix template field for proper display

{{italic title}}
{{taxobox
|name = Poison sumac
|image = Toxicodendron vernix.jpg
|image_caption = Poison sumac leaves
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]]
|ordo = [[Sapindales]]
|familia = [[Anacardiaceae]]
|genus = ''[[Toxicodendron]]''
|species = '''''T. vernix'''''
|binomial = ''Toxicodendron vernix''
|binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Carl Ernst Otto Kuntze|Kuntze]]
|range_map = Toxicodendron vernix map.png
}}
'''''Toxicodendron vernix''''', commonly known as '''poison sumac''', is a woody [[shrub]] or small tree growing to 9 m (30 ft) tall.<ref name=Keeler>{{cite book
| last =Keeler
| first =Harriet L.
| title =Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them
| publisher =Charles Scribner's Sons
| year =1900
| location =New York
| pages =94–96 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Rucker|first=Colby|title=Tall Trees of Maryland|url=http://www.nativetreesociety.org/fieldtrips/maryland/maryland_tall_trees.htm|work=Maryland's Tallest Native Tree Species|accessdate=20 January 2012}}</ref> It was previously known as '''''Rhus vernix'''''. This plant is also known as thunderwood, particularly where it occurs in the southern US states. All parts of the plant contain a resin called [[urushiol]] that causes skin and mucous membrane irritation to humans. When burned, inhalation of the smoke may cause the rash to appear on the lining of the lungs, causing extreme pain and possibly fatal respiratory difficulty.

==Description==

Poison sumac is a shrub or small tree, growing up to nearly 30 feet in height. Each [[pinnate]] leaf has 7–13 leaflets, each of which is 2–4 inches long. These are oval-to-oblong; [[acuminate]] (tapering to a sharp point); [[cuneate leaf|cuneate]] (wedge-shaped) at the base; undulate (wavy-edged); with an underside that is [[glabrous]] (hairless) or slightly [[Leaf#Surface|pubescent]] (down-like hair) beneath. The stems along the leaflets are red and the leaves can have a reddish tint to them, particularly at the top of the plant. New bark for a poison sumac tree is lightish gray, and as the bark ages, it becomes darker.

Its flowers are greenish, growing in loose axillary [[panicle]]s (clusters) 3–8 inches long. The fruits are [[subglobose]] (not quite spherical), gray, flattened, and about 0.2 inches across.

Poison sumac fruit are creamy white and part of a cluster. Typically, they are around 4 to 5 mm (0.18 inches) in size.

The fruit and leaves of the poison sumac plant contain urushiol, an oil that causes an allergic rash upon contact with skin.

[[File:PoisonSumacDrawing1.jpeg|left|thumb|Poison sumac]]

==Distribution==
Poison sumac grows exclusively in very wet or flooded soils, usually in [[swamp]]s and peat [[bog]]s, in the eastern [[United States]] and [[Canada]].<ref>[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=TOVE USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service: ''Toxicodendron vernix'']</ref>

==Toxicity==
{{main|Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis}}
In terms of its potential to cause urushiol-induced contact dermatitis, poison sumac is more toxic than its relatives [[poison ivy]] and [[poison oak]]. According to some botanists, poison sumac is the most toxic plant species in the United States (Frankel, 1991).

The differences in toxicity in poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac are due to differences in the [[side chain]]s of the chemicals in these plants.{{why?|date=May 2015}} In general, poison ivy has a CI5 side chain, poison oak has a CI7 side chain and poison sumac has a CI3 side chain.

The dermatitis shows itself in painful and long continued swellings and eruptions.<ref name=Keeler /> In the worst case, smoke inhaled by burning poison sumac leaves results in a medical condition [[pulmonary edema]] whereby blood enters lungs and the victim dies of suffocation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poison-sumac.org/|title=Poison Sumac|work=The Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, Poison Sumac Site}}</ref>

[[File:Poison sumac June2013.jpg|thumb|left]]

{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Frankel, Edward, Ph.D. 1991. ''Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, Poison Sumac and Their Relatives; Pistachios, Mangoes and Cashews''. The Boxwood Press. Pacific Grove, Calif. ISBN 0-940168-18-9.
* http://www.forestry.state.al.us/Publications/TREASURED_Forest_Magazine/2008%20Spring/Trees%20of%20Alabama%20-%20Poison%20Sumac.pdf.

==External links==
*[http://www.henriettes-herb.com/faqs/medi-2-7-poison-ivy.html Poison ivy / oak / sumac] in "The Medicinal Herb FAQ".
*[http://www.poison-sumac.org The Poison Sumac Page]—Photos and facts about poison sumac.
*[http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ww0802.htm Poison Oak] at ''Wayne's Word.''

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal|last1=Gladman|first1=Aaron|title=Toxicodendron Dermatitis: Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac|journal=Wilderness & Environmental Medicine|date=June 2006|volume=17|issue=2|pages=120–128|doi=10.1580/PR31-05.1|accessdate=26 April 2015}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Guin|first1=Jere|last2=Gillis|first2=William|last3=Beaman|first3=John|title=Recognizing the Toxicodendrons (poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac).|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|date=January 1981|volume=4|issue=1|pages=99-114|doi=10.1016/S0190-9622(81)70014-8|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190962281700148#|accessdate=1 May 2015}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Epstein|first1=William L.|title=The Poison Ivy Picker of Pennypack Park: The Continuing Saga of Poison Ivy|journal=Journal of Investigative Dermatology|date=March 1987|volume=88|issue=3 Suppl|pages=7s-11s|doi=10.1111/1523-1747.ep12468865|accessdate=1 May 2015}}

[[Category:Toxicodendron|vernix]]
[[Category:Flora of North America]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]

Benutzer:GcSwRhIc/vector.css

2014-09-10T15:33:00Z

GcSwRhIc:

a:visited {color: #b99508}

9th Infantry Division (Vereinigte Staaten)

2014-08-17T21:43:48Z

GcSwRhIc: /* World War I */ spelling, link

{{refimprove|date=December 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name=U.S. 9th Infantry Division
|image=[[Image:9th Infantry Division patch.svg|200px]]
|caption=9th Infantry Division shoulder sleeve insignia
|country={{flag|United States}}
|allegiance=
|type=Division
|branch=United States Army
|dates=1918–19 1940–47 1947–62 1966–69 1972–91
|specialization=Infantry; motorized infantry
|command_structure=
|size=
|current_commander=
|garrison=inactive
|ceremonial_chief=
|nickname="Old Reliables",<ref name = SUD>{{cite web| title = Special Unit Designations| url = http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/spdes-123-ra_ar.html| publisher=[[United States Army Center of Military History]]|date=21 April 2010| accessdate =24 June 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100609010022/http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/spdes-123-ra_ar.html| archivedate= 9 June 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> "The Varsity", "Octofoil", "9th ID", "Flower Power" (Vietnam), "The Psychedelic Cookie" (Vietnam),"The Flaming Assholes" (Vietnam){{citation needed|date=June 2014}}
|motto=
|colors=
|march=
|mascot=
|battles=[[World War II]]
*[[Operation Torch]]
*[[Tunisia Campaign]]
*[[Operation Husky|Sicily]]
*[[Battle of the Bulge|Ardennes Offensive]]
[[Vietnam War]]
|notable_commanders=[[Manton Eddy]] [[Jacob L. Devers]] [[Donald Prentice Booth]] [[Julian Ewell]] [[John Shalikashvili]]
|anniversaries=
|identification_symbol=[[File:9 Inf Div DUI.jpg|100px]]
|identification_symbol_label=Distinctive Unit Insignia
}}
{{Infobox US infantry
|previous=[[8th Infantry Division (United States)|8th Infantry Division]] (''Inactive'')
|next=[[10th Mountain Division (United States)|10th Mountain Division]]
}}
The '''9th Infantry Division''' ("Old Reliables"<ref name = SUD/>) was created as the 9th Division during World War I, but never deployed overseas. Later, the division was an important unit of the [[United States Army]] in World War II and the [[Vietnam War]]. It was also activated as a peacetime readiness unit from 1947 to 1962 at [[Fort Dix, New Jersey|Fort Dix]], New Jersey, and [[Fort Carson, Colorado|Fort Carson]], Colorado, and from 1972 to 1991 as an active-duty infantry division at [[Fort Lewis, Washington|Fort Lewis]], Washington. Nicknamed the "Old Reliables", the division was eventually inactivated in December 1991.

==Insignia==
The [[shoulder sleeve insignia]] is an octofoil resembling a heraldic design given to the ninth son of a family. This represents the son as a circle in the middle with eight brothers around him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://9thinfdivsociety.org/ |title=9th Infantry Division categories |publisher=9thinfdivsociety.org |date=15 July 1947 |accessdate=22 August 2013}}</ref> The blue represents the infantry, the red the artillery with all the white making the colors of the flag of the United States of America.

==World War I==
The 9th Infantry Division was created on 18 July 1918 at Camp Sheridan, Alabama but did not serve overseas.<ref>p.10 Sperry, John ''9th Infantry Division: Old Reliables'' Turner Publishing Company, 15 March 2000</ref> It was disbanded on 15 February 1919 at [[Sheridan Reserve Center|Camp Sheridan]].

Units assigned to the 9th Division

Division Headquarters

17th Infantry Brigade
* 45th Infantry Regiment
* 67th Infantry Regiment
* 26th Machine Gun Battalion

18th Infantry Brigade
* 46th Infantry Regiment
* 68th Infantry Regiment
* 27th Machine Gun Battalion

Ninth Field Artillery Brigade
* 25th Field Artillery (Light)
* 26th Field Artillery (Light)
* 27th Field Artillery (Heavy)
* Ninth Trench Mortar Battery

25th Machine Gun Battalion 
209th Engineer Regiment 
209th Field Signal Battalion

Division Trains
* HQ Train and Military Police Company
* Ninth Sanitary Train
* Ninth Motor Supply Train
* Ninth Ammunition Train

== World War II ==
*Activated: 1 August 1940 at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.
*Overseas: 11 December 1942 (Three organic combat teams participated in North African landings 8 November 1942)
*Campaigns: [[Operation Torch|Algeria-French Morocco]], [[Tunisia Campaign|Tunisia]], [[Allied invasion of Sicily|Sicily]], [[Operation Overlord|Normandy]], [[Northern France Campaign (1944)|North France]], [[Rhineland Campaign]], [[Ardennes-Alsace]], [[Central Europe Campaign|Central Europe]]
*Days of combat: 304
*Distinguished Unit Citations: 24
*Awards: [[Medal of Honor]]-4; [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguished Service Cross]]-76; [[Distinguished Service Medal (Army)|Distinguished Service Medal]]-3; [[Silver Star]]-2,282; [[Legion of Merit]]-19; [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|DFC]]-2; [[Soldier's Medal]]-100; [[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Star]] −6,593; [[Air Medal]]-129
*Commanders: Col . Charles B. Elliott (August 1940), Brig. Gen. Francis W. Honeycutt (September 1940), Maj. Gen. [[Jacob L. Devers]] (October 1940 – July 1941), Maj. Gen. Rene E. DeR. Hoyle (August 1941 – July 1942), Maj. Gen. [[Manton S. Eddy]] (August 1942 – August 1944), Maj. Gen. Louis A. Craig (August 1944 – May 1945), Brig. Gen. Jesse A. Ladd (May 1945 – February 1946), Maj. Gen. [[Horace L. McBride]] (March 1946 to inactivation), Maj. Gen. William W. Eagles (15 July 1947 – 26 April 1948), Maj. Gen. Arthur A. White (27 April 1948 – )
*Inactivated: 15 January 1947
*Reactivated: 15 July 1947 at Fort Dix, New Jersey
*Inactivated: 31 January 1962 at Fort Carson, Colorado
*Redesignated 1 February 1966 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 9th Infantry Division, and activated at [[Fort Riley, Kansas|Fort Riley]], Kansas
*Inactivated 25 September 1969 in Hawaii
*Activated: 21 April 1972 at Fort Lewis, Washington
*Inactivated: 15 December 1991 at Fort Lewis, Washington

=== Combat chronicle ===
The 9th Infantry Division was among the first U.S. combat units to engage in offensive ground operations during World War II. (The others were the [[32nd Infantry Division (United States)|32nd]] and the [[41st Infantry Division (United States)|41st]] in the Pacific on [[New Guinea campaign|New Guinea]], [[Evans Carlson#Carlson's Raiders|Carlson's Raiders]] on [[Makin Island raid|Makin Island]], the [[1st Marine Division (United States)|1st Marine]], and the
[[23rd Infantry Division (United States)|Americal]] on [[Guadalcanal Campaign|Guadalcanal]], and, alongside the 9th in [[Operation Torch|North Africa]], were the [[3rd Infantry Division (United States)|3rd Infantry]] and the [[2nd Armored Division (United States)|2nd Armored]] Divisions.) The 9th saw its first combat on 8 November 1942, when its elements landed at [[Algiers]], [[Safi, Morocco|Safi]], and [[Port Lyautey]], with the taking of Safi by the 3rd Battalion of the 47th Infantry Regiment standing as the first liberation of a city from Axis control in World War II.

With the collapse of French resistance on 11 November 1942, the division patrolled the Spanish Moroccan border. The 9th returned to Tunisia in February and engaged in small defensive actions and patrol activity. On 28 March 1943 it launched an attack in southern Tunisia and fought its way north into [[Bizerte]], 7 May. In August, the 9th landed at [[Palermo, Sicily]], and took part in the capture of [[Randazzo]] and [[Messina]]. After returning to England for further training, the division landed on [[Utah Beach]] on 10 June 1944 (D plus 4), cut off the [[Cotentin Peninsula]], drove on to [[Cherbourg]] and penetrated the port's heavy defenses.

[[File:36th AIR 9th ID Geich Dec1944.jpeg|thumb|GIs of C Company, 36th Armored Infantry Regiment, 9th Infantry Division at {{Ill|de|Geich|Geich (Zülpich)}}, Germany, 11 December 1944.]]
After a brief rest in July, the division took part in the [[Saint-Lô|St. Lo]] break-through and in August helped close the [[Falaise pocket|Falaise Gap]]. Turning east, the 9th crossed the [[Marne River|Marne]], 28 August, swept through [[Saarlautern]],<ref>{{cite video
| year =1944
| title =Video: American Sub Rescues Airmen (1944)
| url =http://www.archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39150
| publisher =[[Universal Newsreel]]
| accessdate =21 February 2012
}}</ref> and in November and December held defensive positions from [[Monschau]] to [[Hellenthal|Losheim]]. Moving north to [[Eschweiler|Bergrath]], Germany, it launched an attack toward the [[Roer]], 10 December, taking [[Düren|Echtz and Schlich]]. From mid-December through January 1945, the division held defensive positions from [[Monschau|Kalterherberg]] to [[Bütgenbach|Elsenborn]]. On 30 January the division jumped off from Monschau in a drive across the Roer and to the [[Rhine]], crossing at [[Remagen]], 7 March.

After breaking out of the Remagen bridgehead, the 9th assisted in the sealing and clearing of the [[Ruhr Pocket]], then moved 150 miles (240 km) east to [[Nordhausen]] and attacked in the [[Harz Mountains]], 14–20 April. On 21 April the Division relieved the [[U.S. 3rd Armored Division|3d Armored Division]] along the [[Mulde River]], near [[Dessau]], and held that line until [[VE-day]].

=== Assignments in MTO ===
*previous: [[U.S. II Corps|II Corps]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lonesentry.com/gi_stories_booklets/9thinfantry/index.html |title=Hitler's Nemesis: The 9th Infantry Division – WWII G.I. Stories Booklet |publisher=Lone Sentry |date= |accessdate=22 August 2013}}</ref>
*May 1943: [[U.S. I Armored Corps|I Armored Corps]]

=== Assignments in ETO ===
*20 November 1943: [[U.S. First Army|First Army]]
*25 November 1943: [[U.S. VII Corps|VII Corps]]
*1 August 1944: VII Corps, First Army, [[U.S. 12th Army Group|12th Army Group]]
*26 October 1944: [[U.S. V Corps|V Corps]]
*6 December 1944: VII Corps
*18 December 1944: V Corps
*20 December 1944: Attached, with the entire First Army, to the [[British 21st Army Group]]
*18 January 1945: V Corps, First Army, 12th Army Group
*17 February 1945: [[U.S. III Corps|III Corps]]
*31 March 1945: VII Corps
*4 April 1945: III Corps
*14 April 1945: VII Corps

=== Order of battle ===

==== Command and staff ====
*Commanding General

# 27 November 1943 Maj. Gen. [[Manton S. Eddy]]
# 19 August 1944 Maj. Gen. Louis A. Craig
# 17 May 1945 Brig. Gen. Reese M. Howell (Acting)

*Assistant Division Commander

# 27 November 1943 Brig. Gen. Donald A. Stroh [Assumed command of 8th Infantry Division on 12 July 1944]
# 20 July 1944 Brig. Gen. [[James Edward Wharton|James E. Wharton]]
# 12 August 1944 Brig. Gen. Kenneth Buchanan
# 17 September 1944 Col. James S. Rodwell
# 8 October 1944 Col. Hammond D. Birks
# 7 January 1945 Brig. Gen. Hammond D. Birks

*Artillery Commander

# 27 November 1943 Brig. Gen. Reese M. Howell

*Chief of Staff

# 27 November 1943 Col. George B. Barth
# 16 June 1944 Col. Jesse L. Gibney (Acting)
# 24 June 1944 Col. Noah M. Brinson
# 30 August 1944 Col. John G. Van Houten
# 9 October 1944 Lt. Col. James W. Lockett
# 12 October 1944 COL [[William C. Westmoreland]]

*Assistant Chief of Staff G-1

# 27 November 1943 Lt. Col. Frank R. Veale, Jr.
# 25 August 1944 Lt. Col. William L. Peverill
# 6 May 1945 Maj. Franklin G. Allen

*Assistant Chief of Staff G-2

# 27 November 1943 Lt. Col. Robert W. Robb
# 21 August 1944 Maj. Jack A. Houston
# 27 October 1944 Lt. Col. Jack A. Houston

*Assistant Chief of Staff G-3

# 27 November 1943 Lt. Col. Alver B. Sundin
# 1 April 1944 Lt. Col. Frederick C. Feil
# 10 December 1944 Maj. Reginald L. Riley (Acting)
# 6 January 1945 Lt. Col. Frederick C. Feil

*Assistant Chief of Staff G-4

# 27 November 1943 Lt. Col. George E. Pickett
# 11 April 1945 Maj. George R. Huff (Acting)

*Assistant Chief of Staff G-5

# 6 May 1944 Lt. Col. Asa White Kenney Billings, Jr.
# 9 December 1944 Maj. Charles O. Tingley

*Adjutant General

# 27 November 1943 Lt. Col. William L. Peverill
# 27 August 1944 Lt. Col. James R. Hutchison
# 14 April 1945 Maj. George E. Materewicz (Acting)

*Commanding Officer, 39th Infantry

# 27 November 1943 Col. Harry A. Flint
# 24 July 1944 Lt. Col. Van H. Bond
# 10 October 1944 Col. Van H. Bond

*Commanding Officer, 47th Infantry

# 27 November 1943 Col. George W. Smythe
# 6 March 1945 Lt. Col. Herman A. Schmidt (Acting)
# 13 March 1945 Col. Peter O. Ward

*Commanding Officer, 60th Infantry

# 27 November 1943 Col. Frederick J. de Rohan
# 2 July 1944 Col. Jesse L. Gibney
# 4 October 1944 Lt. Col. Donald C. Claymen
# 9 October 1944 Col. John G. Van Houten

==== Statistics ====

===== Chronology =====
*Activated 1 August 1940
*Arrived UK 27 November 1943
*Arrived Continent '''(D+4)''' 10 June 1944
*Entered Combat 14 June 1944 '''[First elements in combat in North Africa 8 November 1942'''; entire division entered combat NATOUSA 26 March 1943]
*Days in Combat 264

===== Casualties =====
*(Tentative)

*Killed 4,581
*Wounded 16,961
*Missing 750
*Captured 868
*Battle casualties 22,292
*Non-Battle casualties 15,233
*Total casualties 33,864
*Percent of T/O strength 240.4

===== Campaigns =====
#Algeria-French Morocco
#Tunisia
#Sicily
#Normandy
#Northern France
#Ardennes
#Rhineland
#Central Europe

===== Individual awards =====
Medal of Honor: 4
#Distinguished Service Cross: 86
#Legion of Merit: 6
#Silver Star: 1,789
#Soldier's Medal: 55
#Bronze Star: 5,518
#Distinguished Flying Cross: 1
#Air Medal: 124

===== Prisoners of war taken =====
*Total: 130,000

==== Composition ====
*[[39th Infantry Regiment (United States)|39th]] Infantry
*[[47th Infantry Regiment (United States)|47th]] Infantry
*[[60th Infantry Regiment (United States)|60th]] Infantry
*9th Reconnaissance Troop (Mechanized)
*15th Engineer Combat Battalion
*9th Medical Battalion
*9th Division Artillery
*26th Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm Howitzer)
*60th Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm Howitzer)
*84th Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm Howitzer)
*34th Field Artillery Battalion (155 mm Howitzer)
*Special Troops
*709th Ordnance Light Maintenance Company
*9th Quartermaster Company
*9th Signal Company
*Military Police Platoon
*Headquarters Company
*Band
*9th Chemical Company

==== Assignment and attachment to higher units ====
*DATE CORPS ARMY ARMY GROUP
*Assigned Attached Assigned Attached
# 20 November 1943 First ETOUSA
# 25 November 1943 VII First
# 1 August 1944 VII First 12th
# 26 October 1944 V First 12th
# 6 December 1944 VII First 12th
# 18 December 1944 V First 12th
# 20 December 1944 V First 12th Br 21st
# 18 January 1945 V First 12th (-)
# 17 February 1945 III First 12th
# 31 March 1945 VII First 12th
# 4 April 1945 III First 12th
# 14 April 1945 VII First 12th

(-) Indicates relieved from assignment.

== Vietnam War ==
During the war the division's units often served with the [[Mobile Riverine Force]] and other US Navy units that made up the [[Brown Water Navy]]. Its area of operations was in the rivers and canals of the [[Mekong Delta]] from 1967 to 1972. [[Operation Speedy Express]] was one significant operation in which the division took part during the war, while the Battle of Ap Bac was one of 22 major combat engagements with North Vietnamese Army and [[Viet Cong]] main force units as well as thousands of small contacts during this period during division's presence in Vietnam.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

The 9th Division was reactivated on 1 February 1966, and arrived in Vietnam on 16 December 1966 from [[Fort Riley]], Kansas, and its major units departed Vietnam on 27 August 1969 (HHC & 1st BDE) to Hawaii; 27 August 1969 (2nd BDE) to Fort Lewis, Washington; 12 October 1970 (3rd BDE) to Fort Lewis, Washington.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

On deployment the division was assigned to the III Corps Tactical Zone of Vietnam where it commenced operations in the Dinh Tuong and Long An provinces (6 January-31 May 1967) in Operation Palm Beach.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

The infantry units that eventually served with the 9th Infantry Division were:
[[File:Fire Support Base Danger March 1969.jpg|thumb|Fire Support Base Danger, HHC, 4th Battalion, 39th Infantry, [[Dinh Tuong Province]], March 1969.]]
*2d Battalion, 1st Infantry
*2d Battalion, 39th Infantry
*3d Battalion, 39th Infantry
*4th Battalion, 39th Infantry
*2d Battalion, 47th Infantry (Mechanized)
*3d Battalion, 47th Infantry (Riverine)
*4th Battalion, 47th Infantry (Riverine)
*2d Battalion, 60th Infantry
*3d Battalion, 60th Infantry (Riverine)
*5th Battalion, 60th Infantry (Mechanized Dec. 1966 – Sept. 1968; Infantry Oct. 1968 – Oct. 1970)
*6th Battalion, 31st Infantry

Other units included:
* Company E, 50th Infantry (reflagged Co. E, 75th Inf (Ranger)), 2 December 1967 – Aug 1969
* Company E, 75th Infantry, Oct 1969 – Oct 1970
* 3d Squadron, 5th Cavalry, Feb 1967 – Nov 1971
* 9th Aviation Battalion, Jan 1967 – Aug 1969
* 2d Battalion, 4th Artillery (105mm Howitzer), Jan 1967 – Oct 1970
* 1st Battalion, 11th Artillery (105mm Howitzer), Jan 1967 – Aug 1969
* 3d Battalion, 34th Artillery (105mm Howitzer)(Riverine), Dec 1966 – Jul 1969
* 1st Battalion, 84th Artillery (155mm Howitzer/8-inch Howitzer), Feb 1967 – Aug 1969
* 15th Engineer Battalion, Oct 1966 – Aug 1969
* 571st Engineer Company, Oct 1969 – Oct 1970
* 9th Medical Battalion, 4 January 1967 – 18 August 1969
* 9th Signal Battalion, 19 December 1966 – 19 August 1969
* 9th Supply and Transport Battalion, 16 December 1966 – 23 August 1969
* 709th Maintenance Battalion, 26 January 1967 – 20 August 1969
* 9th Adjutant General Company, 30 December 1966 – 26 August 1969
* 9th Military Police Company, 19 December 1966 – 25 September 1969
* 335th Army Security Agency Company (a.k.a. "335th Radio Research Unit"), 12 January 1967 – 5 April 1971
* 99th Support Battalion, 1 October 1969 – 12 October 1970

One of the more unique units serving with the division was the experimental 39th Cavalry Platoon (Air Cushion Vehicle) which used three of the specially designed [[Patrol Air Cushion Vehicle|hovercraft]] to patrol marshy terrain like the Plain of Reeds along the south Vietnamese/Cambodian border.<ref>{{cite book |title=Vietnam Order of Battle |author=Shelby L. Stanton date=2003 |publisher=Stackpole Books |page= 134, 331}}</ref>

[[File:My Tho, Vietnam. A Viet Cong base camp being. In the foreground is Private First Class Raymond Rumpa, St Paul, Minnesota - NARA - 530621 edit.jpg|thumb|[[Mỹ Tho]], Vietnam. A [[Viet Cong]] base camp being burned down.]]
From 1967 on, one of the division's brigades (the 2d Brigade) was the Army contingent of the Mobile Riverine Force. This brigade lived on the ships of Navy Task Force 117, and were transported on their infantry missions throughout the Mekong Delta on World War II [[landing craft]] supported by various other armored boats some of which mounted flame-throwers (called zippo after the lighter); had mortars in their holds; and even 105mm cannons on their bows (called monitors). The mobile riverine force was often anchored near the South Vietnamese city of [[Mỹ Tho]], or near Dong Tam, the Division base camp, and they conducted operations in coordination with the Navy SEAL teams, the South Vietnamese Marines, units of the ARVN 7th Division and River Assault Groups. Following the [[Tet offensive]] in 1968, General Westmoreland stated that the 9th Infantry Division and the Mobile Riverine Force saved the Delta region from falling to the North Vietnamese Army forces. In 1969, the division also operated throughout the IV Corps Tactical Zone.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

[[Chuck Hagel]], [[Secretary of Defense]] since February 2013, served in the 9th ID from 1967 to 1968. Holding the rank of [[Sergeant (United States)|Sergeant]] (E-5), he served as an infantry [[squad leader]].<ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/vhp-stories/loc.natlib.afc2001001.02230/ Experiencing War, Stories from the Veterans History Project, Charles Timothy Hagel], [[Library of Congress]], ''accessed 12 December 2012''.</ref> Hagel served in the same infantry squad as his younger brother Tom, and they are believed to be the only American siblings to do so during the Vietnam War.<ref name="salon2007">[http://www.salon.com/2007/04/30/hagel_brothers/ "The private war of Chuck and Tom Hagel]" by [[Myra MacPherson]], [[Salon.com|Salon]], 30 April 2007.</ref>

In the 1994 film ''[[Forrest Gump]]'', the eponymous [[Forrest Gump (character)|main character]] was a member of the 9th Infantry Division in Vietnam, notably: 4th Platoon, Company A, 2nd Battalion, 47th Infantry.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

== 9th Infantry Division (Motorized) ==

Following the Vietnam War the division was stationed at [[Fort Lewis]] Washington until its inactivation in 1992. Beginning in the mid-1980s the division served as the high-technology test-bed for the army. This led to the division testing the concept of "motorized infantry", designed to fill the gap between light infantry and heavy mechanized forces. The idea was to create lighter, mobile units capable of rapid deployment with far less aircraft than a heavier mechanized unit. Motorized infantry doctrine concentrated on effectiveness in desert warfare.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}
[[Image:US Navy 020413-N-5362A-013 U.S. Navy SEALs (SEa, Air, Land) operate Desert Patrol Vehicles (DPV) while preparing for an upcoming mission.jpg|thumb|left|U.S. [[Navy SEAL]]s operate Desert Patrol Vehicles (DPV), the successor to the Fast Attack Vehicle pioneered by the 9th ID (Motorized).]]
By 1989 the division had fielded two complete brigades of motorized infantry in battalions designated as "light attack," "light combined arms" and "heavy combined arms". Motorized battalions traveled in the new [[Humvee]] and generally fought as traditional light infantry once engaged. Attack battalions utilized the Fast Attack Vehicles (later re-designated the [[Desert Patrol Vehicle]]), first developed at Fort Lewis. Essentially a [[Volkswagen]]- engined dune buggy mounted with either a 40mm [[Mk 19 grenade launcher]] or .50 caliber [[M2 Browning machine gun]], the FAV was designed to provide highly mobile firepower that could attack the flanks of heavier mechanized units. Some variants also mounted [[BGM-71 TOW|TOW missiles]]. All of these weapons systems were attached to the FAV by a mount designed to break away if the vehicle rolled over, which they were prone to do. The FAVs were problematic at best and were eventually replaced by various versions of the HMMWV.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

The 9th Infantry Division (MTZ) tested motorized infantry doctrine at the Yakima Firing Center in Eastern Washington, at the [[National Training Center]] at [[Fort Irwin]] California and in Korea during the annual [[Team Spirit]] exercise. While the motorized units performed well they were vulnerable to heavier mechanized forces, particularly if forced to stand and fight. They were also extremely vulnerable to indirect (artillery) fires.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

At the end of the [[Cold War]] the division was identified for inactivation. By the time of the [[First Gulf War]] one brigade was nearly inactivated. However the 3rd Brigade was still at full strength. The need for mobile forces that could be more easily deployed would seem to have never been greater. However the brigade was not deployed to the Middle East, instead providing soldiers and equipment to fill out deploying units from other divisions. While the rest of the army went to war, the 9th ID focused on inactivation and training [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]] and [[United States Army Reserve|Army Reserve]] units deploying to the Persian Gulf.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

== Inactivation ==
The division was the first to undergo full inactivation following the end of the Cold War. Army leadership at first decided that inactivating units would turn in all of their equipment at "10/20" standard – in ready and reusable condition. The division struggled to meet this standard. It required both extensive work on the part of the division's soldiers and high costs in repair parts. While the remaining 9th ID soldiers were ultimately successful, later inactivating units were not required to attain this goal.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

The existing 3d Brigade did not inactivate and was instead reflagged as the [[199th Light Infantry Brigade]] and assigned directly to [[I Corps (United States)|I Corps]]. The 199th was later reflagged as the [[2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment]] (Light) and was transferred to [[Fort Polk]], Louisiana.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

Though it was inactivated, the division was identified as the second highest priority inactive division in the [[United States Army Center of Military History]]'s lineage scheme due to its numerous accolades and long history. All of the division's flags and heraldic items were moved to the [[National Infantry Museum]] at [[Fort Benning, Georgia|Fort Benning]], Georgia following its inactivation.<ref>McKenney, p. 21.</ref> Should the U.S. Army decide to activate more divisions in the future, the center will most likely suggest the first new division be the [[7th Infantry Division (United States)|7th Infantry Division]], the second be the 9th Infantry Division, the third be the [[24th Infantry Division (United States)|24th Infantry Division]], the fourth be the [[5th Infantry Division (United States)|5th Infantry Division]] and the fifth be the [[2d Armored Division]].<ref>McKenney, p. 22.</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Fort Lewis Museum]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book|first=Janice |last=McKenney |title=Reflagging the Army |year=1997 |publisher=[[United States Army Center of Military History]]| url =http://www.history.army.mil/books/Lineage/reflag/fm.htm |asin=B0006QRJPC}}
*''The Army Almanac: A Book of Facts Concerning the Army of the United States'' U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950 reproduced at [http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/cbtchron/cbtchron.html CMH]
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|9th Infantry Division (United States)}}
*[http://www.octofoil.org/ 9th Infantry Division Association]
*[http://www.oldreliable.org/index.htm 9th Infantry Division Web Pages]
*[http://www.9thinfdivsociety.org/ 9th Inf Div Society Org web Pages]
*[http://www.9thdivision.com/ The 9th Division WWII Historical Preservation Society]
*[http://9thinfantrydivision.net/ The 9th Infantry Division during World War II]
*[http://www.history.army.mil/documents/eto-ob/9ID-ETO.htm 9th INFANTRY DIVISION World War II Order of Battle]
*[http://www.1-39inf.blogspot.com/ 39th Infantry Regiment]
*[http://www.vincentzwhaley.com/MilitaryTributes/ 47th Infantry Regiment Tribute, 9th Infantry Division in World War II]
*[http://www.60thinfantry.com/ 60th Infantry Regiment]
*[http://www.lonesentry.com/gi_stories_booklets/9thinfantry/index.html Hitler's Nemesis: The 9th Infantry Division] (World War II Stars and Stripes booklet)
*[http://www.easy39th.com/home.php 9th Infantry Division Reenacted-California]
*[http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=10131 Fort Lewis: 9th Infantry Division]
*[http://cdm16635.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p16635coll3/id/2276 Operation Keystone Robin, 3rd Brigade, 9th Infantry Division, Redeployment to CONUS] Vietnam War After Action Report

{{DEFAULTSORT:009}}
[[Category:Infantry divisions of the United States Army|009]]
[[Category:United States Army divisions during World War II|Infantry Division, U.S. 009th]]
[[Category:Military units and formations of the United States Army in the Vietnam War|009th Infantry Division]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1940]]
[[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1991]]

Shamokin

2014-08-05T12:15:57Z

GcSwRhIc: minor code fix

{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Shamokin, Pennsylvania
|other_name =
|native_name =
|nickname =
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|motto =

|image_skyline = Shamokin, Pennsylvania.jpg
|imagesize =
|image_caption = Shamokin, Pennsylvania
|image_flag =
|flag_size =
|image_seal =
|seal_size =
|image_shield =
|shield_size =
|image_blank_emblem =Shamokin, PA Keystone Marker.jpg
|blank_emblem_type = Keystone Marker
|blank_emblem_size = 250px
|blank_emblem_link = Keystone Markers
|pushpin_map = Pennsylvania
|pushpin_label_position = right
|pushpin_map_caption =
|pushpin_mapsize =

|coordinates_display = inline,title
|coordinates_region = US-PA
|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Pennsylvania]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Pennsylvania|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Northumberland County, Pennsylvania|Northumberland]]
|government_footnotes =
|government_type = City
|leader_title = Mayor
|leader_name = George S. Rozinskie, Jr.
|leader_title1 = Councilman
|leader_name1 = R. Craig Rhoades, Director of Parks and Recreation
|leader_title2 = Councilman
|leader_name2 = William D. Milbrand, Director of Public Safety
|leader_title3 = Councilman
|leader_name3 = Michael A. Snyder, Director of Public Works
|leader_title4 = Councilman
|leader_name4 = William R. Strausser, Director of Accounts and Finance
|leader_title5 = Treasurer
|leader_name5 = Brenda Scandle
|leader_title6 = Controller
|leader_name6 = Gary Haddock
|established_title = Settled
|established_date = 1835
|established_title1 = Incorporated (borough)
|established_date1 = 1864
|established_title2 = Incorporated (city)
|established_date2 = 1949
|area_magnitude =
|unit_pref =
|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes =
|area_total_km2 = 2.1
|area_land_km2 =
|area_water_km2 =
|area_total_sq_mi = 0.8
|area_land_sq_mi =
|area_water_sq_mi =
|area_water_percent =
|population_as_of = 2010
|population_footnotes =
|population_note =
|population_total = 7374
|population_density_km2 = 3511.43
|population_density_sq_mi = 9217.5
|timezone = [[North American Eastern Time Zone|Eastern (EST)]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = EDT
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd = 40
|latm = 47
|lats = 21
|latNS = N
|longd = 76
|longm = 33
|longs = 17
|longEW = W
|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m =
|elevation_ft = 800
|postal_code_type = [[Zip code]]
|postal_code = 17872
|area_code = [[Area code 570|570]] Exchanges: 644, 648
|website = http://www.shamokincity.org/
|footnotes =
}}
'''Shamokin''' ({{IPAc-en|ʃ|ə|ˈ|m|oʊ|k|ɨ|n}}; [[Saponi]] [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] “Schahamokink” "''place of eels''") ([[Unami language|Lenape]]: Shahëmokink <ref>{{cite web
| title = Lenape Talking Dictionary
| accessdate = 2012-05-27
| url = http://www.talk-lenape.org/detail.php?id=9281
}}</ref>) is a city in [[Northumberland County, Pennsylvania|Northumberland County]], [[Pennsylvania]], at the western edge of the [[Coal Region|Anthracite Coal Region]]. (The original [[Shamokin (village)|Saponi village of Shamokin]] was located near the current site of [[Sunbury, Pennsylvania|Sunbury]], the seat of Northumberland County.) At the 2010 census the population was 7,374 residents. The city of Shamokin is bordered by its sister community, [[Coal Township, Pennsylvania]], and by the world's largest man-made mountain, the Glen Burn Colliery Cameron Culm Bank. The colliery was in operation until the 1970s and was left abandoned.

==History==

Shamokin was incorporated as a [[borough (Pennsylvania)|borough]] on November 9, 1864, and as a city on February 21, 1949. In addition to [[anthracite]] coal-mining, it also had silk and knitting mills (the Eagle Silk Mill became the largest textile building under one roof in America), stocking and shirt factories, wagon shops, ironworks, and brickyards.

Most notably, [[Thomas Edison]], briefly a resident of Sunbury, established the [[Edison Illuminating Company]] of Shamokin in the fall of 1882. Operation of the Shamokin station (located at the current Independence Street site of Jones Hardware Company<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.joneshardware.com/ace.htm |title=History of Jones Hardware and Home Center |publisher=Joneshardware.com |date= |accessdate=2013-11-27}}</ref>) on September 22, 1883, at which time [[St. Edward's Catholic Church]] became the first church in the world to have electric lighting.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~nungesser/Thomas/ThomasStudio/Edison.htm |first=Garth |last=Hall |newspaper=The News-Item |location=Shamokin, PA |title=Thomas Edison, known world-wide as one of the most prolific inventors in history, held 1,097 U |publisher=Freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com |date= |accessdate=2013-11-27}}</ref>

In the [[1877 Shamokin Uprising]], starvation wages and miserable working conditions prompted railroad workers and miners to join the [[Great Railroad Strike of 1877]]. Vigilantes gathered by Mayor William Douty shot into a group of strikers, wounding twelve and killing two. Five strikers were jailed for up to eight months for their part in the uprising.

The National Ticket Company, located in Shamokin from 1907 until 1992, was at one time the largest ticket company in the United States. Their first production facility was built in 1911 at the corner of Pearl and Webster Streets; a 1942 fire gutted the plant, although the brick shell still stands. The replacement building at Pearl Street and Ticket Avenue was completed in 1950 and served as company headquarters for forty-two years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalticket.com/general/history.asp |title=National Ticket- History}}{{dead link|date=November 2013}}</ref>

"Murder at Hickory Ridge" was a fictionalized account of an unsolved murder in the Shamokin area, written by William A. Conway and printed by his two brothers, Alphonsus E. and John J., in the garage that served as the Conway Print Shop.

With the profits from the sale of the novel, the Conway brothers started the Black Diamond Publishing Company in 1905 to disseminate news of the anthracite coal region through the printing of Black Diamond Magazine.

Edgewood park also known as Indian Park existed in Shamokin from 1905 through the late 1950s. It consisted of {{convert|97|acre|m2}} including a large pond. The land where the park existed is now where the Shamokin area school district built the Elementary and High school.

The [[Victoria Theatre (Shamokin, Pennsylvania)|Victoria Theatre]] was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1985. It was delisted in 2004, after demolition.<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}}</ref>

==Geography==
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of {{convert|0.8|sqmi|km2}}, all of it land.

Shamokin has two small creeks that divide the town. Carbon Run merges with Shamokin Creek in the north of the town and ultimately empties into the [[Susquehanna River]] just south of [[Shamokin Dam]] near [[Sunbury, PA]].

==Demographics==
{{US Census population
|1850=2191
|1860=2159
| 1870=4320
| 1880=8184
| 1890=14403
| 1900=18202
| 1910=19588
| 1920=21204
| 1930=20274
| 1940=18810
| 1950=16879
| 1960=13674
| 1970=11719
| 1980=10357
| 1990=9184
| 2000=8009
| 2010=7374
|estimate=7316
|estyear=2012
|footnote=Sources:<ref name="Census1960">{{cite web|title=Number of Inhabitants: Pennsylvania|url=http://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/17216604v1p40ch02.pdf|work=18th Census of the United States|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|accessdate=22 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="Census1990">{{cite web|title=Pennsylvania: Population and Housing Unit Counts|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/cen1990/cph2/cph-2-40.pdf|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|accessdate=22 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="GR2">{{cite web|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=American FactFinder}}</ref><ref name="CensusPopEst">{{cite web|title=Incorporated Places and Minor Civil Divisions Datasets: Subcounty Population Estimates: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB-EST2012.html|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|accessdate=25 November 2013}}</ref>
}}

As of the [[census]] of 2000,<ref name="GR2" /> there were 8,009 people, 3,742 households, and 2,028 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 9,601.9 people per square mile (3,725.7/km²). There were 4,674 housing units at an average density of 5,603.6 per square mile (2,174.3/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 98.8% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.1% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.1% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.3% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.0% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.1% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 0.5% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 0.6% of the population.

There were 3,742 households out of which 24.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.4% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 13.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45.8% were non-families. 41.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 22.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.89.

In the city the population was spread out with 22.2% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 21.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females there were 86.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $20,173, and the median income for a family was $30,038. Males had a median income of $28,261 versus $19,120 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $12,354. About 19.3% of families and 24.2% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 34.2% of those under age 18 and 21.3% of those age 65 or over.

Children residing in Shamokin may attend the [[Shamokin Area School District]] schools. All children in Pennsylvania also have the option to attend one of the 13 cyber charter schools in the Commonwealth. They may also opt to attend a private school with tuition at the parent's expense. The District is required by state law to transport children to any school within ten miles of the District's borders. Local private schools include: Darul Uloom AL-Qasim School

==Mayoral Election history==
*2009 - George Rozinskie (D) over Betsy Richardson (D)
*2005 - Ronald Bradley (R) over Edward O'Donnell (D)
*2001 - James Yurick Jr. (D) over Betsy Richardson (R)
*1997 - James Yurick Jr. (D) over Ronald Bradley (R)
*1993 - Daniel Strausser (R) over James Yurick Jr. (D)
*1989 - Harvey M. Boyer (D) over Daniel Strausser (R) <ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The News Item|location=Shamokin, PA|title= Mayoral history in Shamokin|date= November 1, 2013}}</ref>
*1985 - Harvey M. Boyer (D) over Malcom C. Farrow IV (R)
*1981 - William L. Rickert over Harvey M. Boyer (D)

==Notable people==
* [[Stan Coveleski]], [[Major League Baseball]] Hall of Fame pitcher
* [[Harry Coveleski]], Major League Baseball pitcher, [[Detroit Tigers]] career [[Earned run average|ERA]] record holder
* [[George H. Cram]], Union general in the American Civil War
* [[Jake Daubert]], Major League Baseball player, two National League batting titles and was MVP in 1913
* Kate Heffelfinger, suffragist who was held during the [[Silent Sentinels|“Night of Terror”]], 15 November 1917
* [[Herbert G. Hopwood]], US Navy admiral and commander-in-chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet from 1958 to 1960
* [[Eddie Korbich]], Broadway, film and television actor
* [[Mary LeSawyer]], operatic soprano
* [[Harry J. Lincoln]], early 1900s popular music composer
* [[Michael Luchkovich]], first ethnic Ukrainian member of the Canadian House of Commons (1926–1935)
* [[Fred Rhoads]], cartoonist of ''[[Sad Sack]]''
* [[Ronald L. Thompson]], Pennsylvania state legislator
* [[Thomas I. Vanaskie]], federal judge on the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]]
* [[Bud Weiser]], Major League Baseball player, played for Philadelphia (1915–16)
* Joseph Zupicich, crewmember of the [[RMS Carpathia|RMS ''Carpathia'']], assisted in the rescue operation to save the passengers of the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] on 15 April 1912.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first= Patrick M.|year=1980|title=Startling Stories About Pennsylvania|publisher=Red Rose Studio|isbn= 0-932514-04-9}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Shamokin, Pennsylvania}}
*[http://www.shamokincity.org Website for the City of Shamokin]
*[http://www.daladophotography.com Historic and modern photos of Shamokin]
*[http://www.indians.k12.pa.us Website for the Shamokin Area School District]
*[http://www.newsitem.com The NewsItem]
*[http://newdeal.feri.org/nation/na3446.htm Bootleg Anthracite Coal; (A Mention of Shamokin)]
*[http://www.sctpubliclibrary.lib.pa.us/history.htm History of the Shamokin Coal Township Public Library]
*[http://www.defunctparks.com/parks/PA/edgewood/edgewood.htm Edgewood Park]

{{Northumberland County, Pennsylvania}}

[[Category:Cities in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1835]]
[[Category:Municipalities of the Anthracite Coal Region of Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Cities in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Coal towns in Pennsylvania]]

John Pickering (Jurist)

2014-07-28T20:43:27Z

GcSwRhIc: Oops it was John Pickering (1740–1811 Mass. Speaker) who was charter member, not this John Pickering who was elected 1791 plus AMerican dates

'''John Pickering''' (September 22, 1737 – April 11, 1805) served as Chief Justice of the [[New Hampshire Superior Court of Judicature]] and as Judge for the [[United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire]]. He was the first federal official to have been removed from office upon conviction by [[impeachment]].

Born in [[Newington, New Hampshire]], Pickering studied law at [[Harvard College]] and was admitted to the bar after graduating in 1761. He was in private practice in [[Greenland, New Hampshire]] and [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]] until, then served as a member of the [[New Hampshire State Legislature]] from 1783 to 1787. In 1787 he was elected to be a member of the New Hampshire delegation to the [[History of the United States Constitution#Constitutional Convention|Constitutional Convention]], but he declined to serve, instead returning to private practice of law in Portsmouth from 1788 to 1790. He was appointed in 1790 to the New Hampshire Superior Court where he eventually served as Chief Justice. He was elected a Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1791.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter P|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterP.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=July 28, 2014}}</ref>

In 1795, an attempt to remove Pickering from the New Hampshire Superior Court due to illness became bogged down in political problems, and therefore the state convinced President [[George Washington]] to appoint him to the relatively low workload post of the Federal District Court. On February 10, 1795, Washington nominated Pickering to a seat on the [[United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire]] vacated by [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]]. The following day, Pickering was confirmed by the [[United States Senate]] and received commission. Pickering assumed the office in April 1795.

Pickering recovered from his illness. In 1800, problems emerged as he was no longer attending court as was expected. On April 25, 1801 court staff wrote to the judges of the federal [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit|First Circuit court of appeals]] to send a temporary replacement for Pickering on the grounds that he had gone insane. As a stop-gap measure, Circuit Judge [[Jeremiah Smith (lawyer)|Jeremiah Smith]] sat for part of the 1801 session of the court. In March 1802, Pickering returned, adjourned the Court's business to the next day and then disappeared again.

Political controversy raged in the Congress with [[Federalist]]s accusing [[Democratic-Republicans]] of trying to usurp the Constitution by attempting to remove the Judge from office though he had committed neither high crimes nor misdemeanors as required by the Constitution.

On February 4, 1803, President [[Thomas Jefferson]] sent evidence to the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], who voted to impeach Pickering on March 2, 1803 on charges of drunkenness and unlawful rulings. The [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] tried the impeachment, beginning January 4, 1804, and convicted Pickering of all charges presented by the House by a vote of 19 to 7 on March 12, 1804, thereby immediately removing him from office. He died the following year in [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]].

==Further reading==
*{{cite wikisource|plaintitle=History of the United States 1801-09|wslink=History of the United States 1801-09/The First Administration of Thomas Jefferson|chapter=II:7|first=Henry|last=Adams}} For an account of Pickering's impeachment.

==Sources==
{{reflist}}
{{FJC Bio|1884}}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box | before=[[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]] | title=[[United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire|Judge of the District Court for the District of New Hampshire]] | years=1795 to 1804 | after=[[John Samuel Sherburne]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=65089169}}


{{Persondata
|NAME=Pickering, John
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[United States federal judge]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=September 22, 1737
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Newington, New Hampshire]]
|DATE OF DEATH=April 11, 1805
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pickering, John}}
[[Category:1737 births]]
[[Category:1805 deaths]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:New Hampshire state court judges]]
[[Category:Judges of the United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Impeached United States federal judges]]
[[Category:Impeached officials removed from office]]
[[Category:United States federal judges appointed by George Washington]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:Chief Justices of the New Hampshire Supreme Court]]

John Pickering (Jurist)

2014-07-28T19:42:01Z

GcSwRhIc: add AAAS Fellow

'''John Pickering''' (22 September 1737 – 11 April 1805) served as Chief Justice of the [[New Hampshire Superior Court of Judicature]] and as Judge for the [[United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire]]. He was the first federal official to have been removed from office upon conviction by [[impeachment]].

Born in [[Newington, New Hampshire]], Pickering studied law at [[Harvard College]] and was admitted to the bar after graduating in 1761. He was in private practice in [[Greenland, New Hampshire]] and [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]] until, then served as a member of the [[New Hampshire State Legislature]] from 1783 to 1787. He was a charter member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1780.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Charter of Incorporation of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences|url=https://www.amacad.org/content/about/about.aspx?d=23|website=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=28 July 2014}}</ref> In 1787 he was elected to be a member of the New Hampshire delegation to the [[History of the United States Constitution#Constitutional Convention|Constitutional Convention]], but he declined to serve, instead returning to private practice of law in Portsmouth from 1788 to 1790. He was appointed in 1790 to the New Hampshire Superior Court where he eventually served as Chief Justice.

In 1795, an attempt to remove Pickering from the New Hampshire Superior Court due to illness became bogged down in political problems, and therefore the state convinced President [[George Washington]] to appoint him to the relatively low workload post of the Federal District Court. On February 10, 1795, Washington nominated Pickering to a seat on the [[United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire]] vacated by [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]]. The following day, Pickering was confirmed by the [[United States Senate]] and received commission. Pickering assumed the office in April 1795.

Pickering recovered from his illness. In 1800, problems emerged as he was no longer attending court as was expected. On 25 April 1801 court staff wrote to the judges of the federal [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit|First Circuit court of appeals]] to send a temporary replacement for Pickering on the grounds that he had gone insane. As a stop-gap measure, Circuit Judge [[Jeremiah Smith (lawyer)|Jeremiah Smith]] sat for part of the 1801 session of the court. In March 1802, Pickering returned, adjourned the Court's business to the next day and then disappeared again.

Political controversy raged in the Congress with [[Federalist]]s accusing [[Democratic-Republicans]] of trying to usurp the Constitution by attempting to remove the Judge from office though he had committed neither high crimes nor misdemeanors as required by the Constitution.

On February 4, 1803, President [[Thomas Jefferson]] sent evidence to the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], who voted to impeach Pickering on March 2, 1803 on charges of drunkenness and unlawful rulings. The [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] tried the impeachment, beginning January 4, 1804, and convicted Pickering of all charges presented by the House by a vote of 19 to 7 on March 12, 1804, thereby immediately removing him from office. He died the following year in [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]].

==Further reading==
*{{cite wikisource|plaintitle=History of the United States 1801-09|wslink=History of the United States 1801-09/The First Administration of Thomas Jefferson|chapter=II:7|first=Henry|last=Adams}} For an account of Pickering's impeachment.

==Sources==
{{reflist}}
{{FJC Bio|1884}}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box | before=[[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]] | title=[[United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire|Judge of the District Court for the District of New Hampshire]] | years=1795 to 1804 | after=[[John Samuel Sherburne]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=65089169}}


{{Persondata
|NAME=Pickering, John
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[United States federal judge]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=September 22, 1737
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Newington, New Hampshire]]
|DATE OF DEATH=April 11, 1805
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pickering, John}}
[[Category:1737 births]]
[[Category:1805 deaths]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:New Hampshire state court judges]]
[[Category:Judges of the United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Impeached United States federal judges]]
[[Category:Impeached officials removed from office]]
[[Category:United States federal judges appointed by George Washington]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:Chief Justices of the New Hampshire Supreme Court]]

Joseph Brown (Astronom)

2014-07-28T18:58:59Z

GcSwRhIc: add AAAS Fellow

'''Joseph Brown''' (December 3, 1733 – December 3, 1785) was an early American [[industrialist]] and [[astronomer]], and professor at [[Brown University]].

==Biography==
Brown was born in [[Providence, Rhode Island]], one of the four surviving sons (known in Providence annals as the “Four Brothers”) of James Brown II (1698 – 1739), a merchant, and Hope Power Brown. Like his father, Joseph Brown engaged in business, and in manufacturing, and acquired sufficient wealth to permit him to follow his natural taste for science. He was greatly interested in the science of [[electricity]], and his knowledge of that subject was remarkable for the time. He left an electric machine of his own construction, an outstanding example of this sort of apparatus for that time.

He devoted considerable study to mechanics and was proficient in astronomy. His attention having been directed to the arrangements in course of preparation for the proper observation of the [[transit of Venus]] in 1769, he sent to [[England]] for suitable instruments, and subsequently an account of the observations made in Providence was published by [[Benjamin West (astronomer)|Benjamin West]], later professor of natural philosophy at Rhode Island College (now [[Brown University]]). Brown was a warm friend of the Rhode Island College, and was one of its trustees from 1769 until 1785. In 1770 he received the honorary degree of [[Master of Arts|A.M.]] from the College, and from 1784 until his death held the chair of [[natural philosophy]], giving his services to the institution without compensation. He was elected a Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1781.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=July 28, 2014}}</ref>

Joseph Brown was a member of the [[First Baptist Church in America]]. He died December, 3 1785 in Providence.

==Family==
His brothers, all merchants of [[Rhode Island]], were: [[Nicholas Brown, Sr.]], [[John Brown (Rhode Island)|John Brown]] (a founder of Rhode Island College), and [[Moses Brown]]. He also had a sister, Mary.

==Notes==
{{unreferenced|date=April 2013}}
{{reflist}}

==References==
*{{Appletons|wstitle=Brown, Chad|year=1900}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Brown, Joseph
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American astronomer
| DATE OF BIRTH = 3 December 1733
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 3 December 1785
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Brown, Joseph}}
[[Category:1733 births]]
[[Category:1785 deaths]]
[[Category:American astronomers]]
[[Category:American scientists]]
[[Category:American businesspeople]]
[[Category:Baptists from the United States]]
[[Category:Brown University faculty]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:People from Providence, Rhode Island]]
[[Category:Rhode Island colonial people]]

Joseph Brown (Astronom)

2014-07-28T18:57:37Z

GcSwRhIc: American dates, move birth and death place out of lead

'''Joseph Brown''' (December 3, 1733 – December, 3 1785) was an early American [[industrialist]] and [[astronomer]], and professor at [[Brown University]].

==Biography==
Brown was born in [[Providence, Rhode Island]], one of the four surviving sons (known in Providence annals as the “Four Brothers”) of James Brown II (1698 – 1739), a merchant, and Hope Power Brown. Like his father, Joseph Brown engaged in business, and in manufacturing, and acquired sufficient wealth to permit him to follow his natural taste for science. He was greatly interested in the science of [[electricity]], and his knowledge of that subject was remarkable for the time. He left an electric machine of his own construction, an outstanding example of this sort of apparatus for that time.

He devoted considerable study to mechanics and was proficient in astronomy. His attention having been directed to the arrangements in course of preparation for the proper observation of the [[transit of Venus]] in 1769, he sent to [[England]] for suitable instruments, and subsequently an account of the observations made in Providence was published by [[Benjamin West (astronomer)|Benjamin West]], later professor of natural philosophy at Rhode Island College (now [[Brown University]]). Brown was a warm friend of the Rhode Island College, and was one of its trustees from 1769 until 1785. In 1770 he received the honorary degree of [[Master of Arts|A.M.]] from the College, and from 1784 until his death held the chair of [[natural philosophy]], giving his services to the institution without compensation.

Joseph Brown was a member of the [[First Baptist Church in America]]. He died December, 3 1785 in Providence.

==Family==
His brothers, all merchants of [[Rhode Island]], were: [[Nicholas Brown, Sr.]], [[John Brown (Rhode Island)|John Brown]] (a founder of Rhode Island College), and [[Moses Brown]]. He also had a sister, Mary.

==Notes==
{{unreferenced|date=April 2013}}
{{reflist}}

==References==
*{{Appletons|wstitle=Brown, Chad|year=1900}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Brown, Joseph
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American astronomer
| DATE OF BIRTH = 3 December 1733
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 3 December 1785
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Brown, Joseph}}
[[Category:1733 births]]
[[Category:1785 deaths]]
[[Category:American astronomers]]
[[Category:American scientists]]
[[Category:American businesspeople]]
[[Category:Baptists from the United States]]
[[Category:Brown University faculty]]
[[Category:People from Providence, Rhode Island]]
[[Category:Rhode Island colonial people]]

Charles Chauncy (Geistlicher, 1705)

2014-07-28T14:20:50Z

GcSwRhIc: add AAAS citation and ref section, cats

{{Unreferenced|date=December 2009}}
[[Image:CharlesChauncy1705-1787.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Charles Chauncy]]
'''Charles Chauncy''' (1705–1787) was an American Congregational clergyman in Boston. He was ordained as a minister of the [[First Church, Boston]], in 1727 and remained in that pulpit for 60 years. Next to [[Jonathan Edwards (theologian)|Jonathan Edwards]], his great opponent, Chauncy was probably the most influential clergyman of his time in New England. As an intellectual he distrusted emotionalism and opposed the revivalist preaching of the [[First Great Awakening|Great Awakening]] in his ''Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Religion in New England'' (1743) and other pamphlets. He became the leader of the "Old Lights" or liberals in theology in the doctrinal disputes following the Great Awakening. He was also the leader in the opposition to the establishment of an Anglican bishopric in the American colonies, writing his Compleat View of Episcopacy (1771) and other works on the subject. A firm believer in the colonial cause, he clearly set forth the political philosophy of the American Revolution in sermons and pamphlets during the period. After the war he defended the doctrine of [[Universalism]] in two anonymous tracts: Salvation for All Men (1782) and The Mystery Hid from Ages and Generations (1784).

Charles Chauncy was the leading opponent of the Great Awakening, the Protestant evangelical movement that swept through the British North American colonies between 1739 and 1745.

Chauncy was born into the elite Puritan merchant class that ruled Boston. His great-grandfather, [[Charles Chauncy]], after whom he was named, was the second president of Harvard. His father was a successful Boston merchant. As one biographer puts it, "Chauncy was first and foremost a traditional Puritan cleric.... As a rule, Chauncy throughout his life supported the clergy who observed the traditional decorum of the New England [ruling elite] way" (Charles H. Lippy, Seasonable Revolutionary: The Mind of Charles Chauncy (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1981, p. 12). Although this Puritan stock had been dissenters in England (thus the liberals), in America they were the Standing Order, the ruling elite (and thus the conservatives against other religious groups like the Baptists and Quakers). Chauncy was thus a staunch and loyal supporter of the political, social, religious, and economic merchant class status quo.

Chauncy received both his undergraduate degree and his master's in theology from Harvard. He was ordained at the First Church in Boston in 1727, where he spent the rest of his life: 60 years as pastor of "Old Brick," as his church was called. It was the oldest Congregational church in Boston and one of the most important in New England.

In his book, Old Brick: Charles Chauncy of Boston, 1705–1787, Edward M. Griffin presents a thumbnail summary of Chauncy's life and work:

[Chauncy] played a role in the major events of his time: not only the Great Awakening, but also the French and Indian wars, the controversy over the proposed establishment of the Anglican episcopacy in America, political events from the Stamp Act through the Revolution, the rise of the Enlightenment, the growth of "liberal Protestantism," social changes in Boston, and the development of Unitarianism.

Chauncy organized American clergy and corresponded with English dissenting clergy to protest and prevent the encroachment of the Church of England in its colonies. Although his effort to unify the clergy ultimately failed, Chauncy received an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree from the University of Edinburgh. He was a charter member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] (1780)<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter C|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterC.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=July 28, 2014}}</ref> and was recognized by the Massachusetts Historical Society (when his portrait was hung there) as "eminent for his talents, learning, and lover of liberty, civil and religious." He was, in short, honored as one of the leading intellects of 18th-century America. He was also an unapologetic elitist. Biographer Lippy wrote that Chauncy believed "the laymen should simply follow the lead of the clergy who were, after all, the theological professionals."

Chauncy published his major theology work, The Mystery Hid from Ages and Generations, in 1785, two decades after he had completed it. He had held back publication because he recognized the rigorous logic of his arguments ended up affirming an innate moral sense in man, a belief in human free will, an affirmation of universal salvation and thus the spiritual equality of all. These claims undermined the doctrinal traditions of his own Calvinist faith tradition and the social hierarchy he extolled from the beginning to the end of his life. The construction of a rational, Enlightenment foundation for a theologically progressive but deeply embedded, socially conservative liberal faith tradition began with Charles Chauncy. Thanks in no small part to Chauncy's life and work, by 1804 a liberal Christian view was the dominant one in Boston. This complex conservative man had inadvertently sparked a new American liberal theological tradition: American Unitarianism.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite web | url=http://resource.nlm.nih.gov/2545075R | title=The idle-poor secluded from the bread of charity by the Christian law: a sermon preached in Boston, before the Society for Encouraging Industry, and Employing the Poor | publisher=[[U.S. National Library of Medicine]] | date=Aug 12, 1752 | accessdate=March 12, 2013 | author=Chauncy, Charles}}
*{{cite web | url=http://www.uua.org/religiouseducation/curricula/tapestryfaith/whatmoves/workshop5/workshopplan/stories/153053.shtml | title=Workshop 5 » Stories » Introducing Charles Chauncy | publisher=[[Unitarian Universalism]] | date=December 9, 2011 | accessdate=March 12, 2013}}
*Chauncy, Charles 1743, [http://books.google.de/books?id=N84CAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Seasonable+thoughts+on+the+state+of+religion+in+New+England&hl=en&sa=X&ei=9NfdUJCNAYfDtQb_pYDoCw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Seasonable%20thoughts%20on%20the%20state%20of%20religion%20in%20New%20England&f=false ''Seasonable thoughts on the state of religion in New England''], Boston: [[Rogers and Fowle]].

{{Authority control|VIAF=934497}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Chauncy, Charles
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1705
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1787
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chauncy, Charles}}
[[Category:1705 births]]
[[Category:1787 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Boston, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:American Christian clergy]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:18th-century Christian clergy]]

A. Bartlett Giamatti

2011-09-05T14:12:39Z

GcSwRhIc: per MOS full dates should only be removed from leded if they are BOTH in text and infobox

{{Infobox person
| name = Angelo Bartlett Giamatti
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1938|4|4|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1989|9|1|1938|4|4|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| known_for = President of [[Yale University]] (1978–1986) [[National League]] President (1986–1989) [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] Commissioner (April 1, 1989–September 1, 1989)
| spouse = [http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/university-news/2004/09/23/former-first-lady-of-yale-passes-away/ Toni Smith]
| parents = Valentine John Giamatti (father) Mary Claybaugh Walton (mother)
| children = [[Paul Giamatti]] [[Marcus Giamatti]] Elena Giamatti
}}

'''Angelo Bartlett "Bart" Giamatti''' ({{IPA-en|dʒiːəˈmɑːti|pron}}; April 4, 1938 – September 1, 1989) was the president of [[Yale University]] and later the seventh [[Commissioner of Baseball (MLB)#Commissioners|commissioner of Major League Baseball]]. Giamatti negotiated the agreement that terminated the [[Major League Baseball Scandals#1980s Pete Rose betting scandal|Pete Rose betting scandal]] by permitting Rose to voluntarily withdraw from the sport, avoiding further punishment.

==Personal life==
Giamatti was born in [[Boston]] and grew up in [[South Hadley, Massachusetts]]. His father, Valentine John Giamatti, was chairman of the Department of Italian Language and Literature at [[Mount Holyoke College]]. His mother, Mary Claybaugh Walton ([[Smith College]] '35), was the daughter of Bartlett and Helen (Davidson) Walton of [[Wakefield, Massachusetts]]. His maternal grandfather graduated from [[Phillips Academy|Phillips Academy Andover]] and [[Harvard College]]. His paternal grandfather, Angelo Giammattei [''sic''], emigrated to the United States from [[Naples, Italy]], around 1900.

Giamatti attended South Hadley High School, spent his junior year at the Overseas School of Rome, and graduated from [[Phillips Academy]] in 1956. At [[Yale University]], he was a member of [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] (Phi chapter) and as a junior was tapped by [[Scroll and Key]], a senior secret society. He graduated ''[[magna cum laude]]'' in 1960. That same year, he married Toni Marilyn Smith, who taught English for more than 20 years at the [[Hopkins School]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]], until her death in 2004.<ref>Ward, Patrick D. [http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/university-news/2004/09/23/former-first-lady-of-yale-passes-away/ "Former first lady of Yale passes away,"] ''Yale Daily News.'' September 23, 2004.</ref> Together the couple had three children: Hollywood actors [[Paul Giamatti|Paul]] and [[Marcus Giamatti|Marcus]] and jewelry designer Elena. In the film ''[[Sideways]]'', a photograph of the character Miles Raymond (portrayed by Giamatti's son Paul) with his late father is really a picture of Paul and Bart Giamatti.

Giamatti's friend and successor as baseball commissioner, [[Fay Vincent]], wrote in ''The Last Commissioner'' that Giamatti's official religious view was [[agnosticism]].

==Yale==
Giamatti stayed in New Haven to receive his doctorate in 1964, when he also published a volume of essays by Thomas Bergin he had coedited with a philosophy graduate student, [[T. K. Seung]]. He became a professor of comparative literature at Yale University, an author, and master of [[Ezra Stiles College]] at Yale, a post to which he was appointed by his predecessor as Yale president, [[Kingman Brewster, Jr.]]. Giamatti taught briefly at [[Princeton University|Princeton]] but spent most of his academic life at Yale. Giamatti's scholarly work focused on [[English Renaissance]] literature, particularly [[Edmund Spenser]], and relationships between English and [[Italian Renaissance]] poets. His writings on the [[pastoral]] influence in literature and the effect of [[Ludovico Ariosto]] on English literature remain influential.

As a teacher of undergraduates, he was well known, and rejected the conventional wisdom that the Renaissance represented an abrupt cultural change, stressing the continuities between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. He sometimes referred to the Protestant Reformation as the "Protestant Deformation."

When Giamatti's tenure as Stiles master ended in 1972, he was so popular that his students wanted to honor him with a present. Giamatti told them he wanted a joke gift and they got him a moosehead (from a yard sale), which was ceremoniously hung in the dining hall.

Giamatti served as president of Yale University from 1978 to 1986. He was the youngest president of the university in its history and presided over the university during a bitter strike by its [[Federation of Hospital and University Employees|clerical and technical workers]] in 1984-85. As university president, he refused student, faculty, and community demands to [[Disinvestment from South Africa|divest]] from [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]]. He also served on the board of trustees of [[Mount Holyoke College]] for many years, participating fully despite his Yale and baseball commitments. Giamatti was elected a fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1980.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter G|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterG.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=7 April 2011}}</ref>

==Baseball==
Giamatti had a lifelong interest in baseball (he was a die-hard [[Boston Red Sox]] fan). In 1978, when he was first rumored to be a candidate for the presidency of Yale, he had deflected questions by observing that "The only thing I ever wanted to be president of was the [[American League]]." 1 He became president of the [[National League]] in {{by|1986}}, and later commissioner of baseball in {{by|1989}}. During his stint as National League president, Giamatti placed an emphasis on the need to improve the environment for the fan in the ballparks. He also decided to make umpires strictly enforce the [[balk]] rule and supported "social justice" as the only remedy for the lack of presence of minority managers, coaches, or executives at any level in Major League Baseball.

While still serving as National League president, Giamatti suspended [[Pete Rose]] for 30 games after Rose shoved umpire [[Dave Pallone]] on April 30, 1988. Later that year, Giamatti also suspended [[1988 Los Angeles Dodgers season|Los Angeles Dodgers]] pitcher [[Jay Howell]], who was caught using [[pine tar]] during the [[1988 National League Championship Series|National League Championship Series]].

Giamatti, whose tough dealing with Yale's union favorably impressed Major League Baseball owners, was unanimously elected to succeed [[Peter Ueberroth]] as commissioner on September 8, {{by|1988}}.<ref>[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/mlb/comish/giamatti.html Sports Encyclopedia]</ref> Determined to maintain the integrity of the game, on August 24, {{by|1989}}, Giamatti prevailed upon Pete Rose to agree voluntarily to remain permanently ineligible to play baseball.<ref>[http://www.baseball-almanac.com/players/p_rosea.shtml Rose agreement]</ref>{{see also|Dowd Report}}

==Death==
While at his vacation home on [[Martha's Vineyard]], Giamatti, a heavy [[tobacco smoking|smoker]] for many years, died suddenly of a massive [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 51, just eight days after banishing Rose and 154 days into his tenure as commissioner.<ref>[http://thedeadballera.com/Obits/Giamatti.Bart.Obit01.html ''New York Times'' obituary]</ref> He became the second baseball commissioner to die in office, the first being [[Kenesaw Mountain Landis]]. Baseball's owners soon selected [[Fay Vincent]], Giamatti's close friend and baseball's first-ever deputy commissioner, as the new commissioner.

On October 14, 1989, before Game 1 at the [[1989 World Series|World Series]], Giamatti—to whom this World Series was dedicated—was memorialized with a [[moment of silence]]. Son [[Marcus Giamatti]] threw out the first pitch before the game. Also before Game One, the [[Yale Whiffenpoofs]] sang the national anthem, a blend of [[The Star-Spangled Banner]] with [[America the Beautiful]] that has been since repeated by other a-capella groups.

[[James Reston, Jr.]] notes in his book ''Collision at Home Plate: The Lives of Pete Rose and Bart Giamatti'' that Giamatti suffered from [[Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease]], an inherited neuromuscular disease affecting peripheral nerves.

==Works==
* ''Master Pieces from the Files of T.G.B.'', ed. Thomas K. Swing and A. Bartlett Giamatti (1964).
* ''The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic'' (1966)
* ''Play of Double Senses: Spenser’s Faerie Queene'' (1975)
* ''The University and the Public Interest'' (1981)
* ''Exile and Change in Renaissance Literature'' (1984)
* ''Take Time for Paradise: Americans and their Games'' (1989)
* ''A Free and Ordered Space: The Real World of the University'' (1990)
* ''A Great and Glorious Game: Baseball Writings of A. Bartlett Giamatti'' (ed. Kenneth Robson, 1998)

==See also==
{{see also|Ivy League Presidents}}

==Further reading==
* Kelley, Brooks Mather. (1999). [http://books.google.com/books?id=B2aDRhohtx8C&client=firefox-a ''Yale: A History.''] New Haven: [[Yale University Press]]. ISBN 978-0-300-07843-5; [http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/810552 OCLC 810552]
* Reston, James. (1991). ''Collision at Home Plate: The Lives of Pete Rose and Bart Giamatti.''
* Valerio, Anthony. (1991). ''A Life of A. Bartlett Giamatti: By Him and About Him.''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://mason.gmu.edu/~rmatz/giamatti.html "The Green Fields of the Mind"], excerpt from ''A Great and Glorious Game''
* [http://www.baseballlibrary.com/baseballlibrary/ballplayers/G/Giamatti_Bart.stm BaseballLibrary] - profile and events
* [http://www.quotes-museum.com/author/A.%20Bartlett%20Giamatti/2352 A. Bartlett Giamatti Quotations]

{{s-start}}
{{s-aca}}
{{succession box | before=[[Hanna Holborn Gray]], ''acting'' | title=[[University President|President]] of [[Yale University]] | years=1977–1986 | after=[[Benno C. Schmidt, Jr.]]}}
{{s-sports}}
{{succession box | title=[[National League|National League president]] | before=[[Chub Feeney]] | years=1986–1989 | after=[[Bill White (first baseman)|Bill White]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Peter Ueberroth]]| title=[[Baseball Commissioner|Commissioner of Baseball]] | years=1989 | after=[[Fay Vincent]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Baseball Commissioners}}
{{Presidents of Yale University}}
{{Italian American Sports Hall of Fame}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Giamatti, A. Bartlett
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = April 4, 1938
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Boston, Massachusetts
| DATE OF DEATH = September 1, 1989
| PLACE OF DEATH = Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Giamatti, A. Bartlett}}
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:American agnostics]]
[[Category:American people of English descent]]
[[Category:American people of Italian descent]]
[[Category:Baseball commissioners]]
[[Category:Burials at Grove Street Cemetery]]
[[Category:Cardiovascular disease deaths in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:People from Boston, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:People from Hampshire County, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Phillips Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Presidents of Yale University]]
[[Category:Scroll and Key]]
[[Category:Yale University alumni]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:National League presidents]]

[[fr:Bartlett Giamatti]]
[[ja:A・バートレット・ジアマッティ]]

Henri d’Orléans, duc d’Aumale

2011-08-30T00:59:31Z

GcSwRhIc:

[[Datei:HenriEugenePhilippeEmmanueldOrleansWinterhalter1843.jpg|thumb|upright|Henri d’Orléans, duc d’Aumale (circa 1843)]]
'''Henri-Eugène-Philippe-Emmanuel d’Orléans, duc d’Aumale''' (* [[16. Januar]] [[1822]] in [[Paris]]; † [[7. Mai]] [[1897]] in [[Zucco]] bei [[Palermo]]) war ein französischer General, Historiker und Kunstsammler.

== Leben ==

Der [[Herzogtum Aumale|Herzog von Aumale]] war der vierte Sohn des Herzogs von Orléans und späteren Bürgerkönigs [[Ludwig Philipp I. (Frankreich)|Louis-Philippe]] und der [[Maria Amalia von Neapel-Sizilien]]. Er trat nach einer Ausbildung im [[Lycée Henri IV|Collège Henri IV.]] mit 17 Jahren in die Armee ein und wurde 1839 Kapitän (Hauptmann). 1840 begleitete er seinen Bruder, den [[Herzog von Orléans]], als Ordonnanzoffizier nach [[Algerien]], wo er an mehreren Feldzügen teilnahm und schnell zum Oberstleutnant befördert wurde.

[[Datei:HenridOrleansJalabert1866.jpg|thumb|upright|Henri d'Orléans, Duc d'Aumale (1866)]]
Wegen einer Krankheit im Juli 1841 nach [[Frankreich]] zurückgekehrt, wäre er bei seinem Einzug in Paris an der Spitze seines Regiments am 3. September fast das Opfer des Attentats Quénissets geworden. 1842 wurde ihm das Großkreuz der [[Ehrenlegion]] verliehen. Im Oktober des gleichen Jahres zum Generalmajor ernannt, begab er sich wieder nach Algerien und kommandierte dort bis 1843 die Subdivision von Medea. Eine seiner größten Leistungen war die Wegnahme der Smala [[Abd el-Kader]]s am 16. Mai 1843. Dafür wurde er zum [[Generalleutnant]] und Oberbefehlshaber der Provinz [[Constantine (Algerien)|Constantine]] ernannt. Er leitete 1844 die Expedition nach [[Biskra]]. Am 27. September 1847 wurde er an Stelle [[Thomas Robert Bugeaud de la Piconnerie]]s Generalgouverneur von Algerien und wurde bei den Kolonisten und der Armee sehr beliebt. Er galt allgemein als der begabteste der Söhne Louis-Philippes und seit dem Tod des Herzogs von Orléans, seines ältesten Bruders, auch als der beliebteste.

Nach dem Ausbruch der [[Februarrevolution 1848]] übergab er sein Amt dem [[Louis-Eugène Cavaignac|General Cavaignac]] und ging, nachdem er sich mit einer Ansprache von der Armee verabschiedet hatte, nach England ins Exil, wo er sich in [[Claremont (Surrey)|Claremont]], [[Sussex]], und [[Twickenham]] bei [[London]] niederließ.

Nach Ausbruch des deutsch-französischen Krieges bot Aumale erst der kaiserlichen, dann der provisorischen Regierung seine Dienste an, wurde aber von beiden abgewiesen. Am 8. Februar 1871 wurde er für das [[Oise (Département)|Département Oise]] in die [[Nationalversammlung (Frankreich)|Nationalversammlung]] gewählt, nachdem er sich zwar für die konstitutionelle Monarchie als die beste Regierungsform ausgesprochen hatte, aber erklärt hatte, sich auch der Republik unterwerfen zu wollen. Seine Wahl wurde - wie auch die seines Bruders [[François d’Orléans, prince de Joinville|François d'Orléans]] - für gültig erklärt, und entgegen einem [[Adolphe Thiers]] gegebenen Versprechen nahm Aumale im Dezember 1871 seinen Sitz in der Versammlung ein, in der er sich dem rechten Zentrum anschloss. An den politischen Geschäften nahm er aber nur geringen Anteil. Im selben Jahr wurde Aumale als Nachfolger des [[Charles de Montalembert|Grafen Montalembert]] in die [[Académie française]] aufgenommen.

[[Datei:HenriEugenePhilippeEmmanueldOrleansBonnat1880.jpg|thumb|upright|Henri d'Orléans, Duc d'Aumale, mit den Insignien der Ehrenlegion (1880)]]
Nachdem er 1873 im Kriegsgericht über [[François-Achille Bazaine|Bazaine]] den Vorsitz geführt hatte und dabei großen chauvinistischen Eifer gezeigt hatte, ließ er sich zum Kommandeur des 7. Korps in [[Besançon]] ernennen. Doch der definitive Sieg der radikalen Republik vereitelte seinen ehrgeizigen Plan, Generalleutnant des Königreichs oder auch Präsident einer konservativen Republik zu werden. Im Februar 1879 wurde er seines Kommandos enthoben und zum Generalinspekteur der Armee ernannt, 1883 aber - wie alle möglichen Thronprätendenten - auch aus dieser militärischen Stellung entfernt.

1886 wurde ein weiteres Gesetz verabschiedet, das die Oberhäupter aller vormals regierenden Familien aus Frankreich auswies und vorsah, dass in Zukunft die Mitglieder dieser Familien keinerlei öffentliches Amt mehr bekleiden und auch nicht mehr in öffentliche Körperschaften gewählt werden durften. Aumale protestierte energisch, wurde aber ebenfalls ausgewiesen. Trotzdem vermachte er in seinem Testament vom 3. Juni 1884 sein [[Schloss Chantilly]] inklusive der dort aufbewahrten umfangreichen Kunstsammlung dem [[Institut de France]]. Diese Großzügigkeit veranlasste die Regierung, das Exilierungsdekret aufzuheben und der Herzog konnte 1889 nach Frankreich zurückkehren. Die Kunstsammlung ist heute im [[Musée Condé]] in [[Chantilly]] zu sehen.

Aumale lebte meist auf seinem prachtvollen Schloss Chantilly bei Paris. Durch die Erbschaft [[Louis VI. Henri Joseph de Bourbon, prince de Condé|des letzten Condé]] erwarb er ein ungeheures Vermögen, das durch Sparsamkeit und durch die Rückgabe der Orléansschen Güter noch beträchtlich vermehrt wurde.

== Familie ==

[[Datei:Maria Carolina di Borbone, principessa delle Due Sicilie.jpg|thumb|upright|Maria Karolina von Neapel-Sizilien]]
Am 25. November 1844 heiratete Aumale seine Cousine, die Tochter des Prinzen Leopold von Salerno, [[Maria Karolina Augusta von Neapel-Sizilien]]. Von seinen beiden Söhnen Louis Philippe Marie Léopold d’Orléans, prince de Condé, geboren am 15. November 1845 in Paris, und François Louis Marie Philippe d’Orléans, duc de Guise, geboren am 5. Januar 1854 in Twickenham, starb der erste am 24. Mai 1866 an [[Typhus]] auf einer Reise nach [[Australien]] in [[Sydney]], der jüngere am 25. Juli 1872 in [[Dreux]].

== Werke ==

Im Londoner Exil verfasste der Herzog von Aumale einige kriegswissenschaftliche und historische Artikel, die in der ''[[Revue des Deux Mondes]]'' erschienen und ihn literarisch bekannt machten. Infolge einer vom Prinzen Napoléon im Senat gehaltenen, für die Orléans höchst beleidigenden Rede gab Aumale im April 1861 eine Flugschrift heraus: ''Lettre sur l’histoire de France'', in der er den Prinzen und [[Napoléon III.|Napoleon III.]] heftig kritisierte. Diese Flugschrift erregte in Frankreich ungeheures Aufsehen und zog harte Strafen für den Drucker und Verleger nach sich. Aumales ''Histoire des Princes de Condé, pendant les XVI. au XVII. siécles'' (Paris 1869, 2 Bände) konnte erst nach vielen Hindernissen und einem langen Prozess veröffentlicht werden. In dem Brüsseler Journal ''Etoile Belge'' erschien von ihm 1865/66 unter dem Namen „Verax“ eine Reihe von kritischen Briefen über die Politik des Kaiserreichs und 1867 sein berühmtes Werk ''Les institutions militaires de la France'' (Brüssel, 1867). Man hielt Aumale auch für den Verfasser der in Frankreich verbotenen Flugschrift ''Qu'a-t-on fait de la France''(Anfang 1868).
* ''Die Orleans gegen die Napoleoniden : Brief über die Geschichte Frankreichs''. - Berlin : Winkler, 1861. [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:1-72218 Digitalisierte Ausgabe] der [[Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Düsseldorf]]

== Literatur ==

* Raymond Cazelles: ''Le duc d’Aumale: Prince au dix visages''. Jules Tallandier, Paris 2004, ISBN 2-235-01603-0.
* Léonce Grandin: ''Le duc d’Aumale: Le Prince, le soldat, l'historien. Avec introduction de Son Eminence le [[Adolphe Perraud|Cardinal Perraud]]''. René Haton, Paris 1897.
* Eric Woerth: ''Le duc d’Aumale. L’étonnant destin d’un prince collectionneur''. L’Archipel, Paris 2006, ISBN 2-84187-839-2.

== Weblinks ==

{{Commons|Henri d'Orléans, duc d'Aumale|Henri d’Orléans, duc d’Aumale}}
* [http://www.academie-francaise.fr/immortels/base/academiciens/fiche.asp?param=430 Kurzbiografie auf academie-francaise.fr] (französisch)
* [http://www.chateaudechantilly.com/chateauchantilly/fr/chateau/histoire.html chateaudechantilly.com] (französisch; englisch)

{{Normdaten|PND=104327758}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Aumale, Henri Dorleans Duc D}}

[[Kategorie:Militärperson (Frankreich)]]
[[Kategorie:Historiker]]
[[Kategorie:Prinz (Frankreich)]]
[[Kategorie:Haus Bourbon-Orléans|Henri Dorleans, Duc Daumale]]
[[Kategorie:Mitglied der Ehrenlegion (Großkreuz)]]
[[Kategorie:Mitglied der Académie française]]
[[Kategorie:Ritter des Ordens vom Goldenen Vlies]]
[[Kategorie:Franzose]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1822]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1897]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Aumale, Henri d’Orléans, duc d’
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Aumale, Henri-Eugène-Philippe-Emmanuel d’Orléans duc d’
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=französischer General, Historiker und Kunstsammler
|GEBURTSDATUM=16. Januar 1822
|GEBURTSORT=[[Paris]]
|STERBEDATUM=7. Mai 1897
|STERBEORT=[[Zucco]]
}}

[[ca:Enric d'Orleans (duc d'Aumale)]]
[[en:Henri d'Orleans, duke of Aumale]]
[[es:Enrique de Orleans (duque de Aumale)]]
[[fr:Henri d'Orléans (1822-1897)]]
[[it:Enrico d'Orléans (1822-1897)]]
[[ja:アンリ・ドルレアン (オマール公)]]
[[nl:Hendrik van Orléans]]
[[no:Henri av Orléans, hertug av Aumale]]
[[ro:Henri d'Orléans, duce de Aumale]]
[[ru:Генрих Орлеанский, герцог Омальский]]
[[sv:Henri av Orléans, hertig av Aumale]]

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2011-08-26T18:47:26Z

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Donald Bren

2011-08-22T13:00:26Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted 1 edit by 71.167.154.114 (talk): Unsourced. (TW)

{{Infobox person
| name = Donald Bren
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1933}}<ref name="Billionaires 2010" /><ref name="Forbes400 2010" /><ref name="age" />
| birth_place = [[Los Angeles, California]]
| residence = [[Newport Beach, California]]<ref name='LATimes2006Pasco' />
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Washington]]<ref name="pugetsound" />
| occupation = Chairman of the Board, [[Irvine Company|The Irvine Company]]
| known_for = Real Estate Development
| networth = {{steady}} [[United States dollar|US$]] 12.0 [[1,000,000,000 (number)|billion]] (est.) ''(September 2010)''<ref name="Forbes400 2010" />
| spouse = Brigitte (Muller) Bren<ref name='LATimes1998Apodaca' />
| children = seven
| religion = [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopalian]]
| website = {{URL|www.donald-bren.com}}
}}

'''Donald Bren''' (born 1933<ref name="Billionaires 2010" /><ref name="Forbes400 2010" /><ref name="age">Donald Bren was born in 1933; Forbes listed his age as 77 in March 2011 and 78 in September 2011.</ref>) is an [[United States|American]] businessman who is Chairman of the [[Irvine Company]], a US Based real estate developer.

==Early Life and Education==

Bren graduated from the [[University of Washington]] where he received a bachelor's degree in [[business administration]].<ref name="pugetsound"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.latimes.com/business/realestate/la-fi-bren-20110213,0,5263583.story|title=Donald Bren's legacy|publisher=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=February 13, 2010|first=Scott|last=Kraft}}</ref> He tried out for the 1956 [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] ski team but did not qualify due to an injury.<ref name="uofwalumni">{{Cite news | title=Our Wondrous One Hundred | date=June 2008 | page=1 | url=http://www.washington.edu/alumni/columns/june08/content/view/79/1/ | work=The University of Washington Alumni Magazine | accessdate=2008-09-21 }}</ref> After college he served as an officer in the [[United States Marine Corps]].<ref name=UCnews_20040609>{{Cite press release
| title = Donald Bren awarded UC Presidential Medal
| publisher = University of California
| date = 2004-06-09
| url = http://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/article/6446
| accessdate = 2008-12-22
}}</ref>

Bren is the son of [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] producer Milton Bren and his wife, civic leader [[Marion Jorgensen|Marion (Newbert) Bren]]. His parents divorced in 1947, and Bren's father married [[Academy Award]]-winning actress [[Claire Trevor]] in 1948. His mother remarried in 1953, to steel entrepreneur Earle M. Jorgensen.

== Business Career==

Bren built his first house in [[Newport Beach]] with a $10,000 loan, in 1958. He also began his business career in 1958, when he founded the Bren Company, which built homes in [[Orange County, California]]. In 1963, he and two others started the Mission Viejo Company (MVC) and purchased 10,000 acres to plan and develop the city of [[Mission Viejo, California]]. Bren was President of MVC from 1963 to 1967.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ocregister.com/articles/donald-brens-view-1233606|title=Donald Bren's view|date= August 4, 2006|work=OCRegister|accessdate=2009-04-07}}</ref> [[International Paper]] bought MVC for $34 million in 1970,<ref>{{Cite news | title=#27 Donald L Bren | date= September 21, 2006 | url=http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/54/biz_06rich400_Donald-L-Bren_31KV.html | work=Forbes | accessdate=April 7, 2009}}</ref> and then sold it back to Bren for $22 million in 1972 following the recession and once the superheated property market cooled.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1990/08/27/73941|title=AMERICA'S RICHEST LAND BARON: Donald Bren's stunning property covers {{convert|100|sqmi|km2|sigfig=2}} of California. He's worth $2 billion now, and his ''build and hold'' strategy promises to keep his wealth climbing|last=Hector|first=Gary|date=August 27, 1990|work=Fortune|accessdate=2009-04-07}}</ref> Bren took the proceeds from MVC (later sold to [[Altria Group|Philip Morris]]<ref name='forbes'>{{Cite news | title=400 Richest Americans | date=September 17, 2008 | url=http://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/54/400list08_Donald-Bren_31KV.html | work=Forbes | accessdate=2008-09-21 }}</ref>) and in 1977 joined a group of investors to purchase the 146-year-old [[Irvine Company]]. Bren was the largest shareholder of the resulting consortium, owning 34.3% of the company and received the title of Vice-chair of the board.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Liebeck|first=Judy|title=Irvine: A History of Innovation and Growth|editor=Myrtle Malone|publisher=Pioneer Publications, Inc.|location=Houston, TX|ISBN=9781881547105|year=1990|url=http://www.irvineranchhistory.com/ranch_history.html}}</ref> By 1983, he was the majority owner of the firm<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1987/10/12/69654/|title=The Real Estate Men|last=Richman|first=Louis S. |date=October 12, 1987|work=Fortune|accessdate=2009-04-07}}</ref> and was elected chairman of the board. By 1996, he had bought out all outstanding shares to become the sole owner.<ref name=forbes/>

In 2011 an interview, Bren summarized his real estate investment strategy, “What I learned was that when you hold property over the long term, you’re able to create better values and you have something tangible to show for it.”<ref name="LA Times Blog"/>
''[[Forbes]]'', in its 2008 edition of, "[[Forbes 400|The 400 Richest Americans]]," ranked Bren as the wealthiest [[real estate developer]] in the US with an estimated net worth of $12 billion.<ref name='forbes'/> Today he is regarded as Southern California's wealthiest man and America's richest land developer, with a net worth Forbes estimates at $12 billion.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.latimes.com/business/realestate/la-fi-bren-20110213,0,5263583.story|title=Donald Bren's legacy|date= February 13, 2011|work=OCRegister|accessdate=2009-04-07}}</ref>

==Philanthropy==
In 2008, ''[[BusinessWeek]]'' named Bren one of the top ten philanthropists in the nation, with his contributions to various causes such as education, conservation and research among other areas exceeding $1 billion.<ref>{{Cite news| url= http://meltwaternews.com/magenta/xml/xmlarticles.xml?articleid=44394|title=The 10 Top American Givers|date= December 2, 2008|work=BusinessWeek|accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref>

Of the future in 2011, he has stated: "I'd like to be involved, given the fact that i'm curious and energetic and forward-thinking...I'm really looking forward."<ref name="LA Times Blog">{{Cite news| url= http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/money_co/2011/02/donald-bren-irvine.html|title=Donald Bren: Southern California's richest man in his own words|work=Los Angeles Times|accessdate=2011-02-14}}</ref>

===Education===
As an advocate for education, Bren has donated more than $200 million to support programs in K-12 public schools and higher education institutions.<ref name="music" />

Many of Bren's contributions have benefited universities in California, including the [[University of California, Irvine]], [[University of California, Santa Barbara]], and [[Chapman University]]. At UC Irvine, the [[Bren Events Center]], the [[Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences]] and the recently-built Donald Bren Hall are named after him, honoring his patronage of the school. The University also named its [[Claire Trevor School of the Arts]] after his stepmother. Additionally, UC Santa Barbara named [[Bren Hall]] and the [[Bren School of Environmental Science and Management]], a graduate school, after him as well. Altogether, Bren donated $20 million to the Bren School of Environmental Science and Management, which is being used to “enhance and strengthen the school’s core interdisciplinary programs, personnel, and special activities.”<ref name="UC">{{Cite news|url= http://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/article/6528|title=Business Leader and Philanthropist Donald Bren Expands his Support|date= July 28, 2004|work=University of California|accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref> When commenting about the continued support from Bren, UC Santa Barbara Chancellor Henry T. Yang said, “Bren’s vision for developing a peerless, world-leading institution offering an interdisciplinary program of environmental science, management, and policy has been a tremendous source of inspiration and leadership for the Bren School.”<ref name="UC" />

In August 2007, Bren pledged $20 million to the recently-established [[UC Irvine School of Law]]. The purpose of the gift was to establish an endowment to help recruit and support a nationally recognized dean and 11 distinguished law scholars, and also to provide the dean with discretionary start-up funding. In recognition of the gift, the school was initially named the ''UC Irvine Donald Bren School of Law''. In 2008 an agreement was reached between Bren and the University that the school would not bear his name. [[Erwin Chemerinsky]], dean of the law school, said, "We are deeply grateful for the Bren gift, but it was decided between the chancellor and Mr. Bren that our name should be parallel to other UC schools."<ref>{{Cite news | first=Rick | last= Reiff | title=It’s Agreed: No Bren Name on UCI Law School | date=October 20, 2008 | url=http://www.ocbj.com/industry_article_pay.asp?aID=478946703.4623119.1697124.0805136.4861014.926&aID2=130539 | work=Orange County Business Journal | accessdate=2008-10-22 }} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

Between 1984 and 2004, Bren donated more than $43 million to UC Irvine. Of these funds, $20 million was used toward faculty recruitment efforts at the School of Information and Computer Science. The school, later renamed The Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences,<ref>{{Cite news| first=Marisa | last= O'Neil| url= http://www.donald-bren.com/newsreleases/dailypilot_bldgs_bren.htm|title= Buildings Filling to the Bren at UC Irvine|date= June 3, 2004|work=Daily Pilot|accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref> is housed in Donald Bren Hall, a six-story building opened in 2007, which includes research labs, faculty offices and classrooms.<ref>{{Cite news| first=Michael | last= Miller|url= http://marketing.irvinecompany.com/public_affairs/bren/daily-pilot-uci-building-dedicated-bren-06-21-07.html|title= UCI Building Dedicated to Bren|date= June 21, 2007|work=Daily Pilot|accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref>

Bren, a trustee at the [[California Institute of Technology]] (Caltech), donated $10 million to the Institute in 2001, which supported new faculty as Bren Scholars and endowed five Bren Professorships.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://articles.latimes.com/1999/nov/02/local/me-29069 |title= Irvine Co. Head Gives $10-Million Grant to Caltech|date= November 2, 1999|work=Los Angeles Times|accessdate=2010-011-04}}</ref>

<gallery perrow="4" widths="150px" style="margin:0;padding:0;border:0;font-size:.8em;text-align:center;">
File:Claire Trevor Theatre, UCI.jpg|[[Claire Trevor School of the Arts|Claire Trevor Theatre]], UC Irvine
File:ETplazaAtbrenics.jpg|The [[Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences]] viewed from the top of Bren Hall, UC Irvine
File:UCI Bren Events BasketballCourt 2008.JPG|Basketball court of the [[Bren Events Center]] before a game, UC Irvine
File:Bren Hall, UCSB.jpg|[[Bren Hall]], UC Santa Barbara
</gallery>

In 2003, Bren also donated $1 million to the [[Marine Corps University]] in Quantico, Virginia. The funds were used to endow two academic chairs focusing on ethics & leadership and innovation & transformation.<ref name="Marine Corps">{{Cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2003/apr/05/local/me-bren5|title=Ex-Marine Bren to Donate $1 Million to Endow Two Chairs at Corps' University|date=April 5, 2003|work=Los Angeles Times|accessdate=2010-11-04}}</ref>

In addition to higher education, Bren has also contributed significantly to K-12 public schools in California.

In February 2008, he gave $8.5 million to THINK Together, a provider of after-school services for K-6 students in Southern California.<ref name="LATimes2008Delson">{{Cite news | title=After-school help program gets gift | date=February 20, 2008 | page=B8 | url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/feb/20/local/me-bren20 | first=Jennifer | last=Delson | work=LA Times | accessdate=2008-09-25 }}</ref> Bren first donated to this organization in 2006, with a $1 million contribution that helped the after-school program expand its services to 40 schools in the Santa Ana district. According to officials, the contribution would benefit more than 10,000 students over 10 years.<ref name="OCR">{{Cite news| first=Fermin | last= Leal|url=http://marketing.irvinecompany.com/public_affairs/bren/oc-register-irvine-co-1-million-06-13-06.html|title= Irvine Co. Gives $1 Million for Santa Ana School Programs|date= June 13, 2006|work=Orange County Register|accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref>

During 2006, Bren also made a contribution to the Irvine Unified School District in Irvine, California, in the amount of $20 million. This donation would be used by the district to hire art, music and science teachers. The funding would benefit students in grades fourth through sixth over a 10-year period, giving them access to music, arts and science programs.<ref name="music">{{Cite news| first=Michael | last= Lyster|url= http://marketing.irvinecompany.com/public_affairs/bren/ocbj-bren-gives-20m-04-11-06.html|title= Bren Gives $20M to Irvine Schools|date= April 10, 2006|work=Orange County Business Journal|accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref> This contribution is in addition to the $25 million that Bren provided to Irvine schools in 2000.<ref>{{Cite news|first=David | last= Haldane|url= http://marketing.irvinecompany.com/public_affairs/bren/la-times-irvine-co-donate-20-04-11-06.html|title=Irvine Co. to donate $20 million to schools|date=April 11, 2006|work=Los Angeles Times|accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref> According to Tim Shaw, former chief executive officer of the Irvine Public Schools Foundation, the annual gift “seeded the strong public support of elementary arts, music and science instruction.”<ref name="OCR" />

===Conservation===
In March 2009, he was ranked 9th<ref name="The Green Rich List">{{Cite news | title=The Green Rich List | date=March 1, 2009 | last= Beresford |first=Philip|url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/specials/article5816774.ece | work=[[The Sunday Times]] | accessdate=2009-03-01 | location=London}}</ref> in ''[[The Sunday Times|The (London) Sunday Times']]'' "Green Rich List"—a list of the 100 wealthiest people who have either invested in green technology/businesses or made large contributions to environmental causes.<ref name="Eco barons lead the way">{{Cite news | title=Eco barons lead the way | date=March 1, 2009 | last= Beresford |first=Philip|url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/specials/rich_list/article5821334.ece | work=The Sunday Times | accessdate=2009-03-01 | location=London}}</ref> Bren's placement on the list was due to his $20 million in donations to UC Santa Barbara's School of Environmental Science.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Donald Bren (USA) | url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/specials/rich_list/article5820824.ece|date=March 1, 2009 | work=The Sunday Times | accessdate=2009-04-04 | location=London}}</ref>

Throughout a 30-year time span, Bren donated {{convert|50000|acre|km2|sigfig=2}} of land to Orange County, California, to be used for parks, greenways, recreation and wilderness preserves.<ref name="land donation" /> The donated land fulfills Bren’s plans and commitment to preserve more than 50-percent of historic Irvine Ranch of {{convert|93000|acre|km2|sigfig=2}}.<ref name="land donation">{{Cite news|first=Scott | last= Kraft|url= http://marketing.irvinecompany.com/Corp_Communications/NewsArticles/times_county_gift_0610/IrvineCoGives20000AcresOfOpenSpace.htm |title=Irvine Co. Gives 20,000 Acres Of Open Space To Orange County=June 30, 2010|work=Los Angeles Times|accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref> Of this, {{convert|40000|acre|km2|sigfig=2}} were designated as the Irvine Ranch National Natural Landmark.<ref name="landmark">{{Cite news|first=Tony | last= Barboza|url= http://marketing.irvinecompany.com/Corp_Communications/NewsArticles/cnl_desig_0408/CNL_designation.htm |title= Orange County Land Designated As First California Natural Landmark=April 23, 2010|work=Los Angeles Times|accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref> During the 2006 ceremony at Crystal Cove State Park to celebrate this designation, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger said “it is really a spectacular gift that [Bren’s] given to [California]. Donald Bren is…the ultimate of generosity. Not only what he contributes to the environment, but what he contributes continuously to the community, if it is in education, if it is in arts, if it is music, if it is the environment, the 10s of millions of dollars he’s invested in the environment, to protect the environment. He’s an extraordinary man.” <ref>{{Cite news|url= http://gov.ca.gov/speech/4400 | title=Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger’s Remarks at Crystal Cove State Park |date=October 10, 2006| work=Office of the Governor | accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref>

In 2008, the state of California also designated the land as the first California Natural Landmark because of the land’s ecological value. The protected land, once a part of Irvine Ranch, is operated by The Irvine Ranch Conservancy.<ref name="landmark" /> Recently, Bren completed his pledge by giving Orange Country, California, an open-space and parklands gift of {{convert|20000|acre|km2|sigfig=2}} in June 2010. The gift was accepted in a unanimous decision by the Orange County Board of Supervisors and was the largest donation of private property to public ownership in Orange County history.<ref name="land donation" /> In a ceremony in the same year, he was recognized for donating more than 20,000 acres of pristine wilderness that he gave to Orange County, asking only that it remain open space forever.<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.latimes.com/business/realestate/la-fi-bren-20110213,0,5263583.story | title=Donald Bren's legacy |date=February 13, 2010 | work=Office of the Governor | accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref>

Gale Norton, former U.S. Secretary of the Interior, speaking about Bren’s history of land donations, said, “The Irvine Ranch illustrates what cooperative conservation is all about. A conservation-minded corporate citizen is working hand-in-hand with federal and state agencies, The Nature Conservancy, local communities, private citizens and other partners to thoughtfully and purposefully create an environment where both people and wildlife can thrive."<ref>{{Cite news | first=Sara | last= Lin|url= http://articles.latimes.com/2005/may/27/local/me-bren27 | title=Big Swath Gets a Big Gift |date=May 27, 2005 | work=Office of the Governor | accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref>

===Research===
In 2007, Bren made a $2.5 million commitment to the Burnham Institute for Medical Research in La Jolla, California. The contribution established The Donald Bren Presidential Chair and the money donated was used to support research conducted by the Institute such as cancer, neurodegeneration, diabetes, and childhood diseases among others.<ref>{{Cite news | url=http://legacy.signonsandiego.com/news/metro/20070629-0704-ramps.html | title=O.C. Developer Endows Burnham Institute Chair |date=June 29, 2007 | work=San Diego Union Tribune | accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=http://www.newswise.com/articles/scientific-excellence-fuels-burnham-s-growth | title=Scientific Excellence Fuels Burnham’s Growth |date=August 18, 2009 | work=Newswise | accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref>

From a 2011 interview, solar energy is one of the areas he is exploring for a future philanthropic gift. "It's my view that solar energy may be the ultimate solution for energy form most of the world. I believe, based on what little I know about it, that there is a possibility of a breakthrough."
<ref name="LA Times Blog" />

==Awards & Honors==
Bren received the University of California Presidential Medal, the University’s highest honor, in 2004, because of his financial support throughout the years, which at the time was more than $43 million.<ref>{{Cite news | url= http://www.donald-bren.com/newsreleases/la_times_big_name_campus.html | title=A Big Name on UCI Campus|date=June 10, 2004 | work=Los Angeles Times | accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref> During the award ceremony, former UC President, Robert Dynes said, “[Bren’s] passionate philanthropy and commitment to educational excellence have helped strengthen the university.”<ref>{{Cite news | url= http://www.ics.uci.edu/about/bren/bren_about.php | title=About Donald Bren| work=University of California, Irvine | accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref>

In 2006, the Orange County Business Journal named Bren “Businessperson of the Year,” based on the company’s office expansion, new building construction and Bren being recognized for his conservation efforts by the federal government.<ref>{{Cite news | first=Mark | last= Mueller |url= http://marketing.irvinecompany.com/public_affairs/bren/ocbj-bus-person-of-year-bren-01-02-07.html | title=Businessperson of the Year: Donald Bren
|date=January 2, 2006 | work=Orange County Business Journal | accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref> That same year, The Los Angeles Times named Bren one of the most powerful people in Southern California. According to the article, “simply put, Orange County looks like Orange County...because of the influence of [Donald Bren].”<ref>{{Cite news | url= http://articles.latimes.com/2006/aug/13/magazine/tm-toppower33 | title=The West 100|date=August 13, 2006 | work=Los Angeles Times | accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref>

In 1998, Bren received the Marine Corps University Foundation’s Semper Fidelis Award, which recognizes a distinguished American leader whose commitment to personal and professional excellence embodies those qualities of leadership and character uniquely associated with the United States Marine Corps. Past award recipients include former President George H.W. Bush and former Secretary of State George P. Schultz. The Foundation also presented Bren with its most prestigious award in 2003, the General Leonard F. Chapman Medallion named in honor of the 24th Commandant of the United States Marine Corps.<ref name="Marine Corps"/>

Bren is also on the boards of the [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]] and the [[Orange County Museum of Art]], and is a [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]] [[List of California Institute of Technology trustees|trustee]]. He also is a Fellow of the prestigious [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]], and is a trustee emeritus of the UC Irvine Foundation.<ref name="uciFoundation">http://www.foundation.uci.edu/board-members.asp</ref>

==Personal life==
In May 1998, Bren, 66, an [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopalian]], married Brigitte Muller, a 32-year-old entertainment lawyer, in a church ceremony at the All Saints Episcopal Church in [[Beverly Hills, California]]. Muller, who was born in [[La Jolla, California]].<ref name='LATimes1998Apodaca' /> He and his wife, attorney Brigitte (Muller) Bren, reside in [[Newport Beach, California]].<ref name='LATimes2006Pasco'/>

Bren also keeps a low public profile and as he explained, "I'm not a public official. I'm a businessman, I'm a builder, I'm a planner... And if I feel that I've done the job well, that's the satisfaction I get, not from doing interviews or being more public."<ref name="LA Times Blog" />

Two of his adult children battled Bren in court during 2010 seeking $134 million in retroactive child support. Bren testified during the trial, and his attorneys noted that he had given the children more than $9 million since their birth and had already promised to pay their education expenses until the age of 25. The jury sided with Bren.<ref name="ocregister.com">{{Cite news|url= http://articles.ocregister.com/2010-08-26/crime/24631057_1_billionaire-donald-bren-s-verdict-jurors|title=Bren's children not entitled to more support, jury says|publisher=ocregister.com|date=August 26, 2010}}</ref><ref name="ocregister.com"/><ref>{{Cite news|url= http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/donald-bren-jury-begin-deliberations-billionaires-child-support/story?id=11485446|title=Jury Sides With Billionaire Donald Bren in Inflated Child Support Battle|publisher=ABC.com|date=August 26, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-bren-20100827,0,5372489.story|title=Donald Bren doesn't owe two adult children any more money, jury rules|publisher=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=August 27, 2010|first=Robert|last=Faturechi}}</ref>

==Politics==
Bren is a supporter of [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]]. He backed Pete Wilson's Senate campaign and contributed to Meg Whitman's gubernatorial bid. But he's also long supported Democrat Dianne Feinstein, whom he calls "a great senator for California."<ref name='forbes'/>*

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=35em|refs=

<ref name="Billionaires 2010">{{cite web
|title= The World's Billionaires (2011): #64 Donald Bren
|url= http://www.forbes.com/profile/donald-bren
|work= [[Forbes]] |date= March 9, 2011 |accessdate= April 17, 2011
}}</ref>

<ref name="Forbes400 2010">{{cite web
|title= Forbes 400 Richest Americans (2010): #21 Donald Bren
|url= http://www.forbes.com/profile/donald-bren
|work= [[Forbes]] |date= September 2010 |accessdate= February 23, 2011
}}</ref>

<ref name='LATimes2006Pasco'>{{Cite news
| title=Billionaire’s Plans Put Community En Garde
| url=http://articles.latimes.com/2006/jan/08/local/me-bren8
| work=LA Times | page=B4
| first=Jean | last=Pasco
| date=January 8, 2006
| accessdate = 2008-09-21
}}</ref>

<ref name="pugetsound">{{Cite news
| title=Donald Bren has given millions to other schools, but not to his alma mater—yet
| url=http://uwnews.washington.edu/ni/apps/dailyclips/scraped/focus4.html
| work=Puget Sound Business Journal
| first=Clay | last=Holtzman
| date=February 23, 2007
| accessdate=2008-09-21
}}</ref>

<ref name='LATimes1998Apodaca'>{{Cite news
| title=Billionaire Developer Weds
| url=http://articles.latimes.com/1998/may/14/local/me-49656
| work=LA Times | page=B1
| first=Patrice | last=Apodaca
| date=May 14, 1998
| accessdate = 2008-09-21
}}</ref>

}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Biography}}
*[http://www.irvinecompany.com/About-Us/donald-bren.aspx Biography at the Irvine Company]
*[http://www.ics.uci.edu/about/bren/bren_about.php Biography at UCI's Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences]
*[http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/money_co/2011/02/donald-bren-irvine.html Donald Bren: Southern California's richest man in his own words by Los Angeles Times]

{{Persondata
|NAME= Bren, Donald
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= United States Marine
|DATE OF BIRTH= 1933
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Los Angeles, California]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bren, Donald}}
[[Category:1933 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:University of Washington alumni]]
[[Category:Businesspeople in real estate]]
[[Category:People from Newport Beach, California]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from California]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:American philanthropists]]
[[Category:American billionaires]]
[[Category:United States Marines]]

[[ja:ドナルド・ブレン]]
[[pt:Donald Bren]]

Bessie Potter Vonnoh

2011-07-30T16:10:52Z

GcSwRhIc: added Category:Archives of American Art related using HotCat

{{Infobox artist
| bgcolour = #6495ED
| name =Bessie Potter Vonnoh
| image =Bessie Potter Vonnoh, by Robert Vonnoh.jpg
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =Bessie Potter Vonnoh, by [[Robert Vonnoh]]
| birth_name =Bessie Potter
| birth_date ={{birth date|mf=y|1872|8|17}}
| birth_place =[[St. Louis]], [[Missouri]], U.S.
| death_date ={{death date and age|mf=y|1955|3|8|1872|8|17}}
| death_place =[[New York City]], [[New York]], U.S.
| nationality =[[United States|American]]
| spouse =Robert Vonnoh (1899–1933 his death) Edward L. Keyes (1948–1955 her death)
| field =[[Sculpture]]
| training =
| movement =
| works =
| patrons =
| influenced by =
| influenced =
| awards =
| elected =[[National Academy of Design]] (1921) [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] (1931)
| website =
}}

[[Image:Bessie Potter Vonnoh, by Robert Vonnoh.jpg|thumb|Bessie Potter Vonnoh, by [[Robert Vonnoh]]]]
'''Bessie Potter Vonnoh''' (August 17, 1872 – March 8, 1955) was an American sculptor best known for her small bronzes, mostly of domestic scenes, and for her garden fountains.

== Early years ==
Bessie Potter was born in [[St Louis]], [[Missouri]], the only child of Ohio natives Alexander and Mary McKenney Potter. Her father died in 1874, in an accident, at age 38.<ref name="Sculptor">{{cite book |publisher=Ohio University Press |title=Bessie Potter Vonnoh: Sculptor of Women} |author=Julie Aronson |date=2008 |isbn=9780821418000}}</ref>{{rp|p. 7}} By 1877, she and her mother had joined members of her mother's family in Chicago.<ref name="Sculptor"/>{{rp|p. 9}}. In school she enjoyed clay-modeling class and decided at an early age that she wanted to be a sculptor.<ref name="AAA">{{cite web |url= http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/bessie-potter-vonnoh-papers-6601/more|title=Bessie Potter Vonnoh papers, circa 1860-1991, bulk 1890-1955 |publisher= [[Archives of American Art]]|accessdate=July 29, 2011}}</ref> In 1886, at age 14, she enrolled in classes at the [[Art Institute of Chicago]].<ref>{{cite news |work=New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/23/nyregion/connecticut/23artsct.html |title=In Her Hands, Naturalism Won Out |author=Benjamin Genocchio |date=November 21, 2008}}</ref> Beginning in 1890 she studied with [[Lorado Taft]].

== Early works ==
Vonnoh became one of the so-called [[White Rabbits (sculptors)|"White Rabbits"]], women artists who assisted Taft on the sculpture program for the Horticultural Building at the 1893 [[World's Columbian Exposition]] in Chicago. She also produced an independent commission, the ''Personification of Art'', for the Illinois State Building of the exposition.

In 1895, she traveled to Europe, and met [[Auguste Rodin]]. Her best-known statuette, ''Young Mother'' (1896), used fellow "White Rabbit" Mary Proctor, then wife of sculptor [[Alexander Phimister Proctor]], and their infant son as models. In 1898, she received the commission for a bust of [[Samuel W. Crawford|General Samuel W. Crawford]] for the [[Smith Memorial Arch]] in Philadelphia.<ref>[http://www.philart.net/images/large/smacrawford.jpg Crawford bust]</ref>

In 1899 she married impressionist painter [[Robert Vonnoh]], at his home in [[Rockland Lake, New York]].<ref>{{cite news |work=New York Times |date=September 21, 1899 |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0714FC3E5C11738DDDA80A94D1405B8985F0D3&scp=25&sq=Bessie%20Potter%20Vonnoh&st=cse |title=A Marriage of Artists; Miss Bessie Potter Quietly Wedded to R.W. Vonnoh}}</ref> and honeymooned in [[Paris, France|Paris]]. At the 1900 [[Exposition Universelle]], she was awarded a Bronze Medal for ''Young Mother'' and another statuette, ''Dancing Girl''.

She exhibited at both the 1901 [[Pan-American Exposition]] in [[Buffalo, New York]], and at the 1904 [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition]] in St Louis, Missouri, where she was awarded a Gold Medal for a group of ten works.

== Middle years ==

In March 1903, the ''New York Times'' noted that the Vonnohs were two of a dozen painters and sculptors who had gotten together to create a building specifically for their studios, at 27 West Sixty-Seventh Street in Manhattan.<ref>{{cite news |work=New York Times |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0F16FB355412738DDDAE0A94DB405B838CF1D3&scp=14&sq=Bessie%20Potter%20Vonnoh&st=cse |title=A New Hive of Artists; Studios Built by a Dozen Painters to Suit Themselves -- Practical Side of the Sixty-seventh St. Building |date=March 27, 1903}}</ref> In mid-1903, the Vonnohs began summering in [[Old Lyme, Connecticut]], and became long-time members of its [[art colony]].

In December 1912, the ''New York Times'', writing about her works at the [[New York Academy of Art]], called her figurines "lovely", of a "charming style", and said "we must applaud once more her skillful harmonizing of detail in the contemporary costume, her selection of the most distinguished line for emphasis."<ref>{{cite news |work=New York Times|title=Art at Home and Abroad; From the Academic to the Modern Is the Range Shown in Exhibition of Sculpture at the Academy |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10F1FFE3D5B13738DDDAB0A94DA415B828DF1D3&scp=15&sq=Bessie%20Potter%20Vonnoh&st=cse |date=December 22, 1912}}</ref> In 1915, Vonnoh exhibited in the [[Armory Show]]. In 1921, she was elected an academician of the [[National Academy of Design]]. She was elected to the [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] in 1931.<ref name=AAAL>{{cite web|title=Deceased Members|url=http://www.artsandletters.org/academicians2_deceased.php|work=American Academy of Arts and Letters|accessdate=July 30, 2011}}</ref>

== Later years ==
[[File:Bessie Potter Vonnoh&Robert Vonnoh,ca. 1930.jpg|thumb|left|Bessie Potter and Robert Vonnoh, circa 1930.]] In 1933, her husband died at age 75. In 1937, she completed her best-known large-scale work, the ''[[Frances Hodgson Burnett]] Memorial'' in [[Central Park]].<ref>[http://ephemeralnewyork.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/conservatoryfountain.jpg?w=450&h=337 Burnett Memorial]</ref> She produced little after that.

[[Image:BPVonnohSculpt3712.jpg|thumb|Garden fountain figure, ''ca'' 1931.]] In 1948, she remarried, to Dr. Edward L. Keyes <ref>{{cite news |work=New York Times |title=Mrs. Bessie P. Vonnoh a Bride |date=June 27, 1948 |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00A10FB385D13728DDDAE0A94DE405B8888F1D3&scp=36&sq=Bessie%20Potter%20Vonnoh&st=cse }}</ref>. She died in New York City in 1955, at age 82.

==Further reading==
* Baigell, Matthew (1979) "Vonnoh, Bessie Potter" ''Dictionary of American Art'' Harper & Row, Publishers, New York;
* Bowman, John S. (ed.) (1995) "Vonnoh, Bessie (Onahotema) Potter" ''The Cambridge Dictionary of American Biography'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England;
* Falk, Peter Hastings (1985) "Vonnoh, Bessie Potter" ''Who Was Who in American Art: 1898-1947'' Sound View Press, Madison, CT;
* Garraty, John A. and Carnes, Mark C. (eds.) (1999) "Vonnoh, Bessie Onahotema Potter" ''American National Biography'' Oxford University Press, New York;
* Heller, Jules and Heller, Nancy G. (1995) "Vonnoh, Bessie Potter" ''North American Women Artists of the Twentieth Century: A biographical dictionary'' Garland Publishing, New York

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Bessie Potter Vonnoh}}
* [http://www.aaa.si.edu/collectionsonline/vonnbess/ Bessie Potter Vonnoh Papers Online at the Smithsonian Archives of American Art]

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Vonnoh, Bessie Potter
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =American sculptor
| DATE OF BIRTH = August 17, 1872
| PLACE OF BIRTH =St. Louis, Missouri
| DATE OF DEATH = March 8, 1955
| PLACE OF DEATH =New York City, New York
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Vonnoh, Bessie Potter}}
[[Category:1872 births]]
[[Category:1955 deaths]]
[[Category:American sculptors]]
[[Category:American women artists]]
[[Category:Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters]]
[[Category:Modern sculptors]]
[[Category:People from St. Louis, Missouri]]
[[Category:Archives of American Art related]]

[[fr:Bessie Potter Vonnoh]]

Bessie Potter Vonnoh

2011-07-30T15:28:53Z

GcSwRhIc: American Academy of Arts and Letters, infobox, cats

Earl Muetterties

2011-07-26T12:41:29Z

GcSwRhIc: link

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Earl Leonard Muetterties
| birth_date = {{birth date|1927|6|23|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Elgin, Illinois]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1984|1|12|1927|6|23}}
| death_place = [[Berkeley, California]]
| residence = [[United States]]
| citizenship = [[United States]]
| field = [[Inorganic chemistry]]
| work_institution = [[DuPont Central Research]], [[Cornell University]], [[University of California, Berkeley]]
| alma_mater = [[Northwestern University]], [[Harvard]]
| doctoral_advisor = [[Charles Brown - Chemist|Charles Brown]] and [[Eugene G. Rochow]]
| doctoral_students =
| known_for = Polyhedral boranes Fluxional processes in organometallic complexes Homogeneous catalysis Heterogeneous catalysis
| prizes = Senior U.S.. Scientist Award of the Humboldt Foundation ACS Award in Inorganic Chemistry (1965) Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) Centenary Lectureship (1981) National Academy of Sciences}}

'''Earl Muetterties''' (1927–1984), was an [[United States|American]] inorganic chemist born in [[Illinois]], who is known for his experimental work with [[boranes]], [[homogeneous catalysis]], [[heterogeneous catalysis]], and fluxional processes in organometallic complexes.

== Training ==
Muetterties earned a [[bachelors degree]] in [[chemistry]] at [[Northwestern University]] in 1949 and received his doctoral thesis in boron-nitrogen [[chemistry]] under Charles Brown<ref>Brown, Charles A.; Muetterties, Earl L.; Rochow, Eugene G. Boron-nitrogen systems. III. Addition compounds of boron trifluoride and diamines. Journal of the American Chemical Society (1954), 76 2537-9.</ref> and [[Eugene G. Rochow]]<ref>Muetterties, Earl L.; Rochow, Eugene G. Complexes of boron fluoride with amides. Journal of the American Chemical Society (1953), 75 490-1.</ref> at [[Harvard]] in 1952.

== Career ==
===Career at DuPont===
Earl Muetterties joined [[DuPont Central Research]] Department and was promoted to research supervisor in 1955. His early contributions were on the inorganic fluorine compounds, especially of sulfur and phosphorus.<ref>Roesky, Herbert W.; Tebbe, Fred N.; Muetterties, Earl L.. Thiophosphate chemistry. Anion set X2PS2-, (XPS2)2S2-, and (XPS2)2S22-. Inorganic Chemistry (1970), 9(4), 831-6.</ref> In collaboration with [[William Dale Phillips|William D. Phillips]] he exploited [[NMR]] for study of dynamic processes in [[inorganic]] fluoride compounds.<ref>Muetterties, E. L.; Phillips, W. D. Fluoroarsenites. Journal of the American Chemical Society (1957), 79 3686-7.</ref> Muetterties's work on boron hydride clusters led to the discovery of several polyhedral [[borane anions]] such as B12H122-.<ref>Muetterties, E. L.; Balthis, J. H.; Chia, Y. T.; Knoth, W. H.; Miller, H. C. Inorg. Chem. 1964, 3, 444. “Salts and Acids of B10H102- and B12H122-</ref> In addition to the polyhedral boranes, the program explored pi-allyl, fluoroalkyl, and boron hydride complexes of the [[transition metal]]s. Research also extended to stereochemically-non-rigid complexes.<ref>Muetterties, E. L.. Polytopal form and isomerism. Tetrahedron (1974), 30(12), 1595-604.</ref> In 1965, he became Associate Director in the [[DuPont Central Research]]. In addition to groups in homogeneous and heterogeneous [[catalysis]], groups were established in the synthesis and [[spectroscopy]] of [[organometallic]] compounds. He was also a prolific inventor.

===Academic career===
Muetterties academic ties started with an adjunct professorship in chemistry at [[Princeton University|Princeton]] (1967–1969) and then at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] (1969–1973). With the [[Monell Chemical Senses Center]], his research interests extended to mammalian [[pheromone]]s.<ref>Beruter J; Beauchamp G K; Muetterties E L Complexity of chemical communication in mammals: urinary components mediating sex discrimination by male guinea pigs. Biochemical and biophysical research communications (1973), 53, 264-71.</ref> After a two-month lectureship at [[Cambridge University]] in 1972, he assumed a professorship at [[Cornell]] in 1973, conducting research on organometallic chemistry and homogeneous catalysis, sometimes in collaboration with [[Roald Hoffman]].
In 1979, he moved to the [[University of California, Berkeley]], where he continued research in [[homogeneous catalysis]] and [[cluster chemistry]].<ref>Burch, R. R.; Muetterties, E. L.; Thompson, M. R.; Day, V. W. Synthesis and structure of a coordinately unsaturated trinuclear rhodium cluster. Organometallics (1983), 2(3), 474-8.</ref> At Berkeley he also worked on [[surface science]].<ref>Klarup, D. G.; Muetterties, E. L.; Stacy, A. M. Thermal desorption studies of methyl-substituted benzenes on nickel(111) and nickel(100) surfaces. Langmuir (1985), 1, 764-6.</ref>

Muetterties helped establish the ACS journals [[Inorganic Chemistry]] and [[Organometallics]]. He was on the board of [[Inorganic Syntheses]] and edited Volume 10. He also edited books on boron chemistry and transition-metal hydrides and wrote reviews on complexes with unusual coordination numbers. A tribute to Muetterties has also published.<ref>R. G. Bergman, G. W. Parshall, and K. N. Raymond. Earl L. Muetterties, 1927–1984. In Biographical Memoirs, vol. 63, pp. 383–93. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994.</ref>

==External links==
* http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/emuetterties.pdf Article on Earl Muetterties from the National Academy of Sciences.
* http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ic00181a600 Tribute to Earl Muetterties by Roald Hoffman.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Muetterties, Earl
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = June 23, 1927
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Elgin, Illinois]]
| DATE OF DEATH = January 12, 1984
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Berkeley, California]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Muetterties, Earl}}
[[Category:Inorganic chemists]]
[[Category:American chemists]]
[[Category:1984 deaths]]

Yiji

2011-07-22T04:09:20Z

GcSwRhIc: /* See also */ avoid disambiguation

{{Unreferenced|date=April 2007}}
A '''Yiji''' ({{zh|艺妓}}) was a high-class [[Courtesan]] in ancient China. Yiji were rarely involved in direct [[sex trade]] but rather performed music and arts such as [[poetry]] to please dignitaries and intellectuals.

==Evolution of Yiji==
Before the [[Ming Dynasty]], Yiji were performers who also offered spiritual interaction to their clients. Sexual activity between them and their clients was rare and when it existed, it was usually based on affectionate affairs rather than money.

After the [[Ming Dynasty]], [[merchant]]s started to patronize Yiji and compensated sex became more common. Many lived in houses called flower houses and men went there to have company. Although sexual activity was not always expected, they often engaged in it to earn more money.

==See also==
*[[Sing-song girls]]
*[[Geisha]]
*[[Oiran]]
*[[Tayū]]

[[Category:Chinese courtesans| Yiji]]
[[Category:Courtesans of antiquity]]
[[Category:Types of courtesans]]

{{China-hist-stub}}

[[zh:藝妓 (泛稱)]]

Lloyd Doyley

2011-07-19T23:14:39Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted good faith edits by Jwatkins16 (talk): Source? (TW)

{{Infobox football biography
| name = Lloyd Doyley
| image =
| fullname = Lloyd Colin Doyley | height = {{height|ft=5|in=10}}
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1982|12|1|df=y}}
| cityofbirth = [[Whitechapel]]
| countryofbirth = [[England]]
| currentclub = [[Watford F.C.|Watford]]
| clubnumber = 12
| position = [[Defender (association football)|Defender]]
| youthyears1 = 1999–2001
| youthclubs1 = [[Watford F.C.|Watford]]
| years1 = 2001–
| clubs1 = [[Watford F.C.|Watford]]
| caps1 = 301
| goals1 = 1
| nationalyears1=
| nationalteam1=
| nationalcaps1= | nationalgoals1 =
| pcupdate = 18:44, 20 June 2011 (UTC)
| ntupdate =
}}
'''Lloyd Colin Doyley''' (born 1 December 1982) is an English [[association football|footballer]] who plays for [[Watford F.C.|Watford]] as a [[Defender (association football)|defender]]. He is primarily a right-back, but can also play as a centre-back and left-back. He is the longest-serving current player for the Hornets, and is contracted until 2012.

== Career ==
=== Watford ===
{{Expand section|date=December 2009}}
[[Image:DOYLEY.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Doyley's Shirt]] Doyley was born in [[Whitechapel]], [[London]]. He is a graduate of the Watford Academy, making his [[first team]] debut at home to [[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]] in a 3–3 draw on 26 September 2001. In total he made 22 appearances during [[2001–02 in English football|2001–02]] as manager [[Gianluca Vialli]] allowed several younger players to gain experience. He sporadically appeared for the first team in the following seasons.

Doyley became a first-team regular in the [[2004–05 in English football|2004–05]], playing in the [[Football League Cup|League Cup]] run that took Watford to the semi-finals and [[Anfield]], where they lost to [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] 1–0 in each leg. But however, During the [[2005–06 in English football|2005–06]] campaign, under new manager [[Adrian Boothroyd]], Doyley made the most appearances of any outfield player, playing a crucial part in Watford finishing third in the league and qualifying for the play-offs. He played in both legs of the play-off semi-final and the final, where Watford beat [[Leeds United A.F.C.|Leeds United]] to reach the [[Premier League]]. During Watford's season in the top flight, he scored an own-goal for [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] in a 4–0 defeat.<ref name=bbc_manutdwatford0607>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/6309659.stm|title=Man Utd 4–0 Watford|publisher=bbc.co.uk|accessdate=7 August 2010 | date=31 January 2007}}</ref>

During the [[2008–09 in English football|2008–09]] season he captained Watford in the League Cup wins over [[Bristol Rovers F.C.|Bristol Rovers]] and [[Darlington F.C.|Darlington]].

Former manager [[Adrian Boothroyd|Aidy Boothroyd]] referred to Doyley as 'The Black Zidane'.<ref>http://www.goal.com/en/news/1586/championship/2008/08/26/834960/boothroyd-i-shouldnt-have-called-doyley-black-zidane</ref> Fans regularly refer to Doyley as 'Lloydinho'.<ref>http://www.mirrorfootball.co.uk/opinion/columnists/mike-walters/Wally-meets-Watford-defender-and-new-goal-hero-Lloyd-Doyley-article253387.html</ref> Both nicknames are plays on players [[Ronaldinho]] & [[Zinedine Zidane]], both famed for being greats of the sport.

====Goal====
Doyley's first goal was scored on his 269th appearance for the club, on 7 December 2009 at Vicarage Road, against [[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|QPR]], over eight years after his first team début.<ref name=bbc_watfordqpr0910>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng_div_1/8389205.stm|title=Watford 3–1 QPR|publisher=bbc.co.uk|accessdate=9 December 2009 | date=7 December 2009}}</ref> It had become a long-running joke with Watford fans as to whether Doyley would ever score for [[Watford F.C.|Watford]],<ref name=bhapppy200904>{{cite web|url=http://bhappy.wordpress.com/2009/04/|title=Watford 0 Birmingham City 1 (18/04/2009)|publisher=bhappy.wordpress.com|accessdate=9 December 2009}}</ref><ref name=wo_watfordqpr0910>{{cite web|url=http://www.watfordobserver.co.uk/sport/watfordfc/watfordfcnews/4782045.Doyley_finally_achieves_dream_goal_as_Watford_win_derby/|title=Doyley finally achieves dream goal as Watford win derby|publisher=watfordobserver.co.uk|accessdate=9 December 2009}}</ref> afterwards Doyley said: "I always knew it was going to happen but it took a bit longer than I thought".

The goal was from 10 yards and was a diving header off the end of [[Don Cowie (footballer)|Don Cowie]]'s pinpoint volleyed cross from the right.

==Career statistics==
''Statistics correct {{As of|2011|6|20|df=y|lc=on}}.''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Season
!rowspan="2"|Division
!colspan="2"|League
!colspan="2"|[[FA Cup]]
!colspan="2"|[[Football League Cup|League Cup]]
!colspan="2"|Other<ref group=nb>Includes games in [[Football League Championship play-offs]]</ref>
!colspan="2"|Total
|-
!Apps
!Goals
!Apps
!Goals
!Apps
!Goals
!Apps
!Goals
!Apps
!Goals
|-
|rowspan="10"|[[Watford F.C.|Watford]]
|[[2001–02 in English football|2001–02]]
|rowspan="3"|[[Football League First Division|First Division]]
|20||0||0||0||1||0||0||0
!21!!0
|-
|[[2002–03 in English football|2002–03]]
|22||0||1||0||1||0||0||0
!24!!0
|-
|[[2003–04 in English football|2003–04]]
|9||0||1||0||2||0||0||0
!12!!0
|-
|[[2004–05 Football League Championship|2004–05]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Football League Championship|Championship]]
|29||0||0||0||4||0||0||0
!33!!0
|-
|[[2005–06 Football League Championship|2005–06]]
|44||0||1||0||2||0||3||0
!50!!0
|-
|[[Premier League 2006–07|2006–07]]
|[[Premier League]]
|21||0||2||0||2||0||0||0
!25!!0
|-
|[[2007–08 Football League Championship|2007–08]]
|rowspan="4"|[[Football League Championship|Championship]]
|36||0||2||0||0||0||1||0
!39!!0
|-
|[[2008–09 Football League Championship|2008–09]]
|37||0||2||0||4||0||0||0
!43!!0
|-
|[[2009–10 Football League Championship|2009–10]]
|44||1||1||0||2||0||0||0
!47!!1
|-
|[[2010–11 Football League Championship|2010–11]]
|36||0||2||0||2||0||0||0
!40!!0
|-
!colspan="3"|Career total
!298!!1!!12!!0!!20!!0!!4!!0!!334!!1
|}

==Honours==
===Club===
;Watford
*[[Football League Championship play-offs]] (1) : [[2006 Football League Championship play-off Final|2005–06]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{soccerbase|id=26827|name=Lloyd Doyley}}
*[http://www.watfordfc.premiumtv.co.uk/page/ProfilesDetail/0,,10400~11667,00.html Lloyd Doyley profile] at the Watford website

{{Watford F.C. squad}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2011}}


{{Persondata
|NAME=Doyley, Lloyd Colin
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Doyley, Lloyd
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Association footballer
|DATE OF BIRTH=1 December 1982
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Whitechapel]], [[London]], England
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Doyley, Lloyd}}
[[Category:1982 births]]
[[Category:People from Whitechapel]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:English footballers]]
[[Category:Association football defenders]]
[[Category:Watford F.C. players]]
[[Category:Premier League players]]
[[Category:The Football League players]]
[[Category:Black British sportspeople]]

[[fr:Lloyd Doyley]]
[[it:Lloyd Doyley]]

A. Bartlett Giamatti

2011-07-14T12:45:23Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted 3 edits by 174.254.84.61 (talk). (TW)

{{Infobox person
| name = Angelo Bartlett Giamatti
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1938|4|4|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1989|9|1|1938|4|4|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| known_for = President of [[Yale University]] (1978–1986) [[National League]] President (1986–1989) [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] Commissioner (April 1, 1989–September 1, 1989)
| spouse = [http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/university-news/2004/09/23/former-first-lady-of-yale-passes-away/ Toni Smith]
| parents = Valentine John Giamatti (father) Mary Claybaugh Walton (mother)
| children = [[Paul Giamatti]] [[Marcus Giamatti]] Elena Giamatti
}}

'''Angelo Bartlett "Bart" Giamatti''' ({{IPA-en|dʒiːəˈmɑːti|pron}}; April 4, 1938–September 1, 1989) was the President of [[Yale University]], and later, the seventh [[Commissioner of Baseball (MLB)#Commissioners|Commissioner of Major League Baseball]]. Giamatti agreed to the deal that terminated the [[Major League Baseball Scandals#1980s Pete Rose betting scandal|Pete Rose betting scandal]] by permitting Rose to voluntarily withdraw from the sport, avoiding further punishment.

==Personal life==
Giamatti was born in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] and grew up in [[South Hadley, Massachusetts]]. His father, Valentine John Giamatti, was chairman of the Department of Italian Language and Literature at [[Mount Holyoke College]]. His mother, Mary Claybaugh Walton ([[Smith College]] '35), was the daughter of Bartlett and Helen (Davidson) Walton of [[Wakefield, Massachusetts]]. His maternal grandfather graduated from [[Phillips Academy|Phillips Academy Andover]] and [[Harvard College]]. His paternal grandfather, Angelo Giammattei [''sic''], immigrated from [[Naples, Italy]] through [[Ellis Island]] around 1900.

Giamatti attended South Hadley High School, spent his junior year at the Overseas School of Rome, and graduated from [[Phillips Academy]] in 1956. At [[Yale University]], he was a member of [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] (Phi chapter), and as a junior was tapped by [[Scroll and Key]], a senior secret society. He graduated ''[[magna cum laude]]'' in 1960. That same year, he married Toni Marilyn Smith, who taught English for more than 20 years at the [[Hopkins School]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]] until her death in 2004.<ref>Ward, Patrick D. [http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/university-news/2004/09/23/former-first-lady-of-yale-passes-away/ "Former first lady of Yale passes away,"] ''Yale Daily News.'' September 23, 2004.</ref> Together the couple have three children: sons [[Paul Giamatti|Paul]] and [[Marcus Giamatti|Marcus]] are Hollywood actors, and daughter Elena is a jewelry designer. In the film ''[[Sideways]]'', a photograph of the character Miles Raymond (portrayed by his son Paul) with his late father is really a picture of Paul and Bart Giamatti.

Giamatti's friend and successor as Baseball Commissioner, [[Fay Vincent]], wrote in ''The Last Commissioner'' that Giamatti's official religious view was [[agnosticism]].

==Yale==
Giamatti stayed in New Haven to receive his doctorate in 1964, when he also co-edited a volume of essays by Thomas Bergin with a Philosophy graduate student, [[T. K. Seung]]. He became a professor of Comparative Literature at Yale University, an author, and master of [[Ezra Stiles College]] at Yale, a post to which he was appointed by his predecessor as Yale president, [[Kingman Brewster, Jr.]]. Giamatti spent a brief period teaching at [[Princeton University|Princeton]], but was at Yale for most of his academic life. Giamatti's scholarly work focused on [[English Renaissance]] literature, particularly [[Edmund Spenser]], and relationships between English and [[Italian Renaissance]] poets. His work on the genre of [[pastoral]] and on the influence of [[Ludovico Ariosto]] in England remains influential.

As a teacher of undergraduates, he was well known, and rejected the conventional wisdom that the Renaissance represented an abrupt cultural change, stressing the continuities between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. He sometimes referred to the Protestant Reformation as the "Protestant Deformation."

When Giamatti's tenure as Stiles master ended in 1972, he was so popular that his students wanted to honor him with a present. Giamatti told them he wanted a joke gift and they got him a moosehead (from a yard sale), which was ceremoniously hung in the dining hall.

Giamatti served as president of Yale University from 1978 to 1986. He was the youngest president of the university in its history, and presided over the university during a bitter strike by its [[Federation of Hospital and University Employees|clerical and technical workers]] in 1984-85. As university president, he refused student, faculty, and community demands to [[Disinvestment from South Africa|divest]] from [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]]. He also served on the Board of Trustees of [[Mount Holyoke College]] for many years, participating fully despite his Yale and baseball commitments. Giamatti was elected a Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1980.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter G|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterG.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=7 April 2011}}</ref>

==Baseball==
Giamatti had a lifelong interest in baseball (he was a die-hard [[Boston Red Sox]] fan). In 1978, when he was first rumored to be a candidate for the presidency of Yale, he had deflected questions by observing that "The only thing I ever wanted to be President of was the [[American League]]." 1 He became President of the [[National League]] in {{by|1986}}, and later Commissioner of Baseball in {{by|1989}}. During his stint as National League president, Giamatti placed an emphasis on the need to improve the environment for the fan in the ballparks. He also decided to make umpires strictly enforce the [[balk]] rule, and supported "social justice" as the only remedy for the lack of presence of minority managers, coaches, or executives at any level in Major League Baseball.

While still serving as National League president, Giamatti suspended [[Pete Rose]] for 30 games after Rose shoved umpire [[Dave Pallone]] on April 30, 1988. Later that year, Giamatti also suspended [[1988 Los Angeles Dodgers season|Los Angeles Dodgers]] pitcher [[Jay Howell]], who was caught using [[pine tar]] during the [[1988 National League Championship Series|National League Championship Series]].

Giamatti, whose tough dealing with Yale's union favorably impressed Major League Baseball owners, was unanimously elected to succeed [[Peter Ueberroth]] as commissioner on September 8, {{by|1988}}.<ref>[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/mlb/comish/giamatti.html Sports Encyclopedia]</ref> Giamatti was commissioner on August 24, {{by|1989}} when Pete Rose voluntarily agreed to permanent ineligibility from baseball.<ref>[http://www.baseball-almanac.com/players/p_rosea.shtml Rose agreement]</ref> As reflected in the agreement with Pete Rose, Giamatti was determined to maintain the integrity of the game during his brief commissionership.
{{see also|Dowd Report}}

==Death==
While at his vacation home on [[Martha's Vineyard]], Giamatti, a heavy [[tobacco smoking|smoker]] for many years, died suddenly of a massive [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 51, just eight days after banishing Rose and 154 days into his tenure as commissioner.<ref>[http://thedeadballera.com/Obits/Giamatti.Bart.Obit01.html ''New York Times'' obituary]</ref> He became the second baseball commissioner to die in office, the first being [[Kenesaw Mountain Landis]]. Baseball's owners soon selected [[Fay Vincent]], Giamatti's close friend and baseball's first-ever deputy commissioner, as the new commissioner.

On October 14, 1989, before Game 1 at the [[1989 World Series|World Series]], Giamatti—to whom this World Series was dedicated—was memorialized with a [[moment of silence]]. Son [[Marcus Giamatti]] threw out the first pitch before the game. Also before Game One, the [[Yale Whiffenpoofs]] sang the national anthem, a blend of [[The Star-Spangled Banner]] with [[America the Beautiful]] that has been since repeated by other a-capella groups.

[[James Reston, Jr.]] notes in his book ''Collision at Home Plate: The Lives of Pete Rose and Bart Giamatti'' that Giamatti suffered from [[Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease]], an inherited neuromuscular disease affecting peripheral nerves.

==Works==
* ''Master Pieces from the Files of T.G.B.'', ed. Thomas K. Swing and A. Bartlett Giamatti (1964).
* ''The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic'' (1966)
* ''Play of Double Senses: Spenser’s Faerie Queene'' (1975)
* ''The University and the Public Interest'' (1981)
* ''Exile and Change in Renaissance Literature'' (1984)
* ''Take Time for Paradise: Americans and their Games'' (1989)
* ''A Free and Ordered Space: The Real World of the University'' (1990)
* ''A Great and Glorious Game: Baseball Writings of A. Bartlett Giamatti'' (ed. Kenneth Robson, 1998)

==See also==
{{see also|Ivy League Presidents}}

==Further reading==
* Kelley, Brooks Mather. (1999). [http://books.google.com/books?id=B2aDRhohtx8C&client=firefox-a ''Yale: A History.''] New Haven: [[Yale University Press]]. 10-ISBN 0-300-07843-9: 13-ISBN 978-0-300-07843-5; [http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/810552 OCLC 810552]
* Reston, James. (1991). ''Collision at Home Plate: The Lives of Pete Rose and Bart Giamatti.''
* Valerio, Anthony. (1991). ''A Life of A. Bartlett Giamatti: By Him and About Him.''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://mason.gmu.edu/~rmatz/giamatti.html "The Green Fields of the Mind"], excerpt from ''A Great and Glorious Game''
* [http://www.baseballlibrary.com/baseballlibrary/ballplayers/G/Giamatti_Bart.stm BaseballLibrary] - profile and events
* [http://www.quotes-museum.com/author/A.%20Bartlett%20Giamatti/2352 A. Bartlett Giamatti Quotations]
* [http://www.inhistoric.com/2008/06/8241989-banned-for-life.html 8/24/1989 - Rose banned for life]

{{s-start}}
{{s-aca}}
{{succession box | before=[[Hanna Holborn Gray]], ''acting'' | title=[[University President|President]] of [[Yale University]] | years=1977–1986 | after=[[Benno C. Schmidt, Jr.]]}}
{{s-sports}}
{{succession box | title=[[National League|National League president]] | before=[[Chub Feeney]] | years=1986–1989 | after=[[Bill White (first baseman)|Bill White]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Peter Ueberroth]]| title=[[Baseball Commissioner|Commissioner of Baseball]] | years=1989 | after=[[Fay Vincent]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Baseball Commissioners}}
{{Presidents of Yale University}}
{{Italian American Sports Hall of Fame}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Giamatti, A. Bartlett
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = April 4, 1938
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| DATE OF DEATH = September 1, 1989
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Giamatti, A. Bartlett}}
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:American agnostics]]
[[Category:American people of English descent]]
[[Category:American people of Italian descent]]
[[Category:American people of English descent]]
[[Category:Baseball commissioners]]
[[Category:Burials at Grove Street Cemetery]]
[[Category:Cardiovascular disease deaths in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:People from Boston, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:People from Hampshire County, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Phillips Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Presidents of Yale University]]
[[Category:Scroll and Key]]
[[Category:Yale University alumni]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:National League presidents]]

[[fr:Bartlett Giamatti]]
[[ja:A・バートレット・ジアマッティ]]

Granville T. Woods

2011-07-07T10:45:33Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted good faith edits by 71.197.56.217 (talk): Unsourced. (TW)

{{Infobox Person
|name=Granville T. Woods
|image=Woodsgr.jpg
|image_size=
|caption=Illustration of Granville T. Woods
|birth_name=Granville T. Woods
|birth_date={{birth date|1856|4|23}}
|birth_place=[[Columbus, Ohio]] United States
|death_date={{death date and age|1910|1|30|1856|4|23}}
|death_place=[[New York City, New York]]
|death_cause=[[Stroke]]
|resting_place=St. Michael's Cemetery, Queens, New York
|resting_place_coordinates=
|residence=201 West Third Street, Columbus, Ohio
|nationality=[[United States|American]]
|education=Elementary School
|employer=
|occupation=[[Inventor]]
|home_town=[[Columbus, Ohio]]
|title=
|salary=
|networth=
|term=
|predecessor=
|successor=
|party=
|boards=
|religion=
|spouse=Loretta Woods
|partner=
|children=Jake Woods
|parents=Tailer and Martha Woods
|relatives=
|signature=
|website=
|footnotes=
}}
'''Granville T. Woods''' (April 23, 1856 – January 30, 1910), was an [[African-American]] inventor who held more than 60 patents. Most of his work was on [[train]]s and [[street car]]s. Woods also invented the ''Multiplex Telegraph'', a device that sent messages between train stations and moving trains. Born in Columbus, Ohio, on April 23, 1856, Granville T. Woods dedicated his life to developing a variety of inventions relating to the railroad industry.



==Early life==
Granville T. Woods literally learned his skills on the job. Attending school in Columbus until age 10, he served an apprenticeship in a machine shop and learned the trades of machinist and blacksmith. During his youth he also went to night school and took private lessons. Although he had to leave formal school at age ten, Woods realized that learning and education were essential to developing critical skills that would allow him to express his creativity with machinery.
In 1872, Woods obtained a job as a fireman on the Danville and Southern Railroad in Nebraska, eventually becoming an engineer. He invested his spare time in studying electronics. In 1874, he moved to [[Springfield, Illinois]], and worked in a rolling mill. In 1878, he took a job aboard the Ironsides, a British steamer, and, within two years, became Chief Engineer of the steamer. Finally, his travels and experiences led him to settle in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], where he became a person dedicated to modernizing the railroad.

==Inventions==
Woods developed several improvements to the railroad system, and was referred to by some as the "Black Edison."

In 1885, Woods patented an apparatus which was a combination of a [[telephone]] and a [[telegraph]]. The device, which he called "telegraphony", would allow a telegraph station to send voice and telegraph messages over a single wire. He sold the rights to this device to the American Bell Telephone Company. In 1887, he patented the Synchronous Multiplex Railway Telegraph, which allowed communications between train stations from moving trains. [[Thomas Edison]] later filled a claim to the ownership of this patent. In 1888, Woods manufactured a system of overhead electric conducting lines for railroads modeled after the system pioneered by [[Charles van Depoele]], a famed inventor who had by then installed his electric railway system in thirteen U.S. cities. In 1889, he filed a patent for an improvement to the steam-boiler furnace.

Woods is sometimes credited with the invention of the electric [[third rail]], however, many third rail systems were in place in both Europe and North America at the time Woods filed for his patent in 1901. [[Thomas Edison]] had been awarded a patent for the third rail almost a decade earlier, in 1882.<ref>http://www.google.com/patents?vid=263132</ref>

By the time of his death in 1910, Woods had made a successful career as an engineer and inventor.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://web.mit.edu/INVENT/iow/woods.html MIT Inventor of the Week archive]
*{{cite book
|title=Black Inventors in the Age of Segregation: Granville T. Woods, Lewis H. Latimer, and Shelby J. Davidson
|author=Rayvon Fouche
|date=2003-09-10
|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press
|isbn=0801873193
|url=http://www.amazon.com/dp/0801873193
}}
*[http://www.blackinventor.com/pages/granvillewoods.html www.blackinventor.com -- Granville Woods]
*[http://www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/history_center/biography/woods.html Biography of Woods from IEEE]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Woods, Granville
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = April 23, 1856
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Melbourne, Australia]]
| DATE OF DEATH = January 30, 1910
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[New York]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Woods, Granville}}
[[Category:1856 births]]
[[Category:1910 deaths]]
[[Category:National Inventors Hall of Fame inductees]]
[[Category:People from Cincinnati, Ohio]]
[[Category:People from Columbus, Ohio]]
[[Category:American inventors]]
[[Category:African-American inventors]]

[[ar:جرانفيل وودز]]
[[fr:Granville Woods]]
[[pt:Granville Woods]]
[[tl:Granville Woods]]

Virginia DeMarce

2011-07-04T16:58:21Z

GcSwRhIc: rm Dr. per WP:CREDENTIAL

'''Virginia Easley DeMarce''' (born 28 November 1940) is a historian who specializes in [[early modern Europe]]an history, as well as a prominent author in the [[1632 series]] [[collaborative fiction]] project. She has done prominent genealogical work on the origins of the [[Melungeon]] peoples.

==Biography==
DeMarce received her Ph.D. in early modern European history from [[Stanford University]] in 1967, with a dissertation in German administrative history during the time of the 1525 [[Peasant War]]. She taught at the college level for fifteen years, at [[Northwest Missouri State University]] and [[George Mason University]] and published a book on German military settlers in Canada after the American Revolution.

In 1988-89 she served as president of the National Genealogical Society, an interest she came to professionally in social history and demographic history tracing small group migrations.<ref>Shirley Langdon Wilcox, "[http://www.ngsgenealogy.org/history_of_ngs_4.0.pdf The National Genealogical Society: A Look at Its First One Hundred Years]", 31 October 2003 (accessed 14 November 2007).</ref> After several years on the staff of the National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers, she took a position with the Office of Federal Acknowledgment, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior,<ref>Sam Libby, "[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9400E4DD163EF933A1575BC0A9669C8B63&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/Organizations/B/Bureau%20of%20Indian%20Affairs U.S. Officials Questioned Over Tribal Recognition]", ''The New York Times'', 20 August 2000 (accessed 14 November 2007).</ref> from which she retired in 2004.

DeMarce continues to live in [[Arlington, Virginia]] where she lived with her husband of 43 years (deceased in 2010), who was Director of Coal Mine Workers Compensation Programs at the U.S. Department of Labor. They have three grown children and five grandchildren.

==Published works==
In addition to scholarly work on Early Modern Europe, genealogy, ''The Melungeons'', and bibliographic work in early US history, DeMarce has written or co-authored a number of formative short stories and novels in the [[1632 series]] [[collaborative fiction]] project. She is one of the principal controlling parties of the collaboration, and a member of the 1632 Editorial Board. In these positions, she helps select likely stories for the project and manages the 1632 canon, common shared resources, and integration between authors.

She began writing fiction upon the request of participants in the [[1632 Tech]] forum at [[Baen's Bar]], where she had contributed technical input and assistance. Her first fiction contribution to the project was the short story "Biting Time", which she wrote with great reluctance under much pressure.

===Short fiction===
* "Biting Time" in ''[[The Ring of Fire]]'' — a short story featuring Veronica Richter, grandmother of Gretchen and Hans Richter, two important characters in ''[[1632 (novel)|1632]]''. It details both her courtship to Grantville's mayor as well as the founding of the first of her "Academies", reactions against the lack of corporal punishment in up-timer discipline.
* ''The Rudolstadt Colloquy'' in ''[[Grantville Gazette I]]'' — a short story dealing with a religious crisis among Lutherans caused by news of Grantville and the information in its history books. The events of the story are mentioned in several of the novels, establishing it as deep background for the works as a whole.
* ''Pastor Kastenmayer’s Revenge'' in ''[[Grantville Gazette III]]''— The good pastor escapes from a small village leading women and children whilst most of the villages men and boys perish fighting a delaying action against [[List of 1632 characters#Tilly, Count|Count Tilly]]'s rampaging mercenaries. In [[Grantville (1632 series)|Grantville]], his oldest daughter gets swept off her feet by a handsome up-timer and marries a few days later without permission. With the help of a formidable widow, the pastor plots a fitting revenge and founds a fifth-column that seeks to not only trap eligible bachelors into marriage to his doweryless flocks daughters, but to convert the scoundrels into becoming stalwart Lutherans. The tale is loosely modeled on the Seven Daughters for Seven Sons, at least in numbers, and every couple has their story that spans the time line from 1631 to early 1635.
* ''Til We Meet Again'' in ''Grantville Gazette IV'' — a widowed up-timer responds to her husband's death by joining the faculty in the newly-established women's college in [[Quedlinburg]].

===Long fiction===
* ''[[1634: The Ram Rebellion]]'' with Eric Flint and Paula Goodlett — a collection of short fiction with an overarching theme and direction, culminating with two long contributions written by DeMarce and Flint. It focuses on the conquered territories in [[Franconia]] under the administration of the New United States led by [[Grantville, West Virginia]].
* ''[[1634: The Bavarian Crisis]]'' with Eric Flint — a traditional novel and sequel to Flint's novella ''The Wallenstein Gambit'' in the [[Ring of Fire (anthology)|''Ring of Fire'' anthology]] as well as ''[[1634: The Galileo Affair]]'' and ''[[1634: The Baltic War]]''. Although the first draft of ''The Bavarian Crisis'' was completed in 2005, its release was delayed until after ''The Baltic War'' was published in 2007.
* ''[[1635: The Dreeson Incident]]'' with Eric Flint — the sequel to [[1634: The Bavarian Crisis]], published in December 2008.
* ''[[1635: The Tangled Web]]'' - standalone novel, published in December 2009.

===Genealogical and historical research===
*DeMarce, Virginia E. (1992). "Verry Slitly Mixt': Tri-Racial Isolate Families of the Upper South - A Genealogical Study." ''National Genealogical Society Quarterly'' 80 (March 1992): 5-35.
*DeMarce, Virginia E. (1993). "Looking at Legends - Lumbee and Melungeon: Applied Genealogy and the Origins of Tri-Racial Isolate Settlements." ''National Genealogical Society Quarterly'' 81 (March 1993): 24-45.
*DeMarce, Virginia E. (1996). Review of ''The Melungeons: Resurrection of a Proud People''. ''National Genealogical Society Quarterly'' 84 (June 1996): 134-149.
*Demarce, Virginia Easley (1984) The Settlement of Former German Auxiliary Troops in Canada After the American Revolution Publisher: Lost in Canada ISBN 978-0916849023

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Demarce, Virginia
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 28 November 1940
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Demarce, Virginia}}
[[Category:1940 births]]
[[Category:American short story writers]]
[[Category:American genealogists]]
[[Category:American historians]]
[[Category:Historians of Europe]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]

Johnny Whitworth

2011-07-02T15:45:46Z

GcSwRhIc: removed Category:Actors in Marvel comic book films using HotCat deleted category

{{Infobox person
|image =
|image_size =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1975|10|31|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Charleston, South Carolina]]
}}
'''Johnny Whitworth''' (born October 31, 1975) is an American actor.

His early years were spent in his birth place of [[Charleston, South Carolina]], with his mother. When he grew older, he moved to Dallas, Texas with his father (his parents are divorced). At age 15/16 in 1991, he won the 1st Young and Modern Man Contest. Shortly after, he moved to Los Angeles with his mother and at the age of 18 started his acting career with a guest appearance on ''[[Party of Five]]'' in 1994. His debut in movies was with ''[[Bye Bye Love (film)|Bye Bye Love]]'' in 1995. That same year, he played A.J. in the film ''[[Empire Records]]''. The movie became a cult classic.

He quit acting after his first few movies, but then made a comeback in 1997s ''[[The Rainmaker (1997 film)|The Rainmaker]]''. He currently has a recurring role on the CBS crime drama [[CSI: Miami]], where he plays bad-boy Detective Jake Berkeley, a love interest of [[Calleigh Duquesne]]. The storyline is swiftly making Whitworth's character a controversial one, as his competition for Calleigh is long-time CSI agent [[Eric Delko]]. Since the end of Season 5 and throughout Season 6, Jake was no longer an ATF agent but a Miami-Dade homicide detective working with the CSIs. Season 7 sees Whitworth return in the first episode, with a promise of more to come.

In 2007, he appeared in the film ''[[3:10 to Yuma (2007 film) |3:10 to Yuma]]'', starring [[Christian Bale]] and [[Russell Crowe]], and in 2009, co-starred in ''[[Gamer (film)|Gamer]]'' with [[Gerard Butler]].

He appeared in the films ''[[Valediction (film)|Locked in]]'', ''[[Valley of the Sun (2010 film)| Valley of the Sun]]'', and [[Neil Burger]]'s ''[[Limitless (film)|Limitless]]''. He also will be playing the villain [[Blackout (comics)| Blackout]] in the 2012 sequel and reboot ''[[Ghost Rider: Spirit of Vengeance]]''.

==External links==
*{{imdb name|926615}}
*http://www.johnnywhitworth.com

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Whitworth, Johnny
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =October 31, 1975
| PLACE OF BIRTH =[[Charleston, South Carolina]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Whitworth, Johnny}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Actors from South Carolina]]
[[Category:American film actors]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{US-film-actor-1970s-stub}}

[[pl:Johnny Whitworth]]
[[pt:Johnny Whitworth]]

Seweryn Bialer

2011-06-25T20:13:27Z

GcSwRhIc: AAAS Fellow with ref, birthplace out of lead, fix italics

'''Seweryn Bialer''' (born November 3, 1926) is an emeritus professor of political science at [[Columbia University]] and an expert on the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist parties of the Soviet Union]] and [[Polish United Workers' Party|Poland]]. He was the Director of Columbia's Research Institute on International Change.

==Biography==
Born in in [[Berlin]], Germany, Bialer joined the [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|underground anti-fascist movement]] in [[Łódź|Lodz, Poland]] in 1942. Between February 1944 and May 1945 he was a prisoner in the [[Auschwitz concentration camp]].

From May 1945 to June 1951 he was member of the Polish communist police force ([[Milicja Obywatelska]]). He also held various positions in the Polish Communist Party ([[Polish United Workers' Party|PZPR]]). He was a political officer of the State Police in Warsaw and a member of the [[Central Committee]] of the Polish Worker's Party. Subsequently, beginning in June 1951, he became a Professor at the Institute of Sociology and political editor of the newspaper ''[[Trybuna Ludu]]''. He was also a researcher in economics at the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]]. During this time he authored several political science textbooks.<ref>[http://www.osaarchivum.org/db/fa/300-50-22.htm Open Society Archives website]</ref>

In January, 1956 Bialer defected to West Berlin and gave an almost one-year long interview for [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|RFE/RL]] in New York, which was broadcast to Poland by the Radio in the same year.

He moved to New York, eventually receiving a Ph.D. in political science from Columbia. He was appointed Robert and Renee Belfer Professor of Political Science. In 1983 he was awarded a prestigious [[MacArthur Fellows Program|MacArthur Fellowship]]. He was elected a Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1984.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=June 25, 2011}}</ref>

In May 1981, after President Reagan at Notre Dame University dismissed
communism as “a sad, bizarre chapter in human history whose last pages
are even now being written,” Bialer confidently contradicted
Reagan in Foreign Affairs: “The Soviet Union is not now nor will
it be during the next decade in the throes of a true systemic crisis, for it
boasts enormous unused reserves of political and social stability that
suffice to endure the deepest difficulties.” The Soviet Union collapsed 8
years later. [source: David Ramsey Steele, From Marx to Mises (1992)]

==Selected works==
===Books===
*''The Domestic Context of Soviet Foreign Policy'' (ed., 1981)
*''Stalin's Successors: Leadership, Stability and Change in the Soviet Union'' (1982)
*''Soviet Paradox: External Expansion, Internal Decline'' (1986)
*''Gorbachev's Russia and American Foreign Policy'' (ed. with [[Michael Mandelbaum]], 1988)
*''Stalin and His Generals: Soviet Military Memoirs of World War II'' (ed.) (1983)
===Essay===
* ''Domestic and International Factors in the Formation of Gorbachev's Reforms'', in: [[Alexander Dallin]]/Gail W. Lapidus (eds.): The Soviet System. From Crisis to Collapse, 2nd revised edition; Westview Press, Boulder/San Francisco/Oxford 1995 ISBN 0-8133-1876-9

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Bialer, Seweryn
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bialer, Seweryn}}
[[Category:American political scientists]]
[[Category:MacArthur Fellows]]
[[Category:American people of Polish descent]]
[[Category:1926 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]

[[pl:Seweryn Bialer]]

Catherine Dulac

2011-06-18T23:11:25Z

GcSwRhIc: fix link

{{Infobox scientist
|image = Replace this image female.svg 
|image_width = 150px |
|name =
|box_width =
|birth_date =
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|death_date =
|death_place =
|residence =
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|nationality =
|ethnicity =
|field =
|work_institutions =
|alma_mater = [[University of Paris]]
|doctoral_advisor =
|doctoral_students =
|known_for = mammalian [[pheromone]]s
|author_abbrev_bot =
|author_abbrev_zoo =
|influences =
|influenced =
|prizes = [[Richard Lounsbery Award]]
|religion =
|footnotes =
|signature =
}}

'''Catherine Dulac''' is a biologist notable for research on the molecular biology of [[olfactory]] signaling in [[mammal]]s, particularly including [[pheromones]]. She developed a novel screening strategy based on screening [[cDNA]] libraries from single [[neuron]]s and a new method of cloning genes from single neurons. As a postdoc, Dulac discovered the first family of mammalian pheromone receptors with Nobel laureate [[Richard Axel]]. Dulac is an [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute|Howard Hughes Medical Investigator]] at [[Harvard University]]'s Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology.

==Biography==
Dulac grew up in [[Montpellier, France]], and graduated from the École Normale Supérieure de la rue d'Ulm, Paris, and earned a Ph.D. in [[developmental biology]] from the [[University of Paris]] in 1992. She worked with [[Nicole Le Douarin]] on developmental mechanisms, and did a postdoc with [[Richard Axel]] at [[Columbia University]] where she identified the first genes encoding mammalian pheromone receptors.

Dulac joined the faculty of [[Harvard University|Harvard]] in 1996,<ref name="HarvardMag-2005">[http://harvardmagazine.com/2005/09/catherine-dulac.html "Harvard Portrait: Catherine Dulac"], ''Harvard Magazine'', Sept. - Oct. 2005.</ref> and was promoted to associate professor in 2000 and full professor in 2001. She is currently an investigator at the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]].

==Publications==
===Notable papers===
* Kimchi T., Xu, J., and Dulac, C. "A Functional Circuit Underlying Male Sexual Behaviour in the Female Mouse Brain," ''Nature'', v.448, pp. 1009–1014 (2007).
* Tietjen I, Rihel JM, Cao Y, Koentges G, Zakhary L, Dulac C. "Single-cell transcriptional analysis of neuronal progenitors.", ''Neuron'', v.38, pp. 161-75 (2003).
* Pantages, E., and Dulac, C. "A New Family of Candidate Pheromone Receptors in Mammals," ''Neuron'', v.28, pp. 835–845 (2000).
* Liman, E., Corey, D., and Dulac, C. "TRP2: A Candidate Transduction Channel for Mammalian Pheromone Sensory Signaling", ''PNAS'', v.96, pp. 5791–5796 (1999).
* Belluscio, L., Koentges, G., [[Richard Axel|Axel, R.]], and Dulac, C., "A Map of Pheromone Receptor Activation in the Mammalian Brain," ''Cell'', v.97, pp. 209–220 (1999).
* Dulac C. and [[Richard Axel|Axel R.]], "A Novel Family of Genes Encoding Putative Pheromone Receptors in Mammals," ''Cell'', v.83, pp. 195–206 (1995).

===Other===
* Dulac, C. "Sex and the Single Splice," ''Cell'', v.121, pp. 664–666 (2005).
* Dulac, C. and Grothe, B. "Editorial: Sensory Systems." ''Current Opinion in Neurobiology'', v.14, pp. 403–406 (2004).
* Dulac, C. and Torello, A.T., ''Review'', "Molecular Detection of Pheromone Signals in Mammals: From Genes to Behaviour." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'', v. 4, pp. 1–13 (2003)
* Dulac, C. "The Physiology of Taste, Vintage 2000", ''Cell'', v.100, pp. 607–610 (2000).

==Awards & Honors==
* 1998 [[Searle Scholar]]
* 2006 [[Richard Lounsbery Award]]
* 2006 Elected Member, [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]<ref name="MCBNews">J. W. Hastings, [http://www.mcb.harvard.edu/NewsEvents/News/Dulac.html "Catherine Dulac Elected to Membership in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences"], Harvard University MCB News.</ref>
* Scientific Advisory Board, Senomyx

==Further reading & External links==
* [http://www.techtransfer.harvard.edu/crop/investigators/investigator.php?id=111 Research Summary & Profile], Harvard University
* [http://www.mcb.harvard.edu/Faculty/Dulac.html Faculty Profile], Harvard University
* [http://www.hhmi.org/research/investigators/dulac.html HHMI profile]
* [http://www.hhmi.org/news/dulac.html "Pheromones Control Gender Recognition in Mice"], Jan. 31, 2002 (HHMI Research News)
* [http://harvardmagazine.com/2005/09/catherine-dulac.html "Harvard Portrait: Catherine Dulac"],
* "Making the Paper: Catherine Dulac", ''Nature'', v.448 (Aug. 30, 2007).

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Dulac, Catherine
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dulac, Catherine}}
[[Category:American biologists]]
[[Category:Howard Hughes Medical Investigators]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:University of Paris alumni]]
[[Category:Columbia University people]]
[[Category:Harvard University faculty]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{US-biologist-stub}}

Fred Basolo

2011-05-20T18:45:07Z

GcSwRhIc: AAAS Fellow with ref, add cats

{{Infobox_Scientist
| name = Fred Basolo
| image =
| caption = Fred Basolo
| birth_date = {{birth date|1920|2|11}}
| birth_place = [[Coello, Illinois]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2007|2|27|1920|2|11}}
| death_place =
| residence =
| nationality = [[USA|American]]
| field = [[Inorganic chemistry]]
| work_institution = [[Northwestern University]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Illinois]] phd 1943
| doctoral_advisor =
| doctoral_students = [[Harry B. Gray]]
| known_for = coining the [[Indenyl effect]]
| prizes =
| religion =
| footnotes =
}}'''Fred Basolo''' (February 11, 1920 - February 27, 2007) was an American [[inorganic chemistry|inorganic chemist]]. He received his Ph.D. at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] in 1943 with [[John C. Bailar]]. Basolo spent his entire professional career at [[Northwestern University]]. He was a prolific contributor to the fields of [[coordination chemistry]], [[organometallic chemistry|organometallic]], and [[bioinorganic chemistry]], publishing over 400 papers. He supervised many Ph.D. students. With his colleague [[Ralph Pearson]], he coauthored the influential monograph "Mechanisms of Inorganic Reactions", which illuminated the importance of mechanisms involving coordination compounds. This work, which integrated concepts from [[ligand field theory]] and [[physical organic chemistry]], signaled a shift from a highly descriptive nature of [[Complex (chemistry)|coordination chemistry]] to a more quantitative science.<ref>Basolo, F.; Pearson, R. G. "Mechanisms of Inorganic Reactions." John Wiley and Son: New York: 1967. ISBN 047105545X</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Harry Gray, John S. Magyar|title=Obituary Fred Basolo (1920-2007)|journal=[[Angewandte Chemie International Edition]]|volume=46|issue=16|pages=2746–2747|year=2007|doi=10.1002/anie.200701155 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=[[George B. Kauffman]], Laurie M. Kauffman and Harry B. Gray |title=Fred Basolo (1920–2007): A tribute from students, colleagues, and family|journal =Polyhedron|volume=26|issue=17|pages=4779–4785|year=2007|doi=10.1016/j.poly.2007.07.046 }}</ref>

Among the many topics on which Basolo published were the [[indenyl effect]], the reaction of coordinated ligands, and synthetic models for [[myoglobin]].

A member of the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]], he was awarded the [[Priestley Medal]] and the George Pimentel Award in Chemical Education. He was president of the [[American Chemical Society]] in 1983.<ref>R. Petkewich, "Fred Basolo Dies at 87", ''Chemical & Engineering News'', 5 March 2007, page 13, published by American Chemical Society</ref> The same year, he was elected a Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]].<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter B|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=May 20, 2011}}</ref>

His autobiography, ''From Coello to Inorganic Chemistry: A Lifetime of Reactions'', was published in 2002.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
.

==External links==
* http://www.cerm.unifi.it/FondSacc/basolo.html
* http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/85/i10/8510notw8.html
* http://www.chemheritage.org/exhibits/ex-oral-detail.asp?ID=91&Numb=1

{{Presidents of the American Chemical Society}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Basolo, Fred
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =American chemist
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1920-02-11
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Coello, Illinois]]
| DATE OF DEATH = 2007-02-27
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Basolo, Fred}}
[[Category:1920 births]]
[[Category:2007 deaths]]
[[Category:American chemists]]
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[[Category:Guggenheim Fellows]]
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[[Category:Priestley Medal]]
[[Category:University of Illinois at Springfield alumni]]

{{US-chemist-stub}}

[[fr:Fred Basolo]]
[[ja:フレッド・バソロ]]

Natasha Trethewey

2011-05-19T01:40:32Z

GcSwRhIc: /* External links */ rm example file

[[File:Natasha Trethewey during book signing at the University of Michigan.jpg|thumb|Natasha Trethewey during book signing at the University of Michigan]]

'''Natasha Trethewey''' (b. 1966) is an American poet, who won the 2007 [[Pulitzer Prize]] in Poetry for her 2006 collection, ''Native Guard.''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessnorthga.com/news/ap_newfullstory.asp?ID=90812|title=Emory University professor wins Pulitzer for poetry }}</ref>

Trethewey was born in [[Gulfport, Mississippi]].<ref name=sun>{{cite news|title=WEB EXTRA: Natasha Trethewey in brief|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=BX&s_site=sunherald&p_multi=BX&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=119611FED5929D10&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|accessdate=7 April 2011|newspaper=[[Sun Herald]]|date=25 May 2007}}</ref> She earned the B.A. in English from the [[University of Georgia]], an M.A. in poetry from [[Hollins University]] (Virginia), and an M.F.A. in poetry from the [[University of Massachusetts-Amherst]] (1995).<ref name=globe/> She holds the [[Phyllis Wheatley]] Distinguished Chair in Poetry at [[Emory University]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.creativewriting.emory.edu/faculty/trethewey.html|title=Natasha Trethewey's Faculty Page at Emory University}}</ref>

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book| title=Domestic Work| publisher=Graywolf Press| date=2000| isbn=9781555973094}} (Poetry)
* {{cite book| title=Bellocq's Ophelia| publisher=Graywolf Press| date=2002| isbn=9781555973599}}<ref name=globe>{{cite news|title=Memory's metaphors|accessdate=7 April 2011|newspaper=[[The Boston Globe]]|date=7 May 2007|page=A10}}</ref> (Poetry)
* {{cite book| title=Native Guard| publisher=Houghton Mifflin| date=2006| isbn=9780618872657}} (Poetry)
* {{cite book| title=Beyond Katrina: A Meditation on the Mississippi Gulf Coast| publisher=University of Georgia Press| date=2010| isbn=9780820333816}} (Poetry, essays, and letters)

==Awards==
* 2007 [[Pulitzer Prize]] for Poetry<ref name=npr>{{cite news|title=Poet Natasha Trethewey, Hymning the Native Guard|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12003278|accessdate=7 April 2011|newspaper=[[NPR]]|date=16 July 2007}}</ref>
* 2004 Fellowship from the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] for residency at the Bellagio Study Center
* 2003 Fellowship from the [[John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation]]
* 2001, 2003,<ref name=sun/> 2007 Mississippi Institute of Arts and Letters Book Prizes
* 2001, 2007 Lillian Smith Award for Poetry
* 2000 Bunting Fellowship for the [[Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study]], [[Harvard University]]
* 1999 First Annual Cave Canem Poetry Prize for ''Domestic Work'', selected by [[Rita Dove]]
* 1999 Literature Fellowship from the [[National Endowment for the Arts]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.creativewriting.emory.edu/faculty/trethewey.html Faculty bio] at Emory
*{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Pulitzer Prize Winner Trethewey Discusses Poetry Collection | date=April 25, 2007 | publisher= | url =http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/entertainment/jan-june07/trethewey_04-25.html | work =PBS Online News Hour | pages = | accessdate = | language = }}
*[http://southernspaces.org/taxonomy_vtn/term/130 Natasha Tretheway] on ''[[Southern Spaces]]''
*Trethewey reading from ''The Native Guard'' in February 2006: [http://www.blackbird.vcu.edu/v5n1/features/trethewey_n_060106/trethewey_n.htm Blackbird: An Online Journal of Literature and the Arts'', Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Volume 5, No. 1 (Spring 2006)]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Trethewey, Natasha}}
[[Category:American poets]]
[[Category:University of Massachusetts Amherst alumni]]
[[Category:University of Georgia alumni]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize for Poetry winners]]
[[Category:Hollins University alumni]]
[[Category:African American writers]]
[[Category:National Endowment for the Arts Fellows]]
[[Category:African American poets]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners]]
[[Category:Writers from Mississippi]]
[[Category:Writers from Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Guggenheim Fellows]]
[[Category:Radcliffe fellows]]
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Benutzer:Ernst aus Freiburg/Martin Dougiamas

2011-05-16T15:48:25Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted 1 edit by 200.23.48.251 (talk); Rv editing test? (TW)

{{Infobox Person
| name = Martin Dougiamas
| image = Martin Dougiamas.jpg
| website = http://www.dougiamas.com
| birth_date = August, 1969
}}

'''Martin Dougiamas''' (born August 1969), lives in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Australia]] and is an [[educator]] and [[computer scientist]] with postgraduate degrees in Computer Science and Education. His work has made a significant impact on the implementation of [[Constructivism (learning theory)|constructivist]] models of teaching and learning online with [[Moodle]], a [[Course Management System]].

His current research interests and inspiration are the application of social constructionist referents and networking to Internet technology, and the methodologies and practices of open-source software development.

== Early years ==
Martin Dougiamas' primary school education was accomplished through an early form of what is now known as “distance learning." As a boy, he lived in the desert of Western Australia. As the only non-aboriginal child in a small settlement, he was enrolled in the Kalgoorlie School of the Air, which was located approximately a thousand kilometers from his home. He communicated via shortwave radio and every few weeks an airplane would drop off the necessary paperwork. The only time he saw his classmates was when they would all gather for an annual carnival. Reflecting on this experience, Dougiamas said “You learn to ‘widen the bandwidth’ that’s available to communicate through a narrow channel.”

Dougiamas started work in 1986 on early Internet and web applications at [[Curtin University]], [[Australia]]. While helping faculty and staff use the Internet, he observed the many struggles that non-technicians had in utilizing online technology for teaching and learning. He also developed his own online course and improved its functionality over the years. When his university installed an early learning management system, called [[WebCT]], he was frustrated that the software’s intellectual property restrictions prevented him from enhancing the system. This experience convinced him of the need for an open-source solution. Throughout the process of study and research for a master’s degree and Ph.D., Dougiamas began developing the set of online tools that would become Moodle.
<ref>[http://vimeo.com/15933942 Interview with Michael Feldstein], October 17, 2010</ref>

== Research and theories ==
Dougiamas's PhD thesis is entitled "The use of Open Source software to support a social constructionist epistemology of teaching and learning within Internet-based communities of reflective inquiry".<ref>[http://dougiamas.com/thesis/ PhD Thesis]</ref> His development work on a free open source content management system originally came out of frustration with the existing commercial software that was currently in use. This led to the development of [[Moodle]]. He is still a lead developer of the [http://Moodle.org Moodle.Org] community and Executive Director of [http://moodle.com Moodle Pty Ltd].

According to the article entitle "Future" on MoodleDocs: "Martin Dougiamas has already dismissed cash offers of US$20 million for the company because he knows any such move would only damage the trust of the community and slow down growth."
<ref>[http://docs.moodle.org/en/Future]</ref>

== Influence ==
Martin is a significant proponent and keynote speaker at conferences of [[constructivism (learning theory)|constructivism]], especially in view of the clash between Internet web2.0 technologies, learning theory and ICT in the classroom. [http://www.rsc-london.ac.uk/845/] [http://www.vitta.org.au/conference/2006/] [http://moodlesydney2006.wordpress.com/] His software and findings now underpin the current models of learning on line is currently used by the [[Open University]] and many other educational institutions. His open source software has been adopted by over 40.000 sites worldwide and translated into over 70 language versions.<ref>[http://moodle.org/sites Moodle site report]</ref> Currently an advisory group member of [http://exelearning.org/ eXe International], developing free authoring applications to help teachers and academics publish web content without the need to become proficient in [[HTML]] or [[XML]] markup code.

== Patent Office claim ==
Martin successfully worked to help rally the US Patent Office to revoke a patent claim "Internet-based education support system and methods" (U.S. 6988138) submitted by Blackboard. Specifically, the patent describes an Internet system in which different access rights to various course management resources can be granted to different users. [http://biz.yahoo.com/prnews/061130/nyth100.html?.v=72]

He has been called by Brent Simpson ''"one of the rare instances in Open Source software development where the right person with the right personality appears at the exactly the right time; Martin Dougiamas is the [[Linus Torvalds]] of the LMS world and his software is the Linux of this software."'' <ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20041020022716/blog.cfdl.auckland.ac.nz/archives/brent/2004_10.html Brent Simpson (2004) Newped]</ref>

== Writings ==
* Taylor, P.C., Maor, D. & Dougiamas, M. (2001) Monitoring the Development of a Professional Community of Reflective Inquiry via the World Wide Web, Teaching and Learning Forum 2001, Curtin University of Technology, February 2001
* Dougiamas, M. and Taylor, P.C. (2000) Improving the effectiveness of tools for Internet-based education, Teaching and Learning Forum 2000, Curtin University of Technology.
* Fairholme, E., Dougiamas, M. and Dreher, H. (2000) Using on-line journals to stimulate reflective thinking, Teaching and Learning Forum 2000, Curtin University of Technology.
* Dougiamas, M. (1992) Data-Driven Reconstruction of Planar Surfaces from Range Images, Computer Science Honours Dissertation, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia.

== References ==
<references/>

== External links ==
* [http://dougiamas.com Writings, research papers and home page]
* [http://moodle.org Moodle.org]

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| DATE OF BIRTH = 1969
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
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[[Category:Australian computer scientists|Martin Dougiamas]]
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Königreich der Sueben

2011-05-07T14:16:09Z

GcSwRhIc: spelling

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2011}}
[[Image:Sueben.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Golden coin of a Suebic king of Galicia. 410–450. In the reverse: VICTORIA AVCCG // CONOB.]]
The '''[[Suebi]]c Kingdom of Galicia''' was the first independent [[Migration Period|barbarian]] Christian kingdom of Western Europe and the first to separate from the Roman Empire, as well as the first one to mint coins. Based in [[Gallaecia]], it was established in 410 and lasted as independent state until 584, after a century of slow decline. It reached political relevance, even after the fall of the visigothic kingdom -a century after the last Suebic king was deposed-, as last administrative and religious ditch against the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Muslim invasion]].

The [[history]] and importance of Suebic Galicia was long marginalised and obscured mainly by political reasons; it was left to a German scholar to write the first connected history of the Suebi in Galicia, as writer-historian [[Xoán Bernárdez Vilar]] has pointed out.<ref>http://www.culturagalega.org/temadia_arquivo.php?id=4740</ref>

==Origins==
Little is known about the Suevi before they crossed the [[Rhine]] on the night of 31 December 406 A.D. and entered the Roman Empire. It is speculated that the Suevi are the same group as the [[Quadi]], who are mentioned in early writings, and lived north of the middle Danube located today in lower Austria and western Slovakia.<ref name="ReferenceA">Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'', 152</ref> The reasoning behind the belief that the Suevi and Quadi are the same, or at least related groups comes from a letter written by St. Jerome to Ageruchia, listing the invaders of the 406 crossing into Gaul, in which the Quadi are listed and the Suevi are not.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The argument for this theory, however, is based solely on the disappearance of mention of the Quadi in [[Gaul]] and the emergence of the Suevi. Additionally the lack of mention of the Suevi could mean that they are not a distinct ethnic group. Perhaps the Suevi were the result of many smaller groups who banded together during the migration from central Europe to the [[Iberian Peninsula]].<ref>Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 13, Late Antiquity: The Late Empire, ed. Averil Cameron and others (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2001), s.v. "Barbarian Invasions and first Settlements"</ref>

==Migration==
Although there is no clearly documented reason behind the migration of 406, a widely accepted theory is that the migration of the various Germanic peoples west of the Rhine is due to the westward push of the Huns during the late 4th century. The reasoning being that the activities of the Huns disrupted and threatened the existing peoples of the region forcing them to uproot.<ref>Megan Williams, Pers. Comm. San Francisco State University History Professor. 16 November 2010.</ref> It should be noted that this theory has created controversy within the academic community, because of the lack of convincing evidence.

Whether displaced by the Huns or not the Suevi along with the [[Vandals]] and [[Alans]] crossed the Rhine on the night of 31 December 405.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Cambridge Ancient History, vol.13 s.v. "Barbarian Invasions and first Settlements"</ref> Their entrance into the Roman Empire could not have been at a more opportune time. At the moment, the Roman West was experiencing a series of invasions and civil wars beginning in 405. Between 405 and 406, the Western regions of the empire saw the invasion of Italy by Goths under [[Radagaisus]], as well as a steady stream of usurpers. This allowed the invading barbarians to enter Gaul with little resistance, consequently allowing for the barbarians to cause considerable damage to the northern provinces of Germania Prima, Belgica Prima, and Belgica Secunda before the empire saw them as a threat. In response to the barbarian invasion of Gaul, the usurper Constantine III of Britain, halted the masses of Vandals, Alans, and Suevi, who remained confined to northern Gaul.<ref>Michael Kulikowski, ''Late Roman Spain and its Cities (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 156–157</ref> But in the spring of 409, [[Gerontius]] led a revolt in [[Hispania]] and set up his own emperor, [[Maximus]]. [[Constantine]], who had recently been elevated to the title of Augustus, set off to Hispania to deal with the rebellion. Gerontius responded by stirring up the barbarians in Gaul against Constantine, convincing them to mobilize again, and, in the summer of 409, the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi began pushing south towards Hispania.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'', 150</ref><ref>Kulikowski, ''Late Roman Spain and its Cities'', 156–157</ref>

==Settlement and integration==
[[Image:Galician-suevic-kingdom.png|thumb|Suebic kingdom in Gallaecia and Lusitania. There were periods of control of territories south of the [[Tagus]] river as far as the [[Algarve]].]]
[[File:Sueben-Reich.jpg|thumb|Kingdom under [[Rechiar]]]]

The civil war that erupted in the Iberian Peninsula between the forces of Constantine and Gerontius had left the passes through the [[Pyrenees]] either purposely or consequently neglected, making southern Gaul and the Iberian Peninsula susceptible to barbarian attack. Hydatius documents that the crossing into the Iberian Peninsula by the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi took place on either the 28 September or the 12 October 409.<ref>Burgess, ''The Chronicle of Hydatius'', 81</ref> Some scholars take the two dates as the beginning and the end to the crossing of the Pyrenees mountain range into the Iberian Peninsula, since the crossing over of such a formidable barrier by scores of thousands could not have possibly been done in a twenty-four hour time frame.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'', 153</ref> Hydatius writes that upon entering of Hispania the barbarian peoples spent two years 409–410 in a frenzy, plundering food and goods from the cities and countryside causing a famine in the process that, according to Hydatius, forced cannibalism amongst the locals, “[driven] by hunger human beings devoured human flesh; mothers too feasted upon the bodies of their own children whom they had killed and cooked with their own hands.”<ref>Burgess, ''The Chronicle of Hydatius'',83</ref> In 411 the various barbarian groups decided on the establishment of a peace and divided the provinces of Hispania among themselves sorte, “by lot”. Many scholars believe that the reference to “lot” may be to the sortes, “allotments,” which barbarian federates received by the Roman government, which suggests that the Suevi and the other invaders were under a treaty with Maximus’s government. There is, however, no concrete evidence of any treaties between the Roman’s and the barbarians. [[Hydatius]] never mentions any treaty, and states that the peace in 411 was brought about by the compassion of the Lord.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'',154</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">Burgess, ''The Chronicle of Hydatius'', 83</ref> The division of the land between the four barbarian groups went as such: the Siling Vandals settled in [[Hispania Baetica]], the Alans were allotted the provinces of [[Lusitania]] and [[Hispania Carthaginensis]], and the Hasding Vandals and the Suevi shared the far northwestern province of Galicia.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

The division of Galicia between the Suevi and the Hasling Vandals placed the Suevi in the far northwestern corner of the province, which they took by force. They settled in the cities of [[Braga]] (which would become the Suevic capital until 439), [[Astorga]], and [[Lugo]], with no evidence suggesting that the Suevi inhabited any other cities residing in the province from 411–438.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'', 83</ref> The relationship between the Galicians and the Suevi was an opportunistic one for the Suevi, who, under their king, Hermeric, would spend the next 27 years (411–438) plundering the Galicians of food and valuables.<ref name="Donini and Ford, Isidore,40">Donini and Ford, ''Isidore'',40</ref>

Another Germanic group that accompanied the Suebi and settled in Galicia were the [[Buri (Germanic tribe)|Buri]]. They settled in the region between the rivers [[Cávado River|Cávado]] and [[Homem River|Homem]], in the area known as [[Terras de Bouro]] (Lands of the Buri).<ref>Domingos Maria da Silva, ''Os Búrios'', Terras de Bouro, Câmara Municipal de Terras de Bouro, 2006. (in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]])</ref>

As the Suebi quickly adopted the local [[Iberian Romance languages|Hispano-Roman language]], few traces were left of their Germanic tongue, but some examples in the [[Galician language]] and [[Portuguese language]] remained, like ''laverca'' in Portuguese and Galician (synonyms of ''cotovia'' – [[lark]]).

==Swebic kingdom==
In 416, the Visigoths entered the Iberian Peninsula, sent from [[Gallia Aquitania]] by the Emperor of the West to fight off the barbarians from the 409 invasion. The Visigoths led by their king, Wallia, devastated both the Siling Vandals and Alans. By 418, both the Siling Vandals and Alans were practically exterminated, leaving the Hasling Vandals and the Suevi, who had remained undisturbed by Wallia’s campaign as the two remaining forces in the Iberian Peninsula.<ref>Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 14, Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, ed. Averil Cameron and others (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2001), s.v. "Spain: The Suevic Kingtom"</ref> After the departure of Willia in 418 the Hasling Vandals and the Suevi seemed to have occupied themselves as they had done sense they began the sharing of Galicia, with the starting of a war in 419. In 420, however, the comes Hispaniarum [[Asterius]] attacked the Hasling Vandals, forcing them to break off their conflict with the Suevi, moving out of Galicia in pursuit of Asterius.<ref>Kulikowski, ''Late Roman Spain and its Cities'', 173</ref> In 429, the Hasling Vandals would leave to Africa and the Suevi would be the only barbarian entity on Hispania. King Hermeric would spend the remainder of his able years solidifying Suevic rule over the entire province of Galicia.

In 438, Hermeric became ill. Having annexed the entirety of Galicia, he made peace with the local Hispano-Roman population.<ref name="Donini and Ford, Isidore,40"/> Hermeric’s illness made him unable to rule, and in 438, his son [[Rechila]] became king. Rechila saw an opportunity for expansion and began pushing to other areas of the Iberian Peninsula. The same year, Rechila campaigned in Baetica. A year later, in 429, the Suevi invaded Lusitania and took Mérida, making it the new capital of the Suevi kingdom. Rechila would continue the expansion of the kingdom and by 441, the Suevi controlled Galicia, Baetica, Lusitania, and Carthaginensis. However, the Suevi conquest of Baetica and Carthaginensis was limited to raids, and Suevi presence, if any, was minute.<ref>Kulikowski, ''Late Roman Spain and its Cities'', 180–181</ref>

In 446, the Romans would dispatch [[Vitus]], a [[magister militum]] with a mixed army of Romans and Goths, to the provinces of Baetica and Carthaginensis in an attempt to subdue the Suevi and restore imperial administration in Hispania. Rechila defeated Vitus and the Goths, and no more imperial attempts would be made to retake Hispania.<ref name="ReferenceC">Cambridge Ancient History, col. 14., s.v. "Spain: The Suevic Kingdom"</ref><ref>Kulikowski, ''Late Roman Spain and its Cities'', 183–184</ref>

In 448, Rechila died, leaving the crown to his son, [[Rechiar]]. Rechiar would become the first Germanic king to become a Catholic Christian, as well as the first barbarian king to mint coins in his own name. Some believe minting the coins was a sign of Suevi autonomy, due to the use of minting in the late empire as a declaration of independence.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbaians'', 168</ref> Rechiar would make a series of bold political moves throughout his reign. The first was his marriage to the daughter of the Gothic king [[Theodoric I]] in 448, in an attempt to improve the relationship between the two peoples. Rechiar would then go on to make a treaty with Rome in 452, which was renewing in 454. During the first seven years under Rechiar, the Sueves seem to have been content as major raids and conflicts were recorded during this time. In 455, Rechiar invaded [[Hispania Tarraconensis]], which was the last portion of the Iberia still under Roman rule. The emperor, Avitus, would respond, sending Theodoric I to repel the invasion. In autumn of 456, Theodoric led an army of Goths into northern Hispania and marched on Galicia, and on 5 October, Theodoric defeated and captured Rechiar near the river Urbicus. After the execution of Rechiar, Theodoric continued his war on the Suevi and, in less than a year, the Goths had removed and occupied Lusitania, Baetica, Carthaginensis, and parts of southern Galicia, thus confining the Suevi back in the far northwestern corner of Galicia.<ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref>Kulikowski, ''Late Roman Spain and its Cities'', 187–188</ref>

When the Visigoths disposed of Rechiar, the royal bloodline of Hermeric vanished and the conventional mechanism for Suevi leadership died with it. In 456, [[Aioulf]] took over the leadership of the Sueves. The origins behind Aioulf’s ascension are not clear Hydatius wrote that Aioulf was a Goth deserter, while the historian Jordanes wrote that he was a Warni appointed by Theodoric to govern Galicia.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'', 168–169</ref> In that same year, Hydatius stated that, in response to the situation, “the Sueves set up Maldras as their king.”<ref>Burgess, ''The Chronicles of Hydatius'', 111</ref> This statement suggests that the Suevi as a people may have had a voice in the selection of a new ruler.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'', 166</ref> The election of Maldras would lead to a schism among the Suevi, with some choosing to follow Framtane.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'', 167</ref> The Suevi would continue to be split, and from 460–464, neither Suevi faction appeared to have recognized a king. In 464, [[Remismund]], an ambassador who traveled between Galicia and Gaul, became King of the Suevi. Remismund was able to unite the factions of the Suevi under his rule. He was also recognized, perhaps even approved of, by Theodoric, who sent him gifts and weapons along with a wife.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'', 167–168</ref> Under the leadership of Remismund, the Suevi would again raid the surrounding country, plundering even the walled cities of Astorga, [[Lisbon]], and [[Coimbra]], which they did so twice, once in 465 and again in 468.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'', 171</ref> After the death of Remismund in 469, and throughout the remainder of the 5th century, the Suevic Kingdom would continue to flounder as its neighbors continued to expand.<ref>Kulikowski, ''Late Roman Spain and its Cities'',198–200</ref>

The Suebi remained mostly pagan and their subjects [[Priscillianism|Priscillianist]] until an [[Arianism|Arian]] missionary named [[Ajax (missionary)|Ajax]], sent by the Visigothic king [[Theodoric II]] at the request of the Suebic unifier [[Remismund]], converted them in 466 and established a lasting Arian church which dominated the people until their conversion to Catholicism in the 560s.

==Conversion to Catholicism==
The conversion of the Suebi to Catholicism is presented very differently in the primary records. The only contemporary record, the minutes of the [[First Council of Braga]]—which met on 1 May 561—state explicitly that the synod was held at the orders of a king named [[Ariamir]]. While his Catholicism is not in doubt, that he was the first Catholic monarch of the Suebes since Rechiar has been contested on the grounds that he is not explicitly stated to have been.<ref name="Thompson86">Thompson, 86.</ref> He was, however, the first to hold a Catholic synod. The ''[[Historia Suevorum]]'' of [[Isidore of Seville]] states that a king named [[Theodemar]] brought about the conversion of his people from Arianism with the help of the missionary [[Martin of Braga]].<ref>Ferreiro, 198 n8.</ref> According to the [[Franks|Frankish]] historian [[Gregory of Tours]] on the other hand, an otherwise unknown sovereign named [[Chararic (Suevic king)|Chararic]], having heard of [[Martin of Tours]], promised to accept the beliefs of the saint if only his son were cured of leprosy. Through the relics and intercession of Saint Martin the son was healed; Chararic and the entire royal household converted to the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene faith]].<ref name="Thompson83">Thompson, 83.</ref> Finally, the Suebic conversion is ascribed, not to a Suebe, but to a Visigoth by the name of [[John of Biclarum]], which puts their conversion alongside that of the Goths, occurring under [[Reccared I]] in 587–589.

Most scholars have attempted to meld these stories. It has been alleged that Chararic and Theodemir must have been successors of Ariamir, since Ariamir was the first Suebic monarch to lift the ban on Catholic synods; Isidore therefore gets the chronology wrong.<ref>Thompson, 87.</ref><ref>Ferreiro, 199.</ref> Reinhart suggested that Chararic was converted first through the [[relics]] of Saint Martin and that Theodemir was converted later through the preaching of Martin of Braga.<ref name="Thompson86">Thompson, 86.</ref> Dahn equated Chararic with Theodemir, even saying that the latter was the name he took upon baptism.<ref name="Thompson86"/> It has also been suggested that Theodemir and Ariamir were the same person and the son of Chararic.<ref name="Thompson86"/> In the opinion of some historians, Chararic is nothing more than an error on the part of Gregory of Tours and never existed.<ref>Thompson, 88.</ref> If, as Gregory relates, Martin of Braga died about the year 580 and had been bishop for about thirty years, then the conversion of Chararic must have occurred around 550 at the latest.<ref name="Thompson83"/> Finally, Ferreiro believes the conversion of the Suevi was progressive and stepwise and that Chararic's public conversion was only followed by the lifting of a ban on Catholic synods in the reign of his successor, which would have been Ariamir; Thoedemir was responsible for beginning a persecution of the Arians in his kingdom to root out their heresy.<ref>Ferreiro, 207.</ref>

[[Image:Hispania3c.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Suebic kingdom in the mid-sixth century, on the verge of conquest.]]

==6th Century and Annexation==

Late in the fifth century and early in the sixth century, immigrants from [[Britannia]] and [[Brittany]] settled in the north of Galicia, which thus acquired the name [[Britonia]].<ref name="Koch">Koch, John T. (2006). "Britonia". In John T. Koch, ''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia''. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, p. 291.</ref> Most of what is known about the settlement comes from ecclesiastical sources; records from the 572 [[Second Council of Braga]] refer to a [[diocese]] called the ''Britonensis ecclesia'' ("British church") and an [[episcopal see]] called the ''sedes Britonarum'' ("See of the Britons"), which was likely the monastery of Santa Maria de Bretoña.<ref name="Koch"/> The bishop representing this diocese at the council bore the clearly [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] name of [[Mailoc]].<ref name="Koch"/> The see continued to be represented at councils through the 7th century. Britonia evidently covered a substantial area; parishes of the ''Britonensis ecclesia'' extended from the coast of the [[Bay of Biscay]] southwards to near the town of [[Mondoñedo]], and eastwards into [[Asturias]].<ref name="Koch"/>

In 569 Theodemir called the [[First Council of Lugo]],<ref>Ferreiro, 199 n11.</ref> which dealt with Arianism and established a bishopric of Britonia, whereas the council of Braga in 561 had dealt with [[Priscillianism]].

In 570, [[Miro]] succeeded Theodemir as the Suevic king.<ref>Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 14., s.v. "Spain: The Suevic Kingdom"</ref> During this time, the Suevic kingdom was still overshadowed by the Visigoths who, under their king, [[Leovigild]], still controlled the majority of the Iberian Peninsula. In 575, Miro made a peace treaty with Leovigild, who was waging a war against his rebelling Catholic son, Prince [[Hermenigild]]. Miro died aiding king Leovigild in 583, and his son, [[Eboric]], was set to become the Sueves next king. But while Eboric was still young, a usurper named Audeca seized power and declared himself king of the Suevi. Audeca would then make the young Eboric become a monk, and force him to reside in a monastery.<ref>Donini and Ford, 43</ref> After hearing of the events, Leovigild declared war on the Suevi, and in 585 the Visigoths invaded the Suevic kingdom. That same year, Leovigild defeated the Sueves, and their kingdom was transferred to the Goths as one of their three administrative regions -Gallaecia, Hispania and Galia Narboniensis-.<ref>Donini and Ford</ref><ref>Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 14., s.v. "Spain: The Suevic Kingdom"</ref> The suavian dinasty was never re-established, but the administrative infrastructure of the galician church remained intact, allowing to re-emerge as independent entity after the fall of the visigothic empire, playing a key role as last shelter for Christianity in the Iberian Peninsula.

==List of Galician Suebic monarchs==
*[[Hermeric]], c. 409–438
*[[Heremigarius]], 427–429, leader in [[Lusitania]]
*[[Rechila]], 438–448
*[[Rechiar]], 448–456
*[[Aioulf]], 456–457, foreigner, possibly appointee of the [[Visigoths]]
*[[Maldras]], 456–460, in opposition to Framta after 457
*[[Framta]], 457, in opposition to Maldras
*[[Richimund]], 457–464, successor of Framta
*[[Frumar]], 460–464, successor of Maldras
*[[Remismund]], 464–469, succeeded Frumar, reunited the Suebi
*''Period of obscurity''
**[[Hermeneric]] fl. c. 485
**[[Veremund]] fl. 535
**[[Theodemund]] fl. 6th century
*[[Chararic (Suevic king)|Chararic]], after c.550–558/559, existence sometimes doubted
*[[Ariamir]], 558/559–561/566
*[[Theodemar]], 561/566–570
*[[Miro of Gallaecia|Miro]], 570–583
*[[Eboric]], 583–584, deposed and put in a monastery by Andeca.
*[[Andeca]], 584–585, deposed and put in a monastery by [[Leovigild]].
*[[Malaric]], 585, opposed [[Leovigild]] and was defeated.

==Sources and controversies==
Unlike barbarian peoples, such as the Vandals, Visigoths, and [[Huns]] the Suevi never posed much of a threat to the Romans, or even to other barbarian groups, and were confined to a relatively small and removed geographic region throughout their recorded existence as a people. Because of this, sources about the Suevi people are limited, with the number either written in or translated into English even fewer.

The vast majority of information and reference to the Suevi is drawn from the bishop Hydatius. A Native to the region Hydatious was born in Lemica ciuitas straddling the southern borders of southern Galicia in 400 A.D. and witnessed the 409 settlement of the Suevi peoples in the Iberian Peninsula.<ref>R.W. Burgess, Trans., ''The Chronicle of Hydatius'' (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1993), 3</ref> Although young, Hydatius’s life would be greatly affected by the settlement of the various Germanic peoples. Through much of his life he was forced to stay in isolated Roman communities constantly threatened by the Suevi and Vandals.<ref>Burgess, ''The Chronicle of Hydatius'', 4</ref> The threat culminated in his capture by the Suevic warlord Frumarius in 460, He was held captive for three months as Seuvi ravaged the region.<ref>Burgess, ''The Chronicle if Hydatius'', 5</ref> Hydatius documented these accounts in The Chronicle of Hydatius, a history of the region that plays on the fears of the barbarian settlements, the fall of Roman power in Hispania, and his own interactions with barbarian groups. The Suevi are portrayed as obscure, without any real reason or direction given to their decisions or movement by mentioning what the Suevi did to the Romans, but rarely what they said. Hydatius’s image of the Suevi is from the outside, even going as far as to call them cannibals, “killed all the braver individuals and feasting on their flesh.”<ref name="ReferenceB"/> This description of the Suevi has bled into secondary sources, E.A. Thomson, an expert who has written many pieces on the subject, stated, “they just lash out blindly from year to year at any place that they suspected would supply them with food, valuables or money.”<ref>E.A. Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'' (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 1.</ref>

The ending of the Chronicle of Hydatius in 428 marks the beginning of a period of obscurity in the history of the Suevi who don’t reemerge into historical light until the mid-sixth century. From this point on what we do know about the Seuvi during this time period is from Saint Isidore of Seville.<ref>Guido Donini and Gordon B. Ford, Jr., Trans., ''Isidore of Seville's History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi'' (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1966), VIII.</ref> [[Isidore]] would use Haydatius’s earlier accounts to form the most complete account/record of the Suevi in Hispania. The controversy around Isidorus’s historiography is not on the accounts from the sixth century, but rather his omissions and addition, which many historians and scholars feel are to numerous for them all to be simple mistakes. Throughout St. Isidore’s, History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi, certain details from Hydatius are altered, e.g. According to Isidore says that, Ajax, was the man who converted the Suevi from paganism to [[Arianism]], when in according to Hydiatus, he converted them from Catholicism to Arianism.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians, 217–218</ref> Many scholars attribute these changes to the fact that Isidore may have had sources other than Hydatius at his request.<ref>Thompson, ''Romans and Barbarians'', 219</ref>

==Bibliography==
<div class="references-small">
*Arias, Jorge C. [http://drop.io/suevi2007 "Identity and Interactions: The Suevi and the Hispano-Romans."] University of Virginia: Spring 2007.
*Burgess, R.W. Trans. The Chronicle of Hydatius. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1993.
*Cameron, Averil and others. ed. Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 13, Late Antiquity: The Late Empire A.D. 337–425. Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge Press, 2001.
*Cameron, Averil and others. ed. Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 14, Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors A.D. 425–600. Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge Press, 2001.
*Donini, Guido and Gordon B. Ford, Jr. Trans. Isidore of Seville’s History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1966.
*Ferreiro, Alberto. [http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pao-us:&rft_dat=xri:pao:article:v530-1995-003-00-000009 "Braga and Tours: Some Observations on Gregory's ''De virtutibus sancti Martini''."] ''[[Journal of Early Christian Studies]]''. 3 (1995), p. 195–210.
*Kulikowski, Michael. Late Roman Spain and its Cities. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.
*Thompson, E.A. Romans and Barbarians. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982.
*Thompson, E.A. "The Conversion of the Spanish Suevi to Catholicism." ''Visigothic Spain: New Approaches''. ed. [[Edward James (historian)|Edward James]]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-19-922543-1.
*Williams, Megan: Personal Communication, San Francisco State University History Professor. 16 November 2010.
</div>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
<div class="references-small">
*[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/hydatiuschronicon.html The Chronicle of Hydatius] is the main source for the history of the suevi in Galicia and Portugal up to 468.
*[http://www.celtiberia.net/articulo.asp?id=1670 Medieval Galician anthroponomy]
*[http://www.benedictus.mgh.de/quellen/chga/index.htm Minutes of the Councils of Braga and Toledo], in ''Collectio Hispana Gallica Augustodunensis''
*[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/orosius.html Orosius' ''Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII'']
</div>

[[Category:Sueves|Galicia]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]
[[Category:Former monarchies]]
[[Category:Early Middle Ages]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]
[[Category:History of Portugal]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 410]]
[[Category:584 disestablishments]]

[[br:Rouantelezh swebat Galiza]]
[[ca:Regne dels sueus]]
[[es:Reino Suevo]]
[[fr:Royaume suève]]
[[gl:Reino Suevo]]
[[got:𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌺𐌹 𐍃𐍅𐌴𐌱𐌴 𐌲𐌰𐌻𐌹𐍃𐌾𐍉𐍃]]
[[it:Regno suebo]]
[[hu:Szvév uralkodók listája]]
[[nl:Suevenrijk]]
[[pt:Reino Suevo]]

Virginia Hall

2011-05-03T22:24:41Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted 2 edits by 190.68.21.156 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by Kertraon. (TW)

{{Infobox Military person
|name=Virginia Hall
|image=[[File:Virginia Hall.jpg|300px|Virginia Hall receiving the [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguished Service Cross]] in 1945]]
|caption=Virginia Hall receiving the [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguished Service Cross]] from [[William Joseph Donovan|General Donovan]] in September 1945
|born={{birth date|1906|04|06}}
|died={{death date|1982|07|14}} (aged 76)
|placeofbirth=Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.
|placeofdeath=Rockville, Maryland, U.S.
|nickname=Agent Heckler, Diane
|allegiance=[[United Kingdom]], [[France]]
|branch=[[Special Operations Executive]] [[Office of Strategic Services]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]]
|serviceyears=1940-1966
|rank=Field agent and intelligence analyst
|unit=
|commands=[[SOE F Section networks#Scientist|"Scientist" network]]
|battles=
|awards=[[Order of the British Empire|MBE]], [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|DSC]]
|relations=Paul Goillot (husband)
}}

'''Virginia Hall''', [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]], [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|DSC]] (April 6, 1906 —July 14, 1982) was an [[United States|American]] [[spy]] during [[World War II]]. She was also known by many aliases: "Marie Monin", "Germaine", "Diane", and "Camille".<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/ciakids/history/vhall01.html]</ref> The Germans gave her the nickname ''Artemis''. The Gestapo reportedly considered her "the most dangerous of all Allied spies".<ref>
Meyer,Roger (October 2008). "World War II's Most Dangerous Spy" ''The American Legion Magazine'' p. 54</ref>

== Life ==
She was born in [[Baltimore, Maryland]] and attended prestigious [[Radcliffe College]] and [[Barnard College]] (Columbia University),<ref>[http://estonia.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/history-articles/not-bad-for-a-girl-from-baltimore.pdf Curriculum]</ref> but wanted to finish her studies in Europe. With help from her parents, she traveled the Continent and studied in [[France]], [[Germany]], and [[Austria]], finally landing an appointment as a Consular Service clerk at the American Embassy in [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]] in 1931. Hall had hoped to join the Foreign Service, but suffered a setback around 1932 when she accidentally shot herself in the left leg while hunting in Turkey. It was later amputated from the knee down, and replaced with a wooden appendage she named "Cuthbert".<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20061210/ap_on_re_us/female_spy_remembered Hall's Yahoo biodata]</ref> The injury foreclosed whatever chance she might have had for a diplomatic career, and she resigned from the Department of State in 1939.

=== World War II ===
The coming of war that year found Hall in [[Paris]]. She joined the Ambulance Service before the fall of France and ended up in [[Vichy France|Vichy]]-controlled territory when the fighting stopped in the summer of 1940. Hall made her way to London and volunteered for Britain's newly formed [[Special Operations Executive]], which sent her back to Vichy in August 1941. She spent the next 15 months there, helping to coordinate the activities of the [[French Resistance|French Underground]] in Vichy and the occupied zone of France.

When the Germans suddenly seized all of France in November 1942, Hall barely escaped to [[Spain]].<ref>Rather whimsically, her artificial foot had its own codename ("Cuthbert"). Before making her escape, she signalled to SOE that she hoped Cuthbert would not give trouble on the way. The SOE, not understanding the reference, replied, "If Cuthbert troublesome, eliminate him".</ref> Journeying back to London (after working for SOE for a time in Madrid), in July 1943 she was quietly made an honorary Member of the [[Order of the British Empire]] (MBE).

She joined the U.S. [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) Special Operations Branch in March 1944 and asked to return to occupied France. She hardly needed training in clandestine work behind enemy lines, and OSS promptly granted her request and landed her from a British [[Motor Torpedo Boat|MTB]] in [[Brittany]] (her artificial leg having kept her from parachuting in). Codenamed "Diane", she eluded the [[Gestapo]] and contacted the [[French Resistance]] in central France. She mapped drop zones for supplies and commandos from England, found safe houses, and linked up with a [[Operation Jedburgh|Jedburgh team]] after the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Forces]] landed at [[Normandy]]. Hall helped train three battalions of Resistance forces to wage guerrilla warfare against the Germans and kept up a stream of valuable reporting until Allied troops overtook her small band in September. {{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}

===Awards===
For her efforts in France, General [[William Joseph Donovan]] in September 1945 personally awarded Virginia Hall a [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguished Service Cross]] — the only one awarded to a civilian woman in World War II. {{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}

===Post WWII===
In 1950, she married [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] agent Paul Goillot. In 1951, she joined the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] working as an intelligence analyst on French parliamentary affairs. She retired in 1966 to a farm in [[Barnesville, Maryland]].

===Death===
Virginia Hall Goillot died at the [[Shady Grove Adventist Hospital]] in [[Rockville, Maryland]] in 1982, aged 76.

==Legacy==
Her story was told in "''The Wolves at the Door : The True Story of America's Greatest Female Spy''" by Judith L. Pearson (2005) The Lyons Press, ISBN 1-59228-762-X. 
A biography exists in French: "L'Espionne. Virginia Hall, une Américaine dans la guerre", by Vincent Nouzille (2007) Fayard [http://www.editions-fayard.fr/livre/fayard-241367-l-espionne-vincent-nouzille.htm] l(Paris), a book reviewed by British historian M.R.D. Foot in "Studies in Intelligence", Vol 53, N°1, [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol53no1/l2019espionne-virginia-hall-une-americaine-dans-la.html]. She was honoured in 2006 again, at the French and British embassies for her courageous work.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*[[Marcus Binney]], ''The Women Who Lived for Danger: The Women Agents of SOE in the Second World War'', London, Hodder & Stoughton, 2002, ISBN 0 340 81840 9, pp. 111–38 ("Virginia Hall") and ''passim.''

==External links==
* [http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20061210/ap_on_re_us/female_spy_remembered "Ambassadors to honor female ww1 spy"] by Ben Nuckols, [[Associated Press]], 10 December 2006.
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/oss/art05.htm Special Operations article] and [https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2007-featured-story-archive/the-people-of-the-cia.html Featured story about Virginia Hall on the CIA web site]
* [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,3-2499682,00.html#cid=OTC-RSS&attr=World Times Online Article]
* Article by MRD Foot in Studies in Intelligence vol 53 N°1 [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol53no1/l2019espionne-virginia-hall-une-americaine-dans-la.html]

Note: Some of this information has been taken directly from the CIA [https://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/oss/art05.htm]

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Hall, Virginia
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =Goillot, Virginia Hall Goillot
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =American World War II spy; CIA analyst
| DATE OF BIRTH =April 6, 1906
| PLACE OF BIRTH =Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.
| DATE OF DEATH =July 14, 1982 (aged 76)
| PLACE OF DEATH =Rockville, Maryland, U.S.
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hall, Virginia}}
[[Category:1906 births]]
[[Category:1982 deaths]]
[[Category:American spies]]
[[Category:Female wartime spies]]
[[Category:Special Operations Executive personnel]]
[[Category:French Resistance members]]
[[Category:World War II spies]]
[[Category:Female resistance members of World War II]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)]]
[[Category:Women in World War II]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore, Maryland]]

[[fr:Virginia Hall]]

Richard Landes

2011-04-28T18:52:32Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted 1 edit by 50.22.226.99 (talk) identified as vandalism to last revision by GcSwRhIc. (TW)

'''Richard Allen Landes''' is an American [[historian]] and author, specializing in [[Millennialism]]. He currently serves as an Associate Professor in the Department of History at [[Boston University]]. Landes was the director of the now quiescent [[Center for Millennial Studies]].

==Academic work==
He was trained as a medievalist and wrote his first book on a series of forgeries that had fooled historians for centuries, even after a scholar in the 1920s had shown decisively that the texts were fiction. In addition to working on the medieval "Peace of God" movement (980s-1030s) and the relations between elites and commoners in 11th century France, he focuses on millennial and apocalyptic movements. In addition to courses on medieval history, he offers courses in "Communications Revolutions from Language to Cyberspace", "Europe and the Millennium," and "Honor-Shame Cultures, Middle Ages, Modern World."

He has published several books on Millenialism. The latest, ''Heaven on Earth: The Varieties of the Millennial Experience'', will be published by Oxford University Press in December 2010.

==Israel and "Pallywood"==
Landes is a strong supporter of the state of [[Israel]], and a vigorous critic of what he considers anti-Israel propaganda in professedly objective news reports, and from supposedly impartial neutral bodies.

In particular, he denounces the "mainstream" press for uncritically repeating stories from Palestinian sources about civilian casualties from Israeli actions, even when these stories may be exaggerated, distorted, or false. Though he has never denied that Palestinian civilians have been killed and injured in Israeli operations, he has cited evidence that these casualties have been overstated for propaganda purposes.

He has coined the term "[[Pallywood]]" for the practice of filming staged funerals, casualties, and other evidence against Israel for the benefit of European and American news organizations.

He maintains two personal Web sites: [http://www.theaugeanstables.com "The Augean Stables"] and [http://www.seconddraft.org/ "The Second Draft"]. "The Augean Stables" is a [[blog]] on anti-Israel media problems and related issues. (The title refers to the [[Labours of Hercules|Fifth Labor of Hercules]]: clearing the immense manure piles in the stables of King [[Augeas]].)

"The Second Draft" is exclusively devoted to anti-Israel propaganda in the news, with essays, articles, and archived video. Landes has been particularly concerned with the alleged shooting of [[Muhammad al-Durrah]] by Israeli troops, and the inflammatory reporting of the incident by [[France|French]] television.

Landes has also helped establish [http://goldstonereport.org Understanding the Goldstone report], a multi-authored Website devoted to exposing and refuting alleged inaccuracies in the [[United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict|Goldstone report]] on Israel's operations in the [[Gaza Strip]].

== Books ==
* {{cite book |author=Landes, Richard A.; Head, Thomas J. (eds.)|title=Essays on the Peace of God : the church and the people in eleventh-century France |publisher=Waterloo University |location=Waterloo, Ontario |year=1987 |oclc=18039359 }}
* {{cite book |author=Landes, Richard A.; Paupert, Catherine (trans.) |title=Naissance d'Apôtre: Les origines de la Vita prolixior de Saint Martial de Limoges au XIe siècle |publisher=Brepols |location=Turnhout, Belgium |year=1991 |isbn=9782503500454 }}
* {{cite book |author=Landes, Richard A.; Head, Thomas J. (eds.)|title=The Peace of God: social violence and religious response in France around the year 1000 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, N.Y |year=1992 |isbn=0-8014-2741-X }}
* {{cite book |author=Landes, Richard A. |title=Relics, apocalypse, and the deceits of history: Ademar of Chabannes, 989-1034 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1995 |isbn=0-674-75530-8 }}
* {{cite book |author=Landes, Richard A. (ed.) |title=Encyclopedia of millennialism and millennial movements |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2000 |isbn=0-415-92246-1}}
* {{cite book |author=Landes, Richard A.; Van Meter, David C.; Gow, Andrew Sydenham Farrar |title=The apocalyptic year 1000: religious expectation and social change, 950-1050 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2003 |isbn=0-19-511191-5 }}

Forthcoming:

* {{cite book |author=Landes, Richard A. |title=Heaven on Earth: The Varieties of the Millennial Experience |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2010 }}
* {{cite book |author=Landes, Richard A.; Katz, Stephen (eds.) |title=The Paranoid Apocalypse: A Hundred Year Retrospective on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion |publisher=New York University Press |location=New York }}

== Articles ==
* “[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&DBID=1&LNGID=1&TMID=111&FID=253&PID=0&IID=1816&TTL=The_Jews_as_Contested_Ground_in_Postmodern_Conspiracy_Theory Jews as Contested Ground in Post-Modern Conspiracy Theory]", ''Jewish Political Studies Review'', Vol. 19, Nos. 3-4 (2007), 9-34.
* “[http://www.theaugeanstables.com/2007/10/28/edward-said-and-the-culture-of-honor-and-shame/ Edward Said and the Culture of Honor and Shame: Orientalism and Our Misperceptions of the Arab-Israeli Conflict]” in Special issue of ''Israel Affairs'', 13:4 (2007), 84-58, and in {{cite book |author=Divine, Donna; Salzman, Philip (eds.) |title=Postcolonial Theory and the Arab-Israeli Conflict |publisher=Routledge |location=London |year=2007 | isbn=9780415443258}}
* "Goldstone's Gaza Report, Part I: [http://www.gloria-center.org/meria/2009/12/landes1.html A Failure of Intelligence]", ''Middle East Review of International Affairs'' (MERIA), January 2010.
* "Goldstone's Gaza Report, Part II: [http://www.gloria-center.org/meria/2009/12/landes2.html A Miscarriage of Human Rights]," ''Middle East Review of International Affairs'' (MERIA), January 2010.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Media coverage of the Arab-Israeli conflict]]

==External links==
* [http://www.theaugeanstables.com/richard-landes-cv/ Professor Landes' CV]
* [http://mille.org/ Center for Millennial Studies]
* [http://seconddraft.org/ The Second Draft]
* [http://www.theaugeanstables.com/ The Augean Stables]
* [http://goldstonereport.org Understanding the Goldstone report]
* [http://www.honestreporting.com/articles/45884734/critiques/Film_Focus_HR_in_Hollywood_and_Pallywood.asp honestreporting.com article on Landes]

{{US-historian-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Landes, Richard}}
[[Category:Boston University faculty]]
[[Category:Scholars of antisemitism]]
[[Category:Living people]]

[[es:Richard Landes]]
[[he:ריצ'רד לנדס]]

Milton Avery

2011-04-28T13:05:14Z

GcSwRhIc: AAAS Fellow with ref

{{Infobox artist
| bgcolour = #6495ED
| name = Milton Avery
| image = Milton Avery - 'Green Sea', oil on canvas 1958, University of Kentucky Art Museum (Lexington, Kentucky).jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = ''Green Sea,'' 1958, oil on canvas, [[University of Kentucky]] Art Museum ([[Lexington, Kentucky]])
| birthname =
| birthdate = {{birth date |1885|3|7|}}
| birthplace = [[Altmar, New York]]
| deathdate = {{death date and age |1965|1|3|1885|3|7|}}
| deathplace =
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| field = [[Modern art]], [[Painting]]
| training =
| movement =
| works =
| patrons =
| influenced by = [[Henri Matisse]]
| influenced = [[Mark Rothko]], [[Adolph Gottlieb]]
| awards =
}}



'''Milton Avery''' (March 7, 1885 <ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/artworks.asp?ReplicationId=%7BFBE21AD2-00E4-4A9C-8446-B088061C7059%7D Metropolitan Museum of Art, permanent collection, retrieved November 12, 2008]</ref> – January 3, 1965) was an [[United States|American]] [[Modern art|modern]] [[Painting|painter]]. Born in [[Altmar, New York]], he moved to [[Connecticut]] in 1898 and later to [[New York City]].

==Biography==
The son of a tanner, Avery began working at a local factory at the age of 16 and supported himself for decades with a succession of blue-collar jobs. The death of his brother-in-law in 1915 left Avery, as the sole remaining adult male in his household, responsible for the support of nine female relatives.<ref name="Avery, M. & Chernow, B., p. 9">Avery, M. & Chernow, B., p. 9.</ref> His interest in art led him to attend classes at the [[Connecticut League of Art Students]] in [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]], and over a period of years, he painted in obscurity while receiving a conservative art education.<ref name="Avery, M. & Chernow, B., p. 9"/> In 1917, he began working night jobs in order to paint in the daytime.

In 1924, he met Sally Michel, a young art student, and in 1926, they married; her income as an illustrator enabled him to devote himself more fully to painting. For several years in the late 1920s through the late 1930s, Avery practiced painting and drawing at the [[Art Students League of New York]]. [[Roy Neuberger]] saw his work and thought he deserved recognition. Determined to get the world to know and respect Avery's work, Neuberger bought over 100 of his paintings, starting with ''Gaspé Landscape'', and lent or donated them to museums all over the world. With the work of Milton Avery rotating through high-profile [[museum]]s, he came to be a highly respected and successful painter.

Avery's work is seminal to American abstract painting—while his work is clearly representational, it focuses on color relations and is not concerned with creating the illusion of depth as most conventional [[Western painting]] since the [[Renaissance]] has. Avery was often thought of as an American ''[[Matisse]]'', especially because of his colorful and innovative landscape paintings. His poetic, bold and creative use of drawing and color set him apart from more conventional painting of his era. Early in his career, his work was considered too radical for being too abstract; when [[Abstract Expressionism]] became dominant his work was overlooked, as being too representational.

In the 1930s, he was befriended by [[Adolph Gottlieb]] and [[Mark Rothko]] among many other artists living in New York City in the 1930s-40s.<ref>http://www.davistownmuseum.org/bioMiltonAvery.html, accessed online 7-11-2007</ref>

[[The Phillips Collection]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], was the first museum to purchase one of Avery's paintings in 1929; that museum also gave him his first solo museum exhibition in 1944.<ref>http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/findingaids/avermilt.htm "Biographical Note," Finding Aid to the Papers of Milton Avery, February 6, 2007, Smithsonian Archives of American Art</ref> He was elected a Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1963.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter A|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=28 April 2011}}</ref>

Avery was a man of few words. "Why talk when you can paint?" he often quipped to his wife. Their daughter, March Avery, is also a painter.

Milton Avery is buried in the [[Artists Cemetery]], in [[Woodstock (town), New York|Woodstock]], [[Ulster County, New York|Ulster County]], [[New York]]. After his death in 1965, his widow, Sally Avery, donated the artist's personal papers to the Archives of American Art, a research center of the [[Smithsonian Institution]]. In 2007, the Archives optically scanned these papers and made them available to researchers as the [http://www.aaa.si.edu/collectionsonline/avermilt/ Milton Avery Papers Online].

==Public collections==
The [[Ackland Art Museum]] ([[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]), the [[Addison Gallery of American Art]] ([[Andover, Massachusetts]]), the Art Gallery of the [[University of Rochester]] ([[New York]]), the [[Birmingham Museum of Art]] ([[Alabama]]), the [[Mary and Leigh Block Museum of Art|Block Museum of Art]] ([[Northwestern University]], [[Illinois]]), the [[Brooklyn Museum]] ([[New York City]]), the [[Butler Institute of American Art]] ([[Ohio]]), the Cape Ann Historical Museum ([[Gloucester, Massachusetts]]), the [[Cleveland Museum of Art]], the [[Columbia Museum of Art]] ([[South Carolina]]), the Davistown Museum ([[Liberty, Maine]]), the [[Dayton Art Institute]] ([[Ohio]]), The Georgia Museum of Art (Athens, Georgia), the [[Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco]],The Harn Museum of Art (University of Florida, Gainesville) the [[Harvard University Art Museums]], the [[Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden]] ([[Washington, D.C.]]), the [[Honolulu Academy of Arts]], the [[Hunter Museum of American Art]] ([[Tennessee]]), the Maier Museum of Art (Randolph-Macon Woman's College, [[Virginia]]), the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], the [[Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth]] ([[Texas]]), the Montana Museum of Art and Culture ([[Missoula, Montana]]), the [[Montclair Art Museum]] ([[New Jersey]]), the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]], the [[Museum of Modern Art]] ([[New York City]]), the [[National Gallery of Art]] ([[Washington, D.C.]]), the [[National Gallery of Australia]] ([[Canberra]]), the [[National Portrait Gallery (United States)|National Portrait Gallery]], ([[Washington, D.C.]]), the Neuberger Museum of Art ([[Purchase, New York]]), the [[New Britain Museum of American Art]] ([[Connecticut]]), the [[New Jersey State Museum]] ([[Trenton, New Jersey|Trenton]]), the [[Oklahoma City]] Museum of Art ([[Oklahoma]]), the [[Philadelphia Museum of Art]], [[The Phillips Collection]] ([[Washington, D.C.]]), the [[Portland Art Museum]] ([[Oregon]]), the [[Reading Public Museum]] ([[Pennsylvania]]), the [[San Antonio]] Art League Museum ([[Texas]]), the [[San Diego Museum of Art]] ([[California]]), the [[Santa Barbara Museum of Art]] ([[California]]), the [[Sheldon Museum of Art]] ([[Lincoln, Nebraska]]), the [[Smithsonian American Art Museum]] ([[Washington, D.C.]]), the [[Tate Gallery]] ([[London]]), the [[University of Kentucky]] Art Museum ([[Lexington, Kentucky]]), the [[Vero Beach Museum of Art]] ([[Florida]]), the [[Wake Forest University]] Fine Arts Gallery ([[Winston-Salem, North Carolina]]) the [[Walker Art Center]] ([[Minnesota]]) the [[Westmoreland Museum of American Art]] ([[Greensburg, Pennsylvania]]) and the Woodstock Artists Association and Museum (Woodstock, New York) are among the public collections holding work by Milton Avery.

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*Avery, Milton, & Chernow, Burt (1987). ''Milton Avery: a singular vision : [exhibition], Center for the Fine Arts, Miami''. Miami, Fla: Trustees of the Center for the Fine Arts Association. {{OCLC|19128732}}
*[[Robert Hobbs|Hobbs, Robert]] (2007). ''Milton Avery''. Hudson Hills Press. ISBN 10 0933920954, ISBN 978-0933920958
*Hobbs, Robert (2001). ''Milton Avery: The late paintings''. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0810942747
*[[Karen Wilkin|Wilkin, Karen]], ''Milton Avery: Paintings of Canada''. ISBN 0-88911-403-X
*[http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/180660277&referer=brief_results ''ART USA NOW''] Ed. by Lee Nordness;Vol.1, (The Viking Press, Inc., 1963.) pp. 66–69

==External links==
* [http://www.hollistaggart.com/artists/avery.htm Milton Avery Biography: Hollis Taggart Galleries]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GScid=1512079&GRid=7604022& Find A Grave article]
* [http://www.museumsyndicate.com/artist.php?artist=280 Milton Avery Gallery]
* [http://www.aaa.si.edu/collectionsonline/avermilt/ The Milton Avery Papers Online at the Smithsonian Archives of American Art]
* [http://www.bard.edu/mfa Milton Avery Graduate School of the Arts, Bard College]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Avery, Milton
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = March 7, 1885
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Altmar, New York]]
| DATE OF DEATH = January 3, 1965
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Avery, Milton}}
[[Category:1885 births]]
[[Category:1965 deaths]]
[[Category:American painters]]
[[Category:Modern painters]]
[[Category:Landscape artists]]
[[Category:Artists from New York]]
[[Category:American printmakers]]
[[Category:Art Students League of New York alumni]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:People from Oswego County, New York]]

[[es:Milton Avery]]
[[fr:Milton Clark Avery]]
[[it:Milton Avery]]
[[ru:Эвери, Мильтон Кларк]]
[[tg:Милтон Авери]]
[[tr:Milton Avery]]

Bob Shamansky

2011-04-27T20:33:32Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted 2 edits by Americus55 (talk); Unsourced not supported by text. (TW)

'''Robert Norton Shamansky''' (born April 18, 1927 in [[Columbus, Ohio]]) is a former [[Democratic Party(United States)|Democratic party]] member of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] from the state of [[Ohio]].

Shamansky ran for a seat in the [[United States House of Representatives]] in 1966 but lost to [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] incumbent [[Samuel L. Devine]].

Fourteen years later, in 1980, Shamansky challenged Devine again. This time, Shamansky was successful in unseating the long-time incumbent Devine, becoming the first Democrat to represent the district since 1939. He was also the first Democrat to represent a significant portion of the state capital, [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], since 1967.

As a member of the [[97th United States Congress|97th Congress]], Shamansky served on the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|House Foreign Affairs Committee]], and as a member of the [[United States House Committee on Science and Technology|Science and Technology Committee]].

In 1982, after [[Apportionment (politics)|reapportionment]], Shamansky's district absorbed a large chunk of the more Republican-leaning 17th District. He was defeated in his bid for re-election by future [[Fox News Channel]] talk-show host [[John Kasich]].

In February 2006 Shamansky ran for his old congressional seat. However, the 12th had been significantly redrawn since he'd last served in Congress, and he lost to Kasich's successor, [[Pat Tiberi]], by 14 points.

A graduate of [[Ohio State University|The Ohio State University]], and [[Harvard Law School]], Shamansky also served as a [[Special Agent]] in the [[United States Army]]'s [[Counter Intelligence Corps]]. [http://www.shamanskyforcongress.com/cms/meet_bob.html]

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography}}
*[[Election Results, U.S. Representative from Ohio, 12th District]]
*[[List of United States Representatives from Ohio]]

==External links==
{{CongBio|S000282}}
*[http://www.shamanskyforcongress.com/ Official campaign website]

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|us-hs}}
{{USRepSuccessionBox
| state=Ohio
| district=12
| before=[[Samuel L. Devine]]
| years=1981–1983
| after=[[John Kasich]]
}}
{{s-end}}

{{Persondata
|NAME= Shamansky, Bob
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= American politician
|DATE OF BIRTH= April 18, 1927
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Columbus, Ohio]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Shamansky, Bob}}
[[Category:1927 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Ohio]]
[[Category:Ohio State University alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard Law School alumni]]
[[Category:People from Columbus, Ohio]]
[[Category:United States Army personnel]]

{{Ohio-Representative-stub}}

[[pl:Robert Norton Shamansky]]

Sutton Foster

2011-04-26T15:51:04Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted 1 edit by 64.5.147.36 (talk); Rm pov. (TW)

{{Infobox person
| name = Sutton Foster
| image =
| imagesize = 220px
| caption = Foster at the opening night of ''[[A Life in the Theatre]]''
| birthname =
| birthdate = {{birth date and age|1975|3|18}}
| birthplace = [[Statesboro, Georgia]], [[United States|USA]]
| spouse =
| occupation = Actress, Singer, Dancer
| yearsactive = 1990 - present
| website = http://suttonfoster.com/
}}
'''Sutton Lenore Foster''' (born March 18, 1975) is an [[United States|American]] [[actress]], [[singer]] and [[dancer]]. Foster has appeared in many [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musicals, including ''[[Anything Goes]]'', ''[[The Drowsy Chaperone]]'', ''[[Shrek (musical)|Shrek the Musical]]'', ''[[Little Women (musical)|Little Women]]'', and [[Mel Brooks|Mel Brooks']] ''[[Young Frankenstein (musical)|Young Frankenstein]]''. She has been nominated for four [[Tony Award]]s, winning one for her performance as Millie Dillmount in ''[[Thoroughly Modern Millie (musical)|Thoroughly Modern Millie]]''.

==Biography==
Foster was born in [[Statesboro, Georgia]] and raised in [[Troy, Michigan]]. At age fifteen, she was a contestant on the television show ''[[Star Search]]'' and also auditioned for the cast of ''[[The Mickey Mouse Club]]''. She left [[Troy High School (Michigan)|Troy High School]] before graduating (she received her diploma via correspondence courses) to join the national tour of ''[[The Will Rogers Follies]]'' directed by [[Tommy Tune]]. She then attended [[Carnegie Mellon University]] for one year, but left to pursue a theatrical career full-time. Her brother is actor [[Hunter Foster]].

Foster's first [[Broadway theater|Broadway]] role was Sandy Dumbrowski in ''[[Grease (musical)|Grease]]'' in 1996. She then appeared in ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel (musical)|The Scarlet Pimpernel]]'' and as Star to Be in ''[[Annie (musical)|Annie]]'' in 1997. Foster's next Broadway role was Eponine in ''[[Les Misérables (musical)|Les Misérables]]'' in 2000.

Foster's opportunity was reminiscent of ''[[42nd Street (musical)|42nd Street]]'' when, during rehearsals of the pre-Broadway run of ''[[Thoroughly Modern Millie (musical)|Thoroughly Modern Millie]]'' at the [[La Jolla Playhouse]] in [[San Diego]], she replaced leading lady [[Erin Dilly]].<ref>Ehren, Christine and Jones, Kenneth.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/55640-No-More-Dilly-Millie-Sutton-Foster-Takes-La-Jolla-Role No More Dilly Millie: Sutton Foster Takes La Jolla Role"] playbill.com, September 25, 2000</ref> Any apprehension about having an unknown playing the lead in a nearly $10 million Broadway production was proven unfounded when she opened at the [[Marquis Theatre]] to many positive reviews. ''The New York Daily News'' reviewer wrote that "newcomer Sutton Foster, who has the pert look, the silver voice and the dazzling legwork to make an extraordinarily winning Millie."<ref>Kissel, Howard. [http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/entertainment/2002/04/19/2002-04-19_you_ll_flip_for_sprightly_fl.html "You'll Flip For Sprightly Flappers Piece"]''New York Daily News'', April 19, 2002</ref> [[Clive Barnes]], reviewing for the ''New York Post'' wrote "Newcomer Sutton Foster's own star turn as Millie is perfectly charming, but as a star she doesn't twinkle, glitter or light up Broadway like a Christmas tree defying a July noon. But she has a good voice and is cutely agreeable."<ref>Barnes, Clive.[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/nypost/access/114851351.html?dids=114851351:114851351&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Apr+19%2C+2002&author=CLIVE+BARNES&pub=New+York+Post&desc=THOROUGHLY+MUDDLED+'MILLIE'+HITS+THE+BOARDS&pqatl=google Abstract THOROUGHLY MUDDLED 'MILLIE' HITS THE BOARDS"]''New York Post'', google.archive, April 19, 2002</ref> The ''Newsday'' reviewer wrote: "She has a smile that may remind you of Mary Tyler Moore, the gawky comic precision of the young Carol Burnett, the lyricism of a romantic heroine and a smallish but vibrant voice as accurate as it is expressive. As [Millie], another of New York's prototypical small- town girls with big-city dreams, [Sutton Foster] appears unfazed by the burden of a character created onscreen by Julie Andrews. The newcomer takes the big stage with an uninhibited what-the- heck comfort level and the discipline to go with her instincts."<ref>Winer, Linda. [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/newsday/access/114767316.html?dids=114767316:114767316&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Apr+19%2C+2002&author=Linda+Winer.+STAFF+WRITER&pub=Newsday+(Combined+editions)&desc=She's+Gonna+Make+It+After+All+%2F+Sutton+Foster+breaks+out+in+inspired+'Millie'&pqatl=google "Abstract: She's Gonna Make It After All / Sutton Foster breaks out in inspired 'Millie'"]''Newsday'', google.archive, April 19, 2002</ref> ''[[Time Magazine]]'' wrote: "she's [Sutton Foster] got the full package: girlish gawkiness and Broadway brass, the legs and the lungs. Foster is a big reason the show is just about the cutest thing to hit Broadway since Annie's dimples, with perkily retro songs by Jeanine Tesori and clever staging by director Michael Mayer..."<ref>Zoglin, Richard.[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1002348,00.html#ixzz0ums3ER00 "Kid, You're Gonna Come Back a Star!"]''Time'', April 29, 2002</ref> Foster went on to win the 2002 [[Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical]],<ref>[http://www.tonyawards.com/p/tonys_search?start=0&year=&award=&lname=&fname=&show=%3Ci%3EThoroughly+Modern+Millie%3C%2Fi%3E "Tony Award, 'Thoroughly Modern Millie', 2002"] tonyawards.com, accessed July 26, 2010</ref> the [[Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical]],<ref>[http://www.dramadesk.com/press007.html "Press release, Drama Desk Awards, 2001-2002"] dramadesk.com, May 19, 2002, accessed July 26, 2010</ref> and the [[Outer Critics Circle Award]] for Outstanding Actress in a Musical for her performance.<ref>[http://www.outercritics.org/AwardArchives.aspx?_y=2001-2002 Outer Critics Circle Awards, 2001-2002] outercritics.org, accessed July 26, 2010</ref><ref>Pogrebin, Robin.[http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/02/arts/theater/03TONY.html "At Tonys, 'Millie' Is Tops, but Its Book and Score Aren't"]''New York Times'', June 2, 2002</ref>

In 2005, Foster starred as Jo March opposite [[Maureen McGovern]] as Marmee in the musical adaptation of the [[Louisa May Alcott]] classic ''[[Little Women (musical)|Little Women]]'', for which she was nominated for her second Tony Award.<ref>Gans, Andrew.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/92856-2004-2005-Tony-Nominations-Announced-Spamalot-Garners-14-Nominations 2004-2005 "Tony Nominations Announced; Spamalot Garners 14 Nominations"] playbill.com, May 10, 2005</ref>

She returned to the Marquis Theatre in May 2006 in ''[[The Drowsy Chaperone]]'', a [[Parody|spoof]] of 1920s musicals. She played the role of Janet van de Graaff, a famous Broadway starlet who opts to forgo a stage career in favor of married life. Her performance earned her a third Tony nomination.<ref>[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/100236-Just-the-Facts-List-of-2006-Tony-Award-Winners-and-Nominees "Just the Facts: List of 2006 Tony Award Winners and Nominees"] playbill.com, June 11, 2006</ref>

In 2007, Foster appeared on television in ''[[Johnny and the Sprites]]'', a children's musical puppet show,<ref>Kalafatas, Greg
[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/104935-PHOTO-CALL-Sutton-Foster-Guest-Stars-on-Johnny-and-the-Sprites Sutton Foster Guest Stars on 'Johnny and the Sprites'"] playbill.com, January 16, 2007</ref> and in a three-episode [[story arc]] on the [[HBO]] series ''[[Flight of the Conchords (TV series)|Flight of the Conchords]]''.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1900397/ Listing] imdb.com, accessed July 26, 2010</ref>

Foster starred in Mel Brooks' musical adaptation of his film ''[[Young Frankenstein (musical)|Young Frankenstein]]'' as the German yodeling fraulein Inga from October 2007 to July 2008.<ref>[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/119193.html "Foster's Roll in the Hay in Young Frankenstein Is Over July 6"] ''Playbill''</ref>

She created the role of Princess Fiona in ''[[Shrek (musical)|Shrek the Musical]]'', which opened on Broadway December 14, 2008.<ref>Gans, Andrew.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/120408.html "Seattle Goes Green: Shrek the Musical Makes World Premiere Aug. 14"] playbill.com, August 14, 2008</ref> For this role Foster won her second [[Outer Critics Circle Award]] for Outstanding Actress in a Musical<ref>Gans, Andrew.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/129094-Billy+Elliot%2C+Carnage%2C+Ruined+and+Avenger+Are+Outer+Critics+Circle+Award+Winners "Billy Elliot, Carnage, Ruined and Avenger Are Outer Critics Circle Award Winners"] playbill.com, May 11, 2009</ref> and was nominated for her fourth Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical.<ref>Gans, Andrew and Jones, Kenneth.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/128922-Nominations-for-2009-Tony-Awards-Announced-Billy-Elliot-Earns-15-Nominations "Nominations for 2009 Tony Awards Announced; Billy Elliot Earns 15 Nominations"] playbill.com, May 5, 2009</ref> She played her final performance on January 3, 2010 when the show closed on Broadway.

Foster participated in a reading of a work-in-progress new musical, ''Bonnie and Clyde: A Folktale'', in June 2009. Her brother Hunter is writing the music for this musical.<ref name=ohio>Clawson, Kerry [http://www.ohio.com/entertainment/theater_reviews/83391352.html "Broadway star Sutton Foster coming to Cleveland"] ohio.com, February 2, 2010</ref>

''Wish'', Foster's debut solo album, was released on the [[Ghostlight Records]] label in February 2009. The songs range from jazz to pop to cabaret to Broadway.<ref>Gans, Andrew.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/126301-Shreks-Sutton-Foster-Releases-Solo-CD-Wish-Feb-17 "Shrek's Sutton Foster Releases Solo CD "Wish" Feb. 17"] playbill.com, February 17, 2009</ref> In 2010, Foster promoted the album with concert performances in [[Boston]], [[New York]], [[Chicago]], the [[Orange County Performing Arts Center]] in [[Orange County, California]], and [[Washington, D.C.]].<ref>[http://suttonfoster.com/concert-tour.htm "Concert tour schedule"] suttonfoster.com</ref>

Foster taught a Spring Semester class at [[New York University]]'s [[Tisch School of the Arts]] Undergraduate Department of Drama, beginning in January 2010, culminating in a cabaret performance at [[Joe's Pub]] in May. She is now on the faculty of NYU's New Studio on Broadway. She also taught a week long master class session at [[Ball State University]] (Muncie, IN) in January 2010.<ref name=ohio/> September 2010, she continued her relationship with [[Ball State University]] by working with students in the classroom, teaching master class sessions, and performing workshops for students of the Department of Theatre and Dance. In the spring of 2012, she will return to Ball State to co-direct ''[[The Drowsy Chaperone]]'' with department Chair, Bill Jenkins.

Foster starred as Nurse Fay Apple in the [[New York City Center]]'s [[Encores!]] production of ''[[Anyone Can Whistle]]'', which played from April 8 to April 11, 2010.<ref>[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/133865-Sutton_Foster_to_Star_in_Encores%21_Anyone_Can_Whistle "Sutton Foster to Star in Encores! 'Anyone Can Whistle'"], playbill.com</ref>

She also guest starred on an episode of ''[[Law & Order SVU]]'', which aired on March 3, 2010.<ref>[http://www.broadwayworld.com/article/Sutton_Foster_20010101 Sutton Foster Guest Stars on 'Law & Order: SVU' March 3]</ref>

Foster made her [[Off-Broadway]] debut in [[Paul Weitz (filmmaker)|Paul Weitz]]'s new comedy, ''Trust'' which began previews July 23, 2010 with an official opening August 12, running through September 12, 2010 at [[Second Stage Theatre]]. The play also starred [[Zach Braff]], [[Bobby Cannavale]], and [[Ari Graynor]].<ref>Gans, Andrew.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/139970-Braff-Cannavale-Foster-and-Graynor-Cast-in-Second-Stages-Trust Braff, Cannavale, Foster and Graynor Cast in Second Stage's Trust "Braff, Cannavale, Foster and Graynor Cast in Second Stage's 'Trust'"] playbill.com, June 1, 2010</ref>

Foster and [[Seth Rudetsky]] participated in the one night only [[Actors Fund]] benefit concert of ''[[They're Playing Our Song]]'' on August 30, 2010 at the Gerald W. Lynch Theatre, [[John Jay College]], New York. The full cast included Efé, Kaitlyn Davidson, Alex Ellis, Maynard, Matt Loehr, and Jesse Nager, and was directed by Denis Jones.<ref>Hetrick, Adam and Gans, Andrew.[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/142200-Full-Cast-of-Sutton-Foster-Seth-Rudetsky-Theyre-Playing-Our-Song-Announced "Full Cast of Sutton Foster-Seth Rudetsky 'They're Playing Our Song' Announced"] playbill.com, August 18, 2010</ref>

Foster performed at the [[Kennedy Center Honors|33rd Annual Kennedy Center Honors]] in a tribute to [[Jerry Herman]], singing "[[Hello Dolly! (musical)|Before the Parade Passes By]]."<ref>[http://www.playbill.com/multimedia/gallery/2000 Sutton Foster, Matthew Morrison, Chris Rock, Laura Benanti, Carol Channing, The Obamas and More at Kennedy Center Honors]</ref>

She is currently playing Reno Sweeney in the Broadway revival of ''[[Anything Goes]]'', which began performances on March 10, 2011 at the [[Stephen Sondheim Theatre]] and officially opened on April 7, 2011.<ref>[http://www.playbill.com/news/article/149578-Bon-Voyage-Anything-Goes-With-Sutton-Foster-and-Joel-Grey-Opens-on-Broadway "Bon Voyage! Anything Goes, With Sutton Foster and Joel Grey, Opens on Broadway"] playbill.com</ref>

==Credits==
;Broadway
* ''[[Anything Goes]]'' as Reno Sweeney (2011)
* ''[[Shrek the Musical]]'' as Princess Fiona (2008–2010)
* ''[[Young Frankenstein (musical)|Young Frankenstein]]'' as Inga (2007–2008)
* ''[[The Drowsy Chaperone]]'' as Janet Van De Graaff (2006–2007)
* ''[[Little Women (musical)|Little Women]]'' as Jo March (2005)
* ''[[Thoroughly Modern Millie (musical)|Thoroughly Modern Millie]]'' as Millie Dillmount (2002–2004)
* ''[[Les Misérables (musical)|Les Misérables]]'' as Eponine (2000)
* ''[[Annie (musical)|Annie]]'' as Star to Be (1997)
* ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel (musical)|The Scarlet Pimpernel]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Grease (musical)|Grease]]'' as Sandy Dumbrowski (1996)
;Off-Broadway
* ''Trust'' as Prudence (2010)
;Regional theatre
* ''[[Me and My Girl]]'' (2004)
* ''What the World Needs Now'' (1998)
* ''Dorian'' (2000)
* ''The Three Musketeers''
* ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]''
;Concerts
* ''[[They're Playing Our Song]]'' as Sonia Walsk (August 30, 2010)
* ''[[Anyone Can Whistle]]'' (Encores!) as Nurse Fay Apple (April 8–11, 2010)
* ''[[Funny Girl (musical)|Funny Girl]]'' (Concert) as Fanny Brice (September 23, 2002)
* ''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'' (Concert) as Svetlana (September 22, 2003)

;Television
* ''[[Johnny and the Sprites]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Flight of the Conchords (TV series)|Flight of the Conchords]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Law & Order: SVU]]'' (2010)

;Discography
* ''An Evening with Sutton Foster: Live at the Café Carlyle'' (2011)
* ''Wish'' First Solo Album
* ''Shrek The Musical'' Original Cast Recording
* ''Keys — The Music of Scott Alan''
* ''Young Frankenstein'' Original Cast Recording
* ''The Drowsy Chaperone'' Original Cast Recording
* ''Little Women'' Original Cast Recording
* ''The [[Maury Yeston]] Songbook''
* ''Thoroughly Modern Millie'' Original Cast Recording
* ''[[Jule Styne]] in Hollywood''

== Personal life ==
Foster is currently dating actor [[Bobby Cannavale]].<ref>http://www.broadway.com/shows/motherfker-hat/buzz/156031/bobby-cannavale-crowns-real-life-love-sutton-foster-the-motherfker-with-the-taps/</ref>

==Awards and nominations==
;Awards
* 2002 [[Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical]] - ''Thoroughly Modern Millie''
* 2002 [[Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical]] - ''Thoroughly Modern Millie''
* 2002 [[Outer Critics Circle Award]] for Outstanding Actress in a Musical - ''Thoroughly Modern Millie''
* 2002 [[Fred Astaire]] Award for Best Actress - ''Thoroughly Modern Millie''
* 2009 Outer Critics Circle Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical - ''Shrek the Musical''
;Nominations
* 2002 [[Drama League Award]] for Distinguished Performance - ''Thoroughly Modern Millie''
* 2005 [[Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical]] - ''Little Women''
* 2005 [[Drama League Award]] for Distinguished Performance - ''Little Women''
* 2006 [[Outer Critics Circle Award]] for Outstanding Actress in a Musical - ''Little Women''
* 2005 [[Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical]] - ''Little Women''
* 2006 [[Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical]] - ''The Drowsy Chaperone''
* 2006 [[Drama League Award]] for Distinguished Performance - ''The Drowsy Chaperone''
* 2006 [[Outer Critics Circle Award]] for Outstanding Actress in a Musical - ''The Drowsy Chaperone''
* 2006 [[Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical]] - ''The Drowsy Chaperone''
* 2008 [[Drama League Award]] for Distinguished Performance - ''Young Frankenstein''
* 2009 [[Drama League Award]] for Distinguished Performance - ''Shrek the Musical''
* 2009 [[Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical]] - ''Shrek the Musical''
* 2009 [[Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical]] - ''Shrek the Musical''
* 2011 [[Drama League Award]] for Distinguished Performance - ''Anything Goes''

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.suttonfoster.com Official Website]
* {{IBDB name|70151}}
* {{IMDb name|1900397}}
* [http://www.donshewey.com/theater_articles/sutton_foster.html Article on her role in ''Thoroughly Modern Millie'']
* [http://www.americantheatrewing.org/downstagecenter/detail/sutton_foster Sutton Foster] - ''Downstage Center'' interview at [[American Theatre Wing|American Theatre Wing.org]], May 2005
* [http://www.americantheatrewing.org/seminars/detail/performance_04_03 Performance] - ''Working in the Theatre Seminar'' video at [[American Theatre Wing|American Theatre Wing.org]], April 2003
* [http://www.tonyawards.com/en_US/interactive/video/index.html#f TonyAwards.com Interview with Sutton Foster]
* [http://www.riverfronttimes.com/2010-01-27/culture/sutton-foster-it-girl-of-broadway-musical-theater/ Riverfront Times interview with Sutton Foster about her upbringing]

{{Template group
|title = Awards for Sutton Foster
|list =
{{DramaDesk MusicalOutstandingActress 2001-2025}}
{{TonyAward MusicalLeadActress 2001-2025}}
}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Foster, Sutton
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =March 18, 1975
| PLACE OF BIRTH =[[Statesboro, Georgia]], [[United States|USA]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Foster, Sutton}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American female singers]]
[[Category:American musical theatre actors]]
[[Category:American stage actors]]
[[Category:Carnegie Mellon University alumni]]
[[Category:People from Troy, Michigan]]
[[Category:Tony Award winners]]
[[Category:People from Bulloch County, Georgia]]
[[Category:Actors from Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Actors from Michigan]]
[[Category:New York University faculty]]

Eric Ashby, Baron Ashby

2011-04-25T16:28:41Z

GcSwRhIc: AAAS Foreign Honorary Member with ref

[[Image:Ashby building QUB.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Ashby Building, [[Queen's University Belfast]]]]
'''Eric Ashby, Baron Ashby''' [[Royal Society|FRS]] (24 August 1904 – 22 October 1992) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] botanist and educator.

Born in [[Leytonstone]] in [[Essex]], he was educated at the [[City of London School]] and the [[Royal College of Science]], where he graduated with a [[Bachelor of Science]]. He was then demonstrator at the [[Imperial College]] from 1926 to 1929. In 1929, he received a [[Harkness Fellowship]] to the [[University of Chicago]].<ref>[http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/fellowship/obits/obits_alpha/ashby_baron.pdf]</ref> Ashby was lecturer at Imperial College from 1931 to 1935 and at the University of Bristol from 1935 to 1938.

Ashby married Elizabeth Helen Margaret Farries, whom he met while they were working together on incineration techniques for measuring carbon in tissue. They had two children, Michael and Peter.

In 1938, Ashby became professor of botany at the [[University of Sydney]], a post he held until 1946. Between 1944 and 1945, he was Scientific Counsellor to [[Moscow]]. From 1947 to 1950, he was chair of botany at the [[University of Manchester]] and from 1950 to 1959 president and vice-chancellor of Queen's University, Belfast. For the [[University of Cambridge]], he was Master of the [[Clare College, Cambridge]] from 1959 to 1967 and vice-chancellor from 1967 to 1969. From 1968 to 1974 he was Chairman of the Governors at [[Culford School]]; and between 1970 and 1973, he was chair of the [[Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution]]. Ashby was knighted in 1956, and was created a [[life peer]] as '''Baron Ashby''', of Brandon in the County of [[Suffolk]].

Ashby was secretary of the [[Society for Experimental Biology]] from 1935 to 1938 and president of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] from 1962 to 1963. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1961.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter A|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=25 April 2011}}</ref> In 1968, he received the Centenary Medal of the [[Royal Society of Tasmania]] and in 1973, he became president and chancellor of the [[Queen's University, Belfast]]. He was adviser to the [[British National Fruit Traders Association]] and a fellow of the [[Royal Society]] (FRS).

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite web | url= http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/2003A+Pmodules/macleay/ashby.html| title= University of Sydney - Profile| accessdate= 2007-03-30 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061002024607/http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/2003A+Pmodules/macleay/ashby.html  |archivedate = 2006-10-02}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/50791 |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |accessdate=2008-07-08 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date= 2004}}

==See also==
{{Portal box|Biography}}
[[List of Old Citizens]]

{{start box}}
{{s-aca}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Henry Thirkill]]|
title=[[Clare College, Cambridge|Master of Clare College, Cambridge]] |
years=1958–1975|
after=[[Robin Matthews (economist)|Robert Charles Oliver Matthews]]
}}
{{succession box|title=[[Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge]]|before=[[Arthur Llewellyn Armitage]]|after=[[Owen Chadwick]]|years=1967–1969}}
{{s-end}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Ashby, Eric
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ashby, Eric}}
[[Category:1904 births]]
[[Category:1992 deaths]]
[[Category:Academics of Imperial College London]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Bristol]]
[[Category:Academics of Queen's University Belfast]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Fellows of Clare College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Masters of Clare College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Vice-Chancellors of the University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Manchester]]
[[Category:University of Sydney faculty]]
[[Category:People associated with Queen's University Belfast]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Harkness Fellows]]
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]
[[Category:Life peers]]
[[Category:Old Citizens (City of London School)]]
[[Category:Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]

{{Life-peer-stub}}

Papst (Titel)

2011-04-19T15:42:34Z

GcSwRhIc: Reverted 1 edit by Commander0604 (talk); Rm container category. (TW)

{{About|the leader of the Catholic Church|the Incumbent Pope|Pope Benedict XVI|other uses}}
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{Infobox Bishopric
|border = catholic
|font_color = black
|bishopric = [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]
|coatofarms = Coat of arms of the Holy See.svg
|image = Pope Benedictus XVI january,20 2006 (2) mod.jpg
|incumbent = [[Benedict XVI]] Elected: 19 April 2005
|episcopal conference = [[List_of_Roman_Catholic_dioceses_(structured_view)#Episcopal_Conference_of_Italy|Italy]]
|province = [[List of Roman Catholic dioceses (structured view)#Ecclesiastical Province of Rome|Ecclesiastical Province of Rome]]
|diocese = [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]
|cathedral = [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]]
|first_bishop = According to Catholic tradition, [[Saint Peter]]
|date = According to Catholic tradition, the first century
|website = [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm The Holy Father]
}}
The '''Pope''' (from ''{{lang-la|papa}}''; from {{lang-el|πάππας}} (pappas),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/pope |title=American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Education.yahoo.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> a child's word for ''father'')<ref>{{cite web|url=http://artfl.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.51:9:99.lsj |title=Liddell and Scott |publisher=Artfl.uchicago.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> is the [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|Bishop]] of [[diocese of Rome|Rome]], a position that makes him the [[Leadership|leader]] of the worldwide [[Catholic Church]] (which is composed of the [[Latin Rite]] and the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] in [[full communion]] with the [[episcopal see|see]] of Rome). The current office-holder is [[Pope Benedict XVI|Pope Benedict XVI]], who was elected in a [[Papal conclave, 2005|papal conclave]] on 19 April 2005.{{#tag:ref| The [[Annuario Pontificio]], the list of popes, does not assign numbers to the positions in its listing.|group=nb}}

The office of the pope is known as the ''Papacy''. His [[ecclesiastical jurisdiction]] is often called the "[[Holy See]]" (''Sancta Sedes'' in Latin), or the "[[Apostolic See]]" based upon the Church tradition that the Apostles [[Saint Peter]] and [[Paul the Apostle|Saint Paul]] were [[martyr]]ed in [[Rome]]. The pope is also [[head of state]] of [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vaticanstate.va/EN/State_and_Government/ |title=Vatican City State - State and Government |publisher=Vaticanstate.va |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> a sovereign [[city-state]] entirely [[Enclave and exclave|enclaved]] within the city of Rome.

Early popes helped to spread [[Christianity]] and resolve [[doctrinal]] disputes.<ref name = "World History" /> After the [[Conversion to Christianity|conversion]] of the rulers of the [[Roman Empire]] (the conversion of the populace was already advanced even before the [[Edict of Milan]], 313), the [[Roman emperor]]s became the popes' secular allies until the 8th century when [[Pope Stephen II]] was forced to appeal to the [[Franks]] for help,<ref name="AF:CC">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972. Chapter XXI: Christianity in Conflict 529-1085. p. 517–551</ref> beginning a period of close interaction with the rulers of the west. For centuries, the [[Donation of Constantine]], later proved to be a forgery, provided support for the papacy's claim of political supremacy over the entire former [[Western Roman Empire]]. In [[medieval]] times, popes played powerful roles in Western Europe, often struggling with monarchs for control over the wide-ranging affairs of [[Catholic Church|Church]] and [[State (polity)|state]],<ref name="World History"/> crowning [[emperor]]s ([[Charlemagne]] was the first emperor crowned by a pope), and regulating disputes among [[Secular state|secular rulers]].<ref>Such as regulating the [[colonization]] of the [[New World]]. See [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] and [[Inter caetera]].</ref>

Gradually forced to give up temporal power, popes now focus almost exclusively on religious matters.<ref name = "World History" /> Over the centuries, papal claims of spiritual authority have been ever more clearly expressed, culminating in 1870 with the proclamation of the [[Dogma (Roman Catholic)|dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for rare occasions when the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' (literally "from the chair (of [[St. Peter]])") to issue a formal definition of [[dogma|faith]] or [[morals]].<ref name = "World History" /> The first (after the proclamation) and so far the last such occasion was in 1950, with the definition of the dogma of the [[Assumption of Mary]].

==History==
{{Roman Catholicism}}
{{Main|History of the Papacy}}

The word ''Pope'' derives from [[Greek language|Greek]] '''πάππας''' meaning "Father". This title was first assumed by the [[Pope of Alexandria|Patriarchs of Alexandria]], long before it was assumed by the Bishops of Rome. In fact, the first to carry the title of Pope was the Patriarch of Alexandria, [[Pope Heraclas of Alexandria|Pope Heracleus]] (232–49 AD), the 13th Alexandrine Patriarch.<ref name="amazon1">{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/gp/richpub/syltguides/fullview/W4O42BT6T7FQ |title=Get to Know Popes of East & West |publisher=Amazon |date= | accessdate =2010-11-7}}</ref><ref>History of the Coptic Church, [[Iris Habib Elmasry]].</ref> Papa has been the specific designation for the Archbishop of Alexandria, Patriarch of Egypt, and the See of Saint Mark, whose ecclessiastic title is "Papa Abba", the Abba stands for the devotion of all monastics, from [[Pentapolis]] in the West to [[Constantinople]] in the East, to his guidance. Abba is the most powerful designation, that for all monks in the East to voluntarily follow his spiritual authority.<ref name="amazon1" /> The first record in history of the term "Pope" is assigned to [[Pope Heraclas of Alexandria]] in a letter written by the bishop of Rome, [[Pope Dionysius|Dionysius]], to Philemon:
{{quote|τοῦτον ἐγὼ τὸν κανόνα καὶ τὸν τύπον παρὰ τοῦ μακαρίου πάπα ἡμῶν Ἡρακλᾶ παρέλαβον<ref>Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica Book VII, chapter 7.7</ref>.}}

Which translates into:
{{quote|I received this rule and ordinance from our blessed pope, Heraclas.}}

It is difficult to ascertain the identity of the first Bishop of Rome to carry the title [[Pope of Rome]]. Some sources suggest that it was [[Pope Marcellinus]] (d. 304 AD),<ref name= "autogenerated2005">{{citation | title = Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2005 | ISBN = 978-0-19-280290-3 | contribution = Pope}}.</ref> while other sources suggest that this did not happen until the 6th century, with [[Pope John I]] (523–6 AD) the first to assume this title.<ref name="amazon1"/> Bestowing the title on Rome's Pontiff did not strip it from Alexandria's, and the Roman Catholic Church recognizes this ecclesiastical fact.<ref name="amazon1"/> From the 6th century, the imperial chancery of Constantinople normally reserved this designation for the Bishop of Rome. From the early 6th century, it began to be confined in the West to the Bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the 11th century, when Pope Gregory VII declared it reserved for the Bishop of Rome.<ref name="autogenerated2005"/>

Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to [[Saint Peter]], whom, according to Roman Catholic teaching, [[Jesus]] named as the [[Shepherd#In religion|"shepherd"]] and "rock" of the Catholic Church, which according to Catholic dogma is the [[one true faith|one true Church]] founded by Christ.<ref>{{citation |url= http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church | accessdate = 2008-8-2 |publisher=Vatican Library | place = VA | pages = 880–4}}.</ref><ref>"St. Peter, ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]''</ref> Peter never bore the ''title'' of "Pope", which came into use three centuries later, but Catholics traditionally recognize him as the first Pope,<ref>Wilken, p. 281: "Some (Christian communities) had been founded by Peter, the disciple Jesus designated as the founder of his church. …Once the position was institutionalized, historians looked back and recognized Peter as the first pope of the Christian church in Rome"</ref> while official declarations of the Church only speak of the Popes as holding within the college of the Bishops a role analogous to that held by Peter within the college of the Apostles, of which the college of the Bishops, a distinct entity, is the successor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |title=Second Vatican Council, ''Lumen Gentium'', 22 |publisher=Vatican | location = Rome |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref><ref>{{citation | publisher = Vatican | place = Rome | url = http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19921007en.html | author = [[Pope John Paul II]] | title = Talk | date = 7 October 1992}}.</ref><ref>{{citation | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=j8-GHiYUSX8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dulles+catholicity#v=onepage&q=episcopal%20college&f=false | author = [[Avery Dulles]] | title = The Catholicity of the Church | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1987 | ISBN = 0-19-826695-2 | page = 140}}.</ref>

Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome.<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=O'Grady |title=The Roman Catholic church: its origins and nature |page=143 |isbn= 0809137402}}</ref> The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus personally appointed Peter as leader of the Church and in its dogmatic constitution ''[[Lumen Gentium]]'' makes a clear distinction between apostles and bishops, presenting the latter as the successors of the former, with the Pope as successor of Peter in that he is head of the bishops as Peter was head of the apostles.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |title=''Lumen gentium'', 22 |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome and founded the episcopal see there can be traced back no earlier than the 3rd century.<ref name="O'Grady 146">{{cite book |first=John |last= O'Grady |title=The Roman Catholic church: its origins and nature |page=146 |isbn= 0809137402}}</ref> The writings of the [[Church Father]] [[Irenaeus]] who wrote around 180 AD reflect a belief that Peter "founded and organised" the Church at Rome.<ref>{{cite book |first=J. |last=Stevenson |title=A New Eusebius| page=114 |isbn=0281008027}}</ref> However, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peter's presence in the early Roman Church. [[Clement of Rome]] wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, ''c.'' 96<ref name="fn_2">{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1010.htm |title=Letter of Clement to the Corinthians | publisher = New Advent | work = Fathers}}</ref> about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the “struggles in our time” and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, “first, the greatest and most just columns, the “good apostles” Peter and Paul.<ref name="Gröber, 510">Gröber, 510</ref> [[St. Ignatius of Antioch]] wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did.<ref name="fn_3">{{cite web |url= http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_article/244/Letter_of_Ignatius_of_Antioch_to_the_Romans.html |title= Letter of Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans | publisher = Crossroads Initiative}}</ref> Given this and other evidence, many scholars agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero, although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in Palestine.<ref>{{citation | quote = [M]any scholars… accept Rome as the location of the martyrdom and the reign of Nero as the time | first = Daniel William | last = O’Connor | contribution = Saint Peter the Apostle | title = Encyclopædia Britannica | year = 2009 | date = 25 November 2009 | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/453832/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle}}.</ref><ref>{{citation | language = German | title = Zeitschr. fur Kirchengesch. | year = 1901 | pages = 1 sqq., 161 sqq.}}.</ref><ref>''The Secrets of the 12 Disciples'', [[Channel 4]], transmitted on 23 March 2008.</ref>

Various Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches. Gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas.<ref name="O'Grady 140">{{cite book |first=John |last=O'Grady |title=The Roman Catholic church: its origins and nature |page=140 |isbn=0809137402}}</ref> It has been conjectured{{Who|date=November 2010}} that Antioch, where Peter was before he went to Rome, may have been one of the first Christian communities to have adopted such a structure.<ref name="O'Grady 140" /> In Rome there were many who claimed to be the rightful bishop though again Irenaeus stressed the validity of one line of bishops from the time of St. Peter up to his contemporary [[Pope Victor I]] and listed them.<ref>{{cite book | first=J |last=Stevenson |title=A New Eusebius| pages=114–115 |isbn=0281008027}}</ref> Some{{Who|date=November 2010}} writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops but not necessarily monarchical bishops.<ref name="O'Grady 146"/> This would not affect their authority as Popes in Catholic Theology.

The [[See of Rome|Holy See]] was accorded prominence in the early Church period in issues related to matters of the whole [[Catholic Church]].<ref>"From an historical perspective, there is no conclusive documentary evidence from the first century or the early decades of the second of the exercise of, or even the claim to, a primacy of the Roman bishop or to a connection with Peter, although documents from this period accord the church at Rome some kind of pre‑eminence" ([http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8523 Emmanuel Clapsis, Papal Primacy], extract from ''Orthodoxy in Conversation'' (2000), p. 110]); and "The see of Rome, whose prominence was associated with the deaths of Peter and Paul, became the principle center in matters concerning the universal Church" (Clapsis, p. 102). The same writer quotes with approval the words of [[Pope Benedict XVI|Joseph Ratzinger]]: "In Phanar, on 25 July 1976, when [[Patriarch Athenagoras I of Constantinople|Patriarch Athenegoras]] addressed [[Pope Paul VI|the visiting pope]] as Peter's successor, the first in honor among us, and the presider over charity, this great church leader was expressing the essential content of the declarations of the primacy of the first millennium" (Clapsis, p. 113).</ref>

===Early Christianity (''c.'' 30–325)===
It seems that at first the terms 'episcopos' and 'presbyter' were used interchangeably.<ref>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 1997 edition revised 2005, page 211: "It seems that at first the terms 'episcopos' and 'presbyter' were used interchangeably…"</ref> The consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable.<ref>Cambridge History of Christianity, volume 1, 2006, "The general consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the first and second centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable."</ref> There was probably no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century ... and likely later."<ref>Cambridge History of Christianity, volume 1, 2006, page 418: "Probably there was no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the second century ... and likely later."</ref> Other scholars and historians disagree, citing the historical records of [[St. Ignatius of Antioch]] and [[St. Irenaeus]] who recorded the linear succession of Bishops of Rome (the Popes) up until their own times. They also cite the importance accorded to the Popes in the [[ecumenical councils]], including the early ones.<ref>http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/1991/9101fea2.asp</ref>

In the early Christian era, Rome and a few other cities had claims on the leadership of worldwide Catholic Church. [[James the Just]], known as "the brother of the Lord", served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honored as the "Mother Church" in Orthodox tradition. Alexandria had been a center of Jewish learning and became a center of Christian learning. Rome had a large congregation early in the apostolic period whom Paul the Apostle addressed in his [[Epistle to the Romans]], and according to tradition Paul was martyred there.

During the 1st century of the Church (''ca.'' 30–130), the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance. [[Pope Clement I]] at the end of the 1st century wrote an epistle to the Church in [[Roman Corinth|Corinth]] intervening in a major dispute, and apologizing for not having taken action earlier.<ref>Chadwick, Henry, ''Oxford History of Christianity'', OUP, quote: "Towards the latter part of the 1st century, Rome's presiding cleric named Clement wrote on behalf of his church to remonstrate with the Corinthian Christians who had ejected clergy without either financial or charismatic endowment in favor of a fresh lot; Clement apologized not for intervening but for not having acted sooner. Moreover, during the second century the Roman community's leadership was evident in its generous alms to poorer churches. About 165 they erected monuments to their martyred apostles, to Peter in a necropolis on the Vatican Hill, to Paul on the road to Ostia, at the traditional sites of their burial. Roman bishops were already conscious of being custodians of the authentic tradition of true interpretation of the apostolic writings. In the conflict with Gnosticism Rome played a decisive role, and likewise in the deep division in Asia Minor created by the claims of the Montanist prophets."</ref> However, there are only a few other references of that time to recognition of the [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|authoritative primacy]] of the [[Holy See|Roman See]] outside of Rome. In the [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/ch_orthodox_docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20071013_documento-ravenna_en.html Ravenna Document] of 13 October 2007, theologians chosen by the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated: "41. Both sides agree… that Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St [[Ignatius of Antioch]] ([http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_article/244/Letter_of_Ignatius_of_Antioch_to_the_Romans.html ''To the Romans''], Prologue), occupied the first place in the ''taxis'', and that the [[bishop]] of Rome was therefore the ''protos'' among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the Bishop of Rome as ''protos'', a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium." In addition, in the last years of the 1st century AD the Church in Rome [[Epistles of Clement|intervened]] in the affairs of the Christian Church in [[Roman Corinth|Corinth]] to help solve their internal disputes.

Later in the 2nd century AD, there were more manifestations of Roman authority over other churches. In 189 AD, assertion of the primacy of the Church of Rome may be indicated in [[Irenaeus of Lyons]]'s ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]'' (3:3:2): "With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." In 195 AD, [[Pope Victor I]], in what is seen as an exercise of Roman authority over other churches, excommunicated the [[Quartodecimans]] for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan, the date of the Jewish [[Passover]], a tradition handed down by [[John the Evangelist|St. John the Evangelist]] (see [[Easter controversy]]). Celebration of Easter on a Sunday, as insisted on by the Pope, is the system that has prevailed (see [[computus]]).

Early popes helped spread Christianity and resolve doctrinal disputes.<ref name = "World History"/>

===Nicaea to East-West Schism (325–1054)===
During these seven centuries, the church unified by Emperor Constantine within his empire effectively split first, after the 451 [[Council of Chalcedon]], into [[Chalcedonian Christianity]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], and then, after the 1054 [[East-West Schism]], into a [[Greek East and Latin West]]. In the West, the pope became independent of the Emperor in the East and became a major force in politics there.

====Imperial capitals: Rome and Constantinople====
With the conversion of Roman Emperor [[Constantine I|Constantine]] to Christianity and the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicea]], the Christian religion received imperial sanction.

At the time of the Council (325), Rome was still seen as the capital of the empire, although the emperor rarely lived there. With the establishment of a new fixed capital in [[Constantinople]] (330), there arose a new center, which quickly grew in prominence, rivaling those in Rome, Alexandria and Antioch, which previously had been the most important centers of Christianity.

Of these, Rome claimed the principal place, as illustrated by [[Pope Leo I|Pope Leo the Great]]'s statement, in about 446, that "the care of the universal Church should converge towards Peter's one seat, and nothing anywhere should be separated from its Head",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3604014.htm |title=Letter XIV |publisher=New Advent |date= |accessdate= 2010-8-11}}</ref> clearly articulating the expansion of papal authority as doctrine, and promulgating his right to exercise "the full range of apostolic powers that Jesus had first bestowed on the apostle Peter".

The early [[ecumenical council]]s, especially the [[First Council of Constantinople]] (381), affirmed the importance of the Bishop of Rome's position, though all the councils in the Church's early history took place in cities in the East, and the Pope did not personally attend the council in 381. At the ecumenical [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451, Leo I (through his emissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter". At this same council, the Bishop of Constantinople was given "equal privileges" to those of the Bishop of Rome, because "Constantinople is the New Rome". Pope Leo rejected this decree on the ground that it contravened the sixth canon of Nicaea and infringed the rights of Alexandria and Antioch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Council_of_Chalcedon |title=Council of Chalcedon (1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica) |publisher= 1911 Encyclopedia | date =2006-10-06 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref>

====Medieval development====
[[File:Gregorythegreat.jpg|thumb|upright|Gregory the Great (''c'' 540–604) who established medieval themes in the Church, in a painting by [[Carlo Saraceni]], circa 1610, Rome.]]
After the fall of Rome, the pope served as a source of authority and continuity. [[Gregory the Great]] (''c'' 540–604) administered the church with strict reform. From an ancient senatorial family, Gregory worked with the stern judgment and discipline typical of ancient Roman rule. Theologically, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook, his popular writings full of dramatic miracles, potent relics, demons, angels, ghosts, and the approaching end of the world.<ref name="AF:CC"/>

Gregory's successors were largely dominated by the exarch or the Eastern emperor. These humiliations, the weakening of the Empire in the face of Muslim expansion, and the inability of the Emperor to protect the papal estates made Pope Stephen II turn from the Emperor. Seeking protection against the Lombards and getting no help from Emperor Constantine V, the pope appealed to the Franks to protect his lands. [[Pepin the Short]] subdued the [[Lombards]] and donated Italian land to the Papacy. When Leo III crowned [[Charlemagne]] (800), he established the precedent that no man would be emperor without anointment by a pope.<ref name="AF:CC"/>

Around 850, a forger, probably from among the French opposers of [[Hincmar]], [[Archbishop]] of [[Reims]]<ref name = ODCC:fd>"False Decretals." Cross, FL, ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005.</ref> made a collection of church legislation that contained forgeries and genuine documents. At first some attacked it as false, but it was taken as genuine throughout the rest of the [[Middle Ages]]<ref name=ODCC:fd/><ref name=EB:fd>{{citation | title =Encyclopædia Britannica |url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/200996/False-Decretals | contribution = False Decretals |publisher= Britannica |date= |accessdate = 2010-8-11}}</ref> It is now known as the [[False Decretals]]. It was part of a series of falsifications of previous legislation by a party in the Carolingian Empire whose primary aim was to free the church and the bishops from interference by the state and the [[Metropolitan archbishop#Roman Catholic| metropolitan archbishops]] respectively,<ref name=ODCC:fd/><ref name =EB:fd/> and who were concerned for papal supremacy as guaranteeing those rights.<ref name= ODCC:fd/> The author, a French cleric calling himself Isidore Mercator, created false documents purportedly by early church popes, demonstrating that supremacy of the papacy dated back to the church's oldest traditions.<ref name="AF:CC"/> The decretals include the ''[[Donation of Constantine]]'', in which [[Constantine I|Constantine]] grants [[Pope Sylvester I]] secular authority over all Western Europe.<ref name="AFself">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972, pp. 525–6.</ref> Thanks to this forgery in the collection, the decretals became one of the most persuasive forgeries in the history of the West. It supported Papal policies for centuries.<ref name="AF:CC"/>

[[Pope Nicholas I]] (858–67) asserted that the pope should have suzerain authority over all Christians, even royalty, in matters of faith and morals. Only Photius, bishop of Constantinople, dared gainsay him. After his death, the authority of the papacy was acknowledged more widely than ever before.<ref name="AF:CC"/>

The low point of the Papacy was 867–1049.<ref name = "AF"/> The Papacy came under the control of vying political factions. Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed and deposed by force. The family of a certain papal official made and unmade popes for fifty years. The official's great-grandson, [[Pope John XII]], held orgies of debauchery in the Lateran palace. Emperor Otto I of Germany had John accused in an ecclesiastical court, which deposed him and elected a layman as [[Pope Leo VIII]]. John mutilated the Imperial representatives in Rome and had himself reinstated as Pope. Conflict between the Emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly.<ref name="AF"/>

In 1049, [[Leo IX]] became pope, at last a pope with the character to face the papacy's problems. He traveled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably the sale of church offices or services ([[simony]]) and clerical marriage and concubinage. With his long journey, he restored the prestige of the Papacy in the north.<ref name="AF"/>

===East–West Schism to Reformation (1054–1517)===
[[File:Mediterranean1400.png|thumb|300px|right|An historical map of the [[Mediterranian]] states in 1400. The [[Western Schism]] lasted from 1378 to 1417.]]
The East and West churches split definitively in 1054. This fracture was caused more by political events than by slight diversities of creed. Popes had galled the emperors by siding with the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, appropriating the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]], and driving into Greek Italy.<ref name = "AF">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972</ref>

In the [[Middle Ages]], popes struggled with monarchs over power.<ref name = "World History"/>

From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in [[Rome]] but in [[Avignon]]. The [[Avignon Papacy]] was notorious for greed and corruption.<ref name= "R:RCC">{{citation | authorlink = Will Durant | last = Durant | first = Will | title = The Reformation | place = New York | publisher = Simon and Schuster | year = 1957 | chapter = I. The Roman Catholic Church. 1300–1517 | pages = 3–25}}.</ref> During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of France, alienating France's enemies, such as England.<ref name="R:EWCGR">{{citation | authorlink = Will Durant | | last = Durant | first = Will | title = The Reformation | place = New York | publisher = Simon and Schuster | year = 1957 | chapter = II. England: Wyclif, Chaucer, and the Great Revolt. 1308–1400 | pages = 26–57}}.</ref>

The pope was understood to have the power to draw on the "treasury" of merit built up by the saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences, reducing one's time in [[purgatory]]. The concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common assumption that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution. The Popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses, but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences.<ref name="R:RCC"/>

Popes also contended with the cardinals, who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of councils over the pope's. Conciliar theory holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a General Council, not with the pope. Its foundations were laid early in the 13th century, and it culminated in the 15th century. The failure of the conciliar theory to gain broad acceptance after the 15th century is taken as a factor in the Protestant Reformation.<ref name="ReferenceA">"Conciliar theory." Cross, FL, ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005.</ref>

Various anti-popes challenged papal authority, especially during the [[Western Schism]] (1378–1417). In this schism, the papacy had returned to Rome from Avignon, but an anti-pope was installed in Avignon, as if to extend the papacy there.

The Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, undercutting Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Twice an Eastern Emperor tried to force the Eastern Church to reunify with the West. Papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification, which failed in any event. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople.

===Reformation to present (1517 to today)===
[[File:Council Trent.jpg|thumb|As part of the Catholic Reformation, [[Pope Paul III]] (1534–49) initiated the [[Council of Trent]] (1545–63), which established the triumph of the Papacy over those who sought to reconcile with Protestants or oppose Papal claims.]]
Protestant Reformers criticized the Papacy as corrupt and characterized the pope as the [[antichrist]].

Popes instituted a [[Counter-Reformation|Catholic Reformation]]<ref name = "World History"/> (1560–1648), which addressed challenges of the [[Protestant Reformation]] and instituted internal reforms. Pope Paul III (1534–49) initiated the [[Council of Trent]] (1545–63), whose definitions of doctrine and whose reforms sealed the triumph of the Papacy over elements in the church that sought conciliation with Protestants and opposed Papal claims.<ref>"Counter-Reformation." Cross, FL, ed., The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>

Gradually forced to give up secular power,<ref>The [[Papal States]] were completely annexed by [[Napoleon]] from 1798 to 1800, and again from 1808 until the emperor's downfall in 1814. Almost all was incorporated into the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Kingdom of Italy]] in 1860 and the popes lost the last remnant (Rome and the surrounding area) in 1870.</ref> popes focused on spiritual issues.<ref name = "World History"/>

In 1870, the [[First Vatican Council]] proclaimed the [[dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of [[dogma|faith]] or [[morals]].<ref name = "World History">Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt & co. 1994.</ref>

Later in the same year, Victor Emmanuel II [[Capture of Rome|seized Rome]] from the pope's control and substantially completed the unification of Italy. The Papal States that the pope lost had been used to support papal independence.<ref name="World History"/>

In 1929, the [[Lateran Treaty]] between Italy and Pope Pius XI established the [[Vatican City State]], guaranteeing papal independence from secular rule.<ref name="World History"/>

In 1950, the pope defined the [[Assumption of Mary]] as dogma, the only time that a pope has spoken ''ex cathedra'' since papal infallibility was explicitly declared.

The [[Petrine Doctrine]] is still controversial as an issue of doctrine that continues to divide the eastern and western churches and separate Protestants from Rome.

==Saint Peter and the origin of the office==
{{See also|Primacy of Simon Peter}}
The [[dogma]]s and traditions of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] teach that the institution of the papacy was first mandated by interpretations of several Biblical passages, mainly Matthew 16:13–19:<ref group="nb" name="ex01">Also Isaiah 22:20–22, John 21:15–17, Luke 12:41, and Luke 22:31–32.</ref>

{{quote |When Jesus came into the coasts of [[Caesarea]] Philippi, he asked his disciples, saying, Whom do men say that I the Son of man am? …And Simon Peter answered and said, Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God. And Jesus answered and said unto him, Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven. And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.}}

Catholics believe that this passage shows Jesus establishing his church on the shoulders of Simon son of John (Peter). Some authorities have previously asserted that the "rock" Jesus referred to was Jesus himself or was Peter's faith. The general scholarly consensus is that this account is accurate, and most modern scholars agree with the straightforward interpretation that the "rock" Jesus refers to in this passage is Peter.<ref>{{citation | first = Daniel William | last = O'Connor | contribution Saint Peter the Apostle | title = Encyclopædia Britannica | year = 2009 | date = 27 November 2009 | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/453832/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle | quote = the consensus of the great majority of scholars today}}.</ref>

The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here is the basis for the symbolic keys often found in Catholic papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms (see below).{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

==Election, death and resignation==
===Election===
{{Main|Papal conclave}}
[[File:Christ Handing the Keys to St. Peter by Pietro Perugino.jpg|thumb|''The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter'' painted by [[Pietro Perugino]] (1492)]]
The pope was originally chosen by those senior [[clergy]]men resident in and near Rome. In 1059 the electorate was restricted to the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. [[Pope Urban VI]], elected 1378, was the last pope who was not already a cardinal at his election. [[Canon law]] requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80.

The [[Second Council of Lyons]] was convened on 7 May 1274, to regulate the election of the pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year ''[[Sede Vacante]]'' following the death of [[Pope Clement IV]] in 1268. By the mid-16th century, the electoral process had evolved into its present form, allowing for variation in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.

Traditionally, the vote was conducted by [[acclamation]], by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in 1621. [[Pope John Paul II]] abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all Popes will be elected by full vote of the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]] by [[ballot]].

[[File:Konklave Konzilsgebaude Konstanz.jpg|thumb|left|The conclave in [[Konstanz]] where [[Pope Martin V]] was elected]]
The election of the pope almost always takes place in the [[Sistine Chapel]], in a sequestered meeting called a "[[Papal conclave|conclave]]" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, ''cum clave'', until they elect a new pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar (in the 2005 conclave, a special urn was used for this purpose instead of a chalice and plate). The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for electors to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the ballots are counted while still folded; if the number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Otherwise, each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a Pope is elected by a two-thirds majority.<ref>With the promulgation of ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]'' in 1996, a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days was allowed, but this was revoked by Pope [[Benedict XVI]] by ''[[motu proprio]]'' in 2007.</ref>
[[File:Habemus Papam 1415.jpg|thumb|The formal declaration of "[[Habemus Papam]]" after the election of Pope Martin V]]

One of the most prominent aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special stove erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from [[St. Peter's Square]]. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound to create black smoke, or ''fumata nera''. (Traditionally, wet straw was used to produce the black smoke, but this was not completely reliable. The chemical compound is more reliable than the straw.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (''fumata bianca'') through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. At the end of the conclave that elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]], church bells were also rung to signal that a new pope had been chosen.

The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks two solemn questions of the cardinal who has been elected. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word ''"Accepto"'', his reign as Pope begins at that instant, ''not'' at the inauguration ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the [[regnal name]] he has chosen. (If the Dean is elected pope, the Vice Dean performs this task.)

The new pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room where three sets of white papal vestments (''immantatio'') await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]" by the [[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church]], whom he first either reconfirms or reappoints. The pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" (''adoratio'') and to receive his blessing.

The [[Cardinal protodeacon|Senior Cardinal Deacon]] then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following [[Habemus Papam|proclamation]]: ''Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!'' ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!"). He then announces the new pope's Christian name along with his newly chosen regnal name.

Until 1978 the pope's election was followed in a few days by the [[Papal Coronation]]. A procession with great pomp and circumstance formed from the [[Sistine Chapel]] to [[St. Peter's Basilica]], with the newly elected pope borne in the ''[[sedia gestatoria]]''. There, after a solemn [[Papal Mass]], the new pope was crowned with the ''[[Papal Tiara|triregnum]]'' (papal tiara) and he gave for the first time as pope the famous blessing ''[[Urbi et Orbi]]'' ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another renowned part of the coronation was the lighting of a bundle of [[flax]] at the top of a gilded pole, which would flare brightly for a moment and then promptly extinguish, with the admonition ''[[Sic transit gloria mundi]]'' ("Thus passes worldly glory"). A similar warning against papal hubris made on this occasion was the traditional exclamation ''"Annos Petri non videbis"'', reminding the newly crowned Pope that he would not live to see his rule lasting as long as that of St. Peter, who according to tradition headed the church for 35 years and has thus far been the longest reigning Pope in the history of the Catholic Church. <ref>St [[Augustine]], speaking of the honours paid to bishops in his time, mentions the ''absides gradatae'' (apses with steps, a reference to the seating arrangement for the presbyters in the apse of the church, with the bishop in the middle ([http://books.google.com/books?id=LTb6zWm5PMcC&pg=PA186&dq=%22cathedrae+velatae%22&hl=en&ei=3ZR8Te7EM8fOhAeA3uHeBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22cathedrae%20velatae%22&f=false William Smith, Samuel Cheetham, ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Christian Antiquities], "elevated stalls" in the [http://www.scribd.com/doc/2512021/Letters-of-Augustine-of-Hippo Sparrow-Simpson translation] (p. 83), and appearing as "thrones ascended by flights of steps" in [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf101.vii.1.XXIII.html the Cunningham translation]), and ''[[cathedra]]e velatae'' (canopied thrones, appearing as "canopied pulpits" in both those translations) - [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Ms7AAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Augustinus+epistolae&hl=en&ei=knJ8TYm5Hc26hAeE5Yz4Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=maximino&f=false Letter 203 in the old arrangement], 23 in the chronological rearrangement</ref>

A [[traditionalist Catholic]] belief claims the existence of a [[Papal Oath (Traditionalist Catholic)|Papal Oath]] sworn, at their coronation, by all popes from [[Pope Agatho]] to [[Pope Paul VI]], but which since the abolition of the coronation ceremony is no longer used. There is no reliable authority for this claim.

The [[Latin]] term ''sede vacante'' ("vacant seat") refers to a papal [[interregnum]], the period between the death of a pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the term [[sedevacantism]], which designates a category of dissident Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected Pope, and that there is therefore a ''Sede Vacante''. One of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the [[Second Vatican Council]] and especially the replacement of the [[Tridentine Mass]] with the ''[[Mass of Paul VI]]'' are heretical, and that, per the dogma of papal infallibility, it is impossible for a valid Pope to have done these things. [[Sedevacantist]]s are considered to be schismatics by the mainstream Roman Catholic Church.

For centuries, the papacy was an institution dominated by [[Italians]]. Prior to the election of the Polish cardinal [[Karol Wojtyla]] as Pope John Paul II in 1978, the last non-Italian was [[Pope Adrian VI]] of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born Benedict XVI, leading some to believe the Italian domination of the papacy to be over.

===Death===
[[File:Pope johnpaul funeral.jpeg|thumb|Funeral of [[Pope John Paul II]] at the Vatican in 2005, presided over by Cardinal Ratzinger, the future Pope Benedict XVI]]
The current regulations regarding a papal [[interregnum]]—that is, a ''[[sede vacante]]'' ("vacant seat")—were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]''. During the "Sede Vacante", the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]], composed of the pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the [[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church]]; however, canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the [[Holy See]]. Any decision that requires the assent of the pope has to wait until the new pope has been elected and accepts office.

In recent centuries it was traditional, when a Pope was judged to have died, for the Cardinal Chamberlain to confirm the death ceremonially by gently tapping the Pope's head thrice with a silver hammer, calling his birth name each time. This custom was not followed at the death of Pope John Paul I<ref>Sullivan, George E. Pope John Paul II: The People's Pope. Boston: Walker & Company, 1984.</ref> and was not revived upon the death of Pope John Paul II.<ref>{{cite news|author= |url=http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101050411/path.html |title=''The Path to a New Pontiff'' Retrieved: 2010-03-29 |publisher=Time.com |date=2005-04-03 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the [[Ring of the Fisherman]] and cuts it in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.

The body then lies in state for several days before being interred in the [[crypt]] of a leading church or cathedral; the popes of the 20th century were all interred in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. A nine-day period of mourning (''novendialis'') follows the interment of the late Pope.

===Resignation===
{{Main|Papal resignation}}
The [[Code of Canon Law]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P16.HTM 332 §2] states, "If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone." This right has been exercised by, among others, [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 and [[Pope Gregory XII]] in 1409, Gregory XII being the last to do so.

It was widely reported in June and July 2002 that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper ''[[Corriere della Sera]]''. Nevertheless, 332 §2 caused speculation that (1) Pope [[John Paul II]] would have resigned as his health failed, or (2) a properly manifested legal instrument had been prepared which effected his resignation if he could not perform his duties.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} Pope John Paul II, however, did not resign. He died on 2 April 2005 after a long period of ill-health and was buried on 8 April 2005. After his death, it was reported in [[Testament of Pope John Paul II|his last will and testament]] that he considered abdicating in 2000 as he neared his 80th birthday.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} That portion of the will, however, is unclear and others interpret it differently.

==Titles==
{{infobox popestyles
|papal name=The Pope
|dipstyle=[[His Holiness]]
|offstyle=Your Holiness
|relstyle=Holy Father
|deathstyle=NA|}}

===Official list of titles===
The official list of titles of the Pope, in the order in which they are given in the [[Annuario Pontificio]], is: Bishop of [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]], [[Vicar of Christ|Vicar of Jesus Christ]], Successor of the [[Prince of the Apostles]], Supreme [[Pontiff#Christianity|Pontiff]] of the Universal Church, [[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of [[Italy]], [[Metropolitan bishop|Archbishop and Metropolitan]] of the Roman [[Ecclesiastical province|Province]], Sovereign of the State of [[Vatican City]], [[Servus Servorum Dei|Servant of the Servants of God]].<ref>Annuario Pontificio, published annually by Libreria Editrice Vaticana, p. 23*. ISBN of the 2009 edition: 978-88-209-8191-4.</ref>

The official list of titles does not include all the titles that are officially used.

===Pope===
The best-known title of the Popes, that of "Pope", does not appear in the official list, but is commonly used in the titles of documents, and appears, in abbreviated form, in their signatures. Thus [[Pope Paul VI]] signed as "Paulus PP. VI", the "PP." standing for "''Papa''" ("Pope").

The title "Pope" was from the early 3rd century an honorific designation used for ''any'' bishop in the West.<ref name=ODCC:Pope>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ([[Oxford University Press]] 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article ''Pope''</ref> In the East it was used only for the Bishop of Alexandria.<ref name=ODCC:Pope/> [[Pope Marcellinus]] (d. 304) is the first Bishop of Rome shown in sources to have had the title "Pope" used of him. From the 6th century, the imperial chancery of [[Byzantine Empire|Constantinople]] normally reserved this designation for the Bishop of Rome.<ref name=ODCC:Pope/> From the early 6th century, it began to be confined in the West to the Bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the 11th century,<ref name=ODCC:Pope/> when [[Pope Gregory VII]] declared it reserved for the Bishop of Rome.

In [[Eastern Christianity]], where the title "pope" is used also of the Bishop of Alexandria, the Bishop of Rome is often referred to as the "Pope of Rome", regardless of whether the speaker or writer is in communion with Rome or not.

===Vicar of Jesus Christ===
"Vicar of Jesus Christ" (''Vicarius Iesu Christi'') is one of the official titles of the Pope given in the ''Annuario Pontificio''. It is commonly used in the slightly abbreviated form "Vicar of Christ" (''Vicarius Christi''). While it is only one of the terms with which the Pope is referred to as "vicar", it is "more expressive of his supreme headship of the Church on earth, which he bears in virtue of the commission of Christ and with vicarial power derived from him", a vicarial power believed to have been conferred on Saint Peter when Christ said to him: "Feed my lambs. . . . Feed my sheep" ({{bibleverse||John|21:16-17}}).<ref name="New Advent - Vicar of Christ">{{cite web| url= http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15403b.htm| last= | first= | title= Vicar of Christ | accessdate=27 January 2010| work = Catholic Encyclopedia; New Advent}}</ref>

The first record of the application of this title to a Pope appears in a synod of 495 with reference to [[Pope Gelasius I]].<ref name="Macbrien">McBrien, Richard P. ''Os Papas. Os Pontífices de São Pedro a João Paulo II'' (original title: ''Lives of the Popes. The Pontiffs from St. Peter to John Paul II'' 1997. ISBN 0-06-065303-5), pp. 37, 85.</ref> But at that time, and down to the 9th century, other bishops too referred to themselves as vicars of Christ, and for another four centuries this description was sometimes used of kings and even judges,<ref>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 9780-19-280290-3), article ''Vicar of Christ''</ref> as it had been used in the 5th and 6th centuries to refer to the [[Byzantine emperor]].<ref name="New Commentary"/> Earlier still, in the 3rd century, [[Tertullian]] used "vicar of Christ" to refer to the [[Holy Spirit]]<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm| last= | first= | title= Prescription against Heretics (Chapter 28) | accessdate=2010-01-27 | work= Catholic Encyclopedia; New Advent}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0403.htm| last= | first= | title= On the Veiling of Virgins (Chapter 1) | accessdate=2010-01-27 | work= Catholic Encyclopedia; New Advent}}</ref> sent by Jesus.<ref>Cf. {{bibleverse||John|16:7-14}}</ref> Its use specifically for the Pope appears in the 13th century in connection with the reforms of [[Pope Innocent III]],<ref name="New Commentary">{{cite book| url= http://books.google.com/?id=JKgZEjvB5cEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=New+commentary+on+the+Code+of+Canon+Law&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false| last= John P. Beal, James A. Coriden, Thomas J. (Thomas Joseph) Green, Thomas J. Green| first= | title= New Commentary on the Code of Canon Law (p. 432)|accessdate=18 February 2010 | work=| isbn= 9780809140664| date= 2002-06-27 }}</ref> as can be observed already in his 1199 letter to [[Leo I, King of Armenia]].<ref>Faus, José Ignacio Gonzáles. "''Autoridade da Verdade - Momentos Obscuros do Magistério Eclesiástico''" (Edições Loyola. ISBN 85-15-01750-4), p. 33.</ref> Other historians suggest that this title was already used in this way in association with the pontificate of [[Pope Eugenius III]] (1145–1153).<ref name="Macbrien"/>

This title "Vicar of Christ" is thus not used of the Pope alone and has been used of all bishops since the early centuries.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=7bjDsZHPiSYC&pg=PA264&dq=%22vicar+of+Christ%22+title&hl=en&ei=QaULTYnzN4bLhAf3vfjuCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFYQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=%22vicar%20of%20Christ%22%20title&f=false Ken Untener, Elizabeth Picken, ''The Practical Prophet: Pastoral Writings'', p. 264]</ref> The [[Second Vatican Council]] referred to all bishops as "vicars and ambassadors of Christ",<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html | last = | first = | title = Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution ''Lumen gentium'', 27 | accessdate=27 January 2010}}</ref> and this description of the bishops was repeated by [[Pope John Paul II]] in his encyclical ''[http://www.vatican.va/edocs/ENG0221/__PT.HTM Ut unum sint,]'' 95. The difference is that the other bishops are vicars of Christ for their own local churches, the Pope is vicar of Christ for the whole Church.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=vJ78Vd4O9d4C&pg=PA991&dq=%22vicar+of+Christ%22+%22all+bishops%22&hl=en&ei=2LoLTf29L9G4hAeCw-jpCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22vicar%20of%20Christ%22%20%22all%20bishops%22&f=false Peter M. J. Stravinskas, ''Our Sunday Visitor's Catholic Encyclopedia'', p. 991]</ref>

On at least one occasion the title "Vicar of God" (a reference to Christ as God) was used of the Pope.<ref name="New Advent - Vicar of Christ"/>

The title "Vicar of Peter" (''Vicarius Petri'') is used only of the Pope, not of other bishops. Variations of it include: "Vicar of the Prince of the Apostles" (''Vicarius Principis Apostolorum'') and "Vicar of the Apostolic See" (''Vicarius Sedis Apostolicae'').<ref name="New Advent - Vicar of Christ"/> [[Saint Boniface]] described [[Pope Gregory II]] as vicar of Peter in the oath of fealty that he took in 722.<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/boniface1.html Medieval Sourcebook]</ref> In today's [[Roman Missal]], the description "vicar of Peter" is found also in the [[collect]] of the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] for a saint who was a pope.<ref>[http://www.clerus.org/bibliaclerusonline/en/end.htm#cml ''Missale Romanum'', Vatican City, 2008, p. 928]</ref>

===Pontiff===
[[File:Benedictus XVI pont max pontif I.jpg|thumb|Entrance to [[Vatican City]], with inscription "Benedictus XVI Pont(ifex) Max(imus) Anno Domini MMV Pont(ificatus) I.", i.e., "[[Benedict XVI]], Pontifex Maximus, in the year of Our Lord 2005, the first year of his pontificate."]]
The term "[[pontiff]]" is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''pontifex'', which literally means "bridge builder" (''pons'' + ''facere''),<ref name=COD>Concise Oxford Dictionary: pontifex</ref> and which designated a member of the [[College of Pontiffs|principal college of priests]] in ancient Rome.<ref name=COD/><ref>[http://abacus.bates.edu/~mimber/Rciv/public.relig.htm Roman Public Religion] Roman Civilization, bates.edu retrieved August 17, 2006</ref><ref>The bridge making has been interpreted in terms of "one who smoothes the way for the gods and to the gods" (Van Haeperen, Françoise, 2002. ''Le collège pontifical: 3ème s. a. C. - 4ème s. p. C.'' in series '' Études de Philologie, d'Archéologie et d'Histoire Anciennes'', no. 39. (Brussels: Brepols) ISBN 90-74461-49-2, reviewed in [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2003/2003-10-16.html Bryn Mawr Classical review, 2003])</ref> The Latin word was translated into ancient Greek variously: as ἱεροδιδάσκαλος, ἱερονόμος, ἱεροφύλαξ, ἱεροφάντης,<ref>[William Smith, ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities]</ref> or ἀρχιερεύς (high priest)<ref name=L&S>[http://artfl.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.85:10:135.lsj Liddell and Scott: ἀρχιερεύς]</ref><ref>[[Polybius]] 23.1.2 and 32.22.5; ''Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum'' 3.43, 3.428 und 3.458</ref> The head of the college was known as the [[Pontifex Maximus]] (the greatest pontiff).<ref>Translated literally into Greek as ἀρχιερεὺς μέγιστος (greatest high priest) in ''Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum'' 2.2696 and 3.346; [[Plutarch]] ''Numa'' 9.4 – [http://artfl.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.85:10:135.lsj Liddell and Scott: ἀρχιερεύς]</ref>

In Christian use, ''pontifex'' appears in the [[Vulgate]] translation of the [[New Testament]] to indicate the Jewish high priest (in the original, ἀρχιερεύς).<ref>There are 35 instances of the use of this term in the Vulgate: {{bibleverse||Mark|15:11}}; {{bibleverse||John|7:45}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|11:47}},{{bibleverse-nb||John|11:49}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|11:51}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|11:57}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:3}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:10}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:13}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:15-16}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:22}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:24}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:26}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|18:35}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|19:6}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|19:15}}, {{bibleverse-nb||John|19:21}}; {{bibleverse||Hebrews|2:17}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|3:1}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|4:14-15}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|5:1}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|5:5}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|5:10}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|6:20}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|7:26}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|8:1}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|8:3}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|9:7}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|9:11}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|9:25}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Hebrews|13:11}}</ref> The term came to be applied to any Christian [[bishop]],<ref name="New Advent - Pope">{{cite web| url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm| last= | first= | title= Pope| accessdate=21 February 2010| work= Catholic Encyclopedia; New Advent}}</ref> but since the 11th century commonly refers specifically to the Bishop of Rome,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Pontiff |title=Dictionary definition |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-07}}</ref> who is more strictly called the "Roman Pontiff". The use of the term to refer to bishops in general is reflected in the terms "[[Roman Pontifical]]" (a book containing rites reserved for bishops, such as [[confirmation]] and [[ordination]])<ref>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005</ref> and "pontificals" (the insignia of bishops).<ref>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 9780-19-280290-3), article ''pontificals''</ref>

The ''Annuario Pontificio'' lists as one of the official titles of the Pope that of "Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church" (in Latin, ''Summus Pontifex Ecclesiae Universalis'').<ref>Annuario Pontificio 2008 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana ISBN 978-88-209-8021-4), p. 23*</ref> He is also commonly called the Supreme Pontiff or the Sovereign Pontiff (in Latin, ''Summus Pontifex'').

''Pontifex Maximus'', similar in meaning to ''Summus Pontifex'', is a title commonly found in inscriptions on buildings, paintings, statues and coins of the Popes, usually abbreviated as "Pont. Max" or "P.M." The office of [[pontifex maximus]], or head of the [[college of pontiffs]], was held by [[Julius Caesar]] and thereafter by the Roman emperors until [[Gratian]] (375-383) relinquished it.<ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Pontifex.html Pontifex Maximus] LacusCurtius retrieved 15 August 2006</ref><ref>"Gratian." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037772></ref><ref>[http://www.livius.org/pn-po/pontifex/maximus.html Pontifex Maximus] Livius.org article by Jona Lendering retrieved 15 August 2006</ref> [[Tertullian]], when he had become a [[Montanist]], used the title derisively of either the Pope or the [[episcopal see of Carthage|Bishop of Carthage]].<ref name=ODCC:PM/> The Popes began to use this title regularly only in the 15th century.<ref name=ODCC:PM>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article ''Pontifex Maximus''</ref>

===Servant of the Servants of God===
The title "Servant of the Servants of God", although used by Church leaders including [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] and [[St. Benedict]], was first used by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope St. Gregory the Great]] in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title "[[Ecumenical Patriarch]]". It was not reserved for the pope until the 13th century. The documents of the [[Second Vatican Council]] reinforced the understanding of this title as a reference to the pope's role as a function of collegial authority, in which the Bishop of Rome serves the world's bishops.

===Patriarch of the West===
From 1863 until 2005, the ''Annuario Pontificio'' included also the title "[[Patriarch]] of the West". This title was first used by [[Pope Theodore I]] in 642, and was only used occasionally. Indeed, it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863. On 22 March 2006, the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a "historical and theological reality" and of "being useful to ecumenical dialogue". The title Patriarch of the West symbolized the pope's special relationship with, and jurisdiction over, the Latin Church—and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship, nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the [[Eastern Churches]], as solemnly proclaimed by the Second Vatican Council.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/general-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20060322_patriarca-occidente_fr.html |title=Communiqué concernant la suppression du titre «Patriarche d’Occident» dans l'Annuaire pontifical 2006 |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref>

===Other titles===
Other titles commonly used are "His Holiness", "Holy Father". In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Italian language|Italian]], "''Beatísimo/Beatissimo Padre''" (Most Blessed Father) is often used in preference to "''Santísimo/Santissimo Padre''" (Most Holy Father). In the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]], "''Dominus Apostolicus''" ("the [[Saint Peter|Apostolic]] Lord") was also used.

===Signature===
As indicated above, a Pope normally signs documents using the title "Papa" in the abbreviated form "PP." and with the numeral, as in "Benedictus PP. XVI" (Pope Benedict XVI). Exceptions are [[papal bull|bulls]] of canonization and decrees of ecumenical councils, which the Pope signs with the formula, "Ego N. Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae", without the numeral, as in "Ego Paulus Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae" (I, Paul, Bishop of the catholic/universal Church).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Curia_Romana |title=Classic Encyclopedia: ''Curia Romana'' |publisher=1911encyclopedia.org |date=2006-10-06 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> The Pope's signature is followed, in bulls of canonization, by those of all the cardinals resident in Rome, and in decrees of ecumenical councils, by the signatures of the other bishops participating in the council, each signing as Bishop of a particular see.

[[Papal bull]]s are headed ''N. Episcopus [[Servus Servorum Dei]]'' ("Name, Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God"). In general, they are not signed by the Pope, but [[Pope John Paul II|Pope John Paul II]] introduced in the mid-1980s the custom by which the Pope signs not only bulls of canonization but also, using his normal signature, such as "Benedictus PP. XVI", bulls of nomination of bishops.

==Regalia and insignia==
{{Main|Papal regalia and insignia}}
* "[[Papal Tiara|Triregnum]]", also called the "tiara" or "triple crown", represents the pope's three functions as "supreme pastor", "supreme teacher" and "supreme priest". Recent popes have not, however, worn the ''triregnum'', though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies Popes wear an episcopal [[mitre]] (an erect cloth hat).
* [[Pastoral Staff]] topped by a [[crucifix]], a custom established before the 13th century (see [[papal cross]]).
* [[Pallium]], or pall, a circular band of fabric worn around the neck over the [[chasuble]]. It forms a yoke about the neck, breast and shoulders and has two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. Previously, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the [[primate (religion)|primates]], but in 2005 Pope Benedict XVI began to use a distinct papal pallium that is larger than the primatial, and was adorned with red crosses instead of black.
* "Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolizes the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven.
* [[Ring of the Fisherman]], a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning Pope around it.
* ''[[Umbraculum]]'' (better known in the Italian form ''ombrellino'') is a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions.
* ''[[Sedia gestatoria]]'', a mobile throne carried by twelve [[footmen]] (''palafrenieri'') in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing ''[[flabella]]'' (fans made of white ostrich feathers), and sometimes a large [[baldachin|canopy]], carried by eight attendants. The use of the ''flabella'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul I]]. The use of the ''sedia gestatoria'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul II]], being replaced by the so-called [[Popemobile]].
[[File:Holysee-arms.svg|thumb|left|The [[coat of arms]] of the Holy See. That of the State of Vatican City is the same except that the positions of the gold and silver keys are interchanged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fotw.net/flags/va).html |title=Vatican City (Holy See) - The Keys and Coat of Arms |publisher=Fotw.net |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref>]]
In [[heraldry]], each pope has his own [[Papal Coat of Arms]]. Though unique for each pope, the arms are always surmounted by the two keys in [[saltire]] (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an ''X'') behind the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] (shield) (one silver key and one gold key, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver ''triregnum'' with three gold crowns and red ''infulae'' ([[lappet]]s—two strips of fabric hanging from the back of the triregnum which fall over the neck and shoulders when worn). This is [[blazon]]ed: "two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). With the recent election of [[Benedict XVI]] in 2005, his personal coat of arms eliminated the papal tiara; a [[mitre]] with three horizontal lines is used in its place, with the pallium, a papal symbol of authority more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan [[archbishops]] as a sign of communion with the See of Rome, was added underneath of the shield. The distinctive feature of the crossed keys behind the shield was maintained. The omission of the tiara in the Pope's personal coat of arms, however, did not mean the disappearance of it from papal heraldry, since the coat of arms of the Holy See was kept unaltered.

The [[flag]] most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white [[flag of Vatican City]], with the arms of the Holy See (blazoned: "Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right-hand side (the "fly") in the white half of the flag (the left-hand side—the "hoist"—is yellow). The pope's escucheon does not appear on the flag. This flag was first adopted in 1808, whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colors of the papacy. Although Pope Benedict XVI replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, it has been retained on the flag.

==Status and authority==
{{Main|Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|Papal infallibility}}
[[File:Kruisheren uden bij paus pius xii Crosiers from Uden Holland with PiusXII.jpg|thumb|To maintain contacts with local clergymen and Catholic communities, the popes grant private audiences as well as public ones. Here the [[Canons Regular of the Holy Cross]] from [[Uden]] ([[Netherlands]]) are received by [[Pope Pius XII]].]]

===First Vatican Council===
The status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was [[dogma]]tically [[dogmatic definition|defined]] by the [[First Vatican Council]] on 18 July 1870. In its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ, the Council established the following canons:<ref>The texts of these canons are given in [[Denzinger]], [http://catho.org/9.php?d=byj#dez Latin original;] [http://www.catecheticsonline.com/SourcesofDogma19.php English translation]</ref>

"If anyone says that the blessed Apostle Peter was not established by the Lord Christ as the chief of all the [[twelve apostles|apostles]], and the visible head of the whole militant Church, or, that the same received great honour but did not receive from the same our Lord Jesus Christ directly and immediately the primacy in true and proper jurisdiction: let him be [[anathema]].<ref>Denzinger 3055 (old numbering, 1823)</ref>

If anyone says that it is not from the institution of Christ the Lord Himself, or by divine right that the blessed Peter has perpetual successors in the primacy over the universal Church, or that the Roman Pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in the same primacy, let him be anathema.<ref>Denzinger 3058 (old numbering, 1825)</ref>

If anyone thus speaks, that the Roman Pontiff has only the office of inspection or direction, but not the full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the universal Church, not only in things which pertain to faith and morals, but also in those which pertain to the discipline and government of the Church spread over the whole world; or, that he possesses only the more important parts, but not the whole plenitude of this supreme power; or that this power of his is not ordinary and immediate, or over the churches altogether and individually, and over the pastors and the faithful altogether and individually: let him be anathema.<ref>Denzinger 3064 (old numbering, 1831)</ref>

We, adhering faithfully to the tradition received from the beginning of the Christian faith, to the glory of God, our Saviour, the elevation of the Catholic religion and the salvation of Christian peoples, with the approbation of the sacred Council, teach and explain that the dogma has been divinely revealed: that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, when carrying out the duty of the pastor and teacher of all Christians by his supreme apostolic authority he defines a doctrine of faith or morals to be held by the universal Church, through the divine assistance promised him in blessed Peter, operates with that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer wished that His church be instructed in defining doctrine on faith and morals; and so such definitions of the Roman Pontiff from himself, but not from the consensus of the Church, are unalterable. But if anyone presumes to contradict this definition of Ours, which may God forbid: let him be anathema."<ref>Denzinger 3073–3075 (old numbering, 1839–1840</ref>

===Second Vatican Council===
[[File:GestatorialChair1.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Pius XII]], wearing the traditional 1877 [[Papal Tiara]], is carried through St Peter's Basilica on a [[sedia gestatoria]] circa 1955.]]
In its [[Lumen Gentium|Dogmatic Constitution on the Church]] (1964), the [[Second Vatican Council]] declared:

"Among the principal duties of bishops the preaching of the Gospel occupies an eminent place. For bishops are preachers of the faith, who lead new disciples to Christ, and they are authentic teachers, that is, teachers endowed with the authority of Christ, who preach to the people committed to them the faith they must believe and put into practice, and by the light of the Holy Spirit illustrate that faith. They bring forth from the treasury of Revelation new things and old, making it bear fruit and vigilantly warding off any errors that threaten their flock. Bishops, teaching in communion with the Roman Pontiff, are to be respected by all as witnesses to divine and Catholic truth. In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of Christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. This religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra; that is, it must be shown so that his supreme magisterium is acknowledged with reverence, the judgments made by him are sincerely adhered to, according to his manifest mind and will. His mind and will in the matter may be known either from the character of the documents, from his frequent repetition of the same doctrine, or from his manner of speaking.

... this infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer willed His Church to be endowed in defining doctrine of faith and morals, extends as far as the deposit of Revelation extends, which must be religiously guarded and faithfully expounded. And this is the infallibility which the Roman Pontiff, the head of the college of bishops, enjoys in virtue of his office, when, as the supreme shepherd and teacher of all the faithful, who confirms his brethren in their faith, by a definitive act he proclaims a doctrine of faith or morals. And therefore his definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are justly styled irreformable, since they are pronounced with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, promised to him in blessed Peter, and therefore they need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment. For then the Roman Pontiff is not pronouncing judgment as a private person, but as the supreme teacher of the universal Church, in whom the charism of infallibility of the Church itself is individually present, he is expounding or defending a doctrine of Catholic faith. The infallibility promised to the Church resides also in the body of Bishops, when that body exercises the supreme magisterium with the successor of Peter. To these definitions the assent of the Church can never be wanting, on account of the activity of that same Holy Spirit, by which the whole flock of Christ is preserved and progresses in unity of faith."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |title=''Lumen gentium'', 25 |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref>

==Politics of the Holy See==
{{ Politics of the Holy See}}
[[File:433px-Pope Pius VII.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Pius VII]], bishop of Rome, next to [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Caprara. The Pope wears the [[pallium]], a liturgical [[vestment]] that is used [[heraldry|heraldically]] at the foot of the coat of arms of [[Benedict XVI]].]]

===Residence and jurisdiction===
The pope's [[cathedra|official seat]] or [[cathedral]] is the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]], and his official residence is the [[Palace of the Vatican]]. He also possesses a summer residence at [[Castel Gandolfo]], situated on the site of the ancient city of [[Alba Longa]]. Until the time of the [[Avignon Papacy]], the residence of the Pope was the [[Lateran Palace]], donated by the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]].

The Pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the [[Holy See]]) is distinct from his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City). It is the Holy See that conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the papal court (the [[Roman Curia]]) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church.

The names "Holy See" and "Apostolic See" are ecclesiastical terminology for the [[ordinary jurisdiction]] of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the [[Twelve apostles|Apostle]] [[Saint Peter]] (see [[Apostolic Succession]]). Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives his pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ''ubi Papa, ibi Curia'', wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the popes lived in [[Avignon]], France (see [[Avignon Papacy]]), a period often called the [[Babylonian Captivity]] in allusion to the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[exile]] of [[Israel]].

Though the Pope is the diocesan Bishop of the [[Diocese of Rome]], he delegates most of the day-to-day work of leading the diocese to the [[Cardinal Vicar]], who assures direct episcopal oversight of the diocese's pastoral needs, not in his own name but in that of the Pope. The current Cardinal Vicar is [[Agostino Vallini]], who was appointed to the office in June 2008.

===Political role===
{{Main|Politics of the Vatican City}}
{{Infobox sovereignofvatican
|body = Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City
|insignia = Coat of arms of the Vatican City.svg
|insigniasize = 120px
|insigniacaption = Coat of Arms of the Vatican
|image = BentoXVI-28-10052007.jpg
|incumbent = [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]]
|style = [[His Holiness]]
|residence = [[Papal Palace]]
|firstsovereign = [[Pope Pius XI]]
|formation = 11 February 1929
|website = http://www.va
}}
[[File:PapalPolitics2.JPG|left|thumb|''Antichristus'', a woodcut by Lucas Cranach of the pope using the temporal power to grant authority to a generously contributing ruler]]

Though the progressive [[Christianization|Christianisation]] of the [[Roman Empire]] in the 4th century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the pope the senior imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil ruler was vividly displayed by [[Pope Leo I]]'s confrontation with [[Attila]] in 452. The first expansion of papal rule outside of Rome came in 728 with the [[Donation of Sutri]], which in turn was substantially increased in 754, when the [[Frankish people|Frankish]] ruler [[Pippin the Younger]] gave to the pope the land from his conquest of the [[Lombards]]. The pope may have utilized the forged [[Donation of Constantine]] to gain this land, which formed the core of the [[Papal States]]. This document, accepted as genuine until the 15th century, states that [[Constantine I]] placed the entire Western Empire of Rome under papal rule. In 800 [[Pope Leo III]] [[coronation|crowned]] the Frankish ruler [[Charlemagne]] as [[Roman Emperor]], a major step toward establishing what later became known as the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; from that date onward the popes claimed the prerogative to crown the Emperor, though the right fell into disuse after the coronation of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in 1530. [[Pope Pius VII]] was present at the coronation of [[Napoleon I]] in 1804, but did not actually perform the crowning. As mentioned above, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by [[Italy]].

Popes like [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]], an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politician, and [[Pope Julius II]], a formidable general and statesman, were not afraid to use power to achieve their own ends, which included increasing the power of the papacy. This political and temporal authority was demonstrated through the papal role in the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of [[Pope Gregory VII]] and [[Pope Alexander III]]). [[Papal bull]]s, [[Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)|interdict]], and [[excommunication]] (or the threat thereof) have been used many times to increase papal power. The Bull ''[[Laudabiliter]]'' in 1155 authorized [[Henry II of England]] to invade [[Ireland]]. In 1207, [[Innocent III]] placed England under interdict until [[John of England|King John]] made his kingdom a [[fiefdom]] to the Pope, complete with yearly [[tribute]], saying, "we offer and freely yield...to our lord Pope Innocent III and his catholic successors, the whole kingdom of England and the whole kingdom of Ireland with all their rights and appurtenences for the remission of our sins".<ref>Quoted from the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html Medieval Sourcebook]</ref> The Bull ''[[Inter caetera]]'' in 1493 led to the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in 1494, which divided the world into areas of [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule. The Bull ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'' in 1570 excommunicated [[Elizabeth I of England]] and declared that all her subjects were released from all allegiance to her. The Bull ''[[Inter Gravissimas]]'' in 1582 established the [[Gregorian Calendar]].<ref>See [http://tera-3.ul.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/getImage.pl?target=/data/www/NASD/4a7f1db4-5792-415c-be79-266f41eef20a/009/499/PTIFF/00000673.tif&rs=2 selection from ''Concordia Cyclopedia'': Roman Catholic Church, History of]</ref>

===International position===
Under international law, a serving [[head of state]] has [[sovereign immunity]] from the jurisdiction of the courts of other countries, though not from that of international tribunals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crimesofwar.org/onnews/news-darfur9.html |title=Anthony Dworkin and Katherine Iliopoulos, ''The International Criminal Court, Bashir, and the Immunity of Heads of State'' |publisher=Crimesofwar.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Law |first=International |url=http://gabrielsawma.blogspot.com/2006_01_01_archive.html |title=Gabriel Sawma, ''The Immunity of Heads of State under International Law'' |publisher=Gabrielsawma.blogspot.com |date=2006-01-17 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref><ref>[http://books.google.ie/books?id=fZNZ7r4hYL8C&dq=%22head+of+state%22+%22diplomatic+immunity%22&source=gbs_navlinks_s Yitiha Simbeye, ''Immunity and International Criminal Law''], p. 94</ref> This immunity is sometimes loosely referred to as "[[diplomatic immunity]]," which is, strictly speaking, the immunity enjoyed by the ''diplomatic representatives'' of a head of state.

International law treats the [[Holy See]], essentially the central government of the Roman Catholic Church, as the juridical equal of a state. It is distinct from the state of [[Vatican City]], existing for many centuries before the foundation of the latter. (It is common, however, for publications to use "Holy See," "Vatican/Vatican City," and even "Rome" interchangeably, and incorrectly.) Most countries of the world maintain the same form of diplomatic relations with the Holy See that they entertain with other states. Even countries without those diplomatic relations participate in international organizations of which the Holy See is a full member.

It is as head of the Holy See, not of Vatican City, that the [[U.S. Justice Department]] ruled that the Pope enjoys head-of-state immunity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,169909,00.html |title=U.S. Says Pope Immune From Molestation Lawsuit, 2005 |publisher=Fox News |date=2005-09-20 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> This head-of-state immunity, recognized by the United States, must be distinguished from that envisaged under the United States' [[Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act]] of 1976, which, while recognizing the basic immunity of foreign governments from being sued in American courts, lays down nine exceptions, including commercial activity and actions in the United States by agents or employees of the foreign governments. It was in relation to the latter that, in November 2008, the [[United States Court of Appeals]] in [[Cincinnati]] decided that a case over [[Catholic sex abuse cases|sexual abuse by Catholic priests]] could proceed, provided the plaintiffs could prove that the bishops accused of negligent supervision were acting as employees or agents of the Holy See and were following official Holy See policy.<ref>Allen, John L. [http://ncronline.org/news/autonomy-bishops-and-suing-vatican The autonomy of bishops, and suing the Vatican] [http://www.sexualabuseclaimsblog.com/2008/11/vatican_can_be_sued_for_priest_sexual_abuse_us_court_of_appeals.html Vatican Can Be Sued For Priest Sexual Abuse: U.S. Court of Appeals, November 2008]</ref><ref>[http://www.wcpo.com/news/local/story/Vatican-Offers-3-Reasons-Its-Not-Liable-For-Abuse/cE1c175KyU-PAUuu_-8Oew.cspx NICOLE WINFIELD, Associated Press Writer: Vatican Offers 3 Reasons It's Not Liable For Abuse, 30 March 2010]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref>

In April 2010 there was press coverage in Britain concerning a proposed plan by [[atheist]] campaigners and a prominent [[barrister]] to have Pope Benedict XVI arrested and prosecuted in the UK for alleged offences, dating from several decades before, in failing to take appropriate action regarding Catholic sex abuse cases and concerning their disputing his immunity from prosecution in that country.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article7094310.ece The Sunday Times newspaper: Richard Dawkins calls for arrest of Pope Benedict XVI on UK visit, 11 April 2010]{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> This was generally dismissed as "unrealistic and spurious".<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article7096506.ece The Times: Is the Holy See above the Law?]{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> Another barrister said that it was a "matter of embarrassment that a senior British lawyer would want to allow himself to be associated with such a silly idea".<ref name=Zenit>[http://zenit.org/article-28914?l=english [[Zenit News Agency]], 15 April 2010: Arrest the Pope?]</ref>

==Objections to the papacy==
[[File:Antichrist1.jpg|thumb|''Antichristus'', by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], from Luther's 1521 ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. The Pope is signing and selling [[indulgence]]s.]]

The Pope's claim to authority is either disputed or not recognised at all by other churches. The reasons for these objections differ from denomination to denomination.

===Orthodox, Anglican and Old Catholic churches===
Some Christian churches ([[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Old Catholic Church]], the [[Anglican Communion]], the [[Independent Catholic Churches]], etc.) accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]] and, to varying extents, papal claims to a primacy of honour while generally rejecting that the pope is the successor to Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop. Primacy is regarded as a consequence of the pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the [[Roman Empire]], a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th [[canon law|canon]] of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. These churches see no foundation to papal claims of ''universal immediate jurisdiction'', or to claims of [[papal infallibility]]. Several of these churches refer to such claims as ''[[ultramontanism]]''.

===Protestant denominations===
{{Main|Historicism (Christian eschatology)}}
Many Christian denominations reject the claims of [[Primacy of Simon Peter|Petrine primacy]] of honor, Petrine primacy of jurisdiction, and papal infallibility. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the Pope's claim to authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the Pope is the [[Antichrist]]<ref>'Therefore on the basis of a renewed study of the pertinent Scriptures we reaffirm the statement of the Lutheran Confessions, that “the Pope is the very Antichrist”' from [http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?2617&collectionID=795&contentID=4441&shortcutID=5297 Statement on the Antichrist], from the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]], also [http://www.ianpaisley.org/antichrist.asp The Pope is the Antichrist]</ref> from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579 |title=Brief Statement |publisher=Lcms.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> the [[Man of Sin]] from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thessalonians 2:3-12],<ref>See Kretzmann's [http://www.kretzmannproject.org/EP_MINOR/2TH_2.htm ''Popular Commentary''], 2 Thessalonians chapter two and [http://www.wlsessays.net/authors/IJ/JeskeThessalonians/JeskeThessalonians.PDF An Exegesis of 2 Thessalonians 2:1-10]{{dead link|date=November 2010}} by Mark Jeske</ref> and the [[The Beast (Bible)|Beast out of the Earth]] from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2013:11-18;&version=9; Revelation 13:11-18].<ref>See See Kretzmann's [http://www.kretzmannproject.org/REV/REV_13.htm ''Popular Commentary''], Revelation Chapter 13</ref> The sweeping rejection includes some denominations of Lutherans: [[Confessional Lutheran]]s hold that the pope is the Antichrist, stating that this article of faith is part of a ''quia'' rather than ''quatenus'' subscription to the [[Book of Concord]]. In 1932, the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]] (LCMS) adopted ''A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod'', which a small number of Lutheran church bodies now hold.<ref>The [[Lutheran Churches of the Reformation]][http://www.lcrusa.org/brief_statement.htm]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}, the [[Concordia Lutheran Conference]][http://www.concordialutheranconf.com/clc/doctrine/brief_1932.cfm]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}, the [[Church of the Lutheran Confession]][http://clclutheran.org/library/BriefStatement.html], and the Illinois Lutheran Conference [http://www.illinoislutheranconference.org/our-solid-foundation/doctrinal-position-of-the-ilc.lwp/odyframe.htm] all hold to ''Brief Statement'', which the LCMS adopted in 1932 and places in the [http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579 LCMS.org website]</ref> Statement 43, ''Of the Antichrist'':<ref>Online at [http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579 Of the Antichrist]</ref>

[[File:ChristWashingFeet.JPG|thumb|''Christus'', by Lucas Cranach. This woodcut of John 13:14–17 is from ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. Cranach shows Jesus kissing Peter's foot during the footwashing. This stands in contrast to the opposing woodcut, where the Pope demands others kiss his feet.]]
[[File:PopeKissing Feet.JPG|thumb|left|''Antichristus'', by the Lutheran [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]. This woodcut of the traditional practice of kissing the Pope's toe is from ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. The two fingers the Pope is holding up symbolizes his claim to be the Church's substitute for Christ's earthly presence.]]

<blockquote>43. As to the Antichrist we teach that the prophecies of the Holy Scriptures concerning the Antichrist, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thess.%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thess. 2:3-12];[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18], have been fulfilled in the Pope of Rome and his dominion. All the features of the Antichrist as drawn in these prophecies, including the most abominable and horrible ones, for example, that the Antichrist "as God sitteth in the temple of God," [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thess.%202:4;&version=9; 2 Thess. 2:4]; that he anathematizes the very heart of the Gospel of Christ, that is, the doctrine of the forgiveness of sins by grace alone, for Christ's sake alone, through faith alone, without any merit or worthiness in man ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rom.%203:20-28;&version=9; Rom. 3:20-28]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Gal.%202:16;&version=9; Gal. 2:16]); that he recognizes only those as members of the Christian Church who bow to his authority; and that, like a deluge, he had inundated the whole Church with his antichristian doctrines till God revealed him through the Reformation—these very features are the outstanding characteristics of the Papacy. (Cf. [http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Triglot, p. 515, Paragraphs 39-41; p. 401, Paragraph 45; M. pp. 336, 258.]) Hence we subscribe to the statement of our Confessions that the Pope is "the very Antichrist." ([http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Triglot, p. 475, Paragraph 10; M., p. 308.])</blockquote>

The claim of temporal power over all secular governments, including territorial claims in Italy, raises objection.<ref>See the [http://books.google.com/books?id=Zr3lGJei6fkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r#PPA168,M1 Baltimore Catechism] on the temporal power of the pope over governments and Innocent III's [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html Letter to the prefect Acerbius and the nobles of Tuscany]. For objection to this, see the [http://www.archive.org/details/concordiacyclope009499mbp Concordia Cyclopedia], p.564 and 750</ref> The papacy's complex relationship with secular states such as the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Empires are also objections. Some disapprove of the autocratic character of the papal office.<ref>See Luther, [http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Article four]</ref> In [[Western Christianity]] these objections both contributed to and are products of the [[Protestant Reformation]].

==Antipopes==
{{Main|Antipope|Western Schism}}
Groups sometimes form around [[antipope]]s, who claim the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it.

Traditionally, this term was reserved for claimants with a significant following of cardinals or other clergy. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church ([[heresy]]) or to confusion as to who is the legitimate pope at the time (see schism). Briefly in the 15th century, three separate lines of Popes claimed authenticity (see [[Western Schism|Papal Schism]]). Even Catholics don't all agree whether certain historical figures were Popes or antipopes. Though antipope movements were significant at one time, they are now overwhelmingly minor fringe causes.

==Other popes==
In the earlier centuries of Christianity, the title "Pope," meaning "father," had been used by all bishops. Some popes used the term and others didn't. Eventually, the title became associated especially with the Bishop of Rome. In a few cases, the term is used for other Christian clerical authorities.

===In the Roman Catholic Church===
The "Black Pope" is a name that was popularly, but unofficially, given to the [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus]] due to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits']] importance within the Church. This name, based on the black colour of his cassock, was used to suggest a parallel between him and the "White Pope" (since the time of [[Pope Pius V]] the Popes dress in white) and the Cardinal Prefect of the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]] (formerly called the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith), whose red cardinal's cassock gave him the name of the "Red Pope" in view of the authority over all territories that were not considered in some way Catholic. In the present time this cardinal has power over mission territories for Catholicism, essentially the Churches of Africa and Asia,<ref name = "Magister">[http://www.chiesa.espressonline.it/dettaglio.jsp?id=7049&eng=ylink Sandro Magister], Espresso Online.</ref> but in the past his competence extended also to all lands where [[Protestantism|Protestants]] or [[Eastern Christianity]] was dominant. Some remnants of this situation remain, with the result that, for instance, [[New Zealand]] is still in the care of this Congregation.

===In the Eastern Churches===
Since the papacy of [[Heraclas]] in the 3rd century, the [[Metropolitan Archbishop|Bishop]] of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]] in both the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] continue to be called "Pope", the former being called "Coptic Pope" or, more properly, "[[Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Pope and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle]]" and the last called "[[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria|Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa]]".

In the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a "pope" ("поп" ''pop''). However, this should be differentiated from the words used for the head of the Catholic Church (Bulgarian "папа" ''papa'', Russian "папа римский" ''papa rimskiy'').

===In New Religious Movements===
Some [[New religious movement|New Religious Movements]], especially those that have disassociated themselves from the Catholic Church yet retain a Catholic hierarchical framework, will use the designation "Pope" for a movement's founder or current leader. One example in Africa is the [[Legio Maria|Legio Maria Church of Africa]].

==Lengths of papal reign==
{{See also|List of popes by length of reign}}

===Longest-reigning popes===
[[File:Popepiusix.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Pius IX]], the longest-reigning pope excluding Saint Peter]]
Although the average reign of the pope from the [[Middle Ages]] was a decade, a number of those whose reign lengths can be determined from contemporary historical data are the following:
# [[Pope Pius IX|Pius IX]] (1846–1878): 31 years, 7 months and 23 days (11,560 days).
# [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] (1978–2005): 26 years, 5 months and 18 days (9,665 days).
# [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] (1878–1903): 25 years, 5 months and 1 day (9,281 days).
# [[Pope Pius VI|Pius VI]] (1775–1799): 24 years, 6 months and 15 days (8,962 days).
# [[Pope Adrian I|Adrian I]] (772–795): 23 years, 10 months and 25 days (8,729 days).
# [[Pope Pius VII|Pius VII]] (1800–1823): 23 years, 5 months and 7 days (8,560 days).
# [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]] (1159–1181): 21 years, 11 months and 24 days (8,029 days).
# [[Pope Sylvester I|St. Sylvester I]] (314–335): 21 years, 11 months and 1 day (8,005 days).
# [[Pope Leo I|St. Leo I]] (440–461): 21 years, 1 month, and 13 days. (7,713 days).
# [[Pope Urban VIII|Urban VIII]] (1623–1644): 20 years, 11 months and 24 days (7,664 days).

[[Saint Peter]] is thought to have reigned for over 30 years (AD 29 – 64?/67?), but the exact length is not reliably known.

===Shortest-reigning popes===
[[File:urban3355.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Urban VII]], the shortest-reigning pope]]

Conversely, there have been a number of popes whose reign lasted less than a month. In the following list the number of calendar days includes partial days. Thus, for example, if a pope's reign commenced on 1 August and he died on 2 August, this would count as having reigned for two calendar days.
#[[Pope Urban VII|Urban VII]] (15–27 September 1590): reigned for 13 calendar days, died before [[coronation]].
#[[Pope Boniface VI|Boniface VI]] (April 896): reigned for 16 calendar days
#[[Pope Celestine IV|Celestine IV]] (25 October – 10 November 1241): reigned for 17 calendar days, died before consecration.
#[[Pope Theodore II|Theodore II]] (December 897): reigned for 20 calendar days
#[[Pope Sisinnius|Sisinnius]] (15 January – 4 February 708): reigned for 21 calendar days
#[[Pope Marcellus II|Marcellus II]] (9 April – 1 May 1555): reigned for 22 calendar days
#[[Pope Damasus II|Damasus II]] (17 July – 9 August 1048): reigned for 24 calendar days
#[[Pope Pius III|Pius III]] (22 September – 18 October 1503): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Leo XI|Leo XI]] (1–27 April 1605): reigned for 27 calendar days
#[[Pope Benedict V|Benedict V]] (22 May – 23 June 964): reigned for 33 calendar days
#[[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]] (26 August – 28 September 1978): reigned for 33 calendar days.

Note: [[Pope-elect Stephen|Stephen]] (23 March – 26 March 752), died of [[apoplexy]] 3 days after his election, and before his [[consecration]] as a bishop. He is not recognized as a valid Pope, but was added to the lists of popes in the 15th century as ''Stephen II'', causing difficulties in enumerating later Popes named Stephen. He was removed in 1961 from the [[Vatican City|Vatican's]] [[List of Popes|list]] (see "[[Pope-elect Stephen]]" for detailed explanation).

==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
* [[Caesaropapism]]
* [[History of the Papacy]]
* [[Investiture Controversy]]
* [[Leaders of Christianity]]
* [[Legends surrounding the papacy]]
* [[List of African popes]]
* [[List of canonised popes]]
* [[List of French popes]]
* [[List of German popes]]
* [[List of names of popes]]
{{Col-3}}
* [[List of popes]]
* [[List of popes by length of reign]]
* [[List of popes (graphical)]]
* [[Papal Coronation]]
* [[Papal Inauguration]]
* [[Papal regalia and insignia]]
* [[Papal Slippers]]
* [[Pontiff]]
* [[Prophecy of the Popes]]
* [[Sedevacantism]]
{{Col-3}}
{{Portal box|Christianity|Catholicism| Pope }}
{{Col-end}}

==References==
;Notes
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

;Footnotes
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

;Bibliography
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|title=One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief|last=Barry|first=Rev. Msgr. John F|year=2001|[[Nihil obstat]], [[Imprimatur]]|publisher=Gerard F. Baumbach, Ed.D|isbn=0-8215-2207-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=A Concise History of the Catholic Church|last=Bokenkotter|first=Thomas|year=2004|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=0385505841|ref=harv}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Chadwick|first=Henry|authorlink=Henry Chadwick (theologian)|editor=John McManners|encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity|title=The Early Christian Community|year=1990|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0198229283|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes|last=Duffy|first=Eamon|authorlink=Eamon Duffy|year=1997|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-3000-7332-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Franzen|first=August|coauthors=John Dolan|title=A History of the Church|publisher=Herder and Herder|year=1969|ref=harv}}
* Hartmann Grisar (1845–1932), ''History of Rome and the Popes in the Middle Ages'', AMS Press; Reprint edition (1912). ISBN 0-404-09370-1
* {{cite book|last=Kelly|first=J. N.|title=Oxford Dictionary of the Popes|year=1986|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn=9780191909351|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=The Catholic Church: A Short History|last=Kung|first=Hans|authorlink=Hans Kung|year=2003|publisher=Random House|isbn=9780812967623|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |author=Loomis, Louise Ropes |title=The Book of the Popes (Liber Pontificalis): To the Pontificate of Gregory I |location=[[Evolution Publishing]] |publisher=[[Merchantville, NJ]] |year=2006 |isbn=1-889758-86-8}}. Reprint of an English translation originally published in 1916.
* [[Ludwig von Pastor]], ''History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the [[Vatican Secret Archives|Secret Archives of the Vatican]] and other original sources'', 40 vols. St. Louis, B. Herder 1898 – ([http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/b92040657d7c02f6.html World Cat entry])
* {{cite book|last=Noble|first=Thomas|coauthors=Strauss, Barry|title=Western Civilization|year=2005|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|isbn=0618432779|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=A Short History of the Catholic Church|last=Orlandis|first=Jose|authorlink=Jose Orlandis|year=1993|publisher=Scepter Publishers|isbn=1851821252|ref=harv}}
* [[James Joseph Walsh]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC22760194&id=B-cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22popes+and+science%22 ''The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time''], Fordam University Press, 1908, reprinted 2003, Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3646-9
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* Brusher, Joseph H. ''Popes Through The Ages''. Princeton: D. Van Nostland Company, Inc., 1959.
* Chamberlin, E.R. ''The Bad Popes''. 1969. Reprint: Barnes and Noble, 1993. ISBN 978-0-88029-116-3.
* Dollison, John ''Pope-pourri''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. ISBN 978-0-671-88615-8.
* Kelly, J.N.D. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Popes''. Oxford: University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-19-213964-9.
* Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. ''Chronicle of the Popes: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St. Peter to the Present; with 308 Illustrations, 105 in Color''. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997. ISBN 0-500-01798-0.
* [[John Julius Norwich|Norwich, John Julius]]. ''The Popes: a History''. [[Chatto]], 2011.

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
* [http://kolonisera.rymden.nu/pope/popes.php?l=1 Pope Endurance League - Sortable list of Popes]
* [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_01_Magisterium_Paparum.html Data Base of more than 23,000 documents of the Popes in latin and modern languages]
* [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm The Holy See - The Holy Father]—website for the past and present Holy Fathers (since [[Pope Leo XIII]])
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/441722/papacy "papacy."] Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
* [http://www.catholic.com/library/Origins_of_Peter_as_Pope.asp Origins of Peter as Pope]
* [http://www.catholic.com/library/Authority_of_the_Pope_Part_1.asp The Authority of the Pope: Part I]
* [http://www.catholic.com/library/Authority_of_the_Pope_Part_2.asp The Authority of the Pope: Part II]

{{Popes}}
{{Papal symbols and ceremonial}}
{{Vatican City topics}}
{{Catholicism}}
{{Christianityfooter}}
{{Europe heads of state and government}}

[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Roman Catholicism]]
[[Category:Holy See| ]]
[[Category:Popes| ]]
[[Category:Religious leadership roles]]

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A. Bartlett Giamatti

2011-04-07T17:18:03Z

GcSwRhIc: AAAS Fellow with ref

{{Infobox Person
| name = Angelo Bartlett Giamatti
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1938|4|4|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1989|9|1|1938|4|4|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| occupation = [[University President]] [[Baseball Commissioner]]
| spouse = [http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/university-news/2004/09/23/former-first-lady-of-yale-passes-away/ Toni Smith]
| parents = Valentine John Giamatti (father) Mary Claybaugh Walton (mother)
| children = [[Paul Giamatti]] [[Marcus Giamatti]] Elena Giamatti
}}

'''Angelo Bartlett "Bart" Giamatti''' ({{IPA-en|dʒiːəˈmɑːti|pron}}; April 4, 1938–September 1, 1989) was the President of [[Yale University]], and later, the [[Commissioner of Baseball (MLB)#Commissioners|seventh Commissioner of Major League Baseball]]. Giamatti agreed to the deal that terminated the [[Major League Baseball Scandals#1980s Pete Rose betting scandal|Pete Rose betting scandal]] by permitting Rose to voluntarily withdraw from the sport, avoiding further punishment.

==Personal life==
Giamatti was born in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] and grew up in [[South Hadley, Massachusetts]]. His father, Valentine John Giamatti, was chairman of the Department of Italian Language and Literature at [[Mount Holyoke College]]. Giamatti's mother, Mary Claybaugh Walton ([[Smith College]] '35), was the daughter of Bartlett and Helen (Davidson) Walton of [[Wakefield, Massachusetts]]. His maternal grandfather graduated from [[Phillips Academy|Phillips Academy Andover]] and [[Harvard College]]. His paternal grandfather, Angelo Giammattei [''sic''], immigrated from [[Naples, Italy]] through [[Ellis Island]] around 1900.

Giamatti attended South Hadley High School, spent his junior year at the Overseas School of Rome, and graduated from [[Phillips Academy]] in 1956. At [[Yale University]], he was a member of [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] (Phi chapter), and as a junior was tapped by [[Scroll and Key]], a senior secret society. He graduated ''[[magna cum laude]]'' in 1960. That same year, he married Toni Smith, who taught English for more than 20 years at the [[Hopkins School]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]] until her death in 2004.<ref>Ward, Patrick D. [http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/university-news/2004/09/23/former-first-lady-of-yale-passes-away/ "Former first lady of Yale passes away,"] ''Yale Daily News.'' September 23, 2004.</ref> Together the couple have three children: sons [[Paul Giamatti|Paul]] and [[Marcus Giamatti|Marcus]] are Hollywood actors, and daughter Elena is a jewelry designer. In the film ''[[Sideways]]'', a photograph of the character Miles Raymond (played by Paul Giamatti) with his late father is really a picture of Paul and Bart Giamatti.

Giamatti's friend and successor as Baseball Commissioner, [[Fay Vincent]], wrote in ''The Last Commissioner'' that Giamatti's official religious view was [[agnosticism]].

==Yale==
Giamatti stayed in New Haven to receive his doctorate in 1964, when he also co-edited a volume of essays by Thomas Bergin with a Philosophy graduate student, [[T. K. Seung]]. He became a professor of Comparative Literature at Yale University, an author, and master of [[Ezra Stiles College]] at Yale, a post to which he was appointed by his predecessor as Yale president, [[Kingman Brewster, Jr.]]. Giamatti spent a brief period teaching at [[Princeton University|Princeton]], but was at Yale for most of his academic life. Giamatti's scholarly work focused on [[English Renaissance]] literature, particularly [[Edmund Spenser]], and relationships between English and [[Italian Renaissance]] poets. His work on the genre of [[pastoral]] and on the influence of [[Ludovico Ariosto]] in England remains influential.

As a teacher of undergraduates, he was well known, and rejected the conventional wisdom that the Renaissance represented an abrupt cultural change, stressing the continuities between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. He sometimes referred to the Protestant Reformation as the "Protestant Deformation."

When Giamatti's tenure as Stiles master ended in 1972, he was so popular that his students wanted to honor him with a present. Giamatti told them he wanted a joke gift and they got him a moosehead (from a yard sale), which was ceremoniously hung in the dining hall.

Giamatti served as president of Yale University from 1978 to 1986. He was the youngest president of the university in its history, and presided over the university during a bitter strike by its [[Federation of Hospital and University Employees|clerical and technical workers]] in 1984-85. As university president, he refused student, faculty, and community demands to [[Disinvestment from South Africa|divest]] from [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]]. He also served on the Board of Trustees of [[Mount Holyoke College]] for many years, participating fully despite his Yale and baseball commitments. Giamatti was elected a Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1980.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter G|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterG.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=7 April 2011}}</ref>

==Baseball==
Giamatti had a lifelong interest in baseball (he was a die-hard [[Boston Red Sox]] fan). In 1978, when he was first rumored to be a candidate for the presidency of Yale, he had deflected questions by observing that "The only thing I ever wanted to be President of was the [[American League]]." 1 He became President of the [[National League]] in {{by|1986}}, and later Commissioner of Baseball in {{by|1989}}. During his stint as National League president, Giamatti placed an emphasis on the need to improve the environment for the fan in the ballparks. He also decided to make umpires strictly enforce the [[balk]] rule, and supported "social justice" as the only remedy for the lack of presence of minority managers, coaches, or executives at any level in Major League Baseball.

While still serving as National League president, Giamatti suspended [[Pete Rose]] for 30 games after Rose shoved umpire [[Dave Pallone]] on April 30, 1988. Later that year, Giamatti also suspended [[1988 Los Angeles Dodgers season|Los Angeles Dodgers]] pitcher [[Jay Howell]], who was caught using [[pine tar]] during the [[1988 National League Championship Series|National League Championship Series]].

Giamatti, whose tough dealing with Yale's union favorably impressed Major League Baseball owners, was unanimously elected to succeed [[Peter Ueberroth]] as commissioner on September 8, {{by|1988}}.<ref>[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/mlb/comish/giamatti.html Sports Encyclopedia]</ref> Giamatti was commissioner on August 24, {{by|1989}} when Pete Rose voluntarily agreed to permanent ineligibility from baseball.<ref>[http://www.baseball-almanac.com/players/p_rosea.shtml Rose agreement]</ref> As reflected in the agreement with Pete Rose, Giamatti was determined to maintain the integrity of the game during his brief commissionership.
{{see also|Dowd Report}}

==Death==
While at his vacation home on [[Martha's Vineyard]], Giamatti, a heavy [[tobacco smoking|smoker]] for many years, died suddenly of a massive [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 51, just eight days after banishing Rose and 154 days into his tenure as commissioner.<ref>[http://thedeadballera.com/Obits/Giamatti.Bart.Obit01.html ''New York Times'' obituary]</ref> He became the second baseball commissioner to die in office, the first being [[Kenesaw Mountain Landis]]. Baseball's owners soon selected [[Fay Vincent]], Giamatti's close friend and baseball's first-ever deputy commissioner, as the new commissioner.

On October 14, 1989, before Game 1 at the [[1989 World Series|World Series]], Giamatti—to whom this World Series was dedicated—was memorialized with a [[moment of silence]]. Son [[Marcus Giamatti]] threw out the first pitch before the game. Also before Game One, the [[Yale Whiffenpoofs]] sang the national anthem, a blend of [[The Star-Spangled Banner]] with [[America the Beautiful]] that has been since repeated by other a-capella groups.

[[James Reston, Jr.]] notes in his book ''Collision at Home Plate: The Lives of Pete Rose and Bart Giamatti'' that Giamatti suffered from [[Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease]], an inherited neuromuscular disease affecting peripheral nerves.

==Works==
* ''Master Pieces from the Files of T.G.B.'', ed. Thomas K. Swing and A. Bartlett Giamatti (1964).
* ''The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic'' (1966)
* ''Play of Double Senses: Spenser’s Faerie Queene'' (1975)
* ''The University and the Public Interest'' (1981)
* ''Exile and Change in Renaissance Literature'' (1984)
* ''Take Time for Paradise: Americans and their Games'' (1989)
* ''A Free and Ordered Space: The Real World of the University'' (1990)
* ''A Great and Glorious Game: Baseball Writings of A. Bartlett Giamatti'' (ed. Kenneth Robson, 1998)

==See also==
{{see also|Ivy League Presidents}}

==Further reading==
* Kelley, Brooks Mather. (1999). [http://books.google.com/books?id=B2aDRhohtx8C&client=firefox-a ''Yale: A History.''] New Haven: [[Yale University Press]]. 10-ISBN 0-300-07843-9: 13-ISBN 978-0-300-07843-5; [http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/810552 OCLC 810552]
* Reston, James. (1991). ''Collision at Home Plate: The Lives of Pete Rose and Bart Giamatti.''
* Valerio, Anthony. (1991). ''A Life of A. Bartlett Giamatti: By Him and About Him.''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://mason.gmu.edu/~rmatz/giamatti.html "The Green Fields of the Mind"], excerpt from ''A Great and Glorious Game''
* [http://www.baseballlibrary.com/baseballlibrary/ballplayers/G/Giamatti_Bart.stm BaseballLibrary] - profile and events
* [http://www.quotes-museum.com/author/A.%20Bartlett%20Giamatti/2352 A. Bartlett Giamatti Quotations]
* [http://www.inhistoric.com/2008/06/8241989-banned-for-life.html 8/24/1989 - Rose banned for life]

{{s-start}}
{{s-aca}}
{{succession box | before=[[Hanna Holborn Gray]], ''acting'' | title=[[University President|President]] of [[Yale University]] | years=1977–1986 | after=[[Benno C. Schmidt, Jr.]]}}
{{s-sports}}
{{succession box | title=[[National League|National League president]] | before=[[Chub Feeney]] | years=1986–1989 | after=[[Bill White (first baseman)|Bill White]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Peter Ueberroth]]| title=[[Baseball Commissioner|Commissioner of Baseball]] | years=1989 | after=[[Fay Vincent]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Baseball Commissioners}}
{{Presidents of Yale University}}
{{Italian American Sports Hall of Fame}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Giamatti, A. Bartlett
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = April 4, 1938
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| DATE OF DEATH = September 1, 1989
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Giamatti, A. Bartlett}}
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:American agnostics]]
[[Category:American people of English descent]]
[[Category:American people of Italian descent]]
[[Category:American sportspeople of English descent]]
[[Category:American people of Italian descent]]
[[Category:Baseball commissioners]]
[[Category:Burials at Grove Street Cemetery]]
[[Category:Cardiovascular disease deaths in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:People from Boston, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:People from Hampshire County, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Phillips Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Presidents of Yale University]]
[[Category:Scroll and Key]]
[[Category:Yale University alumni]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]

[[fr:Bartlett Giamatti]]
[[ja:A・バートレット・ジアマッティ]]

Ruth Rowland Nichols

2011-04-05T23:15:54Z

GcSwRhIc: +Category:People from New York City; +Category:National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees using HotCat

[[File:RuthNichols-NYEveningGraphic-1932Feb15.png|thumb|alt=Ruth Nichols, 1932|'''Ruth Nicols''' (New York ''Evening Graphic'' front page, Feb 15, 1932)]]

{{for|the Canadian author|Ruth Nichols (author)}}

'''Ruth Rowland Nichols''' (23 February 1901 - 25 September 1960) was an [[aviation]] pioneer. She was the only woman yet to hold simultaneous world records for speed, altitude, and distance for a female pilot.

==Early life==

Nichols was born in [[New York City]] to Erickson Norman Nichols and Edith Corlis Haines. Her father was a member of the New York Stock Exchange, and had been a member of [[Theodore Roosevelt|Teddy Roosevelt]]'s [[Rough Riders]] (officially known as The 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry). Ruth was sent to [[the Masters School]], a private preparatory school for young women. On her graduation from high school in 1919, her father's graduation present to her was an airplane ride with [[Stinson Aircraft Company|Edward Anderson "Eddie" Stinson, Jr.]], ace [[Aviation in World War I|World War I pilot]], which spurred her interest in becoming a pilot. After her graduation from the Masters School, she attended [[Wellesley College]], studied to become a doctor, and graduated in 1924.

==Career as a pilot==

While a student at Wellesley College, Nichols secretly took flying lessons. Shortly after graduation, she received her [[pilot licensing and certification|pilot's license]], and became the first woman in the world to obtain a [[Hydroplane (boat)|hydroplane]] license. She first achieved public fame in January 1928, as co-pilot for Harry Rogers, who had been her flying instructor, on the first non-stop flight from New York to [[Miami, Florida]]. Due to her [[socialite]] upbringing and aristocratic family background, Nichols became known in the press as the "Flying Debutante", a name she hated<ref>[http://www.century-of-flight.net/Aviation%20history/daredevils/women.htm ''The Women Who Dared the Skies'' article at century-of-flight.net]</ref>. Nichols was then hired as a sales manager for [[Fairchild (aircraft manufacturer)|Fairchild Aviation Corporation]]. In 1929, she was a founding member, with [[Amelia Earhart]] and others, of the [[Ninety-Nines]], an organization of licensed women pilots.

During the 1930s, while working for Fairchild and other aviation companies, Nichols made several record-setting flights. In 1930, she beat [[Charles Lindbergh]]'s record time for a cross-country flight, completing the trip in 13 hours, 21 minutes. In March, 1931, she set the women's world altitude record of 28,743 feet (8760.9 m). In April, 1931, she set the women's world speed record of 210.7 miles per hour (339.1 km/h). In June, 1931, she attempted to become the first woman to fly solo across the [[Atlantic Ocean]], but crashed in [[New Brunswick]] and was severely injured. Following her recovery, in October, 1931, she set the women's distance record with a flight from [[Oakland, California]] to [[Louisville, Kentucky]], 1,977 miles (3182 km).

On 14 February, 1932, Nichols set a new world altitude record of 19,928 feet for diesel-powered aircraft at [[Floyd Bennett Field|Floyd Bennett Field, NY]] while flying in a [[Lockheed Vega]]. On 29 December, Nichols became the first woman pilot of a commercial [[passenger airline]], flying for [[New York and New England Airways]].

On 21 October 1935, Nichols was critically injured in a crash during a [[barnstorming]] flight in [[Troy, New York]]. She was unable to fly for nearly a year after. When she returned to flying, Nichols went to work for the Emergency Peace Campaign, a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] organization that sought to promote peaceful resolution to international conflicts then brewing. In 1939, she headed Relief Wings, a civilian air service that performed emergency relief flights and assisted the [[Civil Air Patrol]] during [[World War II]]. Nichols would eventually attain the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Civil Air Patrol.

Following the war, Nichols became involved in other humanitarian efforts, using her celebrity to bring attention to causes and to raise funds. She organised a mission of support for [[United Nations Children's Fund|UNICEF]], including piloting a round-the-world tour in 1949. In the 1950s, she served as director of women's activities for [[Save the Children]], director of the women's division of the [[United Hospital Fund]], and field director for the National Nephrosis Foundation.

In 1958, after lobbying the [[United States Air Force]] for permission, she co-piloted a [[F-102 Delta Dagger|TF-102A Delta Dagger]] and reached 1,000 miles per hour (1600 km/h) and an altitude of 51,000 feet (15 545 m), setting new women's speed and altitude records at age fifty-seven.

=== Women in space program ===

In 1959, as [NASA]'s Mercury program was preparing for missions to the moon, Nichols underwent the same isolation, centrifuge, and weightlessness tests that had been devised for the astronaut candidates. The tests were conducted at the Wright Air Development Center in Dayton, Ohio, by USAF Brigadier General Donald Flickinger. Flickinger, and his mentor [[William Randolph Lovelace II|Randy Lovelace]] (the bioastronautics pioneer who performed the medical selection of the Mercury Seven), had a far-reaching interest in research on the suitability of women as astronauts. However, no official records of the Air Research and Development Command, the experimental wing of the Air Force trying to get America into space, survive to document how or why this came about.

Although she didn't pass all the Phase 1 tests that her female peers did (the [[Mercury 13]]), Nichols performed well enough on the tests and urged Air Force scientists to include women in their spaceflight plans. The scientists at Wright "thought of this with horror, and they said under no circumstances," according to an oral historian to whom Nichols relayed the story. The test results were leaked to the media which, according to Flickinger, "turned the tide" against Air Force sponsorship of research into female astronaut candidates<ref>Stephanie Nolen. Promised The Moon: The Untold Story of the First Women in the Space Race. Penguin Canada, Toronto, 2002. p. 88.</ref>. Ultimately only [[Jerrie Cobb]] was able to complete all three phases of tests before [[NASA]] officially pulled the plug on the program.

Suffering from severe [[clinical depression|depression]] in 1960, she died of an overdose of [[barbiturate]]s at her home in New York City. Her mortal remains are interred at the [[Woodlawn Cemetery, Bronx|The Woodlawn Cemetery]] in the [[Bronx]], New York<ref>[http://www.thewoodlawncemetery.com/women.html ''Women of Woodlawn'' article at thewoodlawncemetery.com]</ref>

During the course of her career, Nichols flew every type of aircraft developed, including the [[dirigible]], [[Glider (sailplane)|glider]], [[autogyro]], [[seaplane|seaplanes]], [[biplane|biplanes]], [[triplane|triplanes]], transport aircraft, and a supersonic jet. Nichols was posthumously inducted into the [[National Aviation Hall of Fame]] in 1992. A propeller from her 1930s [[Lockheed Vega]] is displayed in the [[National Air and Space Museum]]'s Golden Age of Flight gallery.

==References==
<references />

==Sources==
*{{cite book|chapter=Nichols, Ruth Rowland|author=Roger D. Launius|title=American National Biography Online|year=2000|url=http://www.anb.org/articles/20/20-00720.html}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.wellesley.edu/Anniversary/nichols.html|title=Ruth Nichols|author=Mur Wolf|work=Wellesley College - Person of the Week|accessdate=2006-08-28}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/aero/women_aviators/ruth_nichols.htm|title=Ruth Nichols|author=D. Cochrane and P. Ramirez|work=National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution|accessdate=2006-08-28}}
*{{cite web|url=http://womenshistory.about.com/library/bio/blbio_nichols_ruth.htm|title=Ruth Nichols|author=Jone Johnson Lewis|work=Women's History|accessdate=2006-08-28}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Nichols, Ruth Rowland
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Nichols, Ruth
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American aviation pioneer
|DATE OF BIRTH=23 February 1901
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[New York City]]
|DATE OF DEATH=25 September 1960
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[New York City]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Nichols, Ruth}}
[[Category:1901 births]]
[[Category:1960 deaths]]
[[Category:American aviators]]
[[Category:Female aviators]]
[[Category:People of the Civil Air Patrol]]
[[Category:Wellesley College alumni]]
[[Category:People from New York City]]
[[Category:National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees]]

Lloyd Stearman

2011-04-05T22:32:41Z

GcSwRhIc: added Category:National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees using HotCat

'''Lloyd Carlton Stearman''' (October 26, 1898 – April 3, 1975) was an [[United States|American]] [[aviator]] and aircraft designer.

Stearman was born in [[Wellsville, Kansas]]. From 1917 – 1918, he attended Kansas State College (later renamed [[Kansas State University]]) in [[Manhattan, Kansas]], where he studied [[engineering]] and [[architecture]]. In 1918, he left school to enlist in the [[U.S. Naval Reserve]] in [[San Diego, California]]; while there he learned to fly [[Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company|Curtiss]] [[Curtiss Model N|N-9]] [[seaplane]]s.

During the mid-1920s [[Matty Laird]], designer of the [[Swallow Airplane Company|Laird Swallow]] aircraft, hired Stearman as a mechanic, giving him his first exposure to [[fixed-wing aircraft]] manufacturing. On February 4, 1925, Stearman and [[Walter Beech]] teamed up with [[Clyde Cessna]] to form the [[Travel Air Manufacturing Company]], where he remained until 1927, when he left to form his own manufacturing company, [[Stearman Aircraft|Stearman Aircraft Corporation]]. It was there that he built the Stearman C2 and [[Stearman C3]], and designed other biplanes for mail and cargo delivery, observation and training.

In the early 1930s, Stearman became president of [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed Aircraft Company]] (now [[Lockheed Martin Corporation]]) and designed agricultural aircraft. In 1948 more than 4,345 Stearman aircraft were used in agricultural flying.

In 1936 with [[Dean B. Hammond]] he formed the [[Stearman-Hammond Aircraft Corporation]] to produce the Hammond Model Y.

In recognition of his contributions to the aircraft industry, Lloyd Stearman was inducted into the [[National Aviation Hall of Fame]] in [[Dayton, Ohio]] in July 1989.

==External links==
* [http://www.nationalaviation.org/website/index.asp?webpageid=%7BF3401AC2-408C-42A7-AD0F-CDDC7942F110%7D&eID=321 Biography] from The [[National Aviation Hall of Fame]]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Stearman, Lloyd
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = October 26, 1898
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = April 3, 1975
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Stearman, Lloyd}}
[[Category:1898 births]]
[[Category:1975 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Franklin County, Kansas]]
[[Category:Kansas State University alumni]]
[[Category:American aviators]]
[[Category:Aviation pioneers]]
[[Category:United States Navy personnel]]
[[Category:National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees]]

[[fr:Lloyd Stearman]]

Beacon Hill (Boston)

2011-04-01T16:24:26Z

GcSwRhIc: /* Mount Vernon Street */ disambiguation needed

{{Other uses|Beacon Hill (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox_nrhp
|name =Beacon Hill Historic District
|nrhp_type = nhld
|image = 1800 beacon hill.jpg
|caption = Cutting down Beacon Hill in 1811; a view from the north toward the [[Massachusetts State House]]<ref>{{cite book|last = Whitehill|first=Walter Muir|title=Boston: A Topographical History|year=1968|edition=Second|pages=81–84}}</ref>
|location= [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
|locmapin = Massachusetts
|area =
|built =1795
|architect= [[Charles Bulfinch]]
|architecture= Colonial Revival, Greek Revival, Federal
|designated_nrhp_type=December 19, 1962
|added = October 15, 1966<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|2007a}}</ref>
|governing_body = Local
|refnum=66000130
}}

[[Image:2884596699 BeaconHill 18thc .jpg|thumb|250px|View of Beacon Hill, Boston, late 18th c., from Breed's Hill in Charlestown.]]

'''Beacon Hill''' is a historic [[Neighborhoods in Boston|neighborhood]] of [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], that along with the neighboring [[Back Bay, Boston|Back Bay]] is home to about 26,000 people.<ref>[http://www.bostonindicators.org/IndicatorsProject/GeographyAtAGlance/Default.aspx?id=2322 Boston Indicators Project: BackBay/Beacon Hill]</ref> It is a neighborhood of [[Georgian architecture|Federal-style]] [[rowhouse]]s and is known for its narrow, [[gas lighting|gas-lit]] streets and brick sidewalks. Today, Beacon Hill is regarded as one of the most desirable and expensive neighborhoods in Boston.<ref>[http://www.moving.com/Great-Neighborhoods/boston/boston-neighborhoods.asp Great Neighborhoods: Boston]</ref>

The Beacon Hill area is located just north of [[Boston Common]] and the [[Public Garden (Boston)|Boston Public Garden]] and is bounded generally by Beacon Street on the south, Somerset Street on the east, Cambridge Street to the north and [[Storrow Drive]] along the riverfront of the [[Charles River Esplanade]] to the west. The block bounded by [[Beacon Street|Beacon]], [[Tremont Street|Tremont]] and [[Park Street, Boston|Park]] Streets is included as well, as is the Boston Common itself. The level section of the neighborhood west of Charles Street, on landfill, is known locally as the "Flat of the Hill."

Because the [[Massachusetts State House]] is in a prominent location at the top of the hill, the term "Beacon Hill" is also often used as a [[metonym]] in the local news media to refer to the state government or the legislature.

==History==
Like many [[Beacon Hill|similarly named areas]], the neighborhood is named for the location of a former beacon atop the highest point in central Boston, once located just behind the current site of the [[Massachusetts State House]]. The hill and two other hills nearby were substantially reduced in height to allow the development of housing in the area{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} and to use the earth to create land by filling the Mill Pond, to the northeast.

[[Image:BeaconHillReservoir.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Former [[Beacon Hill Reservoir]] in 1854 (demolished ca.1880).]]

The entire hill was once owned by [[William Blaxton]] (also spelled Blackstone), the first European settler of Boston, from 1625 to 1635; he eventually sold his land to the Puritans. The south slope of Beacon Hill facing the Common was the socially desirable side in the 19th century. Black Beacon Hill was on the north slope. Many famous black leaders, including Frederick Douglas, Harriet Tubman, David Walker and Sojourner Truth, spoke at the [[African Meeting House]] on Joy Street. [[Rebecca Lee Crumpler]], who lived for a time on Joy Street, was the first African American woman to become a physician in the United States. In 1860 she was admitted to the New England Female Medical College (which later merged with Boston University) to earn her M.D. degree. Her publication of "A Book of Medical Discourses" in 1883 was one of the first by an African American about medicine. The two Hills were largely united on the subject of [[Abolitionism|Abolition]]. Beacon Hill was one of the staunchest centers of the anti-slavery movement in the [[Antebellum era]].

In 1937 ''[[The Late George Apley]]'', a Pulitzer Prize winning novel, gave a satirical description of the upper-class white residents on Beacon Hill.

Until a major [[urban renewal]] project of the late 1950s, the red-light district of [[Scollay Square]] flourished just to the east of Beacon Hill, as did the [[West End, Boston, Massachusetts|West End]] neighborhood to the north.

Beacon Hill was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]] on December 19, 1962.

[[Image:2nd Harrison Gray Otis House.jpg|thumb|250px|Second [[Harrison Gray Otis House]], 85 Mount Vernon Street.]]

==Notable residents==
[[Image:Louisburg Square Beacon Hill Boston Massachusetts.jpg|thumb|250px|Houses on [[Louisburg Square]].]]

Beacon Hill has been home to many notable persons, including:
* [[Louisa May Alcott]], 10 Louisburg Square
* [[John Albion Andrew]]
* [[William Blaxton]], original owner of Beacon Hill
* [[Edwin Booth]], 29A Chestnut Street
* [[Charles Bulfinch]]
* [[John Cheever]]
* [[John Singleton Copley]]
* [[Michael Crichton]]
* [[Robert Frost]], 88 Mount Vernon St., 1941
* [[John Hancock]]
* [[Chester Harding (painter)|Chester Harding]], 16 Beacon Street
* [[Teresa Heinz]]
* [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.]]
* [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]
* [[Julia Ward Howe]]
* [[Abigail Johnson]]
* [[Ted Kennedy|Edward M. Kennedy]]
* [[John Kerry]]
* [[Henry Cabot Lodge]]
* [[James Russell Lowell]]
* [[Robert Lowell]]
* [[Mary Alden Childers|Mary Osgood]], 8 Beacon Street
* [[Harrison Gray Otis (lawyer)|Harrison Gray Otis]]
* [[Sylvia Plath]]
* [[William Prescott]]
* [[Eleanor Raymond]]
* [[David Lee Roth]]
* [[George Santayana]], 302 Beacon Street
* [[Anne Sexton]]
* [[Robert Gould Shaw]]
* [[Carly Simon]]
* [[Charles Sumner]]
* [[Uma Thurman]]
* [[David Walker (abolitionist)|David Walker]]
* [[Gretchen Osgood Warren]], 67 Mount Vernon Street
* [[Fiske Warren]], 67 Mount Vernon Street
* [[Daniel Webster]]
* [[Jack Welch]]

==Sites of interest==
[[Image:Acorn Street Beacon Hill Boston Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Acorn Street, built in the late 1820s.]]
[[Image:The Beacon Monument, Beacon Hill, Boston, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|thumb|Monument in back of the State House marking the site of the original [[beacon pole]]]]
[[Image:Beacon Hill Map.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Map of Beacon Hill from 1842]]

Sites of interest in Beacon Hill include:
* [[Massachusetts State House]] (Beacon Street): Home of the state's government
* The [[Unitarian Universalist Association]]: Headquarters of the international, [[liberal religion|liberal]] [[religious denomination]], next door to the Massachusetts State House
* [[Louisburg Square]]
* Nearby Acorn Street, a narrow lane paved with [[cobblestone]]s, often mentioned as the most [[picturesque]] (or the most frequently photographed) street in the United States.{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}}
* Mt. Vernon Street: "The finest address in all America"
* Bull and Finch Bar (Beacon Street): Source of inspiration and exterior shots for the ''[[Cheers]]'' [[television show]].
* [[Charles Street Meeting House]]
* [[Club of Odd Volumes|The Club of Odd Volumes]] (Mount Vernon Street): Bibliophiles club, library, and archive
* [[Suffolk University]]
* [[Suffolk University Law School]]
* [[Park Street Church]]
* The [[Boston Bar Association]]
* The route taken by the fictional [[mallard|Mrs. Mallard]] and her children, depicted in ''[[Make Way for Ducklings]],'' a [[children's literature|book for children]] by [[Robert McCloskey]]. The story is commemorated every year in May by a parade through Beacon Hill to the [[Boston Public Garden]].
* [[Robert Gould Shaw]] and [[54th Massachusetts Regiment]] Memorial: Intersection of Beacon Street and Park Street, opposite the Massachusetts State House
* [[African Meeting House#Museum|Museum of African American History]], New England’s largest museum dedicated to preserving, conserving and interpreting the contributions of African Americans, located at the [[African Meeting House]], adjacent to the [[Abiel Smith School]]. The meeting house is the oldest surviving Black church built by African Americans. The school was the first publicly funded schoolhouse for African American children in America.
* [[Nichols House Museum]], a historic 1804 townhouse
* [[Harrison Gray Otis House]], 1796. The Otis House also houses [[Historic New England]]'s headquarters.
* The [[Francis Parkman]] House
* [[The Vilna Shul]]

==Former street names in Beacon Hill==
* Anderson Street - West Centre Street
* Irving Street - Butolph Street
* Joy Street - Clapboard Street (between Cambridge and Myrtle Streets in 1735), Belknap Lane (between Myrtle and Mount Vernon Streets)
* Myrtle Street - May Street
* Phillips Street - Southac Street
* Smith Court - May's Court
* West Cedar Street - George Street<ref>Boston Street Laying-Out Dept. [http://books.google.com/books?id=MOpIAAAAMAAJ A record of the streets, alleys, places, etc. in the city of Boston]. 1910.</ref>

[[Image:Beacon Hill, Boston.jpg|thumb|right|The neighborhood of Beacon Hill as seen from the Charles River, (with the [[Financial District, Boston|Financial District]] in the background.)]]

==Notable addresses in Beacon Hill==
[[Image:Boston Bar Association facade.jpg|thumb|The [[Chester Harding House]], a [[National Historic Landmark]] occupied by portrait painter [[Chester Harding (painter)|Chester Harding]] from 1826–1830, now houses the [[Boston Bar Association]].]]
===Beacon Street===
* [[One Beacon Street]] - An eponymous office tower at the corner of Tremont Street; the [[List of tallest buildings in Boston|14th-tallest building]] in the city
* 8 Beacon Street - late 19th/early 20th century home of the Osgood Family: Dr. Osgood, Margaret Osgood and daughters [[Gretchen Osgood Warren|Gretchen]] and [[Molly Childers|Mary]]
* 10½ Beacon Street - [[Boston Athenaeum|Boston Athenæum]]
* 14 Beacon Street - [[Congregational House, Boston, Massachuetts|Congregational House]], site of the Congregational Library and City Mission Society
* 16 Beacon Street - [[Chester Harding House]], now home to the [[Boston Bar Association]], was home to the famous portrait painter [[Chester Harding (painter)|Chester Harding]] from 1826–1830
* 22 Beacon Street - [[Amory-Ticknor House]], built in 1804 by [[Charles Bulfinch]]; now houses the Beacon Hill studio for [[WFXT|Fox 25 News (WFXT)]], with a strategic rooftop camera position
* 25 Beacon Street - headquarters of the [[Unitarian Universalist Association]], an international [[liberal religion|liberal]] [[religious denomination]]
* 33 Beacon Street - resident [[George Parkman]]
* 34½ Beacon Street - erstwhile headquarters of [[Family Service of Greater Boston]], a private, [[nonprofit]] [[social service]] agency founded in 1835
* 39-40 Beacon Street - [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]] courted and married Fanny Appleton
* 42-43 Beacon Street - painter [[John Singleton Copley]] had a house on this site, as did [[David Sears II]], whose house is now the home of the [[Somerset Club]]
* 45 Beacon Street - 3rd [[Harrison Gray Otis (lawyer)|Harrison Gray Otis]] house, now [[American Meteorological Society]]
* [[Headquarters House (Boston, Massachusetts)|54-55 Beacon Street]] - resident [[William H. Prescott]] had [[William Makepeace Thackeray]] as a houseguest
* 84 Beacon Street - Cheers Beacon Hill. Formerly known as the [[Bull & Finch Pub]], this pub was the inspiration for the classic television show, [[Cheers]], and was shown during the opening credits of the sitcom.

===Bowdoin Street===
* 35 Bowdoin Street - [[Church of Saint John the Evangelist, Beacon Hill, Boston|Church of Saint John the Evangelist]]
* 122 Bowdoin Street - nominal resident, [[John Fitzgerald Kennedy]] (registered voting address)

===Brimmer Street===
* 30 Brimmer Street - [[Church of the Advent, Beacon Hill, Boston|Church of the Advent]] ([http://www.theadvent.org/ official site)]
* 44 Brimmer Street - resident [[Samuel Eliot Morison]]

===Cambridge Street===
* [[Massachusetts General Hospital]] - Bulfinch Pavilion and Ether Dome
* 100 Cambridge Street, Upper Plaza - [[Garden of Peace, Boston, Massachusetts|Garden of Peace]]
* 131 Cambridge Street - [[Old West Church, Boston, Massachusetts|Old West Church]]
* 141 Cambridge Street - 1st [[Harrison Gray Otis (lawyer)|Harrison Gray Otis]] house, architect [[Charles Bulfinch]]

===Charles Street===
* 44A Charles Street - Mary Sullivan, last victim of the [[Boston Strangler]], murdered here

===Chestnut Street===
* 6 Chestnut Street - [[Beacon Hill Friends House]]
* 13, 15, 17 Chestnut Street - architect [[Charles Bulfinch]] designed row-houses for [[Hepzibah Swan]]
* 18 Chestnut Street - birthplace of poet [[Robert Lowell]]
* 50 Chestnut Street - resident [[Francis Parkman]], historian
* 57A Chestnut Street - [[Harvard Musical Association]]

===Grove Street===
* 28 Grove Street - Resident Rev. Leonard A. Grimes, prominent black clergyman associated with the [[Underground Railroad]] and [[Abolitionist]] movement. Noted for being one of the men who bought the freedom of [[Anthony Burns]] after his arrest.

===Irving Street===
* 58 Irving Street - Birthplace of [[Charles Sumner]], abolitionist, [[U.S. Senator]].

===Joy Street===
* 46 Joy Street - [[African Meeting House]].
* 67 Joy Street - Resident [[Rebecca Lee Crumpler]], prominent physician, considered to be the first black woman to receive a medical degree in the U.S.

===Louisburg Square===
* 4 Louisburg Square - resident [[William Dean Howells]] while editor of the [[Atlantic Monthly]]
* 10 Louisburg Square - residents [[Bronson Alcott]] and [[Louisa May Alcott]] and family
* 19 Louisburg Square - residents [[John Kerry]] and [[Teresa Heinz Kerry]]
* 20 Louisburg Square - singer [[Jenny Lind]] married [[Otto Goldschmidt]] here

===Mount Vernon Street===
* 8 Mount Vernon Street - home of [[Fiske Warren]] and [[Gretchen Osgood Warren]]
* 32 Mount Vernon Street - residents Dr. [[Samuel Gridley Howe]] and his wife [[Julia Ward Howe]]
* 41 Mount Vernon Street - home of [[Beacon Press]], a department of the [[Unitarian Universalist Association]], that published the Senator [[Mike Gravel]] edition of the [[Pentagon Papers]] in 1971
* 45-47 Mount Vernon Street - site of [[Portia School of Law]], founded for and by women in 1908
* 51-57 Mount Vernon Street - architect [[Charles Bulfinch]]
* 57 Mount Vernon Street - residents [[Daniel Webster]] and later [[Charles Francis Adams]]{{dn}}
* 67 Mount Vernon Street - home of Samuel Dennis and Susan Cornelia Warren, paper manufacturer and one time president of the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]
* 72 Mount Vernon Street - erstwhile site of the [[Boston University School of Theology]]
* 76 Mount Vernon Street - home of [[Margaret Deland]]
* 77 Mount Vernon Street - resident Sarah Wyman Whitman and later the clubhouse of the [[Club of Odd Volumes]]
* 85 Mount Vernon Street - 2nd [[Harrison Gray Otis (lawyer)|Harrison Gray Otis]] house, architect [[Charles Bulfinch]]
* [http://www.colonialsociety.org/87.html 87 Mount Vernon Street] - architect [[Charles Bulfinch]]
* 127 Mount Vernon Street - home of ''[[The Real World: Boston]]'' and ''[[Spenser: For Hire]]'', former [[Boston Fire Department]] station.

===Myrtle Street===

* 109 Myrtle Street - resident [[Lysander Spooner]], an American individualist anarchist.

===Phillips Street===
* 2 Phillips Street - Resident [[John Coburn]]
* 18 Phillips Street - [[The Vilna Shul]], now the [http://vilnashul.org/[Boston's Center For Jewish Culture]]
* 41 Phillips Street - Erstwhile site of the [[Northeast Institute of Industrial Technology]]
* 66 Phillips Street - [[Hayden House (Boston, Massachusetts)|Hayden House]], associated with the [[Abolitionist]] movement and the [[Underground Railroad]]
* 83 Phillips Street - Resident [[John Sweat Rock]], prominent black dentist, attorney, and [[abolitionist]] activist

===Pinckney Street===
* 15 Pinckney Street - a site of [[Elizabeth Peabody]]'s [[Kindergarten]]

===Other residents===
* [[Writers]] [[Brad Meltzer]] and [[Judd Winick]] lived in a tiny apartment in Beacon Hill in 1993 before they achieved success. While living there, Winick developed his first successful [[comic strip]] and Meltzer worked at ''[[Games Magazine]]'' by day while working on his first [[novel]] at night.

==See also==
* [[Boston By Foot]] for guided architectural tours
* [[Cambridge Railroad]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [http://www.kellscraft.com/BookofBoston/BookofBoston03.html The Book of Boston, 1916] by [[Robert Shackleton]], text and photos online
* ''Joy Street'' Frances Parkinson Keyes, 1950, fiction.
* [http://www.historicnewengland.org/resources/articles/pdf369.pdf Area Preservation and the Beacon Hill Bill]. Old-Time New England. v.46, no.164, Spring 1956.
* ''Beacon Hill: A Walking Tour,'' A. McVoy McIntyre, 1975. ISBN 0-316-55600-9
* ''The Mount Vernon Street Warrens,'' Martin Green, Simon & Schuster, 1989 ISBN 0684191091
* ''Beacon Hill: The Life & Times of a Neighborhood,'' Moying Li-Marcus, 2002. ISBN 1-55553-543-7
* [http://www.colonialsociety.org/87.html Colonial Society] discussion of the development of Beacon Hill.

==External links==
{{commons cat|Beacon Hill, Boston}}
* [http://www.beacon-hill-boston.com/History Beacon Hill History]
* [http://www.beaconhillonline.com Beacon Hill Online]
* [http://jsons.collegepublisher.com/news/2004/02/04/Neighborhoods/Beacon.Hill.Home.To.Black.History.In.Boston-620979.shtml Black Beacon Hill]
* [http://www.vilnashul.com/ Vilna Shul]
* [http://cityofboston.gov/bra/PDF/Publications//575BB-BHill.pdf Back Bay - Beacon Hill 2000 Census of Population and Housing]
* [http://www.dgmaestro.com/beaconhills/ Beacon Hill Quick-Walk]
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/collection_database/photographs/first_methodist_church_temple_street_beacon_hill_walker_evans/objectview.aspx?OID=190021351&collID=19&dd1=19 Metropolitan Museum of Art]. First Methodist Church, Temple Street, Beacon Hill, Boston, ca.1930. Photo by Walker Evans.
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/docsearls/sets/72157622677658150/ Flickr]. Photos, 2009

{{coord|42.3583|-71.0661|display=title}}

{{Registered Historic Places}}
{{Boston neighborhoods}}

[[Category:Neighborhoods in Boston, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Historic preservation]]
[[Category:Historic districts in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Underground Railroad locations]]
[[Category:National Historic Landmarks in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Beacon Hill, Boston| ]]
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts]]

[[fr:Beacon Hill (Boston)]]
[[ja:ビーコンヒル (ボストン)]]
[[sv:Beacon Hill]]
[[zh:灯塔山]]

Schlacht von Aughrim

2011-03-29T15:43:50Z

GcSwRhIc: The correction for old style to new style dates for the 17th century is only 10 days

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Aughrim
|partof=the [[Williamite War in Ireland]]
|image=[[Image:Aughrim cross.jpg|300px]]
|caption=Memorial cross on the site of the Battle of Aughrim
|date={{OldStyleDate|22 July|1691|12 July}}
|place=Near [[Aughrim, County Galway|Aughrim]], [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]]
|coordinates={{Coord|53.295|N|8.312|W|region:IE_type:city|display=inline,title}} ([[Irish grid reference system|Irish grid]] M781272)
|result=[[Williamite]] victory
|combatant1=[[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] forces - Irish and French troops <ref> G. A. Hayes McCoy, Irish Battles, A Military History of Ireland, p244</ref>|combatant2=[[Williamite]] forces - Irish, Dutch, English, Scottish, Danish and French Huguenot troops <ref>McCoy p244</ref>
|commander1=[[Marquis de St Ruth]]†
|commander2=[[Godert de Ginkell, 1st Earl of Athlone|Godert de Ginkell]]
|strength1=18,000
|strength2=20,000
|casualties1=4000 killed and 3-4000 captured or missing
|casualties2=3000 killed
|}}
{{Campaignbox Williamite war in Ireland}}

The '''Battle of Aughrim''' ({{lang-ga|Cath Eachroma}}) was the decisive battle of the [[Williamite War in Ireland]]. It was fought between the [[Jacobitism|Jacobites]] and the forces of [[William III of England|William III]] on 12 July 1691 ([[Old Style and New Style dates|old style]], equivalent to 22 July new style), near the village of [[Aughrim, County Galway|Aughrim]] in [[County Galway]].

The battle was one of the more bloody recorded fought on Irish soil – over 7,000 people were killed. It meant the effective end of [[Jacobitism]] in [[Ireland]], although the city of [[Limerick]] held out until the autumn of 1691.

==The campaign==
The Jacobite position in the summer of 1691 was a defensive one.<ref>[http://books.google.fr/books?id=M4MPAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA746&lpg=RA1-PA74#PRA1-PA745,M1 ''Histoire de l'Irlande ancienne et moderne:'' tirée des monumens les ..., Volume 3] Par Mac-Geoghegan (James, abbé) pp 743-747 tr. ''The History of Ireland, Ancient and Modern'', Taken From the Most Authentic Records, and Dedicated to the Irish Brigade. by the Abbe Mac-Geoghegan. Tr. From the French by Patrick O'Kelly. ISBN 13: 9781425566388 ISBN 10: 1425566383</ref> In the previous year, they had retreated behind the [[River Shannon]], which acted as an enormous moat around the province of [[Connacht]], with strongholds at [[Sligo]], [[Athlone]] and [[Limerick]] guarding the routes into Connacht. From this position, the Jacobites hoped to receive military aid from [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] of [[France]] via the port towns and eventually be in a position to re-take the rest of Ireland.

[[Godert de Ginkell, 1st Earl of Athlone|Godert de Ginkell]], the Williamites' Dutch general, had breached this line of defence by crossing the Shannon at [[Athlone]] - taking the town after a bloody siege. The [[Marquis de St Ruth]] (General Charles Chalmont), the French Jacobite general, moved too slowly to save Athlone, as he had to gather his troops from their quarters and raise new ones from [[rapparees|rapparee]] bands and the levies of Irish landowners. Ginkel marched through [[Ballinasloe]], on the main road towards Limerick and Galway, before he found his way blocked by St Ruth’s army at [[Aughrim, County Galway|Aughrim]] on the 12th of July 1691. Both armies were about 20,000 men strong. The soldiers of St Ruth’s army were mostly Irish Catholic, while Ginkel's were English, Scottish, Danish, Dutch and French [[Huguenot]] (members of [[William III of England|William III]]’s [[League of Augsburg]]) and [[Ulster]] Protestants.

The Jacobite position at Aughrim was quite strong. St Ruth had drawn up his infantry along the crest of a ridge known as Kilcommadan Hill. The hill was lined with small stone walls and hedgerows which marked the boundaries of farmers' fields, but which could also be improved and then used as earthworks for the Jacobite infantry to shelter behind. The left of the position was bounded by a bog, through which there was only one causeway, overlooked by Aughrim village and a ruined castle. On the other, open, flank, St Ruth placed his best infantry under his second-in-command, the [[Philibert-Emmanuel de Froulay, chevalier de Tessé|chevalier de Tessé]], and most of his cavalry under [[Patrick Sarsfield]].

==The battle==
The battle started with Ginkel trying to assault the open flank of the Jacobite position with [[cavalry]] and [[infantry]]. This attack ground to a halt after determined Jacobite counter-attacks and the Williamites halted and dug in behind stakes driven into the ground to protect against cavalry. The French Huguenot forces committed here found themselves in low ground exposed to Jacobite fire and took a great number of casualties. Contemporaneous accounts speak of the grass being slippery with blood.  To this day, this area on the south flank of the battle is known locally as the "Bloody Hollow".<ref>[http://ims0.osiemaps.ie/website/publicviewer/main.aspx#V1,579608,726802,7 Historic map of the site] at [[Ordnance Survey of Ireland]]</ref> In the centre, the Williamite infantry under [[Hugh Mackay]] tried a frontal assault on the Jacobite infantry on Kilcommadan Hill. The Williamite troops, mainly English and Scots, had to take each line of trenches, only to find that the Irish had fallen back and were firing at them from the next line. The Williamite infantry attempted three assaults, the first of which penetrated furthest. Eventually, the final Williamite assault was driven back with heavy losses by cavalry and pursued into the bog, where more of them were killed or drowned. In the rout, the pursuing Jacobites manage to spike a battery of Williamite guns.

This left Ginkel with only one option, to try to force a way through the causeway on the Jacobite left. This should have been an impregnable position, with the attackers concentrated into a narrow lane and covered by the defenders of the castle there. However, the Irish troops there were short on ammunition. Mackay directed this fourth assault, consisting mainly of cavalry, in two groups - one along the causeway and one parallel to the south. The Jacobites stalled this attack with heavy fire from the castle, but then found that their reserve ammunition, which was British-made, would not fit into the muzzles of their French-supplied [[muskets]]. The Williamites then charged again with a reasonably fresh regiment of Anglo-Dutch [[cavalry]] under [[Henri de Massue, 1st Earl of Galway|Henri de Massue]]. Faced with only weak musket fire, they crossed the causeway and reached Aughrim village with few casualties. A force of Jacobite cavalry under [[Henry Luttrell (Colonel)|Henry Luttrell]] had been held in reserve to cover this flank. However, rather than counterattacking at this point, their commander ordered them to withdraw, following a route now known locally as "Luttrell's Pass". Henry Luttrell was alleged to have been in the pay of the Williamites and was assassinated in Dublin after the war. The castle quickly fell and its Jacobite garrison surrendered. <blockquote> "[The] fire from the castle on the right. . . was insignificant for it slew but a few in the passage. The reason of it was given because the men had French pieces, the bore of which was small and had English ball which was too large."<ref name=Plunkett> "Plunkett's Jacobite account" cited in Boulger, Demetrius C. ''The Battle of the Boyne'' Martin Secker, London, 1911</ref>{{rp|p238}}</blockquote>

The Jacobite general [[Marquis de St Ruth]], after the third infantry rush on the Williamite position up to their cannons, appeared to believe that the battle could be won and was heard to shout, "they are running, we will chase them back to the gates of [[Dublin]]". However, as he tried to rally his cavalry on the left to counter-attack and drive the Williamite horse back, he was [[Decapitation|decapitated]] by a cannon ball. At this point, the Jacobite position collapsed very quickly. Their horsemen, demoralised by the death of their commander, fled the battlefield, leaving the left flank open for the Williamites to funnel more troops into and envelope the Jacobite line. The Jacobites on the right, seeing the situation was hopeless, also began to melt away, although Sarsfield did try to organise a rearguard action. This left the Jacobite infantry on Killcommadan Hill completely exposed and surrounded. They were slaughtered by the Williamite cavalry as they tried to get away, many of them having thrown away their weapons in order to run faster. One eyewitness, George Storey, said that bodies covered the hill and looked from a distance like a flock of sheep.

==Aftermath==
Estimates of the two armies' losses vary. It is generally agreed that about 7,000 men were killed at the battle. Some recent studies put the Williamite dead as high as 3000 <ref>Piers Wauchope, Patrick Sarsfield and the Williamite War, p232</ref>, but they are more generally given as between 1-2,000, with 4000 Jacobites killed <ref>McCoy, p267 gives the Jacobite losses as 4,000 killed, with 2,000 Williamite troops dead.</ref>. <ref>Padraig Lenihan in Consolidating Conquest, Ireland 1603-1727, p186, gives the losses as, "one fifth of the estimated 20,000 strong Irish army and at least 1,200 Allies killed in the opening attacks" </ref> However the Williamite death toll released by them at the time was only 600 and they claimed to have killed fully 7,000 Jacobites.<ref>Richard Doherty, The Williamite War in Ireland p181</ref> Many of the Jacobite dead were officers, who were very difficult to replace. On top of that, another 4000 Jacobites either deserted or were taken prisoner. What was more, they had lost the better part of their equipment and supplies.

For these reasons, Aughrim was the decisive battle of the Williamite war in Ireland. The city of [[Galway]] surrendered without a fight after the battle and the Jacobites' main army surrendered shortly afterward at Limerick after a [[siege of Limerick (1691)|short siege]]. The battle, according to one author, "seared into Irish consciousness", and became known in the [[Irish language]] tradition as ''Eachdhroim an áir'' - "Aughrim of the slaughter". The contemporary [[Gaels|Gaelic]] poet [[Séamas Dall Mac Cuarta]] wrote of the Irish dead, "It is at Aughrim of the slaughter where they are to be found, their damp bones lying uncoffined". Another poet wrote, "Our friends in vast numbers and languishing forms, left lifeless in the mountains and corroded by worms".<ref>Eamonn O Ciardha, Ireland and the Jacobite Cause - A Fatal Attachment, p82-32</ref>

Since it marked the end of the Irish Catholic Jacobite resistance, Aughrim was the focus of [[Loyalist]] (particularly [[Orange Institution|Orange Order]]) celebrations in Ireland on 12 July up until the early 19th century. Thereafter, it was superseded by the [[Battle of the Boyne]] in commemorations on "[[the Twelfth]]" due to the [[Old Style and New Style dates|switch to the Gregorian calendar]] (in which 1 July [[Old Style and New Style dates|OS]] became 11 July NS and 12 July OS became 22 July NS). It has also been suggested that the Boyne was preferred because the Irish troops there were more easily presented as cowardly than at Aughrim, where they generally fought bravely.<ref>Padraig Lenihan, The Battle of the Boyne, p258-259, "The 18th-century anniversaries of the Boyne and Aughrim served as the focus of more plebeian commemorations that included bonfires and parading. In this context, the 'twelfth' was the most symbolically important battle comemmoration but it referred to Aughrim. Until Britain belatedly adopted the Gregorian Calendar in 1752, 1 July was the anniversary of the Boyne and 12 July the anniversary of Aughrim." "Aughrim emphasises the valour and martial qualities of the Jacobites with a view to magnify the military achievement and bravery of the Williamites...This depiction of Jacobites, favourable in many respects, may have been less suitable to Protestant communal rituals in the face of a post-1790s Catholic resurgence." </ref>

The Aughrim battlefield site became the subject of controversy in Ireland over plans to build the new [[M6 motorway (Ireland)|M6 motorway]] through the former battlefield. Historians, environmentalists and members of the Orange Order objected to the destruction of the 1691 battlefield. The motorway opened in 2009.

==See also==
*[[Williamite war in Ireland]]
*[[Battle of the Boyne]]
*[[Irish battles]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*Boulger, Demetrius C. ''The Battle of the Boyne, Together with an Account Based on French & Other Unpublished Records of the War in Ireland 1688-1691'' Martin Secker, London, 1911 ([http://www.archive.org/download/battleofboynetog00boul/battleofboynetog00boul_bw.pdf Available as pdf])
*Piers Waudchope, ''Patrick Sarsfield and the Williamite War'', Dublin 1992.
*J.G. Simms, ''Jacobite Ireland'', London 1969.
*G.A., Hayes McCoy, ''Irish Battles'', Belfast 1990.
*Eamonn O Ciardha, ''Ireland and the Jacobite cause - a Fatal Attachment'', Dublin 2002.
*Padraig Lenihan, 1690, Battle of the Boyne, Tempus, 2003.

==External links==
*http://genforum.com/kirwin/messages/29.html Kirwin Family Ms.
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/timelines/ni/aughrim.shtml BBC History page on the Battle of Aughrim]
*[http://ims0.osiemaps.ie/website/publicviewer/main.aspx#V1,579007,727133,7 Battle site] on Mapviewer at [[Ordnance Survey of Ireland]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Aughrim}}
[[Category:1691 in Ireland]]
[[Category:Battles of the Williamite War in Ireland|Aughrim]]
[[Category:History of County Galway|Aughrim]]

[[es:Batalla de Aughrim]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Aughrim]]
[[ga:Cath Eachroma]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Aughrim]]