Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Stanisław Żukowski

2011-03-10T17:59:09Z

GVP Webmaster: Corrected SI name

'''Stanislav Yulianovich Zhukovsky''' (Станислав Юлианович Жуковский) (1875–1944) was a [[Poles|Polish]]-[[Russians|Russian]] [[Impressionism|Impressionist]] [[Painting|painter]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Russia, The Land, The People: Russian Painting 1850-1910 |last=Eickel |first=Nancy ed.|year=1986 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |location=Washington DC |isbn=0295964391 |page= |url= |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref>
[[File:Осень. Дорога.jpg|thumb|right|240px|''Autumn road'' (1912)]]
Zhukovsky was born in Yendrikhovtsy, [[Grodno]] Province. He was a student of [[Isaac Levitan]] and graduate of the [[Moscow School of Painting]]. Zhukovsky became a celebrated [[Painting|painter]] associated with the Impressionist movement and established his own art studio in [[Moscow]], in which he mentored many artists, most notably the painter [[Liubov Popova]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=Concise dictionary of women artists |last=Gaze |first=Delia |year=2001 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Chicago |isbn=1579583350 |page=539 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BCduKb-ujO8C&lpg=PA539&dq=stanislav%20zhukovsky&pg=PA539#v=onepage&q=stanislav%20zhukovsky&f=false |accessdate=2011-01-12 |quote= }}</ref> and a young [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]] who was then working as a [[poster]] artist.<ref name=BelyGorod/>

As a painter, Zhukovsky was dedicated to [[landscape painting|landscapes]] and wealthy [[Estate (house)|estates]]. His fondness for lavish things left him suspect in the [[Bolshevik]] era,<ref name=BelyGorod>{{Cite web |url=http://www.belygorod.ru/preface/15433.php?idSer1=966&idSer2=980& |title=Stanislav Zhukovsky |author=Belygorod.ru |date= |publisher=[http://www.belygorod.ru/upload/KATALOG_08-09_eng.pdf Bely Gorod Publishing] |accessdate=2011-02-17 |quote= }}</ref> and in 1923 he moved from the [[Soviet Union]] to his ancestral homeland of [[Poland]]. During [[World War II]], he was arrested by the [[Nazi]]s and sent to the [[Prushkov]] [[concentration camp]], where he died in 1944.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Russian Impressionism |last=Kruglov |first=Vladimir |coauthors=Lenyashin, Vladimir |year=2000 |publisher=State Russian Museum/Palace Editions |location=St. Petersburg |isbn=0810967146 |page= |url= |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref>

The surname Жуковский has been transliterated to English in multiple forms, and appears in different texts as Zhukovski, Zhukovskii, Zukovsky, and Zukowski, among others.

<gallery Caption="Selected works" align="center">
File:Осенний вечер2. 1905.jpg|''Autumn evening'' (1905)
File:Zhukovsky-Joyful May 1912.jpg|''Joyful May'' (1912)
File:Былое. Комната старого дома. 1912.jpg|''Former room of an old house'' (1912)
File:Мартовский вечер. 1904.jpg|''March evening'' (1912)
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Zhukovsky, Stanislav
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1875
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1944
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Zhukovsky, Stanislav}}
[[Category:1875 births]]
[[Category:1944 deaths]]
[[Category:Russian painters]]
[[Category:Russian artists]]
[[Category:Impressionist painters]]
[[Category:People who died in Nazi concentration camps]]
[[Category:Painters who died in Nazi concentration camps]]

[[pl:Stanisław Żukowski (ur. 1873)]]
[[ru:Жуковский, Станислав Юлианович]]

Orange Empire Railway Museum

2010-01-25T16:29:19Z

GVP Webmaster: SI name correction

[[Image:Oerm entrance.jpg|thumb|right|The museum entrance]]

The '''Orange Empire Railway Museum''' ('''OERM''', [[reporting mark]] '''OERX'''<ref>[[Railinc]], [https://www.railinc.com/findusrail/pub/mark/search.do?fwd=init Search MARKs], accessed September 2009</ref>), 2201 South "A" Street, [[Perris, California]], is a [[railroad museum]] founded in [[1956]] at the [[Pinacate, California|Pinacate Station]] as the "Orange Empire Trolley Museum."<ref>{{cite journal | journal = The Emblem | year = 1963 | month = February | volume = 5 | issue = 4 | publisher = Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority | page = 5}}</ref> The museum also operates a [[heritage railway|heritage railroad]] on the museum grounds.

== Background ==
The collection focuses on Southern California's railroad history. It houses the largest collection of [[Pacific Electric Railway]] rolling stock in the world, much of it rescued from scrapyards after the discontinuation of their passenger operations.

Two early [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] [[narrow gauge railway|narrow gauge]] [[Tram|streetcars]] from the [[Los Angeles Railway]] run each weekend on the half-mile long, [[dual gauge]] [[Loop (rail)|"Loop Line"]]. A passenger-carrying diesel or electric freight [[train]] with open [[gondola]]s fitted with benches and at least two [[caboose]]s runs on the 1.5-mile (2.4 km) long, [[standard gauge]] mainline that was once a [[spur line]] of the [[Santa Fe Railroad]]. The main stretches from south of the museum northward to the junction with [[BNSF Railway]], where the historic Santa Fe [[Train station|depot]] on [[California State Route 74|State Route 74]] stands. The [[BNSF Railway]] spur is in active use, and the railroad grants permission for OERM trains to use the spur for special events. A Pacific Electric [[interurban streetcar|interurban]] "Red Car" also operates on the mainline on selected weekends, but the line electrification ends a block south of the depot. Streetcars and locomotives are selected on a rotating basis. The museum maintains a [[steam locomotive]] in operating condition and its use is scheduled for each third Saturday, September through May, certain special events and major holidays.

Admission to the OERM and parking are free except for special events, but a ticket must be purchased to ride on the museum railway. The ticket is valid for unlimited rides on the train and streetcars.

Tours of the grounds, static exhibits and shops are self-guided. A picnic area is located near the main entrance as is an interactive railroad "signal garden." Built between 2000 and 2001 and utilizing a combination of standard railroad signal relays and custom microprocessor controls, the garden's first phase included:

*Two restored [[Magnetic Flagman]] grade crossing signals, both upper- and lower-quadrant

*[[Safetran]] V20 tri-light [[block signal]], a new signal originally installed on the [[Southern Pacific]] Coastal Route and removed from service for standardization purposes by its successor, the [[Union Pacific Railroad]]

*[[Union Switch and Signal]] motorcar indicators which were miniature [[semaphore]]s designed to warn maintenance crews of oncoming trains

*Union Switch and Signal motorcar indicator as used by the [[Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway|ATSF]]; this was little more than a pair of electric lamps and colored lenses

*Grade crossing warning bell ca. 1910. This is a large, bronze bell with an electromagnetically driven clapper which alerted motorists to the approach of a train. It stood at an SP grade crossing in nearby [[Anaheim, California|Anaheim]] until the early 1960s when it was donated to the museum

*Union Switch and Signal relay cabinet, ca. 1940 and used to house the electronics powering the exhibits

The display has since been expanded to include modern grade crossing signals, a US&S semaphore which once was mounted on a signal bridge spanning the Pacific Electric [[Watts, California|Watts Line]] and a century-old US&S banjo signal, used for both grade crossing protection and train control and one of only three known to exist. The others are on display at the [[Baltimore and Ohio|Baltimore and Ohio Museum]] and the [[Smithsonian Institution]].

== Notable exhibits ==
[[Image:Emma nevada.jpg|thumb|right|The Emma Nevada.]]
[[Image:Santa Fe 98.jpg|thumb|right|Santa Fe 98.]]
[[Image:GE U25B front3.jpg|thumb|right|Southern Pacific 3100.]]
[[File:Pacific Electric 1001.jpg|thumb|Pacific Electric 1001]]
[[Image:Oerm665.jpg|thumb|right|A "California car" at the museum.]]

*The ''Emma Nevada'' is an 1881 [[Baldwin Locomotive Works]] 2-6-0 "Mogul" [[narrow gauge railway|narrow gauge]] steam locomotive purchased by [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] animator [[Ward Kimball]] and his wife Betty for their backyard "[[Grizzly Flats Railroad]]" in 1938. Originally built for the short-line Nevada Central Railway connecting [[Battle Mountain, Nevada|Battle Mountain]] with [[Austin, Nevada|Austin]], the beautifully restored locomotive features Kimball's own artwork on the cab and headlight and was finally fired up in 1942. [[Boiler]] problems permanently sidelined the ''Emma Nevada'' in 1951. Kimball donated the locomotive to the museum and it can be seen today in the museum's "Grizzly Flats" car barn. The love of trains that Kimball shared with [[Walt Disney]] and fellow animator [[Ollie Johnston]] is credited with the idea of building a railroad in [[Disneyland]]. An area in [[Disney's California Adventure]] theme park is named "Grizzly Flats" in honor of Kimball. At Disneyland, a restored 1902 Baldwin narrow gauge locomotive has been named after Kimball. The ''Ward Kimball'', which entered service on June 26, 2005, is the first locomotive added to the [[Disneyland Railroad]] since 1959.

*The museum's newest locomotive, [[ATSF 98]] is a 1967 [[EMD FP45]] [[diesel locomotive]]. Featuring a 3600-horsepower (2.7 MW), 20-cylinder prime mover and six [[traction motor]]s, the FP45 was intended for fast passenger service and is geared to run in excess of 90 miles per hour (145 km/h). ATSF 98 is especially notable as being the last passenger locomotive ever purchased by the [[Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway]] and was used on Santa Fe's finest passenger trains, including the ''[[Super Chief]]'' between [[Chicago]] and Los Angeles. Relegated to fast freight service in 1971 when passenger rail operations were transferred to [[Amtrak]], the FP45 was donated in operating condition less its air conditioner by the [[BNSF Railway|Burlington Northern Santa Fe]] in 1997, but its size limits its use to occasional demonstration service and special excursions. It is maintained in service-ready condition and is sometimes used on off-property work trains.

*[[Southern Pacific 3100]] is a [[GE U25B]] diesel locomotive once owned by the [[Southern Pacific Railroad]] and is the last operating example left in the US. Built in 1963, it became one of three SP locomotives painted in a red, white and blue color scheme in 1976 in celebration of the [[United States Bicentennial]]. Numbered as SP 3100 prior to being donated, this locomotive is used in regular service. Like the FP45, the U25B is certified to run on any railroad, and its two-axle trucks and 2500-horsepower (1.9 MW) prime mover make it ideal for off-property work trains. It is also used to pull passenger-carrying freight cars on weekends and during members-only events, may be operated by museum members under supervision by a qualified engineer.

*The [[Pacific Electric]] collection consists of over 30 pieces of equipment from the largest [[interurban]] network in the United States, including local, suburban and interurban passenger equipment, electric locomotives, cabooses, and freight cars. Included are "Business Car" PE 1000 and interurban PE 1001 built in 1913 by [[Jewett]]; PE 1299, a 1929 "Business Car" rebuilt from a 1912 [[Pullman]]-built [[Southern Pacific]] trailer; three giant "Blimp" interurban coaches; several "[[Hollywood]]" suburban cars (featured in the film "[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]" and two [[Birney]] streetcars.

*The Los Angeles Railway collection consists of over two dozen pieces of electric railway equipment and is the most comprehensive collection of preserved equipment from any large city streetcar system. Highlights of the collection, which includes examples of nearly every type of streetcar run in Los Angeles in the 20th century as well as numerous work cars, include the "[[Descanso]]," the only surviving street railway funeral car; car 3001, christened by [[Shirley Temple]] as the first [[PCC streetcar]] in Los Angeles<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I2cwcnTyR2E | title = Shirley Temple Inaugurates New Los Angeles Streetcar}}</ref>; and several examples of the "California" type of streetcar that utilized a half-open design suitable to the warm climate. Cars are operated regularly over the only 3'6" gauge trolley line remaining in the United States.

*[[Ventura County Railway]] #2 is a 1922 [[Baldwin Locomotive Works]] 2-6-2 steam locomotive maintained in operating condition. Originally built to run on coal, the locomotive was converted to oil soon after delivery to its original purchaser, the Southern Pacific Railroad. Last used by the V.C. Ry. on an excursion run in 1959, it was put up for sale in 1962, sold to a private party in 1964 and transferred to the California Southern Railroad Museum, one of the OERM's predecesors, in 1972. The boiler was overhauled to present-day [[FRA]] steam locomotive regulations in 2002; bringing the rest of the locomotive to specifications has been ongoing since its acquisition.

== See also ==
*[[List of heritage railways]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.oerm.org Official OERM website]

{{coord|33|45|36|N|117|14|0|W|type:landmark|display=title}}

[[Category:Perris, California]]
[[Category:Museums in the Greater Los Angeles Area]]
[[Category:Museums in Riverside County, California]]
[[Category:Railroad museums in California]]
[[Category:Heritage railroads in California]]

Betye Saar

2009-05-13T12:48:32Z

GVP Webmaster: SI name

{{Infobox Artist
| bgcolour = #6495ED
| name = Betye Saar
| image = 72_aunt_jemima.gif
| imagesize =
| caption = The Liberation of [[Aunt Jemima]], by Betye Saar. 1972
| birthname =
| birthdate = {{birth date and age |1926|7|30|}}
| location = [[Los Angeles, California]]
| deathdate =
| deathplace =
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| field = [[Assemblage]]
| training = [[University of California, Los Angeles]], [[Pasadena City College]], [[California State University, Long Beach]]
| movement =
| works =
| patrons =
| influenced by =
| influenced =
| awards =
}}

'''Betye Irene Saar''' ([[July 30]], [[1926]] in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]]) is an [[United States|American]] artist, known for her work in the field of [[assemblage]]. Her education included a time at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], from where she received a degree in design in 1949, and graduate studies in printmaking and education at [[Pasadena City College]], [[California State University, Long Beach]].
Her interest in assemblage was inspired by a 1968 exhibition by [[Joseph Cornell]], though she also cites the influence of [[Simon Rodia]]'s [[Watts Towers]], which she witnessed being built in her childhood.<ref name="legacyproject">"[http://www.legacy-project.org/artists/display.html?ID=130 Biography]" (2001). The Legacy Project. URL accessed on Mar. 4, 2006.</ref> She began creating work typically consisting of found objects arranged within boxes or windows, with items drawing on various different cultures reflecting Saar's own mixed heritage (African, Native American, Irish and Creole).<ref name="legacyproject" />

In the late 1960s Saar began collecting images of [[Aunt Jemima]], [[Uncle Tom]], [[Little Black Sambo]], and other stereotyped ((African American)) figures from folk culture and advertising. She incorporated them into collages and assemblages, transforming them into provocative statements of political and social protest. In the 1970s Saar shifted focus again, exploring ritual and tribal objects from Africa as well as items from African American folk traditions. In new boxed assemblages, she combined shamanistic tribal fetishes with images and objects evoking the magical and the mystical.

When her great-aunt died, Saar became immersed in family memorabilia and began making more personal and intimate assemblages that incorporated nostalgic mementos of her great aunt’s life. She arranged old photographs, letters, lockets, dried flowers, and handkerchiefs in shrinelike boxes to suggest memory, loss, and the passage of time.

In the early 1980s Saar taught in Los Angeles at the [[UCLA | University of California]] and the [[Otis Art Institute]]. In her own work she began using a larger, room-size scale, creating site-specific installations, including altar-like shrines exploring the relationship between technology and spirituality, and incorporating her interests in [[mysticism]] and [[Louisiana Voodoo|Voodoo]]. Pairing computer chips with mystical amulets and charms, these monumental constructions suggested the need for an alliance of both systems of knowledge: the technical and the spiritual.

Betye Saar continues to live and work in [[Los Angeles]]. Saar is the mother of two artists, [[Alison Saar]] and [[Lezley Saar]].

==Selected Solo Exhibitions==
* 2006 Crocker Art Museum, Sacramento, CA
* 2000 Savannah College of Art & Design, Savannah, GA and Michael Rosenfeld Gallery, New York City, NY.
* 1999 The University Art Museum, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM. and Anderson Ranch Art Center, Snowmass, CO. and [[The Detroit Institute of Arts]], Detroit, MI.
* 1998 Michael Rosenfeld Gallery, New York, NY. and Jan Baum Gallery, Los Angeles, CA. and [[California African-American Museum]], Los Angeles, CA.
* 1997 [[Tacoma Art Museum]], Tacoma, WA.
* 1996 Des Moines Art Center, Des Moines, IA and The Palmer Museum of Art, Penn State College, PA. and de Saisset Museum, Santa Clara, CA. and Joselyn Art Museum, Omaha, NE.
* 1994 [[Santa Monica Museum of Art]], Santa Monica, CA.
* 1993 [[Fresno Art Museum]], Fresno, CA.
* 1992 The Ritual Journey. Joseloff Gallery, University of Hartford, CT.
* 1991 Objects Gallery, Chicago, IL.
* 1990 [[Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles]], CA.
* 1989 Wellington City Art Gallery, Wellington, New Zealand and Artspace, Auckland, New Zealand
* 1988 Taichung Museum of Art, Taichung, Taiwan.
* 1987 [[Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts]], Philadelphia, PA. and Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA.
* 1984 MOCA, Los Angeles, CA. and Georgia State University Art Gallery, Atlanta, GA.
* 1983 Woman’s Art Movement, Adelaide, Australia. and Canberra School of Art, Canberra ACT, Australia.
* 1982 Quay Gallery, San Francisco, CA.
* 1981 Baum-Silverman Gallery, Los Angeles, CA. and Monique Knowlton Gallery, New York, NY.
* 1980 [[Studio Museum in Harlem]]. New York, NY.
* 1979 Baum-Silverman Gallery, Los Angeles, CA.
* 1977 Baun-Silverman Gallery, Los Angeles, CA. and San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, CA.
* 1976 Wadsworth Athenaeum, Hartford, CT. and Monique Knowlton Gallery, New York, NY.
* 1975 [[Whitney Museum of American Art]], New York, NY.
* 1973 California State University, Los Angeles, CA.

==Awards & Honors==

* 1997 The Visual Artists Award, The Flintridge Foundation, Pasadena, CA.
* 1995 Honorary Doctorate Degrees: [[California Institute of the Arts]] and [[Massachusetts College of Art]]
* 1993 Distinguished Artist Award, Fresno Art Museum
* 1992 James Van Der Zee Award, Brandywine Workshop, Philadelphia, PA.
* 1992 Honorary Doctorate Degrees: [[Otis College of Art and Design]] and [[San Francisco Art Institute]]
* 1991 John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.
* 1991 Honorary Doctorate Degree: [[California College of the Arts]]
* 1990 J. Paul Getty Fund for the Visual Arts Fellowship.
* 1990 22nd Annual Artist Award, The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, NY.
* 1984 and 1974 National Endowment for the Arts Artist Fellowship

==Selected Collections==
* Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
* High Museum of Art, Atlanta, GA.
* [[Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden]], Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
* Kresge Art Museum State University, East Lansing, MI.
* [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]], Los Angeles, CA.
* Montclair Art Museum, Montclair, NJ.
* [[Museum of Fine Arts]], Boston, MA.
* Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute, Museum of Art, Utica, NY.
* [[National Museum of American Art]], Washington, DC.
* [[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York, NY.
* The [[New Jersey State Museum]], Newark, NJ.
* The Newark Museum, Newark, NJ.
* The Oakland Museum, Oakland, CA.
* The Palmer Museum of Art, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.
* The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, PA.
* [[Philadelphia Museum of Art]], Philadelphia, PA.
* [[San Francisco Museum of Modern Art]], San Francisco, CA.
* Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, MA.
* The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, NY.
* Tacoma Art Museum, Tacoma, WA.
* University of California, Berkeley Art Museum, Berkeley, CA.
* University of Massachusetts, Herter Art Gallery, Amherst, MA.
* [[Walker Art Center]], Minneapolis, MN.
* [[Whitney Museum of American Art]], New York, NY.

==Selected Bibliography==
* Paysour, F. "Wonders of the House of Saar." ''International Review of African American Art'' v. 20 no. 3 (2005) p. 51-3
* Willette, J. S. M. "Stitching Lives: Fabric in the Art of Betye Saar." ''Fiberarts'' v. 23 (March/April 1997) p. 44-81
* Van Proyen, M. "A Conversation with Betye and Alison Saar" [interview]. ''Artweek'' v. 22 (August 15 1991) p. 3+
* Etra, J. "Family Ties." ''ARTnews'' v. 90 (May 1991) p. 128-33
* Saar, Betye, et al. 2005. Betye Saar : extending the frozen moment. Ann Arbor; Berkeley: University of Michigan Museum of Art; University of California Press.

==Film and Video==
*''Betye and Alison Saar [videorecording] : Conjure Women of the Arts.'' by Linda Freeman and David Irving. c1996, 28 minutes, Color. Chappaqua, NY: L& S Video.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.betyesaar.net/ Betye Saar's website]
*[http://www.netropolitan.org/saar/saarmain.html Betye Saar interviews and biographical information]
* [http://www.sfmoma.org/voices/index_bs.html Bettye Saar in 'Voices and Images of California Art']
*[http://www.visionaryproject.org/saarbetye/ Betye Saar's oral history video excerpts] at The National Visionary Leadership Project

{{DEFAULTSORT:Saar, Betye}}

[[Category:1926 births]]
[[Category:American artists]]
[[Category:American printmakers]]
[[Category:African American artists]]
[[Category:Black feminism]]
[[Category:Artists from California]]
[[Category:University of California, Los Angeles alumni]]
[[Category:California State University, Long Beach alumni]]
[[Category:Contemporary artists]]
[[Category:Living people]]

[[fr:Betye Saar]]

Alosa mediocris

2009-05-12T16:20:27Z

GVP Webmaster: SI name

{{copypaste}}
[[Image:hickoryshad.jpg|thumb]]
'''Hickory shad''' (''Alosa mediocris'') is migratory clupeid native to the Atlantic Coast of the eastern United States.

==Distribution, habitat, and life history==

Hickory shad range from Florida to Maine, with largest populations occurring in Chesapeake Bay and coastal North Carolina. It is a schooling anadromous species that inhabits marine waters, probably never far from land. Adults enter estuaries and freshwater tributaries to spawn during the spring. The oceanic movements of this species are unknown, and little is known concerning their migration (Hardy 1978; Cooper 1983; Rulifson 1994). Spawning occurs in February through June, earlier with decreasing latitude (Hardy 1978). The slightly adhesive and demersal eggs, approximately 1 mm in diameter, appear to be dispersed at random over gravel bars in moderate current. After water hardening, the eggs become semi-buoyant and develop as they drift along the bottom (Mansueti 1962; Hardy 1978; Cooper 1983). Fecundity ranges from 43,000 – 475,000 eggs per female, and, although there are data on the developmental stages of eggs, larvae, and juveniles, little is known concerning the distribution, ecology, and growth rates of juvenile hickory shad (Mansueti 1962; Hardy 1978).
Males and females mature at 2-4 years and often exhibit traits of repeat spawning. Adults average about 380 mm in the Chesapeake Bay, and 342 mm FL (males) and 366 mm FL (females) in North Carolina (Murauskas, unpublished data; Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002). Hickory shad are among the most piscivorous clupeids, feeding primarily on small fishes, although crustaceans and squid contribute to their diet (Cooper 1983; Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002). Hickory shad have a relatively low commercial value; however, there is an increasingly popular recreational fishery throughout the Mid-Atlantic States.

==Recreational fishery==
{{seealso|Shad fishing}}
Recreational shad fishing has become increasingly popular in recent years. By the late 1980s and early 1990s, hickory shad articles appeared in sport fishing magazines. Headlines such as “the tough fighting hickory shad swarm near the rock-studded fall line…” (Sports Afield 1988), and “feast on Rappahannock River hickory shad action” (Field & Stream 1992) brought attention to the fishery. Subsequently, specialty magazines (Fly Fisherman 2002) and sports sections in national newspapers (i.e., The Washington Post, 1988, 2000) began proclaiming the excitement of hickory shad fishing (“HICKORY SHAD ARE RUNNING!”) and the recovery of the fishery. In the two most recent years of a North Carolina creel survey (2004-2005), hickory shad – a fish only present for two months of the year – moved from sixth to the fourth most targeted fish by coastal anglers (Murauskas and Mumford 2006).

==Literature==

Among the reputable publications that exist include federal and state documents and management plans, and degree program theses from few universities. Federal publications include reports from the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission’s (ASMFC) Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Shad and River Herring (ASMFC 1999; ASMFC 2001). Some state-level publications exist for shad and herring management efforts, such as North Carolina’s Shad and River Herring Fisheries and Monitoring Programs (NCDMF and NCWRC 2004). Connecticut (Gephard and McMenemy 2004), Pennsylvania, Maryland (Chesapeake Bay Agreement 2000), South Carolina, Georgia (Ulrich et al. 1979), and Florida (McBride 2000) also have implemented fishery management and monitoring programs for Alosa species. Georgia produced reports in the 1960s and 1970s regarding life history aspects of hickory shad (Street and Adams 1969) and Altamaha River shads (Street 1969). Florida has river-specific management efforts for diadromous fishes in the St. John’s River (Harris and McBride 2004). A few publications address coast-wide and/or genus-level stock status and management issues (Rulifson 1994; Yako et al. 2002). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a useful series that includes egg, larvae, and juvenile development descriptions of hickory shad (Hardy 1978). Only three Master of Science theses were located. Pate (North Carolina State University, 1972) characterized life history aspects of hickory shad, as did Batsavage (East Carolina University, 1997) and Watkinson (Virginia Commonwealth University, 2004).

Although hickory shad research has been limited, other clupeids, especially Alosa species in the United States, have received comparatively substantial attention (e.g., Limburg and Waldman 2003). A similar alosine the region, American shad (''A. sapidissima''), has been frequently studied (Atkinson 1951; Dodson and Dohse 1984; Melvin et al. 1986; Quinn and Adams 1996; Leonard and McCormick 1999a, 1999b; Leonard et al. 1999; Waters et al. 2000; Limburg and Waldman 2003). Further, an overwhelming amount of related information exists on fish migration, bioenergetics, reproduction, physiology, and other related topics.

== References ==
Atkinson, C.E. 1951. Feeding habits of adult shad (Alosa sapidissima) in fresh water. Ecology 32(3):556-557.

ASMFC. 1999. Fisheries Management Report No. 35. Amendment 1 to the Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Shad and River Herring. 1444 Eye St. NW, Washington, DC.

ASMFC. 2001. Review of the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission Fishery Management Plan for Shad and River Herring (Alosa sp.). 1444 Eye St. NW, Washington, DC.

Batsavage, C.F. 1997. Life history aspects of the hickory shad (Alosa mediocris) in the Albemarle Sound/Roanoke River Watershed, North Carolina. M.S. Thesis, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina.

Batsavage, C.F., and R.A. Rulifson. 1998. Life history aspects of the hickory shad (Alosa mediocris) in the Albemarle Sound/Roanoke River Watershed, North Carolina. Completion report for project M6057. North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries, Morehead City, North Carolina.

Bentzen, P., W.C. Leggett, and G.G. Brown. 1993. Genetic relationships among the shads (Alosa) revealed by mitochondrial DNA analysis. Journal of Fish Biology 43:909-917.

Chesapeake Bay Agreement. 2000. The Renewed Bay Agreement. Retrieved May 26, 2006. http://dnrweb.dnr.state.md.us/bay/res_protect/c2k/index.asp.

Collette, B.B. and G. Klein-MacPhee. 2002. Fishes of the Gulf of Maine. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington. 3rd Edition. pp. 111-118.

Cooper, E.L. 1983. Fishes of Pennsylvania and the Northeastern United States. Penn State University Press, University Park and London. pp. 47-50.

Dodson, J.J. and L.A. Dohse. 1984. A model of olfactory-mediated conditioning of directional bias in fish migrating in reversing tidal currents based on the homing migration of American shad (Alosa sapidissima). pp. 263-281 in J.D. McCleave, G.P. Arnold, J.J. Dodson, and W.H.
Neill, editors. Mechanisms of migration in fishes. Plenum Press, New York.

Field & Stream. April 1992. Feast on Rappahannock River hickory shad action. 96(12):70A.

Fly Fisherman. September 2002. Shad restoration continues. 33(6):27.

Gephard, S. and J. McMenemy. 2004. An overview of the program to restore Atlantic salmon and other diadromous fishes to the Connecticut River with notes on the current status of these species in the river. American Fisheries Society monograph No. 9, pp. 287-317.

Hardy, J.D. 1978. Development of fishes of the Mid-Atlantic bight: An atlas of egg, larval and juvenile stages; Acipenseridae through Ictaluridae. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Volume 1:75-88

Harris, J., and R. McBride. 2004. A review of the potential effects of water level fluctuation on diadromous fish populations for MFL determinations. St. John’s River Water Management District, Contract No. SG346AA. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission.

Leonard, J.B.K, and S.D. McCormick. 1999a. Effects of migration distance on whole-body and tissue-specific energy use in American shad (Alosa sapidissima). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 56(7):1159-71.

Leonard, J.B.K., and S.D. McCormick. 1999b. Changes in haematology during upstream migration in American shad. Journal of Fish Biology 54:1218-1230.

Leonard, J.B.K., J.F. Norieka, B. Kynard, and S.D. McCormick. 1999. Metabolic rates in an anadromous clupeid, the American shad (Alosa sapidissima). Journal of Comparative Physiology and Biology 169:287-295.

Limburg, K.E. and J.R. Waldman, editors. 2003. Biodiversity, status, and conservation of the world’s shads. American Fisheries Society Symposium 35. Bethesda, Maryland.

Mansueti, R.J. 1962. Eggs, larvae, and young of the hickory shad, Alosa mediocris, with comments on its ecology in the estuary. Chesapeake Science 3: 173-205.

McBride, R.S. 2000. Florida’s shad and river herrings (Alosa species): A review of population and fishery characteristics. Florida Marine Research Institute Technical Reports No. 5.

Melvin, G.D., M.J. Dadswell, and J.D. Martin. 1986. Fidelity of American shad, Alosa sapidissima (Clupeidae), to its river of previous spawning. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 43:640-646.

Murauskas, J.G. and D.G. Mumford. 2006. North Carolina cooperative striped bass creel survey in the central and southern management area (CSMA). Grant F-79, Seg. 2. N.C. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Marine Fisheries, Morehead City, North Carolina.

NCDMF and NCWRC. 2004. Shad and River Herring Fisheries and Monitoring Programs in North Carolina – 2003: Report to the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission Shad and River
Herring Technical Committee. Raleigh, North Carolina.

Pate, P.P. 1972. Life history aspects of the hickory shad, Alosa mediocris (Mitchell), in the Neuse River, North Carolina. M.S. Thesis, North Carolina State University. Raleigh, North Carolina.

Perkins, R.J., and M.D. Dahlberg. 1971. Fat cycles and condition factors of Altamaha River shad. Ecology 52(2):359-362.

Quinn, T.P. and D.J. Adams. 1996. Environmental changes affecting the migratory timing of American shad and sockeye salmon. Ecology 77(4):1151-1162.

Rulifson, R.A. 1994. Status of anadromous Alosa along the East Coast of North America. Anadromous Alosa symposium. Tidewater Chapter, American Fisheries Society. pp. 134-158.

Sports Afield. March 1988. Rappahannock shad. 199(3):70.

Street, M.W. 1969. Fecundity of the hickory shad in the Altamaha River, Georgia. Contribution
Series No. 14. Georgia Game and Fish Commission, Marine Fisheries Division.

Street, M.W. and J.G. Adams. 1969. Aging of hickory shad and blueback herring in Georgia by the scale method. Contribution Series No. 18. Georgia Game and Fish Commission, Marine Fisheries Division.

The Washington Post. April 3rd, 1988. Hickory Shad are Running! Sports section, pp. c. 16.

The Washington Post. May 11th, 2000. Md. Welcomes back the shad; biologists touting victory for rivers’ spawning program. pg. b. 01.

Ulrich, G., N. Chipley, J.W. McCord, D. Cupka, J.L. Music, and R.K. Manhood. 1979. Development of fishery management plans for selected anadromous fishes in South Carolina and Georgia. South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department, Charleston, South Carolina.

Waters, J.M., J.M. Epifanio, T. Gunter, and B.L. Brown. 2000. Homing behavior facilitates subtle genetic differentiation among river populations of Alosa sapidissima: microsatellites and mtDNA. Journal of Fish Biology 56:622-636.

Watkinson, E.R. 2004. Age, growth, and fecundity of hickory shad (Alosa mediocris) in Virginia coastal river. M.S. thesis. Virginia Commonwealth University. Richmond, Virginia.

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[[Category:Clupeidae]]
[[Category:Sport fish]]

Isaac Wolf Bernheim

2009-05-11T13:22:39Z

GVP Webmaster: SI name

'''Isaac Wolfe Bernheim''' ([[November 4]],[[1848]]- 1945) was a Jewish businessman notable for starting the I. W. Harper brand of [[Bourbon whiskey|bourbon]] distilled at the Bernheim distillery in [[Louisville, Kentucky]]. The success of his distillery and distribution business helped to consolidate the Louisville area as a major centre of Kentucky bourbon distilling. Bernheim was also a philanthropist, establishing the 14,000 acre (57 km²) [[Bernheim Arboretum and Research Forest]] in [[Bullitt County, Kentucky|Bullitt County]].

==Early years==
Isaac Bernheim was born in Schmieheim, now part of [[Kippenheim]] in Germany and emigrated to the [[United States]] in 1867 with $4 in his pocket. He originally planned to work in [[New York City]]. However, the company where he wanted to work went bankrupt, and he was forced to follow a different line of work. He became a [[traveling salesman]] or "peddler" travelling throughout [[Pennsylvania]] on horseback selling household items to housewives and made a respectable living. However, he was forced to stop peddling when his horse died.

==Distilling business==
Following the death of his horse Bernheim moved to [[Paducah, Kentucky]] where he worked as a bookkeeper for a wholesale liquor company, Loeb, Bloom, & Co. He was able to save money to bring his brother Bernard to America. He quickly moved on however, and with the help of Nathan Uri and his brother, Bernard Bernheim, was able to open up his own liquor sales firm called Bernheim Brothers & Uri in 1872. Mr. Uri was the brother of IW Bernheim's wife, Amanda. Because of their business's proximity to large waterways, the company grew rapidly.

Bernheim Brothers & Uri moved from Paducah to Louisville in 1889 for the purchase of a [[distillery]] in [[New Haven, Kentucky|New Haven]]. In 1896 Bernheim Brothers & Uri bought the Pleasure Ridge Park Distillery and renamed it Bernheim Distillery Co. Following the purchase of this distillery, they began the production of an elite [[whiskey]] brand called I.W. Harper. Bernheim sold the business to the [[Schenley Distilling Corp]] in 1937. Bernheim Brothers Distillery was one of only three Distilleries given permission to continue to make Bourbon for medicinal purposes.

==Community activity==
Isaac Bernheim was known as a notable philanthropist in Louisville. He established the [[Bernheim Arboretum and Research Forest]] on 14,000 acres (57 km²) in Bullitt County, 25 miles (40 km) south of Louisville and 5 miles (8 km) from [[Shepherdsville, Kentucky|Shepherdsville]] in 1929. He purchased the land in 1928 at $1 an acre ($247/km²) because most of it had been stripped for mining iron ore. The [[Frederick Law Olmsted]] landscape architecture firm started work on designing the park in 1931 and it opened in 1950. Bernheim Forest was given to the people of Kentucky in trust and it is the largest privately owned natural area in the state. Mr. Bernheim, his wife, Amanda are buried at the Bernheim Forest. The memorial "Let there Be Light" by George Bernard Grey graces over their final resting place. Mr. Bernheim's daughter and son-in-law were buried in the forest as well as several other family members.

Bernheim was a prominent member of the Jewish community active in the [[Union of American Hebrew Congregations]] and the [[American Jewish Committee]]. He donated to establish the first library at the [[Hebrew Union College]] in Cincinnati. In Louisville, he funded the first home for the [[Young Men's Hebrew Association]] and funded an addition to the Jewish Hospital.Mr. Bernheim a member of the Reform Movement continues to have great grand children who follow in his footsteps of the Reform Movement. In 2007 in his honor, his Grandaughter Amanda Roth Block ( she is currently 97 years old) who resides in Torrance, California donated to the Herbew Union College in NYC to President, Rabbi David Elinsion a lithograph, "Moses and the Burning Bush" which was inspired by her Grandfathers dedication to the Reform movement. Mr. Bernheim's library at the Hebrew Union College was renovated to be the home of priceless documents and rare Torahs.

Mr. Bernheim also financed two Kentucky statues in the statuary hall of the US Capitol, making them the only two statues there to be privately purchased. In addition, he financed a statue of Abraham Lincoln outside the Louisville Free Public Library and the statue of Thomas Jefferson outside the [[Jefferson County, Kentucky|Jefferson County]] courthouse.

Upon visiting his hometown of Schmieheim Germany in the early 20th Century, he discovered the village had no running water. He made an extremely large contribution, enabling the town to install its first plumbing system. He also built a Home for the elderly and a Home for Children.

A new book will be published soon about the works and the history of the Bernheim Family.

==Written works==
*''The History of the Bernheim Family'' (1910)
*''The Closing Chapters of a Busy Life'' (1929)

==External links==
*[http://special.library.louisville.edu/display-collection.asp?ID=643/ University of Louisville webpage on Isaac Bernheim's papers]
*[http://library.louisville.edu/uarc/jewishguide.html/ University of Louisville Jewish Life in Louisville collection]
*[http://www.bernheim.org/arboretum.htm/ Arboretum Information page]
*[http://www.bernheim.org/history.htm/ Bernheim Arboretum and Research Forest timeline]
*[http://www.courier-journal.com/localnews/2004/02/16ky/hike.html/ ''Louisville Courier Journal'' article on Bernheim Arboretum and Research Forest 75th anniversary, February 16 2004]
*{{cite web | title=The National Museum of American History Explores the Promise of America Through Three 19th Century Communities | url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/news/pressrelease.cfm?key=29&newskey=102 | publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |work=[[National Museum of American History]] | quote=Press release about exhibition featuring Bernheim as part of a display of Jewish immigrants}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bernheim, Isaac Wolfe}}
[[Category:1848 births]]
[[Category:1945 deaths]]
[[Category:Kentucky businesspeople]]
[[Category:American philanthropists]]
[[Category:Businesspeople in the brewing industry]]
[[Category:German Jews]]
[[Category:German-American Jews]]
[[Category:American Jews]]
[[Category:People from Louisville, Kentucky]]
[[Category:People from Paducah, Kentucky]]

Operation Linebacker

2009-05-05T13:39:15Z

GVP Webmaster: SI name

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|partof=[[Vietnam War]]
|image=
|caption=Two B-52s of a three aircraft cell over the DRV
|date=[[9 May]] - [[23 October]] [[1972]]
|place=[[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]]
|commander1= [[John W. Vogt, Jr.]]
|commander2= Nguyen Van Tien
|combatant1=[[File:Flag of the United States.svg|22px]] [[United States]]<br> [[File:Flag of South Vietnam.svg|22px]] [[Republic of Vietnam]]
|combatant2=[[File:Flag of Vietnam.svg|22px]] [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]]
|casualties1='''US''': 104 aircraft combat losses, 30 aircraft non combat losses, casualties unknown<br>'''RVN''': ten aircraft lost, casualties unknown
|casualties2=68 aircraft shot down, casualties unknown
|result=Tactical U.S. victory
}}
{{Campaignbox Vietnam War}}
:''For the December 1972 military operation, see [[Operation Linebacker II]]''.

'''Operation Linebacker''' was the title of a U.S. [[Seventh Air Force]] and [[U.S. Navy]] [[Task Force 77]] aerial interdiction campaign conducted against the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] (North Vietnam) from [[9 May]] to [[23 October]] [[1972]], during the [[Vietnam War]]. Its purpose was to halt or slow the transportation of supplies and materials for the ''Nguyen Hue Offensive'' (known in the West as the [[Easter Offensive]]), an invasion of the [[Republic of Vietnam]] (South Vietnam), by forces of the [[People's Army of Vietnam]] (PAVN), that had been launched on [[30 March]]. ''Linebacker'' was the first continuous bombing effort conducted against North Vietnam since the bombing halt instituted by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in November 1968.

== Nguyen Hue Offensive ==
{{details|Easter Offensive|on the PAVN offensive}}
At noon on [[30 March]] [[1972]], 30,000 North Vietnamese troops, supported by regiments of tanks and artillery, rolled southward across the [[Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone|Demilitarized Zone]] (DMZ) that separated the two Vietnams.<ref>Maj. A.J.C. Lavalle, ed. ''Airpower and the 1972 Spring Offensive''. Maxwell AFB AL: Air University Press, 1976, p. 4.</ref> This three-division force caught the [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam]] (ARVN) and their American allies unprepared.<ref>David Fulghum & Terrance Maitland, et al, ''South Vietnam on Trial''. Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1984, p. 138.</ref> The PAVN force struck the defensive positions of the Third ARVN Division and threw it into disarray. South Vietnamese forces then fell back, and a race began between both antagonists to the bridges at Dong Ha and Cam Low.

By [[4 April]], ARVN officers had patched together a defensive line that held the PAVN at bay, but it was only a temporary respite.<ref>Fulghum & Maitland, p. 141.</ref>
Although the conventional attack by the North Vietnamese, which included the extensive use of armor and heavy artillery, riveted the attention of the allies on the northern provinces, it was only the first of three such operations that were launched that spring. On [[5 April]], a PAVN force of 20,000 crossed the border from their sanctuaries in [[Cambodia]] in another three-division, combined arms force to attack Binh Long Province, north of [[Saigon]].<ref>Lavalle, p. 6.</ref> They quickly seized the town of Loc Ninh and then surrounded the town of [[An Loc]], cutting the road to the capital. On [[12 April]], PAVN struck again, this time moving in from eastern [[Laos]] and seizing a series of border outposts around Dak To in Kontum Province in the Central Highlands.<ref>Fulghum & Maitland, pps. 154-158.</ref> The North Vietnamese then proceeded east toward the provincial seat of Kontum. [[Hanoi]] had initiated the offensive to coincide with the winter monsoon, when continuous rain and low cloud cover made air support difficult.<ref>Earl H. Tilford, ''Setup: What the Air Force Did in Vietnam and Why''. Maxwell AFB AL: Air University Press, 1991, p. 225.</ref>
[[File:EASTER.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Nguyen Hue offensive]]
The initial U.S. response to the offensive was lackadaisical and confused.<ref>Fulghum & Maitland, pps. 141-142.</ref> [[The Pentagon]] was not unduly alarmed and the U.S. Ambassador and the commander of U.S. forces, General [[Creighton W. Abrams]], were out of the country. President [[Richard M. Nixon]]'s first response was to consider a three-day attack by [[B-52 Stratofortress]] bombers on Hanoi and the port city of [[Haiphong]]. His [[National Security Advisor]], Dr. [[Henry Kissinger]], convinced the president to reconsider, since he did not want to jeopardize the formalization of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty ([[SALT I]]) with the [[Soviets]], that was due to be formalized in May.<ref>Tilford, p. 234.</ref> Another stumbling block to the plan was General Abrams' desire to utilize the available bombers (with their all-weather capability) to support the ARVN defense.<ref>Fulghum & Maitland, p. 170.</ref>

Both Nixon and Kissinger considered a plan offered by the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] to be both unimaginative and lacking in aggressiveness.<ref name="Fulghum & Maitland, p. 142">Fulghum & Maitland, p. 142.</ref> On [[4 April]], he authorized the bombing of North Vietnam (which had been limited to reprisal raids just above the DMZ) up to the 18th parallel.<ref name="Tilford, p. 228">Tilford, p. 228.</ref> In order to prevent a total ARVN collapse and to protect American prestige during the upcoming summit meeting with Soviet Premier [[Leonid Brezhnev]], Nixon decided to risk a massive escalation of force.<ref>Tilford, p. 232</ref>

Due to the continuous withdrawal of American forces and the ongoing policy of [[Vietnamization]], at the time of the invasion fewer than 10,000 U.S. troops remained in South Vietnam, and most of them were scheduled to leave within the next six months.<ref>Michael Casey, Clark Dougan, Samuel Lipsman, Jack Sweetman, Stephen Weiss, et al, ''Flags into Battle''. Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1987, p. 182.</ref> The number of combat aircraft stationed in [[Southeast Asia]] was less than half that of its peak strength in 1968-1969. At the beginning of 1972, the U.S. Air Force had only three squadrons of [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4]]s and a single squadron of [[Cessna T-37|A-37]]s, a total of 76 aircraft, stationed in South Vietnam.<ref>Lavalle, p. 12.</ref> Another 114 fighter-bombers were located at bases in [[Thailand]]. 83 B-52 bombers were stationed at [[U-Tapao International Airport|U-Tapao RTAFB]], Thailand and at [[Andersen Air Force Base]], [[Guam]].<ref>Tilford, pps. 223-224.</ref> The U.S. Navy's [[Task Force 77]] (stationed in the [[Gulf of Tonkin]]), had four aircraft carriers assigned to it, but only two were available at any one time to conduct operations. Their air wings totaled approximately 140 aircraft.<ref>John Morocco, ''Rain of Fire''. Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1985, p. 170.</ref>

== Build-up and air attacks ==

American and South Vietnamese Air Force (VNAF) aircraft had been supporting the defense (weather permitting) since the inception of the offensive. These strikes were conducted in support of ARVN forces, and included those of the air wings of the carriers [[USS Coral Sea (CV-43)|''Coral Sea'']] and [[USS Hancock (CV-19)|''Hancock'']]. The continuing bad weather, however, limited the ability of the U.S. aircraft to assist in stemming the North Vietnamese onslaught. By [[6 April]], at naval and air bases around the globe, American forces were put on alert and ships and aircraft squadrons began moving toward Southeast Asia.

The U.S. immediately began a rapid build-up of airpower. The Air Force deployed 176 [[F-4 Phantom]]s and 12 [[F-105]]s from bases in the [[Republic of Korea]] and the U.S. to Thailand between [[1 April]] and [[11 May]] in Operation ''Constant Guard''.<ref>Lavalle, pps. 19 & 23-25. Also see Morocco, p. 108-109.</ref> Between [[4 April]] and [[23 May]], during Operation ''Bullet Shot'', [[Strategic Air Command]] (SAC) dispatched 124 B-52s from the U.S. to Guam bringing the total B-52 strength available for operations to 209.<ref>Tilford, p. 224.</ref> The Navy cut short its in-port period for the carriers [[USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63)|''Kitty Hawk'']] and [[USS Constellation (CV-64)|''Constellation'']] and ordered the [[USS Midway (CV-41)|''Midway'']] and [[USS Saratoga (CV-60)|''Saratoga'']] to augment the fleet so that four or more carrier air wings could conduct missions simultaneously. [[7th Fleet]] assets in local waters was thereby increased from 84 to 138 ships.<ref name="Fulghum & Maitland, p. 142"/>

U.S. Air Force tactical strikes against North Vietnam north of the 20th parallel were authorized on [[5 April]] under the nickname ''Freedom Train''.<ref name="Tilford, p. 228"/> The first large-scale B-52 raid directed against the north was conducted on [[10 April]] when 12 B-52s, supported by 53 attack aircraft struck petroleum storage facilities around Vinh.<ref>Wayne ''To Hanoi and Back''. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000, p. 225.</ref> By [[12 April]], President Nixon had informed Kissinger that he had decided on a more comprehensive bombing campaign which would include strikes against both Hanoi and Haiphong.<ref>Fulghaum & Maitland, p. 142.</ref>
[[File:AAAA.jpg|thumb|left|150px|North Vietnamese anti-aircraft defense weapons]]
The following day 18 B-52s struck Thanh Hoa's Bai Thuong Airfield. Three more days followed before another strike, this time by another 18 bombers in a pre-dawn attack against an oil tank farm outside Haiphong. They were followed by more than 100 tactical aircraft attacking targets around Hanoi and Haiphong during daylight.<ref name="Tilford, p. 228"/> Between the 6th and the 15th, U.S. aircraft also struck and destroyed the [[Paul Doumer]] and [[Thanh Hoa Bridge|Thanh Hóa]] bridges and the Yen Vien railway marshalling yard. This marked the introduction of [[laser-guided bomb]]s against strategic targets in North Vietnam. Both bridges had previously been attacked unsuccessfully with conventional bombs and even missiles. The B-52s were then withdrawn from operations in the north, and when they returned in June, their missions would be limited to the southern panhandle.<ref>Thompson, p. 229.</ref>

By mid-month, nearly all of North Vietnam had been cleared for bombing raids for the first time in over three years. Air Force and Navy commanders and pilots were relieved that Nixon (unlike President Johnson) left the operational planning to local commanders and loosened the targeting restrictions that had hampered [[Operation Rolling Thunder]].<ref>Stanley Karnow, ''Vietnam''. New York: Viking, 1983, p. 643.</ref> Between [[1 May]] and [[30 June]] B-52s, fighter-bombers, and gunships had flown 18,000 sorties against formidable AAA defenses with the loss of 29 aircraft.<ref>Casey, Dougan, Lipsman, p. 39.</ref>

The U.S. also now began what North Vietnamese historians have described as "using devious political and diplomatic schemes...to cut back the amount of aid being supplied to us by socialist nations."<ref>Military Institute of Vietnam: ''Victory in Vietnam''. Lawrence KS: University of Kansas Press, 2992, p. 299.</ref> On [[20 April]] Kissinger met secretly with Brezhnev in [[Moscow]]. Unwilling to jeopardize increasingly normalized relations with the West and wary of Washington's growing relationship with [[Beijing]], Brezhnev agreed to apply pressure to Hanoi to end the offensive and negotiate seriously.<ref>On [[21 February]] [[1972]] Nixon had landed in Beijing for his dramatic diplomatic breakthrough with the People's Republic. The Chinese, who had previously hoped that a long war in Southeast Asia would bleed both the Americans and their Vietnamese neighbors, now feared that a decline in American power would deprive them of a counterweight to the Soviet Union. Karnow, p. 638.</ref>

Brezhnev then arranged for another secret meeting between Kissinger and Hanoi's lead negotiator [[Le Duc Tho]], to be held on [[2 May]] in [[Paris]]. On the assigned day, the two men met for a session that Kissinger later described as "brutal and insulting."<ref>Fulghum & Maitland, p. 179.</ref> The North Vietnamese, sensing victory, were in no mood to make concessions. As a result of this meeting and the fall of Quang Tri City, Nixon was prepared to up the ante, stating that "the bastards have never been bombed like they're going to be bombed this time."<ref>Fulghum & Maitland, p. 168.</ref>

== Operation ''Pocket Money''==
On [[27 April]], ARVN defenses in Quang Tri Province began to collapse. Due to conflicting orders from their high command, South Vietnamese units joined an exodus of refugees heading southward, abandoning Quang Tri City.<ref>Dale Andrade, ''Trial by Fire''. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1995 p. 52.</ref> PAVN forces entered the city on the same day as the meeting between Kissinger and Le Duc Tho. The PAVN offensive had become a massive conventional military operation that was being conducted on three fronts simultaneously, involving the equivalent of 15 divisions and 600 tanks.<ref>Dave Richard Plamer, ''Summons of the Trumpet'', New York: Ballentine, 1978, p. 317.</ref> As the North Vietnamese continued to gain ground in three of South Vietnam's four military regions, the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff updated their contingency plans (drawn up before the bombing halt of 1968) for the resumption of bombing in the north and recommended it to the president, who approved it on [[8 May]].<ref name="Tilford, p. 233">Tilford, p. 233.</ref>

Shortly after his inauguration, Nixon had ordered the preparation of a contingency plan, one that would hopefully bring the Vietnam War to an end.<ref name="Morocco, p. 130">Morocco, p. 130.</ref> [[Duck Hook|Operation ''Duck Hook'']] was to include an invasion of the north itself and included a proposal to mine its major harbors.<ref>Fulghum & Maitland, p. 144.</ref> The plan had been shelved at the time as too extreme, but it was not forgotten. The U.S. Navy had also been updating its own contingency plans for just such a mining operation since 1965. On [[5 May]], the president ordered the Joint Chiefs to prepare to execute the aerial mining portion of the ''Duck Hook'' plan within three days under the operational title ''Pocket Money''.<ref name="Morocco, p. 130"/>

At precisely 09:00 (local time) on [[8 May]] six Navy [[A-7 Corsair II]]s and three [[A-6 Intruder]]s from ''Coral Sea'' entered Haiphong harbor and dropped 36 1,000-pound Mark-52 and Mark-55 mines into the water. They were protected from attack by North Vietnamese [[MiG]] fighters by the guided-missile cruisers [[USS Chicago (CA-136)|''Chicago'']] and [[USS Long Beach (CGN-9)|''Long Beach'']] and by flights of F-4 Phantoms. The reason for the precise timing of the strike became apparent when President Nixon simultaneously delivered a televised speech explaining the escalation to the American people: "the only way to stop the killing is to take the weapons of war out of the hands of the international outlaws of North Vietnam."<ref name="Morocco, p. 131">Morocco, p. 131.</ref> The mines were activated five days after their delivery in order to allow any vessels then in port to escape without damage.<ref name="Tilford, p. 233"/> Over the next three days other carrier aircraft laid 11,000 more mines into North Vietnamese secondary harbors, effectively blockading all maritime commerce.<ref>Andrade, p. 518.</ref>

Both before and during ''Pocket Money'', Nixon and Kissinger had worried about the Soviet and Chinese reaction to the escalation. Hours before the president's speech announcing the mining, Kissinger had delivered a letter to Soviet ambassador [[Anatoly Dobrynin]] which outlined the U.S. plan, but which also made clear Nixon's willingness to proceed with the summit.<ref>Fulghum & Maitland, p. 170-171.</ref> The next day, Nixon shook the hand of Soviet Foreign Trade Minister Nikolai Patolichev at the [[White House]]. Although both Moscow and Beijing publicly denounced the American operation, they were not willing to jeopardize their thawing relationship with the U.S. and Hanoi's requests for support and aid from its socialist allies met with only cool responses.<ref name="Morocco, p. 131"/> Nixon and Kissinger's diplomacy had triumphed and the U.S. was free to react as it pleased.

== Going North ==
Operation ''Linebacker'', the designation for the new interdiction campaign, would have four objectives: to isolate North Vietnam from its outside sources of supply by destroying railroad bridges and rolling stock in and around Hanoi and northeastward toward the Chinese frontier; the targeting of primary storage areas and marshalling yards; to destroy storage and transshipment points; and finally, to eliminate (or at least damage) the north's air defense system.<ref>William P. Head, ''War Above the Clouds'', Maxwell AFB AL: Air University Press, 2002, p. 65.</ref> With nearly 85 percent of North Vietnam's imports (which arrived by sea) blocked by ''Pocket Money'', the administration and the Pentagon believed that cutting its final lines of communication with its socialist allies. The People's Republic of China alone shipped an average of 22,000 tons of supplies a month over two rail lines and eight major roads that linked it with North Vietnam.<ref name="Morocco, p. 130"/>

On [[May 10]] Operation ''Linebacker'' began with large-scale bombing operations against North Vietnam by tactical fighter aircraft of the Seventh Air Force and Task Force 77. Their targets included the railroad switching yards at Yen Vien and the Paul Doumer Bridge, on the northern outskirts of Hanoi.<ref>Casey, Dougan, & Lipsman, p. 39.</ref> A total of 414 sorties were flown on the first day of the operation, 120 by the Air Force and 294 by the Navy, and they encountered the heaviest single day of air-to-air combat during the Vietnam War, with 11 North Vietnamese MiGs (four MiG-21s and seven MiG-17s) and two U.S. Air Force F-4s shot down.<ref name="Thompson, p. 236">Thompson, p. 236.</ref> [[Anti-aircraft artillery]] and over 100 [[surface-to-air missile]] firings also brought down two U.S. Navy aircraft.<ref name="Thompson, p. 236"/>

By the end of the month, American aircraft had destroyed 13 bridges along the rail lines running from Hanoi to the Chinese border. Another four were destroyed between the capital and Haiphong, including the notorious "Dragon's Jaw" that spanned the Song Ma River near Thanh Hoa. Several more bridges were brought down along the rail line leading to the south toward the DMZ. Targets were then switched to petroleum and oil storage and transportation networks and North Vietnamese airfields.<ref>Tilford, p. 235.</ref> There was an immediate impact on the battlefield in South Vietnam. Shelling by PAVN artillery dropped off by one-half between [[9 May]] and [[1 June]]. This slowdown was not due to an immediate shortage of artillery shells, but rather to a desire to conserve ammunition. U.S. intelligence analysts believed that PAVN had enough stockpiled supplies to sustain their campaigns throughout the autumn.<ref>Andrade, p. 519.</ref>

The intensity of the bombing campaign was reflected by the sharp increase in the number of strike and support sorties flown in Southeast Asia as a whole: from 4,237 for all services, including the VNAF, during the month preceding the invasion, to 27,745 flown in support of ARVN forces from the beginning of April to the end of June (20,506 of them flown by the Air Force).<ref name="Head, p. 66">Head, p. 66.</ref> B-52s provided an additional 1,000 sorties during the same period.<ref name="Head, p. 66"/> The north was feeling the pressure, admitting in the official PAVN history that "between May and June only 30 percent of supplies called for in our plan actually reached the front-line units."<ref>''Victory in Vietnam'', p. 293.</ref>

The ''Linebacker'' missions included the first widespread use of [[precision-guided munition]]s, including electro-optical and laser-guided bombs. In addition to interdicting the road and rail system of North Vietnam, ''Linebacker'' also systematically attacked its air defense system. The North Vietnamese Air Force, with approximately 200 interceptors, strongly contested these attacks throughout the campaign. Navy pilots, employing a mutually-supporting "loose deuce" tactical formation and many with [[United States Navy Fighter Weapons School|TOPGUN]] training, enjoyed a kill ratio of 1:600000 ratio not in favor of USA in May and June, such that after that the North Vietnamese rarely engaged them thereafter.<ref>Morocco, p. 144.</ref> The Air Force, opposed by [[MiG-21]]s, [[MiG-17]]s, and [[Shenyang J-6|J-6]]s (the Chinese version of the [[MiG-19]]), experienced a virtual 1:1 shoot-down ratio through the first two months of the campaign, as seven of its eventual 24 ''Linebacker'' air-to-air losses occurred without any corresponding North Vietnamese loss in a twelve-day period between [[24 June]] and [[5 July]].<ref>Marshall L. Michel, ''Clashes: Air Combat Over North Vietnam 1965-1972''. Annapolis MD: Naval Institute Press, 1997, pg. 244</ref>

Air Force pilots were hampered by use of the outdated "fluid four" tactical formations (a four-plane, two element formation in which only the leader did the shooting and in which the outside wingmen were vulnerable) dictated by service doctrine. Also contributing to the parity was a lack of air combat training against dissimilar aircraft, a deficient early warning system, and [[Electronic countermeasures|ECM]] pod formations that mandated strict adherence to formation flying.<ref>Michel, p. 288</ref> During August, however, the introduction of real-time early warning systems, increased aircrew combat experience, and degraded North Vietnamese ground control interception capabilities reversed the trend to a more favorable 4:1 kill ratio.<ref>Michel. p. 284</ref>

''Linebacker'' saw several other "firsts". On the opening day of the operation, Navy Lieutenant [[Duke Cunningham|Randall H. Cunningham]] and his radar intercept officer, Lieutenant (j.g.) [[William P. Driscoll]] became the first U.S. air aces of the Vietnam Conflict when they shot down their fifth MiG.<ref name="Morocco, p. 145">Morocco, p. 145.</ref> On [[28 August]], the Air Force gained its first ace when Captain [[Richard S. Ritchie]] downed his fifth enemy aircraft. Twelve days later, Captain [[Charles B. DeBellevue]] (who had been Ritchie's backseater during four of his five victories) downed two more MiGs, bringing his total to six.
On [[October 13]] another weapons officer, Captain [[Jeffrey S. Feinstein]], was credited with his fifth MiG, making him the final Air Force ace.<ref name="Morocco, p. 145"/>

== Paris Peace Talks and conclusion ==
{{details|Paris Peace Talks|on the negotiations}}
The stalled offensive in the south and the devastation in North Vietnam had helped to convince Hanoi to return to the bargaining table by early August.<ref name="Morocco, p. 145"/> The meetings produced new concessions from Hanoi which promised to end the deadlock that had plagued negotiations since their inception in 1968. Gone were Hanoi's demands for the ouster of South Vietnamese President [[Nguyễn Văn Thiệu]] and his replacement by a coalition government in which the [[National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam|National Liberation Front]] would participate.<ref>Lipsman & Weiss, p. 9. See also Karnow, p. 647.</ref> The diplomatic impasse was broken and Nixon ordered a halt to all bombing above the 20th parallel on [[23 October]]. This once again placed Hanoi and Haiphong off-limits, and halted ''Linebacker'' operations.

Air Force historian Earl Tilford has written that ''Linebacker'' was "a watershed in aerial warfare...it was the first modern aerial campaign in which precision guided munitions changed the way in which air power was used."<ref>Tilford, p. 238.</ref> It succeeded, where ''Rolling Thunder'' had failed, he claimed, for three reasons: President Nixon was decisive in his actions and gave the military greater latitude in targeting; American airpower was forcefully and appropriately used; and the immense difference in the technology utilized made ''Linebacker'' the first bombing campaign in a "new era" of aerial warfare.<ref>Tilford, pps. 238-240.</ref>

During and immediately following the PAVN offensive, U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps aviators had flown 18,000 sorties in the four northern provinces of South Vietnam and dropped 40,000 tons of ordnance in the defense of An Loc. Between March and May, B-52 sortie rates had climbed from 700 to 2,200 per month and the big bombers had dropped 57,000 tons of bombs in Quang Tri Province alone.<ref>Lavalle, p. 103.</ref> During ''Freedom Train'' and ''Linebacker'' proper, B-52s had dropped 150,237 tons of bombs on the north while Air Force and Navy tactical aircraft had flown 1,216 sorties and dropped another 5,000 tons of ordnance.<ref>Head, p. 71.</ref>

From the beginning of ''Freedom Train'' in April to the end of June 1972 the United States lost 52 aircraft over North Vietnam: 17 to missiles; 11 to anti-aircraft weapons; three to small arms fire; 14 to MiGs; and seven to unknown causes.<ref>Head, p. 66. One of those aircraft was an EB-66 electronic jamming aircraft with the call sign "Bat-21". The Prowler was shot down over northern South Vietnam on 2 April with only one survivor, Lieutenant Colonel Iceal Hambleton. The successful rescue of Hambleton and Lieutenant Mark Clark were the subject of a best-selling book and a movie. See Lavalle, pps, 35-43.</ref> During the same time period, the South Vietnamese Air Force lost ten aircraft.<ref>Tilford, pps. 231 & 251. ''Linebacker''. See also Lavalle, p. 107. </ref> 63 North Vietnamese aircraft were destroyed during the same time period.<ref>Tilford, p. 245.</ref> North Vietnam claimed that it had shot down 651 aircraft and sunk or set on fire 80 U.S. warships during the operation.<ref>''Victory in Vietnam'', p. 301.</ref>

''Linebacker'' had played a crucial role in blunting the northern offensive by drying up its vital sources of supply. PAVN had evolved into a conventional military force, and such a force depended upon a complex logistical system, which made it vulnerable to aerial attack.<ref>Palmer, p. 322.</ref> By September, imports into North Vietnam were estimated at 35 to 50 percent below what they had been in May, bolstering claims that the campaign had been successful in its interdiction effort.<ref>Tilford, p. 237.</ref> Air Force General Robert N. Ginsburgh, of the Office of the Secretary of the Air Force, summed up the attitudes of U.S. commanders by remarking that ''Linebacker'' had "a greater impact in its first four months of operation than ''Rolling Thunder'' had in three and one-half years."<ref>Morocco, p. 136.</ref> Although Henry Kissinger may have announced that peace was at hand, it was not going to come easily. American bombers would once again return to the skies of North Vietnam in 1972 during Operation [[Linebacker II]] before the American commitment to the Vietnam War came to an end.

===North Vietnamese aircraft losses===
(Air-to-air losses only)<ref name="futrell"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = https://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/Publications/fulltext/aces_aerial_victories.pdf |format=PDF| title =United States Air Force in Southeast Asia: Aces and Aerial Victories - 1965-1973 | work = | publisher = Air University| dateformat = dmy | accessdate = 15 February 2007}}, on-line book, p. 95-102</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| author=Drendel, Lou.
| chapter=
| title=...And Kill MiGs
| editor=
| publisher=Squadron/Signal Publications
| isbn= 0897470567
| year=1984| pages=}}</ref>
<table align=center class="wikitable">
<tr><th>Dates<th>Service<TH>[[MiG-21]]<th>[[MiG-19]]<TH>[[MiG-17]]<th>Total
<TR><TD>[[5 April]]—[[9 May]] <td>USAF<td>4<td>1<TD><td>'''5'''
<TR><TD><td>USN<td>2<td><TD>2<td>'''4'''
<TR><TD>[[10 May]]—[[23 October]] <td>USAF<td>30<td>7<TD><td>'''37'''
<TR><TD><td>USN<td>3<td>2<TD>11<td>'''16'''
<TR><TD><td>USMC<td>1<td><TD><td>'''1'''
<tr><td>VPAF Total<td><td>'''40'''<td>'''10'''<td>'''13'''<td>'''''63'''''
</table>

===U.S. aircraft losses during Linebacker===
Between [[May 10]] and [[October 23]], [[1972]], the United States lost a total of 134 aircraft either over the north or as a direct result of Linebacker missions. 104 were lost in combat and 30 were destroyed in operational accidents. Losses by service were:<ref>
{{cite book
| author=Ed Rasimus
| chapter=Appendix I - Linebacker Losses
| title=Palace Cobra: A Fighter Pilot in the Vietnam Air War
| editor=
| publisher=St. Martin's Press
| isbn= 0312353561
| year=2006| pages=}}, pp. 233-248. Losses are enumerated by date, aircraft type and serial number, and crew members.</ref>

'''USAF''': - ''70 total''
*'''51 combat losses''' (22 to MiGs, 5 induced losses,<ref>Michel, p. 317 note 2. An "induced loss" occurred when a MiG was credited with indirectly causing a U.S. aircraft loss, including fuel exhaustion, fratricide, and loss of control while maneuvering.</ref> 20 to AAA, 4 to SAMs)
**43 [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4D/E Phantom II]] (+17 non-combat losses)
**2 [[F-4 Phantom II|RF-4C Photo Recon]] (+1 non-combat loss)
**4 [[F-105 Thunderchief|F-105G Wild Weasel]] (+1 non-combat loss)
**2 [[F-111|F-111A "Aardvark"]]

'''USN''': - ''54 total''
*'''43 combat losses''' (1 MiG, 2 induced, 13 SAM, 27 AAA)
**8 [[F-4 Phantom|F-4B/J Phantom II]] (+3 non-combat losses)
**22 [[A-7 Corsair|A-7A/C/E Corsair II]] (+3 non-combat losses)
**3 [[A-6 Intruder|A-6A Intruder]]
**2 [[F-8 Crusader|F-8J Crusader]] (+3 non-combat losses)
**5 [[A-4 Skyhawk|A-4F Skyhawk]] (+1 non-combat loss)
**1 [[A-5 Vigilante|RA-5C Vigilante]]
**2 [[F-8 Crusader|RF-8G Photo Crusader]] (+1 non-combat loss)

'''USMC''': - ''10 total''
*'''10 combat losses''' (1 MiG, 1 SAM, 8 AAA)
**4 F-4J Phantom II
**2 A-4E Skyhawk
**4 A-6A Intruder

== U.S. air order of battle ==
*'''Task Force 77'''
: {{USS|Constellation|CV-64|6}}, Carrier Air Wing 9 ([[F-4 Phantom II|F-4]], [[A-6 Intruder|A-6]], [[A-7 Corsair II|A-7]])
: {{USS|Coral Sea|CV-43|6}}, Carrier Air Wing 15 (F-4, A-6, A-7)
: {{USS|Hancock|CV-19|6}}, Carrier Air Wing 21 (F-8, A-4)
: {{USS|Kitty Hawk|CV-63|6}}, Carrier Air Wing 11 (F-4, A-6, A-7)
: {{USS|Midway|CV-41|6}}, Carrier Air Wing 5 (F-4, A-6, A-7)
: {{USS|Saratoga|CV-60|6}}, Carrier Air Wing 3 (F-4, A-6, A-7)
: {{USS|America|CV-66|6}}, Carrier Air Wing 8 (F-4, A-6, A-7)

*'''Seventh Air Force'''
: ''[[8th Tactical Fighter Wing]]'', [[Ubon RTAFB]], Thailand (F-4)
::+ two Constant Guard squadrons from 4th TFW, Seymour-Johnson AFB. North Carolina
: ''49th Tactical Fighter Wing'', [[Takhli RTAFB]], Thailand (F-4)
:''56th Special Operations Wing'', [[Nakhon Phanom RTAFB]], Thailand ([[A-1 Skyraider|A-1]], [[CH-53 Sea Stallion|HH-53]])
: ''[[366th Tactical Fighter Wing]]'', [[Danang AB]], RVN (F-4)
::+ one Constant Guard squadron from 3rd TFW, [[Osan AB]], Korea
: ''388th Tactical Fighter Wing'', [[Korat RTAFB]], Thailand (F-4, [[F-105 Thunderchief|F-105]]G)
::+ one Constant Guard squadron from 23d TFW, McConnell AFB, Kansas
: ''432d Tactical Reconnaissance Wing'', [[Udon Thani International Airport|Udon RTAFB]], Thailand (F-4), RF-4)
::+three Constant Guard squadrons
:::--one squadron from 405th TFW, [[Clark AB]], Philippnes
:::--one squadron from 31st TFW, [[Homestead AFB]], Florida
:::--one squadron from 33d TFW, [[Eglin AFB]], Florida
: ''43d Strategic Wing'', [[Andersen AFB]], Guam ([[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]])
: ''72d Strategic Wing (Provisional),'' Anderson AFB, Guam (B-52)
: ''307th Strategic Wing'', [[U Tapao RTAFB]], Thailand (B-52)

=References=
== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<references/>
</div>
77. ^Hobson, Chris. "Vietnam Air Losses." 2001. ISBN 1-85780-1156

== Sources ==
'''Published Government Documents'''
*Head, William P. ''War from Above the Clouds: B-52 Operations During the Second Indochina War and the Effects of the Air War on Theory and Doctrine''. Maxwell AFB AL: Air University press, 2002. [http://aupress.au.af.mil/fairchild_papers/Head/head.pdf Online edition]
*Lavalle, Maj. A.J.C., ed. ''Airpower and the 1972 Spring Offensive''. Maxwell AFB AL: Air University Press, 1976.[http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/Publications/fulltext/spring_invasion_1972.pdf Online edition]
*Military History Institute of Vietnam, ''Victory in Vietnam: The Official History of the People's Army of Vietnam, 1954-1975''. Trans. by Merle Pribbenow. Lawrence KS: University of Kansas Press, 2002.
*Nalty, Bernard C. ''Air War Over South Vietnam: 1969-1975''. Washington DC: Center of Air Force History, 1995.
*Schlight, John. ''A War too Long: The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia 1961-1975''. Air Force History and Museums Programs, 1996. [https://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/Publications/fulltext/a_war_too_long.pdf Online edition]
*Thompson, Wayne, ''To Hanoi and Back: The U.S. Air Force and North Vietnam, 1966-1973''. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000.
*Tilford, Earl H. ''Setup: What the Air Force Did in Vietnam and Why''. Maxwell Air Force Base AL: Air University Press, 1991.

'''Secondary Sources'''
*Andrade, Dale, ''Trial by Fire: the 1972 Easter Offensive, America's Last Vietnam Battle''. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1995.
*Casey, Michael, Clark Dougan, Samuel Lipsman, Jack Sweetman, Stephen Weiss, et al, ''Flags into Battle''. Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1987.
*Drendel, Lou, ''Air War over Southeast Asia: Vol. 3, 1971-1975''. Carrollton TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1984.
*Fulghum, David and Terrence Maitland, et al, ''South Vietnam on Trail: Mid-1970-1972''. Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1984.
*Karnow, Stanley, ''Vietnam: A History''. New York: Viking Books, 1983.
*Michel, Marshall L. ''Clashes: Air Combat over North Vietnam 1965-1972''. Annapolis MD: Naval Institute Press, 1997. ISBN 1557505853
*Lipsman, Samuel and Stephen Weiss, et al, ''The False Peace: 1972-74''. Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1985.
*Littauer, Raphael and Norman Uphoff, ''The Air War in Indochina''. Boston: Beacon Press, 1972.
*Morocco, John, ''Rain of Fire: Air War, 1969-1973''. Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1985.
*Palmer, Dave Richard, ''Summons of the Trumpet''. New York: Ballentine Books, 1978.

==External links==
* [http://www.clemson.edu/caah/history/facultypages/EdMoise/airwar.html#line Bibliography: Operations Linebacker and Linebacker II]

[[Category:Conflicts in 1972]]
[[Category:Campaigns of the Vietnam War|Linebacker]]
[[Category:Military campaigns involving the United States]]
[[Category:Military campaigns involving Vietnam]]
[[Category:1972 in Vietnam]]

[[ko:라인배커 작전]]
[[ru:Операция «Linebacker»]]
[[vi:Chiến dịch Linebacker]]

Seema Weatherwax

2009-05-05T13:25:39Z

GVP Webmaster: SI name

'''Seema Aissen Weatherwax''' ([[25 August]] [[1905]], [[Chernigov]] - [[25 June]] [[2006]]) was a Ukrainian-born American photographer.

She was born in [[Ukraine]], then under the Russian Czar, to Avram and Reva Aissen. She was the second of three girls. The family emigrated to [[England]] in 1912, then [[Boston]] in 1922, where the young Seema Aissen found her first job working in a photofinishing lab. She pursued this craft in Boston, [[New Jersey]], [[New Mexico]], [[California]] and [[Tahiti]], but she was ninety-five when she first exhibited her own photographs to the public.

In Los Angeles in the 1930s she joined the Film and Photo League, began her lifelong work for racial justice, and formed enduring friendships with artists and political activists including [[Edward Weston]], [[Imogen Cunningham]] and [[Woody Guthrie]]. She assisted [[Ansel Adams]] in [[Yosemite]], becoming a close friend of the Adams family. She left Yosemite to marry Jack Weatherwax in 1942, working as a photo technician to support his writing while joining in his left activism in [[Los Angeles]]. In 1984 they moved to [[Santa Cruz, California]], where her husband died three weeks after their arrival.

After a year of grieving and contemplation, Seema Weatherwax stepped into public life in her own right. Wanting to share her personal collection of art and photographs, she held benefit shows, joined the [[NAACP]] and [[WILPF]], was elected to the boards of those two organizations, and was soon well-known in Santa Cruz.

On the eve of her ninety-fourth birthday, she decided that she wanted to do two things before she died, print some of her old negatives and have a new love. Having reflected on the reasons for having put her own creative work in the background, she revised her life story, using work created on the margins of the great photography of the mid-twentieth century to step from a conventional women’s role into center stage.

In 2005, Seema Weatherwax had her fifth public show of her photographs, at Special Collections at the [[University of California at Santa Cruz]], then celebrated her one hundredth birthday and the release of her biography, ''Seema’s Show: A Life on the Left'', by Sara Halprin, published by the University of New Mexico Press.

==Resources==
* Tapes and transcripts of interviews for the Weatherwax biography are deposited at Special Collections, University of California at Santa Cruz, which also holds the bulk of the Weatherwax collection of photographs. Supplementary photographs from the Weatherwax collection are deposited with Special Collections, Stanford University.
*Jack Weatherwax's papers are held by the [[Smithsonian Institution]].
*See [http://laborarts.org an exhibit of some of Seema Weatherwax's photographs].

==Further reading==
* Buhle, P. and E. B. Sullivan, Eds. (1998). Images of American Radicalism. Hanover, MA, The Christopher Publishing House. (includes two photos by Seema Weatherwax)
* Wilson, C. and W. Madar (1998). Through Another Lens: My Years with Edward Weston. New York, North Point Press, Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
* Halprin, Sara (2005). Seema's Show: A Life on the Left. Albuquerque, New Mexico, The University of New Mexico Press.

[[Category:1905 births|Weatherwax, Seema]]
[[Category:2006 deaths|Weatherwax, Seema]]
[[Category:American centenarians|Weatherwax, Seema]]
[[Category:American photographers|Weatherwax, Seema]]
[[Category:Ukrainian_photographers|Weatherwax, Seema]]

Eaton Hodgkinson

2009-04-09T19:17:04Z

GVP Webmaster: SI name

'''Eaton A. Hodgkinson''' ([[February 26]], [[1789]] - [[June 18]], [[1861]]) was an [[England|English]] [[engineer]], a pioneer of the application of [[mathematics]] to problems of structural design.

==Early life==
Hodgkinson was born in the village of [[Anderton with Marbury|Anderton]], near [[Great Budworth]], [[Cheshire]] to a [[farming]] family. His father died when Hodgkinson was six years old and he was raised with his two sisters by his mother who maintained the farming business. She sent her son to [[Witton Grammar School]] in [[Northwich]] where he studied the [[classics]] with the intention that he would fulfill the family's ambition that he prepares for a career in the [[Church of England]]. Unfortunately, the regime was unsuited to his tastes and talents which were already showing promise in mathematics. His mother moved him to a less prestigious private school in Northwich where his enthusiasm for mathematics was encouraged and fostered but, as the young Hodgkinson grew physically, he became indispensable on the family farm and soon left education to devote himself there.

However, farming was no more to his taste than [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] and his mother yearned to satisfy her son's appetites. Family friends advised that Hodgkinson might find some more suitable outlet in nearby [[Manchester]] and so, in 1811, the family left for [[Salford]] to open a [[pawnbroking]] business. Hodgkinson used all his spare time in reading [[science]] and mathematics and soon introduced himself into Manchester's scientific community, meeting, among others, his future collaborator, Sir [[William Fairbairn]]. He became a pupil of [[John Dalton]], studying mathematics, and the two remained firm friends until Dalton's death in 1844. He retired early from the family business to devote a modest pension to his scientific work.

He married twice, to Catherine Johns and to a Miss Holditch. There were no children.

==Scientific work==
Hodgkinson worked with Sir [[William Fairbairn]] in [[Manchester]] on the design of [[iron]] [[beam (structure)|beam]]s. His improved [[cross section (geometry)|cross section]] was published by the [[Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society]] in 1830 and influenced much nineteenth century [[structural engineering]]. He derived the empirical formula for a concentrated load, ''W'' (in [[ton]]s), at which a beam will fail as a function of its length between simple supports, ''L'' (in inches); its depth, ''d'' (in inches); and its bottom-flange [[area]], ''A'' (inch²):

:<math>W=\frac {26Ad} {L}</math>

His expertise with beams led to his retention, along with Fairbairn, as consultant on the novel tubular design for the [[Britannia Bridge]]. Fairbairn built and tested several prototypes, and developed the final form adopted for the bridge. Both Hodgkinson and [[Robert Stephenson]] believed that extra chains would be needed to support the heavy spans, so the towers were built with spaces for the chains. Fairbairn, however, insisted that chains would not be necessary, and his opinion prevailed. He was right, and chains were never used, but the towers remain with their empty recesses.

==Later years==
Hodgkinson was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in 1841 and, in 1847, he became professor of the mechanical principles of engineering at [[University College London]]. In 1849, he was appointed by the [[UK Parliament]] to participate in a [[Royal Commission]] to investigate the application of iron in [[railroad]] structures, performing some early investigations of [[metal fatigue]].

Towards the end of his life, his mental faculties failed and he died at [[Higher Broughton]], [[Salford]].

==Bibliography==
*''Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Enquire into the Application of Iron to Railway Structures'' (1849) cmd. 1123, HMSO
*Petroski, H. (1994) ''Design Paradigms: Case Histories of Error and Judgement in Engineering'' ISBN 0-521-46108-1
*Rawson, R (1865) "Memoir of Eaton Hodgkinson", ''Transactions of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society'', vol II, reprinted in ''Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution'' (1868), pp203-230
*Timoshenko, S. P. (1953) ''History of Strength of Materials'', pp126-129

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hodgkinson, Eaton}}
[[Category:1789 births]]
[[Category:1861 deaths]]
[[Category:English Anglicans]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:English engineers]]
[[Category:English mathematicians]]
[[Category:People from Anderton with Marbury]]
[[Category:Structural engineers]]
[[Category:Academics of University College London]]
[[Category:Old Wittonians]]
[[Category:Royal Medal winners]]

[[bg:Итън Ходжкинсън]]
[[fr:Eaton Hodgkinson]]
[[ht:Eaton Hodgkinson]]

Elmenteita Badlands

2009-03-20T15:20:35Z

GVP Webmaster: cite gvp template

{{wikify|date=November 2008}}

{{Infobox Mountain
| Name = Elementeita Badlands
| Photo = AVA Elmenteita Badlands.jpg
| Photo size =
| Caption = Satellite image of the surrounding area from the [[Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer|ASTER]] Volcano Archive
| pushpin_map = Kenya
| pushpin_label_position = 
| pushpin_map_caption = located between [[Lake Elmenteita]] and [[Eburru volcano]]
| pushpin_mapsize =
| coordinates_ref = <ref name="global-volc">{{cite gvp|vnum=0202-071|title=Elementeita Badlands|accessdate=2008-09-08}}</ref>
| latd=0 |latm=31 |lats=0 |latNS=S
| longd=36 |longm=16 |longs=0 |longEW=E
| Elevation = {{convert|2126|m|ft|0}}
| Location = {{KEN}}
| Range =
| Prominence =
| Parent peak =
| Coordinates = {{coord|0|31|S|36|16|E|type:mountain|display=inline,title}}
| Topographic map =
| Type = [[Pyroclastic cone]]
| Volcanic_Arc/Belt=
| Age =
| Last eruption = Unknown
| First ascent =
| Easiest route =
| Grid_ref_UK =
| Grid_ref_Ireland =
| Listing =
| Translation =
| Language =
| Pronunciation =
}}
[[Image:Ututu.jpg|thumb|right300px]|Looking south over the Badlands to Eburru in the background.]]
The '''Elementeita Badlands''', also known as the '''Otutu Forest''' or '''Ututu Forest''', is a [[lava flow]] in [[Kenya]] that covers approximately 9000 acres. The area was previously covered in thick [[dryland]] forest characterized by [[Cedar tree]]s, (''[[Juniperus]]'' spp.), and Leleshwa bushes (Tarconanthus camphoratus). In addition [[Wild Jasmine]] and [[Boophones]] are also found.

The land belongs to [[Njenga Karume]], who bought it from [[Arthur Cole]] in 1980. He had bought it from [[Digby Tatham-Walker]] in 1968, as grazing land of low potential . The land is totally unsuitable for either small scale cultivation or cattle ranching as it is covered in thick bush growing from the profusion of lava boulders.

[[Image:HorseshoeCrater.jpg|thumb|right|The northern rim of Horseshoe Crater]]
It is a large flow punctuated by [[pyroclastic]] cones of [[Holocene]] age. The highest peak has a elevation of 2126 metres. It is located between [[Lake Elmenteita]] and [[Ol Doinyo Eburru]] volcano, on the southern boundary of the [[Soysambu conservancy]]. Some of the prominent peaks include "Horseshoe crater"(on which a girl was killed by a buffalo in 1974, and "scout hat hill".<ref name="global-volc" />

The area was heavily degraded from the 1980s onwards, being a hideout for disaffected and dienfranchised people who have resorted to charcoal burning, Poaching and [[changaa]] brewing. A trading centre has been built at the northeastern corner known as "Soko Mjinga" (fool's Market) which is the main point of trade in these items.
[[Image:UtutuCave.jpg|thumb|left| A Lava tube cave in the Ututu]]
There are some lava Tube caves (partially collapsed) which show evidence of prehistoric occupation as grinding plates and stone bowls have been recovered by the local people in rudimentary excavation. These caves have been occupied by some of the refugees from the 2008 post election violence in Kenya.

The living conditions in the Otutu forest have led to an outbreak of [[leishmaniasis]] or [[Aleppo boil]] which is spread by sandflies and [[rock hyrax]], which are numerous there. The only source of water is from some small steam vents beside the old railway line along the eastern boundary of the forest (currently a road) which ran between Elementeita and Gilgil before it was realigned in 1945. The Eburru station (now defunct) is on the edge of the Otutu and is notable for the steam condensers made from oil drums and corrugated iron sheets which the residents constructed for their water source.

A luxury tourist lodge, called [[Mawe Mbili]] Lodge, is currently under construction on the western boundary of the forest, on the slopes of "scout hat hill", so called because the shape resembles [[Baden-Powell]]s hat . It is projected to open in March 2009. The water supply is from rainwater caught from plastic sheeting and from a deep and alkaline borehole which provides water at over 50 degrees Celsius ad a pH of nearly 8.
== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Volcanoes of Kenya]]
[[Category:Forests of Kenya]]
[[Category:Badlands]]

==External links==

[http://www.mawembili.com Stay on the edge of the forest]

[[sk:Elmenteita Badlands]]

{{Kenya-geo-stub}}

Somma-Vulkan

2009-01-26T17:00:56Z

GVP Webmaster: Fixed GVP link

A '''somma volcano''' (also known simply as a '''somma''') is a [[volcano|volcanic]] [[caldera]] that has been partially filled by a new central [[volcanic cone|cone]]. The name comes from [[Mount Somma]] (Italian ''Monte Somma''), a [[stratovolcano]] in southern [[Italy]] with a summit [[caldera]] in which the cone of [[Mount Vesuvius]] has grown.

A number of the world's best examples of somma volcanoes are found on [[Russia]]'s [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] and the [[Kuril Islands]] that stretch south from Kamchatka to [[Hokkaidō]] ([[Japan]]).

Some examples of somma volcanoes are the following:

* [[Aira Caldera]], ([[Kyūshū]], [[Japan]])
* [[Ebeko]], ([[Paramushir Island]], [[Kuril Islands]], [[Russia]])
* [[Kolokol]] Group: Kolokol, Berg, Borzov, Trezubetz ([[Urup Island]], [[Kuril Islands]], [[Russia]])
* [[Medvezhia]] ([[Iturup Island]], [[Kuril Islands]], [[Russia]])
* [[Milne (volcano)|Milne]] ([[Simushir Island]], [[Kuril Islands]], [[Russia]])
* [[Teide]], [[Tenerife Island]], ([[Canary Islands]], [[Spain]])
* [[Tyatya]], ([[Kunashir Island]], [[Kuril Islands]], [[Russia]])
* [[Urataman]], ([[Simushir Island]], [[Kuril Islands]], [[Russia]])
* [[Vesuvius]], ([[Italy]])
* [[Zarechny]], ([[Kamchatka Peninsula]], [[Russia]])

==References==

*[http://www.volcano.si.edu/ Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution]

[[Category:Volcanology]]

[[fr:Volcan Summa]]
[[nl:Sommavulkaan]]
[[nn:Sommavulkan]]
[[ru:Сомма (вулканология)]]

Baikal-Graben

2008-04-09T12:59:24Z

GVP Webmaster: Fixed GVP ref to use VNUM template

[[Image:Baikal-1.gif|right|thumb|400px| Map of the Lake Baikal Rift Zone from the [[USGS]] factsheet]]The '''Baikal Rift Zone''' is a [[divergent plate boundary]] centered beneath [[Lake Baikal]] in northeastern [[Russia]]. To its west is the [[Eurasian Plate]] and to its east is the [[Amur Plate]] which is moving away from the rift toward [[Japan]] at about 4 mm per year.

As in all divergent plate boundary zones, the crust in the Baikal Rift Zone is thinning and magma is very close to the surface. Hot springs are present both on land and under Lake Baikal, although thus far, no evidence of actual volcanism has been found in the immediate vicinity of the lake. However, geologically-recent volcanic activity has occurred nearby and is probably associated with the Baikal Rift Zone. These volcanic centers are the Udokan Plateau<ref>{{VNUM|1=1002-03-|2=Udokan Plateau}}</ref>, located about 400 km ENE of the northern tip of Lake Baikal, and the Oka Plateau<ref>{{VNUM|1=1002-06-|2=Oka Plateau}}</ref>, located about 200 km WNW of the southwest tip of Lake Baikal.

Besides the [[East African Rift]] and the [[West Antarctic Rift]], the Baikal Rift zone is the only other example of a divergent plate boundary within [[continental crust]] on Earth.
[[Image:Baikal-2.gif|right|thumb|400px| Interpreted [[seismic reflection]] profile across Lake Baikal from the USGS factsheet]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Plate tectonics]]
[[Category:Geography of Russia]]

{{tectonics-stub}}

Dschabal ad-Duruz

2008-04-03T12:49:13Z

GVP Webmaster: Fixed GVP ref to use VNUM template; source, not just ext link

[[Image:Jabal el Druze.jpg|thumb|right|The western slopes of Jabal ad-Duruz.]]
'''Jabal ad-Duruz''' ({{lang-ar|'''جبل الدروز'''}}), also known as '''Jabal al-Arab''' (Arabic: '''جبل العرب''') is an elevated volcanic region in southern [[Syria]], in the [[As-Suwayda Governorate]]. In the winter, snow falls, which is atypical for this region. Most of the inhabitants of this region are [[Druze]], and there are also small [[Christian]] communities. [[Safaitic]] inscriptions were first found in this area. It was an autonomous state in the [[French Mandate of Syria]] from 1921 to 1936, under the same [[Jabal el Druze (state)|name]].

==Geology==
The Jabal ad-Duruz volcanic field, the southernmost in Syria, lies in the Haurun-Druze Plateau in SW Syria near the border with Jordan. The most prominent feature of this volcanic field is 1800m-high Jabal ad Duruz (also known variously as Djebel Al-Arab, Jabal ed Duruz, Jabal ad Druze, Jabal al Druz, Jebel Duraz, Djebel ed Drouz). The alkaline volcanic field consists of a group of 118 basaltic volcanoes active from the lower-Pleistocene to the Holocene. The large SW Plateau depression is filled by basaltic lava flows from volcanoes aligned in a NW-SE direction. This volcanic field lies within the northern part of the massive alkaline [[Harrat Ash Shamah]] (also known as Harrat Ash Shaam) volcanic field that extends from southern Syria to Saudi Arabia.

==Peaks==
[[Image:Tell Qeni.jpg||thumb|right|Tell Qeni (1803 m) is the highest point of Jabal ad-Duruz.]]
* Tell Qeni (1803) m.

* Tell Joualine (1732) m.

* Tell Sleiman (1703) m.

* Tell Qleib (1698) m.

* Tell Abou-Hamra (1482) m.

* Tell El-Ahmar (1452) m.

* Tell Abed-Mar (1436) m.

* Tell Khodr-Imtan (1341) m.

* Tell Azran (1220) m.

* Tell Shihan (1138) m.

In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the word "''tell''" means "hill" but in Jabal ad-Druze, "''tell''" rather refers to a [[volcanic cone]].

==See also==
*[[Jabal ad-Druze (state)]]

==Sources==
* {{VNUM|1=0300-06-|2=Jabal ad Druze}}

{{coor title dm|32|40|N|36|44|E|region:SY_type:mountain_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Mountains of Syria|Druze]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Syria|Jabal ad Duruz]]
[[Category:Druze]]

[[ar:جبل الدروز]]
[[cy:Jabal ad Duruz]]
[[he:הר הדרוזים]]
[[fr:Djébel el-Druze]]
[[it:Gebel Druso]]
[[ja:エッドゥルーズ山地]]
[[sk:Džabal ad-Drúz (sopka)]]

Kaskaden-Vulkane

2008-04-03T12:39:49Z

GVP Webmaster: Fixed GVP ref to use VNUM template

{{Geobox|Range
| name=Cascade Volcanoes
| other_name=
| image=Rainiersourdoughridge.jpg
| image_size=280
| image_caption=[[Mount Rainier]] as viewed from the Sourdough Ridge trail
| country=United States
| country1=Canada
| region_type = Provinces/States
| region= Oregon
| region1= Washington
| region2= California
| region3= British Columbia
| length_imperial=
| length_round=
| length_orientation=
| highest=Mount Rainier
| highest_elevation_imperial=14410
| highest_lat_d=46|highest_lat_m=51|highest_lat_s=1.9|highest_lat_NS=N
| highest_long_d=121|highest_long_m=45|highest_long_s=35.6|highest_long_EW=W
| geology=| geology1=
| period=[[Eocene]]-to-[[Holocene]]
| map=
| map_size=
| map_caption=
}}

The '''Cascade Volcanoes''' (also known as the '''Cascade Volcanic Arc''' or the '''Cascade Arc''') are a number of [[volcano]]es in a [[volcanic arc]] in western [[North America]], extending from southwestern [[British Columbia]] through [[Washington]] and [[Oregon]] to [[Northern California]], a distance of well over <span style="white-space:nowrap">700 mi (1,100 km)</span>. The arc has formed due to [[subduction]] along the [[Cascadia subduction zone]]. Although taking its name from the [[Cascade Range]], this term is a geologic grouping rather than a geographic one, and the Cascade Volcanoes extend north into the [[Coast Mountains]], past the [[Fraser River]] which is the northward limit of the Cascade Range proper.

Some of the major [[city|cities]] along the length of the arc include [[Portland (Oregon)|Portland]], [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], and [[Vancouver]], and the population in the region exceeds 10,000,000. All could be potentially affected by volcanic activity and great subduction-zone [[earthquakes]] along the arc. Because the population of the [[Pacific Northwest]] is rapidly increasing, the Cascade volcanoes are some of the most dangerous, due to their past eruptive history, potential eruptions and because they are underlain by weak, hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks that are susceptible to failure. Many large, long-runout landslides originating on Cascade volcanoes have inundated valleys tens of kilometers from their sources, and some of the inundated areas now support large populations.

The Cascade Volcanoes are part of the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]], the ring of volcanoes and associated mountains around the [[Pacific Ocean]]. All of the known historic eruptions in the [[contiguous United States]] have been from the Cascade Volcanoes. Two most recent were [[Lassen Peak]] in 1914 to 1921 and a [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens|major eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980]]. It is also the site of Canada's most recent major eruption about 2,350 years ago at the [[Mount Meager]] volcanic complex.<ref>{{VNUM|1=1200-18-|2=Meager}}</ref>

==Geology==

The Cascade Arc includes nearly 20 major volcanoes, among a total of over 4,000 separate volcanic vents including numerous [[stratovolcano]]es, [[shield volcano]]es, [[lava dome]]s, and [[cinder cone]]s, along with a few isolated examples of rarer volcanic forms such as [[tuya]]s. Volcanism in the arc began about 37 million years ago, however, most of the present-day Cascade volcanoes are less than 2,000,000 years old, and the highest peaks are less than 100,000 years old. Twelve volcanoes in the arc are over <span style="white-space:nowrap">10,000 ft (3,000 m)</span> in elevation, and the two highest, [[Mount Rainier]] and [[Mount Shasta]], exceed <span style="white-space:nowrap">14,000 ft (4,300 m)</span>. By volume, the two largest Cascade volcanoes are the broad shields of [[Medicine Lake Volcano]] and [[Newberry Volcano]], which are about 145 mi³ (600 km³) and 108 mi³ (450 km³) respectively. [[Mount Garibaldi]] and [[Glacier Peak]] are the only two Cascade volcanoes that are made exclusively of [[dacite]].

[[Image:Lassen-Peak-Large.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Lassen Peak]] and [[Devastated Area]] from [[Cinder Cone (California)|Cinder Cone]] ]]
Over the last 37 million years, the Cascade Arc has been erupting a chain of volcanoes along the [[Pacific Northwest]].<ref>[http://www.washington.edu/burkemuseum/geo_history_wa/Cascade%20Episode.htm The Cascade Episode] Retrieved on [[2007-10-03]]</ref> Several of the volcanoes in the arc are frequently [[active volcano|active]]. The volcanoes of the Cascade Arc share some general characteristics, but each has its own unique geological traits and history. [[Lassen Peak]] in California, which last erupted in 1917, is the southernmost historically active volcano in the arc, while [[Mount Meager]] in British Columbia, which erupted about 2,350 years ago, is generally considered the northernmost member of the arc. A few isolated volcanic centers northwest of Mount Meager such as
[[Mount Silverthrone]], which is a circular 20 km wide, deeply dissected [[caldera]] [[Complex volcano|complex]], may also be the product of Cascadia subduction, but geologic investigations have been very limited in this remote region. About 5-7 million years ago, the northern end of the [[Juan de Fuca Plate]] broke off along the [[Nootka Fault]] to form the [[Explorer Plate]], and there is no definitive consensus among geologists on the relation of the volcanoes north of that fault to the rest of the Cascade Arc. When the Cascade Volcanic Arc resumed 4-5 million years ago after reorganization of the Explorer Plate, there were some apparent changes along the northern end. Where the northern end of the arc originally extended due north from the modern-day location of [[Glacier Peak]] - into the [[Chilliwack Batholith]] and the [[Pemberton Volcanic Belt]] in Canada, it now headed northwest into the [[Mount Baker]] - [[Garibaldi Volcanic Belt]]. This apparently reflects a steepening of the subduction zone on the northern end of the Juan de Fuca Plate. At the same time, the Juan de Fuca Plate assumed a more easterly-directed sense of motion relative to the continent. However, the Pemberton Volcanic Belt is usually merged with the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt and so is usually part of the arc. Between 18 and 5 million years ago, the southern end of the Juan de Fuca Plate broke off to form the [[Gorda Plate]], and continues to subduct beneath [[North America]].<ref name="AC"/> The Cascade Volcanic Arc appears to be segmented; the central portion of the arc is the most active and the northern end least active.

[[Image:MountMeagerPlinthCapricorn.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[Mount Meager]] volcanic complex as seen from the east near Pemberton, BC.]]
Lavas representing the earliest stage in the development of the Cascade Volcanic Arc mostly crop out south of the North Cascades proper, where uplift of the [[Cascade Range]] has been less, and a thicker blanket of Cascade Arc [[volcanic rock]]s has been preserved. In the North Cascades, [[geologist]]s have not yet identified with any certainty any volcanic rocks as old as 35 million years, but remnants of the ancient arc’s internal plumbing system persist in the form of plutons, which are the crystallized [[magma chamber]]s that once fed the early Cascade volcanoes. The greatest mass of exposed Cascade Arc plumbing is the Chilliwack Batholith, which makes up much of the northern part of [[North Cascades National Park]] and adjacent parts of [[British Columbia]] beyond. Individual plutons range in age from about 35 million years old to 2.5 million years old. The older rocks invaded by all this magma were affected by the heat. Around the plutons of the [[batholith]], the older rocks recrystallized. This contact metamorphism produced a fine mesh of interlocking crystals in the old rocks, generally strengthening them and making them more resistant to [[erosion]]. Where the recrystallization was intense, the rocks took on a new appearance dark, dense and hard. Many rugged peaks in the North Cascades owe their prominence to this baking. The rocks holding up many such North Cascade giants, as [[Mount Shuksan]], [[Mount Redoubt]], Mount Challenger, and Mount Hozomeen, are all partly recrystallized by plutons of the nearby and underlying Chilliwack Batholith.

The [[Pemberton Volcanic Belt]] is an eroded [[volcanic belt]] north of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, which appears to have formed during the [[Miocene]] before fracturing of the northern end of the Juan de Fuca Plate. [[Mount Silverthrone]] is the only volcano within the belt that appears related to seismic activity since 1975.

The [[Garibaldi Volcanic Belt]] is the northern extension of the Cascade Arc. Volcanoes within the [[volcanic belt]] are mostly [[stratovolcano]]es along with the rest of the arc, but also include [[caldera]]s, [[cinder cone]]s, and small isolated [[lava]] masses. The eruption styles within the belt range from [[effusive eruption|effusive]] to [[explosive eruption|explosive]], with compositions from [[basalt]] to [[rhyolite]]. Due to repeated continental and alpine glaciations, many of the volcanic deposits in the belt reflect complex interactions between [[magma]] composition, [[topography]], and changing [[ice]] configurations. Four volcanoes within the belt appear related to [[seismology|seismic activity]] since 1975, including: [[Mount Meager]], [[Mount Garibaldi]] and [[Mount Cayley]].

[[Image:Mount Garibaldi.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Mount Garibaldi]] as seen from [[Squamish, British Columbia|Squamish]] ]]
[[Mount Meager]] is the most unstable volcanic massif in Canada. It has dumped [[clay]] and [[Rock (geology)|rock]] several meters deep into the [[Pemberton Valley]] at least three times during the past 7,300 years. Recent drilling into the Pemberton Valley bed encountered remnants of a [[debris flow]] that had travelled 50 kilometers from the volcano shortly before it last erupted 2350 years ago. About 1,000,000,000 m³ of rock and sand extended over the width of the valley. Two previous [[debris flow]]s, about 4,450 and 7,300 years ago, sent [[debris]] at least 32 kilometers from the volcano. Recently, the volcano has created smaller [[landslide]]s about every ten years, including one in 1975 that killed four [[geologist]]s near [[Meager Creek]]. The possibility of Mount Meager covering stable sections of the Pemberton Valley in a debris flow is estimated at about one in 2400 years. There is no sign of volcanic activity with these events. However [[scientist]]s warn the volcano could release another massive debris flow over populated areas anytime without warning.
[[Image:Mount_Cayley.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mount Cayley]] as seen from its southeast slopes]]
In the past, [[Mount Rainier]] has had large debris avalanches, and has also produced enormous [[lahar]]s due to the large amount of glacial ice present. Its lahars have reached all the way to the [[Puget Sound]]. Around 5,000 years ago, a large chunk of the volcano slid away and that debris avalanche helped to produce the massive Osceola Mudflow, which went all the way to the site of present-day [[Tacoma]] and south Seattle. This massive avalanche of rock and ice took out the top 1,600 feet (500 m) of Rainier, bringing its height down to around 14,100 feet (4,300 m). About 530 to 550 years ago, the Electron Mudflow occurred, although this was not as large-scale as the Osceola Mudflow.

While the Cascade Volcanoes (a [[geology|geological]] term) includes volcanoes such as [[Mount Meager]] and [[Mount Garibaldi]], which lie north of the [[Fraser River]], the [[Cascade Range]] (a [[geography|geographic]] term) is considered to have its northern boundary at the Fraser. However this terminology is not universally adhered to; in particular the phrase "the volcanoes of the High Cascades" is sometimes understood to include the peaks north of the Fraser, and sometimes not. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

==Human history==
[[Image:Cascade eruptions in the last 4000 years.png|thumb|350px|Cascade volcano eruptions in the last 4000 years]]
[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]]s have inhabited the area for thousands of years and developed their own [[mythology|myth]]s and [[legend]]s concerning the Cascade volcanoes. According to some of these tales, Mounts [[Mount Baker|Baker]], [[Mount Jefferson (Oregon)|Jefferson]], [[Mount Shasta|Shasta]] and [[Mount Garibaldi|Garibaldi]] were used as refuge from a great [[flood]]. Other stories, such as the [[Bridge of the Gods (geologic event)|Bridge of the Gods]] tale, had various High Cascades such as [[Mount Hood|Hood]] and [[Mount Adams (Washington)|Adams]], act as god-like chiefs who made [[war]] by throwing fire and stone at each other. [[Mount St. Helens|St. Helens]] with its pre-1980 graceful appearance, was regaled as a beautiful maiden for whom Hood and Adams feuded. Among the many stories concerning Mount Baker, one tells that the volcano was formerly married to Mount Rainier and lived in that vicinity. Then, because of a marital dispute, she picked herself up and marched north to her present position. Native tribes also developed their own names for the High Cascades and many of the smaller peaks, the most well-known to non-natives being Tahoma, the [[Lushootseed]] name for [[Mount Rainier]].

Legends associated with the great volcanoes are many, as well as with other peaks and geographical features of the arc, including its many hot springs and waterfalls and rock towers and other formations. Stories of Tahoma - today [[Mount Rainier]] and the namesake of [[Tacoma, Washington]] - allude to great, hidden grottos with sleeping giants, apparitions and other marvels in the volcanoes of [[Washington]], and [[Mount Shasta]] in California has long been well-known for its associations with everything from [[Lemuria (continent)|Lemurians]] to aliens to elves and, as everywhere in the arc, [[Sasquatch]] or [[Bigfoot]].

[[Image:Cascadia earthquake sources.png|thumb|left|220px|Cascadia earthquake sources]]
In the spring of 1792 British navigator [[George Vancouver]] entered [[Puget Sound]] and started to give [[English language|English]] names to the high mountains he saw. [[Mount Baker]] was named for Vancouver's third lieutenant, the graceful [[Mount St. Helens]] for a famous diplomat, [[Mount Hood]] was named in honor of [[Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood]] (an [[admiral]] of the [[Royal Navy]]) and the tallest Cascade, [[Mount Rainier]], is the namesake of Admiral [[Peter Rainier]]. Vancouver's expedition did not, however, name the arc these peaks belonged to. As marine trade in the [[Strait of Georgia]] and [[Puget Sound]] proceeded in the 1790s and beyond, the summits of [[Mount Rainier|Rainier]] and [[Mount Baker|Baker]] became familiar to captains and crews (mostly British and American over all others, but not exclusively).

With the exception of the 1915 eruption of remote [[Lassen Peak]] in [[Northern California]], the arc was quiet for more than a century. Then, on [[May 18]], [[1980]], the dramatic eruption of little-known [[Mount St. Helens]] shattered the quiet and brought the world's attention to the arc. [[Geologist]]s were also concerned that the St. Helens eruption was a sign that long-dormant Cascade volcanoes might become active once more, as in the period from 1800 to 1857 when a total of eight erupted. None have erupted since St. Helens, but precautions are being taken nevertheless, such as the Mount Rainier Volcano [[Lahar]] Warning System in [[Pierce County, Washington]].<ref>[http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/About/Highlights/RainierPilot/Pilot_highlight.html Pilot Project: Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System] Retrieved on [[2007-10-06]]</ref>

[[Hot spring]]s in the Canadian side of the arc, were originally used and revered by [[First Nations]] people. The springs located on [[Meager Creek]] are called ''Teiq''<ref name="SA"/> in the language of the [[Lillooet River]] and were the farthest up the [[Lillooet River]] the spirit-beings/wizards known as "the Transformers" reached during their journey into the [[Lillooet Country]], and a "training" place for young First Nations men who would privite themselves at the at the springs to acquire power and knowledge. In this area, also, was found the blackstone chief's head pipe that is famous of Lillooet artifacts; found buried in [[volcanic ash]], one supposes from the [[2350 BP eruption of Mount Meager]].

==Cascadia subduction zone==
{{main|Cascadia subduction zone}}
[[Image:Cascadia subduction zone USGS.png|thumb|right|Area of the [[Cascadia subduction zone]], including Cascade volcanoes (red triangles) ]]
The Cascade Volcanoes were formed by the [[subduction]] of the [[Juan de Fuca Plate|Juan de Fuca]], [[Explorer Plate|Explorer]] and the [[Gorda Plate]] (remnants of the much larger [[Farallon Plate]]) under the [[North American Plate]] along the [[Cascadia subduction zone]]. This is a <span style="white-space:nowrap">680 mi (1,094 km)</span> long [[fault (geology)|fault]], running <span style="white-space:nowrap">50 mi (80 km)</span> off the west-coast of the [[Pacific Northwest]] from [[northern California]] to [[Vancouver Island]], [[British Columbia]]. The plates move at a relative rate of over 0.4 inches (10 mm) per year at a somewhat oblique angle to the subduction zone.

Because of the very large fault area, the Cascadia subduction zone can produce very large earthquakes, magnitude 9.0 or greater, if rupture occurred over its whole area. When the "locked" zone stores up energy for an earthquake, the "transition" zone, although somewhat plastic, can rupture. Thermal and deformation studies indicate that the locked zone is fully locked for 60 kilometers (about 40 miles) downdip from the deformation front. Further downdip, there is a transition from fully locked to [[Aseismic creep|aseismic sliding]].

Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, there is no [[oceanic trench]] present along the [[continental margin]] in [[Cascadia]].<ref name="AC">[http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/usgsnps/province/cascade2.html Pacific Mountain System - Cascade volcanoes]</ref> Instead, [[terrane]]s and the accretionary wedge have been uplifted to form a series of coast ranges and exotic mountains. A high rate of sedimentation from the outflow of the three major rivers ([[Fraser River]], [[Columbia River]], and [[Klamath River]]) which cross the Cascade Range contributes to further obscuring the presence of a trench. However, in common with most other subduction zones, the outer margin is slowly being compressed, similar to a giant [[spring (device)|spring]]. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, the Cascadia subduction zone can create very large [[earthquake]]s such as the [[moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] 9 [[1700 Cascadia earthquake|Cascadia earthquake of 1700]].

==Eruptions of the Cascades==
There have been 11 eruptions in the past 4,000 years, and 7 in just the past 200 years.<ref name="SD"/> The Cascade volcanoes have had more than 100 eruptions over the past few thousand years, many of them [[explosive eruption]]s.<ref name="SD"/> However, certain Cascade volcanoes can be [[dormant volcano|dormant]] for hundreds or thousands of years between eruptions, and therefore the great risk caused by volcanic activity in the regions is not always readily apparent.

When Cascade volcanoes do erupt, [[pyroclastic flow]]s, [[lava]] flows, and [[landslide]]s can devastate areas 10 or more miles away; and huge [[mudflow]]s of [[volcanic ash]] and [[debris]], called [[lahar]]s, can inundate [[valley]]s more than {{convert|50|mi|km}} downstream. Falling ash from [[explosive eruption]]s can disrupt [[human]] activities hundreds of miles downwind, and drifting clouds of fine ash can cause severe damage to [[jet aircraft]] even thousands of miles away.

All of the known historical eruptions have occurred in [[Washington]], [[Oregon]] and in [[Northern California]]. The two most recent were [[Lassen Peak]] in 1914 to 1921 and a [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens|major eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980]]. Minor eruptions of Mount St. Helens have also occurred, most recently in 2006.<ref>[http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/MSH/Eruption04/framework.html Mount St. Helens, Washington Eruption 2004 to Current] Retrieved on [[2007-10-06]]</ref> In contrast, volcanoes in southern British Columbia, central and southern Oregon are currently [[Dormant volcano|dormant]]. The regions lacking new eruptions keep in touch to positions of fracture zones that offset the [[Gorda Ridge]], [[Explorer Ridge]] and the [[Juan de Fuca Ridge]]. The volcanoes with historical eruptions include: [[Mount Rainier]], [[Glacier Peak]], [[Mount Baker]], [[Mount Hood]], [[Lassen Peak]], and [[Mount Shasta]].

Renewed volcanic activity in the Cascade Arc, such as the [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens]], has offered a great deal of evidence about the structure of the Cascade Arc. One effect of the 1980 eruption was a greater knowledge of the influence of landslides and volcanic development in the evolution of volcanic terrain. A vast piece on the north side of Mount St. Helens dropped and formed a jumbled landslide environment several kilometers away from the volcano. [[Pyroclastic flow]]s and [[lahar]]s moved across the countryside. Parallel episodes have also happened at [[Mount Shasta]] and other Cascade volcanoes in prehistoric times.

===Major catastrophic eruptions===
[[Image:MSH82_st_helens_plume_from_harrys_ridge_05-19-82.jpg|thumb|200px|left|3,000 ft (1 km) steam plume from [[Mount St. Helens]] on May 19, 1982]]
; 1980 Eruption of Mount St. Helens
{{main|1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens}}

The [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens]] was one of the most closely studied volcanic eruptions in the arc and one of the best studied ever. It was a [[Plinian eruption|Plinian]] style eruption with a [[Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]]=5 and was the most significant to occur in the lower 48 [[U.S. state]]s in recorded history. An [[earthquake]] at 8:32 a.m. on [[May 18]], [[1980]], caused the entire weakened north face to slide away. An ash column rose high into the [[atmosphere]] and deposited ash in 11 U.S. states. The eruption killed 57 people and thousands of [[animal]]s and caused more than a billion [[U.S. dollar]]s in damage.

; 1914–17 Eruptions of Lassen Peak
{{main|Lassen Peak}}

On [[May 22]], [[1915]], an explosive eruption at Lassen Peak devastated nearby areas and rained [[volcanic ash]] as far away as 200 miles (320 km) to the east.<ref name="Eruptions of Lassen Peak">[http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1998/fs173-98/ USGS: Eruptions of Lassen Peak, California, 1914 to 1917]</ref> A huge column of volcanic ash and gas rose more than {{convert|30000|ft|m}} into the air and was visible from as far away as [[Eureka, California]], 150 miles (240 km) to the west. A [[pyroclastic flow]] swept down the side of the volcano, devastating a {{convert|3|sqmi|sqkm|sing=on}} area. This explosion was the most powerful in a 1914–17 series of eruptions at Lassen Peak.<ref name="Eruptions of Lassen Peak"/>

; 2350 BP Eruption of Mount Meager
{{main|2350 BP eruption of Mount Meager}}

[[Mount Meager]] produced the most recent major eruption in Canada, sending [[volcanic ash|ash]] as far away as [[Alberta]].<ref name="SI">[http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/volcanoes/cat/feature_meager_e.php Catalogue of Canadian Volcanoes: Mount Meager] Retrieved on [[2007-07-16]]</ref> The eruption was similar to the [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens]], sending an [[eruption column|ash column]] approximately 20 km high into the [[stratosphere]].<ref name="SI"/> This activity produced a diverse sequence of volcanic deposits, well exposed in the [[Cliff|bluffs]] along the [[Lillooet River]], which is defined as the [[Pebble Creek Formation]].<ref name="SE"/> The eruption was episodic, occurring from a vent on the north-east side of [[Plinth Peak]].<ref name="SA">[http://www.bivouac.com/MtnPg.asp?MtnId=953 Mount Meager] in the Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved on [[2007-07-16]]</ref> An unusual, thick apron of welded vitrophyric breccia may represent the explosive collapse of an early [[lava dome]], depositing ash several meters in thickness near the vent area.<ref name="SE">[http://www.eos.ubc.ca/~krussell/epapers/bv_hrs99.pdf Volcanology of the 2350 B.P. Eruption of the Mount Meager Volcanic Complex] Retrieved on [[2007-07-16]]</ref>

; 7700 BP Eruption of Mount Mazama
[[Image:Crater Lake 2.jpg|thumb|right|The caldera of [[Mount Mazama|Mount Mazama]], filled by [[Crater Lake|Crater Lake]] ]]
{{main|Mount Mazama}}

The 7700 BP eruption of [[Mount Mazama]] was a large catastrophic eruption in U.S. state of [[Oregon]]. It is estimated to have been 42 times larger than the [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens]]. It began with a large [[eruption column]] with [[pumice]] and [[volcanic ash|ash]] that erupted from a single vent. The eruption was so great that most of Mount Mazama collapsed to form a [[caldera]] and subsequent smaller eruptions occurred as water began to fill in the caldera to form [[Crater Lake]]. Volcanic ash from the eruption was carried across most of the [[Pacific Northwest]] as well as parts of southern Canada.

; 13100 BP Eruption of Glacier Peak

About 13,000 years ago, Glacier Peak generated an unusually strong sequence of eruptions depositing [[volcanic ash]] as far away as [[Wyoming]].<ref name="SD"/>

===Other eruptions===
; Mount Silverthrone

Most of [[Mount Silverthrone]]'s eruptions occurred during the last [[ice age]] and was episodically [[active volcano|active]] during both [[Pemberton Volcanic Belt|Pemberton]] and [[Garibaldi Volcanic Belt]] stages of [[volcano|volcanism]]. The last eruption from Mount Silverthrone ran up against ice in [[Chernaud Creek]]. The lava was [[dam]]med by the ice and made a [[cliff]] with a [[waterfall]] up against it.

; Mount Cayley

[[Mount Cayley]] last erupted about 20,000 years ago. It contains several complex features which probably represent multiple eruptions under different conditions and are difficult to classify.

; Mount Garibaldi

[[Mount Garibaldi]] was last active about 10,700 to 9,300 years ago from a [[cinder cone]] called [[Opal Cone]]. It produced a 15 km long broad [[dacite]] [[lava|lava flow]] with prominent wrinkled ridges. The lava flow is unusually long for a silicic lava flow.

; Mount Baker

During the mid-1880s, [[Mount Baker]] had volcanic activity for the first time in several thousand years. [[Fumarole]] activity remains in [[Sherman Crater]], close to the volcano's main peak, became more intense in 1975 and is still energetic. However there is still no proof that an eruption is about to happen at the volcano.<ref name="SD">[http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs165-97/ Living With Volcanic Risk in the Cascades] Retrieved on [[2007-10-03]]</ref>

; Glacier Peak

[[Glacier Peak]] last erupted about 200-300 years ago and has erupted about six times in the past 4,000 years.<ref name="SD"/>

; Mount Rainier

[[Mount Rainier]] last erupted between 1824 and 1854, but many eyewitnesses reported eruptive activity in 1858, 1870, 1879, 1882 and in 1894 as well. Mount Rainier has created at least four eruptions and many [[lahar]]s in the past 4,000 years.<ref name="SD"/>

; Mount Adams

[[Mount Adams (Washington)|Mount Adams]] was last active about 1,000 years ago and has created few eruptions during the past several thousand years.<ref name="SD"/>

; Mount Hood

[[Mount Hood]] was last active about 200 years ago, creating [[pyroclastic flow]]s, [[lahar]]s, and a well-known [[lava dome]] close to its peak called Crater Rock. Between 1856 and 1865, a sequence of steam explosions took place at Mount Hood.<ref name="SD"/>

; Newberry Volcano

A great deal of volcanic activity has occurred at [[Newberry Volcano]], which was last active about 1,300 years ago. It has one of the largest collections of [[cinder cone]]s, [[lava dome]]s, [[lava|lava flow]]s and [[fissure vent|fissure]]s in the world.<ref name="SD"/>

; Medicine Lake Volcano

[[Medicine Lake Volcano]] has erupted about 8 times in the past 4,000 years and was last active about 1,000 years ago when [[rhyolite]] and [[dacite]] erupted at [[Glass Mountain]] and associated vents near the [[caldera]]'s eastern rim.<ref name="SD"/>

; Mount Shasta

[[Mount Shasta]] last erupted in 1786 and has been the most active volcano in [[California]] for about 4,000 years, erupting once every 300 years.<ref name="SD"/> The 1786 eruption created a [[pyroclastic flow]], a [[lahar]] and three cold lahars, which streamed 7.5 miles (12 km) down Shasta's east flank via Ash Creek. A separate hot lahar went 12 miles (19 km) down Mud Creek.

==List of Cascade Volcanoes==
{{:List of Cascade volcanoes}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Cascade Range]]
* [[Pacific Ranges]]
* [[Coast Mountains]]
* [[Garibaldi Volcanic Belt]]
* [[List of Cascade volcanoes]]
* [[List of volcanoes in the United States of America]]
* [[List of volcanoes in Canada]]
* [[Volcanism in Canada]]
* [[Geology of the Pacific Northwest]]

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Harris | first = Stephen L. | title = Fire Mountains of the West: The Cascade and Mono Lake Volcanoes (3rd ed.) | publisher = [[Mountain Press Publishing Company]] | date = 2005 | pages= 454 pp | isbn = 0-87842-511-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Wood | first = Charles A. | coauthors= Jürgen Kienle, eds. | title = Volcanoes of North America | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | date = 1990 | pages= 354 pp | isbn = 0-521-43811-X }}
* [http://www.skimountaineer.com/CascadeSki/CascadeIntro.html Skiing the Cascade Volcanoes - Introduction to the Cascade Volcanoes]
*

==External links==
{{commons}}
* [http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Cascades/framework.html USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory]
* [http://www.volcano.si.edu/ Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program]

{{Cascade volcanoes}}

[[Category:Volcanoes of British Columbia]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Washington]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Oregon]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of California]]
[[Category:Volcanology]]
[[Category:Cascade Volcanoes| ]]
[[Category:Volcanic arcs]]

[[fr:Arc volcanique des Cascades]]
[[simple:Cascade Volcanic Arc]]

Riverside-Geysir

2007-06-04T15:35:34Z

GVP Webmaster: Smithsonian ref correction

[[Image:Riverside Geyser 1959.jpg|thumb|240px|Riverside Geyser in full eruption, 1959]]

'''Riverside Geyser''' is a [[geyser]] in [[Yellowstone National Park]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Wyoming]].

The geyser is located on the [[Firehole River]] within the [[Geothermal areas of Yellowstone#Upper Geyser Basin|Upper Geyser Basin]]. The geyser shoots steam and water to heights of 75 feet (23 m) in an arch over the river. The eruptions occur every 5<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>—6<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> hours for a duration of 20 minutes. For an hour or two before the eruption, water pours over the edge of the cone.<ref>{{cite web | title=Riverside Geyser | work= Old Faithful Area Tour | url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/tours/oldfaithful/riversdg.htm | accessdate=2005-09-19 }}</ref> The geyser was named by the Hayden Party in 1871.<ref>{{cite book | author=Bauer, Clyde Max | title=Yellowstone Geysers | location=Yellowstone Park, Wyoming | publisher=Haynes | year=1947 | id=ASIN B0007E44C4}}</ref>

The geyser is the most reliable geyser in Yellowstone<ref>{{cite web |title=Yellowstone|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1205-01-&volpage=photos&photo=033059 | accessdate=2005-09-19 }}</ref>, despite the moniker and reputation of the better-known [[Old Faithful Geyser|Old Faithful]].

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
{{commons|Riverside Geyser}}
* {{cite web | title=Riverside Geyser movies | url=http://www.gigagraphica.com/geyser/riverside/riverside.html | accessdate=September 19 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{Geolinks-US-buildingscale|44.4735439|-110.8404890}}

[[Category:Geysers of Wyoming]]
[[Category:Yellowstone geothermal features]]

Nuevo Mundo (Vulkan)

2007-05-23T18:46:47Z

GVP Webmaster: Fixed GVP ref to use VNUM template

{{Infobox Mountain
| Name = Nuevo Mundo volcano [[Image:Flag_of_Bolivia_(state).svg|34px]]
| Photo =
| Caption =
| Elevation =5438 m. (17,841 ft.)
| Location = [[Bolivia]]
| Range = [[Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia|Cordillera Oriental]]
| Prominence = 738 m.
| Coordinates = {{coor dms|19|46|27|S|66|28|42|W|type:mountain_region:BO}}
| Topographic map =
| Type = [[Stratovolcano]]
| Age = [[Cenozoic]]
| Last eruption = c. 1400
| First ascent =
| Easiest route =
| Listing =
| Translation =
| Language =
| Pronunciation =
}}


The '''Nuevo Mundo volcano''' is a [[stratovolcano]], [[lava dome]] and a [[lava flow]] complex between [[Potosí]] and [[Uyuni]], [[Bolivia]], in the [[Andes]] rising to a peak at 5438 m.

==History==
The first mountaineering in the area was before 1903, by a Frenchman, Georges Courty, whose notes led to the mysterious entry in the 1987 book ''Mountaineering in the Andes'' by Jill Neate, “Nuevo Mundo, 6020 m, location uncertain.”<ref>Neate, Jill (1987) ''Mountaineering in the Andes: a sourcebook for climbers'' Expedition Advisory Centre, London, England, ISBN 0907649335</ref>

German geologist Frederic Ahlfeld, an avid mountaineer, moved to Bolivia in 1924. He began exploring the mountains in [[Potosí Department]] after World War II, climbing a number of the peaks. In a letter to historian Evelio Echevtia in 1962, Ahlfeld stated that because of Nuevo Mundo’s supposed height, one of the two Cerro Lípez peaks might be a possible candidate for Monsieur Courty’s mysterious mountain.<ref name="Brain">[http://climbing.com/aaj/323_chile_aaj1999.pdf Brain, Y. (1999) "Climbs and Expeditions: Bolivia" ''American Alpine Journal'' p.323]</ref> However, in 1969, in Ahlfeld's book ''Geografia Fisica de Bolivia''<ref>Ahlfeld, Federico E. (1969) ''Geografía de Bolivia: geografía física'' Editorial Los Amigos del Libro, La Paz, [http://worldcat.org/oclc/2903813 OCLC 2903813]</ref>, Ahlfeld presented a drawing<ref>Ahlfeld ''Geografia Fisica de Bolivia'' p.158</ref> of a Nuevo Mundo (5438 m.) with its description<ref>Ahlfeld ''Geografia Fisica de Bolivia'' p. 156-157</ref>, and at a location southwest of [[Potosí]] and just north of the small village of Potoco, far away from [[Cerro Lípez]].

At the end of the 1990's, Toto Aramayo, Yossi Brain and Dakin Cook undertook the search for Nuevo Mundo, and they found Ahlfeld’s Nuevo Mundo at Latitude:19°47'0"S, Longitude: 66°29'0"W.<ref name="Brain"/> The Bolivian government and the [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] recognize this as the correct identification of Nuevo Mundo, although some maps<ref>[http://mappoint.msn.com/(3slmuafbtp4ponnum2sa4o55)/map.aspx?C=-21.970141%2c-66.585734&A=303.910892153239&L=WLD0409 MSN Encarta Map] accessed 11 March 2006 and 11 March 2007</ref> still as of 2007 labeled Cerro Lípez as Nuevo Mundo.

==Geology==
Nuevo Mundo is a complex eruption center on the edge of the [[Los Frailes Plateau]] with a [[stratovolcano]] which is capped by [[Volcanic cone|cinder cones]] (mostly of ash and pumice).<ref>[http://volcano.space.edu/cvz/mund.html "Nuevo Mundo"] from the University of North Dakota Volcanology WebSite</ref> At the base level there are two lava flows (of a viscous dacite) that erupted along a north-south fault. Apparently at the same time there were block-and-ash flows to the east.<ref>{{VNUM | 1=1505-036}}</ref> Later a highly explosive eruption produced an ash fall that extended over 200 km to the east, as far as [[Potosí]]. This eruption was quite recent, but it predated the arrival of the Spanish in 1533. While earlier eruption centers, such as the [[Kari-Kari caldera]] created the Los Frailes Plateau, Nueva Mundo overlaid those Los Frailes plateau deposits in the [[Holocene]] with huge [[ignimbrite]] deposits, which are mostly [[pyroclastic]] [[dacite]] and [[andesite]].<ref>[http://volcano.space.edu/cvz/frail.html Los Frailes Plateau Info] from the University of North Dakota Volcanology WebSite</ref>

==Notes==

{{reflist}}

[[es:Nuevo Mundo (volcán)]]
[[sk:Nuevo Mundo]]

[[Category:Mountains of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Stratovolcanoes]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Lava domes]]