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Sundar Pichai

2014-04-29T00:19:23Z

Fowler&fowler: PS Please also see my talk page post

{{use dmy dates|date=February 2014}}{{use Indian English|date=February 2014}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Sundar Pichai
|image = File:Sundar Pichai (cropped).jpg
|alt =
|caption =
|birth_name = Pichai Sundararajan
|birth_date = {{Birth-date and age|1972|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Tamil Nadu, India]]
|death_date = 
|death_place =
|nationality =
|alma_mater = [[IIT Kharagpur]] [[Stanford University]] [[The Wharton School]]
|other_names =
|occupation =
|known_for =
|employer = [[Google Inc.]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = ta
}}
'''Pichai Sundararajan''', better known as '''Sundar Pichai''', is an Indian-born, [[naturalization|naturalized]] American, senior vice president at [[Google]], where he oversees [[Android (operating system)|Android]], [[Google Chrome|Chrome]] and [[Google Apps]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/tech-news/internet/Googles-Sundar-Pichai-too-in-race-to-head-Microsoft/articleshow/29732831.cms |title=Google's Sundar Pichai too in race to head Microsoft? |publisher=Times of India |date= 2 February 2014 |accessdate=4 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-16/other-news/37766973_1_sundar-pichai-chrome-os-iit-kharagpur |title=Google's latest star was IIT Kharagpur topper |publisher=Times of India |date=16 March 2013 |accessdate=16 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="siliconindia.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.siliconindia.com/shownews/Sundar_Pichai_man_who_runs_Chrome_at_Google-nid-83441-cid-3.html |title=Sundar Pichai; man who runs Chrome at Google |publisher=Siliconindia.com |date=12 May 2011 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="CNET--Google Shakeup">{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Chrome head Sundar Pichai takes over Android |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57574104-93/google-shakeup-chrome-head-sundar-pichai-takes-over-android/ |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> He received his Bachelors in Technology from the [[Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]] and was awarded an Institute Silver Medal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Much-at-stake-for-tech-sector-in-UID-project/articleshow/11077361.cms |title=Cloud is what people use 98% of the time |publisher=Times of India |date=12 December 2011 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> He holds an M.S. from [[Stanford University]] and an [[MBA]] from the [[Wharton School]] of the [[University of Pennsylvania]], where he was named a Siebel Scholar<ref>[http://www.siebelscholars.com/scholars/347 Siebel Scholars]. Siebel Scholars. Retrieved on 23 August 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Sundar Pichai:Seven prominent Indian-origin people in global IT world |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/slideshows/people/seven-prominent-indian-origin-people-in-global-it-world/sundar-pichai/slideshow/24183228.cms |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> and a Palmer Scholar.

Pichai joined Google in 2004, where he led the product management and innovation efforts for a suite of Google's client software products, including [[Google Chrome]] and [[Google Chrome OS|Chrome OS]], as well as being largely responsible for [[Google Drive]]. He went on to oversee the development of different apps like [[Gmail]] and [[Google Maps]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Meet Google’s new Android chief Sundar Pichai |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-16/strategy/37766660_1_sundar-pichai-chrome-os-iit-kharagpur |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Sundar Pichai: The man Google, Twitter fought for |url=http://www.rediff.com/money/report/slide-show-1-tech-sundar-pichai-the-man-google-twitter-fought-for/20130319.htm |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> On 19 November 2009, Pichai gave a demonstration of [[Chrome OS]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Strohmeyer |first=Robert |date=19 November 2009 |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/182655/Google_Chrome_OS_Unveiled.html |title=Google Chrome OS Unveiled: Speed, Simplicity, and Security Stressed |publisher=PCWorld |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> On 20 May 2010, he announced the open-sourcing of the new video codec [[VP8]] by Google, and introduced the new video format [[WebM]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/video/google-open-sourcing-vp8-as-part-of-webm-project/ |title=Google Open Sourcing VP8 as Part of WebM Project — Online Video News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=19 May 2010 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>

On 13 March 2013, Pichai added [[Android (operating system)|Android]] to the Google products he oversees. Android was formerly managed by [[Andy Rubin]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Olivarez-Giles |first=Nathan |title=Google Replaces Android Boss Andy Rubin With Chrome’s Sundar Pichai |url=http://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2013/03/andy-rubin-leaving-android/ |accessdate=13 March 2013 |newspaper=Wired |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> He was believed to be one of the contenders for the CEO position of Microsoft in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |last=Furrier |first=John |title=BREAKING NEWS: Google SVP of Chrome & Apps Sundar Pichai now front runner for Microsoft CEO job |url=http://siliconangle.com/blog/2014/01/31/breaking-news-google-svp-of-chrome-apps-sundar-pichai-now-front-runner-for microsoft-ceo-job/ |accessdate=3 February 2014 |newspaper=SiliconANGLE |date=31 January 2014}}</ref> Before joining Google, Pichai worked at Applied Materials and McKinsey & Company.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}}

He serves as a Member of Board of Advisors at Ruba, Inc{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}. He was a Director of [[Jive Software]] from April 2011<ref>{{cite web |title= Who is Sundar Pichai? |url=http://gadgets.ndtv.com/others/news/who-is-sundar-pichai-342476 |publisher= NDTV.com |accessdate= 3 February 2014}}</ref> till July 30, 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jive Elects Informatica Executive Margaret Breya to Board of Directors |url=http://investors.jivesoftware.com/releasedetail.cfm?releaseid=781347|publisher=Jive Software|accessdate=12 February 2014}}</ref> Pichai is married and has a daughter and a son.<ref name="siliconindia.com"/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{Google+|+SundarPichai}}
* {{Twitter|sundarpichai|Sundar Pichai}}

{{Persondata
|NAME =Pichai, Sundar
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =Paicha, P.Sundar Rajan
|SHORT DESCRIPTION =
|DATE OF BIRTH = 1967
|PLACE OF BIRTH =Pune, Maharashtra, India
|DATE OF DEATH =
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pichai, Sundar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Google employees]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur alumni]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Stanford University alumni]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni]]
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Tamil people]]

{{India-business-bio-stub}}

Sundar Pichai

2014-04-29T00:08:57Z

Fowler&fowler: ch India-born to Indian-born

{{use dmy dates|date=February 2014}}{{use Indian English|date=February 2014}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Sundar Pichai
|image = File:Sundar Pichai (cropped).jpg
|alt =
|caption =
|birth_name = Pichai Sundararajan
|birth_date = {{Birth-date and age|1972|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Tamil Nadu, India]]
|death_date = 
|death_place =
|nationality =
|alma_mater = [[IIT Kharagpur]] [[Stanford University]] [[The Wharton School]]
|other_names =
|occupation =
|known_for =
|employer = [[Google Inc.]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = ta
}}
'''Pichai Sundararajan''', better known as '''Sundar Pichai''' is an Indian-born, [[naturalization|naturalized]] American, senior vice president at [[Google]], where he oversees [[Android (operating system)|Android]], [[Google Chrome|Chrome]] and [[Google Apps]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/tech-news/internet/Googles-Sundar-Pichai-too-in-race-to-head-Microsoft/articleshow/29732831.cms |title=Google's Sundar Pichai too in race to head Microsoft? |publisher=Times of India |date= 2 February 2014 |accessdate=4 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-16/other-news/37766973_1_sundar-pichai-chrome-os-iit-kharagpur |title=Google's latest star was IIT Kharagpur topper |publisher=Times of India |date=16 March 2013 |accessdate=16 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="siliconindia.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.siliconindia.com/shownews/Sundar_Pichai_man_who_runs_Chrome_at_Google-nid-83441-cid-3.html |title=Sundar Pichai; man who runs Chrome at Google |publisher=Siliconindia.com |date=12 May 2011 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="CNET--Google Shakeup">{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Chrome head Sundar Pichai takes over Android |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57574104-93/google-shakeup-chrome-head-sundar-pichai-takes-over-android/ |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> He received his Bachelors in Technology from the [[Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]] and was awarded an Institute Silver Medal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Much-at-stake-for-tech-sector-in-UID-project/articleshow/11077361.cms |title=Cloud is what people use 98% of the time |publisher=Times of India |date=12 December 2011 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> He holds an M.S. from [[Stanford University]] and an [[MBA]] from the [[Wharton School]] of the [[University of Pennsylvania]], where he was named a Siebel Scholar<ref>[http://www.siebelscholars.com/scholars/347 Siebel Scholars]. Siebel Scholars. Retrieved on 23 August 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Sundar Pichai:Seven prominent Indian-origin people in global IT world |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/slideshows/people/seven-prominent-indian-origin-people-in-global-it-world/sundar-pichai/slideshow/24183228.cms |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> and a Palmer Scholar.

Pichai joined Google in 2004, where he led the product management and innovation efforts for a suite of Google's client software products, including [[Google Chrome]] and [[Google Chrome OS|Chrome OS]], as well as being largely responsible for [[Google Drive]]. He went on to oversee the development of different apps like [[Gmail]] and [[Google Maps]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Meet Google’s new Android chief Sundar Pichai |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-16/strategy/37766660_1_sundar-pichai-chrome-os-iit-kharagpur |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Sundar Pichai: The man Google, Twitter fought for |url=http://www.rediff.com/money/report/slide-show-1-tech-sundar-pichai-the-man-google-twitter-fought-for/20130319.htm |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> On 19 November 2009, Pichai gave a demonstration of [[Chrome OS]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Strohmeyer |first=Robert |date=19 November 2009 |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/182655/Google_Chrome_OS_Unveiled.html |title=Google Chrome OS Unveiled: Speed, Simplicity, and Security Stressed |publisher=PCWorld |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> On 20 May 2010, he announced the open-sourcing of the new video codec [[VP8]] by Google, and introduced the new video format [[WebM]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/video/google-open-sourcing-vp8-as-part-of-webm-project/ |title=Google Open Sourcing VP8 as Part of WebM Project — Online Video News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=19 May 2010 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>

On 13 March 2013, Pichai added [[Android (operating system)|Android]] to the Google products he oversees. Android was formerly managed by [[Andy Rubin]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Olivarez-Giles |first=Nathan |title=Google Replaces Android Boss Andy Rubin With Chrome’s Sundar Pichai |url=http://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2013/03/andy-rubin-leaving-android/ |accessdate=13 March 2013 |newspaper=Wired |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> He was believed to be one of the contenders for the CEO position of Microsoft in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |last=Furrier |first=John |title=BREAKING NEWS: Google SVP of Chrome & Apps Sundar Pichai now front runner for Microsoft CEO job |url=http://siliconangle.com/blog/2014/01/31/breaking-news-google-svp-of-chrome-apps-sundar-pichai-now-front-runner-for microsoft-ceo-job/ |accessdate=3 February 2014 |newspaper=SiliconANGLE |date=31 January 2014}}</ref> Before joining Google, Pichai worked at Applied Materials and McKinsey & Company.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}}

He serves as a Member of Board of Advisors at Ruba, Inc{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}. He was a Director of [[Jive Software]] from April 2011<ref>{{cite web |title= Who is Sundar Pichai? |url=http://gadgets.ndtv.com/others/news/who-is-sundar-pichai-342476 |publisher= NDTV.com |accessdate= 3 February 2014}}</ref> till July 30, 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jive Elects Informatica Executive Margaret Breya to Board of Directors |url=http://investors.jivesoftware.com/releasedetail.cfm?releaseid=781347|publisher=Jive Software|accessdate=12 February 2014}}</ref> Pichai is married and has a daughter and a son.<ref name="siliconindia.com"/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{Google+|+SundarPichai}}
* {{Twitter|sundarpichai|Sundar Pichai}}

{{Persondata
|NAME =Pichai, Sundar
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =Paicha, P.Sundar Rajan
|SHORT DESCRIPTION =
|DATE OF BIRTH = 1967
|PLACE OF BIRTH =Pune, Maharashtra, India
|DATE OF DEATH =
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pichai, Sundar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Google employees]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur alumni]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Stanford University alumni]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni]]
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Tamil people]]

{{India-business-bio-stub}}

Sundar Pichai

2014-04-29T00:08:07Z

Fowler&fowler: As I've explained on WT:INDIA, Indian-American is usually used to describe born and raised Americans of Indian heritage (people such as Sanjay Gupta Undid revision 606252351 by Kkm010 (talk)

{{use dmy dates|date=February 2014}}{{use Indian English|date=February 2014}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Sundar Pichai
|image = File:Sundar Pichai (cropped).jpg
|alt =
|caption =
|birth_name = Pichai Sundararajan
|birth_date = {{Birth-date and age|1972|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Tamil Nadu, India]]
|death_date = 
|death_place =
|nationality =
|alma_mater = [[IIT Kharagpur]] [[Stanford University]] [[The Wharton School]]
|other_names =
|occupation =
|known_for =
|employer = [[Google Inc.]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = ta
}}
'''Pichai Sundararajan''', better known as '''Sundar Pichai''' is an India-born, [[naturalization|naturalized]] American, senior vice president at [[Google]], where he oversees [[Android (operating system)|Android]], [[Google Chrome|Chrome]] and [[Google Apps]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/tech-news/internet/Googles-Sundar-Pichai-too-in-race-to-head-Microsoft/articleshow/29732831.cms |title=Google's Sundar Pichai too in race to head Microsoft? |publisher=Times of India |date= 2 February 2014 |accessdate=4 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-16/other-news/37766973_1_sundar-pichai-chrome-os-iit-kharagpur |title=Google's latest star was IIT Kharagpur topper |publisher=Times of India |date=16 March 2013 |accessdate=16 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="siliconindia.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.siliconindia.com/shownews/Sundar_Pichai_man_who_runs_Chrome_at_Google-nid-83441-cid-3.html |title=Sundar Pichai; man who runs Chrome at Google |publisher=Siliconindia.com |date=12 May 2011 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="CNET--Google Shakeup">{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Chrome head Sundar Pichai takes over Android |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57574104-93/google-shakeup-chrome-head-sundar-pichai-takes-over-android/ |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> He received his Bachelors in Technology from the [[Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]] and was awarded an Institute Silver Medal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Much-at-stake-for-tech-sector-in-UID-project/articleshow/11077361.cms |title=Cloud is what people use 98% of the time |publisher=Times of India |date=12 December 2011 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> He holds an M.S. from [[Stanford University]] and an [[MBA]] from the [[Wharton School]] of the [[University of Pennsylvania]], where he was named a Siebel Scholar<ref>[http://www.siebelscholars.com/scholars/347 Siebel Scholars]. Siebel Scholars. Retrieved on 23 August 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Sundar Pichai:Seven prominent Indian-origin people in global IT world |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/slideshows/people/seven-prominent-indian-origin-people-in-global-it-world/sundar-pichai/slideshow/24183228.cms |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> and a Palmer Scholar.

Pichai joined Google in 2004, where he led the product management and innovation efforts for a suite of Google's client software products, including [[Google Chrome]] and [[Google Chrome OS|Chrome OS]], as well as being largely responsible for [[Google Drive]]. He went on to oversee the development of different apps like [[Gmail]] and [[Google Maps]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Meet Google’s new Android chief Sundar Pichai |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-16/strategy/37766660_1_sundar-pichai-chrome-os-iit-kharagpur |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Sundar Pichai: The man Google, Twitter fought for |url=http://www.rediff.com/money/report/slide-show-1-tech-sundar-pichai-the-man-google-twitter-fought-for/20130319.htm |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> On 19 November 2009, Pichai gave a demonstration of [[Chrome OS]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Strohmeyer |first=Robert |date=19 November 2009 |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/182655/Google_Chrome_OS_Unveiled.html |title=Google Chrome OS Unveiled: Speed, Simplicity, and Security Stressed |publisher=PCWorld |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> On 20 May 2010, he announced the open-sourcing of the new video codec [[VP8]] by Google, and introduced the new video format [[WebM]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/video/google-open-sourcing-vp8-as-part-of-webm-project/ |title=Google Open Sourcing VP8 as Part of WebM Project — Online Video News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=19 May 2010 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>

On 13 March 2013, Pichai added [[Android (operating system)|Android]] to the Google products he oversees. Android was formerly managed by [[Andy Rubin]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Olivarez-Giles |first=Nathan |title=Google Replaces Android Boss Andy Rubin With Chrome’s Sundar Pichai |url=http://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2013/03/andy-rubin-leaving-android/ |accessdate=13 March 2013 |newspaper=Wired |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> He was believed to be one of the contenders for the CEO position of Microsoft in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |last=Furrier |first=John |title=BREAKING NEWS: Google SVP of Chrome & Apps Sundar Pichai now front runner for Microsoft CEO job |url=http://siliconangle.com/blog/2014/01/31/breaking-news-google-svp-of-chrome-apps-sundar-pichai-now-front-runner-for microsoft-ceo-job/ |accessdate=3 February 2014 |newspaper=SiliconANGLE |date=31 January 2014}}</ref> Before joining Google, Pichai worked at Applied Materials and McKinsey & Company.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}}

He serves as a Member of Board of Advisors at Ruba, Inc{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}. He was a Director of [[Jive Software]] from April 2011<ref>{{cite web |title= Who is Sundar Pichai? |url=http://gadgets.ndtv.com/others/news/who-is-sundar-pichai-342476 |publisher= NDTV.com |accessdate= 3 February 2014}}</ref> till July 30, 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jive Elects Informatica Executive Margaret Breya to Board of Directors |url=http://investors.jivesoftware.com/releasedetail.cfm?releaseid=781347|publisher=Jive Software|accessdate=12 February 2014}}</ref> Pichai is married and has a daughter and a son.<ref name="siliconindia.com"/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{Google+|+SundarPichai}}
* {{Twitter|sundarpichai|Sundar Pichai}}

{{Persondata
|NAME =Pichai, Sundar
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =Paicha, P.Sundar Rajan
|SHORT DESCRIPTION =
|DATE OF BIRTH = 1967
|PLACE OF BIRTH =Pune, Maharashtra, India
|DATE OF DEATH =
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pichai, Sundar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Google employees]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur alumni]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Stanford University alumni]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni]]
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Tamil people]]

{{India-business-bio-stub}}

Sundar Pichai

2014-04-28T08:03:32Z

Fowler&fowler: Indian American he is not; correcting; see Satya Nadella for example

{{use dmy dates|date=February 2014}}{{use Indian English|date=February 2014}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Sundar Pichai
|image = File:Sundar Pichai (cropped).jpg
|alt =
|caption =
|birth_name = Pichai Sundararajan
|birth_date = {{Birth-date and age|1972|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Tamil Nadu, India]]
|death_date = 
|death_place =
|nationality =
|alma_mater = [[IIT Kharagpur]] [[Stanford University]] [[The Wharton School]]
|other_names =
|occupation =
|known_for =
|employer = [[Google Inc.]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = ta
}}
'''Pichai Sundararajan''', better known as '''Sundar Pichai''' is an India-born, [[naturalization|naturalized]] American, senior vice president at [[Google]], where he oversees [[Android (operating system)|Android]], [[Google Chrome|Chrome]] and [[Google Apps]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/tech-news/internet/Googles-Sundar-Pichai-too-in-race-to-head-Microsoft/articleshow/29732831.cms |title=Google's Sundar Pichai too in race to head Microsoft? |publisher=Times of India |date= 2 February 2014 |accessdate=4 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-16/other-news/37766973_1_sundar-pichai-chrome-os-iit-kharagpur |title=Google's latest star was IIT Kharagpur topper |publisher=Times of India |date=16 March 2013 |accessdate=16 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="siliconindia.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.siliconindia.com/shownews/Sundar_Pichai_man_who_runs_Chrome_at_Google-nid-83441-cid-3.html |title=Sundar Pichai; man who runs Chrome at Google |publisher=Siliconindia.com |date=12 May 2011 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="CNET--Google Shakeup">{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Chrome head Sundar Pichai takes over Android |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57574104-93/google-shakeup-chrome-head-sundar-pichai-takes-over-android/ |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> He received his Bachelors in Technology from the [[Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]] and was awarded an Institute Silver Medal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Much-at-stake-for-tech-sector-in-UID-project/articleshow/11077361.cms |title=Cloud is what people use 98% of the time |publisher=Times of India |date=12 December 2011 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> He holds an M.S. from [[Stanford University]] and an [[MBA]] from the [[Wharton School]] of the [[University of Pennsylvania]], where he was named a Siebel Scholar<ref>[http://www.siebelscholars.com/scholars/347 Siebel Scholars]. Siebel Scholars. Retrieved on 23 August 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Sundar Pichai:Seven prominent Indian-origin people in global IT world |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/slideshows/people/seven-prominent-indian-origin-people-in-global-it-world/sundar-pichai/slideshow/24183228.cms |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> and a Palmer Scholar.

Pichai joined Google in 2004, where he led the product management and innovation efforts for a suite of Google's client software products, including [[Google Chrome]] and [[Google Chrome OS|Chrome OS]], as well as being largely responsible for [[Google Drive]]. He went on to oversee the development of different apps like [[Gmail]] and [[Google Maps]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Meet Google’s new Android chief Sundar Pichai |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-16/strategy/37766660_1_sundar-pichai-chrome-os-iit-kharagpur |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Charles |title=Sundar Pichai: The man Google, Twitter fought for |url=http://www.rediff.com/money/report/slide-show-1-tech-sundar-pichai-the-man-google-twitter-fought-for/20130319.htm |accessdate=14 March 2013 |newspaper=CNET |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> On 19 November 2009, Pichai gave a demonstration of [[Chrome OS]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Strohmeyer |first=Robert |date=19 November 2009 |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/182655/Google_Chrome_OS_Unveiled.html |title=Google Chrome OS Unveiled: Speed, Simplicity, and Security Stressed |publisher=PCWorld |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> On 20 May 2010, he announced the open-sourcing of the new video codec [[VP8]] by Google, and introduced the new video format [[WebM]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gigaom.com/video/google-open-sourcing-vp8-as-part-of-webm-project/ |title=Google Open Sourcing VP8 as Part of WebM Project — Online Video News |publisher=Gigaom.com |date=19 May 2010 |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>

On 13 March 2013, Pichai added [[Android (operating system)|Android]] to the Google products he oversees. Android was formerly managed by [[Andy Rubin]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Olivarez-Giles |first=Nathan |title=Google Replaces Android Boss Andy Rubin With Chrome’s Sundar Pichai |url=http://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2013/03/andy-rubin-leaving-android/ |accessdate=13 March 2013 |newspaper=Wired |date=13 March 2013}}</ref> He was believed to be one of the contenders for the CEO position of Microsoft in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |last=Furrier |first=John |title=BREAKING NEWS: Google SVP of Chrome & Apps Sundar Pichai now front runner for Microsoft CEO job |url=http://siliconangle.com/blog/2014/01/31/breaking-news-google-svp-of-chrome-apps-sundar-pichai-now-front-runner-for microsoft-ceo-job/ |accessdate=3 February 2014 |newspaper=SiliconANGLE |date=31 January 2014}}</ref> Before joining Google, Pichai worked at Applied Materials and McKinsey & Company.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}}

He serves as a Member of Board of Advisors at Ruba, Inc{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}. He was a Director of [[Jive Software]] from April 2011<ref>{{cite web |title= Who is Sundar Pichai? |url=http://gadgets.ndtv.com/others/news/who-is-sundar-pichai-342476 |publisher= NDTV.com |accessdate= 3 February 2014}}</ref> till July 30, 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jive Elects Informatica Executive Margaret Breya to Board of Directors |url=http://investors.jivesoftware.com/releasedetail.cfm?releaseid=781347|publisher=Jive Software|accessdate=12 February 2014}}</ref> Pichai is married and has a daughter and a son.<ref name="siliconindia.com"/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{Google+|+SundarPichai}}
* {{Twitter|sundarpichai|Sundar Pichai}}

{{Persondata
|NAME =Pichai, Sundar
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =Paicha, P.Sundar Rajan
|SHORT DESCRIPTION =
|DATE OF BIRTH = 1967
|PLACE OF BIRTH =Pune, Maharashtra, India
|DATE OF DEATH =
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pichai, Sundar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Google employees]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur alumni]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Stanford University alumni]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni]]
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Tamil people]]

{{India-business-bio-stub}}

Islamische Expansion in Rajasthan

2014-03-24T16:45:48Z

Fowler&fowler: /* Modern works */ removing unreliable "modern sources" per WP:N, WP:NOR, WP:RS

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of [[Rajasthan]]/ Arab Rajput War
|partof=
|image=[[File:Indian Kanauj triangle map.svg|250px]]
|caption=
|date= 730 CE
|place=[[Rajasthan]], India
|result=Decisive Indian victory, Arab expansion checked
|territory=Umayyad Arab expansion checked and contained to [[Sindh]].
|combatant1=[[Chalukya dynasty]] [[Pratihara]]
|combatant2= [[File:Umayyad Flag.svg|25px|border]][[Umayyad Caliphate]]
|commander1=[[Nagabhata I]] [[Vikramaditya II]] [[Bappa Rawal]]<ref>''Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan; or the Central and Western Rajput States'' (Hardcover) by James Tod. Edited by William Crooke. 3 volumes, hardcover. Publisher: Trans-Atl (1994) ISBN 81-7069-128-1</ref>
|commander2=[[Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri]]† [[Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi]]†
|strength1=Total 40,000 [[Rajput]]s
|strength2=Total 100,000 Arabs
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
The '''Battle of Rajasthan''' was a battle (or series of battles), fought in 738 CE, where a [[Hindu]] alliance repelled invading [[Arab]] armies, and pushed the Arabs out the areas east of the [[Indus River]]. The final battle took place somewhere on the borders of modern-day [[Sindh]] and [[Rajasthan]]. Arab armies captured Sindh, but further expansion was contained after which the Arab army retreated to the western bank of the [[Indus]] river. The Hindu alliance consisted of the north Indian Emperor [[Nagabhata I]] of the [[Pratihara]] Dynasty, the south Indian Emperor [[Vikramaditya II]] of the [[Chalukya dynasty]] and many small Hindu kingdoms in the 8th century. The [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] by Arab forces in a short space of time gave Arabs the confidence to invade India which ended in failure.

==Background==

With the break-up of the [[Gupta Empire]] (550 CE), northern India was controlled by warring states, which attempted to fill the vacuum created by the Guptas. Among these were Yasodharman of [[Malwa]], the [[Maitraka]]s of [[Vallabhi]], and Emperor [[Harshavardhana]] of Thanesar. Emperor [[Harshavardhana]] brought the whole of [[North India]] under his control in the 7th century. But by the early 8th century North India was once again divided into several kingdoms, the most powerful of which were the [[Gurjara Pratihara]] dynasty and the [[Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]]. [[Sindh]] was controlled by the Brahmin King [[Raja Dahir|King Dahir]] of the Rai dynasty, although his kingdom too was convulsed by internal strife.{{fact|date=February 2013}}

Meanwhile, [[Muslim conquests|Muslims had conquered]] much of West Asia. The [[Umayyad]] [[Caliphate]] attempted to conquer the frontier kingdoms of India - [[Kabul]], Zabul, and Sindh - but were repulsed. However, in 712 Umayyad general [[Muhammad ibn Qasim]], the nephew of [[Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf|Al-Hajjaj]] conquered Sindh. From Sindh, Umayyads attempted to expand into Punjab but were defeated by Lalitaditya of [[Kashmir]] and Yasovarman of [[Kannauj]]. Outside of Sindh, the Umayyads had not made any substantial gains in India.{{fact|date=February 2013}}

===Events leading up to the battle===
[[Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri]], the successor of Muhammad ibn Qasim, subdued Hindu resistance in Sindh. Then he attacked the smaller kingdoms of Western India in early 730 CE. He divided his large force into two contingents and took several cities in southern Rajasthan, western Malwa, and [[Gujarat]].{{fact|date=February 2013}} According to Indian records, al-Murri was only successful against the smaller states in Gujarat, and was defeated at two places. The southern contingent moving south into Gujarat was defeated at [[Navsari]] by [[Avanijanashraya Pulakesi]] who was sent by [[Vikramaditya II]], ruler of the [[South Indian]] [[Chalukya Empire]]. The eastern contingent was defeated after reaching Avanti, by its ruler Gurjara Pratihara [[Nagabhata I]].<ref name="A Historical Review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D. - Panchānana Rāya - Google Books" >{{cite book
| title =A historical review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D.
| author =Panchānana Rāya
| url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=kHEBAAAAMAAJ&q=Gurjar+parihar&dq=Gurjar+parihar&cd=1
| publisher =I. M. H. Press
| year =1939
| page =125
}}</ref> According to Indian records the Umayyad armies were routed at the latter battle.

==The Battle of Rajasthan==
Gauging at the seriousness of the situation as well as the power of the Arab forces, pratihara king, Nagabhata made pact with Jaysimha Varman of the Chalukya Empire. Jaysimha in turn sent his son Avanijanashraya Pulakesi to support [[Nagabhata I|Nagabhata]]. The two Dynasties of India supplemented the already fighting Hindu [[Mewar]] Kingdom, under [[Bappa Rawal]], at the border of Rajasthan.

The battle was fought between 5,000-6,000 Infantry and cavalry facing more than 30,000 [[Arab]]s. The [[Rajput]]s under [[Bappa Rawal]] managed to kill the [[Arab]] leader Emir Junaid during the war. This enhanced the morale of the Hindu forces while the Arabs disorganized and demoralized due to their leaders death retreated and were frequently attacked by local forces until they reached the Indus river taking great casualties.<ref>Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan; or the Central and Western Rajput States (Hardcover) by James Tod. Edited by William Crooke. 3 volumes, hardcover. Publisher: Trans-Atl (1994)</ref>

==Aftermath==
Junayd's successor [[Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi]] organized a fresh campaigns against Rajasthan but failed to hold any territories there. He would be further pushed across River Indus by the combined forces of the King of [[Kannauj]], [[Nagabhata I|Nagabhata]] C.E. thus limiting the Arabs to the territory of Sindh across River Indus.

In the words of the Arab chronicler Suleiman, “a place of refuge to which the Muslims might flee was not to be found.”<ref>{{cite book |last= Saxena|first= Sunil|title= History of Medieval India|year= 2011|publisher= D. P. S. Publishing House|isbn= 978-81-250-3226-7|chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref> The Arabs crossed over to the other side of the River Indus, abandoning all their lands to the Indian kings. The local chieftains took advantage of these conditions to re-establish their independence. Subsequently the Arabs constructed the city of [[Mansura (Brahmanabad)|Mansurah]] on the other side of the wide and deep Indus, which was safe from attack. This became their new capital in Sindh.

==Equipment and resources==
In the Gwalior inscription it is recorded that [[Nagabhata I]] “''crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechcha king''.” This large army consisted of [[cavalry]], [[infantry]], siege [[artillery]], and probably a force of [[camel]]s. Since Tamin was a new governor he had a force of [[Syria]]n cavalry from Damascus, local Arab contingents, converted Hindus of Sindh, and foreign mercenaries like the [[Turkish people|Turks]]. All together the invading army have had anywhere between 50,000-60,000 men. In comparison the Indians had around 30,000-40,000 men.

The Arab chronicler Suleiman describes the army of the Imperial [[Gurjara Pratihara]]s as it stood in 851 CE; ''The king of [[Gurjara Pratihara]] maintains numerous forces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs, still he acknowledges that the king of the Arabs is the greatest of kings. Among the princes of India there is no greater foe of the Islamic faith than he. He has got riches, and his camels and horses are numerous''.<ref>{{cite book
| title =History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.
| author = Radhey Shyam Chaurasia
| publisher =Atlantic Publishers & Distributors
| year =2002
| page =207
| id = ISBN 81-269-0027-X,ISBN 978-81-269-0027-5
| url =http://books.google.co.in/books?id=cWmsQQ2smXIC&pg=PA207&dq
| quote=The king of [[Gurjar]]s maintain numerous faces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry .He has...
}}</ref>

But at the time of the Battle of Rajasthan the Gurjar Pratihars<ref name="A Historical Review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D. - Panchānana Rāya - Google Books" /> had only just risen to power. In fact Nagabhatta was their first prominent ruler. But the composition of his army, which was predominantly cavalry, is clear from the description. There are other anecdotal references to the Indian kings and commanders riding elephants to have a clear view of the battlefield. The infantry stood behind the elephants and the cavalry formed the wings and advanced guard.

==Later events==
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2012}}
The Arabs in Sindh took a long time to recover from their defeat. In the early 9th Century the governor Bashar attempted an invasion of India but was defeated. Even a naval expedition sent by the Caliphs was defeated by the Saindhava clan of [[Kathiawar]]. After this the Arab chroniclers admit that the Caliph Mahdi, “''gave up the project of conquering any part of India'.”

The Arabs in Sindh lost all power and broke up into two warring [[Shia]] states of Mansurah and [[Multan]], both of which paid tribute to the Gurjara Pratiharas. The local resistance in Sindh, which had not yet died out and was inspired by the victories of their Indian neighbors manifested itself when the foreign rulers were overthrown and Sindh came under its own dynasties like the [[Soomra Dynasty|Soomras]] and [[Samma Dynasty|Sammas]].

In the long term Sindh, becoming a Muslim state led to the spread of [[Islam]] in India.

==See also==
* [[Gurjara Pratihara]]
* [[Gurjara]]
* [[Nagabhata I]]
* [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rajasthan}}
[[Category:730s conflicts]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Umayyad Caliphate]]
[[Category:History of Hinduism]]
[[Category:Hindutva]]
[[Category:730 in Asia]]
[[Category:8th century in India]]

Islamische Expansion in Rajasthan

2014-03-24T16:44:58Z

Fowler&fowler: /* Original Muslim sources */ removing unsourced original "muslim" sources

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of [[Rajasthan]]/ Arab Rajput War
|partof=
|image=[[File:Indian Kanauj triangle map.svg|250px]]
|caption=
|date= 730 CE
|place=[[Rajasthan]], India
|result=Decisive Indian victory, Arab expansion checked
|territory=Umayyad Arab expansion checked and contained to [[Sindh]].
|combatant1=[[Chalukya dynasty]] [[Pratihara]]
|combatant2= [[File:Umayyad Flag.svg|25px|border]][[Umayyad Caliphate]]
|commander1=[[Nagabhata I]] [[Vikramaditya II]] [[Bappa Rawal]]<ref>''Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan; or the Central and Western Rajput States'' (Hardcover) by James Tod. Edited by William Crooke. 3 volumes, hardcover. Publisher: Trans-Atl (1994) ISBN 81-7069-128-1</ref>
|commander2=[[Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri]]† [[Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi]]†
|strength1=Total 40,000 [[Rajput]]s
|strength2=Total 100,000 Arabs
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
The '''Battle of Rajasthan''' was a battle (or series of battles), fought in 738 CE, where a [[Hindu]] alliance repelled invading [[Arab]] armies, and pushed the Arabs out the areas east of the [[Indus River]]. The final battle took place somewhere on the borders of modern-day [[Sindh]] and [[Rajasthan]]. Arab armies captured Sindh, but further expansion was contained after which the Arab army retreated to the western bank of the [[Indus]] river. The Hindu alliance consisted of the north Indian Emperor [[Nagabhata I]] of the [[Pratihara]] Dynasty, the south Indian Emperor [[Vikramaditya II]] of the [[Chalukya dynasty]] and many small Hindu kingdoms in the 8th century. The [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] by Arab forces in a short space of time gave Arabs the confidence to invade India which ended in failure.

==Background==

With the break-up of the [[Gupta Empire]] (550 CE), northern India was controlled by warring states, which attempted to fill the vacuum created by the Guptas. Among these were Yasodharman of [[Malwa]], the [[Maitraka]]s of [[Vallabhi]], and Emperor [[Harshavardhana]] of Thanesar. Emperor [[Harshavardhana]] brought the whole of [[North India]] under his control in the 7th century. But by the early 8th century North India was once again divided into several kingdoms, the most powerful of which were the [[Gurjara Pratihara]] dynasty and the [[Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]]. [[Sindh]] was controlled by the Brahmin King [[Raja Dahir|King Dahir]] of the Rai dynasty, although his kingdom too was convulsed by internal strife.{{fact|date=February 2013}}

Meanwhile, [[Muslim conquests|Muslims had conquered]] much of West Asia. The [[Umayyad]] [[Caliphate]] attempted to conquer the frontier kingdoms of India - [[Kabul]], Zabul, and Sindh - but were repulsed. However, in 712 Umayyad general [[Muhammad ibn Qasim]], the nephew of [[Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf|Al-Hajjaj]] conquered Sindh. From Sindh, Umayyads attempted to expand into Punjab but were defeated by Lalitaditya of [[Kashmir]] and Yasovarman of [[Kannauj]]. Outside of Sindh, the Umayyads had not made any substantial gains in India.{{fact|date=February 2013}}

===Events leading up to the battle===
[[Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri]], the successor of Muhammad ibn Qasim, subdued Hindu resistance in Sindh. Then he attacked the smaller kingdoms of Western India in early 730 CE. He divided his large force into two contingents and took several cities in southern Rajasthan, western Malwa, and [[Gujarat]].{{fact|date=February 2013}} According to Indian records, al-Murri was only successful against the smaller states in Gujarat, and was defeated at two places. The southern contingent moving south into Gujarat was defeated at [[Navsari]] by [[Avanijanashraya Pulakesi]] who was sent by [[Vikramaditya II]], ruler of the [[South Indian]] [[Chalukya Empire]]. The eastern contingent was defeated after reaching Avanti, by its ruler Gurjara Pratihara [[Nagabhata I]].<ref name="A Historical Review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D. - Panchānana Rāya - Google Books" >{{cite book
| title =A historical review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D.
| author =Panchānana Rāya
| url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=kHEBAAAAMAAJ&q=Gurjar+parihar&dq=Gurjar+parihar&cd=1
| publisher =I. M. H. Press
| year =1939
| page =125
}}</ref> According to Indian records the Umayyad armies were routed at the latter battle.

==The Battle of Rajasthan==
Gauging at the seriousness of the situation as well as the power of the Arab forces, pratihara king, Nagabhata made pact with Jaysimha Varman of the Chalukya Empire. Jaysimha in turn sent his son Avanijanashraya Pulakesi to support [[Nagabhata I|Nagabhata]]. The two Dynasties of India supplemented the already fighting Hindu [[Mewar]] Kingdom, under [[Bappa Rawal]], at the border of Rajasthan.

The battle was fought between 5,000-6,000 Infantry and cavalry facing more than 30,000 [[Arab]]s. The [[Rajput]]s under [[Bappa Rawal]] managed to kill the [[Arab]] leader Emir Junaid during the war. This enhanced the morale of the Hindu forces while the Arabs disorganized and demoralized due to their leaders death retreated and were frequently attacked by local forces until they reached the Indus river taking great casualties.<ref>Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan; or the Central and Western Rajput States (Hardcover) by James Tod. Edited by William Crooke. 3 volumes, hardcover. Publisher: Trans-Atl (1994)</ref>

==Aftermath==
Junayd's successor [[Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi]] organized a fresh campaigns against Rajasthan but failed to hold any territories there. He would be further pushed across River Indus by the combined forces of the King of [[Kannauj]], [[Nagabhata I|Nagabhata]] C.E. thus limiting the Arabs to the territory of Sindh across River Indus.

In the words of the Arab chronicler Suleiman, “a place of refuge to which the Muslims might flee was not to be found.”<ref>{{cite book |last= Saxena|first= Sunil|title= History of Medieval India|year= 2011|publisher= D. P. S. Publishing House|isbn= 978-81-250-3226-7|chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref> The Arabs crossed over to the other side of the River Indus, abandoning all their lands to the Indian kings. The local chieftains took advantage of these conditions to re-establish their independence. Subsequently the Arabs constructed the city of [[Mansura (Brahmanabad)|Mansurah]] on the other side of the wide and deep Indus, which was safe from attack. This became their new capital in Sindh.

==Equipment and resources==
In the Gwalior inscription it is recorded that [[Nagabhata I]] “''crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechcha king''.” This large army consisted of [[cavalry]], [[infantry]], siege [[artillery]], and probably a force of [[camel]]s. Since Tamin was a new governor he had a force of [[Syria]]n cavalry from Damascus, local Arab contingents, converted Hindus of Sindh, and foreign mercenaries like the [[Turkish people|Turks]]. All together the invading army have had anywhere between 50,000-60,000 men. In comparison the Indians had around 30,000-40,000 men.

The Arab chronicler Suleiman describes the army of the Imperial [[Gurjara Pratihara]]s as it stood in 851 CE; ''The king of [[Gurjara Pratihara]] maintains numerous forces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs, still he acknowledges that the king of the Arabs is the greatest of kings. Among the princes of India there is no greater foe of the Islamic faith than he. He has got riches, and his camels and horses are numerous''.<ref>{{cite book
| title =History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.
| author = Radhey Shyam Chaurasia
| publisher =Atlantic Publishers & Distributors
| year =2002
| page =207
| id = ISBN 81-269-0027-X,ISBN 978-81-269-0027-5
| url =http://books.google.co.in/books?id=cWmsQQ2smXIC&pg=PA207&dq
| quote=The king of [[Gurjar]]s maintain numerous faces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry .He has...
}}</ref>

But at the time of the Battle of Rajasthan the Gurjar Pratihars<ref name="A Historical Review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D. - Panchānana Rāya - Google Books" /> had only just risen to power. In fact Nagabhatta was their first prominent ruler. But the composition of his army, which was predominantly cavalry, is clear from the description. There are other anecdotal references to the Indian kings and commanders riding elephants to have a clear view of the battlefield. The infantry stood behind the elephants and the cavalry formed the wings and advanced guard.

==Later events==
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2012}}
The Arabs in Sindh took a long time to recover from their defeat. In the early 9th Century the governor Bashar attempted an invasion of India but was defeated. Even a naval expedition sent by the Caliphs was defeated by the Saindhava clan of [[Kathiawar]]. After this the Arab chroniclers admit that the Caliph Mahdi, “''gave up the project of conquering any part of India'.”

The Arabs in Sindh lost all power and broke up into two warring [[Shia]] states of Mansurah and [[Multan]], both of which paid tribute to the Gurjara Pratiharas. The local resistance in Sindh, which had not yet died out and was inspired by the victories of their Indian neighbors manifested itself when the foreign rulers were overthrown and Sindh came under its own dynasties like the [[Soomra Dynasty|Soomras]] and [[Samma Dynasty|Sammas]].

In the long term Sindh, becoming a Muslim state led to the spread of [[Islam]] in India.

==See also==
* [[Gurjara Pratihara]]
* [[Gurjara]]
* [[Nagabhata I]]
* [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Modern works===

* ''The Age of Imperial Kannauj'' (The History and Culture of the Indian People - Volume IV)
* ''Who were the Imperial Pratiharas'' by RR Halder
* ''The Glory that was Gurjaradesa'' by KM Munshi

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rajasthan}}
[[Category:730s conflicts]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Umayyad Caliphate]]
[[Category:History of Hinduism]]
[[Category:Hindutva]]
[[Category:730 in Asia]]
[[Category:8th century in India]]

Islamische Expansion in Rajasthan

2014-03-24T16:44:23Z

Fowler&fowler: /* Original Hindu sources */ removing unsourced "original sources"

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of [[Rajasthan]]/ Arab Rajput War
|partof=
|image=[[File:Indian Kanauj triangle map.svg|250px]]
|caption=
|date= 730 CE
|place=[[Rajasthan]], India
|result=Decisive Indian victory, Arab expansion checked
|territory=Umayyad Arab expansion checked and contained to [[Sindh]].
|combatant1=[[Chalukya dynasty]] [[Pratihara]]
|combatant2= [[File:Umayyad Flag.svg|25px|border]][[Umayyad Caliphate]]
|commander1=[[Nagabhata I]] [[Vikramaditya II]] [[Bappa Rawal]]<ref>''Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan; or the Central and Western Rajput States'' (Hardcover) by James Tod. Edited by William Crooke. 3 volumes, hardcover. Publisher: Trans-Atl (1994) ISBN 81-7069-128-1</ref>
|commander2=[[Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri]]† [[Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi]]†
|strength1=Total 40,000 [[Rajput]]s
|strength2=Total 100,000 Arabs
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
The '''Battle of Rajasthan''' was a battle (or series of battles), fought in 738 CE, where a [[Hindu]] alliance repelled invading [[Arab]] armies, and pushed the Arabs out the areas east of the [[Indus River]]. The final battle took place somewhere on the borders of modern-day [[Sindh]] and [[Rajasthan]]. Arab armies captured Sindh, but further expansion was contained after which the Arab army retreated to the western bank of the [[Indus]] river. The Hindu alliance consisted of the north Indian Emperor [[Nagabhata I]] of the [[Pratihara]] Dynasty, the south Indian Emperor [[Vikramaditya II]] of the [[Chalukya dynasty]] and many small Hindu kingdoms in the 8th century. The [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] by Arab forces in a short space of time gave Arabs the confidence to invade India which ended in failure.

==Background==

With the break-up of the [[Gupta Empire]] (550 CE), northern India was controlled by warring states, which attempted to fill the vacuum created by the Guptas. Among these were Yasodharman of [[Malwa]], the [[Maitraka]]s of [[Vallabhi]], and Emperor [[Harshavardhana]] of Thanesar. Emperor [[Harshavardhana]] brought the whole of [[North India]] under his control in the 7th century. But by the early 8th century North India was once again divided into several kingdoms, the most powerful of which were the [[Gurjara Pratihara]] dynasty and the [[Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]]. [[Sindh]] was controlled by the Brahmin King [[Raja Dahir|King Dahir]] of the Rai dynasty, although his kingdom too was convulsed by internal strife.{{fact|date=February 2013}}

Meanwhile, [[Muslim conquests|Muslims had conquered]] much of West Asia. The [[Umayyad]] [[Caliphate]] attempted to conquer the frontier kingdoms of India - [[Kabul]], Zabul, and Sindh - but were repulsed. However, in 712 Umayyad general [[Muhammad ibn Qasim]], the nephew of [[Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf|Al-Hajjaj]] conquered Sindh. From Sindh, Umayyads attempted to expand into Punjab but were defeated by Lalitaditya of [[Kashmir]] and Yasovarman of [[Kannauj]]. Outside of Sindh, the Umayyads had not made any substantial gains in India.{{fact|date=February 2013}}

===Events leading up to the battle===
[[Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri]], the successor of Muhammad ibn Qasim, subdued Hindu resistance in Sindh. Then he attacked the smaller kingdoms of Western India in early 730 CE. He divided his large force into two contingents and took several cities in southern Rajasthan, western Malwa, and [[Gujarat]].{{fact|date=February 2013}} According to Indian records, al-Murri was only successful against the smaller states in Gujarat, and was defeated at two places. The southern contingent moving south into Gujarat was defeated at [[Navsari]] by [[Avanijanashraya Pulakesi]] who was sent by [[Vikramaditya II]], ruler of the [[South Indian]] [[Chalukya Empire]]. The eastern contingent was defeated after reaching Avanti, by its ruler Gurjara Pratihara [[Nagabhata I]].<ref name="A Historical Review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D. - Panchānana Rāya - Google Books" >{{cite book
| title =A historical review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D.
| author =Panchānana Rāya
| url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=kHEBAAAAMAAJ&q=Gurjar+parihar&dq=Gurjar+parihar&cd=1
| publisher =I. M. H. Press
| year =1939
| page =125
}}</ref> According to Indian records the Umayyad armies were routed at the latter battle.

==The Battle of Rajasthan==
Gauging at the seriousness of the situation as well as the power of the Arab forces, pratihara king, Nagabhata made pact with Jaysimha Varman of the Chalukya Empire. Jaysimha in turn sent his son Avanijanashraya Pulakesi to support [[Nagabhata I|Nagabhata]]. The two Dynasties of India supplemented the already fighting Hindu [[Mewar]] Kingdom, under [[Bappa Rawal]], at the border of Rajasthan.

The battle was fought between 5,000-6,000 Infantry and cavalry facing more than 30,000 [[Arab]]s. The [[Rajput]]s under [[Bappa Rawal]] managed to kill the [[Arab]] leader Emir Junaid during the war. This enhanced the morale of the Hindu forces while the Arabs disorganized and demoralized due to their leaders death retreated and were frequently attacked by local forces until they reached the Indus river taking great casualties.<ref>Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan; or the Central and Western Rajput States (Hardcover) by James Tod. Edited by William Crooke. 3 volumes, hardcover. Publisher: Trans-Atl (1994)</ref>

==Aftermath==
Junayd's successor [[Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi]] organized a fresh campaigns against Rajasthan but failed to hold any territories there. He would be further pushed across River Indus by the combined forces of the King of [[Kannauj]], [[Nagabhata I|Nagabhata]] C.E. thus limiting the Arabs to the territory of Sindh across River Indus.

In the words of the Arab chronicler Suleiman, “a place of refuge to which the Muslims might flee was not to be found.”<ref>{{cite book |last= Saxena|first= Sunil|title= History of Medieval India|year= 2011|publisher= D. P. S. Publishing House|isbn= 978-81-250-3226-7|chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref> The Arabs crossed over to the other side of the River Indus, abandoning all their lands to the Indian kings. The local chieftains took advantage of these conditions to re-establish their independence. Subsequently the Arabs constructed the city of [[Mansura (Brahmanabad)|Mansurah]] on the other side of the wide and deep Indus, which was safe from attack. This became their new capital in Sindh.

==Equipment and resources==
In the Gwalior inscription it is recorded that [[Nagabhata I]] “''crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechcha king''.” This large army consisted of [[cavalry]], [[infantry]], siege [[artillery]], and probably a force of [[camel]]s. Since Tamin was a new governor he had a force of [[Syria]]n cavalry from Damascus, local Arab contingents, converted Hindus of Sindh, and foreign mercenaries like the [[Turkish people|Turks]]. All together the invading army have had anywhere between 50,000-60,000 men. In comparison the Indians had around 30,000-40,000 men.

The Arab chronicler Suleiman describes the army of the Imperial [[Gurjara Pratihara]]s as it stood in 851 CE; ''The king of [[Gurjara Pratihara]] maintains numerous forces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs, still he acknowledges that the king of the Arabs is the greatest of kings. Among the princes of India there is no greater foe of the Islamic faith than he. He has got riches, and his camels and horses are numerous''.<ref>{{cite book
| title =History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.
| author = Radhey Shyam Chaurasia
| publisher =Atlantic Publishers & Distributors
| year =2002
| page =207
| id = ISBN 81-269-0027-X,ISBN 978-81-269-0027-5
| url =http://books.google.co.in/books?id=cWmsQQ2smXIC&pg=PA207&dq
| quote=The king of [[Gurjar]]s maintain numerous faces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry .He has...
}}</ref>

But at the time of the Battle of Rajasthan the Gurjar Pratihars<ref name="A Historical Review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D. - Panchānana Rāya - Google Books" /> had only just risen to power. In fact Nagabhatta was their first prominent ruler. But the composition of his army, which was predominantly cavalry, is clear from the description. There are other anecdotal references to the Indian kings and commanders riding elephants to have a clear view of the battlefield. The infantry stood behind the elephants and the cavalry formed the wings and advanced guard.

==Later events==
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2012}}
The Arabs in Sindh took a long time to recover from their defeat. In the early 9th Century the governor Bashar attempted an invasion of India but was defeated. Even a naval expedition sent by the Caliphs was defeated by the Saindhava clan of [[Kathiawar]]. After this the Arab chroniclers admit that the Caliph Mahdi, “''gave up the project of conquering any part of India'.”

The Arabs in Sindh lost all power and broke up into two warring [[Shia]] states of Mansurah and [[Multan]], both of which paid tribute to the Gurjara Pratiharas. The local resistance in Sindh, which had not yet died out and was inspired by the victories of their Indian neighbors manifested itself when the foreign rulers were overthrown and Sindh came under its own dynasties like the [[Soomra Dynasty|Soomras]] and [[Samma Dynasty|Sammas]].

In the long term Sindh, becoming a Muslim state led to the spread of [[Islam]] in India.

==See also==
* [[Gurjara Pratihara]]
* [[Gurjara]]
* [[Nagabhata I]]
* [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Original Muslim sources===

* ''Al-Madaini''
* ''Futuhu-l Buldan'' by Ahmad bin Yahya
* ''Chach-nama'' by Muhammad Ali Kufi
* ''Kitab ul-Aqalim'' by Istakhri
* ''Ashkal ul-Bilad'' by [[ibn Hauqal]]
* ''Silsilat ut-Tawarikh'' by Sulayman

===Modern works===

* ''The Age of Imperial Kannauj'' (The History and Culture of the Indian People - Volume IV)
* ''Who were the Imperial Pratiharas'' by RR Halder
* ''The Glory that was Gurjaradesa'' by KM Munshi

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rajasthan}}
[[Category:730s conflicts]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Umayyad Caliphate]]
[[Category:History of Hinduism]]
[[Category:Hindutva]]
[[Category:730 in Asia]]
[[Category:8th century in India]]

Ludlow Castle

2011-10-20T13:17:12Z

Fowler&fowler: about template

{{About|the castle in Shropshire|the historic house in Delhi|Ludlow Castle, Delhi}}
{{infobox military structure
|name = Ludlow Castle
|location = [[Ludlow]] in [[Shropshire]], England
|image = [[Image:Ludlow Castle 2.jpg|300px]]
|caption = Ludlow Castle from across the [[River Teme]]
|map_type = Shropshire
|map_alt = Located in Shropshire
|map_caption = Location in Shropshire
|latitude = 52.367222
|longitude = -2.723611
|map_size = 200
|coordinates = {{coord|52|22|02|N|2|43|25|W}}
|built = 11th century
|builder = [[Roger de Lacy]]
|ownership = The Trustees of the Powis Castle Estate on behalf of the family of the [[Earl of Powis]]
|open_to_public = yes
}}

'''Ludlow Castle''' is a large,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/453024|title= SO4974 : Lane from Priors Halton to Ludlow|accessdate=2008-07-10 |last= Rickard|first= Trevor|date= 2007-04-02|work= |publisher= [[Geograph British Isles]]}}</ref> partly ruined, non-inhabited [[castle]] which dominates the town of [[Ludlow]] in [[Shropshire]], England. It stands on a high point overlooking the [[River Teme]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/452977|title= SO5074 : Ludlow Castle and River Teme|accessdate=2008-07-10 |last= Rickard|first= Trevor|date= 2007-03-09|publisher=[[Geograph British Isles]]}}</ref> The castle is owned by The Trustees of the Powis Castle Estate on behalf of the family of the [[Earl of Powis]], and is open to the public.

==Construction==

Construction of Ludlow Castle began in the late 11th century as the Welsh border stronghold of one of the [[Marcher Lords]], [[Roger de Lacy]]. It is first referred to by chroniclers in 1138 but was at this time a more basic castle type. It was held by the [[de Lacy]]s into the 13th century and with their focus on their holdings in Ireland, their enemies took it during the civil wars of the reign of [[Stephen of England|King Stephen]]. The king himself besieged the castle and rescued his ally Prince Henry of Scotland. In 1224 [[King Henry III of England]], with the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Stephen Langton]] as mediator, met with [[Llywelyn ab Iorwerth]], the [[Welsh people|Welsh]] prince and leader, at Ludlow to sign a treaty. Early in the 14th century the castle was enlarged into a magnificent [[palace]] for [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]], then the most powerful man in England.

In 1402 [[Edmund Mortimer]], himself born at Ludlow Castle, set out from the castle with a large army to seek battle with the forces of [[Owain Glyndwr]]. Mortimer met them in the valley of the [[River Lugg]] at the [[Battle of Bryn Glas]], where he was defeated and captured. He eventually allied himself to the Welsh rebel's cause to the extent of marrying one of Glyndwr's daughters, with whom he had four children before starvation and death at the siege of [[Harlech Castle]] in 1409.

==Plantagenet, Tudor and Elizabethan background==

Later, in the 15th century under the ownership of [[Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York|Richard, Duke of York]], the Castle was a major base in the [[Wars of the Roses]] and was taken by the Lancastrians in 1459 but back in York hands in 1461. Ludlow afterwards became a royal palace. In 1472 [[Edward IV]] sent his son the [[Edward V of England|Prince of Wales]] and his [[Richard of Shrewsbury, 1st Duke of York|brother]] (later the ‘[[Princes in the Tower]]’ of [[Shakespeare]] fame), to live at the castle, which was also the seat of [[Council of the Marches|Government for Wales and the Border Counties]].

In 1501 [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Prince Arthur]], (son of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] and brother to [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]) with his bride [[Catherine of Aragon]], lived here for a short time before his early death of an infection from which his wife recovered, and was buried in [[Worcester Cathedral]]. [[Mary I of England|Mary Tudor]], daughter of Catherine of Aragon and Henry VIII, heir to the throne of England as the couple's only issue, spent three winters at Ludlow between 1525 and 1528, along with her entourage of servants, advisors, and guardians.

[[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] appointed [[Sir Henry Sidney]] as President of the Council of the Marches to Ludlow Castle. Sir Henry extended the castle by building family apartments between the Great Hall and Mortimer's Tower and used the former royal apartments as a guest wing. The ruins of the Sidney apartments directly face the round Norman chapel. Sir Henry Sidney's daughters included poet [[Mary Sidney]]. They were tutored at Ludlow Castle in classics, Calvinism, Hebrew, music, archery, hunting and needlework while their elder brother, poet [[Philip Sidney]] boarded with George Leigh MP in Shrewsbury while attending [[Shrewsbury School]]. Their sister [[Ambrosia Sidney]] died at Ludlow Castle and the family subsequently erected her tomb and memorial in [[St Laurence Church, Ludlow]]. Following Ambrosia's death, [[Queen Elizabeth 1]] wrote to Sir Henry and his wife, [[Mary Dudley, Lady Sidney|Mary Dudley]] summoning Mary Sidney their last remaining daughter to Court to escape the infected 'air' in Ludlow Castle. In 1577, her uncle [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester|Robert Dudley]], 1st Earl of Leicester, arranged Mary's marriage to [[William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke]]. The 2nd Earl of Pembroke succeeded Sir Henry Sidney nine years later as [[President of the Council of the Marches]], in 1586.

==The Civil War and subsequent decline==

In the [[English Civil War]] between 1642 to 1648 Ludlow was a Royalist stronghold and was besieged by Parliamentarian forces but negotiated a surrender, avoiding damage and [[slighting]]. In 1669 the seat of administration for the Marches and Wales and the [[Council of the Marches]] was centralised in London during the reign of [[William and Mary]]. The legal and administrative community moved with it. In 1689 the [[Royal Welch Fusiliers]] were founded at the Castle by Lord Herbert of [[Chirbury]] but soon after it was abandoned and gradually fell into decay. In 1811 the ruins were purchased from the crown by the 2nd [[Earl of Powis]], in the ownership of whose family it remains.

==Description of the castle==
[[File:Ludlow Castle Keep.jpg|left|thumb|A view of the castle]]
[[File:Ludlow Castle gatehouse.jpg|thumb|Ludlow castle gatehouse]]
The castle forms a large rectangular [[enceinte]], with the town and principal entry on the east side, and the west side overlooking the river. The northwest corner is enclosed by another enceinte wall forming the inner ward and the heart of the castle. Entry is gained by a bridge to the right of the rectangular [[keep]]. The inner ward contains the residential buildings that formed the castle's principal accommodation. These buildings feature large windows that overlook the courtyard. In addition, the inner ward features the remains of an unusual chapel that had a circular chancel reminiscent of [[Temple Church]] in London.

The castle’s long history is reflected in its varied [[architecture]]; comprising [[Norman architecture|Norman]], [[Medieval architecture|Medieval]] and [[Tudor style architecture|Tudor]] styles.

==Events==
[[John Milton|Milton]]’s [[masque]] ''[[Comus (John Milton)|Comus]]'' was first performed in the [[Great Hall]] in 1634 and the tradition of a performance is continued each June and July when a [[Shakespearean]] [[Play (theatre)|play]] is performed in the open air within the Inner Bailey, as part of the successful [[Ludlow Festival]] [http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/355859]. The Castle hosts other events throughout the year, such as the Ludlow and the Marches Food and Drink Festival [http://www.foodfestival.co.uk/about.html] which takes place in the Castle precincts each September.

Over 50,000 visitors pass through the gates each year [http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/89050].

==In fiction==
Ludlow is mentioned in the [[Philippa Gregory]] novels ''[[The Other Boleyn Girl]]'' and ''[[The White Queen]]'', and is a partial setting in ''[[The Constant Princess]]''. It is also mentioned in ''Anne Boleyn and Me'', a children's novel in the My Story collection, by Alison Prince.

Ludlow Castle is also the main setting for [[Elizabeth Chadwick]]'s novel ''[[Shadows and Strongholds]]'', which chronicles the possession of the castle in the hands of Joscelin de Dinan, husband of Sybilla de Dinan, sister of Gilbert de Lacy. De Lacy later recaptures the Castle and is granted the lands in perpetuity by King Henry II of England, with de Dinan granted the royal manor of [[Lambourn]] in compensation for the loss.

==Gallery==
<Gallery>
File:Ludlow Castle Oct1812.jpg|Potrait by anonymous artist, October 1812
</Gallery>
==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last= Matarasso|first= Francois|authorlink= |title= The English Castle|publisher= [[Orion Publishing Group|Cassell]]|year= 1995|location= London|pages= |isbn= 9780304347537|oclc= 34917530}}

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [http://www.ludlowcastle.com/ Ludlow Castle official information site]
* [http://www.castlewales.com/ludlow.html Ludlow Castle on Castlewales.com]
* [http://www.geograph.org.uk/search.php?i=6615950 Photos of Ludlow Castle and surrounding area on geograph.org.uk]

{{coord|52|22|02|N|2|43|25|W|region:GB-SHR_type:landmark|display=title}}

[[Category:Castles in Shropshire]]
[[Category:History of Shropshire]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Shropshire]]
[[Category:Ruins in Shropshire]]

[[cs:Hrad Ludlow]]
[[cy:Castell Llwydlo]]
[[es:Castillo de Ludlow]]
[[eo:Kastelo Ludlow]]
[[he:טירת לדלו]]
[[ja:ラドロー城]]
[[no:Ludlow Castle]]
[[pt:Castelo de Ludlow]]
[[simple:Ludlow Castle]]
[[sk:Hrad Ludlow (Anglicko)]]
[[sv:Ludlow Castle]]

Ode auf eine griechische Urne

2009-11-28T07:19:27Z

Fowler&fowler: /* Background */ m

[[Image:keats urn.jpg|thumb|alt=A fine-line drawing of an urn. It is tall, with high scrolled handles. Around the middle is a frieze of figures, of which four can be seen. From left to right, a naked man with a helmet and sword, a dancing woman in a flowing garment, a robed woman carrying a spear and a naked man with a cloak hanging from his shoulder. The drawing is inscribed "By John Keats".|Tracing of an engraving of the Sosibios vase by [[John Keats|Keats]]]]

"'''Ode on a Grecian Urn'''" is a poem written by the English [[Romantic poetry|Romantic poet]] [[John Keats]] in May 1819 and published in January 1820. It is one of his "[[John Keats's 1819 odes|Great Odes of 1819]]", which also include "[[Ode on Indolence]]", "[[Ode on Melancholy]]", "[[Ode to a Nightingale]]", and "[[Ode to Psyche]]". Like the others, "Ode on a Grecian Urn" represented a new development within the [[ode]] form as Keats found previous forms of poetry unsatisfactory for his purpose. He was inspired to write the poem immediately after reading articles by [[Benjamin Haydon]] discussing art. However, Keats also knew of other works on Greek art and had firsthand exposure to the [[Elgin Marbles]]. All of these experiences reinforced his belief that Greek art was both idealistic and captured Greek virtues, the basis for the poem.

Divided into five [[stanzas]] of ten lines each, the ode contained a narrator's discourse about a series of designs on a Grecian urn. The poem focuses on two central scenes: one in which a lover eternally pursues a beloved without fulfillment, and another of villagers about to perform a sacrifice. The final lines of the poem declare that "'Beauty is truth, truth beauty,' – that is all / Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know", and literary critics debated whether they increase or diminish the overall beauty of the poem. Critics have also focused on other aspects of the poem, including the role of the narrator, the inspirational qualities of real-world objects, and the paradoxical relationship between the poem's world and reality.

==Background==
[[File:JohnKeats1819.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=A pale and sensitive man in his twenties looks over the viewer's right, resting his chin on his left hand with his elbow on a book lying open on a table in front of him. He has tousled golden-brown hair parted in the middle, and wears a grey jacket and waistcoat with a white ruffled shirt.|John Keats in 1819, painted by his friend [[Joseph Severn]]]]

In the spring of 1817, Keats left his job as dresser, or assistant house surgeon, at [[Guy's Hospital]], [[Southwark]], London, to devote himself entirely to the composition of poetry. Living with his friend Charles Brown, the twenty-three-year-old was burdened with money problems and despaired when his brother George sought his financial assistance. While these real-world difficulties may have given Keats some pause for thought about a career in poetry, he did manage to complete five odes, including "Ode to a Nightingale", "Ode to Psyche", "Ode on Melancholy" and "Ode on Indolence".<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 487–527</ref> The poems were transcribed by Brown who later provided copies to the publisher Richard Woodhouse. The poem's exact date of composition is unknown; Keats simply dated it May 1819, as he did its companion odes. All four poems display a unity in stanza forms and themes, but their precise order of composition is uncertain. The structures unify the poems as a set but they lack a fixed order.<ref name="Gittings p. 311">Gittings 1968 p. 311</ref>

The odes were Keats's attempt at discussing the relationships between the soul, eternity, nature, and art, which he was busy contemplating throughout 1819. His idea of using Greek art as a metaphor originated in his reading Haydon's ''[[Examiner]]'' articles of 2 May and 9 May 1819. In the first article, Haydon described Greek sacrifice and worship, and, in the second article, he contrasted the artistic styles of [[Raphael]] and [[Michelangelo]] in conjunction with a discussion of medieval sculptures. Additionally, Keats had access to prints of Greek urns at Haydon's office,<ref>Gittings 1968 pp. 305–319</ref> and he was familiar with [[Henry Moses]]'s ''A Collection of Antique Vases, Altars, Paterae'' and made a tracing from an engraving of the so-called "Sosibios Vase" in this publication.<ref>Motion 1999 p. 391</ref><ref>Blunden 1967 p. 103</ref>

Keats's inspiration for the topic was not limited to Haydon, but embraced many contemporary sources.<ref>Magunson 1998 p. 208</ref> He may have recalled his experience with the Elgin Marbles<ref>Gittings 1968 p. 319</ref> and their influence on his [[sonnet]] "On Seeing the Elgin Marbles".<ref>Gumpert 1999</ref> Additionally, Keats was exposed to the [[Townley Vase|Townley]], [[Borghese Vase|Borghese]], and Holland House vases and to the classical treatment of subjects in [[Robert Burton (scholar)|Robert Burton's]] ''[[The Anatomy of Melancholy]]''. Many contemporary essays and articles on these works shared Keats's view that Greek art was both idealistic and captured Greek virtues. Although he was influenced by these ideas on classical art, his poem is unique; the urn that he describes as the subject of the poem is based on no known original, and is of his own creation.<ref>Motion 1999 pp. 390–391</ref>

"Ode on a Grecian Urn" was first printed in January 1820 ''Annals of Fine Art'', an art magazine that promoted similar views on art to those that Keats held.<ref>Motion 1999 p. 390</ref> Following the initial publication, the ''Examiner'' published Keats's ode along with reprinting Haydon's articles.<ref>MacGillivray 1938 pp. 465–466</ref> Keats also included the poem in his 1820 collection ''Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St Agnes, and Other Poems''.<ref>Matthews 1971 pp. 149, 159, 162</ref>

==Structure==
In 1819, Keats attempted to write sonnets but found that the form did not satisfy his purpose because the pattern of rhyme worked against the tone that he wished to achieve. When he turned to the ode form, he found that the standard [[Pindar]]ic form used by poets such as [[John Dryden]] would be inadequate to properly discuss philosophy.<ref>Gittings 1968 pp. 310–311</ref> Keats developed his own type of ode in "Ode to Psyche", which preceded "Ode on a Grecian Urn" and other odes written by Keats in 1819. Keats's creation established a new poetic tone that accorded with his aesthetic ideas about poetry. He further altered this new form in "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode on a Grecian Urn" by adding a secondary voice within the ode, creating a dialogue between two subjects.<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 498–500</ref>

"Ode on a Grecian Urn" relies on ten line stanzas with a rhyme scheme that begins with a Shakespearian quatrain (ABAB) and ends with a Miltonic sestet (CDECDE). This pattern is used in "Ode on Indolence", "Ode on Melancholy", and "Ode to a Nightingale", which makes the poems unified in structure as well as theme.<ref name="Gittings p. 311"/> The word "ode" itself is of Greek origin, meaning "sung". While ode-writers from antiquity adhered to rigid patterns of [[strophe]], [[antistrophe]], and [[epode]], the form by Keats's time had undergone enough transformation that it represented a manner rather than a set method for writing a certain type of lyric poetry. Keats's odes seek to find a "classical balance" between two extremes, and in the structure of "Ode on a Grecian Urn", these extremes are the symmetrical structure of [[classical literature]] and the asymmetry of [[Romantic poetry]]. The use of the ABAB structure in the beginning lines of each stanza represents a clear example of structure found in classical literature, and the remaining six lines appear to break free of the traditional poetic styles of Greek and Roman odes.<ref>Swanson 1962 pp. 302–305</ref>

His metre reflects a conscious development within his poetic style. Within the poem, there is only a single instance of medial inversion of an [[Accent (poetry)|accent]], which was heavily found in his earlier works. However, Keats incorporates [[spondee]]s in 37 feet, approximately 14.8% of the time. [[Caesura]]e are never placed before the fourth syllable in a line. The word choice represents a shift from Keats's early reliance on Latinate polysyllabic words to shorter, Germanic words. "Ode on a Grecian Urn" also reveals a [[Syzygy#Poetry|consonantal syzygy]] within the second stanza with its emphasis on "p", "b", and "v" sounds, but the unity only appears in that stanza. The poem also incorporates a complex reliance on [[assonance]], which is found in very few [[English poetry|English poems]]. Within "Ode on a Grecian", an example of this pattern can be found in line 13 ("Not to the sensual ear, but, more endear'd") where the "e" of "sensual" connects with the "e" of "endear'd" and the "ea" of "ear" connects with the "ea" of "endear'd". A more complex form is found in line 11 ("Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard") with the "ea" of "Heard" connecting to the "ea" of "unheard", the "o" of "melodies" connecting to the "o" of "those" and the "u" of "but" connecting to the "u" of "unheard".<ref>Bate 1962 pp. 133–135, 137–140, 58–60</ref>

==Poem==
[[Image:Grecian-george.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Manuscript titled "Ode on a Grecian Urn 1819." It begins "Thou still unravish'd bride of quietneſs ," and ends "For ever wilt thou love, and she be fair !". Even-numbered lines are indented, and lines 7 and 10 are further indented.|First known copy of "Ode on a Grecian Urn", transcribed by George Keats in 1820]]

The poem begins with the narrator silencing the urn by describing it as the "bride of quietness", which allows him to speak for it using his own impressions.<ref>Sheley 2007</ref> The narrator addresses the urn by saying:

:Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness!
:Thou foster-child of silence and slow time (lines 1–2)

The urn is a "foster-child of silence and slow time" because it is created from stone and made by the hand of an artist who does not communicate through words. As stone, time has little effect on it and aging is such a slow process that it is capable of being seen as an eternal piece of artwork. The urn is an external object capable of producing a story outside of the time of its creation, and because of this ability the poet labels it a "sylvan historian" that tells:<ref>Bloom 1993 p. 416</ref>
:A flow'ry tale more sweetly than our rhyme:
:What leaf-fring'd legend haunts about thy shape
:Of deities or mortals, or of both,
:In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?
:What men or gods are these? What maidens loth?
:What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape?
:What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy? (lines 4–10)

The questions presented in these lines are too ambiguous to allow the reader to understand what is taking place in the images on the urn, but elements of it are revealed. There is a pursuit and a strong sexual element.<ref>Bloom 1993 pp. 416–417</ref> The melody accompanying the pursuit is intensified in the second stanza:<ref name="Bloom p. 417">Bloom 1993 p. 417</ref>
:Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
:Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on;
:Not to the sensual ear, but, more endear'd,
:Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone: (lines 11–14)
There is a hint of a paradox in which indulging causes someone to only want more and a soundless music is desired by the soul. There is also a stasis that prohibits the characters on the urn from ever being fulfilled:<ref name="Bloom p. 417"/>
:Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss,
:Though winning near the goal – yet, do not grieve;
:She cannot fade, though thou hast not thy bliss,
:For ever wilt thou love, and she be fair! (lines 17–20)

In the third stanza, the narrator begins by speaking to a tree, which will ever hold its leaves and will not "bid the Spring adieu". The paradox of life versus lifelessness extends beyond the lover and the fair lady and takes a more temporal shape as three of the ten lines begin with the words "for ever". The unheard song never ages and the pipes are able to play forever, which leads the lovers, nature, and all involved to be:<ref name="Bloom p. 417"/>
:For ever panting, and for ever young;
:All breathing human passion far above,
:That leaves a heart high-sorrowful and cloyed,
:A burning forehead, and a parching tongue. (lines 27–30)

A new paradox arises in these lines because these immortal lovers are experiencing a living death.<ref name="Bloom p. 418">Bloom 1995 p. 418</ref> In order to overcome this merged life and death paradox, the poem shifts to a new scene with a new perspective.<ref name="Bloom p. 418"/> The fourth stanza opens with the sacrifice of a virgin cow, an image that appeared in the Elgin Marbles, [[Claude Lorrain]]'s ''Sacrifice to Apollo'', and Raphael's "[[Raphael Cartoons|The Sacrifice at Lystra]]":<ref>Bush 1959 p. 349</ref><ref group=A>The Raphael is one of the [[Raphael Cartoons]] then at [[Hampton Court Palace]]. The Claude is now usually called ''Landscape with the Father of Psyche sacrificing to Apollo'', and is now at [[Anglesey Abbey]]. It was one of the pair of "Altieri Claudes", among [[William_Thomas_Beckford#Works_owned_by_Beckford|the most famous and expensive paintings of the day]]. See [[Gerald Reitlinger|Reitlinger, Gerald]]; ''The Economics of Taste, Vol I: The Rise and Fall of Picture Prices 1760-1960, Barrie and Rockliffe, London, 1961, and [http://www.anodyne2art.com/storage/artmoneyrhughes.pdf ''Art and Money''], by Robert Hughes. [[:File:V&A - Raphael, The Sacrifice at Lystra (1515).jpg|Image of the Raphael]], and [http://www.copenhagenfreeuniversity.dk/lorrain.jpg image of the Claude]</ref>
:Who are these coming to the sacrifice?
:To what green altar, O mysterious priest,
:Lead'st thou that heifer lowing at the skies,
:And all her silken flanks with garlands drest?
:What little town by river or sea shore,
:Or mountain-built with peaceful citadel,
:Is emptied of its folk, this pious morn?
:And, little town, thy streets for evermore
:Will silent be; and not a soul to tell
:Why thou art desolate, can e'er return. (lines 31–40)

All that exists in the scene is a procession of individuals, and the narrator conjectures up the rest. The altar and town exist as part of a world outside of art, and the poem challenges the limitations of art through describing their possible existence. The questions are unanswered because there is no one who can ever know the true answers, as the locations are not real.<ref>Bloom 1995 pp. 418–419</ref> The final stanza begins with a reminder that the urn is a piece of eternal artwork:<ref name="Bloom p. 419">Bloom 1995 p. 419</ref>
:O Attic shape! Fair attitude! with brede
:Of marble men and maidens overwrought,
:With forest branches and the trodden weed;
:Thou, silent form, dost tease us out of thought
:As doth eternity: Cold pastoral! (lines 41–45)

There is a limit within the audience to comprehend the eternal scene, but the silent urn is still able to speak. The story it tells is both cold and passionate, and it is able to help mankind. The poem concludes:<ref name="Bloom p. 419"/>
:When old age shall this generation waste,
:Thou shalt remain, in midst of other woe
:Than ours, a friend to man, to whom thou sayst,
:"Beauty is truth, truth beauty," – that is all
:Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know. (lines 46–50)

==Themes==
"Ode on a Grecian Urn", like many of Keats's odes, discusses art and art's audience. In earlier poems, he relied on depictions of natural music, and works such as "Ode to a Nightingale" appeal to auditory sensations while ignoring the visual. Keats reverses this when describing an urn within "Ode on a Grecian Urn" in order to focus on artifice. The image of an urn was also used in "Ode on Indolence", with Keats depicting an urn with the figures Love, Ambition and Poesy. Of these three, Love and Poesy are discussed again within a focus on [[representational art]], and Keats's emphasis is on how the urn, as a human artistic construct, is capable of relating to the idea of "Truth". The images of the urn described within the poem are intended as obvious depictions of standard forms, and they describe an attempt at courtship, the making of music, and a religious rite. The figures are supposed to be beautiful, and the urn itself is supposed to be realistic.<ref>Vendler 1984 pp. 116–117</ref> Although the poem does not include the subjective involvement of the poet, the urn within the poem implies a human observer that draws out these images.<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 510–511</ref> Furthermore, the lyrical basis of the poem contains bits of narration that further create an audience for the poem. As is common to Keats's odes in general, "Ode on a Grecian Urn" relies on a narrator that believes that the urn does not depict a story while the poem describes his searching for the background to the urn's events. This creates a response to art in general in a manner similar to how a critic would respond to the poem itself. This twofold narrative structure culminates in the poem's final lines. The ambiguous nature of the ending causes the reader to question who is speaking, to whom they are speaking, and what is being meant, encouraging the reader to interact with the poem in an interrogative manner.<ref>Bennett 1994 pp. 128–134</ref>

As representing art, an urn cannot completely represent poetry, but it does serve as one component in describing the relationship between art and humanity.<ref name="Perkins p. 103">Perkins 1964 p. 103</ref> The nightingale of "Ode to a Nightingale" is separated from humanity and does not have human concerns. The urn, as a piece of art, requires an audience and is in an incomplete state on its own. This allows the urn to participate with humanity, to put forth a narrative, and allows for the imagination to operate. Also, the symbol of the urn enables the narrator to ask questions, and the silence of the urn reinforces the imagination's ability to operate. This interaction and use of the imagination is part of a greater tradition called ''ut pictura poesis'' – the contemplation of art by a poet – which serves as a meditation upon art itself.<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 511–512</ref> In this meditation, the narrator dwells on the aesthetic and mimetic features of art. The beginning of the poem posits that the role of art is to describe a specific story about those the audience is unfamiliar with, and the narrator wishes to know the identity of the figures in a manner similar to "Ode on Indolence" and "Ode to Psyche". The figures on the urn within "Ode on a Grecian Urn" do not have identities, but the first section ends with the narrator believing that if he knew the story, he would know the names. The second section of the poem, describing the piper and the lovers, meditates on the possibility that the role of art is not to describe specifics but universal characters, which falls under the term "Truth". The three figures would represent how Love, Beauty, and Art are unified together in an idealised world. Since the urn would depict an idealised scene in which the three figures are immortalised, the narrator is implying that art represents the feelings of the audience. The audience is not supposed to question the events but instead to rejoice in the happy aspects of the scene in a manner that reverses the claims about art in "Ode to a Nightingale". Similarly, the response in the second section is not compatible with the response to the first.<ref>Vendler 1984 pp. 118–120</ref>

The two contradictory responses found in the first and second part of "Ode on a Grecian Urn" are inadequate for completely describing art, because Keats believes that art is not to provide history or ideals. Instead, both are replaced with a philosophical tone that dominates the mediation on art. The sensual aspects are replaced with an emphasis on the spiritual aspects, and the last scene describes a world contained unto itself. The relationship of the audience to the world is not to learn facts or to benefit itself, but merely to emphatically connect to the scene. The narrator contemplates in the scene where the boundaries of art lie and how much an artist can represent on an urn. The questions the narrator asks reveal a yearning to understand the scene, but the urn is too limited to allow such answers. Furthermore, the narrator is drawn into the scene in a manner that allows him to visualise more than what actually exists as he enters into a cooperative state with art. This conclusion on art is both satisfying, in that it allows the audience to actually connect with the art, and alienating, as it does not provide the audience the benefit of instruction or narcissistic fulfillment.<ref>Vendler 1984 pp. 120–123</ref> Besides the contradictions between the various desires within the poem, there are other [[paradox]]es that emerge as the narrator compares his world with that of the Ancient Grecians on the urn. In the opening line, he refers to the urn as a "bride of quietness", which serves to contrast the urn with the structure of the ode, a type of poem originally intended to be sung. Another paradox arises when the narrator finds that immortality on the side of an urn meant to carry the ashes of the dead.<ref>Brooks 1947 pp. 151–167</ref>

==Critical response==
The first response to the poem came in an anonymous review in the July 1820 ''Monthly Review'', which claimed, "Mr Keats displays no great nicety in his selection of images. According to the tenets of that school of poetry to which he belongs, he thinks that any thing or object in nature is a fit material on which the poet may work [...] Can there be a more pointed ''concetto'' than this address to the Piping Shepherds on a Grecian Urn?"<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 162</ref> Another anonymous review followed in the 29 July 1820 ''Literary Chronicle and Weekly Review'' that quoted the poem with a note that said that "Among the minor poems, many of which possess considerable merit, the following appears to be the best".<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. pp. 163–164</ref> Josiah Conder, in a September 1820 ''Eclectic Review'', argues that:
<blockquote>Mr Keats, seemingly, can think or write of scarcely any thing else than the 'happy pieties' of Paganism. A Grecian Urn throws him into an ecstasy: its 'silent form,' he says, 'doth tease us out of thought as doth Eternity,'—a very happy description of the bewildering effect which such subjects have at least had upon his own mind; and his fancy having thus got the better of his reason, we are the less surprised at the oracle which the Urn is made to utter:
:'Beauty is truth, truth beauty,'—that is all
:Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.
That is, all that Mr Keats knows or cares to know.—But till he knows much more than this, he will never write verses fit to live.<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 237</ref></blockquote>
George Gilfillan, in an 1845 essay on Keats, placed the poem among "The finest of Keats' smaller pieces" and suggested that "In originality, Keats has seldom been surpassed. His works 'rise like an exhalation.' His language has been formed on a false system; but, ere he died, was clarifying itself from its more glaring faults, and becoming copious clear, and select. He seems to have been averse to all speculative thought, and his only creed, we fear, was expressed in the words— Beauty is truth,—truth beauty".<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 306</ref> The 1857 ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' contained an article on Keats by Alexander Smith, which stated: "Perhaps the most exquisite specimen of Keats' poetry is the 'Ode to the Grecian Urn'; it breathes the very spirit of antiquity,—eternal beauty and eternal repose."<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 367</ref>

[[I. A. Richards]], an English literary critic who analyzed Keats's poems in 1929, relied on the final lines of the "Ode on a Grecian Urn" to discuss "pseudo-statements" in poetry, saying:
<blockquote>On the one hand there are very many people who, if they read any poetry at all, try to take all its statements seriously – and find them silly [...] This may seem an absurd mistake but, alas! it is none the less common. On the other hand there are those who succeed too well, who swallow 'Beauty is truth, truth beauty....,' as the quintessence of an aesthetic philosophy, not as the expression of a certain blend of feelings, and proceed into a complete stalemate of muddle-mindedness as a result of their linguistic naivety.<ref>Richards 1929 pp. 186–187</ref></blockquote>
In response to Richards, poet and critic [[T. S. Eliot]] argued that the final lines were:
<blockquote>a serious blemish on a beautiful poem, and the reason must be either that I fail to understand it, or that it is a statement which is untrue. And I suppose that Keats meant something by it, however remote his truth and his beauty may have been from these words in ordinary use. And I am sure that he would have repudiated any explanation of the line which called it a pseudo-statement [...] The statement of Keats seems to me meaningless: or perhaps the fact that it is grammatically meaningless conceals another meaning from me.<ref>Eliot 1932 pp. 230–231</ref></blockquote>
[[Arthur Quiller-Couch]] seemingly agreed, claiming that the lines were "a vague observation – to anyone whom life has taught to face facts... actually an ''uneducated'' conclusion, albeit most pardonable in one so young and ardent."<ref>Bate 1963 qtd. p. 517</ref>

Earl Wasserman, in 1953, responded to the discussion over the final lines and claimed, "the more we tug at the final lines of the ode, the more the noose of their meaning strangles our comprehension of the poem [...] The aphorism is all the more beguiling because it appears near the end of the poem, for its apparently climactic position has generally led to the assumption that it is the abstract summation of the poem [...] But the ode is not an abstract statement or an excursion into philosophy. It is a poem about things".<ref>Wasserman 1967 pp. 13–14</ref> Walter Evert, discussing the debate in 1965, justified the final lines of the poem in order to declare "The poem, then, accepts the urn for the immediate meditative imaginative pleasure that it can give, but it firmly defines the limits of artistic truth. In this it is wholly consistent with all the great poetry of Keats's last creative period."<ref>Evert 1965 p. 319</ref> Rick Rylance picked up the debate again in 1990 and explained that the true meaning of the final lines cannot be discerned merely by studying the language. This poses a problem for the [[New Critics]], who were prone to closely reading a poem's text.<ref>Rylance 1990 pp. 730–733</ref>

Walter Jackson Bate, in 1962, argued that, "the ''Grecian Urn'' possesses a quiet and constrained composure hardly equalled by the other odes of this month and perhaps even unsurpassed by the ode ''To Autumn'' of the following September [...] there is a severe repose about the ''Ode on a Grecian Urn''; it is both 'interwoven' and 'complete'; and within its tensely braced stanzas is a potential energy momentarily stilled and imprisoned."<ref>Bate 1962 pp. 140–141</ref> In 1964, literary critic David Perkins claimed in his essay "The Ode on a Nightingale" that the symbol of the urn "may possibly not satisfy as the principal concern of poetry [...] but is rather an element in the poetry and drama of human reactions".<ref name="Perkins p. 103">Perkins 1964 p. 103</ref> [[Hugh Kenner]], in 1971, explained that Keats "interrogates an urn, and answers for it, and its last answer, about Beauty and Truth, may seem almost intolerably enigmatic".<ref name=kenner1>Kenner 1971 p. 26</ref> To Kenner, the problem with Keats's Beauty and Truth statement arises out of the reader's inability to distinguish between the poet, his reflections on the urn, and any possible statement made by the urn. He concluded that Keats fails to provide his poet with enough characterization to be able to speak for the urn.<ref name=kenner1/>

In 1984, [[Helen Vendler]] argued, "The simple movement of entrance and exist, even in its triple repetition in the ''Urn'', is simply not structurally complex enough to be adequate, as a representational form, to what we know of aesthetic experience – or indeed to human experience generally."<ref>Vendler 1984 p. 152</ref> Andrew Bennet, in 1994, continued the discussion the final lines and the poem's effectiveness and said, "What is important and compelling in this poem is not so much what happens on the urn or in the poem, but the way that a response to an artwork both figures and prefigures its own critical response".<ref>Bennet 1994 p. 134</ref> In 1999, Andrew Motion claimed that the poem "tells a story that cannot be developed. Celebrating the transcendent powers of art, it creates a sense of imminence, but also registers a feeling of frustration."<ref>Motion 1999 p. 391</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=A}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* [[Walter Jackson Bate|Bate, Walter Jackson]]. ''John Keats''. Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963.
* Bate, Walter Jackson. ''The Stylistic Development of Keats''. New York: Humanities Press, 1962. OCLC 276912.
* Bennett, Andrew. ''Keats, Narrative, and Audience''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
* [[Harold Bloom|Bloom, Harold]]. ''The Visionary Company''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993. ISBN 0801406226
* [[Edmund Blunden|Blunden, Edmund]]. ''Leigh Hunt's "Examiner" examined''. Hamden: Archon Books, 1967.
* [[Cleanth Brooks|Brooks, Cleanth]]. ''[[The Well Wrought Urn|The Well-Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry]]''. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1947. {{oclc|265162960}}.
* [[Douglas Bush|Bush, Douglas]]. "Introduction" in ''John Keats: Selected Poems and Leters''. Ed. Doublas Bush. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1959.
* Carr, J. W. Comyns. "The Artistic Spirit in Modern Poetry". ''New Quarterly Magazine'', Vol. 5 (1876), pp. 146–165. {{oclc|2264902}}.
* [[T. S. Eliot|Eliot, T. S.]] "Dante" in ''Selected Essays''. London: Faber and Faber, 1932.
* Evert, Walter. ''Aesthetics and Myth in the Poetry of Keats''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965. OCLC 291999
* [[Robert Gittings|Gittings, Robert]]. ''John Keats''. London: Heinemann, 1968.
* Gumpert, Matthew. "[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-59037686.html Keats's 'To Haydon, With a Sonnet on Seeing the Elgin Marbles' and 'Seeing the Elgin Marbles']". ''Explicator'' (22 September 1999).
* [[Hugh Kenner|Kenner, Hugh]]. ''The Pound Era''. University of California Press, 1971.
* MacGillivray, J. R. "Ode on a Grecian Urn", ''Times Literary Supplement'' (9 July 1938): 465–466.
* Magunson, Paul. ''Reading Public Romanticism''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998.
* Matthews, G. M. ''John Keats: The Critical Heritage''. New York: Barnes & Noble Publishers, 1971. ISBN 0389044407
* [[Andrew Motion|Motion, Andrew]]. ''Keats''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. ISBN 0226542408
* Perkins, David. "The Ode on a Nightingale" in ''Keats: A Collection of Critical Essays''. Ed. Walter Jackson Bate, 103–112. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1964.
* [[I. A. Richards|Richards, I. A.]] ''Practical Criticism''. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1929.
* Rylance, Rick. "The New Criticism". ''Encyclopedia of Literature and Criticism''. Ed. Martin Cole et al. 730–731. London: Routledge, 1990.
* Sheley, Erin. "[http://www.erudit.org/revue/RON/2007/v/n45/015826ar.html Re-Imagining Olympus: Keats and the Mythology of Individual Consciousness]". Harvard University. Reprinted in "Romanticism on the Net", No. 45 (November 2007). Accessed 6 December 2008.
* Sikka, Sonia. "[http://www.calvin.edu/faith/resources/faculty/beauty/truth_of_beauty.pdf On The Truth of Beauty: Nietzsche, Heidegger, Keats]". ''The Heythrop Journal'', Vol. 39, No. 3 (1998), pp. 243–263. {{doi|10.1111/1468-2265.00076}}. Accessed 2009-11-03.
* Swanson, Roy Arthur. "[http://www.jstor.org/pss/373074 Form and Content in Keats's 'Ode on a Grecian Urn']". ''College English'', Vol. 23, No. 4 (January 1962), pp. 302–305.
* [[Helen Vendler|Vendler, Helen]]. ''The Odes of John Keats''. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.
* Wasserman, Earl. ''The Fine Tone''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967.

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
{{commons cat|Sosibios vase}}
*[http://www.bartleby.com/101/625.html Full text of poem]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ode On A Grecian Urn}}
[[Category:British poems]]
[[Category:Poetry by John Keats]]
[[Category:1820 poems]]

[[it:Ode su un'urna greca]]

Ode auf eine griechische Urne

2009-11-28T07:14:57Z

Fowler&fowler: /* Background */ please don't keep adding garbage

[[Image:keats urn.jpg|thumb|alt=A fine-line drawing of an urn. It is tall, with high scrolled handles. Around the middle is a frieze of figures, of which four can be seen. From left to right, a naked man with a helmet and sword, a dancing woman in a flowing garment, a robed woman carrying a spear and a naked man with a cloak hanging from his shoulder. The drawing is inscribed "By John Keats".|Tracing of an engraving of the Sosibios vase by [[John Keats|Keats]]]]

"'''Ode on a Grecian Urn'''" is a poem written by the English [[Romantic poetry|Romantic poet]] [[John Keats]] in May 1819 and published in January 1820. It is one of his "[[John Keats's 1819 odes|Great Odes of 1819]]", which also include "[[Ode on Indolence]]", "[[Ode on Melancholy]]", "[[Ode to a Nightingale]]", and "[[Ode to Psyche]]". Like the others, "Ode on a Grecian Urn" represented a new development within the [[ode]] form as Keats found previous forms of poetry unsatisfactory for his purpose. He was inspired to write the poem immediately after reading articles by [[Benjamin Haydon]] discussing art. However, Keats also knew of other works on Greek art and had firsthand exposure to the [[Elgin Marbles]]. All of these experiences reinforced his belief that Greek art was both idealistic and captured Greek virtues, the basis for the poem.

Divided into five [[stanzas]] of ten lines each, the ode contained a narrator's discourse about a series of designs on a Grecian urn. The poem focuses on two central scenes: one in which a lover eternally pursues a beloved without fulfillment, and another of villagers about to perform a sacrifice. The final lines of the poem declare that "'Beauty is truth, truth beauty,' – that is all / Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know", and literary critics debated whether they increase or diminish the overall beauty of the poem. Critics have also focused on other aspects of the poem, including the role of the narrator, the inspirational qualities of real-world objects, and the paradoxical relationship between the poem's world and reality.

==Background==
[[File:JohnKeats1819.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=A pale and sensitive man in his twenties looks over the viewer's right, resting his chin on his left hand with his elbow on a book lying open on a table in front of him. He has tousled golden-brown hair parted in the middle, and wears a grey jacket and waistcoat with a white ruffled shirt.|John Keats in 1819, painted by his friend [[Joseph Severn]]]]

During the spring of 1817, Keats left his job as dresser, or assistant house surgeon, at [[Guy's Hospital]], [[Southwark]], London, to devote himself entirely to the composition of poetry. Living with his friend Charles Brown, the twenty-three-year-old was burdened with money problems and despaired when his brother George sought his financial assistance. While these real-world difficulties may have given Keats some pause for thought about a career in poetry, he did manage to complete five odes, including "Ode to a Nightingale", "Ode to Psyche", "Ode on Melancholy" and "Ode on Indolence".<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 487–527</ref> The poems were transcribed by Brown who later provided copies to the publisher Richard Woodhouse. The poem's exact date of composition is unknown; Keats simply dated it May 1819, as he did its companion odes. All four poems display a unity in stanza forms and themes, but their precise order of composition is uncertain. The structures unify the poems as a set but they lack a fixed order.<ref name="Gittings p. 311">Gittings 1968 p. 311</ref>

The odes were Keats's attempt at discussing the relationships between the soul, eternity, nature, and art, which he was busy contemplating throughout 1819. His idea of using Greek art as a metaphor originated in his reading Haydon's ''[[Examiner]]'' articles of 2 May and 9 May 1819. In the first article, Haydon described Greek sacrifice and worship, and, in the second article, he contrasted the artistic styles of [[Raphael]] and [[Michelangelo]] in conjunction with a discussion of medieval sculptures. Additionally, Keats had access to prints of Greek urns at Haydon's office,<ref>Gittings 1968 pp. 305–319</ref> and he was familiar with [[Henry Moses]]'s ''A Collection of Antique Vases, Altars, Paterae'' and made a tracing from an engraving of the so-called "Sosibios Vase" in this publication.<ref>Motion 1999 p. 391</ref><ref>Blunden 1967 p. 103</ref>

Keats's inspiration for the topic was not limited to Haydon, but embraced many contemporary sources.<ref>Magunson 1998 p. 208</ref> He may have recalled his experience with the Elgin Marbles<ref>Gittings 1968 p. 319</ref> and their influence on his [[sonnet]] "On Seeing the Elgin Marbles".<ref>Gumpert 1999</ref> Additionally, Keats was exposed to the [[Townley Vase|Townley]], [[Borghese Vase|Borghese]], and Holland House vases and to the classical treatment of subjects in [[Robert Burton (scholar)|Robert Burton's]] ''[[The Anatomy of Melancholy]]''. Many contemporary essays and articles on these works shared Keats's view that Greek art was both idealistic and captured Greek virtues. Although he was influenced by these ideas on classical art, his poem is unique; the urn that he describes as the subject of the poem is based on no known original, and is of his own creation.<ref>Motion 1999 pp. 390–391</ref>

"Ode on a Grecian Urn" was first printed in January 1820 ''Annals of Fine Art'', an art magazine that promoted similar views on art to those that Keats held.<ref>Motion 1999 p. 390</ref> Following the initial publication, the ''Examiner'' published Keats's ode along with reprinting Haydon's articles.<ref>MacGillivray 1938 pp. 465–466</ref> Keats also included the poem in his 1820 collection ''Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St Agnes, and Other Poems''.<ref>Matthews 1971 pp. 149, 159, 162</ref>

==Structure==
In 1819, Keats attempted to write sonnets but found that the form did not satisfy his purpose because the pattern of rhyme worked against the tone that he wished to achieve. When he turned to the ode form, he found that the standard [[Pindar]]ic form used by poets such as [[John Dryden]] would be inadequate to properly discuss philosophy.<ref>Gittings 1968 pp. 310–311</ref> Keats developed his own type of ode in "Ode to Psyche", which preceded "Ode on a Grecian Urn" and other odes written by Keats in 1819. Keats's creation established a new poetic tone that accorded with his aesthetic ideas about poetry. He further altered this new form in "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode on a Grecian Urn" by adding a secondary voice within the ode, creating a dialogue between two subjects.<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 498–500</ref>

"Ode on a Grecian Urn" relies on ten line stanzas with a rhyme scheme that begins with a Shakespearian quatrain (ABAB) and ends with a Miltonic sestet (CDECDE). This pattern is used in "Ode on Indolence", "Ode on Melancholy", and "Ode to a Nightingale", which makes the poems unified in structure as well as theme.<ref name="Gittings p. 311"/> The word "ode" itself is of Greek origin, meaning "sung". While ode-writers from antiquity adhered to rigid patterns of [[strophe]], [[antistrophe]], and [[epode]], the form by Keats's time had undergone enough transformation that it represented a manner rather than a set method for writing a certain type of lyric poetry. Keats's odes seek to find a "classical balance" between two extremes, and in the structure of "Ode on a Grecian Urn", these extremes are the symmetrical structure of [[classical literature]] and the asymmetry of [[Romantic poetry]]. The use of the ABAB structure in the beginning lines of each stanza represents a clear example of structure found in classical literature, and the remaining six lines appear to break free of the traditional poetic styles of Greek and Roman odes.<ref>Swanson 1962 pp. 302–305</ref>

His metre reflects a conscious development within his poetic style. Within the poem, there is only a single instance of medial inversion of an [[Accent (poetry)|accent]], which was heavily found in his earlier works. However, Keats incorporates [[spondee]]s in 37 feet, approximately 14.8% of the time. [[Caesura]]e are never placed before the fourth syllable in a line. The word choice represents a shift from Keats's early reliance on Latinate polysyllabic words to shorter, Germanic words. "Ode on a Grecian Urn" also reveals a [[Syzygy#Poetry|consonantal syzygy]] within the second stanza with its emphasis on "p", "b", and "v" sounds, but the unity only appears in that stanza. The poem also incorporates a complex reliance on [[assonance]], which is found in very few [[English poetry|English poems]]. Within "Ode on a Grecian", an example of this pattern can be found in line 13 ("Not to the sensual ear, but, more endear'd") where the "e" of "sensual" connects with the "e" of "endear'd" and the "ea" of "ear" connects with the "ea" of "endear'd". A more complex form is found in line 11 ("Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard") with the "ea" of "Heard" connecting to the "ea" of "unheard", the "o" of "melodies" connecting to the "o" of "those" and the "u" of "but" connecting to the "u" of "unheard".<ref>Bate 1962 pp. 133–135, 137–140, 58–60</ref>

==Poem==
[[Image:Grecian-george.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Manuscript titled "Ode on a Grecian Urn 1819." It begins "Thou still unravish'd bride of quietneſs ," and ends "For ever wilt thou love, and she be fair !". Even-numbered lines are indented, and lines 7 and 10 are further indented.|First known copy of "Ode on a Grecian Urn", transcribed by George Keats in 1820]]

The poem begins with the narrator silencing the urn by describing it as the "bride of quietness", which allows him to speak for it using his own impressions.<ref>Sheley 2007</ref> The narrator addresses the urn by saying:

:Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness!
:Thou foster-child of silence and slow time (lines 1–2)

The urn is a "foster-child of silence and slow time" because it is created from stone and made by the hand of an artist who does not communicate through words. As stone, time has little effect on it and aging is such a slow process that it is capable of being seen as an eternal piece of artwork. The urn is an external object capable of producing a story outside of the time of its creation, and because of this ability the poet labels it a "sylvan historian" that tells:<ref>Bloom 1993 p. 416</ref>
:A flow'ry tale more sweetly than our rhyme:
:What leaf-fring'd legend haunts about thy shape
:Of deities or mortals, or of both,
:In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?
:What men or gods are these? What maidens loth?
:What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape?
:What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy? (lines 4–10)

The questions presented in these lines are too ambiguous to allow the reader to understand what is taking place in the images on the urn, but elements of it are revealed. There is a pursuit and a strong sexual element.<ref>Bloom 1993 pp. 416–417</ref> The melody accompanying the pursuit is intensified in the second stanza:<ref name="Bloom p. 417">Bloom 1993 p. 417</ref>
:Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
:Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on;
:Not to the sensual ear, but, more endear'd,
:Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone: (lines 11–14)
There is a hint of a paradox in which indulging causes someone to only want more and a soundless music is desired by the soul. There is also a stasis that prohibits the characters on the urn from ever being fulfilled:<ref name="Bloom p. 417"/>
:Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss,
:Though winning near the goal – yet, do not grieve;
:She cannot fade, though thou hast not thy bliss,
:For ever wilt thou love, and she be fair! (lines 17–20)

In the third stanza, the narrator begins by speaking to a tree, which will ever hold its leaves and will not "bid the Spring adieu". The paradox of life versus lifelessness extends beyond the lover and the fair lady and takes a more temporal shape as three of the ten lines begin with the words "for ever". The unheard song never ages and the pipes are able to play forever, which leads the lovers, nature, and all involved to be:<ref name="Bloom p. 417"/>
:For ever panting, and for ever young;
:All breathing human passion far above,
:That leaves a heart high-sorrowful and cloyed,
:A burning forehead, and a parching tongue. (lines 27–30)

A new paradox arises in these lines because these immortal lovers are experiencing a living death.<ref name="Bloom p. 418">Bloom 1995 p. 418</ref> In order to overcome this merged life and death paradox, the poem shifts to a new scene with a new perspective.<ref name="Bloom p. 418"/> The fourth stanza opens with the sacrifice of a virgin cow, an image that appeared in the Elgin Marbles, [[Claude Lorrain]]'s ''Sacrifice to Apollo'', and Raphael's "[[Raphael Cartoons|The Sacrifice at Lystra]]":<ref>Bush 1959 p. 349</ref><ref group=A>The Raphael is one of the [[Raphael Cartoons]] then at [[Hampton Court Palace]]. The Claude is now usually called ''Landscape with the Father of Psyche sacrificing to Apollo'', and is now at [[Anglesey Abbey]]. It was one of the pair of "Altieri Claudes", among [[William_Thomas_Beckford#Works_owned_by_Beckford|the most famous and expensive paintings of the day]]. See [[Gerald Reitlinger|Reitlinger, Gerald]]; ''The Economics of Taste, Vol I: The Rise and Fall of Picture Prices 1760-1960, Barrie and Rockliffe, London, 1961, and [http://www.anodyne2art.com/storage/artmoneyrhughes.pdf ''Art and Money''], by Robert Hughes. [[:File:V&A - Raphael, The Sacrifice at Lystra (1515).jpg|Image of the Raphael]], and [http://www.copenhagenfreeuniversity.dk/lorrain.jpg image of the Claude]</ref>
:Who are these coming to the sacrifice?
:To what green altar, O mysterious priest,
:Lead'st thou that heifer lowing at the skies,
:And all her silken flanks with garlands drest?
:What little town by river or sea shore,
:Or mountain-built with peaceful citadel,
:Is emptied of its folk, this pious morn?
:And, little town, thy streets for evermore
:Will silent be; and not a soul to tell
:Why thou art desolate, can e'er return. (lines 31–40)

All that exists in the scene is a procession of individuals, and the narrator conjectures up the rest. The altar and town exist as part of a world outside of art, and the poem challenges the limitations of art through describing their possible existence. The questions are unanswered because there is no one who can ever know the true answers, as the locations are not real.<ref>Bloom 1995 pp. 418–419</ref> The final stanza begins with a reminder that the urn is a piece of eternal artwork:<ref name="Bloom p. 419">Bloom 1995 p. 419</ref>
:O Attic shape! Fair attitude! with brede
:Of marble men and maidens overwrought,
:With forest branches and the trodden weed;
:Thou, silent form, dost tease us out of thought
:As doth eternity: Cold pastoral! (lines 41–45)

There is a limit within the audience to comprehend the eternal scene, but the silent urn is still able to speak. The story it tells is both cold and passionate, and it is able to help mankind. The poem concludes:<ref name="Bloom p. 419"/>
:When old age shall this generation waste,
:Thou shalt remain, in midst of other woe
:Than ours, a friend to man, to whom thou sayst,
:"Beauty is truth, truth beauty," – that is all
:Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know. (lines 46–50)

==Themes==
"Ode on a Grecian Urn", like many of Keats's odes, discusses art and art's audience. In earlier poems, he relied on depictions of natural music, and works such as "Ode to a Nightingale" appeal to auditory sensations while ignoring the visual. Keats reverses this when describing an urn within "Ode on a Grecian Urn" in order to focus on artifice. The image of an urn was also used in "Ode on Indolence", with Keats depicting an urn with the figures Love, Ambition and Poesy. Of these three, Love and Poesy are discussed again within a focus on [[representational art]], and Keats's emphasis is on how the urn, as a human artistic construct, is capable of relating to the idea of "Truth". The images of the urn described within the poem are intended as obvious depictions of standard forms, and they describe an attempt at courtship, the making of music, and a religious rite. The figures are supposed to be beautiful, and the urn itself is supposed to be realistic.<ref>Vendler 1984 pp. 116–117</ref> Although the poem does not include the subjective involvement of the poet, the urn within the poem implies a human observer that draws out these images.<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 510–511</ref> Furthermore, the lyrical basis of the poem contains bits of narration that further create an audience for the poem. As is common to Keats's odes in general, "Ode on a Grecian Urn" relies on a narrator that believes that the urn does not depict a story while the poem describes his searching for the background to the urn's events. This creates a response to art in general in a manner similar to how a critic would respond to the poem itself. This twofold narrative structure culminates in the poem's final lines. The ambiguous nature of the ending causes the reader to question who is speaking, to whom they are speaking, and what is being meant, encouraging the reader to interact with the poem in an interrogative manner.<ref>Bennett 1994 pp. 128–134</ref>

As representing art, an urn cannot completely represent poetry, but it does serve as one component in describing the relationship between art and humanity.<ref name="Perkins p. 103">Perkins 1964 p. 103</ref> The nightingale of "Ode to a Nightingale" is separated from humanity and does not have human concerns. The urn, as a piece of art, requires an audience and is in an incomplete state on its own. This allows the urn to participate with humanity, to put forth a narrative, and allows for the imagination to operate. Also, the symbol of the urn enables the narrator to ask questions, and the silence of the urn reinforces the imagination's ability to operate. This interaction and use of the imagination is part of a greater tradition called ''ut pictura poesis'' – the contemplation of art by a poet – which serves as a meditation upon art itself.<ref>Bate 1963 pp. 511–512</ref> In this meditation, the narrator dwells on the aesthetic and mimetic features of art. The beginning of the poem posits that the role of art is to describe a specific story about those the audience is unfamiliar with, and the narrator wishes to know the identity of the figures in a manner similar to "Ode on Indolence" and "Ode to Psyche". The figures on the urn within "Ode on a Grecian Urn" do not have identities, but the first section ends with the narrator believing that if he knew the story, he would know the names. The second section of the poem, describing the piper and the lovers, meditates on the possibility that the role of art is not to describe specifics but universal characters, which falls under the term "Truth". The three figures would represent how Love, Beauty, and Art are unified together in an idealised world. Since the urn would depict an idealised scene in which the three figures are immortalised, the narrator is implying that art represents the feelings of the audience. The audience is not supposed to question the events but instead to rejoice in the happy aspects of the scene in a manner that reverses the claims about art in "Ode to a Nightingale". Similarly, the response in the second section is not compatible with the response to the first.<ref>Vendler 1984 pp. 118–120</ref>

The two contradictory responses found in the first and second part of "Ode on a Grecian Urn" are inadequate for completely describing art, because Keats believes that art is not to provide history or ideals. Instead, both are replaced with a philosophical tone that dominates the mediation on art. The sensual aspects are replaced with an emphasis on the spiritual aspects, and the last scene describes a world contained unto itself. The relationship of the audience to the world is not to learn facts or to benefit itself, but merely to emphatically connect to the scene. The narrator contemplates in the scene where the boundaries of art lie and how much an artist can represent on an urn. The questions the narrator asks reveal a yearning to understand the scene, but the urn is too limited to allow such answers. Furthermore, the narrator is drawn into the scene in a manner that allows him to visualise more than what actually exists as he enters into a cooperative state with art. This conclusion on art is both satisfying, in that it allows the audience to actually connect with the art, and alienating, as it does not provide the audience the benefit of instruction or narcissistic fulfillment.<ref>Vendler 1984 pp. 120–123</ref> Besides the contradictions between the various desires within the poem, there are other [[paradox]]es that emerge as the narrator compares his world with that of the Ancient Grecians on the urn. In the opening line, he refers to the urn as a "bride of quietness", which serves to contrast the urn with the structure of the ode, a type of poem originally intended to be sung. Another paradox arises when the narrator finds that immortality on the side of an urn meant to carry the ashes of the dead.<ref>Brooks 1947 pp. 151–167</ref>

==Critical response==
The first response to the poem came in an anonymous review in the July 1820 ''Monthly Review'', which claimed, "Mr Keats displays no great nicety in his selection of images. According to the tenets of that school of poetry to which he belongs, he thinks that any thing or object in nature is a fit material on which the poet may work [...] Can there be a more pointed ''concetto'' than this address to the Piping Shepherds on a Grecian Urn?"<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 162</ref> Another anonymous review followed in the 29 July 1820 ''Literary Chronicle and Weekly Review'' that quoted the poem with a note that said that "Among the minor poems, many of which possess considerable merit, the following appears to be the best".<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. pp. 163–164</ref> Josiah Conder, in a September 1820 ''Eclectic Review'', argues that:
<blockquote>Mr Keats, seemingly, can think or write of scarcely any thing else than the 'happy pieties' of Paganism. A Grecian Urn throws him into an ecstasy: its 'silent form,' he says, 'doth tease us out of thought as doth Eternity,'—a very happy description of the bewildering effect which such subjects have at least had upon his own mind; and his fancy having thus got the better of his reason, we are the less surprised at the oracle which the Urn is made to utter:
:'Beauty is truth, truth beauty,'—that is all
:Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.
That is, all that Mr Keats knows or cares to know.—But till he knows much more than this, he will never write verses fit to live.<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 237</ref></blockquote>
George Gilfillan, in an 1845 essay on Keats, placed the poem among "The finest of Keats' smaller pieces" and suggested that "In originality, Keats has seldom been surpassed. His works 'rise like an exhalation.' His language has been formed on a false system; but, ere he died, was clarifying itself from its more glaring faults, and becoming copious clear, and select. He seems to have been averse to all speculative thought, and his only creed, we fear, was expressed in the words— Beauty is truth,—truth beauty".<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 306</ref> The 1857 ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' contained an article on Keats by Alexander Smith, which stated: "Perhaps the most exquisite specimen of Keats' poetry is the 'Ode to the Grecian Urn'; it breathes the very spirit of antiquity,—eternal beauty and eternal repose."<ref>Matthews 1971 qtd. p. 367</ref>

[[I. A. Richards]], an English literary critic who analyzed Keats's poems in 1929, relied on the final lines of the "Ode on a Grecian Urn" to discuss "pseudo-statements" in poetry, saying:
<blockquote>On the one hand there are very many people who, if they read any poetry at all, try to take all its statements seriously – and find them silly [...] This may seem an absurd mistake but, alas! it is none the less common. On the other hand there are those who succeed too well, who swallow 'Beauty is truth, truth beauty....,' as the quintessence of an aesthetic philosophy, not as the expression of a certain blend of feelings, and proceed into a complete stalemate of muddle-mindedness as a result of their linguistic naivety.<ref>Richards 1929 pp. 186–187</ref></blockquote>
In response to Richards, poet and critic [[T. S. Eliot]] argued that the final lines were:
<blockquote>a serious blemish on a beautiful poem, and the reason must be either that I fail to understand it, or that it is a statement which is untrue. And I suppose that Keats meant something by it, however remote his truth and his beauty may have been from these words in ordinary use. And I am sure that he would have repudiated any explanation of the line which called it a pseudo-statement [...] The statement of Keats seems to me meaningless: or perhaps the fact that it is grammatically meaningless conceals another meaning from me.<ref>Eliot 1932 pp. 230–231</ref></blockquote>
[[Arthur Quiller-Couch]] seemingly agreed, claiming that the lines were "a vague observation – to anyone whom life has taught to face facts... actually an ''uneducated'' conclusion, albeit most pardonable in one so young and ardent."<ref>Bate 1963 qtd. p. 517</ref>

Earl Wasserman, in 1953, responded to the discussion over the final lines and claimed, "the more we tug at the final lines of the ode, the more the noose of their meaning strangles our comprehension of the poem [...] The aphorism is all the more beguiling because it appears near the end of the poem, for its apparently climactic position has generally led to the assumption that it is the abstract summation of the poem [...] But the ode is not an abstract statement or an excursion into philosophy. It is a poem about things".<ref>Wasserman 1967 pp. 13–14</ref> Walter Evert, discussing the debate in 1965, justified the final lines of the poem in order to declare "The poem, then, accepts the urn for the immediate meditative imaginative pleasure that it can give, but it firmly defines the limits of artistic truth. In this it is wholly consistent with all the great poetry of Keats's last creative period."<ref>Evert 1965 p. 319</ref> Rick Rylance picked up the debate again in 1990 and explained that the true meaning of the final lines cannot be discerned merely by studying the language. This poses a problem for the [[New Critics]], who were prone to closely reading a poem's text.<ref>Rylance 1990 pp. 730–733</ref>

Walter Jackson Bate, in 1962, argued that, "the ''Grecian Urn'' possesses a quiet and constrained composure hardly equalled by the other odes of this month and perhaps even unsurpassed by the ode ''To Autumn'' of the following September [...] there is a severe repose about the ''Ode on a Grecian Urn''; it is both 'interwoven' and 'complete'; and within its tensely braced stanzas is a potential energy momentarily stilled and imprisoned."<ref>Bate 1962 pp. 140–141</ref> In 1964, literary critic David Perkins claimed in his essay "The Ode on a Nightingale" that the symbol of the urn "may possibly not satisfy as the principal concern of poetry [...] but is rather an element in the poetry and drama of human reactions".<ref name="Perkins p. 103">Perkins 1964 p. 103</ref> [[Hugh Kenner]], in 1971, explained that Keats "interrogates an urn, and answers for it, and its last answer, about Beauty and Truth, may seem almost intolerably enigmatic".<ref name=kenner1>Kenner 1971 p. 26</ref> To Kenner, the problem with Keats's Beauty and Truth statement arises out of the reader's inability to distinguish between the poet, his reflections on the urn, and any possible statement made by the urn. He concluded that Keats fails to provide his poet with enough characterization to be able to speak for the urn.<ref name=kenner1/>

In 1984, [[Helen Vendler]] argued, "The simple movement of entrance and exist, even in its triple repetition in the ''Urn'', is simply not structurally complex enough to be adequate, as a representational form, to what we know of aesthetic experience – or indeed to human experience generally."<ref>Vendler 1984 p. 152</ref> Andrew Bennet, in 1994, continued the discussion the final lines and the poem's effectiveness and said, "What is important and compelling in this poem is not so much what happens on the urn or in the poem, but the way that a response to an artwork both figures and prefigures its own critical response".<ref>Bennet 1994 p. 134</ref> In 1999, Andrew Motion claimed that the poem "tells a story that cannot be developed. Celebrating the transcendent powers of art, it creates a sense of imminence, but also registers a feeling of frustration."<ref>Motion 1999 p. 391</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=A}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* [[Walter Jackson Bate|Bate, Walter Jackson]]. ''John Keats''. Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963.
* Bate, Walter Jackson. ''The Stylistic Development of Keats''. New York: Humanities Press, 1962. OCLC 276912.
* Bennett, Andrew. ''Keats, Narrative, and Audience''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
* [[Harold Bloom|Bloom, Harold]]. ''The Visionary Company''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993. ISBN 0801406226
* [[Edmund Blunden|Blunden, Edmund]]. ''Leigh Hunt's "Examiner" examined''. Hamden: Archon Books, 1967.
* [[Cleanth Brooks|Brooks, Cleanth]]. ''[[The Well Wrought Urn|The Well-Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry]]''. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1947. {{oclc|265162960}}.
* [[Douglas Bush|Bush, Douglas]]. "Introduction" in ''John Keats: Selected Poems and Leters''. Ed. Doublas Bush. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1959.
* Carr, J. W. Comyns. "The Artistic Spirit in Modern Poetry". ''New Quarterly Magazine'', Vol. 5 (1876), pp. 146–165. {{oclc|2264902}}.
* [[T. S. Eliot|Eliot, T. S.]] "Dante" in ''Selected Essays''. London: Faber and Faber, 1932.
* Evert, Walter. ''Aesthetics and Myth in the Poetry of Keats''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965. OCLC 291999
* [[Robert Gittings|Gittings, Robert]]. ''John Keats''. London: Heinemann, 1968.
* Gumpert, Matthew. "[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-59037686.html Keats's 'To Haydon, With a Sonnet on Seeing the Elgin Marbles' and 'Seeing the Elgin Marbles']". ''Explicator'' (22 September 1999).
* [[Hugh Kenner|Kenner, Hugh]]. ''The Pound Era''. University of California Press, 1971.
* MacGillivray, J. R. "Ode on a Grecian Urn", ''Times Literary Supplement'' (9 July 1938): 465–466.
* Magunson, Paul. ''Reading Public Romanticism''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998.
* Matthews, G. M. ''John Keats: The Critical Heritage''. New York: Barnes & Noble Publishers, 1971. ISBN 0389044407
* [[Andrew Motion|Motion, Andrew]]. ''Keats''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. ISBN 0226542408
* Perkins, David. "The Ode on a Nightingale" in ''Keats: A Collection of Critical Essays''. Ed. Walter Jackson Bate, 103–112. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1964.
* [[I. A. Richards|Richards, I. A.]] ''Practical Criticism''. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1929.
* Rylance, Rick. "The New Criticism". ''Encyclopedia of Literature and Criticism''. Ed. Martin Cole et al. 730–731. London: Routledge, 1990.
* Sheley, Erin. "[http://www.erudit.org/revue/RON/2007/v/n45/015826ar.html Re-Imagining Olympus: Keats and the Mythology of Individual Consciousness]". Harvard University. Reprinted in "Romanticism on the Net", No. 45 (November 2007). Accessed 6 December 2008.
* Sikka, Sonia. "[http://www.calvin.edu/faith/resources/faculty/beauty/truth_of_beauty.pdf On The Truth of Beauty: Nietzsche, Heidegger, Keats]". ''The Heythrop Journal'', Vol. 39, No. 3 (1998), pp. 243–263. {{doi|10.1111/1468-2265.00076}}. Accessed 2009-11-03.
* Swanson, Roy Arthur. "[http://www.jstor.org/pss/373074 Form and Content in Keats's 'Ode on a Grecian Urn']". ''College English'', Vol. 23, No. 4 (January 1962), pp. 302–305.
* [[Helen Vendler|Vendler, Helen]]. ''The Odes of John Keats''. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.
* Wasserman, Earl. ''The Fine Tone''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967.

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
{{commons cat|Sosibios vase}}
*[http://www.bartleby.com/101/625.html Full text of poem]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ode On A Grecian Urn}}
[[Category:British poems]]
[[Category:Poetry by John Keats]]
[[Category:1820 poems]]

[[it:Ode su un'urna greca]]

Proby Thomas Cautley

2009-11-14T08:07:31Z

Fowler&fowler: +stone cite

'''Sir Proby Thomas Cautley''' [[Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath|KCB]] ([[1802]] – [[25 January]] [[1871]]), [[England|English]] [[engineer]] and [[palaeontologist]], born in [[Suffolk]], is best known for conceiving and supervising the construction of the ''Ganges Canal'' (now [[Ganga canal]]), in [[India]]. The 350 mile canal stretches some 350 miles between its headworks at [[Hardwar]] and its confluence with the [[Ganges river]] [[mainstem (hydrology)|mainstem]] in [[Kanpur]].<ref name=stone2002-p18>{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=18}}</ref>

Proby Cautley came to India during [[Company rule in India]] at age 17 and joined the [[Bengal Presidency]] artillery in 1819. In 1825, he assisted Captain Robert Smith, the engineer in charge of constructing the Eastern [[Yamuna]] canal, also called the [[Doab]] canal. He was made in charge of this canal for 12 years between 1831 and 1843. By 1836, he was Superintendent-General of Canals.

==Ganga canal==
{{main|Ganga canal}}
In 1840 Cautley reported on the proposed [[Ganga canal]], for the irrigation of the country between the rivers [[Ganges River|Ganga]], [[Hindan River|Hindan]] and [[Yamuna River|Yamuna]]- then called the Jumna, which was his most important work.

Cautley began working towards his dream of building a Ganga canal, and spent six months walking and riding through the area taking each measurement himself. He was confident that a 500-kilometre canal was feasible. There were many obstacles and objections to his project, mostly financial, but Cautley persevered and eventually persuaded the [[British East India Company]] to back him. This project was sanctioned in 1841, but the work was not begun till 1843, and even then Cautley found himself hampered in its execution by the opposition of [[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]].

Digging of the canal began in April 1842 <ref>[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V12_144.gif Upper Ganges Canal] [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]], v. 12, p. 138.</ref>. Cautley had to make his own bricks, [[Kiln|brick kiln]] and mortar. Initially, he was opposed by the [[Hindu]] priests at Haridwar, who felt that the waters of the holy river Ganga would be imprisoned but Cautley pacified them by agreeing to leave a gap in the dam from where the water could flow unchecked. He further appeased the priests by undertaking the repair of bathing ghats along the river. He also inaugurated the dam by the worship of [[Ganesh|Lord Ganesh]], the god of good beginnings.

The dam was faced with many complications- among them was the problem of the mountainous streams that threatened the canal. Near [[Roorkee]], the land fell away sharply and Cautley had to build an aqueduct to carry the canal for half a kilometre. As a result, at Roorkee the canal is 25 metres higher than the original river.

From 1845 to 1848 he was absent in England owing to ill-health, and on his return to India he was appointed director of canals in the North-Western Provinces.

When the canal formally opened on [[8 April]] [[1854]], its main channel was {{convert|348|mi|km}} long, its branches {{convert|306|mi|km}} long and the various tributaries over {{convert|3000|mi|km}} long. Over {{convert|767000|acre|km2|-1}} in 5,000 villages were irrigated.

One of the seven Hostels of [[IIT Roorkee]] is named after him.

==Fossil work==
Cautley was actively involved in [[Hugh Falconer|Dr. Hugh Falconer's]] fossil expeditions in the [[Siwalik Hills]]. He presented a large collection of fossil mammalia- among them a [[hippopotamus]] and [[crocodile]] fossils indicating that the area was once a swampland. Other animal remains that he found here included the [[Smilodon|sabre-toothed tiger]], ''Elephis ganesa''- an elephant with a trunk length of about 10 and a half feet, the bones of a fossil [[ostrich]] and the remains of giant [[Crane (bird)|cranes]] and [[tortoises]].

He also contributed numerous memoirs, some written in collaboration with Dr Hugh Falconer, to the Proceedings of the Bengal Asiatic Society and the [[Geological Society of London]] on the geology and fossil remains of the [[Shivalik Hills|Sivalik Hills]].

==Writings==
Cautley's writings indicated his large and varied interests. He wrote on a submerged city, twenty feet underground, in the [[Doab]]: on the coal and lignite in the [[Himalayas]]; on [[gold]] washings in the [[Siwalik Hills|Siwaliks]], between the [[Sutlej]] and the [[Yamuna]]; on a new species of [[snake]]; on the [[mastodons]] of the Siwaliks and on the manufacture of [[tar]].

In 1860 he published a full account of the making of the Ganga canal.
==Awards and honors==
In 1837, he received [[Wollaston medal]] of the [[Geological Survey of Great Britain]].

==Death==
After the Ganga canal was opened in 1854 he went back to [[England]], where he was made [[knight|KCB]], and from 1858 to 1868 he occupied a seat on the [[council of India]]. He died at [[Sydenham]], near [[London]], on [[25 January]] [[1871]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{Harvard reference | last = Brown | first = Joyce | title= A Memoir of Colonel Sir Proby Cautley, F.R.S., 1802-1871, Engineer and Palaeontologist | year = 1980 | journal = Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 185-225 | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/531808}}
*{{Harvard reference|last = Stone|first=Ian|title=Canal Irrigation in British India: Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy (Cambridge South Asian Studies)|publisher=Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 392|year=2002|isbn=0521526639}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cautley, Proby}}

[[Category:British paleontologists]]
[[Category:British engineers]]
[[Category:1802 births]]
[[Category:1871 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Suffolk]]
[[Category:People from Haridwar]]
[[Category:Members of the Council of India]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Wollaston Medal winners]]
[[Category:Bengal Artillery officers]]

[[fr:Proby Thomas Cautley]]
[[ja:プロビー・トマス・コートレー]]
[[pt:Proby Thomas Cautley]]

Proby Thomas Cautley

2009-11-14T08:06:23Z

Fowler&fowler: correcting (wrong british rule, wrong bengal, etc.) and adding relevant ref;

'''Sir Proby Thomas Cautley''' [[Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath|KCB]] ([[1802]] – [[25 January]] [[1871]]), [[England|English]] [[engineer]] and [[palaeontologist]], born in [[Suffolk]], is best known for conceiving and supervising the construction of the ''Ganges Canal'' (now [[Ganga canal]]), in [[India]]. The 350 mile canal stretches some 350 miles between its headworks at [[Hardwar]] and its confluence with the [[Ganges river]] [[mainstem (hydrology)|mainstem]] in [[Kanpur]].

Proby Cautley came to India during [[Company rule in India]] at age 17 and joined the [[Bengal Presidency]] artillery in 1819. In 1825, he assisted Captain Robert Smith, the engineer in charge of constructing the Eastern [[Yamuna]] canal, also called the [[Doab]] canal. He was made in charge of this canal for 12 years between 1831 and 1843. By 1836, he was Superintendent-General of Canals.

==Ganga canal==
{{main|Ganga canal}}
In 1840 Cautley reported on the proposed [[Ganga canal]], for the irrigation of the country between the rivers [[Ganges River|Ganga]], [[Hindan River|Hindan]] and [[Yamuna River|Yamuna]]- then called the Jumna, which was his most important work.

Cautley began working towards his dream of building a Ganga canal, and spent six months walking and riding through the area taking each measurement himself. He was confident that a 500-kilometre canal was feasible. There were many obstacles and objections to his project, mostly financial, but Cautley persevered and eventually persuaded the [[British East India Company]] to back him. This project was sanctioned in 1841, but the work was not begun till 1843, and even then Cautley found himself hampered in its execution by the opposition of [[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]].

Digging of the canal began in April 1842 <ref>[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V12_144.gif Upper Ganges Canal] [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]], v. 12, p. 138.</ref>. Cautley had to make his own bricks, [[Kiln|brick kiln]] and mortar. Initially, he was opposed by the [[Hindu]] priests at Haridwar, who felt that the waters of the holy river Ganga would be imprisoned but Cautley pacified them by agreeing to leave a gap in the dam from where the water could flow unchecked. He further appeased the priests by undertaking the repair of bathing ghats along the river. He also inaugurated the dam by the worship of [[Ganesh|Lord Ganesh]], the god of good beginnings.

The dam was faced with many complications- among them was the problem of the mountainous streams that threatened the canal. Near [[Roorkee]], the land fell away sharply and Cautley had to build an aqueduct to carry the canal for half a kilometre. As a result, at Roorkee the canal is 25 metres higher than the original river.

From 1845 to 1848 he was absent in England owing to ill-health, and on his return to India he was appointed director of canals in the North-Western Provinces.

When the canal formally opened on [[8 April]] [[1854]], its main channel was {{convert|348|mi|km}} long, its branches {{convert|306|mi|km}} long and the various tributaries over {{convert|3000|mi|km}} long. Over {{convert|767000|acre|km2|-1}} in 5,000 villages were irrigated.

One of the seven Hostels of [[IIT Roorkee]] is named after him.

==Fossil work==
Cautley was actively involved in [[Hugh Falconer|Dr. Hugh Falconer's]] fossil expeditions in the [[Siwalik Hills]]. He presented a large collection of fossil mammalia- among them a [[hippopotamus]] and [[crocodile]] fossils indicating that the area was once a swampland. Other animal remains that he found here included the [[Smilodon|sabre-toothed tiger]], ''Elephis ganesa''- an elephant with a trunk length of about 10 and a half feet, the bones of a fossil [[ostrich]] and the remains of giant [[Crane (bird)|cranes]] and [[tortoises]].

He also contributed numerous memoirs, some written in collaboration with Dr Hugh Falconer, to the Proceedings of the Bengal Asiatic Society and the [[Geological Society of London]] on the geology and fossil remains of the [[Shivalik Hills|Sivalik Hills]].

==Writings==
Cautley's writings indicated his large and varied interests. He wrote on a submerged city, twenty feet underground, in the [[Doab]]: on the coal and lignite in the [[Himalayas]]; on [[gold]] washings in the [[Siwalik Hills|Siwaliks]], between the [[Sutlej]] and the [[Yamuna]]; on a new species of [[snake]]; on the [[mastodons]] of the Siwaliks and on the manufacture of [[tar]].

In 1860 he published a full account of the making of the Ganga canal.
==Awards and honors==
In 1837, he received [[Wollaston medal]] of the [[Geological Survey of Great Britain]].

==Death==
After the Ganga canal was opened in 1854 he went back to [[England]], where he was made [[knight|KCB]], and from 1858 to 1868 he occupied a seat on the [[council of India]]. He died at [[Sydenham]], near [[London]], on [[25 January]] [[1871]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{Harvard reference | last = Brown | first = Joyce | title= A Memoir of Colonel Sir Proby Cautley, F.R.S., 1802-1871, Engineer and Palaeontologist | year = 1980 | journal = Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 185-225 | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/531808}}
*{{Harvard reference|last = Stone|first=Ian|title=Canal Irrigation in British India: Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy (Cambridge South Asian Studies)|publisher=Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 392|year=2002|isbn=0521526639}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cautley, Proby}}

[[Category:British paleontologists]]
[[Category:British engineers]]
[[Category:1802 births]]
[[Category:1871 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Suffolk]]
[[Category:People from Haridwar]]
[[Category:Members of the Council of India]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Wollaston Medal winners]]
[[Category:Bengal Artillery officers]]

[[fr:Proby Thomas Cautley]]
[[ja:プロビー・トマス・コートレー]]
[[pt:Proby Thomas Cautley]]

Proby Thomas Cautley

2008-05-30T15:54:40Z

Fowler&fowler: /* References */ adding brown paper; changing to notes and refs

'''Sir Proby Thomas Cautley''' ([[1802]] - [[January 25]], [[1871]]), [[England|English]] engineer and [[palaeontologist]], born in [[Suffolk]], is best known for conceiving and building the [[Ganges|Ganga]] canal in [[India]], which starts at [[Haridwar]].

Proby Cautley came to India during the [[British Raj]] at the age of 17 and joined the [[Bengal]] artillery in 1819. In 1825, he assisted Captain Robert Smith, the engineer in charge of constructing the Eastern [[Yamuna]] canal, also called the Doab canal. He was made in charge of this canal for 12 years between 1831 and 1843. By 1836, he was Superintendent-General of Canals.

==Ganga canal==
''Main article: [[Ganga canal]]''

In 1840 Cautley reported on the proposed [[Ganga canal]], for the irrigation of the country between the rivers [[Ganges River|Ganga]], [[Hindan River|Hindan]] and [[Yamuna River|Yamuna]]- then called the Jumna, which was his most important work.

Cautley began working towards his dream of building a Ganga canal, and spent six months walking and riding through the area taking each measurement himself. He was confident that a 500-kilometre canal was feasible. There were many obstacles and objections to his project, mostly financial, but Cautley persevered and eventually persuaded the [[British East India Company]] to back him. This project was sanctioned in 1841, but the work was not begun till 1843, and even then Cautley found himself hampered in its execution by the opposition of [[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]].

Digging of the canal began in April 1842 <ref>[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V12_144.gif Upper Ganges Canal] [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]], v. 12, p. 138.</ref>. Cautley had to make his own bricks, [[Kiln|brick kiln]] and mortar. Initially, he was opposed by the [[Hindu]] priests at Haridwar, who felt that the waters of the holy river Ganga would be imprisoned but Cautley pacified them by agreeing to leave a gap in the dam from where the water could flow unchecked. He further appeased the priests by undertaking the repair of bathing ghats along the river. He also inaugurated the dam by the worship of [[Ganesh|Lord Ganesh]], the god of good beginnings.

The dam was faced with many complications- among them was the problem of the mountainous streams that threatened the canal. Near [[Roorkee]], the land fell away sharply and Cautley had to build an aqueduct to carry the canal for half a kilometre. As a result, at Roorkee the canal is 25 metres higher than the original river.

From 1845 to 1848 he was absent in England owing to ill-health, and on his return to India he was appointed director of canals in the North-Western Provinces.

When the canal formally opened on [[8 April]] [[1854]], its main channel was {{convert|348|mi|km}} long, its branches {{convert|306|mi|km}} long and the various tributaries over {{convert|3000|mi|km}} long. Over {{convert|767000|acre|sqkm|-1}} in 5,000 villages were irrigated.

One of the seven Hostels of [[IIT Roorkee]] is named after him.

==Fossil work==
Cautley was actively involved in [[Hugh Falconer|Dr. Hugh Falconer's]] fossil expeditions in the [[Siwalik Hills]]. He presented a large collection of fossil mammalia- among them a [[hippopotamus]] and [[crocodile]] fossils indicating that the area was once a swampland. Other animal remains that he found here included the [[Smilodon|sabre-toothed tiger]], ''Elephis ganesa''- an elephant with a trunk length of about 10 and a half feet, the bones of a fossil [[ostrich]] and the remains of giant [[Crane (bird)|cranes]] and [[tortoises]].

He also contributed numerous memoirs, some written in collaboration with Dr Hugh Falconer, to the Proceedings of the Bengal Asiatic Society and the [[Geological Society of London]] on the geology and fossil remains of the [[Shivalik Hills|Sivalik Hills]].

==Writings==
Cautley's writings indicated his large and varied interests. He wrote on a submerged city, twenty feet underground, in the [[Doab]]: on the coal and lignite in the [[Himalayas]]; on [[gold]] washings in the [[Siwalik Hills|Siwaliks]], between the [[Sutlej]] and the [[Yamuna]]; on a new species of [[snake]]; on the [[mastodons]] of the Siwaliks and on the manufacture of [[tar]].

In 1860 he published a full account of the making of the Ganga canal.

==Death==
After the Ganga canal was opened in 1854 he went back to [[England]], where he was made [[knight|KCB]], and from 1858 to 1868 he occupied a seat on the [[council of India]]. He died at [[Sydenham]], near [[London]], on the [[25 January]] [[1871]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
==References==
* {{Harvard reference | last = Brown | first = Joyce | title= A Memoir of Colonel Sir Proby Cautley, F.R.S., 1802-1871, Engineer and Palaeontologist | year = 1980 | journal = Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 185-225 | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/531808}}
* ''Roads to Mussoorie'' by [[Ruskin Bond]]

*{{1911}}

[[Category:British paleontologists|Cautley]]
[[Category:1802 births|Cautley, Proby Thomas]]
[[Category:1871 deaths|Cautley, Proby Thomas]]
[[Category:People from Suffolk|Cautley, Proby Thomas]]
[[Category:People from Haridwar]]

[[fr:Proby Thomas Cautley]]
[[pt:Proby Thomas Cautley]]

Sahitya Akademi Award

2008-02-16T11:36:58Z

Fowler&fowler: combining first two paragraphs

{{Infobox Indian Awards
| awardname = Sahitya Akademi Award
| image =
| type =
| category = [[Literature]] (Individual)
| instituted = [[1954]]
| firstawarded = [[1954]]
| lastawarded = [[2007]]
| total =
| awardedby = [[Sahitya Akademi]], [[Government of India]]
| cashaward =
| description = Literary award in [[India]]
| previousnames =
| obverse =
| reverse =
| ribbon =
| firstawardees =
| lastawardees =
| precededby =
| followedby =
}}
The '''Sahitya Akademi Award''' is a literary honour in [[India]]. Established in 1954, and awarded yearly by the [[Sahitya Akademi]], India's National Academy of Letters, to outstanding literary works published in any of the twenty four major languages of India,<ref>[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa1.htm Award history]</ref> it is the second-highest literary honour conferred by the [[Government of India]].

==The Award==
The award carries a monetary component (Rupees 50,000) and a plaque. Sahitya Akademi gives twenty-four awards to literary works in the languages, and are given after a year-long process of scrutiny, discussion and selection.

The awards are given in 24 Indian languages, including Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, English, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu <ref>[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa10301.htm Sahitya Akademi Awards 1955-2005, Official listings]</ref>.

The awards are meant to recognise and promote excellence in Indian writing and expanding the very definition of Indian [[literature]] by acknowledging new trends and movements. They are a reflection of current tastes and contribute to the formation of an Indian sensibility.

==Other Awards==
===[[Sahitya Akademi Fellowship]]s===
It is the highest honour <ref>[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa2.htm Sahitya Akademi Fellowships]</ref> conferred by the Akademi, and the Akademi has a system of electing [[Sahitya Akademi Fellowship|Fellows and Honorary Fellows]]

===Anand Coomarswamy Fellowships===
Named after an Indian literary giant, [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]], the fellowship was started in 1996. It is given to scholars from Asian countries to spend periods varying from 3 to 12 months in India to pursue a literary project <ref>[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa3.htm Anand Coomarswamy and Premchand Fellowships]</ref>.

===Premchand Fellowships===
Started in 2005, this fellowship, name after noted [[Hindi]] writer [[Premchand]], is offered to persons of eminence in the field of Culture from the [[SAARC]] countries.

===Bhasha Samman===
These special awards are given to writers/scholars for significant contribution to the languages not formally recognised by the Akademi and also for contribution to classical & medieval Literature. The awards carries a plaque and a cash prize of i.e. Rs.50,000/- <ref>[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa4.htm Bhasha Awards]</ref>.
===Translation Awards===
The Akademi gives awards for translation in the 24 languages recognised by it every year, since 1989. The award carries a monetary component (Rs. 20, 000) and a plaque.

==Recent Awards==
===2006===
* [[Assamese]]: Cheneh Jorir Ganthi (Short Stories) - Atulananda Goswami

===2005===
*[[Assamese language|Assamese]]: [[Yeshe Dorje Thongchi]] - [[Mouna Ounth Mukhar Hriday]] (Novel)
*[[Bengali language|Bengali]]: [[Binoy Mazumdar]] - Haspatale Lekha Kabitaguchha (Poetry)
*[[Bodo language|Bodo]]: [[Mangalsingh Hazowary]] - Jiuni Mwgthang Bisombi Arw Aroj (Poetry)
*[[Dogri language|Dogri]]: [[Krishan Sharma]] - Dhaldi Dhuppe Da Sek (Short Stories)
*[[English language|English]]: [[Upamanyu Chatterjee]] - [[The Mammaries of the Welfare State]] (Novel)
*[[Gujarati language|Gujrati]]: Suresh Dalal - Akhand Zalar Vage (Poetry)
*[[Hindi]]: [[Manohar Shyam Joshi]] - Kyap (Novel)

==Indian Literature Golden Jubilee Translation Awards==
To celebrate the 50th anniversary of Indian Literature, the bi-monthly journal of Sahitya Akademi, a nation-wide translation competition in Poetry, Fiction & Oral Literature was announced by the Akademi on 29, July, 2007. The following are the prize-winners :-

===Poetry===
*1st Prize : Mr [[Rana Nayar]], Professor in English, Punjab University, E-70, Sector-14, Chandigarh - 160 014.
*2nd Prize : [[Dr Tapan Kumar Pradhan]], Member of Faculty, Reserve Bank of India, Zonal Training Centre, Sector - 7, CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai - 400 614.)
*3rd Prize : Ms Paromita Das, 16, Pub Sarania, Silpukhuri, Guwahati - 781 003.

===Fiction===
*1st Prize : Subrata Banerjee, Visiting Professor, CRRID, Hooghly, West Bengal
*2nd Prize : Shoma A. Chatterjee (Film Journalist), 109/33, Hazra Road, Kolkata - 700 026.
*3rd Prize : Abha Shah,D-7, III Floor, Atur Park, Chembur, Mumbai - 400 171.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[Jnanpith Award]]
*[[Sahitya Akademi Fellowship]]
*[[Indian Literature (journal)| ''Indian Literature'']]
*[[Sahitya Akademi Award to Bengali Writers]]
*[[List of winners of Sahitya Akademi Awards for writing in Rajasthani language]]
*[[Sahity Akademy Award to Assamese Writers]]
*[[List of poetry awards | ''Poetry Awards'']]

== External links ==
[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa10301.htm Official Site for Sahitya Akademi Award]

{{India Honours and Decorations}}
[[Category:Indian literary awards]]
[[Category:Awards established in 1954]]
[[Category:Sahitya Akademi Award recipients| ]]
[[Category:Indian literature]]
{{award-stub}}

[[ml:കേരള സാഹിത്യ അക്കാദമി അവാര്‍ഡ്]]

Sahitya Akademi Award

2008-02-16T11:31:18Z

Fowler&fowler: changing into to same format as other Indian honours and decorations

{{Infobox Indian Awards
| awardname = Sahitya Akademi Award
| image =
| type =
| category = [[Literature]] (Individual)
| instituted = [[1954]]
| firstawarded = [[1954]]
| lastawarded = [[2007]]
| total =
| awardedby = [[Sahitya Akademi]], [[Government of India]]
| cashaward =
| description = Literary award in [[India]]
| previousnames =
| obverse =
| reverse =
| ribbon =
| firstawardees =
| lastawardees =
| precededby =
| followedby =
}}
The '''Sahitya Akademi Award''' is a literary honour in [[India]]. Awarded by the [[Sahitya Akademi]], India's National Academy of Letters, it is the second-highest literary honour conferred by the [[Government of India]].

Established in 1954, the awards are given each year to the most outstanding books of literary merit published in any of the 24 major Indian languages recognised by it <ref>[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa1.htm Award history]</ref>.

==The Award==
The award carries a monetary component (Rupees 50,000) and a plaque. Sahitya Akademi gives twenty-four awards to literary works in the languages, and are given after a year-long process of scrutiny, discussion and selection.

The awards are given in 24 Indian languages, including Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, English, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu <ref>[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa10301.htm Sahitya Akademi Awards 1955-2005, Official listings]</ref>.

The awards are meant to recognise and promote excellence in Indian writing and expanding the very definition of Indian [[literature]] by acknowledging new trends and movements. They are a reflection of current tastes and contribute to the formation of an Indian sensibility.

==Other Awards==
===[[Sahitya Akademi Fellowship]]s===
It is the highest honour <ref>[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa2.htm Sahitya Akademi Fellowships]</ref> conferred by the Akademi, and the Akademi has a system of electing [[Sahitya Akademi Fellowship|Fellows and Honorary Fellows]]

===Anand Coomarswamy Fellowships===
Named after an Indian literary giant, [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]], the fellowship was started in 1996. It is given to scholars from Asian countries to spend periods varying from 3 to 12 months in India to pursue a literary project <ref>[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa3.htm Anand Coomarswamy and Premchand Fellowships]</ref>.

===Premchand Fellowships===
Started in 2005, this fellowship, name after noted [[Hindi]] writer [[Premchand]], is offered to persons of eminence in the field of Culture from the [[SAARC]] countries.

===Bhasha Samman===
These special awards are given to writers/scholars for significant contribution to the languages not formally recognised by the Akademi and also for contribution to classical & medieval Literature. The awards carries a plaque and a cash prize of i.e. Rs.50,000/- <ref>[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa4.htm Bhasha Awards]</ref>.
===Translation Awards===
The Akademi gives awards for translation in the 24 languages recognised by it every year, since 1989. The award carries a monetary component (Rs. 20, 000) and a plaque.

==Recent Awards==
===2006===
* [[Assamese]]: Cheneh Jorir Ganthi (Short Stories) - Atulananda Goswami

===2005===
*[[Assamese language|Assamese]]: [[Yeshe Dorje Thongchi]] - [[Mouna Ounth Mukhar Hriday]] (Novel)
*[[Bengali language|Bengali]]: [[Binoy Mazumdar]] - Haspatale Lekha Kabitaguchha (Poetry)
*[[Bodo language|Bodo]]: [[Mangalsingh Hazowary]] - Jiuni Mwgthang Bisombi Arw Aroj (Poetry)
*[[Dogri language|Dogri]]: [[Krishan Sharma]] - Dhaldi Dhuppe Da Sek (Short Stories)
*[[English language|English]]: [[Upamanyu Chatterjee]] - [[The Mammaries of the Welfare State]] (Novel)
*[[Gujarati language|Gujrati]]: Suresh Dalal - Akhand Zalar Vage (Poetry)
*[[Hindi]]: [[Manohar Shyam Joshi]] - Kyap (Novel)

==Indian Literature Golden Jubilee Translation Awards==
To celebrate the 50th anniversary of Indian Literature, the bi-monthly journal of Sahitya Akademi, a nation-wide translation competition in Poetry, Fiction & Oral Literature was announced by the Akademi on 29, July, 2007. The following are the prize-winners :-

===Poetry===
*1st Prize : Mr [[Rana Nayar]], Professor in English, Punjab University, E-70, Sector-14, Chandigarh - 160 014.
*2nd Prize : [[Dr Tapan Kumar Pradhan]], Member of Faculty, Reserve Bank of India, Zonal Training Centre, Sector - 7, CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai - 400 614.)
*3rd Prize : Ms Paromita Das, 16, Pub Sarania, Silpukhuri, Guwahati - 781 003.

===Fiction===
*1st Prize : Subrata Banerjee, Visiting Professor, CRRID, Hooghly, West Bengal
*2nd Prize : Shoma A. Chatterjee (Film Journalist), 109/33, Hazra Road, Kolkata - 700 026.
*3rd Prize : Abha Shah,D-7, III Floor, Atur Park, Chembur, Mumbai - 400 171.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[Jnanpith Award]]
*[[Sahitya Akademi Fellowship]]
*[[Indian Literature (journal)| ''Indian Literature'']]
*[[Sahitya Akademi Award to Bengali Writers]]
*[[List of winners of Sahitya Akademi Awards for writing in Rajasthani language]]
*[[Sahity Akademy Award to Assamese Writers]]
*[[List of poetry awards | ''Poetry Awards'']]

== External links ==
[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa10301.htm Official Site for Sahitya Akademi Award]

{{India Honours and Decorations}}
[[Category:Indian literary awards]]
[[Category:Awards established in 1954]]
[[Category:Sahitya Akademi Award recipients| ]]
[[Category:Indian literature]]
{{award-stub}}

[[ml:കേരള സാഹിത്യ അക്കാദമി അവാര്‍ഡ്]]

Sahitya Akademi Award

2007-11-18T14:47:48Z

Fowler&fowler: SA fellowship

{{unreferenced|date=September 2006}}

The '''Sahitya Akademi awards''' was instituted in 1954 in India and is administered by the [[Sahitya Akademi]]. The Sahitya Akademi awards prizes to the most outstanding books of literary merit published in any of the major Indian languages recognised by it.

The award carries a monetary component (Rupees 50,000) and a plaque. Sahitya Akademi gives twenty-four awards to literary works in the languages it has recognised and an equal number to literary translations from and into the languages of [[India]], both after a year-long process of scrutiny, discussion and selection. The awards are meant to recognise and promote excellence in Indian writing and expanding the very definition of Indian [[literature]] by acknowledging new trends and movements. They are a reflection of current tastes and contribute to the formation of an Indian sensibility.

The Akademi also gives special awards called Bhasha Samman to writers/scholars for significant contribution to the languages not formally recognised by the Akademi as also for contribution to classical & medieval Literature. It also has a system of electing [[Sahitya Akademi Fellowship|Fellows and Honorary Fellows]], as also offering Anand Coomarswamy and Premchand Fellowships.

The list of awardees (and their works) of the year 2005 are:
*[[Assamese language|Assamese]]: [[Yeshe Dorje Thongchi]] - [[Mouna Ounth Mukhar Hriday]] (Novel)
*[[Bengali language|Bengali]]: [[Binoy Mazumdar]] - Haspatale Lekha Kabitaguchha (Poetry)
*[[Bodo language|Bodo]]: [[Mangalsingh Hazowary]] - Jiuni Mwgthang Bisombi Arw Aroj (Poetry)
*[[Dogri language|Dogri]]: [[Krishan Sharma]] - Dhaldi Dhuppe Da Sek (Short Stories)
*[[English language|English]]: [[Upamanyu Chatterjee]] - [[The Mammaries of the Welfare State]] (Novel)
*[[Gujarati language|Gujrati]]: Suresh Dalal - Akhand Zalar Vage (Poetry)
*[[Hindi]]: [[Manohar Shyam Joshi]] - Kyap (Novel)

== See also ==

*[[Sahitya Akademi Award to Bengali Writers]]
*[[List of winners of Sahitya Akademi Awards for writing in Rajasthani language]]
*[[Sahity Akademy Award to Assamese Writers]]
*[[Sahitya Akademi Fellowship]]

== External links ==
[http://www.sahitya-akademi.org/sahitya-akademi/awa10301.htm Official Site for Sahitya Akademi Award]

[[Category:Indian literary awards]]
[[Category:Awards established in 1954]]
[[Category:Sahitya Akademi Award recipients| ]]

{{award-stub}}

[[ml:കേരള സാഹിത്യ അക്കാദമി അവാര്‍ഡ്]]

Committee on Social Thought

2007-10-12T14:30:05Z

Fowler&fowler: +ramanujan

The '''Committee on Social Thought''', one of several [[PhD]]-granting committees at the [[University of Chicago]], was started in 1941 by the historian [[John U. Nef]] along with economist [[Frank Knight]], anthropologist [[Robert Redfield]], and University President [[Robert Maynard Hutchins]]. The committee is interdisciplinary, but it is not centered on any specific topic; rather, the committee has, since its inception, drawn together noted academics and writers to "foster awareness of the permanent questions at the origin of all learned inquiry" [http://socialthought.uchicago.edu/]. Notable past members of the committee have included [[T.S. Eliot]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Mircea Eliade]], [[Allan Bloom]], [[Saul Bellow]], [[David Grene]], [[Hannah Arendt]], [[Leo Strauss]], and [[J. M. Coetzee]]. Current faculty include renowned [[Sanskrit]]ist [[Wendy Doniger]], poet and philologist [[A. K. Ramanujan]], theologian [[David Tracy]], classicist [[James M. Redfield]], psychologist and philosopher [[Jonathan Lear]], philosopher [[Jean-Luc Marion]], philosopher [[Robert B. Pippin]], [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Laureate]] economist [[Robert Fogel]], political philosopher [[Mark Lilla]], historian of science [[Lorraine Daston]], and physician and philosopher [[Leon Kass]], (former chairman of the [[President's Council on Bioethics]]).

== See also ==
* [[social theory]]

==External links==
*[http://socialthought.uchicago.edu Committee on Social Thought]

[[Category:University of Chicago]]

{{US-midwest-university-stub}}

Pakistan Movement

2007-06-13T04:23:58Z

Fowler&fowler: rv addition of hoax biography; there's nothing on this malhi on Google scholar or on academic sites. Islescape, please nominate as AfD

'''Pakistan Movement''' or '''Tehrik-e-Pakistan''' ([[Urdu]]: '''تحریک پاکستان''') is a name given to the Movement carried out by the [[Muslim]]s of [[British India]] to create a separate [[homeland]]. This struggle was led by the [[Muslim League]] and resulted in the [[Partition of India|partition]] of the [[British Empire]]. [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah|Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] was head of the movement. The other Muslim League leaders were: [[Allama Iqbal]], [[Liaqat Ali Khan]], [[Fatima Jinnah]], [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], [[A.K. Fazlul Huq]], and [[Abdur Rab Nishtar|Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar]].

The [[Pakistan Resolution]] was passed in [[1940]] at [[Lahore]]. Muslim League made this resolution its main objective election campaigns. Soon after [[World War II]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] were convinced that keeping British colony in [[South Asia]] was no longer possible, as the United Kingdom itself was economically shattered by the war. British India was divided into [[Pakistan]] and [[India]].

[[Image:Working Committee.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[Muslim League]] Working Committee at the [[Lahore Resolution|Lahore session]]]]
The idea of [[Pakistan]] was presented by [[Muhammad Iqbal|Allama Muhammad Iqbal]] in [[1930]]. Iqbal asked Jinnah to focus his energies towards getting an independent homeland for Muslims of the South Asia. The name was proposed by [[Choudhary Rahmat Ali]] in his [[Pakistan Declaration]]<ref name="cra">Choudhary Rahmat Ali, (1933), ''[[Now or Never; Are we to live or perish forever?]]'', [[pamphlet]], published [[28 January]]. (Rehmat Ali then was an [[undergraduate]] at the [[University of Cambridge]])</ref> in [[1933]].

==Timeline==

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
<div style="font-size: 85%">
*[[1857]] [[War of Indian Independence of 1857|War of Independence]]
*[[1885]] [[Indian National Congress|Formation of the Indian National Congress]]
*[[1905]] [[Partition of Bengal]]
*[[1906]] Simla Deputation
*[[1906]] [[Muslim League|Founding of the All-India Muslim League]]
*[[1909]] [[Government of India Act 1909|Minto – Morley Reforms]]
*[[1911]] [[Partition of Bengal|Annulment of the Partition of Bengal]]
*[[1914]]-18 [[World War I]]
*[[1916]] [[Lucknow Pact]]
*[[1919]] [[Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms]]
*[[1919]]-23 [[Khilafat Movement]]
*[[1922]]-29 Hindu – Muslim Riots
*[[1927]] Delhi Muslim Proposals
*[[1928]] [[Nehru Report]]
*[[1929]] [[Fourteen Points of Jinnah]]
*[[1930]] [[Simon Commission|Simon Commission Report]]
*[[1930]] [[Allahabad Address|Allama Iqbal Address]]
</div>
{{col-2}}
<div style="font-size: 85%">
*1930-32 Round Table Conferences
*1932 Communal Award (1932)
*[[1933]] [[Now or Never|Now or Never Pamphlet]]
*[[1935]] [[Government of India Act 1935|Government of India Act]]
*1937 Elections
*1937-39 Congress Rule in the Provinces
*1938 Pirpur Report
*[[1939]]-45 [[World War II]]
*[[1940]] [[Pakistan Resolution]]
*[[1942]] [[Cripps' mission]]
*1944 Gandhi - Jinnah Talks
*1945 The Simla Conference
*[[1946]] [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India|The Cabinet Mission]]
*1946 [[Direct Action Day]]
*1946 Interim Government Installed in Office
*[[1946]] [[Quit Kashmmir Campaign]] as the formation of the interim government of [[Azad Kashmir]]
*1946 June 3 Partition Plan
*1947 Creation of Pakistan
</div>
{{col-end}}

==Statements and Sayings==

;[[Allama Iqbal]]
 
{{cquote|I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.<ref name="res1">[http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_iqbal_1930.html Sir Muhammad Iqbal’s 1930 Presidential Address], from Columbia University site</ref>|}}
 
;[[Choudhary Rahmat Ali]]
 
{{cquote|At this solemn hour in the history of India, when British and Indian statesmen are laying the foundations of a Federal Constitution for that land, we address this appeal to you, in the name of our common heritage, on behalf of our thirty million Muslim brethren who live in [[Pakistan]] - by which we mean the five Northern units of India, Viz: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province (Afghan Province), Kashmir, Sind and Baluchistan - for your sympathy and support in our grim and fateful struggle against political crucifixion and complete annihilation.<ref name="cra" />}}
 
;[[Quaid-e-Azam]]
 
{{cquote|It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religious in the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders, and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality, and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literatures. They neither intermarry nor interdine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Mussalmans derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes, and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other and, likewise, their victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a state.” <ref name="res3">[http://www.nazariapak.info/data/quaid/statements/two-nation.asp Excerpt from the Presidential Address delivered by Quaid-e-Azam at Lahore, March 22-23, 1940], Nazariapak.info</ref>}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Other Leaders==
* [[Allama Mashriqi]]
* [[Chaudhry Naseer Ahmad Malhi]]
* [[Maulana Zafar Ali Khan]]
* [[Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk]]

==See also==
*[[A Short History of Pakistan]] an edited book by [[I H Qureshi]]
*[[History of Pakistan]]
*[[Pakistan Resolution]]

== External links ==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
* {{cite web
| title = Important Events at a Glance (1857 to 1947)
| work = Nazariapak.info
| url = http://nazariapak.info/data/history/glance/chronology.asp
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Pakistan Movement
| work = Pioneers of Freedom
| url = http://www.cybercity-online.net/pof/pakistan_movement.html
}}
* {{cite web
| title = The Pakistan Movement
| work = Story of Pakistan website
| url = http://www.storyofpakistan.com/timeline06.htm
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Iqbal and the Pakistan Movement
| work = Iqbal Academy Pakistan
| url = http://www.allamaiqbal.com/person/movement/move_main.htm
}}
* {{cite web
| title = History of Pakistan Movement
| work = Azadi2000
| url = http://www.brain.net.pk/~wisetech/50/history/
}}
* {{cite web
| title = The Pakistan Movement (Picture Gallery)
| work = Pakistan.gov
| url = http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/Quaid/movement_pic.htm
}}
</div>

{{PakCreation}}

[[Category:Pakistan Movement| ]]

Lahore Fort

2007-02-10T20:05:41Z

Fowler&fowler: changing shalimar to unesco version: shalamar

{{CoorHeader|31|35|25|N|74|18|35|E}}
{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = The Fort and Shalamar Gardens, Lahore
| Image = [[Image:Alamgiri_Gate.jpg|300px|[[Alamgiri Gate]] - Main Entrance to Lahore Fort, with Hazuri Bagh Pavilion in foreground]]
| State Party = {{PAK}}
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 171
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 1981
| Session = 2nd
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/171
}}

[[Image:The_Hazuri_Bagh_Pavilion(1870).jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Alamgiri Gate]], 1870]]

The '''Lahore Fort''', locally referred to as Shahi Qila [[citadel]] of the city of [[Lahore]], [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]. It is located in the northwestern corner of Lahore, adjacent to the [[Walled City of Lahore|Walled City]]. Some of the famous sites within the fort are: [[Sheesh Mahal]], [[Alamgiri Gate]], [[Naulakha pavilion]], and [[Moti Masjid]]. The fort is 1,400 feet long and 1,115 feet wide. In 1981, the fort was inscribed as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] along with the [[Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)|Shalamar Gardens]].

==Origins==
[[Image:July 9 2005 - The Lahore Fort-Front center view of hall of special audience.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Diwan-e-Khas: Hall of Special Audience]]

[[Image:Diwan-i-Aam_Renovated.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Diwan-e-Aam: Hall of Public Audience (arched vault and ceiling not original)]]

[[Image:July 9 2005 - The Lahore Fort-Another sideview of Naulakha pavillion.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Naulakha Pavilion]]

According to available historical information, the origin of Lahore Fort is obscure. Traditionally the foundation of Lahore and its fort is based on myths and, is attributed to [[Lava (Ramayana)|Loh]], the son of [[Rama]], [[Avatara]] of Lord [[Vishnu]] of [[Hinduism]], and hero of the [[Ramayana]] of epic age (1200-800 B.C.). However, during the excavation done in the year [[1959|1959 A.D.]] by the Department of Archaeology, in front of Diwan-e-Aam, a gold coin of [[Mahmood of Ghazni]] dated A.H. 146 (1025 A.D.) was found at a depth of 25 feet from the level of the lawns. Cultural layers continued to a further depth of 15 feet, giving strong indications that people had lived here, long before the conquest of Lahore by Mahmud in 1021 A.D. Further mention of the fort is traceable to [[Shahab-ud-Din Ghori]]'s successive invasions of Lahore from 1180 to 1186 A.D.

==Timeline==
* It cannot be said with certainty when the Lahore Fort was originally constructed or by whom, since this information is lost to history, possibly forever. However, evidence found in archaeological digs gives strong indications that it was built long before 1025 A.D.
* 1241 A.D. - Destroyed by [[Mongols]].
* 1267 A.D. - Rebuilt by Sultan [[Ghiyas ud din Balban]].
* 1398 A.D. - Destroyed again, by [[Timur|Amir Tamir]]'s army.
* 1421 A.D. - Rebuilt in mud by Sultan Mubark Shah Syed.
* 1432 A.D. - The fort is occupied by Shaikh Ali of Kabul who makes repairs to the damages inflicted on it by Shaikha Khokhar.
* 1566 A.D. - Rebuilt by [[Mughal]] emperor [[Akbar]], in solid brick masonry on its earlier foundations. Also perhaps, its area was extended towards the river [[Ravi River|Ravi]], which then and up to about 1849 A.D., used to flow along its fortification on the north. Akbar also built ''Doulat Khana-e-Khas-o-Am'', the famous ''Jharoka-e-Darshan'' (Balcony for Royal Appearance), Masjidi Gate etc.
* 1618 A.D. - [[Jehangir]] adds ''Doulat Khana-e-Jehangir'' in 1618 A.D.
* 1631 A.D. - [[Shahjahan]] builds ''Shish Mahal'' (Mirror Palace).
* 1633 A.D. - Shahjahan builds ''Khawabgah'' (a dream place or sleeping area), ''Hamam'' (bath ) and ''Khilwat Khana'' (retiring room).
* 1645 A.D. - Shahjahan builds ''Diwan-e-Khas'' (''Hall of Special Audience'') and probably also ''Moti Masjid'' (Pearl Mosque) in the same year.
* 1674 A.D. - [[Aurangzeb]] adds the massively fluted ''[[Alamgiri Gate]]''.
* (Sometime during) 1799-1839 A.D. - The outer fortification wall on the north with the moat, the marble ''athdera'', ''Havaeli Mai Jindan'' and ''Bara Dari Raja Dhiyan Singh'' were constructed by [[Ranjit Singh]], Sikh ruler from 1799-1839 A.D.
* 1846 A.D. - Occupied by the British.
* 1927 A.D. - The British hand over the Fort to the ''Department of Archaeology'' after demolishing a portion of the fortification wall on the south and converting it into a stepped form thus ''defortifying'' the fort.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>

Image:Alamgiri_Gate2.jpg|[[Alamgiri Gate]] - Main Entrance

Image:Gateway_Ramparts.jpg|Gateway Ramparts

Image:Khangah_Lahore_Fort.jpg|Old 'Khangah' inside Fort

Image:July 9 2005 - The Lahore Fort-A gate from the backside.jpg|Roshnai Gate - Side Entrance

Image:The_Lahore_Forts_Alamgiri_Gate_Picture2_taken_at_night_-_July_20_2005.jpg|[[Alamgiri Gate]] - Main Entrance at Night

Image:Naulakha_3.jpg|Naulakha Pavilion

Image:Naulakha_Detail.jpg|Naulakha Detail

Image:Jharoka_Diwan-i-Aam.jpg|'Jharoka' - Royal Balcony

</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Alamgiri Gate]]
*[[Hazuri Bagh]]
*[[Moti Masjid]]
*[[Naulakha pavilion]]
*[[Roshnai Gate]]
*[[Sheesh Mahal]]
*[[Badshahi Mosque]]
*[[Wazir Khan Mosque]]
*[[Mughal Empire]]
*[[List of forts]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Lahore Fort}}
* [http://travel.webshots.com/album/147543773ujZqjm Photographs of Lahore Fort]
* [http://www.ibtada.com/ibtada.php?cur_page=main&sub=submain&mainpage=tarakhi_mukam_ki_sair&page=qila_lahore&pgno=1 Detailed Lahore Fort History/Different Portion (urdu)]
*[http://server786.com/lhrtasveer/LAHOREFORT/1LAHOREFORT.htm server786.com, Lahore larges photo Gallery]
*[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/171 UNESCO World Heritage Centre]
*[http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/lahore/fortindex.htm Photos and information about the Lahore Fort]
*[http://www.world-heritage-tour.org/asia/pk/lahore/map.html Panographic Images of Lahore Fort And Shalimar Garden]

{{World Heritage Sites in Pakistan}}

[[Category:Architecture of Lahore]]
[[Category:Forts in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Islamic architecture]]
[[Category:Lahore District]]
[[Category:Lahore Fort]]
[[Category:Mughal architecture]]
[[Category:Royal residences in Pakistan]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Pakistan]]

[[ko:라호르 성]]
[[sv:Lahore fort]]

Lahore Fort

2007-02-10T20:03:57Z

Fowler&fowler: adding the new UNESCO WHS info box

{{CoorHeader|31|35|25|N|74|18|35|E}}
{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = The Fort and Shalimar Gardens, Lahore
| Image = [[Image:Alamgiri_Gate.jpg|300px|[[Alamgiri Gate]] - Main Entrance to Lahore Fort, with Hazuri Bagh Pavilion in foreground]]
| State Party = {{PAK}}
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = i, ii, iii
| ID = 171
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia|Asia-Pacific]]
| Year = 1981
| Session = 2nd
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/171
}}

[[Image:The_Hazuri_Bagh_Pavilion(1870).jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Alamgiri Gate]], 1870]]

The '''Lahore Fort''', locally referred to as Shahi Qila [[citadel]] of the city of [[Lahore]], [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]. It is located in the northwestern corner of Lahore, adjacent to the [[Walled City of Lahore|Walled City]]. Some of the famous sites within the fort are: [[Sheesh Mahal]], [[Alamgiri Gate]], [[Naulakha pavilion]], and [[Moti Masjid]]. The fort is 1,400 feet long and 1,115 feet wide. In 1981, the fort was inscribed as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] along with the [[Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)|Shalamar Gardens]].

==Origins==
[[Image:July 9 2005 - The Lahore Fort-Front center view of hall of special audience.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Diwan-e-Khas: Hall of Special Audience]]

[[Image:Diwan-i-Aam_Renovated.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Diwan-e-Aam: Hall of Public Audience (arched vault and ceiling not original)]]

[[Image:July 9 2005 - The Lahore Fort-Another sideview of Naulakha pavillion.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Naulakha Pavilion]]

According to available historical information, the origin of Lahore Fort is obscure. Traditionally the foundation of Lahore and its fort is based on myths and, is attributed to [[Lava (Ramayana)|Loh]], the son of [[Rama]], [[Avatara]] of Lord [[Vishnu]] of [[Hinduism]], and hero of the [[Ramayana]] of epic age (1200-800 B.C.). However, during the excavation done in the year [[1959|1959 A.D.]] by the Department of Archaeology, in front of Diwan-e-Aam, a gold coin of [[Mahmood of Ghazni]] dated A.H. 146 (1025 A.D.) was found at a depth of 25 feet from the level of the lawns. Cultural layers continued to a further depth of 15 feet, giving strong indications that people had lived here, long before the conquest of Lahore by Mahmud in 1021 A.D. Further mention of the fort is traceable to [[Shahab-ud-Din Ghori]]'s successive invasions of Lahore from 1180 to 1186 A.D.

==Timeline==
* It cannot be said with certainty when the Lahore Fort was originally constructed or by whom, since this information is lost to history, possibly forever. However, evidence found in archaeological digs gives strong indications that it was built long before 1025 A.D.
* 1241 A.D. - Destroyed by [[Mongols]].
* 1267 A.D. - Rebuilt by Sultan [[Ghiyas ud din Balban]].
* 1398 A.D. - Destroyed again, by [[Timur|Amir Tamir]]'s army.
* 1421 A.D. - Rebuilt in mud by Sultan Mubark Shah Syed.
* 1432 A.D. - The fort is occupied by Shaikh Ali of Kabul who makes repairs to the damages inflicted on it by Shaikha Khokhar.
* 1566 A.D. - Rebuilt by [[Mughal]] emperor [[Akbar]], in solid brick masonry on its earlier foundations. Also perhaps, its area was extended towards the river [[Ravi River|Ravi]], which then and up to about 1849 A.D., used to flow along its fortification on the north. Akbar also built ''Doulat Khana-e-Khas-o-Am'', the famous ''Jharoka-e-Darshan'' (Balcony for Royal Appearance), Masjidi Gate etc.
* 1618 A.D. - [[Jehangir]] adds ''Doulat Khana-e-Jehangir'' in 1618 A.D.
* 1631 A.D. - [[Shahjahan]] builds ''Shish Mahal'' (Mirror Palace).
* 1633 A.D. - Shahjahan builds ''Khawabgah'' (a dream place or sleeping area), ''Hamam'' (bath ) and ''Khilwat Khana'' (retiring room).
* 1645 A.D. - Shahjahan builds ''Diwan-e-Khas'' (''Hall of Special Audience'') and probably also ''Moti Masjid'' (Pearl Mosque) in the same year.
* 1674 A.D. - [[Aurangzeb]] adds the massively fluted ''[[Alamgiri Gate]]''.
* (Sometime during) 1799-1839 A.D. - The outer fortification wall on the north with the moat, the marble ''athdera'', ''Havaeli Mai Jindan'' and ''Bara Dari Raja Dhiyan Singh'' were constructed by [[Ranjit Singh]], Sikh ruler from 1799-1839 A.D.
* 1846 A.D. - Occupied by the British.
* 1927 A.D. - The British hand over the Fort to the ''Department of Archaeology'' after demolishing a portion of the fortification wall on the south and converting it into a stepped form thus ''defortifying'' the fort.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>

Image:Alamgiri_Gate2.jpg|[[Alamgiri Gate]] - Main Entrance

Image:Gateway_Ramparts.jpg|Gateway Ramparts

Image:Khangah_Lahore_Fort.jpg|Old 'Khangah' inside Fort

Image:July 9 2005 - The Lahore Fort-A gate from the backside.jpg|Roshnai Gate - Side Entrance

Image:The_Lahore_Forts_Alamgiri_Gate_Picture2_taken_at_night_-_July_20_2005.jpg|[[Alamgiri Gate]] - Main Entrance at Night

Image:Naulakha_3.jpg|Naulakha Pavilion

Image:Naulakha_Detail.jpg|Naulakha Detail

Image:Jharoka_Diwan-i-Aam.jpg|'Jharoka' - Royal Balcony

</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Alamgiri Gate]]
*[[Hazuri Bagh]]
*[[Moti Masjid]]
*[[Naulakha pavilion]]
*[[Roshnai Gate]]
*[[Sheesh Mahal]]
*[[Badshahi Mosque]]
*[[Wazir Khan Mosque]]
*[[Mughal Empire]]
*[[List of forts]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Lahore Fort}}
* [http://travel.webshots.com/album/147543773ujZqjm Photographs of Lahore Fort]
* [http://www.ibtada.com/ibtada.php?cur_page=main&sub=submain&mainpage=tarakhi_mukam_ki_sair&page=qila_lahore&pgno=1 Detailed Lahore Fort History/Different Portion (urdu)]
*[http://server786.com/lhrtasveer/LAHOREFORT/1LAHOREFORT.htm server786.com, Lahore larges photo Gallery]
*[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/171 UNESCO World Heritage Centre]
*[http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/lahore/fortindex.htm Photos and information about the Lahore Fort]
*[http://www.world-heritage-tour.org/asia/pk/lahore/map.html Panographic Images of Lahore Fort And Shalimar Garden]

{{World Heritage Sites in Pakistan}}

[[Category:Architecture of Lahore]]
[[Category:Forts in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Islamic architecture]]
[[Category:Lahore District]]
[[Category:Lahore Fort]]
[[Category:Mughal architecture]]
[[Category:Royal residences in Pakistan]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Pakistan]]

[[ko:라호르 성]]
[[sv:Lahore fort]]

Chand Raat

2007-01-13T09:45:02Z

Fowler&fowler: correcting sanskrit spelling

[[Image:Chand raat.jpg|thumb|right|A ''Chaand Raat'' celebration in [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]], [[India]]]]
'''''Chaand Raat''''' ([[Urdu]]: '''چاند رات''', [[Hindi]]: '''चाँद रात'''; literally, ''Night of the Moon'') is an [[Urdu]] and [[Hindi]] locution used in [[Pakistan]] and [[India]] for the eve of the [[Muslim]] festival of [[Eid]]. The term is derived from the [[Sanskrit]] words ''candrá'' (चंद्र) "[[moon]]" and ''rátrī'' (रात्िर) "[[night]]".

''Chaand Raat'' is a time of celebration when families and friends gather in open areas at the end of the last day of [[Ramadan]] to spot the [[new moon]], which signals the arrival of the [[Islam]]ic [[month]] of [[Shawwal]] and the day of Eid. Once the moon is sighted, people wish each other ''Chaand Raat Mubarak'' ("Have a blessed night of the new moon") or ''[[Eid Mubarak]]'' ("Blessings of the Eid day"). Women and girls decorate their hands with [[mehndi]] ([[henna]]), and people prepare desserts for the next day of Eid and do the last round of shopping.

City streets wear a festive look, and brightly decorated malls and markets remain open late into the night. In socio-cultural significance, this night is comparable to [[Christmas Eve]] in [[Christian]] nations.

==Background==
Although, ''Chaand Raat'' celebrations are linked with both kinds of [[Eid]], but it has it's ‎origin in [[Eid ul-Fitr]]; which is celebrated on the 1st of [[Shawwal]]. As the beginning ‎of an Islamic month depends on the first sighting of the lunar crescent, therefore, the ‎month of Ramadan can be of either 29 or 30 days. The terminology of ''Chaand Raat'' refers ‎to the evening on which first lunar crescent of the month of Shawwal is observed. As the ‎exact day of Eid ul-Fitr is a matter of curiosity, because of the uncertainty of [[Islamic ‎Calendar]], therefore, its Chaand Raat is considered more festive than that of [[Eid ul-‎Adha]].‎

''Chaand Raat'' of Eid ul-Adha, is not celebrated by all Muslims of [[South Asia]], partly ‎because these celebrations are mostly related to Eid ul-Fitr. Eid ul-Adha is celebrated on ‎‎10th of [[Dhu al-Hijjah]], which means, unlike Eid ul-Fitr, its day is decided 9 days in ‎advance, because of which, in opinion of some Muslims, its ''Chaand Raat'' loses its ‎festiveness.‎

==External links==
*[http://moonsighting.com/ Moon sighting curves]

[[Category:Sawm]]
[[Category:Festivals in India]]
[[Category:Festivals in Pakistan]]

{{Islam-stub}}
{{SAsia-stub}}

[[hi:चाँद रात]]

Chand Raat

2006-12-28T10:37:16Z

Fowler&fowler: light copy edit last paragraph

'''''Chand Raat''''' ([[Perso-Arabic script]]: '''چاند رات''', [[Devanāgarī|Devanāgarī script]]: '''चाँद रात'''; literally, ''Night of the Moon'') is a [[Urdu]] locution used in [[Pakistan]] and [[India]] for the eve of the [[Muslim]] festival of [[Eid]]. The term is derived from the [[Sanskrit]]: ''chándrá'' (चाँदरा) meaning [[moon]] and ''rátrī'' (रात्रि) meaning night.

Chand Raat is a time of celebration when families and friends gather in open areas at the end of the last day of [[Ramadan]] to spot the [[new moon]], which signals the arrival of the [[Islam]]ic [[month]] of [[Shawwal]] and the day of Eid. Once the moon is sighted, people wish each other ''Chand Raat Mubarak'' ("Have a blessed night of the new moon") or ''Eid Mubarak'' ("Blessings of the Eid day"). Women and girls decorate their hands with [[mehndi]] ([[henna]]), and people prepare desserts for the next day of Eid and do the last round of shopping.

City streets wear a festive look, and brightly decorated malls and markets remain open late into the night. In socio-cultural significance, this night is comparable to [[Christmas Eve]] in [[Christian]] nations.
==External links==
*[http://moonsighting.com/ Moon sighting curves]

[[Category:Sawm]]
[[Category:Festivals in India]]
[[Category:Festivals in Pakistan]]

{{Islam-stub}}
{{SAsia-stub}}

[[hi:चाँद रात]]

Chand Raat

2006-12-28T02:57:59Z

Fowler&fowler: rv third revert by schaidzer

'''''Chand Raat''''' ([[Perso-Arabic script]]: '''چاند رات''', [[Devangari|Devangari script]]: '''चाँद रात'''; literally, ''Night of the Moon'') is a [[Hindi-Urdu]] locution used in [[Pakistan]] and [[India]] for the eve of the [[Muslim]] festival of [[Eid]].

Chand Raat is a time of celebration when families and friends gather in open areas at the end of the last day of [[Ramadan]] to spot the [[new moon]], which signals the arrival of the [[Islam]]ic [[month]] of [[Shawwal]] and the day of Eid. Once the moon is sighted, people wish each other ''Chand Raat Mubarak'' ("Have a blessed night of the new moon") or ''Eid Mubarak'' ("Blessings of the Eid day"). Women and girls decorate their hands with [[mehndi]] ([[henna]]), and people prepare desserts for the next day of Eid and do the last round of shopping.

City streets wear a look of festivities, with brightly decorated malls and markets remaining open late into the night. The energy of this night can be compared to [[Christmas Eve]] in [[Christian]] nations.
==External links==
*[http://moonsighting.com/ Moon sighting curves]

{{Islam-stub}}
{{SAsia-stub}}

[[Category:Sawm]]
[[Category:Eid]]

Chand Raat

2006-12-28T02:49:15Z

Fowler&fowler: rv 2nd revert by Schaidzer

Chand Raat

2006-12-28T02:38:27Z

Fowler&fowler: its [hindi-urdu] no matter what you say

Chand Raat

2006-12-28T02:37:26Z

Fowler&fowler: perso arabic; nothing called urdu script

'''''Chand Raat''''' ([[Perso-Arabic script]]: '''چاند رات''', [[Devangari|Devangari script]]: '''चाँद रात'''; literally, ''Night of the Moon'') is a [[Urdu]] locution used in [[Pakistan]] and [[India]] for the eve of the [[Muslim]] festival of [[Eid]].

Chand Raat is a time of celebration when families and friends gather in open areas at the end of the last day of [[Ramadan]] to spot the [[new moon]], which signals the arrival of the [[Islam]]ic [[month]] of [[Shawwal]] and the day of Eid. Once the moon is sighted, people wish each other ''Chand Raat Mubarak'' ("Have a blessed night of the new moon") or ''Eid Mubarak'' ("Blessings of the Eid day"). Women and girls decorate their hands with [[mehndi]] ([[henna]]), and people prepare desserts for the next day of Eid and do the last round of shopping.

City streets wear a look of festivities, with brightly decorated malls and markets remaining open late into the night. The energy of this night can be compared to [[Christmas Eve]] in [[Christian]] nations.
==External links==
*[http://moonsighting.com/ Moon sighting curves]

{{Islam-stub}}
{{SAsia-stub}}

[[Category:Sawm]]
[[Category:Eid]]

Chand Raat

2006-12-24T19:07:11Z

Fowler&fowler: light cp edit. Schzaider, please see talk page

'''''Chand Raat''''' ([[Urdu]]: '''چاند رات''', [[Hindi]]: '''चाँद रात''', literally, ''Night of the Moon'') is a [[Hindi-Urdu]] locution used in [[Pakistan]] and [[India]] for the eve of the [[Muslim]] festival of [[Eid]].

Chand Raat is a time of celebration when families and friends gather in open areas at the end of the last day of [[Ramadan]] to spot the [[new moon]], which signals the arrival of the [[Islam]]ic [[month]] of [[Shawwal]] and the day of Eid. Once the moon is sighted, people wish each other ''Chand Raat Mubarak'' ("Have a blessed night of the new moon") or ''Eid Mubarak'' ("Blessings of the Eid day"). Women and girls decorate their hands with [[mehndi]] ([[henna]]), and people prepare desserts for the next day of Eid and do the last round of shopping.

City streets wear a look of festivities, with brightly decorated malls and markets remaining open late into the night. The energy of this night can be compared to [[Christmas Eve]] in [[Christian]] nations.
==External links==
*[http://moonsighting.com/ Moon sighting curves]

{{Islam-stub}}
{{SAsia-stub}}

[[Category:Sawm]]
[[Category:Eid]]

Chand Raat

2006-12-24T18:59:31Z

Fowler&fowler:

'''''Chand Raat''''' ([[Urdu]]: '''چاند رات''', [[Hindi]]: '''चाँद रात''', literally means ''Night of the Moon'') is a [[Hindi-Urdu]] locution used in [[Pakistan]] and [[India]] for the eve of the [[Muslim]] festival of [[Eid]].

Chand Raat is a time of celebration when families and friends gather in open areas at the end of the last day of [[Ramadan]] to spot the [[new moon]], which signals the arrival of the [[Islam]]ic [[month]] of [[Shawwal]] and the day of Eid. Once the moon is sighted, people wish each other ''Chand Raat Mubarak'' ("Have a blessed night of the new moon") or ''Eid Mubarak'' ("Blessings of the Eid day"). Women and girls decorate their hands with [[mehndi]] ([[henna]]), and people prepare desserts for the next day of Eid and do the last round of shopping.

City streets wear a look of festivities, with brightly decorated malls and markets remaining open late into the night. The energy of this night can be compared to [[Christmas Eve]] in [[Christian]] nations.
==External links==
*[http://moonsighting.com/ Moon sighting curves]

{{Islam-stub}}
{{SAsia-stub}}

[[Category:Sawm]]
[[Category:Eid]]

Chand Raat

2006-12-24T18:58:49Z

Fowler&fowler: If you can't write grammatical English, then don't. a) You can't use "an" with "Urdu terminology." b) It is not terminology, which is used for formal nomenclature, it is a locutiuon.

'''''Chand Raat''''' ([[Urdu]]: '''چاند رات''', [[Hindi]]: '''चाँद रात''', literally means ''Night of the Moon'') is an [[Hindi-Urdu]] locution used in [[Pakistan]] and [[India]] for the eve of the [[Muslim]] festival of [[Eid]].

Chand Raat is a time of celebration when families and friends gather in open areas at the end of the last day of [[Ramadan]] to spot the [[new moon]], which signals the arrival of the [[Islam]]ic [[month]] of [[Shawwal]] and the day of Eid. Once the moon is sighted, people wish each other ''Chand Raat Mubarak'' ("Have a blessed night of the new moon") or ''Eid Mubarak'' ("Blessings of the Eid day"). Women and girls decorate their hands with [[mehndi]] ([[henna]]), and people prepare desserts for the next day of Eid and do the last round of shopping.

City streets wear a look of festivities, with brightly decorated malls and markets remaining open late into the night. The energy of this night can be compared to [[Christmas Eve]] in [[Christian]] nations.
==External links==
*[http://moonsighting.com/ Moon sighting curves]

{{Islam-stub}}
{{SAsia-stub}}

[[Category:Sawm]]
[[Category:Eid]]

Chand Raat

2006-12-24T11:22:49Z

Fowler&fowler: copy edit for grammar and readibility; chand raat is a hindi-urdu term. It comes from Sanskrit chandra for moon and ratri for night;

Robert Charles Wroughton

2006-12-13T08:08:36Z

Fowler&fowler: /* References */ +cat

'''R. C. Wroughton''' was an officer in the Indian Forest Service and a member of the [[Bombay Natural History Society]] who conducted a collaborative mammal survey in 1911. It is believed to be the first collaborative biodiversity study in the world.<ref>Matt Ridley and Paul Newton (1983) Biology under the Raj. New Scientist 22 September 1983:857-867</ref> The project accumulated 50,000 specimens over 12 years, especially of the smaller mammals and the information was published in 47 papers. Several new species were discovered in the process.

Several species are named after him including
* Wroughton's Free-tailed Bat (''[[Otomops wroughtoni]]'')
==Publications==
# Wroughton R C 1912a. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 1. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 21(2):392-410.
# Wroughton R C 1912b. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 2. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 21(3):820-825.
# Wroughton R C 1912c. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 3. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 21(3):826-844.
# Wroughton R C 1912d. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 4. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 21(3):844-851.
# Wroughton R C 1912e. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 5. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 21(4):1170-1195.
# Wroughton R C and K V Ryley 1913a. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 6. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 22(1): 29-44.
# Wroughton R C and K V Ryley 1913b. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 7. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 22(1): 45-47.
# Wroughton R C and K V Ryley 1913c. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 8. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 22(1): 58-66.
# Wroughton R C. 1913. Scientific results from the mammal survey # III. J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. 22(1): 13-21.
# Wroughton R C 1914. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 15. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 23(2):282-301.
# Wroughton R C 1915a. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 16. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 23(3):413-416.
# Wroughton R C 1915b. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 17. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 23(4):695-720.
# Wroughton R C. 1915c. Scientific results from the mammal survey # XI. J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. 24(1): 29-65.
# Wroughton R C 1915d. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 18. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24(1):79-96.
# Wroughton R C 1915e. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 19. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24(1):96-110.
# Wroughton R C 1916a. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 20. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24(2):291-309.
# Wroughton R C 1916b. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India:Report 21. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24(2):309-310.
# Wroughton R C 1916c. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India:Report 22. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24(2):311-316.
# Wroughton R C 1916d. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India:Report 23. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24(3):468-493.
# Wroughton R C 1916e. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 24. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24(4):749-758.
# Wroughton R C 1916f. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India:Report 25. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24(4):758-773.
# Wroughton R C 1916g. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 26. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24(4):773-782.
# Wroughton R C. 1917a. Scientific results from the mammal survey # XV. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.. 25(1): 40-51
# Wroughton R C 1917b. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 27. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 25(1):63-71.
# Wroughton R C 1917c. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 28. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 25(2):274-278.
# Wroughton R C. 1918a. Scientific results from the mammal survey # XVII. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.. 25(3): 361.
# Wroughton R C 1918b. Summary of the results from the Indian mammal survey of Bombay natural History Society , Part I. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 25(4): 547-598.
# Wroughton R C 1918c. Summary of the results from the Indian mammal survey of Bombay natural History Society , Part II. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 26(1): 19-58.
# Wroughton R C 1919. Summary of the results from the Indian mammal survey of Bombay natural History Society , Part III. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 26(2): 338-378.
# Wroughton R C 1920a. Summary of the results from the Indian mammal survey of Bombay natural History Society , Part VI. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 27(1): 57-85.
# Wroughton R C 1920b. Summary of the results from the Indian mammal survey of Bombay natural History Society , PartVII. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 27(2): 301-313.
# Wroughton R C 1920c. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 32.J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 27(2):314-322.
# Wroughton R C 1921a. Summary of the results from the Indian mammal survey of Bombay natural History Society ,Appendix. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 27(3):520-534.
# Wroughton R C 1921b. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 33. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 27(3):545-549.
# Wroughton R C 1921c. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 34. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 27(3):549-553.
# Wroughton R C 1921d. Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India: Report 35. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 27(3):553-554.
# Wroughton R C. 1921e. Scientific results from the mammal survey # XXVI. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.. 27(3): 599-601.
# Wroughton R C. 1921f. Scientific results from the mammal survey # XXVIII. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.. 27(4): 773-777.
# Wroughton R C. 1921g. Scientific results from the mammal survey # XXIX. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.. 28(1): 23-25

==References==
<references/>
[[Category:Naturalists of British India]]