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Wolf River (Fox River)

2010-08-21T19:14:17Z

For7thGen: /* The sturgeon guard */ improve grammar and thus clarity

[[Image:Foxandwolfrivermap.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of the Fox River watershed showing the Fox (lower and right) and Wolf (higher) rivers.]]
[[Image:WolfRiverNewLondonWisconsin.jpg|thumb|right|The Wolf River in downtown [[New London, Wisconsin|New London]]]]
[[Image:WolfRiverWisconsinSept2009.jpg|thumb|right|The Wolf River in [[Langlade County, Wisconsin|Langlade County]]]]
The '''Wolf River''' of [[Wisconsin]] is one of the two [[National Wild and Scenic River|National Scenic Rivers]] in Wisconsin, along with the [[St. Croix River (Wisconsin-Minnesota)|St. Croix River]]. The scenic portion is 24 miles long. <ref>[http://www.rivers.gov/wsr-wolf.html Wolf River at the National Park Service]</ref> It rises in the north woods of the state, with the northernmost fork stemming from Pine Lake in [[Forest County, Wisconsin|Forest County]]. The river then flows south through [[Langlade County, Wisconsin|Langlade]] and [[Menominee County, Wisconsin|Menominee]] counties where whitewater rafting is well known. Next the [[Wolf River]] flow through [[Shawano County, Wisconsin|Shawano]] where it collects the [[Red River (Wisconsin)|Red River]], passes by the city of [[Shawano, Wisconsin|Shawano]], then flows through the counties of [[Waupaca County, Wisconsin|Waupaca]], [[Outagamie County, Wisconsin|Outagamie]], and back into [[Waupaca County, Wisconsin|Waupaca County]] where it collects the [[Embarrass River]] at the city of [[New London, Wisconsin|New London]]. The final stretch of [[Wolf River]] flows collects the [[Little Wolf River|Little Wolf]] and the [[Waupaca River|Waupaca]] just below [[New London, Wisconsin|New London]] than passes through [[Winnebago County, Wisconsin|Winnebago]] county through [[Lake Poygan]] and the city of [[Winneconne, Wisconsin|Winneconne]] to empty into [[Lake Butte des Morts]].

==Environmental concerns==
Environmentalists were concerned about preserving the river when the [[Crandon mine]] was proposed near a tributary of the river. <ref>[http://www.sacredland.org/endangered_sites_pages/wolf_river.html Website opposing the Crandon Mine near the Wolf River]</ref> The Crandon Mine was purchased by the [[Sokaogon Chippewa Community|Sokaogon Mole Lake Chippewa Band]] tribe in 2003. <ref> "New tribal purchase provides further protection against Crandon Mine, Nov. 14, 2006" http://www.alphacdc.com/treaty/victory.html#crandonsagamay2006]</ref> The campaign to stop the Crandon Mine on the Wisconsin's Wolf River was the result of successful coalition-building efforts amongst Wisconsin's indigenous groups, environmentalists, and rural citizens.<ref>Menominee Treaty Rights and Mining Impacts (2000). "Chronology of Crandon Mine" http://www.alphacdc.com/treaty/crn_chronology.html</ref>

==The sturgeon guard==
This river is noted for the [[sturgeon]] which spawn in the Wolf River and its parent, the [[Fox River (Wisconsin)|Fox River]], in the springtime of the year, between approximately April 15 and May 5, as they swim upstream from Lake Winnebago. It is estimated that the extent of the lake sturgeon has dropped to about one-tenth of its population in the state since year 1800. Still, this species, which has existed since the time of the dinosaurs (100 million years ago), has a viable naturally-reproducing population, which are highly prized for the taste of their flesh, and also for their eggs, which are said to rival those of the [[beluga sturgeon]] of [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]], in quality and price. Female sturgeon deposit their eggs only about every four to six years, starting at 20 years old, up to their life span of 50 years. At this age, the sturgeon are five feet long. The fish then spawn in the shallows of the Wolf river, as they swim upstream.

In order to protect the spawning locations of the sturgeon from poaching, when they are the most vulnerable, the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources formed a citizen sturgeon guard called ''Sturgeon For Tomorrow'' in the early 1990s, who volunteer to watch over the spawning sites during the spawning season. The head guard, or "sturgeon general" assigns the site, an identifying hat (and souvenir), and cell phone for the 12-hour shift. The guards are warned not to confront poachers, but to call in the incident to the armed wardens.

The program is very popular in the state and weekend volunteer slots are filled quickly.

==White Bass==
The '''white bass''' or '''sand bass''' (''Morone chrysops'') is a [[freshwater]] fish of the temperate bass family [[Moronidae]] that also spawns in the Wolf River. The spring spawn typically occurs during the last two weeks of May when the female of the species is prevalent. During this time there is a huge influx of fisherman (boating and shore) to the entire Wolf system. The average White Bass taken from the Wolf watershed typically measures 200-300 mm (8-12inches) in length with a maximum of about 475mm (19inches).[http://www.wiscfish.org/fishid/wFrmWisconsinFIshList.aspx][http://www.seagrant.wisc.edu/greatlakesfish/fwhitebass1.html] While different fishing methods and techniques are used [http://wrcfishing.wordpress.com/], the most common is the river rig (also known as the Wolf River rig).

==References==
{{Commons cat|Wolf River (Fox River)}}
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Wisconsin}}

[[Category:Rivers of Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Wild and Scenic Rivers of the United States]]

[[ca:Wolf River (Wisconsin)]]

Aimee Semple McPherson

2009-01-17T14:45:58Z

For7thGen: /* Early life */ Just a typo.

{{Infobox Person
| name =Aimee Semple McPherson
| image = AimeeSempleMcPherson.jpg
| image_size = 250ps
| caption =
| birth_name = Aimee Elizabeth Kennedy
| birth_date = {{birth date|1890|10|09}}
| birth_place = [[Salford, Ontario]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1944|09|27|1890|10|09}}
| death_place =[[Oakland, California]]
| death_cause = [[Barbituate]] [[overdose]]
| resting_place = [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery]]
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| other_names =
| known_for =[[International Church of the Foursquare Gospel]]
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| spouse = Robert James Semple (Died 1910)<br>Harold Stewart McPherson (Divorced 1921)<br>David Hutton (Divorced 1931)
| partner =
| children = [[Roberta Semple Salter|Roberta Star Semple]]<br>[[Rolf McPherson]]
| parents = James Morgan Kennedy<br>Mildred Ona Pearce
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'''Aimee Semple McPherson''' ([[October 9]], [[1890]] – [[September 27]], [[1944]]), also known as "Sister Aimee" or "Sister," was a [[Canadian]]-born [[evangelist]] and [[Mass media|media]] [[sensation]] in the 1920s and 1930s; she was also the founder of the [[International Church of the Foursquare Gospel|Foursquare Church]].<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Poor Aimee |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,732031,00.html?promoid=googlep |quote=Those of the nobility and gentry and middle classes who reflected upon the matter appeared to feel that the Holy Bible still offers a sufficient choice of Gospels. But of course the London mob, the lower classes, rushed to attend the evangelistic First Night of Aimee Semple McPherson. |publisher=[[Time (magazine)]] |date= [[October 22]], [[1928]] |accessdate=2007-08-21 }}</ref> She was a pioneer in the use of modern media, especially radio, to create a form of religion that drew heavily on the appeal of popular entertainment.

==Early life==
McPherson was born '''Aimee Elizabeth Kennedy''' on October 9, 1890 on a farm near the town of [[Ingersoll, Ontario]], [[Canada]]. <ref>Matthew Avery Sutton, ''Aimee Semple McPherson and the Resurrection of Christian America'' (Cambridge: [[Harvard University Press]], 2007), 9.</ref> Her father James Kennedy was a farmer and her mother Mildred, called Minnie, worked for the Salvation Army.<ref>Ibid, 9.</ref> Little is written about McPherson's father and it is unclear what impact James Kennedy had on his daughter. It was through her mother that McPherson got her first exposure to religious exercise which would have an impact on her later evangelical crusades. Mrs. Kennedy’s work with the [[Salvation Army]] included providing for people through soup kitchens. This portrayed her idea of bringing faith to the people which is reflected in Aimee’s future work in spreading the Gospel.

Historian Matthew Avery Sutton in his biography of McPherson documents that as a child one of McPherson's favorite games was to play Salvation Army with her classmates and at home she would create a congregation out of her dolls and would give them a sermon.<ref>Ibid, 9.</ref> As a teenager, McPherson would stray from the teachings of her mother. She started to read novels, attend movies and dances, all things that the Salvation Army disapproved of at the time. Even more shattering to her faith, McPherson while in high school was introduced to the teachings of [[Charles Darwin]]'s [[Theory of Evolution]].<ref>Ibid, 9-10.</ref>

McPherson was deeply confused, and wrangled with her conscience over who was right: her mother's faith or her high school geology teacher. McPherson began to quiz local pastors over the relation of faith and science. None of the pastors were able to give her the answer she was looking for.<ref> Ibid, 10.</ref> In frustration, McPherson sent a letter to a national Canadian newspaper the ''Family Herald and Weekly Star'' demanding why taxpayers supported public schools that taught evolution.<ref>Ibid, 10.</ref> McPherson while still in high school started her crusade against evolution that would remain a life long passion for her. This also brought the teenager her first taste of celebrity as her letter brought responses from all over North America according to Sutton.

McPherson would have a strengthening of faith after attending a pentecostal revival in 1907, there she would meet the love of her life Robert Semple. Semple was an Irish-born preacher, both the preacher and his message appealed to McPherson and in August 1908 the couple married.<ref>Ibid, 10.</ref> Less than two years after their marriage the couple traveled to China to work as missionaries in 1910. The Semples believed that they were following God's plan for them.

== Career ==
[[Image:Semples.jpeg|right|frame|Robert and Aimee Semple, 1910]]
=== Evangelical beginnings ===
In December 1907, she met her first husband Robert James Semple, a [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] [[missionary]] from [[Ireland]], while attending a revival meeting at the urging of her father. After her conversion and a short courtship, they were married on [[August 12]], [[1908]].

Shortly thereafter, the two embarked on an evangelistic tour, first to Europe and then to [[China]], where they arrived in June 1910. Shortly after they disembarked in [[Hong Kong]], however, they both contracted [[dysentery]]. Robert Semple died of the disease on [[August 19]], [[1910]]. Aimee Semple recovered and gave birth to a daughter, [[Roberta Semple Salter|Roberta Star Semple]], on [[September 17]], after which she returned to the [[United States]]. Roberta died on [[January 25]], [[2007]] age 96.

Aimee Semple's mother "Minnie" had, in the footsteps of her foster parents, remained active with the Salvation Army, and after a short recuperation, Semple joined her in this work. While so occupied in [[New York City|New York]], she met her second husband, Harold Stewart McPherson, an accountant. They were married on [[May 5]], [[1912]], and they had a son, [[Rolf McPherson|Rolf Potter Kennedy McPherson]], born [[March 23]], [[1913]].

After the birth of her son, McPherson suffered from [[postpartum depression]] and several serious health issues. She tried to settle down to a quieter home-life, but her personal call to Christian service remained constant. While in her sickbed after her second operation within two years, she recommitted herself to what she felt was God's call. Soon thereafter, her health improved. After this [[near-death experience]] in 1913, she embarked upon a preaching career in [[Canada]] and the United States. In keeping with the promise to God made in her illness, she had left home by June 1915 and began evangelizing and holding tent revivals, first by traveling up and down the eastern part of the United States, then expanding to other parts of the country.

Her revivals were often standing room only; on one occasion she met in a boxing ring, but had to hold her meetings before and after the boxing match. (According to the [[Public Broadcasting System|PBS]]-TV ''[[American Experience]]'' documentary "Sister Aimee," she did, however, walk around during the match with a sign inviting the crowd to attend her service after the match and "knock out the Devil.") Once in San Diego, the National Guard had to be brought in to control the crowd of over 30,000 people. People would often stand in line and wait many hours for the next service to begin in order to be assured a seat. McPherson was committed to saving as many people as possible and did what she could to ensure the message she was providing was reaching all that it could. Aimee had practiced tongue speaking, although she rarely emphasized it the way the majority of Pentecostals had previously. She also had been considered a great faith healer, with numerous claims of physical healing taking place. This is something that became less important as her fame increased over the years.
[[Image:GospelCar.jpeg|right|frame|The "Gospel Car", 1918]]

In 1916, in the company of her mother Mildred Kennedy, she made a tour through the southern United States. in her "Gospel Car", a 1912 [[Packard]] touring car emblazoned with religious slogans. Standing in the back seat of the convertible, she gave sermons through a megaphone. On the road between sermons, she would sit in the back seat typing sermons and other religious materials. By 1917 she had started her own magazine, named ''The Bridal Call'', for which she wrote many articles that would focus a great deal on women’s roles in religion and illustrate the connection she perceived between Christians and Jesus as a marriage bond. The magazine contributed a great deal to the rising women’s movement that McPherson probably did not foresee in its fruition. These actions cited the beginning of Aimee’s use of new media and propaganda to spread her gospel.

The battle between fundamentalists and modernists only escalated after WWI, many fundamentalists abandoning the foundations of their faith to seek less traditional and conservative religious faiths. Fundamentalists generally believed their religious faith should influence every aspect of their lives. Aimee, too, believed this to be crucial for the well being of all Americans and sought to eradicate modernism and secularism in homes, churches, schools, and communities.

The economy was soaring, after World War one there were worries that the economy would fall. Trade began with the Middle East, and finances looked promising. Investments were made in the stock market helping the national level, while mass production transformed finances on the domestic front. With mass production on the rise business went up, more money was cycling into the middle class. Consumerism began to increase because people were making money and able to afford extras. Mass production also allowed stock of products. Mass production brought on mass consumerism. Money became a title of success, people were judged based on what they had. At this time electricity was commonly spread into the homes, making appliances more common. Once the spread of the automobile began, Los Angeles became dependent on them. Industries were booming, especially the oil, aircraft and automobile. It was time of transformation in lifestyles, people were becoming more involved with money and leaning away from traditional values that coincide with religion. The 1920's was a point in time when religious groups were at a high profile. It was a popular notion to go to séances and such events. Cults and spirituality were on the rise. There was a broad diversity of main religions spreading through these times. McPherson developed a strong following in the Four Square Gospel because she was able to blend contemporary culture with religious teachings.

At this same time, there was a population explosion, the city of Los Angeles jumps to two million people by the time of 1930. Tourists were coming in, bringing hype, which encourages others to immigrate. With so many immigrants moving in, racial intolerance increases. The nation turned inward and viewed non-whites as species of people from the outside. There was a rise in the Ku Klux Klan in Los Angeles, which up until the Turn of the Century had been confined to the South. Anyone who was viewed as a threat to traditional conservative America was targeted. McPherson's fame was able to gain supporters from all walks of life. She was known to have affiliations with the KKK as well as with minority immigrants. She hoped to prove as an example to others not to discriminate against others, to be the one to break down barriers of race, all in the name of serving God.

Aimee Mcpherson brilliantly recognized the rise of Los Angeles during the Progressive era. Los Angeles at the time was a popular vacation spot. Instead of touring around the United States to preach her sermons, she used the rising popularity of Los Angeles and let the people come to her. In 1900 the population of Los Angeles was 100,000, by 1920 it climbed up to 575,000 people and by 1940 it sky-rocketed to 1.5 million in population. Aimee's early recognition of Los Angeles as a rising city is extremly crucial in Aimee's career. It marks her as a woman who represents the progressive era by actions.

While McPherson preached a conservative gospel she was doing so in a progressive time. Her use of radio, movies, and stage acts commented on the state of the country in the 1920’s. Women’s rights were on the rise (including women’s suffrage by means of the 19th Amendment) and Aimee was able to gain support from many women that would be associated with modernists such as “flappers.” This posed a great deal of contradictions to her preaching about the evils of modernity. In addition, by accepting and using these new media outlets, advancing technological media, she helped to integrate them into people’s daily lives which also contradicted her stated disapproval of them. Although her husband initially made efforts to join her on her religious travels, he soon became frustrated with the situation, and by 1918 had filed for separation. His petition for divorce, citing abandonment, was granted in 1921.

=== International Church of the Foursquare Gospel ===
McPherson spent several years, from 1918 to 1922 as an itinerant Pentecostal preacher. Weary of constant traveling and having no place to raise a family, she eventually settled in Los Angeles, which became her base of operation, and she maintained both a home and a church there. Her move to Los Angeles was prompted by the idea that California was a tourist attraction and growing into an even larger one by the day. Aimee became a large impact in the rise of the West during the beginning of the 20th century. McPherson believed that by creating a church in Los Angeles it would allow her audience to come to her from all over the country, she could then plant the seed of the Foursquare gospel and the tourists would take it home to their communities. Thus taking the traveling out of her preaching, while still reaching the masses of the country. For several years she continued to travel and raise money for the construction of a large, domed church building in the [[Echo Park, Los Angeles, California|Echo Park]] area of Los Angeles, named [[Angelus Temple]]. Aimee had been known to be a great fund raiser and this was a great example of her abilities; she raised more than she had imagined and altered the original plans for the smaller scale church in order to build a “mega church” that would draw many followers throughout the years. The church was eventually built, and dedicated on [[January 1]], [[1923]]. The church had a [[seating capacity]] of 5,300 people and was filled to capacity three times each day, seven days a week. In the beginning, McPherson preached every service often in a dramatic scene she had envisioned and put together to attract audiences. The church eventually evolved into its own denomination, called the [[International Church of the Foursquare Gospel]]. The foursquare gospel focused on the nature of Christs character; that he was savior, baptizer with the Holy Spirit, healer and coming king. The foursquare gospel consisted of four main beliefs; the first being Christs ability to transform individuals lives through the act of salvation, this life changing experience separated Christians from non-Christians according to McPherson. The second main element focusedon a holy baptism. The third being divine healing and the fourth was gospel oriented focusing on the premillennial return of christ.The church became noted for its community services, particularly during the [[Great Depression]].
[[Image:AimeeSempleMcPhersonVsGorillaOfEvolution.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Aimee Semple McPherson battles the Gorilla of [[Evolution]].]]
McPherson was famous both inside and outside of religious circles. Every city where services were held usually had civic leaders in attendance, as well as pastors representing the local churches of many [[Christian denomination|denominations]]. She made sure that Angelus Temple was represented in local parades and entered floats in the [[Rose Parade]] in [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]]. Her illustrated sermons attracted people from the entertainment industry, looking to see a "show" that rivaled what [[Hollywood]] had to offer. These famous stage productions drew people who would never have thought to enter a church, and then presented them with her interpretation of the message of [[salvation]]. McPherson believed that the Gospel was to be presented at every opportunity, and used worldly means at her disposal to present it to as many as possible. Her sermons, unlike other contemporaries, e.g. [[Billy Sunday]], were not the usual [[fire and brimstone|fire-and-brimstone]] messages, but were based around a more friendly interpretation of Christian texts.

McPherson would often base her sermons around actual events that took place in her life; she would then relate them to the bible and act them out on Sunday evening. For instance, in August 1925 McPherson decided to charter a plane so she wouldn't miss a Sunday sermon. Never one to miss out on publicity, Aimee had at least two thousand followers and members of the press at the site of her takeoff. When the plane failed after takeoff and the landing gear collapsed sending the nose of the plane into the ground, bystanders were shocked. McPherson, however, boarded a different plane the same day (after obtaining a $100,000 life insurance policy) and completed her journey. She used the life-threatening experience as the narrative of an illustrated Sunday sermon titled "The Heavenly Airplane". The stage in Angelus Temple was set up with two miniature planes and a skyline that was reminiscent of Los Angeles. In her sermon McPherson described how the first plane had the devil for the pilot, sin for the engine, temptation as the propeller etc. The other plane, conversely, was piloted by Jesus and would lead one to the Holy City (the skyline depicted on stage). Thousands were turned away that night from Angelus Temple in an attempt to view the highly publicized sermon. The temple was filled beyond capacity. This was not the only time McPherson would use personal experiences to narrate her illustrated sermons. She even utilized being pulled over by a police officer, calling the sermon, "Arrested for Speeding". McPherson even employed a small group called the Construction Gang, they built the sets for each Sunday's service. Artists, electricians, decorators and carpenters all belonged to the group. Labor and costs were not an issue for McPherson. Those who arrived early to these illustrated Sunday night sermons enjoyed religious music played by an orchestra. McPherson treated her sermons not as church, but a Broadway production, something that she was very against. A book about McPherson’s life by Matthew Avery Sutton described the logic: "McPherson found no contradiction between her rejection of Hollywood values for her use of show business techniques. She would not hesitate to use the devil's tools to tear down the devil's house."<ref>[3]</ref>

She was also skillful at fundraising. Collections were taken at every meeting, often with the admonishment of "no coins, please". When the $1.5 million Angelus Temple opened its doors, construction was already entirely paid for through private donations.

Since Pentecostalism was not popular in the US during the 1920s, she avoided the label. She was heavily influenced by this faith, incorporating demonstrations of [[glossolalia|speaking-in-tongues]] and [[faith healing]] in sermons, and keeping a museum of crutches, wheelchairs and other paraphernalia. She was also strongly influenced by the [[Salvation Army]]. In a campaign to spread the church nationwide, she adopted a theme of "lighthouses" for the satellite churches, referring to the parent church as the "Salvation Navy". Always seeking publicity, McPherson continued publishing the weekly ''Foursquare Crusader'' and the monthly magazine ''Bridal Call''. She also began broadcasting on radio in the early 1920s. McPherson was the first woman to preach a radio sermon, and with the opening of Foursquare Gospel-owned [[KXOL-FM|KFSG (now KXOL)]] on [[February 6]], [[1924]], she also became the first woman to be granted a broadcast license by the Federal Radio Commission (which became the [[Federal Communications Commission]] in 1934).
[[Image:Postcard-los-angeles-angelus-temple.png|thumb|right|200px|Angelus Temple in Echo Park. Notice the radio towers.]]

McPherson is also credited with integrating her tent meetings and church services. She broke down racial barriers such that one time at Angelus Temple, some [[Ku Klux Klan]] members were in attendance, but after the service, many of their hoods and robes were found on the ground in nearby [[Echo Park]]. She is also credited with helping many of the Hispanic ministries in Los Angeles get started, and even had a large [[Roma people|Gypsy]] following, after the wife of a Gypsy chief and the chief himself had been healed in a Denver revival meeting.

In 1925, the license for KFSG was suspended by the [[United States Department of Commerce|Commerce Department]] for deviating from its assigned frequency. McPherson received several death threats in 1925, and an alleged plot to kidnap her was foiled in September of that year, thus setting the stage for the episode for which she is perhaps best known.

=== Politics and education ===
At the beginning of 1926 the famed evangelists preacher known to many as Sister Aimee had risen to become one of the most charismatic and influential persons of her time. According to Carey McWilliams, a journalist of the era at the time of her trip to the Holy Land, she had become “more then just a household word: she was a folk hero and a civic institution; an honorary member of the fire and police departments; a patron saint of the service clubs; an official spokesman for the community on problems grave and frivolous”<ref>Sutton, Matthew. Aimee Semple McPherson and the Resurrection of Christian America. London: Harvard University Press, 2007.</ref> She had transformed her power of spreading the gospel of her religion into being influential in many social, educational and political areas. McPherson would make personal crusades in the name of the Lord against anything that she felt threaten her Christian ideals, including alcohol and the teaching of evolution in the schools.

Aimee Semple Mcpherson was very opposed to evolution and became a big supporter of William Jennings Bryan during the Scopes Trial. In 1925 John Scopes was beng tried for teaching evolution in a Tennessee school, which was illegal. William Jennings Bryan and McPherson had worked together in the Angelus Temple on numerous occasions (Sutton 52). They both found the social implications as much as the theological ramifications of evolution troubling and they believed that social Darwinism had undermined students' morality (Sutton 52). According to McPherson, as she was quoted by the ''New Yorker'', evolution "is the greatest triumph of Satanic intelligence in 5,931 years of devilish warfare, against the Hosts of Heaven. It is poisoning the minds of the children of the nation" (Sutton 52). When William Jennings Bryan was involved with the Scopes trial she sent him a telegram where she said, "Ten thousand members of Angelus temple with her millions of radio church membership send grateful appreciation of your lion hearted championship of the Bible against evolution and throw our hats in the ring with you <ref>Sutton 37</ref>. In order to celebrate the epic struggle that Bryan was facing she organized "an all night prayer service, a massive church meeting preceded by a Bible parade through Los Angeles" <ref>Sutton 37</ref>. According to Marrow, Mayo declared that no city had followed the Monkey trial with more emotional fervor than Los Angeles. No people shouted louder than the Angelenos for William Jennings Bryan to scotch the Devil" <ref>Sutton 120</ref>. With the help of McPherson, Bryan gained support from numerous people.

During the great threat of Communism, Aimee preached about its negative effects on Christian America, exposing it as the Great Evil that will destroy us. This influenced her listeners to become fearful of what was happening on American soil. These followers added support to immigration policies that prevented more migration into America. The American values she portrayed helped to establish greater views of white Christian dominance in the US. She also backed the war effort, tying patriotism into the faith of white middle class Protestant Capitalist America.{{Fact|date=January 2009}}

=== Reported abduction ===

{{unreferencedsection|date=January 2009}}

[[Image:Uewb 07 img0476.jpg|thumb|left|200px|McPherson, c. 1920.]]
On [[May 18]], [[1926]], McPherson went to Ocean Park Beach, north of [[Venice, Los Angeles, California|Venice Beach]], with her [[secretary]], to go swimming. Soon after arrival, McPherson disappeared. It was generally assumed at the time that she had drowned.

According to the PBS ''[[American Experience]]'' segment "Sister Aimee" aired [[7 April]] [[2007]], McPherson was scheduled to hold a service on the very day she vanished. McPherson's mother appeared and preached at the service in her place, and at the end announced, "Sister is with Jesus," sending parishioners into a tearful frenzy. [[Mourner]]s crowded Venice Beach, and the commotion sparked days-long [[mass media|media]] coverage of the event, fueled in part by [[William Randolph Hearst]]'s ''[[Los Angeles Herald Examiner|Los Angeles Examiner]]'', and even including a poem by [[Upton Sinclair]] commemorating the "tragedy". Daily updates appeared in newspapers across the country, and parishioners held day-and-night seaside [[vigil]]s. A futile search for the body resulted in one parishioner drowning and another diver dying from exposure.

At about the same time, [[Kenneth G. Ormiston]], [[engineer]] for [[KXOL-FM|KFSG]], also disappeared. According to ''American Experience'', some believed McPherson and Ormiston, a married man with whom McPherson had developed a close friendship and allegedly had been having an affair, had run off together. About a month after the disappearance, McPherson's mother, Minnie Kennedy, received a [[ransom]] note, signed by "The Avengers", which demanded a half million [[dollar]]s to ensure kidnappers would not sell McPherson into "[[white slavery]]". Kennedy later said she tossed the letter away, believing her daughter to be dead.

On [[June 23]], 35 days after her disappearance, McPherson stumbled out of the desert in [[Agua Prieta, Sonora]], a [[Mexico|Mexican]] town just across the border from [[Douglas, Arizona]]. She claimed that she had been kidnapped, drugged, tortured, and held for ransom in a shack in Mexico, then had escaped and walked through the desert for about 13 hours to freedom.

Several problems were found with McPherson's story. Her shoes showed no evidence of a 13-hour walk-- indeed, they had grass stains on them after a supposed walk through the desert. The shack could not be found. McPherson showed up fully dressed while having disappeared wearing a [[bathing suit]], and was wearing a wrist watch given to her by her mother, which she had not taken on her swimming trip. A [[grand jury]] convened on [[July 8]] to investigate the matter, but adjourned 12 days later citing lack of evidence to proceed. However, several witnesses then came forward stating that they had seen McPherson and Ormiston at various hotels over the 32-day period.

There were five witnesses that claimed to have seen Aimee McPherson at a seaside cottage at Carmel-by-the-Sea, which was rented out by her former employee Kenneth G. Ormiston for himself and his mistress. Mr. Hersey claimed to have seen Mrs. McPherson on May 5 at this cottage, and then later went to see her preach on August 8 at Angelus Temple to confirm she was the woman he had seen at Carmel. His story was confirmed by Mrs. Parkes, a neighbor who lived next door to the Carmel cottage, by Mrs. Bostick who rented the cottage to Mr. Ormiston under his false name “McIntyre,” Ralph Swanson a grocery clerk, and Ernest Renkert, a Carmel fuel dealer who delivered wood to their cottage.

The grand jury re-convened on [[August 3]] and received further testimony, corroborated by documents from hotels in McPherson's handwriting. McPherson steadfastly stuck to her story that she was approached by a young couple at the beach who had asked her to come over and pray for their sick child, and that she was then shoved into a car and drugged with [[chloroform]]. However, when she was not forthcoming with answers regarding her relationship with Ormiston (who was recently estranged from his wife), [[Judge]] Samuel Blake charged McPherson and her mother with [[obstruction of justice]] on [[November 3]].

During this time, to combat the bad publicity in the newspapers, she refused to take an oath of secrecy and spoke freely about the court trials on her private radio station. This worried the district attorney who believed McPherson had the ability to shape public opinion and thus the direction of the trial.

Theories and [[innuendo]] abounded: she had run off with a lover; she had had an [[abortion]]; she was recovering from [[plastic surgery]]; she had staged the whole thing as a [[publicity stunt]]. No satisfactory answer, though, was ever reached, and soon after the ''Examiner'' erroneously reported that Los Angeles [[Los Angeles County District Attorney|district attorney]] Asa Keyes had dropped all charges, Keyes decided to do exactly that on [[January 10]], [[1927]] due to changing testimonies, and a lack of Ormiston's testimony thus leading to a lack of evidence.

The tale inspired a satirical song, "The Ballad of Aimee McPherson", popularized by [[Pete Seeger]]. The song explains that the kidnapping story was unlikely because a hotel love nest revealed that "the dents in the mattress fit Aimee's caboose."

==Later life and career==
[[Image:ASMcPherson, 1935.jpg|thumb|'''McPherson''' (left) preparing Christmas food baskets, circa 1935]]
McPherson continued her ministry after the controversy over the alleged abduction diminished, but she fell out of favor with the press. While she and her ministry still received a good deal of publicity, most of it was bad. Additionally, she became involved in power struggles for the church with her mother and daughter. McPherson suffered a [[nervous breakdown]] in August 1930.

On [[September 13]], [[1931]], McPherson married again, this time to an actor and musician, David Hutton. The marriage got off to a rocky start: two days after the wedding, Hutton was sued for [[alienation of affection]] by a woman, Hazel St. Pierre, whom he claimed never to have met. He eventually settled the case by paying $5,000 to St. Pierre. While McPherson was away in Europe, she was incensed to discover Hutton was billing himself as "Aimee's man" in his [[cabaret]] singing act. The marriage also caused an uproar within the church. The tenets of Foursquare Gospel, established by McPherson, stated that one should not remarry while their previous spouse was still alive (which Harold McPherson was at the time). McPherson and Hutton separated in 1933, and divorced on [[March 1]], [[1934]].

In 1936 Aimee McPherson proclaimed her rededication to the pentecostal movement. As a result of her childhood days involved with the Salvation Army, she had always believed in the idea that the gospel had a social agenda. This influenced her to open up the temple commissary twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. People from every race and faith could come to Angelus Temple for aid and help. This was instrumental in helping the downtrodden of Los Angeles, which was still in the grips of the [[Great Depression]]. McPherson became more active in creating [[soup kitchen]]s, free clinics and other charitable activities. Later, with the outbreak of [[World War II]], she became involved in [[war bond]] rallies and advocated a connection between the church and Americanism. But, in line with her life of scandal, McPherson's good deeds did not come without consequence. In the throes of prohibition (which McPherson strongly supported) comissary workers for her Angelus Temple had been selling donated goods to earn money to run their home liquor production instead of distributed the goods to the needy. McPherson responded immediately by appointing someone new to head charitable work. <ref>[Sutton, Matthew. Aimee Semple McPherson and the Resurrection of Christian America. London: Harvard University Press, 2007]</ref> Though it seemed the damage had been done, it was a rare time that an editorial was printed in McPherson's defense. All this calculated well-doing got McPherson back into the good graces of the press, but she still remained very withdrawn and depressed from her divorce spending much of her time in her Lake Elsinore mansion.

===Supposed Affair with Milton Berle===
In [[Milton Berle]]'s autobiography, ''Milton Berle: An Autobiography'' he claimed to have a brief [[affair]] with McPherson in 1930. He writes that he met McPherson while he was at the [[RKO|RKO Hill Street Theater]] in Los Angeles doing a charity show with many other celebrities. After his performance on stage, he claims that he waited for her backstage and talked to her for a while. She supposedly invited him to see the Angelus Temple, but Berle claims that they never made it there.

Instead of going to Angelus Temple, Berle asserts that the two of them went to lunch together then to an apartment of hers so that McPherson could change into something "cooler." While Berle was waiting for McPherson in her apartment, she supposedly reappeared from her room wearing "a very thin, pale blue [[negligee]]." Berle could see that she was wearing nothing underneath and "'Come in' was all she said." Berle supposedly met with her on one other occasion at her apartment a few days later and had [[sexual relations]] with her one other time. He stated that when he was leaving from their second and final rendezvous, McPherson said to him "'Good luck with your show, Milton.' What the hell. I couldn't resist it. 'Good luck with yours, Aimee.'" He reportedly never saw her again after the second encounter.<ref>Berle, Milton. ''Milton Berle: An Autobiography''. New York: [[Delacorte Press]], 1974.</ref>

===Death===
Aimee Semple McPherson returned to [[Oakland, California]] for a series of revivals on [[September 26]], [[1944]] and was scheduled to preach her popular "Story of My Life" sermon. But when her son went to her hotel room at 10 am the next day, he found her unconscious surrounded by pills and a half-empty bottle with additional capsules. She was dead by 11:15 am. The autopsy did not conclusively determine the cause of death of McPherson. She had been taking sleeping pills to help relax after experiencing several health problems including "tropical fever" in the 1940's. The pills in the hotel room were [[Seconal]], a strong sedative, and were not prescribed for her. No one knew how she obtained them. The coroner said that most likely she died of an accidental overdose, compounded by kidney failure. Seconal has a hypnotizing effect which could make the person forget they had taken the medication and take more, leading to an overdose .<ref>Note: In the obituary for her daughter-in-law, the cause of Aimee's death is mentioned: {{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title= Lorna McPherson, 82, Of the Angelus Temple. |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CEEDF1738F93BA25755C0A965958260 |quote= The Rev. Lorna Dee McPherson, daughter-in-law of the famed evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson and a former minister of her Angelus Temple, died on June 11 at her home in the Los Feliz area. She was 82. The cause of death was emphysema and asthma, said the Rev. William Chavez, a longtime friend and fellow minister. Known as Sister Lorna Dee to followers, Mrs. McPherson was a former vice president of the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel, which included more than 600 congregations and a Bible college. Mrs. McPherson was elected to the post in 1944 when her husband, Rolf K. McPherson, succeeded his mother as president and chief minister of Angelus Temple following her death. She is survived by her husband and a daughter, Kay. Aimee Semple McPherson founded Angelus Temple in the early 1920's, when her brand of fundamentalist Christianity, stressing the "born-again" experience, divine healing and evangelism, was popular in the United States. She died on Sept. 27, 1944, of shock and respiratory failure attributed to an overdose of sleeping pills. ... |publisher=[[New York Times]] |date=[[June 18]], [[1993]] |accessdate=2007-08-21 }}</ref> There was conjecture of [[suicide]]. However, it is generally agreed that the overdose was accidental, as stated in the coroner's report.<ref>

{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title= Sister Aimee's' Death Is Ruled An Accident |url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/279794392.html
|quote= Aimee Semple McPherson, famous evangelist who occupied the headlines almost as often as the pulpit, died of shock and respirator failure "from an accidental over-dosage" of sleeping capsules, a coroner's jury decided today.|publisher=[[United Press International]] in [[The Washington Post]] |date=[[October 14]], [[1944]] |accessdate=2008-02-22 }}</ref>

McPherson is buried in [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Glendale, California]]. The Foursquare Gospel church, whose leadership was assumed by McPherson's son Rolf for 44 years after her death, continues worldwide with over two million members, over 90% of whom are outside the US.

== Works about McPherson ==
=== Books, periodicals, film ===

* The character Sharon Falconer in Sinclair Lewis' ''[[Elmer Gantry]]'' (1926) is based on McPherson.<ref name=mh/>
* Upton Sinclair was fascinated with her history. After writing a poem about her dubious abduction, he wrote her into his 1927 novel ''[[Oil!]]'' in the character of Eli Watkins, a corrupt small-town minister. That character is Eli Sunday in the 2007 film, ''[[There Will Be Blood]]''.<ref name=mh>{{cite web|url=http://www.steamthing.com/2007/06/notebook-aimee-.html|publisher=Steamboats Are Ruining Everything|accessdate=2008-01-06|date=2007-06-29|title=Notebook: Aimee Semple McPherson|author=Caleb Crain}}</ref>
* ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' published a satirical cutout [[paper doll]] based on her.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://xroads.virginia.edu/~UG00/robertson/asm/cutoutdolls.html|publisher=Vanity Fair|title=Vanity Fair's Cutout Dolls - no. 2|accessdate=2008-01-06}}</ref>
* Aimee Semple McPherson appeared in ''The Voice of Hollywood No. 9'' (1930), one in a series of popular documentaries released by [[Tiffany (movie studio)|Tiffany Studios]].<ref>{{imdb title|0978414|The Voice of Hollywood No. 9 (1930)}}</ref>
* [[Frank Capra]]'s film ''[[The Miracle Woman]]'' (1931), starring [[Barbara Stanwyck]], was based on [[John Meehan (screenwriter)|John Meehan]]'s play ''Bless You, Sister'' which was inspired by McPherson's life story.
* A [[television film]] about the events surrounding her 1926 disappearance, ''[[The Disappearance of Aimee]]'' (1976) starred [[Faye Dunaway]] as McPherson and [[Bette Davis]] as her mother.
* A film adaptation of the story of her life, entitled ''[[Aimee Semple McPherson (film)|Aimee Semple McPherson]]'' (2006) was directed by [[Richard Rossi]]. The same director filmed a short film ''Saving Sister Aimee'' in 2001. (The film was retitled "Sister Aimee: The Aimee Semple McPherson Story" and released on DVD April 22, 2008.)
* A documentary about McPherson, entitled ''Sister Aimee'', made for the [[PBS]] series ''[[American Experience]]'', premiered [[2 April]] [[2007]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/sister/ American Experience | Sister Aimee | PBS]</ref>
* Several [[biographies]] have been written about McPherson.<ref name=mh/>
*In the [[alternate history]] novel ''[[Back in the USSA]]'', she appears as the Secretary of Manpower Resources under President [[Al Capone]].

===Theater===
A production of the musical ''[[Saving Aimee (musical)|Saving Aimee]]'', with a book and lyrics by [[Kathie Lee Gifford]] and music by [[David Pomeranz]] and [[David Friedman (composer)|David Friedman]], debuted at the [[White Plains]] Performing Arts Center in October 2005 was staged at the [[Signature Theatre]] in [[Arlington, Virginia|Arlington, VA]] in April-May 2007.

==See also==
* [[Christian evangelist scandals]]
==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.foursquare.org/ Foursquare Gospel church]
*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~UG00/robertson/asm/front.html Aimee Semple McPherson biography]
*[http://www.libertyharbor.org/aimee.htm Biography from Liberty Harbor Foursquare Gospel Church]
*[http://www.immortalia.com/html/categorized-by-song/with-music/a/aimee-mcpherson.htm Song about the McPherson kidnapping scandal], dating from when it was a current news story. [[Pete Seeger]] recorded this on the 1961 album ''Story Songs''.
*[http://www.womanthouartgod.com/aimee.php Woman Thou Art God: Female Empowerment, Spirituality & a biography on Aimee].
*[http://sniff.numachi.com/pages/tiAIMEEMC;ttAIMEEMC.html The Ballad of Aimee McPherson].
*[http://www.californiamuseum.org/trails/ Aimee Semple McPherson on The California Museum's California Legacy Trails]
*{{imdb name|id=2492420|name=Aimee Semple McPherson}}

==Publications==
*{{cite book
|title=The Second Coming of Christ
|author=Aimee Semple McPherson
|year=1921
|publisher=A. McPherson
|isbn=
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_VaFGAAACAAJ&dq
}} (1921)
*The Service of the King (1927)
*The Story of My Life (1951)
*This is That (revised 1923)
*Give Me My Own God (1936)

==Further reading==
*Blumhofer, Edith L. ''Aimee Semple McPherson: Everybody's Sister''.
*Epstein, Daniel Mark. ''Sister Aimee: The Life of Aimee Semple McPherson ''.
*Morris, James. ''The Preachers''. ISBN 0-900997-41-9
*Sutton, Matthew Avery. [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/SUTAIM.html?show=reviews ''Aimee Semple McPherson and the Resurrection of Christian America''].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mcpherson, Aimee Semple}}
[[Category:Canadian Pentecostals]]
[[Category:Canadian Evangelicals]]
[[Category:American Christian ministers]]
[[Category:Religious scandals]]
[[Category:Members of the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel]]
[[Category:Faith healers]]
[[Category:History of Los Angeles, California]]
[[Category:People from Oxford County, Ontario]]
[[Category:1890 births]]
[[Category:1944 deaths]]
[[Category:Vaudeville performers]]
[[Category:Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)]]
[[Category:Canadian evangelists]]
[[Category:Drug-related deaths in California]]

[[es:Aimee Semple McPherson]]
[[no:Aimee Semple McPherson]]
[[pt:Aimee McPherson]]
[[sv:Aimee Semple McPherson]]

Haplogruppe I (Y-DNA)

2007-09-04T17:46:43Z

For7thGen: /* I1a */ correction(?)

In [[human genetics]], '''Haplogroup I''' (M170, P19, M258) is a [[Y-chromosome]] [[haplogroup]].

Haplogroup I (the letter I, not the number 1) can be found in most present-day European populations, most commonly in [[Scandinavia]], [[Sardinia]], and the [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] populations of the [[Western Balkans]] in southeastern Europe.

[[Image:Europe20000ya.png|thumb|250px|European LGM refuges, 20 kya.]]
According to current theories, Haplogroup I first arrived in Europe around 20,000-25,000 years ago from the [[Middle East]], perhaps associated with the [[Gravettian]] culture{{ref|science2000a}}, and just prior to the onset of the [[last glacial maximum]] (LGM). It is most closely related to [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup J]], as both Haplogroup I and Haplogroup J are descendants of Haplogroup IJ (S2, S22). Haplogroup IJ is in turn derived from [[Haplogroup F (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup F]]. The Haplogroup I Y-chromosomes found among the Scandinavians, Sardinians, and Slavs generally belong to different [[subclade]]s, however (Rootsi et al. 2004), which indicates that each of the ancestral populations now dominated by a particular subclade experienced an independent population expansion, believed to reflect different migrations of people during and immediately after the ice age. Two main subgroups of [[Haplogroup I (Y-DNA)]] are I-M253/I-M307/I-P30/I-P40 which ''has highest frequency in Scandinavia, Iceland, and northwest Europe.'' The other is I-S31 which ''includes I-P37.2, which is the most common form in the Balkans and Sardinia, and I-S23/I-S30/I-S32/I-S33, which reaches its highest frequency along the northwest coast of continental Europe.''<ref>Y-DNA Haplogroup I and its Subclades [http://www.isogg.org/tree/ISOGG_HapgrpI.html]</ref>

Haplogroup I Y-chromosomes have also been found among some populations of the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, but they are found at frequencies exceeding 10% only among populations of Europe and Asia Minor, particularly among [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]], [[Uralic peoples|Uralic]], and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] peoples, as well as among the [[Romance languages|Romance]]-speaking populations of [[France]], [[Romania]], [[Moldova]], and [[Sardinia]], the [[Albanian language|Albanian]]-speaking population of [[Albania]], and the [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking population of [[Greece]].

Within Europe, several populations are distinguished by having a significantly ''lower'' frequency of Haplogroup I than the surrounding populations: these depressions in the frequency of Haplogroup I distinguish the populations of [[Italy]] and [[Switzerland]] from [[Germany]] and [[Sardinia]], [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] from southern [[France]] and [[Normandy]], [[Greece]] from [[Albania]] and the [[Slavic peoples]], and the [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] [[Latvian people|Latvians]] from the [[Finnic peoples|Finnic]] [[Estonians]]. Thus, it could be said that Haplogroup I displays relatively higher frequencies among peoples who have at times been considered to be "northern barbarians". The great majority of the Y-chromosomes among even these "northern barbarians," however, is composed of the same haplogroups (R1b in Western Europe, R1a1 in Eastern Europe, and N in Northeastern Europe) as the majority of the Y-chromosomes of the southerly, earlier civilized populations.

== Subgroups ==



The [[subclade]]s of Haplogroup I with their defining mutation, according to [http://www.isogg.org/tree/ISOGG_YDNATreeTrunk.html the 2006 ISOGG tree]:

*I (M170, M258, P19)
**I*
**I1 (P38)
***I1*
***I1a (M253, M307, P30, P40) ''Typical of populations of [[Scandinavia]] and [[Northwest Europe]], with a moderate distribution throughout [[Eastern Europe]]''
****I1a*
****I1a1 (M227) ''Appears to be limited to a marginally low frequency of approximately 1% among [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] and [[Uralic peoples|Uralic]] peoples of [[Eastern Europe]]; also detected in a single [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] man''
*****I1a1a (M72)
****I1a2 (M21)
***I1b (S31)
****I1b*
****I1b1 (P37.2) ''Typical of the [[South Slavs|South Slavic peoples]] of the [[Balkans]], especially the populations of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] and [[Croatia]]; also found with high haplotype diversity values, but lower overall frequency, among the West Slavic populations of [[Slovakia]] and the [[Czech Republic]]; a node of elevated frequency in [[Moldavia]] correlates with that observed for Haplogroup I1b2 (but not for Haplogroup I1a)''
*****I1b1*
*****I1b1a (M26)
******I1b1a1 (M161)
*****I1b1b (P41.2 (M359.2)) ''Typical of the population of the so-called "archaic zone" of [[Sardinia]]; also found at low frequencies among populations of Southwest Europe, particularly in [[Castile (historical region)|Castile]], [[Béarn]], and the [[Basque Country (historical territory)|Basque Country]]''
******I1b1b*
****I1b2 (S23, S30, S32, S33) ''Occurs at a moderate frequency among populations of Northwest Europe, with a peak frequency in the region of [[Lower Saxony]] in central [[Germany]]; minor offshoots appear in [[Moldavia]] and [[Russia]] (especially around [[Vladimir Oblast|Vladimir]], [[Ryazan Oblast|Ryazan]], [[Nizhny Novgorod Oblast|Nizhny Novgorod]], and the [[Mordovia|Republic of Mordovia]])''
*****I1b2*
*****I1b2a (M223, S24)
******I1b2a*
******I1b2a1 (M284) ''Generally limited to a low frequency in [[Great Britain]]''
******I1b2a2 (M379)
******I1b2a3 (P78)
******I1b2a4 (P95)

''Note that the naming of some of the subgroups has changed, as new markers have been identified, and the sequence of mutations has become clearer. Names from older literature which have now been superseded include:'' I1b (P37.2)'' now ''I1b1'' — ''I1b2 (M26)'' now ''I1b1b'' — ''I2 (M223)'', later ''I1c (M223)'' now ''I1b2a'' — ''I2a (M284)'', later ''I1c1 (M284)'' now ''I1b2a1.

=== I* ===

The composite '''subclade I*''' contains individuals directly descended from the earliest members of Haplogroup I, bearing none of the subsequent mutations which identify the remaining named subclades.

Several haplogroup I* individuals, with some of the greatest Y-STR diversity, have significantly been found among the populations of [[Turkey]] (8/741), [[Adygea]] (2/138), and [[Iraq]] (1/176), even though as a whole Haplogroup I occurs at only very low frequencies among modern populations of the Middle East and Caucasus. This is consistent with the belief that the haplogroup first appeared in that region. Overall, the highest frequencies of Haplogroup I* appear to be found among the [[Andalusian people|Andalusians]] (3/103), [[French people|French]] (4/179), [[Slovenian people|Slovenians]] (2/55), and the [[Saami people|Saami]] (1/35).

=== I1a ===

{{main|Haplogroup I1a (Y-DNA)}}


'''Haplogroup I1a''' (M253, M307, P30, P40) displays a very clear frequency gradient, with a peak frequency of approximately 35% among the populations of southern [[Norway]], southwestern [[Sweden]], and [[Denmark]], and rapidly decreasing frequencies toward the edges of the historically [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]]-influenced world.

Outside [[Fennoscandia]], distribution of Haplogroup I1a is closely correlated with that of Haplogroup I1b2; but among Scandinavians (including both Germanic and Uralic peoples of the region) nearly all the Haplogroup I Y-chromosomes are I1a. Another characteristic of the Scandinavian I1a Y-chromosomes is their rather low [[haplotype]] diversity (STR diversity): a greater variety of Haplogroup I1a Y-chromosomes has been found among the [[French people|French]] and [[Italian people|Italians]], despite the much lower overall frequency of Haplogroup I1a among the modern French and Italian populations. Taken together, this suggests that the Haplogroup I (shouldn't this be "Haplogroup I1a" instead of "Haplogroup I" ?) element of the ancestry of Scandinavians might be descended from a very small Paleolithic population of Southern European extraction, which became distinct from the ancestral population of Haplogroup I1a individuals outside Scandinavia.

It is conjectured that this shared ancestral population of I1a and I1b2, distinct from I1b1*, may have weathered the last ice age in a refuge located somewhere in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] or southern [[France]], or perhaps the [[Italian Peninsula]]; after the end of the ice age, some of them headed northward and repopulated Northwest Europe and Scandinavia. This population appears to have carried haplogroups I1a and I1b2 at significant frequencies, with a numerical superiority of Haplogroup I1a. Their descendants are primarily found among the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Uralic]], and [[Celt|Celtic]] populations of Northern Europe, although almost always overshadowed by the more prevalent carriers of [[Haplogroup R (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup R]]. If R is considered more specifically, as it is, split between R1b & R1a, then I1a shares almost equally the areas of population where it is at its peak frequencies.

=== I1b1* ===

{{main|Haplogroup I1b (Y-DNA)}}


'''Haplogroup I1b1*''' (P37.2) accounts for most of the Haplogroup I component in the Y-chromosome diversity of Eastern European populations, reaching its peak in the [[Western Balkans]], most notably in [[Dalmatia]] and [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] (40 - 50 %).

The high frequency and diversity of Haplogroup I1b1* among populations of the Western Balkans lends support to the hypothesis that the Adriatic region of modern-day Croatia served as a refuge for populations bearing Haplogroup I1b1* during the [[last glacial maximum]].

=== I1b1b ===

{{main|Haplogroup I1b (Y-DNA)}}


'''Haplogroup I1b1b''' (M359), which is found outside of Sardinia only at low frequencies in [[Southwest Europe]], accounts for almost all of the Haplogroup I Y-chromosomes, which comprise more than 40% of all patrilines among the Sardinians.

A distinct Western European Paleolithic population that bore Haplogroup I1b1b (M26) must have existed somewhere west of the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]] in eastern [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], southern [[France]], or western [[Italy]], from which it succeeded in the first substantial colonization of the island of Sardinia approximately 9,000 years ago. Despite the fact that the predominantly Sardinian Haplogroup I1b1b-M359 is derived from the predominantly Balkan Haplogroup I1b1*-P37.2, the derived Haplogroup I1b1b is practically absent east of [[France]] and [[Italy]], while it is found at low but significant frequencies outside of Sardinia in the [[Balearic Islands]], [[Castile (historical region)|Castile]], the [[Basque Country (historical territory)|Basque Country]], the [[Pyrenees]], southern and western France, and parts of the [[Maghreb]] in [[North Africa]], [[Great Britain]], and [[Ireland]]. Thus, Haplogroup I1b1b appears to be strongly associated with Southwest Europeans of Paleolithic ancestry, and its carriers bear only a distant relictual relationship to the I1b1*-bearing populations of the Balkans. It is also interesting that, although the distributions of Haplogroup I1b1b and the predominantly Scandinavian Haplogroup I1a overlap in parts of western France and the British Isles, and both haplogroups appear to have a very long history in Southwest Europe (and particularly France), the populations bearing these two haplogroups appear to have differentiated at a very early date and have not extensively mixed since that time. Haplogroup I1b1b appears to be the only subclade of Haplogroup I found among the [[Basque people|Basques]], although subclades of [[Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup R1b]] comprise the vast majority of that people's Y-chromosome diversity. It is notable that Haplogroup I1b1b appears to be found at somewhat higher frequencies among the general populations of [[Castile (historical region)|Castile]] in Spain and [[Béarn]] in France than among the population of ethnic Basques. Lastly, the unique phylogeography of this clade has caused some scientists (Gatto, Michael) to posit that the clade should be associated with the spread of [[Chalcolithic]] [[Megalith]] culture in Western Europe. The M26 mutation is found in native males inhabiting every geographic region where megaliths may be found, including such far-flung and culturally disconnected regions like the Canary Islands, the Balearic Isles, Corsica, Ireland, and Sweden. As of 2007, no specific study has confirmed this hypothesis, although the data in several previous studies (Rootsi, et. al., Flores, et. al., etc.) support this hypothesis.

=== I1b2 ===

{{main|Haplogroup I1b (Y-DNA)}}


The distribution of '''Haplogroup I1b2''' (S23, S30, S32, S33) is closely correlated to that of Haplogroup I1a except in [[Fennoscandia]], which suggests that it was probably harbored by at least one of the Paleolithic refuge populations that also harbored Haplogroup I1a; the lack of correlation between the distributions of I1a and I1b2 in Fennoscandia may be a result of Haplogroup I1b2's being more strongly affected in the earliest settlement of this region by [[founder effect|founder effects]] and [[genetic drift]] due to its rarity, as Haplogroup I1b2 comprises less than 10% of the total Y-chromosome diversity of all populations outside of [[Lower Saxony]]. Haplogroup I1b2 has been found in over 4% of the population only in [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Denmark]], [[England]] (not including [[Cornwall]]), [[Scotland]], and the southern tips of [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]] in Northwest Europe; the provinces of [[Normandy]], [[Maine]], [[Anjou]], and [[Perche]] in northwestern [[France]]; the province of [[Provence]] in southeastern France; the regions of [[Tuscany]], [[Umbria]], and [[Latium]] in [[Italy]]; and [[Moldavia]] and the area around Russia's [[Ryazan Oblast]] and [[Mordovia|Republic of Mordovia]] in Eastern Europe. One subclade of Haplogroup I1b2, namely I1b2a1 (M284), has been found almost exclusively among the population of [[Great Britain]], which has been taken to suggest that the clade may have a very long history in that island. It is notable, however, that the distributions of Haplogroup I1a and Haplogroup I1b2 seem to correlate fairly well with the extent of historical influence of [[Germanic peoples]], although the punctual presence of both haplogroups at a low frequency in the area of the historical regions of [[Bithynia]] and [[Galatia]] in [[Turkey]] rather suggests a connection with the ancient [[Gauls]] of [[Thrace]], several tribes of which are recorded to have immigrated to those parts of Anatolia at the invitation of [[Nicomedes I of Bithynia]].

Haplogroup I1b2 also occurs among approximately 1% of Sardinians.

==References==
*{{note|science2000a}} Semino et al (2000), [http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/Science_2000_v290_p1155.pdf The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in Extant Europeans], Science Vol '''290'''
*Baric et al (2003), [http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Barac2003.pdf Y chromosomal heritage of Croatian population and its island isolates], European Journal of Human Genetics '''11''' 535-542
*The Genographic Project, National Geographic, [https://www5.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html Atlas of the Human Journey]
*S. Rootsi et al. (2004), [http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/DNA.RootsiHaplogroupISpread.pdf Phylogeography of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup I Reveals Distinct Domains of Prehistoric Gene Flow in Europe], American Journal of Human Genetics '''75''' 128–137
*ISOGG, [http://www.isogg.org/tree/ISOGG_HapgrpI.html Y-DNA Haplogroup I and its Subclades]

==External links==
*Maps
**[https://www3.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html?card=my036 Spread of Haplogroup I], from ''[[National Geographic]]''
**[http://isogg.org/tree/ISOGG_HapgrpI.html Y-DNA Haplogroup I and Its Subclades] from the International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG)
**[http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2004_v75_Semino.pdf Phylogeography of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup I]
**[http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/22/10/1964/FIG3 Frequency and Variance of I1b]
**[http://www.relativegenetics.com/genomics/images/haploMaps/originals/I1a_large_RG.jpg Map of I1a]
**[http://www.relativegenetics.com/genomics/images/haploMaps/originals/I1b_large_RG.jpg Map of 'I1b'] (now considered I1b1)
**[http://www.relativegenetics.com/genomics/images/haploMaps/originals/I1c_large_RG.jpg Map of 'I1c'] (now considered I1b2a)
*Mailing Lists
**[http://archiver.rootsweb.com/th/index/Y-DNA-HAPLOGROUP-I] Y-DNA-HAPLOGROUP-I Archives
**[http://lists.rootsweb.com/index/other/DNA/Y-DNA-HAPLOGROUP-I.html Y-DNA-HAPLOGROUP-I Mailing List at ''[[Rootsweb.com]]'']

*[http://www.northwestanalysis.net/ Study of Y-Haplogroup I and Modal Haplotypes]

*[http://www.familytreedna.com/public/yDNA_I1a I1a Project at FTDNA]
*[http://www.familytreedna.com/public/I1c-Y-Clan 'I1c' project at FTDNA] (now considered I1b2a)
*[http://www.familytreedna.com/public/I1b2HapGroup 'I1b2' project at FTDNA] (now considered I1b1b)
*[http://www.familytreedna.com/public/scandinavianydna The Scandinavian yDNA Genealogical Project]
*[http://www.familytreedna.com/public/finland The Finland Genealogical Project]

*[http://ycc.biosci.arizona.edu/ The Y Chromosome Consortium (YCC)]
*[http://users.skynet.be/lancaster/459=10-10.htm Example haplotypes from I1* "y cluster"]
*[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~dgarvey/DNA/hg/YCC_I.html YCC Haplogroup I page]

{{Y-DNA}}

[[Category:Human Y-DNA haplogroups|I]]

[[ca:Haplogrup I del cromosoma Y humà]]
[[fr:Haplogroupe I (Y-ADN)]]
[[it:Aplogruppo I (Y-DNA)]]