Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Klopfcode

2016-08-28T00:29:07Z

Davidrust: /* Design */ this was very confusing to read at first, as it didn't make sense. Adding the words "as the count increased" clarifies the process. Also changed the three periods to an ellipsis "…" character.

{| class="wikitable" align=right style="width:100%; width:200px; text-align:center;"
| colspan=6| '''Roman alphabet tap code'''
|-
! !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5
|-
! 1
| [[A]] || [[B]] || [[C]]/[[K]] || [[D]] || [[E]]
|-
! 2
| [[F]] || [[G]] || [[H]] || [[I]] || [[J]]
|-
! 3
| [[L]] || [[M]] || [[N]] || [[O]] || [[P]]
|-
! 4
| [[Q]] || [[R]] || [[S]] || [[T]] || [[U]]
|-
! 5
| [[V]] || [[W]] || [[X]] || [[Y]] || [[Z]]
|-
| colspan=6 | <small>The tap code table</small>
|}

The '''tap code''', sometimes called the '''knock code''', is a way to encode text messages on a letter-by-letter basis in a very simple way. The message is transmitted using a series of tap sounds, hence its name.

The tap code has been commonly used by prisoners to communicate with each other. The method of communicating is usually by tapping either the metal bars, pipes, or the walls inside a cell.

== Design ==
The tap code is based on a [[Polybius square]] using a 5×5 grid of letters representing all the letters of the [[Latin alphabet]], except for K, which is represented by C.

The listener only needs to discriminate the timing of the taps to isolate letters.

Each letter is communicated by tapping two numbers

* the first designating the row
* the second designating the column

For example, to specify the letter "B", one taps once, pauses, and then taps twice.

Or to communicate the word "water", the cipher would be the following (the pause between each number in a pair is smaller than the pause between letters):

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! W !! A !! T !! E !! R
|-
| <center>5, 2</center> || <center>1, 1</center> || <center>4, 4</center> || <center>1, 5</center> || <center>4, 2</center>
|-
| <center>····· ··</center> || <center>· ·</center> || <center>···· ····</center> || <center>· ·····</center> || <center>···· ··</center>
|}

The letter "X" is used to break up sentences, and "K" for acknowledgements.

Because of the difficulty and length of time required for specifying a single letter, prisoners often devise abbreviations and acronyms for common items or phrases, such as "GN" for ''Good night'', or "GBU" for ''God bless you''.<ref name="pbs"/>

By comparison, [[Morse code]] is harder to send by tapping or banging because it requires the ability to create two differently sounding taps (representing the ''dits'' and ''dahs'' of Morse code). A Morse code novice would also need to keep a "cheat sheet" until he or she remembers every letter's code, which the captors would likely confiscate. Tap code can be more easily decoded in one's head by mentally using the table. For example, if you hear four knocks, you would think A… F… L… Q as the count increased; then after the pause, you hear three knocks and think Q… R… S to arrive at the letter S.

== History ==
The origins of this encoding go back to the [[Polybius square]] of [[Ancient Greece]]. As the "knock code", a [[Cyrillic script]] version is said to have been used by [[nihilist movement|nihilist]] prisoners of the [[Russian czars]].<ref>[[David Kahn (writer)|David Kahn]], ''The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing''. 1967. ISBN 978-0-684-83130-5.</ref> The knock code is featured in [[Arthur Koestler]]'s classic 1941 work ''[[Darkness at Noon]]''.<ref>Koestler, Arthur, ''Darkness at Noon'' (1941). Translated by Daphne Hardy. See page 19 of the Bantam Publishing paperback, 1981 printing for more info.</ref>

United States prisoners of war during the [[Vietnam War]] are most known for having used the tap code. It was introduced in June 1965 by four [[Prisoner of war|POWs]] held in the [[Hỏa Lò Prison|Hỏa Lò Prison "Hanoi Hilton" prison]]: Captain Carlyle "Smitty" Harris, Lieutenant Phillip Butler, Lieutenant Robert Peel, and Lieutenant Commander Robert Shumaker.<ref name="pbs">{{cite web | url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/honor/sfeature/sf_tap.html | title=''Return with Honor'': The Tap Code | work=[[American Experience]] | publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] | year=1999 | accessdate=2008-04-08}}</ref> Harris had heard of the tap code being used by prisoners in World War II<ref name="au">{{cite news | url=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc-pow.htm | title=Vets, Flyers discuss ideology, time in POW camps | author=Staff Sgt. Jason Tudor | publisher=[[Air Force News Service]] | date=1998-03-18 | accessdate=2008-04-08}}</ref> and remembered a [[United States Air Force]] instructor who had discussed it as well.<ref name="pbs"/>

In Vietnam, the tap code became a very successful way for otherwise isolated prisoners to communicate.<ref name="au"/> POWs would use the tap code in order to communicate to each other between cells in a way which the guards would be unable to pick up on. They used it to communicate everything from what questions interrogators were asking (in order for everyone to stay consistent with a deceptive story), to who was hurt and needed others to donate meager food rations. It was easy to teach and newly arrived prisoners became fluent in it within a few days.<ref>{{cite book | last=McCain | first=John | authorlink=John McCain |author2=[[Mark Salter]] | title=''[[Faith of My Fathers]]'' | publisher=[[Random House]] | year=1999 | isbn=0-375-50191-6}} pp. 211–212.</ref><ref name="brace"/> It was even used when prisoners were sitting next to each other but not allowed to talk, by tapping on anothers' thigh.<ref name="brace">{{cite book | last=Brace |first=Ernest C. |authorlink=Ernest C. Brace | title=A Code to Keep: The true story of America's longest held civilian prisoner of war in Vietnam | publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] | year=1988 | isbn=0-7090-3560-8}} pp. 171–172, 187–188.</ref> By overcoming isolation with the tap code, prisoners were able to maintain a [[chain of command]] and keep up morale.<ref name="au"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.braingle.com/brainteasers/codes/tapcode.php Online Tap Code Encoder/Decoder]
* [http://faroutliers.blogspot.com/2005/04/russian-prison-tapping-code.html Russian Prison Tap Codes]
*http://www.premioceleste.it/opera/ido:260668/ Artist An Degrida's Tap Code artistic illustration

{{-}}
{{Cryptography navbox | classical}}

[[Category:Classical ciphers]]
[[Category:Encodings]]

Unterschwelliger Reiz

2005-04-18T17:49:01Z

Davidrust: /* Subliminal Messages in Advertising */ corrected horrible writing, removed reference to ebaumsworld.com, irrelevant and self-serving (and definitely not an authority)

A '''subliminal message''' is a [[signal]] or [[message]] designed to pass below (sub) the normal limits of [[perception]]. For example it might be inaudible to the [[conscious]] mind (but audible to the [[unconscious]] or deeper [[mind]]) or might be an image transmitted briefly and unperceived consciously and yet perceived unconsciously. This definition assumes a division between [[conscious]] and [[unconscious]] which may be misleading; it may be better to say that the subliminal message (sound or image) is perceived by deeper parts of what is a single integrated mind.

In the everyday world, many have claimed that subliminal techniques are used in [[advertising]] and for [[propaganda]] purposes but officially it is denied. In Russia, however, there have been reports of subliminal messages. For example, [[Pravda]] has had stories about the discovery of subliminal messages in advertising from the West.

==Origin of the Term==

The term ''subliminal message'' was popularized in a [[1957]] book entitled ''[[The Hidden Persuaders]]'' by [[Vance Packard]]. This book detailed a study of movie theaters that supposedly used subliminal commands to increase the sales of [[popcorn]] and [[Coca-Cola]] at their concession stands. However, [[James Vicary]] (the author of the study) later admitted the study was fabricated.

In [[1973]] [[Wilson Bryan Key]]'s book ''[[Subliminal Seduction]]'' claimed that subliminal techniques were in wide use in advertising. The book contributed to a general climate of fear with regard to [[Orwell]]ian dangers (of subliminal messaging). Public concern was enough to lead the [[Federal Communications Commission]] to hold hearings and to declare subliminal advertising "contrary to the public interest" because it involved "intentional deception" of the public.

==Validity==

In spite of the popular belief that subliminal messages are widely used to influence audiences, there is little evidence that the technique has ever been used on a mass audience (other than its occasional use by artists who use it to make an artistic statement). There is no evidence that subliminal messages have any effect at all on a viewer or listener, and the current consensus among marketing professionals is that subliminal advertising is ineffective and can be counter-productive. The theory underlying subliminal messages is often considered to be [[pseudoscience]]. However, the concept of subliminal messages is very popular among [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theorists]], and most people in media-saturated areas (such as the [[United States]]) are familiar with the term.

A number of fringe elements in society have made occasional claims that subliminal messages can be found in various forms of popular entertainment. Popular claims of subliminal commands include the supposed use of "[[backward message]]s" in [[rock and roll]] songs. Conservative activist [[Donald Wildmon]] has claimed that [[The Walt Disney Company]] inserted the subliminal command "SEX" into the [[animation|animated]] film ''[[The Lion King]]'' (see that article for more information on this). Mainstream authorities have generally ignored these claims due to the dubious reputations of their authors.

==Discussion==

Subliminal perception or cognition, if it exists, can be considered a subset of unconscious [[cognition]] where the forms of unconscious cognition also include attending to one signal in a noisy environment while unconsciously keeping track of other signals (e.g. one voice out of many in a crowded room) and tasks done automatically.

An important question about subliminal perception is: How much of the unattended or unconscious signal or message is perceived? That is, is the whole message sensed and fully digested or perhaps only its main and simpler features? There are at least two schools of thought about this. One of them argues that only the simpler features of unconscious signals could be perceived. The second school of thought argues that unconscious cognition is comprehensive and that much more is perceived than can be verbalized.

Various types of studies of subliminal perception have been conducted. A related field is the question of whether [[Anesthesia|anaesthetized]] patients are completely unaware whilst apparently completely asleep/unconscious.

Proponents of the power of subliminal messages claim they gain influence or power from the fact that they circumvent the critical functions of the conscious mind, and therefore subliminal suggestions are potentially more powerful than ordinary suggestions. This route to influence or persuasion would be akin to [[auto-suggestion]] or [[hypnosis]] wherein the subject is encouraged to be (or somehow induced to be) relaxed so that suggestions are directed to deeper (more gullible) parts of the mind; some observers have argued that the unconscious mind is incapable of critical refusal of hypnotic or subliminal suggestions.

However, research findings do not support the conclusion that subliminal suggestions are peculiarly powerful, or even have any effect at all.

===Subliminal Messages in Advertising===

A form of subliminal messaging commonly believed to exist involves the insertion of "hidden" messages into [[film|movie]]s and [[Television|TV]] programs. The concept of "moving pictures" relies on [[persistence of vision]] to create the illusion of movement in a series of images projected at 23 to 50 frames per second; the popular theory of subliminal messages usually suggests that subliminal commands can be inserted into this sequence at the rate of perhaps 1 frame in 25 (or roughly 1 frame per second, with a duration of about 1/25 of 1 second). The hidden command in a single frame will flash across the screen so quickly that it is not consciously perceived, but the command will supposedly appeal to the subconscious mind of the viewer, and thus have some measurable effect in terms of behavior.

Another "subliminal" message technique is supposedly to embed into a printed advertisement certain messages or symbols which are subtle and perceived only by the unconscious mind, either to communicate a message or to increase the attention paid to the printed ad. This technique, as with subliminal TV advertising, is not generally regarded as effective.

As to the question of whether subliminal messages are widely used to influence groups of people e.g. audiences, there is no evidence to suggest that any serious or sustained attempt has been made to use the technology on a mass audience. The widespread reports that arose in [[1957]] to the effect that customers in a movie theatre in New Jersey had been induced by subliminal messages to consume more popcorn and more [[Coca-Cola]] were almost certainly false. The current consensus among marketing professionals is that subliminal advertising is counter-productive. To some this is because they believe it to be ineffective, but to most it is because they realise it would be a public relations disaster if its use were discovered. Many have misgivings about using it in marketing campaigns due to ethical considerations.

During the [[2000 U.S. presidential campaign]], a [[television]] ad [[campaign]]ing for [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] candidate [[George W. Bush]] showed words (and parts thereof) scaling from the foreground to the background on a television screen. When the word <tt>BUREAUCRATS</tt> flashed on the screen, one frame showed only the last part, <tt>RATS</tt>. [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] promptly asked the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] to look into the matter, but no penalties were ever assessed in the case. The effect this had on the overall presidential race was unclear; the [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] and [[Al Gore]] received ridicule for finding malicious intent in something that could have been a simple mistake; the [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]] received ridicule for the lack of attention to detail and Bush's mispronunciation of "subliminal" (it came out as "subliminable"). (It bears mentioning that the "subliminal message" is easily viewable when the ad is played at regular speed. If the message were truly subliminal, that would not be the case.)

The most common ways of making one of these messages are playing a string of images each lasting 1/3000th of a second, words scrolling across a screen just fast enough so the viewer can only pick out one at a time, and using pictures to provoke the primal instincts in the viewer. Primal instincts are those which promote reproduction and survival. Words used to invoke these instincts include: SEX, FUCK, KILL, and DIE.

== See also ==

*[[advertising]]
*[[marketing]]
*[[promotion]]
*[[backmasking]]

== Quotations ==
* "Over the years there have been literally hundreds of studies"..."these studies show that considerable information capable of informing decisions and guiding actions is perceived even when observers do not experience any awareness of perceiving". Philip Merikle, Department of Psychology, [[University of Waterloo]].

==External links==
*[http://www.snopes2.com/business/hidden/popcorn.htm Urban Legends: Subliminal Advertising]
*[http://www.parascope.com/articles/0497/sublimdc.htm 1984 testimony about subliminal messages to the Federal Communications commission]
*[http://www.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/09/13/bush.ad/ CNN article on 2000 presidential campaign "rats" TV ad]
*[http://www.nlpschedule.com/random/sublm00.html Subliminal Influence and NLP Article]
*[http://www.csicop.org/si/9611/judas_priest.html/ Scientific Consensus and Expert Testimony: Lessons from the Judas Priest Trial]
*[http://www3.telus.net/jefmil/stairwaybackwards.htm Subliminal messages in music]
*[http://mujweb.cz/www/subliminals Subliminal sugestion]

==References==
* Subliminal Perception: The nature of a controversy, N.F.Dixon, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971.
* Psychological Investigations of Unconscious Perception, [[Journal of Consciousness Studies]], P.M Merikle and M. Daneman, 1998.
* New Look 3: Unconscious Cognition Reclaimed, American Psychologist, 47, Anthony W. Greenwald, 1992.
* Holender, D. (1986). Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9, 1-23.
[[es:Mensaje subliminal]]
[[he:מסר תת סיפי]]
[[fi:Subliminaalinen]]
[[ro:Mesaje_subliminale]]
[[sv:Subliminal perception]]

[[Category:Perception]]
[[Category:Popular psychology]]
[[Category:Advertising]]
[[category:Promotion and marketing communications]]
[[Category:Marketing]]

Unterschwelliger Reiz

2005-04-18T17:37:53Z

Davidrust: /* Subliminal Messages in Advertising */ corrected spelling of "instincts"

A '''subliminal message''' is a [[signal]] or [[message]] designed to pass below (sub) the normal limits of [[perception]]. For example it might be inaudible to the [[conscious]] mind (but audible to the [[unconscious]] or deeper [[mind]]) or might be an image transmitted briefly and unperceived consciously and yet perceived unconsciously. This definition assumes a division between [[conscious]] and [[unconscious]] which may be misleading; it may be better to say that the subliminal message (sound or image) is perceived by deeper parts of what is a single integrated mind.

In the everyday world, many have claimed that subliminal techniques are used in [[advertising]] and for [[propaganda]] purposes but officially it is denied. In Russia, however, there have been reports of subliminal messages. For example, [[Pravda]] has had stories about the discovery of subliminal messages in advertising from the West.

==Origin of the Term==

The term ''subliminal message'' was popularized in a [[1957]] book entitled ''[[The Hidden Persuaders]]'' by [[Vance Packard]]. This book detailed a study of movie theaters that supposedly used subliminal commands to increase the sales of [[popcorn]] and [[Coca-Cola]] at their concession stands. However, [[James Vicary]] (the author of the study) later admitted the study was fabricated.

In [[1973]] [[Wilson Bryan Key]]'s book ''[[Subliminal Seduction]]'' claimed that subliminal techniques were in wide use in advertising. The book contributed to a general climate of fear with regard to [[Orwell]]ian dangers (of subliminal messaging). Public concern was enough to lead the [[Federal Communications Commission]] to hold hearings and to declare subliminal advertising "contrary to the public interest" because it involved "intentional deception" of the public.

==Validity==

In spite of the popular belief that subliminal messages are widely used to influence audiences, there is little evidence that the technique has ever been used on a mass audience (other than its occasional use by artists who use it to make an artistic statement). There is no evidence that subliminal messages have any effect at all on a viewer or listener, and the current consensus among marketing professionals is that subliminal advertising is ineffective and can be counter-productive. The theory underlying subliminal messages is often considered to be [[pseudoscience]]. However, the concept of subliminal messages is very popular among [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theorists]], and most people in media-saturated areas (such as the [[United States]]) are familiar with the term.

A number of fringe elements in society have made occasional claims that subliminal messages can be found in various forms of popular entertainment. Popular claims of subliminal commands include the supposed use of "[[backward message]]s" in [[rock and roll]] songs. Conservative activist [[Donald Wildmon]] has claimed that [[The Walt Disney Company]] inserted the subliminal command "SEX" into the [[animation|animated]] film ''[[The Lion King]]'' (see that article for more information on this). Mainstream authorities have generally ignored these claims due to the dubious reputations of their authors.

==Discussion==

Subliminal perception or cognition, if it exists, can be considered a subset of unconscious [[cognition]] where the forms of unconscious cognition also include attending to one signal in a noisy environment while unconsciously keeping track of other signals (e.g. one voice out of many in a crowded room) and tasks done automatically.

An important question about subliminal perception is: How much of the unattended or unconscious signal or message is perceived? That is, is the whole message sensed and fully digested or perhaps only its main and simpler features? There are at least two schools of thought about this. One of them argues that only the simpler features of unconscious signals could be perceived. The second school of thought argues that unconscious cognition is comprehensive and that much more is perceived than can be verbalized.

Various types of studies of subliminal perception have been conducted. A related field is the question of whether [[Anesthesia|anaesthetized]] patients are completely unaware whilst apparently completely asleep/unconscious.

Proponents of the power of subliminal messages claim they gain influence or power from the fact that they circumvent the critical functions of the conscious mind, and therefore subliminal suggestions are potentially more powerful than ordinary suggestions. This route to influence or persuasion would be akin to [[auto-suggestion]] or [[hypnosis]] wherein the subject is encouraged to be (or somehow induced to be) relaxed so that suggestions are directed to deeper (more gullible) parts of the mind; some observers have argued that the unconscious mind is incapable of critical refusal of hypnotic or subliminal suggestions.

However, research findings do not support the conclusion that subliminal suggestions are peculiarly powerful, or even have any effect at all.

===Subliminal Messages in Advertising===

A form of subliminal messaging commonly believed to exist involves the insertion of "hidden" messages into [[film|movie]]s and [[Television|TV]] programs. The concept of "moving pictures" relies on [[persistence of vision]] to create the illusion of movement in a series of images projected at 23 to 50 frames per second; the popular theory of subliminal messages usually suggests that subliminal commands can be inserted into this sequence at the rate of perhaps 1 frame in 25 (or roughly 1 frame per second, with a duration of about 1/25 of 1 second). The hidden command in a single frame will flash across the screen so quickly that it is not consciously perceived, but the command will supposedly appeal to the subconscious mind of the viewer, and thus have some measurable effect in terms of behavior.

Another "subliminal" message technique is supposedly to embed into a printed advertisement certain messages or symbols which are subtle and perceived only by the unconscious mind, either to communicate a message or to increase the attention paid to the printed ad. This technique, as with subliminal TV advertising, is not generally regarded as effective.

As to the question of whether subliminal messages are widely used to influence groups of people e.g. audiences, there is no evidence to suggest that any serious or sustained attempt has been made to use the technology on a mass audience. The widespread reports that arose in [[1957]] to the effect that customers in a movie theatre in New Jersey had been induced by subliminal messages to consume more popcorn and more [[Coca-Cola]] were almost certainly false. The current consensus among marketing professionals is that subliminal advertising is counter-productive. To some this is because they believe it to be ineffective, but to most it is because they realise it would be a public relations disaster if its use were discovered. Many have misgivings about using it in marketing campaigns due to ethical considerations.

During the [[2000 U.S. presidential campaign]], a [[television]] ad [[campaign]]ing for [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] candidate [[George W. Bush]] showed words (and parts thereof) scaling from the foreground to the background on a television screen. When the word <tt>BUREAUCRATS</tt> flashed on the screen, one frame showed only the last part, <tt>RATS</tt>. [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] promptly asked the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] to look into the matter, but no penalties were ever assessed in the case. The effect this had on the overall presidential race was unclear; the [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] and [[Al Gore]] received ridicule for finding malicious intent in something that could have been a simple mistake; the [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]] received ridicule for the lack of attention to detail and Bush's mispronunciation of "subliminal" (it came out as "subliminable"). (It bears mentioning that the "subliminal message" is easily viewable when the ad is played at regular speed. If the message were truly subliminal, that would not be the case.)

The most common ways of making one of these messages are playing a string of images each lasting 1/3000th of a second, words scrolling across a screen just fast enough so the viewer can only pick out one at a time, and using pictures to provoke the primal instincts in the viewer. Primal insticts are those instincts that command killing or sexually reproducing.
The 4 most used words to invoke these instincts are: SEX, FUCK, KILL, and DIE.

Works cited: www.ebaumsworld.com "urban legends". found in the animation section.

== See also ==

*[[advertising]]
*[[marketing]]
*[[promotion]]
*[[backmasking]]

== Quotations ==
* "Over the years there have been literally hundreds of studies"..."these studies show that considerable information capable of informing decisions and guiding actions is perceived even when observers do not experience any awareness of perceiving". Philip Merikle, Department of Psychology, [[University of Waterloo]].

==External links==
*[http://www.snopes2.com/business/hidden/popcorn.htm Urban Legends: Subliminal Advertising]
*[http://www.parascope.com/articles/0497/sublimdc.htm 1984 testimony about subliminal messages to the Federal Communications commission]
*[http://www.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/09/13/bush.ad/ CNN article on 2000 presidential campaign "rats" TV ad]
*[http://www.nlpschedule.com/random/sublm00.html Subliminal Influence and NLP Article]
*[http://www.csicop.org/si/9611/judas_priest.html/ Scientific Consensus and Expert Testimony: Lessons from the Judas Priest Trial]
*[http://www3.telus.net/jefmil/stairwaybackwards.htm Subliminal messages in music]
*[http://mujweb.cz/www/subliminals Subliminal sugestion]

==References==
* Subliminal Perception: The nature of a controversy, N.F.Dixon, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971.
* Psychological Investigations of Unconscious Perception, [[Journal of Consciousness Studies]], P.M Merikle and M. Daneman, 1998.
* New Look 3: Unconscious Cognition Reclaimed, American Psychologist, 47, Anthony W. Greenwald, 1992.
* Holender, D. (1986). Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9, 1-23.
[[es:Mensaje subliminal]]
[[he:מסר תת סיפי]]
[[fi:Subliminaalinen]]
[[ro:Mesaje_subliminale]]
[[sv:Subliminal perception]]

[[Category:Perception]]
[[Category:Popular psychology]]
[[Category:Advertising]]
[[category:Promotion and marketing communications]]
[[Category:Marketing]]