Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Adolph Malan

2014-12-20T13:22:16Z

Dapi89: /* Later life */

{{for|the South African rugby player|Adolf Malan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}}
{{Infobox military person
|name=Adolph Gysbert (Sailor) Malan
|birth_date=24 March 1910
|death_date= 17 September 1963 (aged 53)
|birth_place=[[Wellington, Western Cape|Wellington]], [[Cape Colony]] (now [[South Africa]])
|death_place=
|placeofburial=
|placeofburial_label= Place of burial
|image=Group_Captain_A_G_Malan_WWII_IWM_CH_12661.jpg
|image_size=150
|caption=
|nickname=Sailor
|allegiance=[[United Kingdom]]
|serviceyears=1935 – 1946
|rank=[[Group Captain]]
|branch= [[Royal Air Force]]
|commands=- [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] - 19 Fighter Wing, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|2nd TAF]] - 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing
|unit=
|battles='''[[World War II]]'''
*[[Battle of Barking Creek]]
*[[Battle of Dunkirk]]
*[[Battle of Britain]]
*[[Operation Overlord]]
|awards=[[Distinguished Service Order]] [[Medal bar|& Bar]] [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] [[Medal bar|& Bar]]
|laterwork=
}}

'''Adolph Gysbert Malan''', [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]] [[Medal bar|& Bar]], [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|DFC]] [[Medal bar|& Bar]] (24 March 1910 – 17 September 1963), better known as '''Sailor Malan''', was a famed South African [[World War II]] [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] fighter pilot who led [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] during the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Malan was known for sending German bomber pilots home with dead crews as a warning to other Luftwaffe crews.<ref>The Second World War, John Keegan, Penguin Books 1989, p. 102</ref> Under his leadership No. 74 became one of the RAF's best units. Malan scored 27 kills, seven shared destroyed, three probably destroyed and 16 damaged.<ref>Price 1997, p. 65.</ref>

Malan survived the war to become involved in the [[Internal resistance to South African apartheid|anti-apartheid movement]] in his country. His younger brother, George F. Malan, was killed flying with No. 72 Squadron RAF as a Spitfire pilot in Tunisia, in earlier 1943.<ref>Oxspring, Bobby. ''Spitfire Command'' London Grafton 1984 p161, p166 ISBN 0586070680</ref>

==Early life==
Malan was born in [[Wellington, Western Cape]], then part of the [[Cape Colony]]. He joined the South African Training Ship ''[[General Botha]]'' in 1924 or 1925 as a cadet (cadet number 168), after which he joined the [[Union-Castle Line]] of the [[International Mercantile Marine Co.]] which later earned him the nickname of "Sailor" amongst his pilot colleagues.

==Royal Air Force==
In 1935 the RAF started the rapid expansion of its pilot corps, and Malan was one of the people who joined up. He learned to fly in the [[Tiger Moth (plane)|Tiger Moth]] at an elementary flying school near [[Bristol]], flying for the first time on 6 January 1936. Commissioned an Acting Pilot Officer on 2 March,<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34265/pages/1742 London Gazette, 17 March 1936]</ref> he completed training by the end of the year, and was sent to join 74 Squadron on 20 December 1936. He was confirmed as a [[Pilot Officer]] on 6 January 1937,<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34380/pages/1750 London Gazette, 16 March 1937]</ref> and was appointed to acting Flight Commander of "A" Flight, flying [[Spitfire]]s, in August. He was promoted to acting [[Flying Officer]] on 20 May 1938<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34544/pages/5418 London Gazette, 23 August 1938]</ref> and promoted to substantive Flying Officer on 6 July<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34542/pages/5293 London Gazette, 16 August 1938]</ref> He received another promotion to acting [[Flight Lieutenant]] on 2 March 1939,<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34611/pages/2097 London Gazette, 2 March 1939]</ref> six months before the outbreak of war.

==The Second World War==

===The Battle of Barking Creek===
No. 74 Squadron saw its first action only 15 hours after war was declared, sent to intercept a bomber raid that turned out to be returning RAF planes. On 6 September 1939, "A" Flight was scrambled to intercept a suspected enemy radar track and ran into the Hurricanes of [[No. 56 Squadron RAF]]. Believing 56 to be the enemy, Malan ordered an attack. Paddy Byrne and [[John Freeborn]] downed two RAF aircraft, killing one officer, Montague Hulton-Harrop, in this [[friendly fire]] incident, which became known as the [[Battle of Barking Creek]]. At the subsequent [[courts-martial]], Malan denied responsibility for the attack.<ref name="nasson">
{{citation
| author = Bill Nasson (University of Stellenbosch)
| title = A flying Springbok of wartime British skies: A.G. ʻSailorʼ Malan
| publisher = ''Kronos, 35: 71-97'', University of Western Cape, South Africa, 2009
| url = http://repository.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10566/101/NassonSailor2009.pdf?sequence=1
| accessdate = 26 August 2010}}</ref> He testified for the prosecution against his own pilots stating that Freeborn had been irresponsible, impetuous, and had not taken proper heed of vital communications.<ref name="nasson"/> This prompted Freeborn's counsel, [[Patrick Hastings|Sir Patrick Hastings]] to call Malan a bare-faced liar.<ref>{{cite book|first=Bob|last=Cossey|title=A Tiger's Tale: The Story of Battle of Britain Fighter Ace Wg. Cdr. John Connell Freeborn|publisher=J & KH Publishing|year=2002 |ISBN= 978-1-900511-64-3|pages= 64–66}}</ref> Hastings was assisted in defending the pilots by [[Roger Bushell]], the London barrister and RAF Auxiliary pilot who later led the Great Escape from [[Stalag Luft III]].
The court ruled the entire incident was an unfortunate error and acquitted both pilots.<ref>{{cite book|first=Stephen|last=Bungay|title=The Most Dangerous Enemy: A history of the Battle of Britain|publisher=Aurum Press|year= 2001|page=67}}</ref>

===Dunkirk===
Events soon overtook the squadron. After fierce fighting over Dunkirk during [[Operation Dynamo|the evacuation of Dunkirk]] on 28 June 1940, Malan was awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (UK)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] having achieved five 'kills'. During this battle he first exhibited his fearless and implacable fighting spirit. In one incident he was able to coolly change the light bulb in his gunsight while in combat and then quickly return to the fray. During the night of 19/20 June Malan flew a night sortie in bright moonlight and shot down two [[Heinkel He-111]] bombers, a then unique feat for which a bar to his DFC was awarded. On 6 July, he was promoted to the permanent rank of Flight Lieutenant.<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34915/pages/4811 London Gazette, 6 August 1940]</ref>

Malan and his senior pilots also decided to abandon the "vic" formation used by the RAF, and turned to a looser formation (the "[[finger-four]]") similar to the four aircraft Schwarm the '' [[Luftwaffe]]'' had developed during the Spanish Civil War. Legend has it that on 28 July he met [[Werner Mölders]] in combat, damaging his plane and wounding him, but failing to bring him down. Recent research has suggested however that Mölders was wounded in a fight with [[No. 41 Squadron RAF]].

===Squadron Leader – 74 Squadron===
On 8 August, Malan was given command of 74 Squadron and promoted to Acting [[Squadron Leader]]. This was at the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Three days later, on 11 August, action started at 7 am when 74 was sent to intercept a raid near [[Dover, England|Dover]], but this was followed by another three raids, lasting all day. At the end of the day, 74 had claimed to have shot down 38 aircraft, and was known from then on as "Sailor's August the Eleventh". Malan himself simply commented, "''thus ended a very successful morning of combat''." He received a bar to his DFC on 13 August.<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34920/pages/4939 London Gazette, 13 August 1940]</ref>

On the ground, Malan was remembered as an inveterate gambler and often owed his subordinates money. Malan was older than most of his charges and although sociable and relaxed off-duty, he spent most of his time with his wife and family living near Biggin Hill. He would soon develop a routine of flying the first sortie of the day and then handing the squadron to a subordinate while he stayed on the ground to do paperwork. Despite frosty relations after the Battle of Barking Creek he would often give command of the squadron to [[John Freeborn]] (himself an [[Flying ace|ace]] of note), showing Malan's ability to keep the personal and professional separate.

Malan commanded 74 Squadron with strict discipline and did not suffer fools gladly, and could be high-handed with sergeant pilots (many non-commissioned pilots were joining the RAF at this time). He could also be reluctant to hand out decorations, and he had a strict yardstick by which he would make recommendations for medals: six kills confirmed for a DFC, twelve for a bar to the DFC; eighteen for a DSO.

[[File:Sailor Malan, colour oil painting by Cuthbert Orde.JPG|130px|thumb|right|Sailor Malan, colour oil painting by Cuthbert Orde]]On 29 December 1941 Malan was added to the select list of airmen who had sat for one of [[Cuthbert Orde]]'s iconic charcoal portraits. He also had the far rarer honour of having Orde paint a full colour painting.<ref>
{{citation
| author = RAF Museum
| title = Battle of Britain
| url = http://navigator.rafmuseum.org/results.do;jsessionid=7737A08DF483E2E4A45DB574929022DD?view=detail&db=object&pageSize=1&id=7603
| accessdate =4 November 2010}}</ref>

===Wing Commander – Biggin Hill===
On 24 December, Malan received the [[Distinguished Service Order]], and on 22 July 1941, a [[Medal bar|bar]] to the Order. On 10 March 1941 he was appointed as one of the first [[Wing (military unit)|Wing]] Leaders for the offensive operations that spring and summer, leading the Biggin Hill Wing until mid August, when he was rested from operations.
He finished his active fighter career in 1941 with 27 kills destroyed, 7 shared destroyed and 2 unconfirmed, 3 probables and 16 damaged, at the time the RAF's leading ace, and one of the highest scoring pilots to have served wholly with Fighter Command during World War II. He was transferred to the reserve as a Squadron Leader on 6 January 1942.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=36524 |supp=yes |startpage=2339 |date=23 May 1944}}</ref>

After tours to the USA and the Central Gunnery School, Malan was promoted to temporary [[Wing commander (rank)|Wing Commander]] on 1 September 1942<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=35725 |supp=yes |startpage=4258 |date=1 October 1942}}</ref> and became Station Commander at [[Biggin Hill]], receiving a promotion to war substantive Wing Commander on 1 July 1943.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=36157 |startpage=3927 |date=3 September 1943 |supp=yes}}</ref> Malan remained keen to fly on operations, often ignoring standing orders for Station Commanders not to risk getting shot down. In October 1943 he became Officer Commanding [[No. 19 Wing RAF|19 Fighter Wing]], [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force]], then commander of the 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing in time for D-day, leading a section of the wing over the beaches during the late afternoon.

[[File:Malan and RAF officers D Day IWM CL 29.jpg|thumb|Malan and RAF officers D Day]]

==Rules of Air Fighting==
Although not an instinctive, gifted pilot Malan was an exceptional shot and a very aggressive air fighter, and above all a superb tactician who instilled the methods and techniques he had honed in 1940 into successive generations of young fighter pilots who followed him.

Malan developed a set of simple rules for fighter pilots, to be disseminated throughout [[RAF Fighter Command]], which eventually could be found tacked to the wall of most airbases:

'''TEN OF MY RULES FOR AIR FIGHTING'''

# Wait until you see the whites of his eyes. Fire short bursts of one to two seconds only when your sights are definitely "ON".
# Whilst shooting think of nothing else, brace the whole of your body: have both hands on the stick: concentrate on your ring sight.
# Always keep a sharp lookout. "Keep your finger out".
# Height gives you the initiative.
# Always turn and face the attack.
# Make your decisions promptly. It is better to act quickly even though your tactics are not the best.
# Never fly straight and level for more than 30 seconds in the combat area.
# When diving to attack always leave a proportion of your formation above to act as a top guard.
# ''INITIATIVE'', ''AGGRESSION'', ''AIR DISCIPLINE'', and ''TEAMWORK'' are words that MEAN something in Air Fighting.
# Go in quickly - Punch hard - Get out!

==Later life==
On 5 April 1946, Malan resigned his RAF commission, retaining the rank of [[Group Captain]]<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/37526/supplements/1795 London Gazette, 9 April 1946]</ref> and returned to South Africa where he joined the ''[[Torch Commando]]'' a joint project of the anti-fascist ex-servicemen's organisation, the ''[[Springbok Legion]]'' and the ''War Veterans Action committee''. Sailor Malan became the president of that new organization. In Malan's words, it was "established to oppose the police state, abuse of state power, censorship, racism, the removal of the Coloured vote and other oppressive manifestations of the creeping [[fascism]] of the National Party regime".

Amongst the leading members of the Springbok Legion were many ex-servicemen who would later join the African National Congress and Umkhonto we Sizwe under the leadership of [[Nelson Mandela]]. Amongst these were [[Joe Slovo]], Jack Hodgson, Wolfie Kodesh, Brian Bunting and Fred Carneson. After the National Party came to power and began to implement its policies, many found the Springbok Legion, founded in 1941, (see Torch commando) to be too left orientated and too radical. In 1950 members of the Springbok Legion began to work with other more liberal organizations and even the United Party official opposition, to find new ways to mobilise protest support against a string of Apartheid laws.

In 1951 the Springbok Legion, formed a protest group together with the War Veterans Action Committee, to appeal to a broader base of ex-servicemen, which they called the 'Torch Commando', as a tactic to fight the National Party's plans to [[Coloured vote constitutional crisis|remove Cape's "coloured" voters from the roll]]. [[Harry Schwarz]], an ex-serviceman and later a leading figure in the anti-apartheid movement was one of the founders of the organization. The Torch Commando fought a battle for more than five years, and at its height had 250,000 members. The government was so alarmed by the number of judges, public servants and military officers joining the organisation that a new law was passed to ban anyone in public service or the military from joining. The National Party ensured that the memory of the Springbok Legion, Torch Commando and of Sailor Malan was purged from history because there was a fear that young Afrikaners in particular might want to emulate Malan.

At its largest Torch Commando protest rally, the Springbok Legion attracted 75,000 people. In a speech at a rally outside City Hall in Johannesburg, Malan made reference to the ideals for which the Second World War was fought: “The strength of this gathering is evidence that the men and women who fought in the war for freedom still cherish what they fought for. We are determined not to be denied the fruits of that victory.”

Malan died in 1963 from [[Parkinson's Disease]], at the time a rare and essentially mysterious malady. A considerable sum of money was raised in his name to further study the disease, a fund that continues to this day.

He is survived by his wife, Lynda, son Jonathan, and daughter Valerie.

In the 1969 war film [[Battle of Britain (film)|''Battle of Britain'']], the [[Robert Shaw (British actor)|Robert Shaw]] character 'Squadron Leader Skipper' was explicitly based on Malan, as recounted by director [[Guy Hamilton]] in the documentary 'A Film for the Few', which was included with the 2004 Special Edition DVD release. At one point early in the film, Skipper gives advanced [[air combat maneuvering|air combat manouvering]] training to an inexperienced pilot, and angrily barks "Never fly straight and level for more than 30 seconds in the combat area!"—quoting one of Malan's rules.

==Awards==
*[[Distinguished Service Order]] and Bar
*[[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] and Bar
* Belgium [[War Cross (Belgium)|Croix de Guerre]]
* [[Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945|The Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945]]
* [[French Legion Of Honour]]
* [[Croix de guerre 1939–1945|French Croix de Guerre]]

==See also==
*[[Flying ace]]
*[[List of top World War II aces]]
*[[List of World War II aces from South Africa]]
*[[Huguenots in South Africa]], for the history of French surnames (like Malan) in South Africa.

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* Franks, Norman L.R. ''Sky Tiger The Story of Sailor Malan''. Crecy, Manchester, UK. 1994. ISBN 9-780907-57-9830.
* Walker, Oliver '' Sailor Malan''. Casssell & Co Ltd. 1953.
* Price, Dr. Alfred. ''Spitfire Mark V Aces, 1941-45''. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1997. ISBN 978-1-85532-635-4.
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S0259-01902009000100004&script=sci_arttext A flying Springbok of wartime British skies: A.G. 'Sailor' Malan - Bill Nasson]
* [http://zar.co.za/sailor.htm ZAR.co.za Biography]

{{Commons category|Adolph Malan}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=84035575}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Malan, Adolph
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = British flying ace
| DATE OF BIRTH = 24 March 1910
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Wellington, Western Cape]]
| DATE OF DEATH = 17 September 1963
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Malan, Adolph}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1963 deaths]]
[[Category:People from the Cape Winelands District Municipality]]
[[Category:Afrikaner people]]
[[Category:South African people of Huguenot descent]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force officers]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:South African military personnel]]
[[Category:South African World War II flying aces]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross and Bar (United Kingdom)]]
[[Category:British World War II flying aces]]
[[Category:The Few]]
[[Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order and Bar]]
[[Category:Deaths from Parkinson's disease]]
[[Category:Anti-apartheid activists]]

Adolph Malan

2014-12-20T13:21:35Z

Dapi89: /* Later life */

{{for|the South African rugby player|Adolf Malan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}}
{{Infobox military person
|name=Adolph Gysbert (Sailor) Malan
|birth_date=24 March 1910
|death_date= 17 September 1963 (aged 53)
|birth_place=[[Wellington, Western Cape|Wellington]], [[Cape Colony]] (now [[South Africa]])
|death_place=
|placeofburial=
|placeofburial_label= Place of burial
|image=Group_Captain_A_G_Malan_WWII_IWM_CH_12661.jpg
|image_size=150
|caption=
|nickname=Sailor
|allegiance=[[United Kingdom]]
|serviceyears=1935 – 1946
|rank=[[Group Captain]]
|branch= [[Royal Air Force]]
|commands=- [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] - 19 Fighter Wing, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|2nd TAF]] - 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing
|unit=
|battles='''[[World War II]]'''
*[[Battle of Barking Creek]]
*[[Battle of Dunkirk]]
*[[Battle of Britain]]
*[[Operation Overlord]]
|awards=[[Distinguished Service Order]] [[Medal bar|& Bar]] [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] [[Medal bar|& Bar]]
|laterwork=
}}

'''Adolph Gysbert Malan''', [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]] [[Medal bar|& Bar]], [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|DFC]] [[Medal bar|& Bar]] (24 March 1910 – 17 September 1963), better known as '''Sailor Malan''', was a famed South African [[World War II]] [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] fighter pilot who led [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] during the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Malan was known for sending German bomber pilots home with dead crews as a warning to other Luftwaffe crews.<ref>The Second World War, John Keegan, Penguin Books 1989, p. 102</ref> Under his leadership No. 74 became one of the RAF's best units. Malan scored 27 kills, seven shared destroyed, three probably destroyed and 16 damaged.<ref>Price 1997, p. 65.</ref>

Malan survived the war to become involved in the [[Internal resistance to South African apartheid|anti-apartheid movement]] in his country. His younger brother, George F. Malan, was killed flying with No. 72 Squadron RAF as a Spitfire pilot in Tunisia, in earlier 1943.<ref>Oxspring, Bobby. ''Spitfire Command'' London Grafton 1984 p161, p166 ISBN 0586070680</ref>

==Early life==
Malan was born in [[Wellington, Western Cape]], then part of the [[Cape Colony]]. He joined the South African Training Ship ''[[General Botha]]'' in 1924 or 1925 as a cadet (cadet number 168), after which he joined the [[Union-Castle Line]] of the [[International Mercantile Marine Co.]] which later earned him the nickname of "Sailor" amongst his pilot colleagues.

==Royal Air Force==
In 1935 the RAF started the rapid expansion of its pilot corps, and Malan was one of the people who joined up. He learned to fly in the [[Tiger Moth (plane)|Tiger Moth]] at an elementary flying school near [[Bristol]], flying for the first time on 6 January 1936. Commissioned an Acting Pilot Officer on 2 March,<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34265/pages/1742 London Gazette, 17 March 1936]</ref> he completed training by the end of the year, and was sent to join 74 Squadron on 20 December 1936. He was confirmed as a [[Pilot Officer]] on 6 January 1937,<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34380/pages/1750 London Gazette, 16 March 1937]</ref> and was appointed to acting Flight Commander of "A" Flight, flying [[Spitfire]]s, in August. He was promoted to acting [[Flying Officer]] on 20 May 1938<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34544/pages/5418 London Gazette, 23 August 1938]</ref> and promoted to substantive Flying Officer on 6 July<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34542/pages/5293 London Gazette, 16 August 1938]</ref> He received another promotion to acting [[Flight Lieutenant]] on 2 March 1939,<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34611/pages/2097 London Gazette, 2 March 1939]</ref> six months before the outbreak of war.

==The Second World War==

===The Battle of Barking Creek===
No. 74 Squadron saw its first action only 15 hours after war was declared, sent to intercept a bomber raid that turned out to be returning RAF planes. On 6 September 1939, "A" Flight was scrambled to intercept a suspected enemy radar track and ran into the Hurricanes of [[No. 56 Squadron RAF]]. Believing 56 to be the enemy, Malan ordered an attack. Paddy Byrne and [[John Freeborn]] downed two RAF aircraft, killing one officer, Montague Hulton-Harrop, in this [[friendly fire]] incident, which became known as the [[Battle of Barking Creek]]. At the subsequent [[courts-martial]], Malan denied responsibility for the attack.<ref name="nasson">
{{citation
| author = Bill Nasson (University of Stellenbosch)
| title = A flying Springbok of wartime British skies: A.G. ʻSailorʼ Malan
| publisher = ''Kronos, 35: 71-97'', University of Western Cape, South Africa, 2009
| url = http://repository.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10566/101/NassonSailor2009.pdf?sequence=1
| accessdate = 26 August 2010}}</ref> He testified for the prosecution against his own pilots stating that Freeborn had been irresponsible, impetuous, and had not taken proper heed of vital communications.<ref name="nasson"/> This prompted Freeborn's counsel, [[Patrick Hastings|Sir Patrick Hastings]] to call Malan a bare-faced liar.<ref>{{cite book|first=Bob|last=Cossey|title=A Tiger's Tale: The Story of Battle of Britain Fighter Ace Wg. Cdr. John Connell Freeborn|publisher=J & KH Publishing|year=2002 |ISBN= 978-1-900511-64-3|pages= 64–66}}</ref> Hastings was assisted in defending the pilots by [[Roger Bushell]], the London barrister and RAF Auxiliary pilot who later led the Great Escape from [[Stalag Luft III]].
The court ruled the entire incident was an unfortunate error and acquitted both pilots.<ref>{{cite book|first=Stephen|last=Bungay|title=The Most Dangerous Enemy: A history of the Battle of Britain|publisher=Aurum Press|year= 2001|page=67}}</ref>

===Dunkirk===
Events soon overtook the squadron. After fierce fighting over Dunkirk during [[Operation Dynamo|the evacuation of Dunkirk]] on 28 June 1940, Malan was awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (UK)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] having achieved five 'kills'. During this battle he first exhibited his fearless and implacable fighting spirit. In one incident he was able to coolly change the light bulb in his gunsight while in combat and then quickly return to the fray. During the night of 19/20 June Malan flew a night sortie in bright moonlight and shot down two [[Heinkel He-111]] bombers, a then unique feat for which a bar to his DFC was awarded. On 6 July, he was promoted to the permanent rank of Flight Lieutenant.<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34915/pages/4811 London Gazette, 6 August 1940]</ref>

Malan and his senior pilots also decided to abandon the "vic" formation used by the RAF, and turned to a looser formation (the "[[finger-four]]") similar to the four aircraft Schwarm the '' [[Luftwaffe]]'' had developed during the Spanish Civil War. Legend has it that on 28 July he met [[Werner Mölders]] in combat, damaging his plane and wounding him, but failing to bring him down. Recent research has suggested however that Mölders was wounded in a fight with [[No. 41 Squadron RAF]].

===Squadron Leader – 74 Squadron===
On 8 August, Malan was given command of 74 Squadron and promoted to Acting [[Squadron Leader]]. This was at the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Three days later, on 11 August, action started at 7 am when 74 was sent to intercept a raid near [[Dover, England|Dover]], but this was followed by another three raids, lasting all day. At the end of the day, 74 had claimed to have shot down 38 aircraft, and was known from then on as "Sailor's August the Eleventh". Malan himself simply commented, "''thus ended a very successful morning of combat''." He received a bar to his DFC on 13 August.<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/34920/pages/4939 London Gazette, 13 August 1940]</ref>

On the ground, Malan was remembered as an inveterate gambler and often owed his subordinates money. Malan was older than most of his charges and although sociable and relaxed off-duty, he spent most of his time with his wife and family living near Biggin Hill. He would soon develop a routine of flying the first sortie of the day and then handing the squadron to a subordinate while he stayed on the ground to do paperwork. Despite frosty relations after the Battle of Barking Creek he would often give command of the squadron to [[John Freeborn]] (himself an [[Flying ace|ace]] of note), showing Malan's ability to keep the personal and professional separate.

Malan commanded 74 Squadron with strict discipline and did not suffer fools gladly, and could be high-handed with sergeant pilots (many non-commissioned pilots were joining the RAF at this time). He could also be reluctant to hand out decorations, and he had a strict yardstick by which he would make recommendations for medals: six kills confirmed for a DFC, twelve for a bar to the DFC; eighteen for a DSO.

[[File:Sailor Malan, colour oil painting by Cuthbert Orde.JPG|130px|thumb|right|Sailor Malan, colour oil painting by Cuthbert Orde]]On 29 December 1941 Malan was added to the select list of airmen who had sat for one of [[Cuthbert Orde]]'s iconic charcoal portraits. He also had the far rarer honour of having Orde paint a full colour painting.<ref>
{{citation
| author = RAF Museum
| title = Battle of Britain
| url = http://navigator.rafmuseum.org/results.do;jsessionid=7737A08DF483E2E4A45DB574929022DD?view=detail&db=object&pageSize=1&id=7603
| accessdate =4 November 2010}}</ref>

===Wing Commander – Biggin Hill===
On 24 December, Malan received the [[Distinguished Service Order]], and on 22 July 1941, a [[Medal bar|bar]] to the Order. On 10 March 1941 he was appointed as one of the first [[Wing (military unit)|Wing]] Leaders for the offensive operations that spring and summer, leading the Biggin Hill Wing until mid August, when he was rested from operations.
He finished his active fighter career in 1941 with 27 kills destroyed, 7 shared destroyed and 2 unconfirmed, 3 probables and 16 damaged, at the time the RAF's leading ace, and one of the highest scoring pilots to have served wholly with Fighter Command during World War II. He was transferred to the reserve as a Squadron Leader on 6 January 1942.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=36524 |supp=yes |startpage=2339 |date=23 May 1944}}</ref>

After tours to the USA and the Central Gunnery School, Malan was promoted to temporary [[Wing commander (rank)|Wing Commander]] on 1 September 1942<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=35725 |supp=yes |startpage=4258 |date=1 October 1942}}</ref> and became Station Commander at [[Biggin Hill]], receiving a promotion to war substantive Wing Commander on 1 July 1943.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=36157 |startpage=3927 |date=3 September 1943 |supp=yes}}</ref> Malan remained keen to fly on operations, often ignoring standing orders for Station Commanders not to risk getting shot down. In October 1943 he became Officer Commanding [[No. 19 Wing RAF|19 Fighter Wing]], [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force]], then commander of the 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing in time for D-day, leading a section of the wing over the beaches during the late afternoon.

[[File:Malan and RAF officers D Day IWM CL 29.jpg|thumb|Malan and RAF officers D Day]]

==Rules of Air Fighting==
Although not an instinctive, gifted pilot Malan was an exceptional shot and a very aggressive air fighter, and above all a superb tactician who instilled the methods and techniques he had honed in 1940 into successive generations of young fighter pilots who followed him.

Malan developed a set of simple rules for fighter pilots, to be disseminated throughout [[RAF Fighter Command]], which eventually could be found tacked to the wall of most airbases:

'''TEN OF MY RULES FOR AIR FIGHTING'''

# Wait until you see the whites of his eyes. Fire short bursts of one to two seconds only when your sights are definitely "ON".
# Whilst shooting think of nothing else, brace the whole of your body: have both hands on the stick: concentrate on your ring sight.
# Always keep a sharp lookout. "Keep your finger out".
# Height gives you the initiative.
# Always turn and face the attack.
# Make your decisions promptly. It is better to act quickly even though your tactics are not the best.
# Never fly straight and level for more than 30 seconds in the combat area.
# When diving to attack always leave a proportion of your formation above to act as a top guard.
# ''INITIATIVE'', ''AGGRESSION'', ''AIR DISCIPLINE'', and ''TEAMWORK'' are words that MEAN something in Air Fighting.
# Go in quickly - Punch hard - Get out!

==Later life==
On 5 April 1946, Malan resigned his RAF commission, retaining the rank of [[Group Captain]]<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/37526/supplements/1795 London Gazette, 9 April 1946]</ref> and returned to South Africa where he joined the ''[[Torch Commando]]'' a joint project of the anti-fascist ex-servicemen's organisation, the ''[[Springbok Legion]]'' and the ''War Veterans Action committee''. Sailor Malan became the president of that new organization. In Malan's words, it was "established to oppose the police state, abuse of state power, censorship, racism, the removal of the Coloured vote and other oppressive manifestations of the creeping [[fascism]] of the National Party regime".

Amongst the leading members of the Springbok Legion were many ex-servicemen who would later join the African National Congress and Umkhonto we Sizwe under the leadership of [[Nelson Mandela]]. Amongst these were [[Joe Slovo]], Jack Hodgson, Wolfie Kodesh, Brian Bunting and Fred Carneson. After the National Party came to power and began to implement its policies, many found the Springbok Legion, founded in 1941, (see Torch commando) to be too left orientated and too radical. In 1950 members of the Springbok Legion began to work with other more liberal organizations and even the United Party official opposition, to find new ways to mobilise protest support against a string of Apartheid laws.

In 1951 the Springbok Legion, formed a protest group together with the War Veterans Action Committee, to appeal to a broader base of ex-servicemen, which they called the 'Torch Commando', as a tactic to fight the National Party's plans to [[Coloured vote constitutional crisis|remove Cape's "coloured" voters from the roll]]. [[Harry Schwarz]], an ex-serviceman and later a leading figure in the anti-apartheid movement was one of the founders of the organization. The Torch Commando fought a battle for more than five years, and at its height had 250,000 members. The government was so alarmed by the number of judges, public servants and military officers joining the organisation that a new law was passed to ban anyone in public service or the military from joining. The National Party ensured that the memory of the Springbok Legion, Torch Commando and of Sailor Malan was purged from history because there was a fear that young Afrikaners in particular might want to emulate Malan.

At its largest Torch Commando protest rally, the Springbok Legion attracted 75,000 people. In a speech at a rally outside City Hall in Johannesburg, Malan made reference to the ideals for which the Second World War was fought: “The strength of this gathering is evidence that the men and women who fought in the war for freedom still cherish what they fought for. We are determined not to be denied the fruits of that victory.”

Malan died in 1963 from [[Parkinson's Disease]], at the time a rare and essentially mysterious malady. A considerable sum of money was raised in his name to further study the disease, a fund that continues to this day.

He is survived by his wife, Lynda, son Jonathan, and daughter Valerie.

In the 1969 war film [[Battle of Britain (film)|''Battle of Britain'']], the [[Robert Shaw (British actor)|Robert Shaw]] character 'Squadron Leader Skipper' was explicitly based on Malan, as recounted by director [[Guy Hamilton]] in the documentary 'A Film for the Few', which was included with the 2004 Special Edition DVD release. At one point early in the film, Skipper gives advanced [[air combat manouvering]] training to an inexperienced pilot, and angrily barks "Never fly straight and level for more than 30 seconds in the combat area!"—quoting one of Malan's rules.

==Awards==
*[[Distinguished Service Order]] and Bar
*[[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] and Bar
* Belgium [[War Cross (Belgium)|Croix de Guerre]]
* [[Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945|The Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945]]
* [[French Legion Of Honour]]
* [[Croix de guerre 1939–1945|French Croix de Guerre]]

==See also==
*[[Flying ace]]
*[[List of top World War II aces]]
*[[List of World War II aces from South Africa]]
*[[Huguenots in South Africa]], for the history of French surnames (like Malan) in South Africa.

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* Franks, Norman L.R. ''Sky Tiger The Story of Sailor Malan''. Crecy, Manchester, UK. 1994. ISBN 9-780907-57-9830.
* Walker, Oliver '' Sailor Malan''. Casssell & Co Ltd. 1953.
* Price, Dr. Alfred. ''Spitfire Mark V Aces, 1941-45''. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1997. ISBN 978-1-85532-635-4.
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S0259-01902009000100004&script=sci_arttext A flying Springbok of wartime British skies: A.G. 'Sailor' Malan - Bill Nasson]
* [http://zar.co.za/sailor.htm ZAR.co.za Biography]

{{Commons category|Adolph Malan}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=84035575}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Malan, Adolph
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = British flying ace
| DATE OF BIRTH = 24 March 1910
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Wellington, Western Cape]]
| DATE OF DEATH = 17 September 1963
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Malan, Adolph}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1963 deaths]]
[[Category:People from the Cape Winelands District Municipality]]
[[Category:Afrikaner people]]
[[Category:South African people of Huguenot descent]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force officers]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:South African military personnel]]
[[Category:South African World War II flying aces]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross and Bar (United Kingdom)]]
[[Category:British World War II flying aces]]
[[Category:The Few]]
[[Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order and Bar]]
[[Category:Deaths from Parkinson's disease]]
[[Category:Anti-apartheid activists]]

Belagerung von Tobruk

2011-04-15T16:06:48Z

Dapi89: /* Overview */ fix

{{FixBunching|beg}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Tobruk
| partof =[[Western Desert Campaign]]
| image = [[File:AustraliansAtTobruk.jpg|300px]]
| caption = Australian troops occupy a front line position at Tobruk
| date = 10 April – 27 November 1941
| place = [[Tobruk]], [[Libya]]
| result = Decisive [[Allied]] victory<ref>Jentz, p. 128</ref>
| combatant1 = {{flag|Australia}} {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[Czechoslovak government-in-exile|Czechoslovakia]] {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Polish Armed Forces in the West|Poland]] {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]] {{flagicon|India|British}} [[British Raj|British India]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Nazi Germany]] {{flagicon|Italy|1861}} [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italy]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Leslie Morshead]] (to Sept '41) {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Ronald Scobie]] (from Sept '41)
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erwin Rommel]]
| strength1 = 27,000<ref>Fitzsimons (2007), p. 250.</ref>
| strength2 = 35,000
| casualties1 = 3,000+ dead or wounded 941 captured
| casualties2 = 8,000
}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Western Desert}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
[[File:WesternDesertBattle Area1941 en.svg|right|thumb|310px|Map of the Western Desert battle area]]
{{FixBunching|end}}

The '''siege of Tobruk''' was a lengthy confrontation between [[Axis powers|Axis]] and [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces in North Africa during the [[Western Desert Campaign]] of the [[Second World War]]. The siege started on 11 April 1941, when [[Tobruk]] was attacked by an Italian-German force under [[Lieutenant General]] [[Erwin Rommel]] and continued for 240 days, when it was relieved by the Allied [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|Eighth Army]] during [[Operation Crusader]].

==Overview==
For much of the siege, Tobruk was defended by the reinforced [[9th Division (Australia)|Australian 9th Division]] under Lieutenant General [[Leslie Morshead]]. General [[Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]], Commander-in-Chief of British [[Middle East Command]], instructed Morshead to hold the fortress for eight weeks, but the 9th Australian Division held it for over five months before being gradually withdrawn during September and replaced by the [[British 70th Infantry Division]], the [[Polish Independent Carpathian Brigade|Polish Carpathian Brigade]] and [[Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion]] (East) under the overall command of Major-General [[Ronald Scobie]]. The fresh defenders continued to hold Tobruk until they were able to link with the advancing [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|Eighth Army]] at the end of November during [[Operation Crusader]].

The [[Tobruk Ferry Service]], made up of [[Royal Navy]] and [[Royal Australian Navy]] warships, played an important role in Tobruk's defence, providing gunfire support, supplies, fresh troops, and ferrying out the wounded.

Maintaining control of Tobruk was crucial to the Allied war effort. Other than Benghazi, Tobruk was home to the only other major port on the African coast between Tripoli and Alexandria. Had the Allies lost it, the German and Italian supply lines would have been drastically shortened. Rommel, furthermore, was in no position to attack across the Egyptian border towards [[Cairo]] and [[Alexandria]] while the Tobruk garrison threatened the lines of supply to his front-line units.

Tobruk marked the first time that the advance of the German Panzers had been brought to a halt.<ref>McDonald (2004), p. 204.</ref> Following Operation Crusader the siege of Tobruk was lifted in December, 1941. Axis forces captured the fortress in 1942 after defeating allied forces in the [[Battle of Gazala]].

==Background==
===Operation Compass===
{{Main|Operation Compass}}
In early 1941 British forces were engaged in [[Operation Compass]], an attempt to drive the Italians out of North Africa. On 21 January 1941 the [[6th Australian Division|Australian 6th Division]] made an assault to capture the Italian-garrisoned port of Tobruk, which offered one of the few good harbours between Alexandria and Tripoli.

The Italian army was unable to put up an effective resistance. The Italian commander, General [[Petassi Manella]], was taken prisoner after 12 hours of battle, and 24 hours later the Australian troops had cleaned up remaining resistance. The Australians lost 49 dead and 306 wounded, while capturing 27,000 Italian POWs, 208 guns and 28 tanks. Many serviceable trucks and a large quantity of supplies were also captured (as the Italian army was getting ready to advance towards Egypt). The Italians had constructed some impressive defences, including a perimeter of concrete pits.

By the end of the first week in February, Operation Compass had resulted in the Italian forces being driven from [[Cyrenaica]] and in the surrender of the [[Italian Tenth Army]].

However, the Allies were unable to take advantage of their victory. With the Italians close to collapse, [[Winston Churchill]] commanded the British general staff to call a halt to the offensive in order to allow many of the most experienced units from [[Richard O'Connor]]'s [[Western Desert Force|XIII Corps]] to be moved to Greece to fight in the [[Battle of Greece]].

The experienced 6th Australian Division and the fully trained and equipped New Zealand Division were withdrawn from Egypt and the western desert to go to Greece. Meanwhile the tanks of the 7th Armoured Division, after eight months' fighting, needed a complete overhaul and the division was withdrawn to Cairo and ceased to be available as a fighting formation.<ref name="Wavell2">Wavell (1946), p. 2 (see {{LondonGazette| issue=38177| date=13 January 1948| startpage=310| endpage=| supp=Supplement}})</ref> XIII Corps was wound down to become a static HQ and O'Connor became the commander of British troops in Egypt (in Cairo) while Lieutenant-General Sir [[Henry Maitland Wilson]] became military governor of [[Cyrenaica]] before leaving to command the expeditionary force in Greece. Cyrenaica was left with only the inexperienced and under-strength [[2nd Armoured Division (United Kingdom)|2nd Armoured Division]] (whose tanks were also in a poor mechanical state)<ref name="Wavell2"/> and the newly arrived (and only partly trained) [[9th Australian Division]].<ref>Mead (2007), p. 317.</ref> The [[6th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|British 6th Infantry Division]] was being formed from various battalions in Egypt but had no artillery and supporting arms while the Polish Brigade Group was not yet fully equipped.<ref name="Wavell2"/>

The Allied position in Cyrenaica was hampered by supply difficulties caused by air attacks on Benghazi. Stripped of anti-aircraft and fighter defences which had been sent to Greece, the port had become so dangerous for Allied shipping that, by the third week in February, it had had to be closed and forward units supplied from Tobruk, a further {{convert|200|mi|km}} east. As a result, practically all available vehicles had to be committed to transporting supplies, so compromising the mobility of the fighting units.<ref name="Wavell5">Wavell (1946), p. 5 (see {{LondonGazette| issue=38177| date=13 January 1948| startpage=313| endpage=| supp=Supplement}})</ref>

Meanwhile, the Germans had started to concentrate in Africa the two divisions of the [[Afrika Korps]] under [[Erwin Rommel]] (see [[Operation Sonnenblume]]) in an attempt to prevent total collapse of the Italian forces. The British High command ignored this. Circumstantial evidence began to accumulate of the presence of German units in Libya but, with no ground intelligence to confirm this and with all available long-range reconnaissance aircraft committed to Greece, Wavell, "very much in the dark as to the enemy's real strength or intentions", believed that an enemy attack was unlikely until the middle of April or possibly May.<ref name="Wavell5"/>

===Rommel takes the initiative===
On 24 March Rommel advanced with the newly arrived ''Afrika Korps''. The 2nd Armoured Division fell back before the as-yet tentative Axis advance, with the intention of flanking an enemy advance along the coast to [[Benghazi]] while blocking any move towards [[Mechili]]. However, on 3 April the division's commander, Major-General Gambier-Parry received a report that a large enemy armoured force was advancing on Msus where the division's principal petrol and supply dump lay. The division's tank brigade ([[British 3rd Armoured Brigade]]) moved to Msus and found that all the petrol had been destroyed to prevent capture by the enemy. Henceforth the brigade's activities were almost entirely dictated by their lack of fuel.<ref name="Wavell3429">Wavell in {{LondonGazette| issue=37638| date=2 July 1946| startpage=3429| endpage=| supp=Supplement}}</ref> The tank brigade, by that time fielding only 12 [[Cruiser tank]]s, 20 light tanks and 20 captured Italian tanks as a result of losses and more importantly mechanical breakdown, was ordered to withdraw to Mechili to be joined by [[31st Indian Armoured Division|3rd Indian Motor Brigade]]. However, during a period of confusion caused by communication breakdowns as Axis air raids successfully attacked fuel and radio trucks, the divisional HQ arrived at [[Mechili]] on 6 April but the tank brigade, short of fuel, headed to [[Darnah, Libya|Derna]] where it was subsequently cut off and captured.<ref name="Wavell3429"/>

Meanwhile, threatened by envelopment, the 2nd Support Group was ordered back towards Regima and after that to [[Darnah, Libya|Derna]].<ref name="2Arm1">{{cite web| title=Rommel's First Offensive 31 March — 11 April 1941: British 2nd Armoured Division| work= [http://76.162.77.149/drupal-4.7.4/ Command Decision Test of Battle website]| url=http://76.162.77.149/files/RommelsFirstOffensive.pdf |first=Frank| last=Chadwick| year=2007| accessdate=2008-01-24 | format = PDF}}</ref>

[[File:Captured Italian tanks 005042.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Captured Italian [[M13/40]] and [[M11/39]] tanks at [[Tobruk]] with Australian markings.]]
As a result of these events, the routes both to Benghazi and to Mechili were uncovered and Rommel brought forward, along the coast road, elements of the 17th "Pavia" and 27th "Brescia" Divisions while pushing his mechanised and motorised units across country, south of the Jebel Akhdar (''Green Mountains'') towards Mechili after the retreating British tanks. On 6 April the leading Bersaglieri columns of the Italian ''Ariete'' Division reached Mechili.<ref name="Ariete1">{{cite web| title=Rommel's First Offensive 31 March – 11 April 1941: Italian 132nd "Ariete" Armoured Division| work=[http://76.162.77.149/drupal-4.7.4/ Command Decision Test of Battle website]| url=http://76.162.77.149/files/RommelsFirstOffensive.pdf |first=Frank| last=Chadwick| year=2007| accessdate=2008-01-24}}</ref>

On 6 April Lieutenant-General [[Philip Neame]], by that time the military governor of Cyrenaica (Wilson had been sent to command W Force in Greece), withdrew his headquarters to [[Timimi|Tmimi]], west of Tobruk. During the withdrawal his staff car was stopped by a German patrol near Martuba and both he and O'Connor (who had been sent forward from Cairo by [[Archibald Wavell]], C-in-C [[Middle East Command]] to advise) were taken prisoner.<ref>Mead (2007), pp. 318, 333.</ref> On 8 April Major-General [[John Lavarack]], commander of 7th Australian Infantry Division was placed in temporary command of all troops in Cyrenaica with the main task of holding Tobruk to gain time for organisation of the defence of Egypt.<ref>Playfair, Vol. II, p.34.</ref>

The Allied force at Mechili consisted of the Headquarters [[2nd Armoured Division (United Kingdom)|2nd Armoured Division]] (mainly unarmoured vehicles), [[31st Indian Armoured Division|3rd Indian Motor Brigade]] and elements of other units including some guns from [[Royal Horse Artillery|1st Royal Horse Artillery]].<ref name="Wavell3429"/> Surrounded, they fought in defence of Mechili but on 8 April Gambier-Parry surrendered to General Zaglio of the "Pavia" Division.<ref>Hunt (1990) p. 59</ref> 2,700<ref>{{cite web|title=I Bersaglieri in Africa Settentrionale| work=Avanti Savoia website| year=2003| accessdate=2008-01-26| url=http://digilander.libero.it/avantisavoiait/I%20Bersaglieri%20in%20Africa.htm}}</ref> British, Indians and Australians were captured at Mechili after an attempted breakout was broken up by the Ariete's "Fabris" and "Montemurro" Bersaglieri Battalion groups.<ref name="Ariete1"/> Only small groups managed to get away.<ref name="Wavell3429"/>

Rommel's initial attack plan called for his tanks to sweep around Tobruk to the Eastern side and attack from the Bardia road, so cutting the town off from [[Cairo]]. Approaching Tobruk, however, wishing to maintain his momentum, he ordered General [[Heinrich von Prittwitz und Gaffron]], commander of the newly formed [[15th Panzer Division]] (most of which had yet to arrive in North Africa), to take the three battalions from his division then available to him (his reconnaissance, machine gun and anti-tank battalions) and to attack Tobruk directly from the West along the Derna Road.<ref name="Rommel118">Rommel (1982), p. 118</ref> Rommel expected that the Allied forces would crumble under this attack.<ref name="Playfair37">Playfair, Vol. II, p. 37.</ref> However, the two Australian brigades which had been west of Tobruk, the 20th and 26th Brigades, had succeeded in withdrawing in good order to Tobruk and were placed in covering positions outside the perimeter while 24th (which had been performing garrison duties) and the newly arrived 18th Australian Infantry Brigades were holding defensive positions on the perimeter.<ref>Playfair, Vol. II, pp. 36-37.</ref>

Soldiers from the Australian 2/28th Infantry Battalion spotted three armoured cars and fired the first shots of the siege using two captured Italian [[field gun]]s for which they had only had one week's training. The cars quickly retreated. As the tanks approached a bridge crossing a [[wadi]] on the perimeter of Tobruk the Australians blew it up. When von Prittwitz urged his staff car driver to drive him through the wadi and towards the Australians his men called for him to stop, but he replied that the enemy was getting away. The staff car drove into the firing line of a captured Italian 47 mm anti tank gun, whose gunner fired, destroying the car and killing both von Prittwitz and his driver. A three-hour skirmish then ensued after which the Germans retreated.{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}}

In the meantime the Allies continued to work on their defences, laying barbed wire, mines and other obstacles. The commander of 9th Australian Division, Major General Leslie Morshead, divided the {{convert|50|km|mi}} perimeter of Tobruk into three rough sectors. It would be the job of his three Australian infantry brigades to ensure these were not breached. The 26th would hold the western sector, the 20th would hold the south and the 24th would hold the east. 18th Australian Brigade remain in reserve.<ref>Miller, [http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/miller/miller.asp#12 'Combat organization of Friendly Forces']</ref> Morshead also ordered all Italian signal cables to be re-laid. He wanted to know what was happening, and where, so he could adjust his forces accordingly. He also kept a reserve of runners in case the telephone lines were disrupted by the German attack.

With his forces regrouped, Rommel reverted to his original plan, sending his tanks around Tobruk to the Bardia Road. By 11 April Tobruk was surrounded with 5th Light Division to the east, the Prittwitz group to the south and the Brescia Division approaching from the west.<ref>Playfair, Vol. II, pp.37-38.</ref>

Besieging Tobruk on three sides (the harbour was in Allied hands) was the [[Afrika Korps]], composed of the [[21st Panzer Division (Germany)|5th Light Division]] and elements of 15th Panzer Division, and by three Italian infantry divisions and the Italian [[Italian 132nd Armored Division Ariete|Ariete Armour Division]]. The Allied forces consisted of the Australian 9th Infantry Division's three brigades and Australian 18th Infantry Brigade of the [[Australian Imperial Force]] which Wavell had detached from Australian 7th Infantry Division and ordered forward as reinforcements, as well as 12,000 British, mainly Royal Artillery and logistics units but also the HQ 3rd Armoured Brigade with around 60 functional tanks and armoured cars as well as 1,500 Indian soldiers including the [[18th King Edward's Own Cavalry]].<ref>Miller, [http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/miller/miller.asp#51 Appendix A]</ref> In all there were 36,000 mouths to feed in Tobruk of which one third were non-combatant base units, prisoners and Libyan refugees.<ref name="Playfair37"/> As the rest of the Commonwealth forces fell back towards the Egyptian border, Lavarack was withdrawn from Tobruk, leaving Moreshead in command of the fortress.

==Easter attacks==
===El Adem===
{{Refimprovesect|date=June 2010}}
Just after noon on 11 April 1941, the German and Italian forces positioned themselves for a concentrated attack on the city. To exaggerate the size of their force and strike fear in the defenders, they were ordered to make more dust than normal. The 5th Panzer Regiment of the 5th Light Division drew fire first to try to assess the defences, advancing against the front held by 20th Australian Infantry Brigade just west of the El Adem road.<ref name="Playfair37"/> Within an hour, five of the German tanks were destroyed and the others pulled back. At 3:00 PM the men of the 2/13th Battalion saw about 400 German soldiers approach. The Australians' defensive fire forced the Germans to retreat, carrying their dead and wounded with them.

At 4:00 PM, a [[platoon]]-sized formation from the [[2/17th Battalion (Australia)|2/17th Battalion]] saw 700 Germans launching an attack on their position. The Australians were outnumbered and outgunned with only two [[Bren]] guns, a few dozen rifles and a couple of [[Rifle, Anti-Tank, .55 in, Boys|Boys]] [[anti-tank rifle]]s. The Australian artillery opened fire and inflicted significant casualties, but the German soldiers kept advancing. Several groups of Panzers and Italian [[Fiat M13/40|M13s]] advanced on the Australians. As the Axis armour closed in, four British tanks arrived, firing over the head of the infantry. The Axis tanks could not hurdle the obstacles set for them and they fell back to regroup. This attack yielded only one dead on the Allied side.

Morshead's defence plan was aggressive. He ordered rigorous patrolling of the anti-tank ditches and more mines laid. The aggressive patrolling appeared to work. The 2/13th Battalion encountered a German raiding party with a large amount of explosives. The party had clearly intended to blow the sides of an anti-tank ditch, allowing easier passage for tanks to cross — but they were forced to retreat.

In cases where panzers and Italian tankettes did reach or pass the Australian lines, the defending infantry — ensconced in well-built strongpoints, including many installed by the original Italian garrison — simply concentrated on the German or Italian infantry, knowing that the tanks' guns could not be brought to bear on them and the Axis tanks would face anti-tank guns in the second line of defences. On the most important of these attacks, on 1 May, a combined Italo-German infantry and armour force attacking had its armour driven back and the infantry stood and fought behind Australian lines for quite some time before they withdrew.

Soon after dark on 13 April, the 5th Light Division renewed its attack with an effort to secure a bridgehead over the tank ditch just west of El Adem. However, 2/17th Battalion defeated this effort made by the 8th Machine-Gun Battalion in fierce fighting in which Corporal [[John Hurst Edmondson|John Edmonston]] won the [[Victoria Cross]]. In the early hours of 14 April a further attempt succeeded in securing a small bridgehead through which the 5th Panzer Regiment pushed through. The intention was to divide into two columns: one to head towards Tobruk town and the other to turn west to roll up the defences. However, the advancing tanks, met by intense fire from the 1st Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery, veered away only to run into fire from dug-in British Crusader tanks. Now under fire from the front and both flanks, the Panzer Regiment retired having lost sixteen of its thirty-eight tanks. Meanwhile, the 8th Machine-Gun Battalion, supporting the German armour, had been fought to a standstill by the Australian infantry and were also forced to withdraw under heavy fire from artillery and aircraft. The battalion lost more than three-quarters of its strength while the Tobruk garrison's losses amounted to 90 casualties. After this defeat, Rommel abandoned further attempts on the southern perimeter and the 5th Light Division dug itself in.<ref name="Playfair38">Playfair, Vol. II, p. 38</ref>

===Ras el Medauar===
[[File:AWM 020073 2 48th Battalion Tobruk 1941.jpg|thumb|Soldiers of the Australian [[2/48th Battalion]] holding defensive position near Tobruk in 24 April 1941]]

After the failure of the attack at El Adem, Rommel decided to attack the western sector of the Tobruk perimeter around Ras el Madauar, employing the Ariete Armoured Division which had the 62nd Infantry Regiment from the [[102 Motorised Division Trento|''Trento'' Division]] under command.<ref name="Playfair38"/>
[[File:IWM-E-2872-Marmon-Herrington-Tobruk-19410508.jpg|thumb|left|Marmon-Herrington Armoured Car near Tobruk]]
On 15 April 1941 an Australian fighting patrol was returning from patrolling in the area of [[2/48th Battalion (Australia)|2/48th Battalion]] when, at about 5.30 p.m, an Italian attack threatened to overwhelm the forward positions of the 2/24th Battalion. Italian infantry numbering about 1,000 advanced on the bunkered platoons against mortars, rifle and machine gun fire and one post was overrun. Early in the battle, the 2/23rd Battalion's 'B' Company also arrived and engaged the Italian force. The combination of aggressive fire from the Australian soldiers plus devastating fire from the 51st Field Artillery Regiment swung the battle in the Australians' favour.

The aggressive Australian patrolling continued and on 16 April, the main body of the 1st Battalion 62nd "Trento" Regiment was encountered approaching from Acroma. The Italian battalion then came under heavy shellfire and were halted by a counterattack from 2/48th Battalion.<ref name="Playfair38"/> Tanks of the Italian Ariete Division<ref name="Playfair38"/> followed the Italian infantry but, as they reached the perimeter defences, came under intense fire from the 51st Field Artillery Regiment and withdrew. The 2/43rd Battalion War Diary reported that "The Italians attacked our 48 Bn and whilst withdrawing they (the Italians) were fired upon by German [sic] tanks believed to be supporting the attack."<ref>{{cite journal| journal=2/43 Infantry Battalion War Diary, April 1941| url=http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/awm52/8/AWM52-8-3-35-009.pdf| accessdate=2008-06-10|format=PDF|publisher=Australian War Memorial| title=Appendix No. 30:''(Unreadable)'' Summary No. 2, entry for 16 Apl}}</ref> The Australians sent out Bren-gun carriers specifically to find the Italian battalions' flank. The extra firepower finally stopped the Italians, and all firing ceased. A British communiqué on 17 April 1941 described the actions:

{{quote|One of our patrols successfully penetrated an enemy position outside the defences of Tobruk, capturing 7 Italian officers and 139 men. A further attack on the defences of Tobruk was repulsed by artillery fire. The enemy again suffered heavy casualties. During yesterday's operations a total of 25 officers and 767 of other ranks were captured. In addition over 200 enemy dead were left on the field.|''New York Times''<ref>{{cite journal| journal=New York Times| issue=18 April 1941| title=The Text of the Day's Communiques on Fighting in Europe and Africa: British| accessdate=2008-04-12| url = http://collections.civilisations.ca/warclip/objects/common/webmedia.php?irn=5000652}}</ref>}}

An intelligence assessment by the 2/43rd Battalion concluded that:

{{quote|Reports from PW indicate that a large-scale attack was to have been launched on the Tobruk defences on or about 16 April 41. There appears to have been no co-ordination between enemy tanks and inf units. The ITALIANS appear to have been somewhat in the dark as to their actual objectives and the method of co-ordination by means of GERMAN liaison offrs working with ITALIAN units has not been successful. PW also state that the spasmodic attacks in different sectors between 14 and 16 Apr, sometimes inf alone, sometimes tks alone sometimes both, were all intended to be a simultaneous assault which apparently went badly astray in its timing.<ref>{{cite journal| journal=2/43 Infantry Battalion War Diary, April 1941| url=http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/awm52/8/AWM52-8-3-35-009.pdf| accessdate=2008-06-10|format=PDF|publisher=Australian War Memorial| title=Appendix No. 31: Bash Intelligence Summary No. 3. General}}</ref>}}

==Raid on Bardia==
In the meantime, a British battalion was selected for the [[Bardia raid]], with the object of harassing Rommel's line of communication and inflicting as much damage as possible. The attack was conducted on the night of 19–20 April by [[No. 7 Commando]]—part of Colonel [[Robert Laycock]]'s [[Layforce]]—and a small detachment of the Royal Tank Regiment aboard the supply ship [[HMS Glengyle|HMS ''Glengyle'']], escorted by the anti-aircraft cruiser [[HMS Coventry (1916)|HMS ''Coventry'']]. The Australian destroyers [[HMAS Stuart (D00)|''Stuart'']], [[HMAS Voyager (D31)|''Voyager'']] and [[HMAS Waterhen (D22)|''Waterhen'']] covered the landing of British Commandos.<ref>Saunders 1959, p. 53.</ref> During the raid, a Commando sentry mortally wounded a British officer and one detachment of 67 men were later reported captured in a counter attack on the beaches. The author [[Evelyn Waugh]], who took part in the raid, related in an article he wrote for ''[[Life Magazine]]'' in November 1941 that the Germans "sent a strong detachment of tanks and armoured cars to repel the imagined invasion". However, in his personal diary published in 1976, a very different picture emerged of incompetent execution by the commandos against virtually no opposition.<ref>Aitchison & Lewis (2003) pp. 62–3.</ref>

==Aftermath of the Axis attacks in March and April==
The Tobruk defenders had been fortunate that Rommel had concentrated his attacks on the strongest parts of the Tobruk defences which were around Ras el M'dauar. Although the Italians had spent considerable effort in building permanent defensive works, they were at their weakest in the south-east sector, an area overlooked and dominated from without by the hills of Bel Hamed and Sidi Rezegh. The advancing Allies had exploited this when capturing Tobruk from the Italians in January 1941 but, inexplicably, Rommel had ignored this. He appeared to have learned his lesson, however, by June 1942 after the [[Battle of Gazala]] when Tobruk fell relatively easily to Rommel's attack from the south-east.<ref>Hunt (1990), pp. 59-60</ref>

Both sides set to re-building and re-inforcing: Rommel for a further attack on Tobruk in order to free his threatened lines of communication and resume the advance into Egypt, Wavell to stabilise the front on the Egyptian border and prepare an assault to relieve Tobruk.

In May 1941 Wavell launched [[Operation Brevity]], a minor offensive that attempted to gain a better position to launch a major offensive in the summer; as a secondary objective, if the opportunity presented itself, an attempt to relieve Tobruk was to be made. The operation however achieved little other than the recapture of the [[Halfaya Pass]].

==The Battle of the Salient==
===Plans===
In late April the German Army High Command sent to Libya their Deputy Chief of the General Staff, Major General [[Friedrich Paulus]], to asses the situation and review Rommel's plans. By this time most of 15th Panzer Division had arrived in North Africa but had had little time to settle in. Rommel once more chose to attack the Ras el Madauar position using 5th Light Division on the right and 15th Panzer Division on the left. Once the break-in was achieved the German units would continue westward while the Italian Ariete Armoured and Brescia Infantry Divisions would roll up the defences on either flank. By 30 April Paulus and General Bastico had approved the plan to be implemented on 30 April.<ref name="Playfair153to5">Playfair, Vol II, pp. 153–5</ref>

===Summary===
On the evening of 30 April, after a day's bombing and shelling, the Axis assault fell on 26th Australian Infantry Brigade. The attack penetrated 3 km but co-ordination between Axis units was poor and the battle caused heavy losses to Rommel's forces. A number of Australian strong points held out and disrupted Axis movements as did newly laid minefields which the Axis had failed to reconnoitre. Paulus suggested there was no prospect of success and Rommel decided to push laterally to widen the front of penetration.<ref>Playfair, Vol. II, p. 155</ref> However, Morshead committed reserves and tanks and countered this move. Fighting continued with the Australians counterattacking unsuccessfully to regain the lost ground and Axis forces attempting to infiltrate forward once more. By the early hours of 4 May, with neither side making progress, the battle was called off.<ref>Playfair, Vol. II, p. 156</ref>

===Battle details===
At about 2000 hours tanks moved up to the perimeter wire in front of S.1 and, using grappling hooks, pulled it away. Tanks from 5 Panzerkompanie and supporting infantry from the 2nd Machine-Gun Battalion and a Pioneer Battalion proceeded to clear up the bunkers manned by Captain Fell's 'A' Company, 2/24th Battalion. Post S1 was the first to succumb. Two panzers drove to 100–200 yards of the post, and opened fire, and, after a brief fight (in which three men were killed and four wounded), Lieutenant Walker and his men surrendered. These tanks then proceeded to attack S.2 (Major Fell), which contained the Company HQ and 7 Platoon. Getting to within 200 yards, the panzers opened fire, shredding sandbags on the parapets and blowing up sangars. On each tank were riding German infantrymen, who under cover of the tanks' fire, ran forwards with grenades. S.2 then surrendered.<ref>[http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/histories/19/chapters/06.pdf Maughan (1966), p. 209].</ref>

Then came the turn of 9 Platoon's dug-in posts R.0 and R.1 – after a fight in which three were killed and four wounded, the posts surrendered. The crews of two RHA 2-pounders put up a fight, knocking out some of the panzers, but when the guns tried to turn to engage panzers moving to their flank, they exposed themselves to German machine-gunners, with the gunners either killed or wounded. The bunkered platoons from the neighbouring C Company from 2/24th Battalion were also attacked. Post S.5 was taken at first light on 1 May, but Posts S.4 (Corporal Deering) and S.6 (Captain Canty) held out grimly until the morning. Post S.7 (Corporal Thomson) stubbornly resisted, inflicting heavy casualties on the attacking Italians, before the attackers were able to throw in grenades.<ref>[http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/histories/19/chapters/06.pdf Maughan (1966), p. 210].</ref> Attacks by Italian infantry, on posts S.8, S.9 and S.10 were repelled. Nevertheless 'C' Company suffered 20 men killed and wounded, and another 44 taken prisoner in the fighting in the northern sector that largely employed troops from the "Brescia" Infantry Division.

The attack in the southern sector also involved Italian troops and Lieutenant Mair's 16 Platoon from 'D' Company defending Posts R.2 and R.3 and R.4 were overrun. According to an Australian defender, ''"That night the slightest move would bring a flare over our position and the area would be lit like day. We passed a night of merry hell as the pounding went on."'' Italian infantry were then able to close in, and stick grenades were thrown into the bunkers. Nevertheless, Posts R.5 (Sergeant Poidevin), R.6 (Captain Bird) and R.7 (Corporal Jones) were taken only after stubborn resistance, and fought on until they had run out of ammunition or had stick grenades tossed into the firing pits. After they had been taken prisoner, General Rommel spoke to them'' "for you the war is over and I wish you good luck",'' recalled Corporal Jones.<ref name="Ma216">[http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/histories/19/chapters/06.pdf Maughan (1966), p. 216].</ref>

The 51st Field Regiment had been constantly firing, causing an entire German battalion to go to ground and, according to Rommel, creating panic in the Italian infantry. Seven British Cruiser and five Matilda tanks also appeared in the Italian area of penetration, engaging in an inconclusive battle with Italian tanks.

The attack faltered when the Panzers leading the assault ran into a minefield placed by Morshead to stop any breaches of the blue line. A Panzer officer recalled: ''"Two companies get off their motor lorries and extend in battle order. All sorts of light signals go up — green, white, red. The flares hiss down near our own MGs. It is already too late to take aim. Well, the attack is a failure. The little Fiat-Ansaldos go up in front with flame-throwers in order to clean up the triangle. Long streaks of flame, thick smoke, filthy stink. We provide cover until 2345 hours, then retire through the gap. It is a mad drive through the dust. At 0300 hours have snack beside tank. 24 hours shut up in the tank, with frightful cramp as a result — and thirsty!"''<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.geocities.com/firefly1002000/tobruk.html| title=Firsthand report from a Panzer Officer of the 5th Light Division, April 1941: Tobruk, 1 May 1941| work=[http://www.geocities.com/firefly1002000/ AFV News] | first=George R.| last=Bradford|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/firefly1002000/tobruk.html&date=2009-10-25+22:14:28|archivedate=2009-10-26}}{{Verify credibility|date=April 2008}}</ref> After several tanks lost their tracks the remaining Panzers retreated.

Rommel's troops had captured fifteen posts on an arc of three-and-a-half miles of the perimeter, including its highest fort. But the Australians had largely contained this Italo-German thrust. One German POW said: "I cannot understand you Australians. In Poland, France, and Belgium, once the tanks got through the soldiers took it for granted that they were beaten. But you are like demons. The tanks break through and your infantry still keep fighting."<ref name="Miller">Miller (1986).</ref> Rommel wrote of seeing "a batch of some fifty or sixty Australian prisoners [largely from C Company of the 2/24th Battalion that had been taken prisoner by the Italians]... marched off close behind us — immensely big and powerful men, who without question represented an elite formation of the British Empire, a fact that was also evident in battle."<ref name="Miller"/>

Nevertheless Australian losses had been considerable. The 2/24th Battalion alone had lost nearly half its strength killed, wounded or taken prisoner.<ref>Johnston (2003), [http://books.google.com/books?id=yGjkdfMXYAcC&pg=PA36&dq=captured+or+killed+about+one+half+of+the+2/24th+battalion&sig=boD0Eo8npZiv9xHcMXhyQ5XXh5U#PPA36,M1 p. 23].</ref>

===Aftermath of the battle===
Rommel placed the blame for the failure to capture Tobruk squarely on the Italians.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} However, it was Italian forces (19th and 20th Infantry Regiments of the [[27 Motorised Division Brescia]], the 5th and 12th Bersaglieri Battalions of the 8th Bersaglieri Regiment, the 3rd Company of 32nd Combat Sappers Battalion and [[132 Armoured Division Ariete]]) who, after much hard fighting, had possession of most of the positions which the Australians had lost<ref>[http://www.guastatori.it/1941-1945/xxxii_btg.htm ''XXXII Battaglione Guastatori (in Italian)'']{{Verify credibility|date=April 2008}}.</ref> The 7th Bersaglieri Regiment soldiers bunkered along the newly captured concrete bunkers. The Australians fought hard to win back their positions. Much fierce hand-to-hand fighting took place from 1 May till the end of August 1941 when finally the weary soldiers of the 7th Bersaglieri were ordered to Ain Gazala to rest and refit.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ibersaglieri.it/rgt_in_vita/7_rgt/pagine/epopea.html| title=L'Epopea| language=Italian| publisher=I Bersaglieri website| work=Associazione Bersaglieri della Regione| accessdate=2008-04-15}}</ref> According to an Australian soldier, ''"In Tobruk we became part of the 9th Division with the 28th and 16th Battalions. Each Platoon had to do two or three weeks in the Salient, which was a section of ‘no man’s land’ where the enemy had driven us back from fortifications that skirted Tobruk from sea to sea. Time up there wasn’t exactly pleasurable. We were in dugouts with interconnecting trenches about a foot or so deep (hence becoming known as the ‘rats of Tobruk’). The Germans pummelled us with trench mortar bombs and also had fixed machine guns firing on us."''<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.anzac.dpc.wa.gov.au/documents/stories/arthur_olsen_20060117.pdf| first=Arthur Herbert| last=Olsen| title=Experiences of WWII| page=2| work=[http://www.anzac.dpc.wa.gov.au/index.cfm Anzac website: Tell Us Your Story Programme]| format=PDF| publisher=Anzac Day Working Group - Department of the Premier and Cabinet| accessdate=2008-04-16}}</ref>

The heavy losses incurred by the attackers led the commanders of the Italian divisions and the German 5th Light Division to argue against further attacks until better preparations could be made. Impressed by the conduct of the Australians, Rommel decided to hold off further major attacks until the end of November 1941, awaiting the arrival of more German forces and allowing more training of his forces in the art of siege warfare.

==The siege==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B21459, Bei Tobruk, britische Kriegsgefangene.jpg|thumb|Allied P.O.Ws June 1942]]
The besieging troops were mainly Italian belonging to the following 5 Divisions: the [[132 Armoured Division Ariete|"Ariete"]] and [[101 Motorised Division Trieste|"Trieste"]] (the XX Motorised Corps), the [[17 Motorised Division Pavia|"Pavia"]], [[25 Motorised Division Bologna|"Bologna"]], and [[27 Motorised Division Brescia|"Brescia"]] (the XXI Infantry Corps). The Australian commanders remained determined to recapture the ground lost on 1 May. On 3 May the Australians launched a counterattack employing the [[18th Brigade (Australia)|18th Brigade]] but by 4 May were only able to recapture one bunker.<ref>Johnston (2003), [http://books.google.com/books?id=yGjkdfMXYAcC&pg=PA38&dq=suffered+163+casualties&sig=wucdEluVUKWfqUq8KPhtoCD8j4E#PPA37,M1 p. 37]</ref> An Australian historian wrote later that the Italians were involved in the action<ref>Spencer (1999) p. 60</ref> in the Australian attacks on the outposts of R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7 and R8. On the night of 16 May the Axis forces retaliated and two platoons of the 32nd Combat Sappers Battalion breached the barbed-wire entanglements and minefields guarding the S11, S13 and S15 posts.<ref>[http://www.guastatori.it/1941-1945/xxxii_btg.htm ''XXXII Battaglione Guastatori (in Italian)'']{{Verify credibility|date=April 2008}}</ref> With the obstacles removed, the "Brescia" Division assaulted the defences using flame-thrower groups and tanks. The Commanding Officer of the 32nd Combat Sappers, Colonel Emilio Caizzo, was killed in a satchel attack on an Australian machine-gun position, an action which earned him a posthumous Gold Medal. An Italian narrative has recorded:{{quote|On the night on 16 May 1941, two platoons of the 3rd Combat Engineer Company in union with assault groups of the "Brescia" Infantry Division, which had been sent as reinforcements on the 11th of that month, initiated the attack. With total disregard to danger and usual stealthiness, the combat sappers opened three paths in the wire fencing in front of each assault group. They used explosive charges in tubes. Fighting side by side with the assaulters, in fierce hand-to-hand combat, they inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, and obtained the objective.<ref>[http://www.guastatori.it/1941-1945/xxxii_btg.htm ''XXXII Battaglione Guastatori (in Italian)'']{{Verify credibility|date=January 2008}}</ref>}}

According to the Italian official history, the Italian attackers came under intense machine-gun fire - with the loss of officers, the attack faltered, and those who weren't killed or taken prisoner were only able to retreat through the gaps in the wire with difficulty.<ref>[http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/histories/19/chapters/07.pdf Maughan (1966), p.250]; Montanari.M, Le Operazioni in Africa Settentrionale, Vol.II Tobruk, p.168</ref> Casualties to the attackers were heavy, and the next day the Australians rounded up 21 Italian prisoners and a number of weapons.<ref>[http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/histories/19/chapters/07.pdf Maughan (1966), pp.250-251]</ref> A German attack against S8, S9 and S10 immediately to the south captured the three posts, but two of the posts were retaken by immediate Australian counterattacks.<ref>[http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/histories/19/chapters/07.pdf Maughan (1966), pp.251-253]</ref>
On the basis of a false report from a German prisoner, Major-General Leslie Morshead was furious and ordered the Australians to be far more vigilant in the future.<ref>[http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/histories/19/chapters/07.pdf Maughan (1966), p.251]</ref> A few days later the third post was retaken in an Australian counter-attack.<ref>[http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/histories/19/chapters/07.pdf Maughan (1966), p.252.]</ref>

On 2 August, in the belief that the enemy battalions had largely abandoned various post along the Salient, an attack was launched by a company of the 2/43rd Battalion and a company of the 2/28th Battalion from the town. The attack was skilfully planned and supported by more than sixty field guns but the enemy infantry swiftly replied, and the attack failed with heavy loss of lives. This was the last Australian effort to recover the lost fortifications.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ausvets.com.au/alamein.htm| work=Veterans Support and Advocacy Service Australia Inc.: Ausvets website| title=North Africa 1941-1942. The Siege of Tobruk| accessdate=2008-06-10 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080428193118/http://www.ausvets.com.au/alamein.htm  |archivedate = 2008-04-28}}</ref> Criticism has been levelled at General Morshead for the failure of the attack.<ref>Johnston, Mark in [http://www.awm.gov.au/journal/j36/morsheadreview.htm Review of] Combes (2001)</ref>

==All change in the Tobruk defences==
[[File:Karpac3.jpg|thumb|Arrival of the Polish forces]]
[[File:Czech 11thBattalion Tobruk 1941.jpg|thumb|Soldiers of [[Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion]]]]
In the summer of 1941 Lieutenant-General [[Thomas Blamey]], commander of the [[Second Australian Imperial Force]], with the support of the prime minister of Australia, requested the withdrawal of the 9th Australian Division from Tobruk in order to meet the strong desire of the Australians that all their forces in the Middle East should fight under one command. General [[Claude Auchinleck]], who had replaced Wavell as C-in-C [[Middle East Command]] in Cairo, agreed in principle but was not anxious to expedite the operation because a troop movement of this size would have to be made by fast warships during moonless periods of the month (because of the risk of air attacks to shipping) at a time when every resource needed to be concentrated on the planned [[Operation Crusader]].<ref>Playfair, Vol. III. p. 23</ref>

Based on reports from Australian H.Q. Middle East that the health of the troops had been suffering, the new Australian prime minister [[Arthur Fadden]] and his successor [[John Curtin]] rejected requests from Winston Churchill to change their minds and the replacement of the division was effected by the [[Royal Navy]] between August and October.<ref name="PlayfairIII25">Playfair, Vol. III. p. 25</ref><ref>Hunt (1990), p. 66</ref> During the 9th Australian Division's stay in besieged Tobruk, some 3000 Australians had become casualties and 941 taken prisoner.<ref>{{cite book| first=Gavin| last=Long| title=The Six Years War| publisher=Australian War Memorial| year=1973| location=Canberra| isbn=}} [http://www.defence.gov.au/ARMY/ahu/HISTORY/world_war_ii_middleeast.htm pp. 77-98 (ref footnote 100)]</ref>

The Australians were gradually withdrawn. In August, the 18th Australian Infantry Brigade and the Indian Army's [[18th King Edward's Own Cavalry]] were replaced by the [[Polish Independent Carpathian Brigade|Polish Carpathian Brigade]] with [[Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion]] (East), and in September and October the [[British 70th Infantry Division]] including the 32nd Army Tank Brigade replaced the majority of the remaining Australians. Losses sustained by the Royal Navy during the withdrawal led to the curtailment of the operation and as a consequence 2/13th Australian Battalion and two companies of 2/15th Australian Battalion together with some men of 9th Division headquarters remained in Tobruk until the siege was lifted.<ref name="PlayfairIII25"/> Morshead was succeeded as commander of the Tobruk fortress by 70th Division's commander, Major-General [[Ronald Scobie]].<ref name="PlayfairIII25"/>

==End of the siege==
[[File:General Sikorski visit.jpg|thumb|left|General Sikorski visiting polish soldiers in Tobruk]]
On 15 June Wavell had launched [[Operation Battleaxe]], a land offensive intended to relieve Tobruk. The failure of Battleaxe led to the replacement of Wavell as C-in-C Middle East Command by General Claude Auchinleck. The Western Desert Force was reinforced and reorganised to form a two-corps army designated [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|Eighth Army]] commanded by Lieutenant-General [[Alan Cunningham]]. Auchinleck launched a major offensive, [[Operation Crusader]], on 18 November which led to the relief of Tobruk at the end of the month and the occupation of the whole of Cyrenaica by the end of the year.

==See also==
{{Portal|World War II}}
* [[North African Campaign timeline]]
* [[List of World War II Battles]]
* [[John Hurst Edmondson]] — [[Victoria Cross|VC recipient]] during the siege
* [[Rats of Tobruk]]
* [[Twin Pimples raid]]

==Footnotes==
{{Cleanup|section|date=December 2008}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
* {{cite book| first=Jean | last=Aitchison| coauthors=Lewis, Diana M. |title=New Media Language | publisher=Routledge| chapter=Reportage, literature and willed credulity by John Carey|year=2003| isbn=0415283035 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=lbcM0BTL-GcC&pg=PA62&dq=commandos+bardia | pages = 62–3}}
* {{cite book| last=Combes| first=David| title=Morshead: Hero of Tobruk and El Alamein| publisher=Oxford University Press| location= Melbourne| year=2001| isbn=0-195-51398-3}}
* {{cite book| first=Peter |last=Fitzsimons| authorlink=Peter FitzSimons| title=Tobruk| location= Sydney| publisher=Harper Collins| year=2006| isbn=0-73227-645-4}}
* {{cite book| first=Frank |last=Harrison| title=Tobruk: The Great Siege Reassessed| publisher=Brockhampton Press| edition=| year= 1999| isbn=1-86019-986-0| origyear=1996}}
* {{cite book|last=Hunt| first=Sir David| authorlink=David Hunt (diplomat) |year=1990| origdate=1966| title=A Don at War|location= London| publisher=F. Cass| origyear=1966| edition=Revised |isbn=0-71463-383-6}}
* {{cite book|authorlink=| first=Thomas L.| last=Jentz| coauthors=| title= Tank Combat In North Africa: The Opening Rounds, Operations Sonnenblume, Brevity, Skorpion and Battleaxe, February 1941 – June 1941| publisher=Schiffer Publishing Ltd| year=1998| location=| origdate=| isbn=0-76430-226-4}}
*{{cite book| first=Mark| last=Johnston| title=That Magnificent 9th: An Illustrated History of the 9th Australian Division | publisher=Allen & Unwin| year=2003| isbn=1865086541}}
* {{cite book| first=Jon |last=Latimer| authorlink=Jon Latimer| title=Tobruk 1941: Rommel's Opening Move| publisher=Greenwood Press| isbn=0-27598-287-4| year=2004}}
* {{cite book|last=Long| first=Gavin| url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/second_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67903 |title=Official History of Australia in the Second World War Volume I – To Benghazi. Chapters 6 -12| series=Series 1 - Army|year=1961| publisher=Australian War Memorial| location=Canberra|pages=| origyear=1952}}
* {{cite book|last=Maughan| first=Barton| url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/second_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67905 |title=Official History of Australia in the Second World War Volume III – Tobruk and El Alamein. Chapters 4 - 9| series=Series 1 - Army|year=1966| origdate=| publisher=Australian War Memorial| location=Canberra|pages=}}
* {{cite book| first=Neil | last=McDonald| title=Chester Wilmot Reports| location= Sydney| publisher=ABC Books| year=2004| isbn=0-73331-441-4}}
* {{cite book| url=http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/miller/miller.asp |first=Col. Ward A.| last=Miller |publisher= Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army| year=1986| title=The 9th Australian Division Versus the Africa Corps: An Infantry Division Against Tanks — Tobruk, Libya, 1941| accessdate=2007-03-09}}.
*{{cite book | first=Richard| last=Mead| title=Churchill's Lions: A biographical guide to the key British generals of World War II| year=2007| publisher=Spellmount| location=Stroud (UK)| pages=| isbn=978-1-86227-431-0}}
* {{cite book|first1=Major-General I.S.O.| last1=Playfair| author1-link=Ian Stanley Ord Playfair|first2=Captain F.C.|last2=with Flynn [[Royal Navy|R.N.]]| first3=Brigadier C.J.C.| last3=Molony| first4=Air Vice-Marshal S.E.| last4=Toomer |editor-last=Butler|editor-first= J.R.M|editor-link=James Ramsay Montagu Butler|series=History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series| title= The Mediterranean and Middle East, Volume II The Germans come to the help of their Ally (1941)| publisher=Naval & Military Press| year=2004| origyear=1st. pub. [[HMSO]] 1956| isbn=1-84574-066-1|lastauthoramp=y}}
*{{cite book|first1=Major-General I.S.O.| last1=Playfair| authorlink1=Ian Stanley Ord Playfair| last2=with Flynn| first2=Captain F.C. (R.N.)| last3=Molony| first3=Brigadier C.J.C.| last4=Gleave| first4=Group Captain T.P.|editor-last=Butler| editor-first=Sir James| editor-link=James Ramsay Montagu Butler |series=History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series| title=The Mediterranean and Middle East, Volume III: British Fortunes reach their Lowest Ebb (September 1941 to September 1942)| publisher=Naval & Military Press |location=Uckfield, UK |year=2004| origyear=1st. pub. [[HMSO]]:1960| isbn=1-845740-67-X| lastauthoramp=y}}
* {{cite book |last=Rommel|first=Erwin|others=Findlay, Paul (translator)| editor-link=Basil Liddell Hart| editor-first=Basil| editor-last=Liddell Hart|authorlink=Erwin Rommel|title=The Rommel Papers |year=1982|month=March|publisher=Da Capo Press |location=|format=paperback |edition=New|origyear=1953 |language= |isbn=0-30680-157-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Saunders|first=Hilary St. George|title=The Green Beret: The Commandos at War|origyear=1949|year=1959|publisher=Four Square Books|location=London}}
* {{cite book| first=Bill| last=Spencer| title=In the Footsteps of Ghosts: With the 2/9th Battalion in the African Desert | publisher=Allen & Unwin| year=1999| isbn=1-865-08145-0|url=http://books.google.com/?id=-CO1aqmg0wcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=2/9th+battalion+in+the+african+desert}}
* {{cite book| first=Archibald| last=Wavell| authorlink=Archibald Wavell| title=Operations in the Middle East from 7th February to 15th July 1941| series=Wavell's Official Despatches| year=1946}} published in the {{LondonGazette| issue=37638| date=2 July 1946| startpage=3423| endpage=3444| supp=Supplement}}

==Further reading==

* Beaumont, Joan (1996). ''Australia's War, 1939-45''. Melbourne: Allen & Unwin; ISBN 1-864-48039-4.
* Glassop, Lawson (1944). ''We Were the Rats''. Sydney: Angus & Roberston. Republished by Penguin, 1992; ISBN 0-140-14924-4.
* Wilmot, Chester (1944). ''Tobruk 1941''. Sydney: Halstead Press. Republished by Penguin, 1993; ISBN 9-780-67007-1203.

==External links==
* [http://www.kki.pl/piojar/brygad/brygad/tobruk/tobruk_e.html Polish Carpathian Brigade in the defence of Tobruk]
* [http://www.guastatori.it/1941-1945/xxxii_btg.htm The Italian 32nd Combat Sappers Battalion]
* [http://digilander.libero.it/avantisavoiait/I%20Bersaglieri%20in%20Africa.htm The Bersaglieri in North Africa (2003)]
* [http://www.comandosupremo.com/1941.html The Italian War Effort in 1941]
* [http://www.kki.krakow.pl/piojar/brygad/brygad/tobruk/tobruk_e.html The Characteristic of Tobruk defence in 1941]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/ww2/A1124777 BBC - WW2 People's War - Siege of Tobruk]
*[http://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/tobruk/ Australian War Memorial - Siege of Tobruk]
*[http://www.svetskirat.net/istorija/afrika.htm Siege of Tobruk]

{{coord missing|Libya}}



{{DEFAULTSORT:Tobruk}}
[[Category:Article Feedback Pilot]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Australia]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Sieges involving Germany]]
[[Category:Sieges involving Poland]]
[[Category:Western Desert Campaign]]
[[Category:Libya in World War II]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Tobruk]]

[[bg:Обсада на Тобрук]]
[[cs:Obléhání Tobrúku]]
[[es:Sitio de Tobruk]]
[[fr:Siège de Tobrouk]]
[[it:Assedio di Tobruch]]
[[nl:Slag om Tobroek]]
[[ja:トブルク包囲戦]]
[[pl:Bitwa o Tobruk]]
[[pt:Cerco de Tobruk]]
[[fi:Tobrukin piiritys]]
[[ta:டோப்ருக் முற்றுகை]]
[[zh:托布魯克圍城戰]]

Luftangriffe auf Japan

2011-03-28T14:23:16Z

Dapi89: /* Atomic bombings and final attacks */ +ref

{{infobox military conflict
| conflict = Air raids on Japan
| partof = [[Pacific War]], [[World War II]]
| image = [[File:Incendaries-b29.jpg|300px|B-29 Superfortress bombers dropping incendiary bombs on [[Yokohama]] during May 1945]]
| caption = B-29 Superfortress bombers dropping incendiary bombs on [[Yokohama]] during May 1945<ref name=Wolk_72 />
| date = April 18, 1942 – August 15, 1945
| place = Japan
| coordinates =
| map_type =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| territory =
| result =
| status =
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|USA|1912}} [[United States]] {{flagicon|UK}} [[United Kingdom]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Japan|alt}} [[Empire of Japan]]
| combatant3 =
| commander1 =
| commander2 =
| commander3 =
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| strength3 =
| casualties1 = '''20th Air Force:''' 414 B-29 bombers, Over 2,600 killed<ref name="Kerr_276">Kerr (1991), p. 276</ref>
| casualties2 = At least 300,000 killed<ref name="Tillman_256">Tillman (2010), p. 256</ref>
| casualties3 =
| notes =
}}
{{Campaignbox Japan}}
During [[World War II]] the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces conducted many '''air raids on Japan''' which caused extensive destruction to the country's cities and killed over 300,000 people. These attacks began with the [[Doolittle Raid]] in mid-April 1942, but did not resume until June 1944 when [[United States Army Air Forces]] (USAAF) [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress|B-29 Superfortress]] heavy bombers began a series of attacks from bases in China. From November 1944 until the end of the war the USAAF conducted a major [[Strategic bombing during World War II|strategic bombing]] offensive against Japan; these attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities, but from March 1945 were frequently directed against Japanese urban areas. During early August 1945 the cities of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] were [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|attacked with atomic bombs]]. Aircraft flying from Allied [[aircraft carrier]]s and the [[Ryukyu Islands]] also frequently attacked targets in Japan during 1945. The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks, and the country's [[civil defense]] preparations proved inadequate. Along the with [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria]], the Allied bombing campaign was one of the main factors which influenced the Japanese Government's [[Surrender of Japan|decision to surrender]] in mid-August.

==Background==
===United States preparations===

The United States Army Air Corps began preparing to bomb the Japanese home islands during 1940. During that year the naval attaché to the [[Embassy of the United States in Tokyo]] reported on Japan's weak [[civil defense]]s and proposals were developed for US volunteer aircrew to assist the Chinese forces in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]. The first [[American Volunteer Group]] (the '[[Flying Tigers]]') began operations in support of the Chinese in late 1941 using fighter aircraft. A second Air Volunteer Group was subsequently formed to attack Japan from bases in China using [[Lockheed Hudson|Hudson]] and [[Douglas A-20 Havoc|A-20 Havoc]] medium bombers, but was diverted elsewhere in Asia following the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] on 7 December 1941 which led to open hostilities between the US and Japan.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 31–32</ref>

Japanese successes during the opening months of the [[Pacific War]] nullified pre-war US plans for attacks against the Japanese homeland. Prior to the outbreak of war the USAAF planned operations against Japan from [[Wake Island]], [[Guam]], the [[Philippines]] and coastal areas in China.<ref name="Tillman_32">Tillman (2010), p. 32</ref> These areas were rapidly captured by Japan, however, and the USAAF heavy bomber force in the Philippines was largely destroyed when [[Clark Air Base]] was attacked on 8 December 1941.<ref>Chun (2006), pp. 7, 30</ref> The USAAF attempted to send 13 heavy bombers to China in March and April 1942 to attack the Japanese home islands. These aircraft reached India, but remained there when the [[Japanese conquest of Burma]] caused logistics problems and Chinese Nationalist leader [[Chiang Kai-shek]] proved reluctant to allow the aircraft territory under his control. A further 13 [[Consolidated B-24 Liberator|B-24 Liberator]] heavy bombers were dispatched from the United States to China in May 1942 as the [[HALPRO]] force, but were instead retasked to support Allied operations in the Mediterranean when they reached [[Egypt]].<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 32–33</ref> In July 1942 the commander of the American Volunteer Group, Colonel [[Claire Lee Chennault]], sought a force of 100 [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt|P-47 Thunderbolt]] fighters and 30 [[North American B-25 Mitchell|B-25 Mitchell]] medium bombers which he believed would be sufficient to "destroy" the Japanese aircraft industry. Three months later Chennault told President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] that a force of 105 modern fighters and 40 bombers (including 12 heavy bombers) would be able to "accomplish the downfall of Japan" within six to twelve months. These claims were not considered credible by the USAAF's headquarters, and the requests for reinforcements were not granted.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 32–33</ref>

===Pre-war Japanese defenses===
[[File:Construction of Air-raid shelter in Japan.JPG|thumb|An [[air-raid shelter]] being built in Japan during 1940]]

Japanese air defenses were weak at the start of the Pacific War. The Japanese government did not expect that the home islands would experience anything other than sporadic attacks by [[United States Navy]] aircraft carriers, however. In early 1942 forces allocated to the defense of Japan comprised 100 [[Imperial Japanese Army Air Force]] (IJAAF) and 200 [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (IJN) fighter aircraft (many of which were obsolete) and 500 Army-manned anti-aircraft guns and 200 IJN-manned guns. In addition, the Army operated a network of military and civilian-manned observation posts to provide warning of air attack and was in the process of building radar stations. Command and control of the air defenses was fragmented and the IJAAF and IJN did not coordinate their activities or communicate with each other. As a result, the forces were unable to react to a sudden air attack.<ref>Chun (2006), pp. 24–27</ref>

Japan's [[civil defense]] organization was also inadequate to cope with large-scale air attacks. Air raid drills had been held in Tokyo and Osaka since 1928, and from 1937 local governments were required to provide manuals to civilians with information on how to respond to air attacks.<ref>Havens (1978), p. 155</ref> Few cities had full-time professional [[firefighter]]s, and most relied on volunteers. Such firefighting forces that did exist lacked modern equipment and used outdated tactics.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 142–143</ref> In addition, few measures were undertaken to provide air defense facilities for civilians or industry such as the construction of [[air-raid shelter]]s.<ref name="Zaloga_25">Zaloga (2010), p. 25</ref>

==Early raids==
===Doolittle Raid===
[[File:Doolittle Raid (USS Hornet).jpg|thumb|A [[North American B-25 Mitchell|B-25 Mitchell]] taking off from {{USS|Hornet|CV-8|6}} on 18 April 1942]]
{{main|Doolittle Raid}}
USAAF aircraft bombed Japan for the first time in mid-April 1942. In an operation conducted primarily to raise morale in the United States, 16 B-25 Mitchell medium bombers were embarked aboard the aircraft carrier {{USS|Hornet|CV-8|6}} which carried them from [[San Francisco]] to within range of Japan. The aircraft were flown off several hours earlier than intended on 18 April and individually bombed targets in Tokyo, [[Yokohama]], [[Yokosuka]], [[Nagoya]] and [[Kobe]]. The few Japanese air defense units were taken by surprise, and all of the B-25s escaped without serious damage. The aircraft then continued to China and the Soviet Union, though several crashed in Japanese-held territory due to fuel shortages.<ref name="NMUSAF_Doolittle">{{cite web|title=America Hits Back: The Doolittle Tokyo Raiders|url=http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15351|work=Factsheets|publisher=National Museum of the US Air Force|accessdate=30 June 2010}}</ref> Japanese casualties in this attack were 50 killed, over 400 wounded and approximately 200 houses destroyed.<ref>Coox (1994), p. 394</ref>

Although the raid did little damage, it had important ramifications. The attack succeeded in raising morale in the United States and made a hero out of its commander, Lieutenant Colonel [[James H. Doolittle]]; Doolittle later commanded several major air units in the Mediterranean and Europe. The weak state of Japan's air defenses greatly embarrassed the Japanese military leadership and four fighter groups were transferred from the Pacific to defend the home islands. In an attempt to prevent further attacks, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched an offensive in the Pacific Ocean which ended in defeat during the [[Battle of Midway]].<ref>Chun (2006), pp. 84, 88–91</ref> The [[Imperial Japanese Army]] also conducted the [[Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign]] to capture the air bases in central China at which the Doolittle Raiders had intended to land. This offensive achieved its objectives and resulted in the deaths of 250,000 Chinese soldiers and civilians, including many civilians killed in [[war crime]]s.<ref>Hoyt (1987), pp. 277–279</ref> In an attempt to retaliate against the Doolittle Raid the IJA began developing [[fire balloons]] capable of carrying incendiary and anti-personnel bombs from Japan to the continental United States.<ref>Horn (2005), pp. 205–206</ref>

===Bombing of the Kuril Islands===

Following the Doolittle Raid, the next air attacks on Japan were made against the [[Kuril Islands]] in mid-1943. The liberation of [[Attu Island]] in May 1943 during the [[Aleutian Islands Campaign]] provided the USAAF with bases within range of the Kurils. As part of the preparations for the liberation of [[Kiska Island]] the [[Eleventh Air Force]] planned a series of raids against the Kurils to suppress Japanese air units stationed there. The first of these attacks was made by eight B-25s on 10 July against southern [[Shumshu]] and northern [[Paramushir|Paramushiru]]. A second raid was staged against the Kurils on 18 July by six B-24 Liberator heavy bombers, and the unopposed liberation of Kiska ([[Operation Cottage]]) took place on 15 August.<ref>Coles (1951), pp. 387–391</ref>

The Eleventh Air Force and US Navy units continued to make small-scale harassing raids on the Kuril Islands until the closing months of the war. The USAAF attacks were broken off for five months following a raid on 11 September when nine of the 20 B-24s and B-25s dispatched were lost, but US Navy [[Consolidated PBY Catalina|PBY Catalinas]] continued to bomb Japanese positions in the Kurils. In response to the US attacks the IJN established the North-East Area Fleet in August 1943 and by November that year Japanese fighter strength in the Kurils and [[Hokkaidō]] peaked at 260 aircraft. The USAAF resumed its offensive in February 1944 with the addition of two squadrons of [[Lockheed P-38 Lightning|P-38 Lightning]] escort fighters, and Eleventh Air Force bombers continued to attack targets in the Kurils until June 1945.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 273–275</ref> While these raids caused little damage, they forced the Japanese to divert large numbers of soldiers to defend their northern islands against a potential United States invasion.<ref>Coles (1951), p. 401</ref>

==Operation Matterhorn==
[[File:B-29 targets from China.jpg|thumb|alt=A black and white map of east Asia. Most of the cities depicted on the map are marked with bomb symbols.|Locations of B-29 bomber bases in China and the main targets they attacked in East Asia during [[Operation Matterhorn]]]]
{{main|Operation Matterhorn}}
===Preparations===
In late 1943 the United States [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] approved a proposal to begin the [[Strategic bombing|strategic air campaign]] against the Japanese home islands and East Asia by basing [[B-29 Superfortress]] heavy bombers in India and establishing forward airfields in areas of China. This strategy, which was designated [[Operation Matterhorn]], required the construction of large airstrips near [[Chengdu|Chengtu]] in inland China which would be supplied by Allied cargo aircraft and be used to refuel B-29s traveling from bases in [[Bengal]] en-route to bombing targets in Japan.<ref>Correll (2009), pp. 62–63</ref> [[XX Bomber Command]] was assigned responsibility for this effort and its ground crew began to leave the United States for India by sea in December 1943.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 75–79</ref><ref>Tillman (2010), p. 41</ref> The [[Twentieth Air Force]] was formed in April 1944 to oversee all B-29 operations. In an unprecedented move, the commander of the USAAF, General [[Henry H. Arnold]], took personal command of this unit and ran it from [[the Pentagon]].<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 45</ref> The [[58th Air Division|58th Bombardment Wing]] was XX Bomber Command's main combat unit, and its movement from Kansas to India took place from April to mid-May.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 43–44</ref>

The Japanese military began transferring fighter aircraft from China and the Pacific to the home islands in early 1944 in anticipation of B-29 raids. The IJAAF established three air divisions to defend [[Honshū]] and [[Kyūshū]] and the IJN also contributed air units to support the Army. Further anti-aircraft gun batteries and searchlight units were also established to protect major cities and military bases. These defenses remained inadequate, however, as Japan had few aircraft and anti-aircraft guns capable of effectively engaging B-29s at their cruising altitude of {{convert|30000|ft|m}} and only a small number of radar stations were established to provide early warning of raids.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 60–64</ref>
[[File:Air Raid Drill in Japan during World War II1.JPG|thumb|left|Civilians participating in an air-raid drill during 1942]]

In response to the Doolittle Raid and the threat of further attacks the Japanese Government also sought to improve the country's civil defenses. The central government placed the burden of constructing civilian air-raid shelters on the [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectural governments]], though shortages of concrete and steel hindered their construction. In October 1943 the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (Japan)|Ministry of Home Affairs]] directed households in the main cities to build their own shelters, though these were normally only [[Trench|trenches]].<ref name=Zaloga_25 /> Tunnels and natural caves were later used to shelter civilians from B-29 raids, and less than two percent of civilians had access to bombproof air-raid shelters. A small number of sophisticated shelters were also constructed for air defense headquarters and to protect key telephone facilities.<ref name="Zaloga_27">Zaloga (2010), p. 27</ref> Following the outbreak of war the Ministry of Home Affairs also expanded the number of firefighters, though these generally remained amateur volunteers who lacked adequate training and equipment.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 142–146</ref> Civilians were also trained to fight fires and encouraged to swear an 'air defense oath' to respond to attacks from incendiary or high explosive bombs.<ref name="Dear-Foot_484">Dear and Foot (2005), p. 484</ref>

The Japanese Government stepped-up its civil defenses from the northern autumn of 1943. In November that year an air defense general headquarters was established and a program of demolishing large numbers of buildings in major cities to create [[firebreak]]s began during December. By the end of the war 614,000 housing units had been destroyed to clear firebreaks; these accounted for a fifth of all housing losses and displaced 3.5 million people.<ref>Havens (1978), pp. 158–159</ref> The Japanese Government also encouraged old people, children and women in cities which were believed likely to be attacked to [[Evacuations of civilians in Japan during World War II|evacuate to the countryside]] from December 1943, and a program of evacuating entire classes of schoolchildren was implemented. By August 1944 330,000 schoolchildren had been evacuated in school groups and another 459,000 had moved to the countryside with their family.<ref name=Dear-Foot_484 /> Little was done to disperse industrial facilities so they were less vulnerable to attack, however, as this was logistically difficult.<ref>Havens (1978), p. 158</ref>

===Attacks from China===
XX Bomber Command began flying missions against Japan in mid-June 1944. The first raid took place on the night of 15/16 June when 75 B-29s were dispatched to [[Bombing of Yawata (June 1944)|attack the Imperial Iron and Steel Works]] at [[Yahata, Fukuoka|Yawata]] in northern Kyūshū. This raid caused little damage and cost seven B-29s, but received positive media coverage in the United States and indicated to Japanese civilians that the war was not going well.<ref name="Correll_63">Correll (2009), p. 63</ref><ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 102</ref> Arnold relieved XX Bomber Command's commander, Brigadier General Kenneth Wolfe, when he was unable to make follow-up attacks on Japan shortly after this raid due to insufficient fuel stockpiles at the bases in China. Wolfe's replacement was Major General [[Curtis LeMay]], a veteran of [[Eighth Air Force]] bombing attacks against Germany.<ref>Spector (1984), pp. 490–491</ref>
[[File:B-29s June 1944.jpg|thumb|alt=Four 4-engined World War II-era aircraft sitting on the ground at an airstrip. Groups of people are working near each aircraft.|B-29s photographed shortly before they participated in the [[Bombing of Yawata (June 1944)|15–16 June 1944 raid on Yawata]]]]

Subsequent B-29 raids staging through China were generally not successful. The second raid on Japan took place on 7 July when 17 B-29s attacked [[Sasebo, Nagasaki|Sasebo]], [[Ōmura, Nagasaki|Ōmura]] and [[Tobata-ku, Kitakyūshū|Tobata]], causing little damage, and on the night of August 10–11 24 Superfortresses attacked [[Nagasaki]]. A second raid was conducted against Yawata on 20 August, but this also caused little damage and twelve out of the 75 B-29s dispatched were shot down.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 53–56</ref> [[Japanese propaganda during World War II‎|Japanese Government propaganda]] claimed that 100 bombers had been shot down in this attack and one of the crashed B-29s was placed on display in Tokyo.<ref>Hoyt (1987), p. 363</ref> XX Bomber Command's performance improved after LeMay instituted a training program for aircrew and improved the organization of the B-29 maintenance units during August and September. A successful attack was mounted against Ōmura on 25 October which destroyed the city's small aircraft factory, though a follow-up raid on 11 November was not successful. The city was attacked again by 61 B-29s on 21 November and 17 bombers on 19 December. XX Bomber Command staged its ninth and final raid on Japan on 6 January 1945 when 28 B-29s once again bombed Ōmura. During the same period the command conducted a number of raids on targets in [[Manchuria]], China and [[Taiwan|Formosa]] from its bases in China as well as striking targets in [[South East Asia]] from India. The command flew its final mission from India, a [[Bombing of Singapore (1944–1945)|raid on Singapore]], on 29 March and its constituent units were then transferred to the Mariana Islands.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 58–65</ref>

Operation Matterhorn was not successful. The nine raids conducted against Japan via bases in China succeeded only in destroying Ōmura's aircraft factory and XX Bomber Command lost 125 B-29s during all of its operations from bases in India and China, though only 29 were destroyed by Japanese forces.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 65</ref> The attacks had a limited impact on Japanese civilian morale and forced the Japanese military to reinforce the home islands' air defenses at the expense of other areas. However, these limited successes did not justify the large expenditure of resources required by the operation.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 172–175</ref>

==Initial attacks from the Mariana Islands==
[[United States Marine Corps]] and [[United States Army]] forces captured the Japanese-held islands of [[Guam]], [[Saipan]] and [[Tinian]] in the [[Mariana Islands]] between June and August 1944.<ref name="Tillman_68">Tillman (2010), p. 68</ref> In the subsequent months USAAF engineers and USN [[Seabee]]s constructed six massive airfields on the islands capable of accommodating hundreds of B-29s.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 71–75</ref> These bases were much better suited to supporting an intensive air campaign against Japan than China as they could be easily supplied by sea and lay just {{convert|1500|mi|km}} south of Japan, which would allow B-29s to strike most of the home islands.<ref name="Wolk_72">Wolk (2004), p. 72</ref>
[[File:Briefing for attack on Tokyo November 1944.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Brigadier General [[Haywood S. Hansell]] posing with a map of the Tokyo region during November 1944]]

The Twentieth Air Force's [[XXI Bomber Command]] began to arrive in the Mariana Islands during October 1944. The Command was led by Brigadier General [[Haywood S. Hansell]] who had participated in Eighth Air Force operations against Germany. XXI Bomber Command B-29s flew six practice missions against targets in the Central Pacific during October and November in preparation for their first attack on Japan.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 77–79</ref> On 1 November a F-13 photo reconnaissance variant of the B-29 successfully overflew Tokyo; this was the first American aircraft over the city since the Doolittle Raid. Further F-13 sorties were conducted during early November to gather intelligence on aircraft plants and port facilities in the Tokyo–[[Yokosuka, Kanagawa|Yokosuka]] area.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 555–556</ref>

XXI Bomber Command's initial attacks on Japan were focused on the country's aircraft industry.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 553–554</ref> The first attack, codenamed [[Operation San Antonio I]], was made against the Musashino aircraft plant in the outskirts of Tokyo on 24 November 1944. Only 24 of the 111 B-29s dispatched attacked the raid's primary target, and the others bombed port facilities and industrial and urban areas. The Americans were intercepted by 125 Japanese fighters but only one B-29 was shot down.<ref name=Wolk_72 /> This attack caused some damage to the aircraft plant and caused many Japanese civilians to realize that the Japanese military was incapable of protecting their cities from air attack.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 559–560</ref> In response to this raid the Japanese stepped-up their [[Japanese air attacks on the Mariana Islands|air attacks]] on B-29 bases in the Mariana Islands on 27 November; these attacks continued until January 1945 and resulted in the destruction of eleven Superfortresses and damage to another 43 for the loss of approximately 37 Japanese aircraft.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 581–582</ref> The IJA also began launching fire balloons against the United States during November. This campaign caused little damage and was abandoned in March 1945; by this time 9,000 balloons had been dispatched but only 285 were reported to have reached the United States.<ref>Horn (2005), pp. 205–207</ref>

The next American raids on Japan were not successful. XXI Bomber Command attacked Tokyo a further three times between 27 November and 3 December; two of these attacks were made against the Musashino aircraft plant while the other targeted an industrial area using [[M-69 Incendiary cluster bomb]]s which had been specifically developed to attack Japanese urban areas.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 54–56</ref> Little damage was caused to the aircraft plant attacked on 27 November and 3 December as high winds and clouds prevented accurate bombing. The incendiary raid conducted on the night of 29/30 November by 29 Superfortresses burnt out one tenth of a square mile and was also judged to be unsuccessful by 20th Air Force Headquarters.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 108–109</ref>
[[File:B-29 shot down by flak.jpg|thumb|alt=|A B-29 falls in flames after a direct hit by an [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft shell]] over Japan]]

Four of XXI Bomber Command's next five raids were [[Bombing of Nagoya in World War II|made against targets in Nagoya]]. The first two of these attacks on 13 and 18 December used precision bombing tactics and damaged the city's aircraft plants.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 564–565</ref> The third raid was conducted as a daylight incendiary attack on the city in response to a 20th Air Force directive that the command dispatch 100 B-29s armed with M-69 bombs in order to test their effectiveness on a Japanese city. Hansell protested this order as he believed that precision attacks were starting to produce results and moving to [[area bombardment]] would be counter-productive, but agreed to the operation after he was assured that it did not represent a general shift in tactics.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 117–118</ref> Despite the change in armament, the 22 December raid was planned as a precision attack on an aircraft factory using only 78 bombers and bad weather over Nagoya meant that little damage was caused.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 564</ref> XXI Bomber Command raided the Musashino aircraft plant again on 27 December, but did not damage the facility. On 3 January 1945 97 B-29s were dispatched to conduct an area bombing raid on Nagoya. This attack started a number of fires, but these were quickly brought under control by Japanese fire fighters.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 118–119</ref>

In late December 1944 Arnold decided to relieve Hansell of his command and transfer LeMay to lead XXI Bomber Command. Hansell was informed of this decision on 6 January, but remained in his position until mid January. During this period XXI Bomber Command conducted unsuccessful precision bombing attacks on the Musashino aircraft plant in Tokyo and a Mitsubishi Aircraft Works factory in Nagoya on 9 and 14 January respectively. The last attack planned by Hansell was more successful, however, with a force of 77 B-29s crippling a [[Kawasaki Aerospace Company|Kawasaki Aircraft Industries]] factory near [[Akashi, Hyōgo|Akashi]] on 19 January.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 565–568</ref> During XXI Bomber Command's first three months of operations it suffered a loss rate of 4.1 percent of aircraft per raid.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 99</ref>

During late January 1945 the [[Imperial General Headquarters]] belatedly adopted a civil defense plan to counter American air raids. This plan assigned responsibility for fighting fires to community councils and neighborhood groups as the professional firefighting units were short-handed. Civilians were to observe a [[Blackout (wartime)|blackout]] from 10 PM. Japanese positions in the [[Bonin Islands]] were normally able to provide an hour's warning of American raids and [[Civil defense siren|air raid sirens]] were sounded in cities threatened by attack.<ref>Havens (1978), pp. 159–161</ref>

The first attacks conducted under LeMay's leadership achieved mixed results. XXI Bomber Command flew six major missions between 23 January and 19 February with limited success, though an incendiary raid [[Bombing of Kobe in World War II|against Kobe]] on 4 February caused significant damage to the city and its main factories.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 568–570</ref> Moreover, while improved maintenance procedures implemented by LeMay reduced the number of B-29s which had to abort raids due to technical problems, the command suffered a loss rate of 5.1 percent in these operations.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 99–100</ref> From 19 February to 3 March the command conducted a series of precision bombing raids on aircraft factories which sought to tie down Japanese air units so they couldn't participate in the [[Battle of Iwo Jima]]. Again, these attacks were frustrated by high winds or cloud cover, and little damage was inflicted on the factories. A firebombing raid conducted against Tokyo by 172 B-29s on 25 February was considered successful, however, as it burnt or damaged approximately one square mile of the city's urban area.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 570–573</ref> This attack was conducted as a large-scale test of the effectiveness of firebombing.<ref name="Haulman_22">Haulman (1999), p. 22</ref>

==Firebombing attacks==
===LeMay changes tactics===
[[File:Curtis LeMay 1940s.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Black and white photo of a heavyset man wearing formal military uniform|[[Curtis LeMay]]]]
The USAAF had been assessing the possibility of a firebombing campaign against Japanese cities since 1943. USAAF planners had determined that Japan's industry was concentrated in a small number of large cities and much of the industrial production took place in residential homes and small factories located in urban areas. As a result, it was estimated that incendiary bomb attacks on Japan's six largest cities would have a major impact on the country's industrial production through causing physical damage to almost 40 percent of key industrial facilities as well as the loss of 7.6 million man-months of labor. It was estimated that such attacks would kill over 500,000 people, render about 7.75 million homeless and force almost 3.5 million people to be evacuated to other areas.<ref>Wolk (2010), pp. 112–113</ref> In preparation for such attacks the USAAF had tested the effectiveness of incendiary bombs on Japanese-style buildings at [[Eglin Air Force Base|Eglin Field]] and the "[[Japanese village]]" at [[Dugway Proving Ground]].<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 610–611</ref> The American military also attempted to develop "[[bat bomb]]s", which would have involved using air-dropped [[bat]]s armed with incendiary bombs to attack Japanese cities, but this project was abandoned in 1944.<ref>Glines (1990)</ref>

In light of the poor results of precision bombing campaign and the success of the February 25 raid in destroying a large area of Tokyo, LeMay decided to begin firebombing attacks on Japan's main cities during early March.<ref name="Wolk_2004_73">Wolk (2004), p. 73</ref> This was in line with Arnold's targeting directive for XXI Bomber Command which specified that Japan's urban areas should be given the second-highest priority for attacks after only aircraft factories and that firebombing raids be conducted once the M-69 bombs had been tested in combat and a sufficient force of B-29s had been assembled to launch an intensive campaign.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 145–146</ref> LeMay did not seek Arnold's approval before launching the firebombing campaign, however, in order to protect the USAAF commander from criticism if the campaign was unsuccessful; the Twentieth Air Force's Chief of Staff Brigadier General [[Lauris Norstad]] was aware of the change in tactics though and provided support.<ref>Wolk (2010), p. 124</ref> In order to improve the effectiveness of the firebombing attacks, LeMay directed that the B-29s would fly at the low altitude of {{convert|5000|ft|m}} and bomb by night, rather than the previous tactic of high-altitude daylight bombing. As Japan's force of [[night fighter]]s was weak and its anti-aircraft batteries were less effective at night, LeMay also had most of the B-29s' defensive guns removed to enable them to carry more bombs.<ref name=Haulman_22 /> These changes were not popular with the XXI Bomber Command's aircrew as they believed that it was safer to fly heavily armed B-29s at high altitude.<ref>Dorr (2002), p. 36</ref>

===March firebombing campaign===

The first firebombing attack in this campaign was conducted against Tokyo on the night of March 9–10 and proved the single most destructive bombing raid of the war.<ref>Wolk (2010), p. 125</ref> XXI Bomber Command mounted a maximum effort for this raid, and on the afternoon of March 9 346 B-29s left the Marianas bound for Tokyo. They began to arrive over Tokyo at 2 am Guam time on March 10, and 279 bombers dropped 1,665 tons of bombs on the city.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 64–66</ref> This caused a massive [[firestorm]] that overwhelmed Tokyo's civil defenses and destroyed 16 square miles of buildings, representing seven percent of the city.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 149–153</ref> The Japanese police estimated that 83,793 people were killed, another 40,918 were injured and just over a million lost their homes; postwar estimates of deaths in this attack have ranged from 80,000 to 100,000.<ref name="Kerr_207">Kerr (1991), p. 207</ref><ref>Ferguson (2007), p. 573</ref> Damage to Tokyo's war production was also substantial.<ref name=Kerr_207 /> Japanese opposition to this attack was relatively weak, and American losses were limited to 14 B-29s lost due to combat and mechanical faults and a further 42 damaged by anti-aircraft fire.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 66–67</ref> Following the attack on Tokyo the Japanese Government ordered that all schoolchildren in the third to sixth grades be evacuated from the main cities, and 87 percent of them had been moved to the countryside by early April.<ref name=Dear-Foot_484 />
[[File:Tokyo kushu 1945-3.jpg|thumb|left|Charred remains of Japanese civilians following the [[Bombing of Tokyo|March 9–10 raid on Tokyo]]]]

XXI Bomber Command followed up the firebombing of Tokyo with similar raids against other major cities. On March 11, 310 B-29s were dispatched against Nagoya. The bombing of the city was less concentrated than that of Tokyo, and as a result the attack caused less damage. Nevertheless 2.05 square miles were burnt out and no B-29s were lost to the Japanese defenses. On the night of March 13–14, 274 Superfortresses [[Bombing of Osaka|attacked Osaka]] and destroyed 8.1 square miles of the city for the loss of two aircraft. Kobe was the next target in the firebombing campaign, and was attacked by 331 B-29s on the night of March 16–17. The resulting firestorm destroyed seven square miles of the city (equivalent to half its area) and three B-29s were lost. Nagoya was attacked again on the night of March 18-19, and the B-29s destroyed 2.95 square miles of the city. Only one Superfortress was shot down during this attack and all members of its crew were rescued. This attack marked the end of the first firebombing campaign as XXI Bomber Command had exhausted its stock of incendiary bombs.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 68–69</ref> The command's next major raid was a night precision attack on the Mitsubishi aircraft engine factory conducted on the night of March 23–24. This raid was not successful, as the 251 aircraft dispatched caused little damage and the Japanese shot down five B-29s.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 69</ref>

The USAAF's assessments of the firebombing campaign judged that it had been highly successful, and noted that American losses in the night firebombing attacks were much lower than those from day precision raids. As a result the Joint Target Group drew up a new set of priorities for XXI Bomber Command which left aircraft engine factories as the command's first priority but placed emphasis on continuing the attacks on Japan's main urban areas. While this bombing campaign was intended to form part of preparations for the Allied invasion of Japan, LeMay and some members of Arnold's staff believed that it alone would be sufficient to force Japan's surrender.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 623–627</ref>

The Japanese government was concerned about the results of the March firebombing attacks. The raids had demonstrated that the Japanese military was unable to protect the nation's airspace and that as a result the American bombers could cause widespread damage while suffering only light losses. The raids also caused increased absenteeism in the cities which were attacked as civilians were afraid to leave their homes and work in factories which might be bombed.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 156–157</ref>

===Destruction of Japan's main cities===
[[File:Areas of principal Japanese cities destoyed by US bombing.jpg|thumb|The areas of Japan's main cities which were destroyed in air attacks during World War II]]

The expanded firebombing campaign was delayed by the use of B-29s to support the Allied forces engaged in the [[Battle of Okinawa]]. In an attempt to reduce [[kamikaze]] suicide attacks on the Allied fleet, it was decided to use the XXI Bomber Command to attack airfields in southern Japan. These attacks began on March 20 and were expanded from March 27.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 628–631</ref> On March 31, the day before the landing, XXI Bomber Command mounted a diversionary precision bombing attack on industrial facilities at [[Tachiarai, Fukuoka|Tachiarai]] and an airfield at [[Ōmura, Nagasaki|Ōmura]]. Despite these raids, large scale kamikaze attacks were conducted against the Allied ships following the landing. As part of the Allied response, XXI Bomber Command conducted major attacks on airfields in Kyushu on April 8 and 16, though the first of these attacks was diverted to strike residential areas in [[Kagoshima]] after the airfields were found to be covered by cloud. From April 17 until the B-29s were released for other duties on May 11, about three quarters of XXI Bomber Command's effort was devoted to attacking airfields and other targets in direct support of the Battle of Okinawa; this included 2,104 sorties flown against 17 airfields. These raids cost XXI Bomber Command 24 B-29s destroyed and 233 damaged and were not successful in completely suppressing kamikaze attacks from the airfields which were bombed.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 631–633</ref><ref>Frank (1999), p. 72</ref> From April 12 the [[46th Fighter Wing (World War II)|VII Fighter Command's]] [[North American P-51 Mustang|P-51 Mustang]] very long range fighters which were based on Iwo Jima also attacked airfields in Honshu and Kyushu. The fighter pilots claimed to have destroyed 64 Japanese aircraft and damaged another 180 on the ground as well as shooting down 10 in the air for the loss of eleven fighters in combat and seven from other causes.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 634–635</ref>

Limited attacks on Japanese cities were conducted while the Battle of Okinawa continued. A night precision bombing raid was flown against the Nakajima engine factory in Tokyo by 121 B-29s on April 1 and three similar attacks were conducted on the night of April 3. These raids proved unsuccessful as XXI Bomber Command lacked the specialized equipment needed to strike targets accurately at night and LeMay decided against continuing the night precision bombing campaign.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 647</ref> Small forces of B-29s struck Tokyo and nearby [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]] on April 4. Two successful large-scale precision bombing raids were flown against aircraft factories in Tokyo and Nagoya on April 7; the raid on Tokyo was the first to be escorted by Iwo Jima-based P-51 Mustangs and the B-29s and fighters claimed to have shot down 101 Japanese aircraft for the loss of two P-51s and seven B-29s.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 164</ref><ref name="Kerr_226">Kerr (1991), p. 226</ref> Over 250 B-29s struck three different aircraft factories on April 12, and the [[73d Air Division|73rd Bombardment Wing]] inflicted heavy damage on the Musashino aircraft plant which had been attacked nine times previously.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 165</ref><ref>Kerr (1991), p. 225</ref> LeMay resumed night firebombing raids on April 13 when 327 B-29s attacked the arsenal district of Tokyo, destroying 11.4 square miles of the city, including a number of armaments factories. On April 15 a force of 303 B-29s attacked the Tokyo region and destroyed six square miles of Tokyo, 3.6 square miles of Kawasaki and 1.5 square miles of Yokohama for the loss of twelve bombers.<ref name=Kerr_226 /><ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 636</ref> On April 24 the Tachikawa aircraft engine factory at Yamato near Tokyo was destroyed by 131 B-29s, though an attack on the aircraft arsenal at Tachikawa six days later was aborted due to cloud cover; some of the heavy bombers attacked the city of [[Hamamatsu]] instead. Another precision raid was made against the Hiro Naval Aircraft Factory at Kure on May 5 when 148 B-29s inflicted heavy damage on the facility.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_649">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 649</ref> Five days later B-29s successfully attacked oil storage facilities at [[Iwakuni, Yamaguchi|Iwakuni]], Ōshima and [[Toltuyama]].<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 66</ref> On 11 May a small force of B-29s also destroyed an airframe factory at Konan.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_649 /> XXI Bomber Command reached its full strength in April when the 58th and [[315th Air Division|315th Bombardment Wings]] arrived in the Marianas; at this time the command comprised five [[Wing (military aviation unit)|wings]] equipped with B-29s and was the most powerful air unit in the world.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 167</ref>
[[File:Boeing B-29A-45-BN Superfortress 44-61784 6 BG 24 BS - Incendiary Journey.jpg|thumb|left|A B-29 over [[Bombing of Osaka|Osaka on 1 June 1945]]]]

From mid-May XXI Bomber Command conducted an intensive firebombing campaign against Japan's main cities. A force of 472 B-29s struck Nagoya by day on May 13 and destroyed 3.15 square miles of the city. The Japanese mounted a strong defense which downed two B-29s and damaged another 64 (another eight B-29s were lost to other causes) and the Americans claimed 18 Japanese fighter "kills" as well as another 30 probables and 16 damaged. Nagoya was attacked again by 457 B-29s on the night of May 16 and the resulting fires destroyed 3.82 square miles of the city. Japanese defenses were much weaker by night, and all three of the bombers which were lost crashed due to mechanical problems. The two raids on Nagoya killed 3,866 Japanese and rendered another 472,701 homeless.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 637–638</ref> On May 19, 318 B-29s conducted an unsuccessful precision bombing raid on the Tachikawa Aircraft Company.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 638, 650</ref> XXI Bomber Command made further large-scale firebombing attacks against Tokyo on the nights of May 23 and 25. In the first of these raids 520 B-29s destroyed 5.3 square miles southern Tokyo for the loss of 17 aircraft and 69 damaged.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 638</ref> The second attack involved 502 B-29 and destroyed 16.8 square miles of the city's central area, including the headquarters of several key government ministries and much of the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]]. Japanese defenses were relatively successful, with 26 B-29s being shot down and another 100 damaged.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 638–639</ref><ref>Frank (1999), pp. 74–75</ref> By the end of these raids just over half (50.8 percent) of Tokyo had been destroyed and the city was removed from XXI Bomber Command's target list.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 639</ref> The command's last major raid of May was a daylight incendiary attack on Yokohama on May 29 conducted by 517 B-29s escorted by 101 P-51s. This force was intercepted by 150 [[Mitsubishi A6M Zero|A6M Zero]] fighters, sparking an intense air battle in which five B-29s were shot down and another 175 damaged. In return, the P-51 pilots claimed 26 "kills" and 23 "probables" for the loss of three fighters. The 454 B-29s which reached Yokohama struck its main business district and destroyed 6.9 square miles of buildings.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 639–640</ref> Overall, the attacks in May destroyed 94 square miles of buildings, which was equivalent to one seventh of Japan's total urban area. The [[Home Ministry (Japan)|Minister of Home Affairs]], [[Iwao Yamazaki]], concluded after these raids that Japan's civil defense arrangements were "considered to be futile".<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 172–173</ref>

The firebombing campaign against major cities concluded in June. On the first day of the month 521 B-29s escorted by 148 P-51s were dispatched in a daylight raid against Osaka. While en-route to the city the Mustangs flew through thick cloud, and 27 of the fighters were destroyed in collisions. Nevertheless 458 heavy bombers and 27 P-51s reached the city, and the bombardment killed 3,960 Japanese and destroyed 3.15 square miles of buildings. On June 5, 473 B-29s struck Kobe by day and destroyed 4.35 square miles of the city for the loss of eleven bombers. Osaka was attacked again by 409 B-29s on June 7 and these destroyed 2.21 square miles of the city without loss. The city was bombed for the fourth time in the month on June 15 when 444 B-29s destroyed 1.9 square miles of buildings in Osaka and another 0.59 square miles in nearby [[Amagasaki]]. <ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 640–642</ref> This attack marked the end of the first phase of XXI Bomber Command's attack on Japan's cities. During May and June the bombers had destroyed much of the country's six largest cities, killing between 112,000 and 126,762 people and rendering millions homeless. The widespread destruction and high number of casualties from these raids caused many Japanese to realize that their country's military was no longer able to defend the home islands. American losses were relatively low, with 136 B-29s being lost.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 642–644</ref><ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 261–262</ref><ref>Frank (1999), pp. 76–77</ref>

==Attacks on small cities==
[[File:B-29 target cities in Japan.png|thumb|300px|Japanese cities attacked by B-29 bombers during World War II]]

In mid-June Arnold visited LeMay's headquarters at Saipan. On June 14 he approved a proposal to send the B-29s against 25 cities with populations ranging from 323,000 to 62,280 people as well as making precision attacks on key targets. This decision was made despite a recommendation from the [[Strategic bombing survey|United States Strategic Bombing Survey]] team which was assessing the effectiveness of air attacks on Germany that raids on Japan be focused on the country's transportation network and other targets with the goal of crippling the movement of goods and destroying food supplies.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 258–260</ref> LeMay's plan called for precision attacks on important industrial targets on days where the weather over Japan was clear and incendiary attacks guided by radar on overcast days. As both the cities and industrial facilities targeted were relatively small, the B-29 force would be sent against multiple locations on days in which attacks were conducted. This targeting policy (which was labeled the "Empire Plan") remained in force until the end of the war.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 650–651</ref>

Five major precision bombing attacks were conducted as part of the "Empire Plan". On June 9, two groups of B-29s bombed an aircraft factory at [[Shinkamigotō, Nagasaki|Narao]] and another two raided a factory in [[Atsuta-ku, Nagoya|Atsuta]]; both facilities were badly damaged. A single group of B-29s also attempted to bomb a Kawasaki Aircraft Industries factory at Akashi but accidentally struck a nearby village instead. The next day XXI Bomber Command aircraft escorted by 107 P-51s successfully attacked six different factories in the Tokyo Bay region.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p651">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 651</ref> The next precision bombing raids were conducted on June 22, when 382 B-29s attacked six targets at [[Kure, Hiroshima|Kure]], [[Kakamigahara, Gifu|Kakamigahara]], [[Himeji, Hyōgo|Himeji]], Mizushima and Akashi in southern Honshu. Most of the factories targeted in these raids were badly damaged.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 651–652</ref> Four days later 510 B-29s escorted by 148 P-51s were sent against nine factories in southern Honshu and Shikoku. Heavy cloud over the region meant that many of these bombers attacked targets of opportunity individually or in small groups, and little damage was done to most of the raid's intended targets.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p652">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 652</ref> Cloudy weather prevented any further large-scale precision attacks until July 24, when 625 B-29s were dispatched against seven targets near Nagoya and Osaka. Four of the factories attacked suffered heavy damage. Renewed cloudy weather prevented any further "Empire Plan" precision attacks from being conducted.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_p652 />

XXI Bomber Command began attacking smaller cities from June 17. On that night Hamamatsu, Kagoshima, [[Ōmuta, Fukuoka|Ōmuta]], [[Yokkaichi, Mie|Yokkaichi]] were each attacked by a wing of B-29s using similar tactics to those employed in the firebombing raids against the major cities. Of the 477 B-29s dispatched, 456 struck their targets and Hamamatsu, Kagoshima, Yokkaichi suffered extensive damage; overall 6.073 square miles of buildings were destroyed. The cities were almost undefended and no B-29s were lost to Japanese actions.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 653–654</ref><ref name="Kerr_262">Kerr (1991), p. 262</ref> This operation was judged a success, and set the pattern for XXI Bomber Command's attacks until the end of the war. As the campaign continued and the most important cities were destroyed, the bombers were sent against smaller and less significant cities. On the nights that raids were conducted four cities were normally attacked, each by a wing of bombers. Two-wing operations were conducted against [[Fukuoka]] on June 19 and Ōmuta on July 26, however. Sixteen multi-city incendiary attacks were conducted by the end of the war (an average of two per week), with 58 different cities being struck in this period. The incendiary raids were coordinated with precision bombing attacks during the last weeks of the war in an attempt to force the Japanese Government to surrender.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 654–655</ref> As the small cities were not defended by anti-aircraft guns and Japan's night fighter force was ineffective only a single B-29 was shot down during this campaign; a further 66 were damaged and 18 were lost in accidents.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p656">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 656</ref>
[[File:Okayama after the 1945 air raid.jpg|thumb|left|Part of [[Okayama]] after it was bombed on June 28, 1945]]

The second incendiary raid against smaller cities took place on June 19. On this night B-29s struck Fukuoka, [[Bombing of Shizuoka in World War II|Shizuoka]] and [[Toyohashi Air Raid|Toyohashi]]. On June 28 [[Moji-ku, Kitakyūshū|Moji]], [[Nobeoka, Miyazaki|Nobeoka]], [[Okayama]] and [[Sasebo, Nagasaki|Sasebo]] were attacked. [[Kumamoto, Kumamoto|Kumamoto]], Kure, [[Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi|Shimonoseki]] and [[Ube, Yamaguchi|Ube]] were struck on July 1. Two nights later Himeji, [[Kōchi, Kōchi|Kōchi]], [[Takamatsu, Kagawa|Takamatsu]] and [[Tokushima, Tokushima|Tokushima]] were bombed. On July 6, Akashi, [[Chiba, Chiba|Chiba]], [[Kōfu, Yamanashi|Kōfu]] and [[Shimizu-ku, Shizuoka|Shimizu]] were attacked. [[Gifu, Gifu|Gifu]], [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]], [[Sendai]] and [[Wakayama, Wakayama|Wakayama]] were struck on July 9. Three nights later the B-29s targeted [[Ichinomiya, Aichi|Ichinomiya]], [[Tsuruga, Fukui|Tsuruga]], [[Utsunomiya, Tochigi|Utsunomiya]] and [[Uwajima, Ehime|Uwajima]]. On July 16, [[Hiratsuka, Kanagawa|Hiratsuka]], [[Kuwana, Mie|Kuwana]], Namazu and [[Ōita, Ōita|Ōita]] were attacked. [[Chōshi, Chiba|Choshi]], [[Fukui, Fukui|Fukui]], [[Hitachi, Ibaraki|Hitachi]], [[Okazaki, Aichi|Okazaki]] were bombed on July 19. After a break of almost a week, [[Matsuyama, Ehime|Matsuyama]], Omuta and [[Tokuyama, Yamaguchi|Tokuyama]] were firebombed on July 26. The cities of [[Aomori, Aomori|Aomori]], Ichinomiya, [[Tsu, Mie|Tsu]], [[Ise, Mie|Uji-Yamada]] [[Ōgaki, Gifu|Ōgaki]] and Uwajima were attacked on July 28.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 674–675</ref> On the night of July 27-28 six B-29s dropped leaflets over eleven Japanese cities warning that they would be attacked in the future; this was intended to lower the morale of Japanese civilians and convince them that the United States was seeking to minimize civilian casualties.<ref name="Frank_153">Frank (1999), p. 153</ref>

August 1945 began with continued large-scale raids against Japanese cities. On the first of the month 836 B-29s staged the largest single raid of World War II, dropping 6,145 tons of bombs and mines. The cities of [[Hachiōji, Tokyo|Hachiōji]], [[Mito, Ibaraki|Mito]] and [[Nagaoka, Niigata|Nagaoka]] [[Toyama, Toyama|Toyama]] were the main targets of this operation; all four suffered extensive damage with 99.5 percent of buildings in Toyama being destroyed.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 267–268</ref><ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p675">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 675</ref>

From late June the 315th Bombardment Wing conducted a series of night precision bombing attacks against the Japanese oil industry which were conducted independently of the precision day and night incendiary raids. This wing's B-29s were fitted with the advanced [[AN/APQ-7]] radar which allowed targets to be accurately located at night. It arrived in the Marianas in April 1945 and, after a period of operational training, flew its first attack against the Utsube Oil Refinery at Yokkaichi on the night of June 26.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 658–661</ref> The 30 bombers (out of 38 dispatched) which struck the refinery destroyed or damaged 30 percent of the facility.<ref name="Tillman_240">Tillman (2010), p. 240</ref> The unit's next attack was made against a refinery at [[Kudamatsu, Yamaguchi|Kudamatsu]] three nights later and on the night of 2 July it struck another refinery at [[Arida, Wakayama|Minoshima]].<ref name="Kerr_331">Kerr (1991), p. 331</ref> On the night of July 6–7 the 315th Bombardment Wing destroyed the Maruzen oil refinery near Osaka and three nights later it completed the destruction of the Utsube refinery.<ref name=Tillman_240 /> The wing had conducted 15 operations against Japanese oil facilities by the end of the war. During these attacks it destroyed six of the nine targets attacked for the loss of only four B-29s. As Japan had almost no crude oil to refine as a result of the Allied naval blockade of the home islands, the raids against oil refineries had almost no impact on the country's war effort.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 152</ref>

During mid-July the USAAF strategic bomber forces in the Pacific were reorganized. On July 16 XXI Bomber Command was redesignated the Twentieth Air Force and LeMay appointed its commander. Two days later the [[United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific]] (USASTAF) was established at Guam under the command of General [[Carl Andrew Spaatz|Carl Spaatz]]. USASTAF's role was to command the Twentieth Air Force as well as the [[Eighth Air Force]], which at the time was in the process of being reequipped with B-29s and moving from Europe to Okinawa under the command of James Doolittle (who was now a General). The Commonwealth [[Tiger Force (air)|Tiger Force]], which was to include Australian, British, Canadian and New Zealand heavy bomber squadrons and attack Japan from Okinawa, was also to come under the command of USASTAF when it arrived in the region during late 1945.<ref name=Frank_153 /><ref>{{cite web|title=July 1945|url=http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/PopTopics/chron/45jul.htm|work=U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II: Combat Chronology|publisher=Air Force Historical Studies Office|accessdate=6 March 2011}}</ref>

==Aerial minelaying==

From mid-1944 the US Navy pressed for B-29s to be used to lay [[naval mine]]s in Japan's home waters. Arnold and his staff were unenthusiastic about the Navy's proposals as they believed that such missions would divert Superfortresses from precision bombing attacks. In response to repeated requests from the Navy Arnold decided in November 1944 to conduct mine laying operations once aircraft were available. In January LeMay selected the [[313th Air Division|313rd Bombardment Wing]] as the Twentieth Air Force's specialist mine laying unit, and the Navy provided assistance with its training and logistics. LeMay also developed a plan designated [[Operation Starvation]] to use air-dropped mines to to implement a [[blockade]] of Japan.<ref>Cate and Olsen (1953), "The All-Out B-29 Attack", pp. 662–666</ref> As the United States had made little use of mines up to this time the Japanese military had placed relatively little emphasis on keeping its [[Minesweeper (ship)|minesweeping]] force up to date and it was unprepared for a large-scale offensive.<ref name="Tillman_198">Tillman (2010), p. 198</ref>

The first B-29 mine laying operation in Japanese waters was conducted by the 313rd Bombardment Wing on the night of 27/28 March 1945 when it mined the [[Kanmon Straits|Shimonoseki Strait]] to prevent Japanese warships from using it to attack the U.S. landing force off Okinawa.<ref>Cate and Olsen (1953), "Urban Area Attacks", p. 631</ref> Minelaying operations in April were disrupted by the use of the wing to support operations in Okinawa as well as participate in conventional bombing raids, but the rate of effort increased in May with missions being conducted against harbors and other choke points around Honshu and Kyushu. From an early stage the air-dropped minefields greatly disrupted Japanese coastal shipping and they sank more ships than Allied [[submarine]]s during May.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 668–670</ref>

LeMay ordered a further increase to minelaying sorties in June and the [[505th Bombardment Group]] joined the 313rd on occasion. In response to this offensive the Japanese greatly expanded their minesweeping force by 349 ships and 20,000 men and deployed additional anti-aircraft guns around the Shimonoseki Strait, but had little success in permanently clearing minefields or downing the B-29s. As a result, many of Japan's major harbors, including those of Tokyo, Yokohama and Nagoya, became permanently closed to shipping. During the last weeks of the war B-29s continued to drop large numbers of mines off Japan and expanded the campaign into Korean waters. The 313rd Bombardment Wing lost only 16 B-29s during its mine laying raids up to the Japanese surrender.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 670–674</ref> Overall, mines dropped by Superfortresses off the Japanese home islands sank 293 ships, which represented 9.3 percent of all Japanese merchant shipping destroyed during the Pacific War and 60 per cent of losses between April and August 1945. Following the war the [[Strategic bombing survey|United States Strategic Bombing Survey]] (USSBS) assessed that the 20th Air Force should have had a greater focus on attacking Japanese shipping, including conducting a more intensive minelaying effort.<ref>Cate and Olsen (1953), p. 754</ref><ref name=Tillman_198 />

==Naval air attacks==
[[File:TBMs and SB2Cs dropping bombs.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a large number of propeller-driven monoplanes dropping bombs|US Navy aircraft dropping bombs on [[Hakodate, Hokkaidō|Hakodate]] during July 1945]]
The United States Navy conducted its first attacks against Japan since the Doolittle Raid in mid-February 1945. This operation was undertaken primarily to destroy Japanese aircraft which could attack the US Navy and Marine Corps forces involved with the [[Battle of Iwo Jima|landing on Iwo Jima]] on the 19th of the month and was conducted by [[Fast Carrier Task Force|Task Force 58]] (TF 58). This was the US Navy's main striking force in the Pacific, and comprised eleven [[fleet carrier]]s, five [[light aircraft carrier]]s and a powerful force of escorts which included eight [[battleships]], the large cruiser {{USS|Alaska|CB-1|6}}, five [[heavy cruiser]]s, nine [[light cruiser]]s and 77 [[destroyer]]s under the command of Rear Admiral [[Marc Mitscher]].<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 20–21</ref> TF 58 approached Japan undetected and attacked airfields and aircraft factories in the Tokyo region on 16 and 17 February. The American naval aviators claimed 341 'kills' against Japanese aircraft and the destruction of a further 160 on the ground for the loss of 60 aircraft in combat and 28 in accidents. Several ships were also attacked and sunk in [[Tokyo Bay]].<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 22–25</ref> The actual Japanese aircraft losses in this operation are uncertain, however, with the Imperial General Headquarters admitting losing 78 aircraft in dogfights and not providing a figure for those destroyed on the ground. TF 58's ships were not attacked during this period in Japanese waters, and on 18 February sailed south to provide direct support to the landings on Iwo Jima. The Task Force attempted further attacks on the Tokyo area on 25 February, but these were largely frustrated by bad weather and the ships sailed south to attack [[Okinawa]] from 1 March instead.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 123–124</ref>

Task Force 58 renewed its attacks on Japan in mid-March in an attempt to reduce the Japanese aircraft available to contest the [[Battle of Okinawa|landing on Okinawa]] on 1 April.<ref>Royal Navy (1995), p. 192</ref> On 18 March the carrier aircraft attacked Japanese airfields and other military facilities on [[Kyushu]]. The next day they attacked Japanese warships at [[Kure, Hiroshima|Kure]] and [[Kobe]], damaging the battleship [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamoto'']] and aircraft carrier [[Japanese aircraft carrier Amagi|''Amagi'']]. The Japanese fought back against these raids with [[Kamikaze]] suicide aircraft and conventional attacks, and inflicted light damage on three carriers on 18 March and severe damage on {{USS|Franklin|CV-13|6}} on the 19th.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 94–95</ref> On 20 March TF 58 sailed south but continued fighter sweeps over Kyushu to suppress Japanese aircraft. During the attacks on 18 and 19 March the American naval aviators claimed to have destroyed 223 Japanese aircraft in the air and 250 on the ground while the Japanese placed their losses as 161 of of the 191 aircraft they committed in the air and an unspecified number on the ground.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 99–100</ref> From 23 March TF 58 conducted strikes against Okinawa, though its aircraft made further sweeps of Kyushu on the 28th and 29th of the month. Following the landing on 1 April TF 58 provided air defense for the naval force off Okinawa and regularly conducted patrols over Kyushu. In an attempt to stem the large-scale Japanese air attacks against the Allied ships, part of TF 58 struck at kamikaze aircraft bases on Kyushu and [[Shikoku]] on 12 and 13 May.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 132–133</ref> On 27 May Admiral [[William Halsey, Jr.|William Halsey]] assumed command of the Fifth Fleet from Admiral [[Raymond A. Spruance]] and it was redesignated the Third Fleet; as part of this change TF 58 became TF 38.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 272</ref> The Task Force continued operations off Okinawa in late May and June, and on 2 and 3 June one of its task groups attacked airfields on Kyushu.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 299</ref> Another attack was made against these targets on 8 June, and on the 10th of the month TF 38 left Japanese waters for a period of recuperation at [[Leyte Island|Leyte]] in the Philippines.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 307</ref>
[[File:Allied naval operations off Japan during July and August 1945.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Major Allied naval air attacks and bombardments of targets in Japan during July and August 1945]]

On 1 July TF 38 sailed from Leyte to strike at the Japanese home islands. At this time it comprised nine fleet carriers, six light carriers and their escorts.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 310</ref> On 10 July the Task Force's aircraft conducted raids on airfields in the Tokyo region, destroying a number of aircraft on the ground. No Japanese fighters were encountered in the air, however, as they were being kept in reserve for a planned large-scale suicide attack on the Allied fleet.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 201</ref><ref>Morison (1960), pp. 310–311</ref> Following this raid TF 38 steamed north and began a major attack on [[United States Navy attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu|raids on Hokkaido and northern Honshu]] on 14 July. These strikes continued the next day, and succeeded in sinking eight of the twelve railway car ferries which carried coal from Hokkaido to Honshu and damaging the remaining four. Many other ships were also destroyed in this area, including 70 out of the 272 small sailing ships which carried coal between the islands. Once again no Japanese aircraft opposed this attack, though 25 were destroyed on the ground.<ref>Morrison (1960), pp. 311–312</ref> The loss of the railway car ferries reduced the amount of coal shipped from Hokkaido to Honshu by 80 percent, which greatly hindered production in Honshu's factories.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 202</ref> This was the single most effective strategic air attack of the Pacific War.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 157</ref> TF 38 also began a series of [[Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II|bombardments of industrial targets]] by warships on 14 July which continued until almost the end of the war.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 157–158</ref>

Following the attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu TF 38 sailed south and was reinforced by the main body of the [[British Pacific Fleet]] (which was designated Task Force 37) and included another four fleet carriers.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 204</ref><ref name="Morison_314">Morison (1960), p. 314</ref> Strikes on the Tokyo area on 17 July were disrupted by bad weather, but the next day aircraft from the fleet attacked [[United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka|Yokosuka naval base]] and damaged the battleship [[Japanese battleship Nagato|''Nagato'']] as well as sinking eight other warships.<ref name=Morison_314 /><ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 209–211</ref> On 24, 25 and 28 July the Allied fleet [[Bombing of Kure (July 1945)|attacked Kure and the Inland Sea]] and sank an aircraft carrier and three battleships as well as two heavy cruisers, a light cruiser and several other warships.<ref>Royal Navy (1995), p. 223</ref> A force of 79 USAAF Liberators flying from Okinawa participated in this attack on 28 July.<ref>Futrell and Taylor (1953), p. 698</ref> Allied casualties were heavy, however, with 126 aircraft being shot down.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 217</ref> On 29 and 30 July the carrier aircraft struck at [[Maizuru, Kyoto|Maizuru]], sinking three small warships and twelve merchant vessels, before the fleet sailed east to avoid a typhoon and replenish its supplies.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 331–332</ref> Its next attacks against Japan took place on 9 and 10 August and were directed at a build up of Japanese aircraft in northern Honshu which Allied intelligence had determined were to be used to conduct a commando raid [[Japanese air attacks on the Mariana Islands|against the B-29 bases in the Marianas]]. The naval aviators claimed to have destroyed 251 aircraft in their attacks on 9 August as well as damaging a further 141, though the destroyer {{USS|Borie|DD-704|6}} was badly damaged by a kamikaze while on radar picket duty {{convert|50|mi|km}} from TF 38.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 332</ref> On 13 August TF 38's aircraft attacked the Tokyo region again and claimed to have destroyed 254 Japanese aircraft on the ground and 18 in the air. Another attack was launched against Tokyo on the morning of 15 August, and the 103 aircraft of its first wave attacked their targets. The second wave aborted its attack when word was received that Japan had agreed to surrender; several Japanese aircraft attempted to attack TF 38 later that day, however, and were shot down.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 334–335</ref><ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 242–244</ref>

==Raids from Okinawa==

From May 1945 aircraft of the [[Fifth Air Force]] and [[Seventh Air Force]], which were grouped under the [[Pacific Air Forces|Far East Air Force]] (FEAF), attacked targets in Kyushu and western Honshu from bases in Okinawa and other locations in the [[Ryukyu Islands]] in preparation for the planned invasion of Japan.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 695–696</ref> From May 17 American [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt|P-47 Thunderbolt]] fighters flying from the Ryukyus made frequent day and night patrols over Kyushu to disrupt the Japanese air units there. On June 21 an additional fighter group jointed this effort, and it was further expanded with bombers and another fighter group from July 1. These American operations were initially fiercely contested, from early July onwards they encountered little opposition as the Japanese aircraft were withdrawn in order to be preserved for later operations. Between July 1 and 13, the Americans flew 286 medium and heavy bomber sorties over Kyushu without loss. As the fighter aircraft met few Japanese aircraft they were mainly used to attack transportation infrastructure and targets of opportunity; these included at least two [[strafing]] attacks on groups of civilians.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p696">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 696</ref>

Attacks on airfields and transportation infrastructure in southern Japan continued until the end of the war. By this time the Fifth Air Force's bombers had flown 138 sorties against airfields in Kyushu and the Seventh Air Force had flown a further 784. Road and railway bridges were attacked by both fighters and bombers and the city of Kagoshima was frequently bombed. Seventh Air Force B-24 Liberators also bombed the railway terminals in the port of [[Nagasaki]] on July 31 and August 1. While these raids were focused on tactical targets, the Okinawa-based aircraft also made strategic attacks against industrial facilities on occasion; these included an unsuccessful raid on a coal liquefaction plant at Ōmuta on August 7. Bombers of the Fifth and Seventh Air Forces also made firebombing attacks against [[Tarumizu, Kagoshima|Tarumizu]] on August 5, Kumamoto on August 10 and [[Kurume, Fukuoka|Kurume]] on August 11. The FEAF staged its last attacks against Japan on August 12, though aircraft were dispatched on August 14 but recalled while en-route to their targets. Overall, the two air forces flew 6,435 sorties against targets in Kyushu during July and August for the loss of 43 aircraft to Japanese anti-aircraft guns and fighters.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 697–700</ref>

==Japanese military response==
[[File:B-29SurvivorNiigata.jpg|thumb|upright|A B-29 crewman being led from a village hall after he was captured and tortured by civilians<ref>{{cite news|last=Jeffs|first=Angela|title=Remembering those who fell in a 'field of spears'|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20071208a1.html|accessdate=16 March 2011|newspaper=The Japan Times Online}}</ref>]]
===Air defenses===
Japan's air defenses proved inadequate to stop the Allied air attacks.<ref>Zaloga (2010), p. 51</ref> Due to the short range of Japan's land-based radars and Allied attacks on the IJN's picket ships, the defenders typically had only about an hour to respond to incoming forces of B-29s once they had been detected. This was not an adequate time for fighter units to [[Scrambling (military)|scramble]] and climb to the B-29s' cruising altitude, and as a result most heavy bomber attacks were intercepted by small numbers of fighters. Moreover, the American bombers were capable of flying faster at high altitude than many Japanese fighters could. Japanese [[signals intelligence]] units could provide longer warning times of incoming raids by eavesdropping on the bombers radio communications, but were unable to predict the target of the attack.<ref>Zaloga (2010), pp. 52–53</ref> From August 1944 some Japanese aircraft conducted suicide ramming attacks on B-29s, and several specialized kamikaze fighter units were established in October; by the end of the war ramming tactics destroyed nine B-29s and damaged another 13 for the loss of 21 Japanese fighters.<ref name="Zaloga_53">Zaloga (2010), p. 53</ref> Japan's weak anti-aircraft defenses were strengthened from November 1944 when {{convert|12|cm|in}} anti-aircraft guns began to be issued to supplement the inadequate {{convert|7.5|cm|in|adj=on}} and {{convert|8|cm|in|adj=on}} weapons.<ref name=Zaloga_53 />

Air combat was most intense in late 1944 and early 1945. Following the first B-29 raids on Tokyo the number of IJN aircraft assigned to air defense duties was greatly increased and all the {{convert|12|cm|in}} guns were allocated to protect the capital.<ref name=Zaloga_53 /> Fighters stationed to defend Japan's main industrial areas frequently intercepted attacking B-29s between November 24 1944 to February 25 1945, causing significant losses for a period. The number of fighters available declined for late January, however.<ref>Coox (1994), pp. 404–405</ref> The Americans suffered few losses from Japanese fighters during the night raids from March 1945 until the end of the war.<ref>Coox (1994), pp. 413–414, 426</ref> On April 15 the IJAAF and IJN air defense units were belatedly placed under a single command when the [[Air General Army]] was formed, but by this time the fighter force's effectiveness had been greatly reduced due to high rates of attrition and casualties in training accidents. Due to the poor standard of the remaining pilots and the advent of American fighters escorting the B-29s, the Japanese decided in April to reserve their aircraft to counter the Allied invasion. As a result, few of the subsequent Allied air attacks met much fighter opposition.<ref name="Zaloga_54">Zaloga (2010), p. 54</ref> As anti-aircraft guns were mainly stationed around the main industrial areas, many Allied raids were almost unopposed.<ref>Coox (1994), pp. 415–416</ref> Imperial General Headquarters decided to allow attacks on Allied bombers from late June, but by this time there were too few fighters available for this to have any results.<ref>Coox (1994), p. 427</ref> Overall, Japanese fighters shot down 74 B-29s, anti-aircraft guns accounted for a further 54 and 19 were downed by a combination of anti-aircraft guns and fighters. IJAAF and IJN losses during the defense of Japan were 1,450 aircraft in combat and another 2,750 to other causes.<ref>Zaloga (2010), pp. 54–55</ref>

===Treatment of prisoners of war===

Most of the Allied airmen captured after being shot down over Japan were mistreated. The Japanese considered B-29 crewmen to be [[war criminal]]s, and they were subject to trial and possible execution for indiscriminate bombing.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 250</ref> Japanese civilians sometimes killed airmen, and 29 were killed by mobs immediately after being captured.<ref name="Tillman_170">Tillman (2010), p. 170</ref> Most captured airmen were also tortured. Overall, of the 550 Allied airmen who were captured in the Japanese home islands (excluding the Kurils), 29 were killed by civilians, 132 were killed in prison and another 94 died from other causes, including 64 who were killed when they were deliberetly not evacuated from a prison in Tokyo during the May 25–26 raid on Tokyo.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 171–172</ref> Six survivors of a B-29 shot down on May 5 were later subjected to [[vivisection]] at the [[Kyushu University|Kyushu Imperial University]].<ref name="Tillman_171">Tillman (2010), p. 171</ref>

==Atomic bombings and final attacks==
[[File:Atomic cloud over Hiroshima.jpg|thumb|The [[mushroom cloud]] rising over Hiroshima shortly after it was attacked on August 5, 1945.]]
{{main|Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki}}
Beginning in 1942 the United States, with assistance from Britain and other Allied countries, devoted considerable resources to developing [[nuclear weapon]]s through the [[Manhattan Project]]. In December 1944 the USAAF's [[509th Composite Group]] was formed under the command of Colonel [[Paul Tibbets]] to deliver these weapons once they were complete and, after a period of training, it deployed to Tinian during May and June 1945.<ref>Polmar (2004), pp. 17–20</ref> On July 16 the "[[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity]]" test of the first nuclear bomb was successful.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 269</ref> Four days later the 509th Composite Group's modified "[[Silverplate]]" B-29s began flying practice raids against Japanese cities, each armed with a single high explosive [[pumpkin bomb|"pumpkin" bomb]]; further practice missions were conducted on July 24, 26 and 29. Japanese fighters did not attempt to intercept these aircraft and their bombing altitude of {{convert|30000|ft|m}} was beyond the range of most anti-aircraft guns.<ref>Polmar (2004), p. 25</ref> Meanwhile, on July 24 President [[Harry S. Truman]] approved the use of atomic bombs against Japan and the next day General Spaatz received written orders to this effect. His orders specified that the first attack should be made after August 3, and named [[Hiroshima]], [[Kokura]], [[Niigata (city)|Niigata]] and Nagasaki as the targets for the atomic bombs.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 262</ref> On July 26 the United States, Britain and China issued the [[Potsdam Declaration]] which demanded Japan's surrender after warning that the country would be devastated if the war continued. The Japanese Government rejected the Allied demands on July 28.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 232–234</ref> Components for the "[[Little Boy]]" atomic bomb arrived on Tinian in late July and the weapon was ready on August 1.<ref>Polmar (2004), p. 27</ref>

Hiroshima was attacked on August 5. At 8:15 am local time the B-29 ''[[Enola Gay]]'', which was piloted by Colonel Tibbets, dropped "Little Boy" over the center of the city. The resulting explosion killed tens of thousands of people and destroyed about 4.7 square miles of buildings.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 271</ref> The six American aircraft involved in this attack returned to the Marianas safely.<ref>Polmar (2004), pp. 31 and 33</ref> Postwar estimates of casualties from the attack on Hiroshima range from 66,000 to 80,000 fatalities and 69,000 to 151,000 injured.<ref name="Frank_286">Frank (1999), p. 286</ref> Tens of thousands more subsequently died as a result of radiation and other injuries from the attack; it has been estimated that 140,000 people had died as a result of the atomic bomb by the end of 1945 and estimates of the total fatalities range as high as 230,000.<ref>Polmar (2004), p. 33</ref><ref>McCurry (2005), p. 441</ref> Of the survivors of the bombing, 171,000 were rendered homeless.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 723</ref> The Twentieth Air Force also conducted incendiary raids against the cities of [[Imabari, Ehime|Imabari]], [[Maebashi, Gunma|Maebashi]], [[Nishinomiya]] and [[Saga, Saga|Saga]] on August 5.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_p675 />

On August 6, a statement from President Truman was broadcast which announced that the United States had used an atomic bomb against Hiroshima and that further air attacks would be conducted on Japanese industrial facilities and transportation network. The statement included a threat that if Japan did not surrender under the terms specified in the Potsdam Declaration it would be subjected to "a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on earth".<ref>Frank (1999), p. 269</ref> Two days later daylight incendiary raids were made against the cities of Yawata and [[Fukuyama, Hiroshima|Fukuyama]]; these attacks destroyed 21 percent of Yawata's urban area and over 73 percent of Fukuyama.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_p675 /> Japanese aircraft intercepted the force dispatched against Yawata and shot down a B-29 and five of the escorting P-47s for the loss of approximately twelve fighters.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 655</ref>
[[File:Nagasaki temple destroyed.jpg|thumb|left|Part of Nagasaki six weeks after the atomic bombing]]

The second atomic bomb attack was made on August 9. On this day the B-29 ''[[Bockscar]]'' was dispatched to attack Kokura with the "[[Fat Man]]" bomb. When the aircraft arrived over the city it was found to be covered in smoke and haze. As a result, the plane's pilot, Major [[Charles Sweeney]], decided to attack the secondary target of Nagasaki instead. Nagasaki was also covered in cloud, but Major Sweeney and the weapon technicians decided to use radar rather than visual aiming. The bomb was dropped at 10:58 am local time, and the resulting 20 [[TNT equivalent|kiloton]] explosion destroyed 1.45 square miles of buildings in the [[Urakami]] district.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 283–285</ref><ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 719–720, 725</ref> Estimates of Japanese casualties range from 23,753 to 45,000 killed and 25,000 to 60,000 wounded.<ref name=Frank_286 /> Official Japanese figures in the late 1990s state the total killed exceeded 100,000.<ref>Hall 1998, p. 360.</ref> The industrial effect of the attack on Nagasaki was crippling. Steel production was set back by one year; electric power was severely reduced by two months although full capacity would be back within six months; and arms production was only restored to two-thirds after 15 months.<ref>Hall 1998, pp. 360-361.</ref> All the American aircraft involved in the operation returned safely to Tinian, though ''Bockscar'' had to make an emergency landing at Okinawa after running low on fuel.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 720</ref> The [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria]] also began on August 9, with the [[Red Army]] making rapid progress.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 281–283</ref>

In response the the atomic bomb attacks and Soviet intervention in the Pacific War, the Japanese began negotiations with the Allies about the terms of surrender on August 10.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 273–274</ref> During this period B-29 attacks on Japan were limited to a raid by the 315th Bombardment Wing against an oil target on the night of August 9–10 and a daytime precision bombing attack on a factory in Tokyo on August 10. The next day President Truman ordered a halt to the bombing due to the possibility that it might be seen as a sign that peace negotiations had failed.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 302–303</ref> On August 11 General Spaatz also issued a new targeting directive for any renewed attacks which reduced the emphasis on bombing cities in favor of intensified attacks on transportation infrastructure.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 303–304</ref> On August 13, B-29s dropped copies of the Japanese government's conditional offer to surrender over Japanese cities.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 313–314</ref> Negotiations appeared to be stalled, and on August 14 Spaatz received orders to resume the bombing campaign. General Arnold requested the largest attack possible, and hoped that USASTAF could dispatch 1,000 aircraft against the Tokyo region. In the event, 828 B-29s escorted by 186 fighters (for a total of 1,014 aircraft) were dispatched; during the day aircraft conducted precision attacks on targets at Iwakuni, Osaka and Tokoyama and at night the cities of [[Kumagaya, Saitama|Kumagaya]] and [[Isesaki, Gunma|Isesaki]] were firebombed.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 732–733</ref><ref>Frank (1999), p. 313</ref> While the Eighth Air Force units at Okinawa had not yet conducted any missions against Japan, General Doolittle decided against contributing aircraft to this operation as he did not wish to risk the lives of his men when the war was effectively over.<ref>Miller (2008), p. 519</ref> These were the last air raids against Japan as at noon on August 15 the Japanese Emperor [[Hirohito]] made a radio broadcast announcing his country's intention to surrender.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 275</ref>

==Postwar==
[[File:Missouri-flyover.jpg|thumb|USN carrier aircraft flying over the Allied fleet in Tokyo Bay following the Japanese surrender on September 2 1945<ref>{{cite web|title=Formal Surrender of Japan, 2 September 1945 -- Aircraft Flyover as the Ceremonies Conclude|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/japansur/js-8i.htm|work=Online Library of Selected Images|publisher=United States Navy Naval Historical Center|accessdate=13 March 2011}}</ref>]]
Limited air operations continued over Japan in the weeks after the Japanese surrender. On August 17 and 18 [[Consolidated B-32 Dominator|B-32 Dominators]] flying reconnaissance missions from Okinawa were attacked by IJN fighters near Tokyo.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 247–248</ref> From August 17 the Twentieth Air Force was responsible for supplying Allied POW camps in Japan, Korea and China until the prisoners were evacuated. Supply drops began on August 27 and continued until September 20. During this period the B-29s flew almost 1,000 sorties and delivered close to 4,500 tons of supplies.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 250–251</ref> Eight aircraft crashed during these missions and another was damaged a Soviet fighter over Korea.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 735</ref> While General Spaatz ordered that B-29s and fighters fly continuous [[show of force]] patrols of the Tokyo area from August 19 until the formal surrender ceremony, these were initially frustrated by bad weather and logistics problems and the first patrols weren't flown until August 30 when they were made in conjunction with the landing of the [[11th Airborne Division (United States)|11th Airborne Division]] and General [[Douglas MacArthur]] at [[Naval Air Facility Atsugi|Atsugi airfield]].<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 733–734</ref> A similar operation was conducted the next day, and on September 2 a force of 462 B-29s and many naval aircraft overflew the Allied fleet in Tokyo Bay after the surrender ceremony onboard {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}} concluded.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p734">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 734</ref>

Allied air units participated in the [[occupation of Japan]] after the war. Advance parties of the FEAF began to arrive at Atsugi airfield on August 30, and units of the Fifth Air Force were established across the Japanese home islands during September and October.<ref>MacArthur (1950), pp. 268–270</ref> In addition to transporting occupation troops, the Fifth Air Force conducted armed patrols over Japan and Korea as well as many photo reconnaissance and mapping sorties.<ref>MacArthur (1950), p. 270</ref> [[Royal Australian Air Force]], British [[Royal Air Force]], [[Indian Air Force]], [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]], US Navy and [[United States Marine Corps]] air units were also deployed to Japan for occupation duties.<ref>Stephens (2006), p. 213</ref><ref>MacArthur (1950), p. 290</ref> There was no Japanese resistance to the Allied occupation, and the number of air units stationed in the country was gradually reduced from late 1945.<ref>MacArthur (1950), pp. 270–277</ref>

==Assessments==
===Results===
The air attacks on Japan caused hundreds of thousands of casualties, though estimates of the number of Japanese killed and wounded vary. The strategic attacks by the Twentieth Air Force resulted in most of the casualties and damage. The United States Strategic Bombing Survey estimated that 333,000 Japanese were killed and 472,000 wounded while the postwar Japanese Government calculated in 1949 that the number of deaths from air attack in the Home Islands was 323,495. In 1999 historian [[Richard B. Frank]] estimated that about 410,000 Japanese had been killed, of whom all but 100,000 died in the March 9–10 firebombing raid on Tokyo and the two atomic attacks.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 334–335</ref> The Japanese Government estimated that the total number of military casualties during the war was 780,000.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 754</ref> The Twentieth Air Force lost 414 B-29s during attacks on Japan. Over 2,600 American bomber crew members were killed, including POWs who died in captivity, and a further 414 were wounded.<ref name=Kerr_276 />

Much of Japan's industrial capacity was destroyed by Allied bombing. Over 600 major industrial facilities were destroyed or badly damaged, contributing to a large decline in industrial production.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 278–279</ref> Absenteeism caused by the air attacks further disrupted production.<ref name="Kerr_280">Kerr (1991), p. 280</ref> It is not possible to determine the exact damage bombing caused to Japan's economy, however, as the general breakdown which occurred from late 1944 was also the result of the Allied naval blockade. Statistics complied by the USSBS show a correlation between the number of B-29 sorties directed at different industries and amount by which their production declined, but air attacks were not the only reason for these differences.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 752–753</ref> In addition to the heavy bomber attacks, strikes by Allied aircraft carriers tightened the blockade by disrupting Japanese coastal shipping; the naval aircraft were unable to carry enough bombs to seriously affect Japanese industry, however.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 262, 264</ref> As well the damage caused to Japan's industry, the rice crop of 1945 failed and this, in combination with Japan's inability to import food due to the Allied blockade, caused widespread malnutrition and mass starvation would have occurred had the war continued.<ref name="Kerr_281">Kerr (1991), p. 281</ref>

The attacks also caused extensive damage to Japan's urban areas. Approximately 40 percent of the urban area of the 66 cities subjected to area attacks were destroyed.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p751">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 751</ref> This included the loss of about 2.5 million housing units which rendered 8.5 million people homeless.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 280–281</ref> The Allied urban area attacks reduced the morale of the Japanese population, and postwar [[Statistical survey|surveys]] conducted by the USSBS found that air attacks were the most important factor in convincing the Japanese that the war had been lost. During the final months of the war the raids also contributed to the deterioration of the Japanese social fabric.<ref name="Kerr_282">Kerr (1991), p. 282</ref> To achieve this, the American 20th Strategic Air Force, in concert with its Allies, dropped 160,800 tons of bombs on the Japanese home islands. Of this total, 147,000 tons of bombs was dropped by the B-29 bomber force. Around 90 percent of the American tonnage dropped fell in the last five months of the war.<ref>Hall 1998, p. 366.</ref>

Allied air raids significantly influenced the Japanese Government's decision to surrender. The USSBS concluded that Japan would have been forced to surrender by November 1 1945 due to pressure from air attacks and blockade. While the survey did not state that any single factor caused the surrender, during interrogations most Japanese wartime leaders nominated the prolonged air attacks on the home islands as being the single most important factor which influenced their decision to end the war.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 756</ref> In particular, Prime Minister [[Kantarō Suzuki]] believed that the combination of the conventional B-29 raids, Potsdam Declaration and atomic bombings gave the Government the opportunity to begin negotiations with the Allies and Emperor Hirohito cited damage from the attacks, inadequate preparations to resist invasion and the Soviet offensive as his justifications for authorizing the surrender.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 292–293</ref><ref>Frank (1999), p. 345</ref>

===Morality===

There has been debate over the morality of the air campaign against Japan since World War II. During the war the American public approved of the bombing of Germany and Japan, and the few people who criticized the raids were attacked as being unrealistic or even traitors. Some United States government and military personnel believed that the bombing campaign was morally ambiguous, however, but rarely voiced their views publicly.<ref>Dower (1986), p. 41</ref> The moral concerns over the attacks have been focused on the large number of civilian casualties and property damage they caused. It has been suggested that the USAAF's use of widespread firebombing tactics against Japan and focus on precision bombing in Germany was motivated by [[anti-Japanese sentiment]]. In response to this claim, Richard B. Frank argues that this difference was attributable to the evolution in views towards bombing over the course of the war as well as the Allies limited intelligence on structure of the Japanese economy and the much greater vulnerability of Japanese cities to incendiary bombs.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 336</ref> [[Barrett Tillman]] has also written that due to the limitations of technology at the time and the high winds over Japan, most 'precision' bombing also caused widespread damage and that the area attacks against Japanese cities were successful in destroying the country's aircraft industry.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 262–264</ref>

The atomic bomb attacks have been the [[Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|subject of long-running controversy]]. Shortly after the attacks an opinion poll found that about 85 percent of Americans supported their use and the wartime generation believed that they had saved millions of lives. Criticisms over the decision to use the bombs increased over time, however, and arguments made against the attacks include that Japan would have eventually surrendered and that the attacks were made to either intimidate the Soviet Union or justify the Manhattan Project. By 1994 an opinion poll found that only 55 percent of Americans supported the decision to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 331–332</ref> When registering the only dissenting opinion of the judges involved in the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]] in 1947, Justice [[Radhabinod Pal]] argued that Japan's leadership had not conspired to commit atrocities and stated that the decision to make the atomic bomb attacks was the clearest example of a direct order to conduct "indiscriminate murder" during the Pacific War.<ref>Dower (1986), pp. 37–38</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|3}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
{{commons|Category:Bombing of Japan in World War II|Bombing of Japan in World War II}}
* {{cite book|last=Chun|first=Clayton K.S.|title=The Doolittle Raid 1942: America's first strike back at Japan|year=2006|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=1841769185|location=Oxford}}
* {{cite book|last=Coles|first=Harry L.|coauthors=Olson, James C.|title=The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan August 1942 to July 1944|editor=Craven, Wesley Frank and Cate, James Lea|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago and London|date=1951|series=The Army Air Forces in World War II. Volume 5|chapter=The North Pacific|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/IV/index.html}}
* {{cite book|last=Coox|first=Alvin D.|title=Case studies in the achievement of air superiority|year=1994|publisher=Center for Air Force History|location=Washington, D.C.|editor=Cooling, B. Franklin|chapter=Air War Against Japan|isbn=0912799633|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=keUMn-pi5vkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{cite journal|last=Correll|first=John T.|date=2009|title=The Matterhorn Missions|journal=Air Force Magazine|publisher=The Air Force Association|location=Arlington|issue=March 2009|url=http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2009/March%202009/0309matterhorn.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last=Craven|first=Wesley|coauthors=Cate, James (editors)|title=The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1953|series=The Army Air Forces in World War II|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/V/index.html}}
* {{cite book|last=Dear, I.C.B and Foot, M.R.D. (editors)|title=The Oxford Companion to World War II|editor=|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|date=2005|pages=|chapter=|isbn=9780192806703}}
* {{cite book|last=Dorr|first=Robert F.|title=B-29 Superfortress Units of World War 2|year=2002|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Oxford|isbn=9781841762852|date=2002}}
* {{cite book|last=Dower|first=John|title=War Without Mercy : Race and Power in the Pacific War|year=1986|publisher=Faber|location=London|isbn=0571146058}}
* {{cite journal|last=Dower|first=John W.|title=The Bombed: Hiroshimas and Nagasakis in Japanese Memory|journal=Diplomatic History|date=28 February 1995|volume=19|issue=2|pages=275–295|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.1995.tb00658.x}}
* {{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Niall|title=The War of the World. History's Age of Hatred|publisher=Penguin Books|location=London|year=2007|isbn=9780141013824}}
* {{cite book|last=Foreign Histories Division, Headquarters, United States Army Japan|title=Japanese Monograph No. 157: Homeland Air Defense Operations Record|publisher=Garland Publishing |location=New York City|date=1980|series=War in Asia and the Pacific. Volume 12: Defense of the Homeland and End of the War|isbn=0824032969}}
* {{cite book|last=Frank|first=Richard B.|title=Downfall. The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York|date=1999|isbn=014101461}}
* {{cite book|last=Futrell|first=Frank|coauthors=Taylor, James|title=The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki June 1944 to August 1945|editor=Craven, Wesley Frank and Cate, James Lea|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago and London|date=1953|series=The Army Air Forces in World War II. Volume V|chapter=Reorganization for Victory}}
* {{cite journal|last=Glines|first=C.V.|title=The Bat Bombers|journal=Air Force Magazine|date=October 1990|volume=73|issue=10|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080531082803/http://www.afa.org/magazine/1990/1090bat.html}}
* Hall, Cargill (1998). ''Case Studies In Strategic Bombardment''. Air Force History and Museums Program. ISBN 0-16-049781-7.
* {{cite web|last=Haulman|first=Daniel L.|date=1999|title=Hitting Home: The Air Offensive Against Japan|url=http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/Publications/fulltext/hitting_home.pdf|work=The U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II|publisher=Air Force Historical Studies Office|format=PDF}}
* {{cite book|last=Havens|first=Thomas R.H.|title=Valley of Darkness : The Japanese People and World War Two|year=1978|publisher=Norton|location=New York|isbn=0393056562}}
* {{cite book|last=Horn|first=Steve|title=The Second Attack on Pearl Harbor : Operation K and other Japanese Attempts to Bomb America in World War II|year=2005|publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis|isbn=1591143888}}
* {{cite book|last=Hoyt|first=Edwin P.|title=Japan's War: The Great Pacific Conflict|year=1987|publisher=Arrow Books|isbn=0099635003|location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Kerr|first=E. Bartlett|title=Flames Over Tokyo: The U.S. Army Air Forces' Incendiary Campaign Against Japan 1944-1945|publisher=Donald I. Fine Inc|location=New York City|date=1991|isbn=1556113013}}
*{{cite book|last=MacArthur|first=Douglas|title=MacArthur in Japan: The Occupation Phase|year=1950|publisher=United States Army Center for Military History|location=Washington D.C.|url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/macarthur%20reports/macarthur%20v1%20sup/|series=Reports of General MacArthur}}
* {{cite journal|last=McCurry|first=Justin|title=The Day the Bomb Fell|journal=The Lancet|date=11 August 2005|volume=366|issue=9484|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67041-9|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(05)67041-9/fulltext}}
* {{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald L.|title=Eighth Air Force : The American Bomber Crews in Britain|year=2008|publisher=Aurum|location=London|isbn=9781845133368}}
* {{cite book|last=Morison|first=Samuel Eliot|title=Victory in the Pacific|publisher=University of Illinois|location=Champaign|date=1960 (2002 reprint) |series=History of United States Naval Operations in World War II|isbn=0252070658}}
* {{cite book|last=Overy|first=Richard|title=The Air War 1939–1945|year=1980|publisher=Europa |isbn=0905118537|location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Polmar|first=Norman|title=The Enola Gay: The B-29 That Dropped the Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima|publisher=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum|location=Washington, D.C.|date=2004|isbn=1574888595}}
* {{cite book|last=Royal Navy|title=War with Japan. Volume VI Advance to Japan|publisher=HMSO|location=London|date=1995|isbn=0117728217}}
* {{cite book|last=Sakaida|first=Henry|coauthors=Takaki, Kōji|title=B-29 Hunters of the JAAF|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Oxford|date=2001|series=Aviation Elite Units|isbn=1841761613|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=4p1pDSXzZZUC&dq=Raid+on+Yawata&source=gbs_navlinks_s}}
* {{cite book|last=Spector|first=Ronald H.|title=Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan|year=1984|publisher=Cassell & Co|isbn=0304359793|location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Stephens |first=Alan |origyear=2001 |year=2006 |title=The Royal Australian Air Force: A History |location=Melbourne|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0195555414}}
* {{cite book|last=Tillman|first=Barrett|title=Whirlwind: The Air War Against Japan 1942–1945|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|date=2010|isbn=9781416584407}}
* {{cite journal|last=Wolk|first=Herman S.|date=2004|title=The Twentieth Against Japan|journal=Air Force Magazine|publisher=The Air Force Association|location=Arlington|issue=April 2004|url=http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2004/April%202004/0404japan.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Wolk|first=Herman S.|title=Cataclysm : General Hap Arnold and the Defeat of Japan|year=2010|publisher=University of North Texas Press|location=Denton, Texas|isbn=9781574412819}}
* {{cite book|last=Zaloga|first=Steven J|title=Defense of Japan 1945|year=2010|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=1846036879|location=Oxford|series=Fortress}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.japanairraids.org/ Japanairraids.org]

{{World War II}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Japanese Home Islands}}
[[Category:Military history of Japan during World War II]]
[[Category:Japanese home islands campaign]]
[[Category:Strategic bombing operations and battles]]
[[Category:World War II Pacific Theatre]]

[[ja:日本本土空襲]]
[[zh:空襲日本]]

Luftangriffe auf Japan

2011-03-28T14:16:56Z

Dapi89: /* Results */ +ref

{{infobox military conflict
| conflict = Air raids on Japan
| partof = [[Pacific War]], [[World War II]]
| image = [[File:Incendaries-b29.jpg|300px|B-29 Superfortress bombers dropping incendiary bombs on [[Yokohama]] during May 1945]]
| caption = B-29 Superfortress bombers dropping incendiary bombs on [[Yokohama]] during May 1945<ref name=Wolk_72 />
| date = April 18, 1942 – August 15, 1945
| place = Japan
| coordinates =
| map_type =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| territory =
| result =
| status =
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|USA|1912}} [[United States]] {{flagicon|UK}} [[United Kingdom]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Japan|alt}} [[Empire of Japan]]
| combatant3 =
| commander1 =
| commander2 =
| commander3 =
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| strength3 =
| casualties1 = '''20th Air Force:''' 414 B-29 bombers, Over 2,600 killed<ref name="Kerr_276">Kerr (1991), p. 276</ref>
| casualties2 = At least 300,000 killed<ref name="Tillman_256">Tillman (2010), p. 256</ref>
| casualties3 =
| notes =
}}
{{Campaignbox Japan}}
During [[World War II]] the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces conducted many '''air raids on Japan''' which caused extensive destruction to the country's cities and killed over 300,000 people. These attacks began with the [[Doolittle Raid]] in mid-April 1942, but did not resume until June 1944 when [[United States Army Air Forces]] (USAAF) [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress|B-29 Superfortress]] heavy bombers began a series of attacks from bases in China. From November 1944 until the end of the war the USAAF conducted a major [[Strategic bombing during World War II|strategic bombing]] offensive against Japan; these attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities, but from March 1945 were frequently directed against Japanese urban areas. During early August 1945 the cities of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] were [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|attacked with atomic bombs]]. Aircraft flying from Allied [[aircraft carrier]]s and the [[Ryukyu Islands]] also frequently attacked targets in Japan during 1945. The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks, and the country's [[civil defense]] preparations proved inadequate. Along the with [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria]], the Allied bombing campaign was one of the main factors which influenced the Japanese Government's [[Surrender of Japan|decision to surrender]] in mid-August.

==Background==
===United States preparations===

The United States Army Air Corps began preparing to bomb the Japanese home islands during 1940. During that year the naval attaché to the [[Embassy of the United States in Tokyo]] reported on Japan's weak [[civil defense]]s and proposals were developed for US volunteer aircrew to assist the Chinese forces in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]. The first [[American Volunteer Group]] (the '[[Flying Tigers]]') began operations in support of the Chinese in late 1941 using fighter aircraft. A second Air Volunteer Group was subsequently formed to attack Japan from bases in China using [[Lockheed Hudson|Hudson]] and [[Douglas A-20 Havoc|A-20 Havoc]] medium bombers, but was diverted elsewhere in Asia following the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] on 7 December 1941 which led to open hostilities between the US and Japan.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 31–32</ref>

Japanese successes during the opening months of the [[Pacific War]] nullified pre-war US plans for attacks against the Japanese homeland. Prior to the outbreak of war the USAAF planned operations against Japan from [[Wake Island]], [[Guam]], the [[Philippines]] and coastal areas in China.<ref name="Tillman_32">Tillman (2010), p. 32</ref> These areas were rapidly captured by Japan, however, and the USAAF heavy bomber force in the Philippines was largely destroyed when [[Clark Air Base]] was attacked on 8 December 1941.<ref>Chun (2006), pp. 7, 30</ref> The USAAF attempted to send 13 heavy bombers to China in March and April 1942 to attack the Japanese home islands. These aircraft reached India, but remained there when the [[Japanese conquest of Burma]] caused logistics problems and Chinese Nationalist leader [[Chiang Kai-shek]] proved reluctant to allow the aircraft territory under his control. A further 13 [[Consolidated B-24 Liberator|B-24 Liberator]] heavy bombers were dispatched from the United States to China in May 1942 as the [[HALPRO]] force, but were instead retasked to support Allied operations in the Mediterranean when they reached [[Egypt]].<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 32–33</ref> In July 1942 the commander of the American Volunteer Group, Colonel [[Claire Lee Chennault]], sought a force of 100 [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt|P-47 Thunderbolt]] fighters and 30 [[North American B-25 Mitchell|B-25 Mitchell]] medium bombers which he believed would be sufficient to "destroy" the Japanese aircraft industry. Three months later Chennault told President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] that a force of 105 modern fighters and 40 bombers (including 12 heavy bombers) would be able to "accomplish the downfall of Japan" within six to twelve months. These claims were not considered credible by the USAAF's headquarters, and the requests for reinforcements were not granted.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 32–33</ref>

===Pre-war Japanese defenses===
[[File:Construction of Air-raid shelter in Japan.JPG|thumb|An [[air-raid shelter]] being built in Japan during 1940]]

Japanese air defenses were weak at the start of the Pacific War. The Japanese government did not expect that the home islands would experience anything other than sporadic attacks by [[United States Navy]] aircraft carriers, however. In early 1942 forces allocated to the defense of Japan comprised 100 [[Imperial Japanese Army Air Force]] (IJAAF) and 200 [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (IJN) fighter aircraft (many of which were obsolete) and 500 Army-manned anti-aircraft guns and 200 IJN-manned guns. In addition, the Army operated a network of military and civilian-manned observation posts to provide warning of air attack and was in the process of building radar stations. Command and control of the air defenses was fragmented and the IJAAF and IJN did not coordinate their activities or communicate with each other. As a result, the forces were unable to react to a sudden air attack.<ref>Chun (2006), pp. 24–27</ref>

Japan's [[civil defense]] organization was also inadequate to cope with large-scale air attacks. Air raid drills had been held in Tokyo and Osaka since 1928, and from 1937 local governments were required to provide manuals to civilians with information on how to respond to air attacks.<ref>Havens (1978), p. 155</ref> Few cities had full-time professional [[firefighter]]s, and most relied on volunteers. Such firefighting forces that did exist lacked modern equipment and used outdated tactics.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 142–143</ref> In addition, few measures were undertaken to provide air defense facilities for civilians or industry such as the construction of [[air-raid shelter]]s.<ref name="Zaloga_25">Zaloga (2010), p. 25</ref>

==Early raids==
===Doolittle Raid===
[[File:Doolittle Raid (USS Hornet).jpg|thumb|A [[North American B-25 Mitchell|B-25 Mitchell]] taking off from {{USS|Hornet|CV-8|6}} on 18 April 1942]]
{{main|Doolittle Raid}}
USAAF aircraft bombed Japan for the first time in mid-April 1942. In an operation conducted primarily to raise morale in the United States, 16 B-25 Mitchell medium bombers were embarked aboard the aircraft carrier {{USS|Hornet|CV-8|6}} which carried them from [[San Francisco]] to within range of Japan. The aircraft were flown off several hours earlier than intended on 18 April and individually bombed targets in Tokyo, [[Yokohama]], [[Yokosuka]], [[Nagoya]] and [[Kobe]]. The few Japanese air defense units were taken by surprise, and all of the B-25s escaped without serious damage. The aircraft then continued to China and the Soviet Union, though several crashed in Japanese-held territory due to fuel shortages.<ref name="NMUSAF_Doolittle">{{cite web|title=America Hits Back: The Doolittle Tokyo Raiders|url=http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15351|work=Factsheets|publisher=National Museum of the US Air Force|accessdate=30 June 2010}}</ref> Japanese casualties in this attack were 50 killed, over 400 wounded and approximately 200 houses destroyed.<ref>Coox (1994), p. 394</ref>

Although the raid did little damage, it had important ramifications. The attack succeeded in raising morale in the United States and made a hero out of its commander, Lieutenant Colonel [[James H. Doolittle]]; Doolittle later commanded several major air units in the Mediterranean and Europe. The weak state of Japan's air defenses greatly embarrassed the Japanese military leadership and four fighter groups were transferred from the Pacific to defend the home islands. In an attempt to prevent further attacks, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched an offensive in the Pacific Ocean which ended in defeat during the [[Battle of Midway]].<ref>Chun (2006), pp. 84, 88–91</ref> The [[Imperial Japanese Army]] also conducted the [[Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign]] to capture the air bases in central China at which the Doolittle Raiders had intended to land. This offensive achieved its objectives and resulted in the deaths of 250,000 Chinese soldiers and civilians, including many civilians killed in [[war crime]]s.<ref>Hoyt (1987), pp. 277–279</ref> In an attempt to retaliate against the Doolittle Raid the IJA began developing [[fire balloons]] capable of carrying incendiary and anti-personnel bombs from Japan to the continental United States.<ref>Horn (2005), pp. 205–206</ref>

===Bombing of the Kuril Islands===

Following the Doolittle Raid, the next air attacks on Japan were made against the [[Kuril Islands]] in mid-1943. The liberation of [[Attu Island]] in May 1943 during the [[Aleutian Islands Campaign]] provided the USAAF with bases within range of the Kurils. As part of the preparations for the liberation of [[Kiska Island]] the [[Eleventh Air Force]] planned a series of raids against the Kurils to suppress Japanese air units stationed there. The first of these attacks was made by eight B-25s on 10 July against southern [[Shumshu]] and northern [[Paramushir|Paramushiru]]. A second raid was staged against the Kurils on 18 July by six B-24 Liberator heavy bombers, and the unopposed liberation of Kiska ([[Operation Cottage]]) took place on 15 August.<ref>Coles (1951), pp. 387–391</ref>

The Eleventh Air Force and US Navy units continued to make small-scale harassing raids on the Kuril Islands until the closing months of the war. The USAAF attacks were broken off for five months following a raid on 11 September when nine of the 20 B-24s and B-25s dispatched were lost, but US Navy [[Consolidated PBY Catalina|PBY Catalinas]] continued to bomb Japanese positions in the Kurils. In response to the US attacks the IJN established the North-East Area Fleet in August 1943 and by November that year Japanese fighter strength in the Kurils and [[Hokkaidō]] peaked at 260 aircraft. The USAAF resumed its offensive in February 1944 with the addition of two squadrons of [[Lockheed P-38 Lightning|P-38 Lightning]] escort fighters, and Eleventh Air Force bombers continued to attack targets in the Kurils until June 1945.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 273–275</ref> While these raids caused little damage, they forced the Japanese to divert large numbers of soldiers to defend their northern islands against a potential United States invasion.<ref>Coles (1951), p. 401</ref>

==Operation Matterhorn==
[[File:B-29 targets from China.jpg|thumb|alt=A black and white map of east Asia. Most of the cities depicted on the map are marked with bomb symbols.|Locations of B-29 bomber bases in China and the main targets they attacked in East Asia during [[Operation Matterhorn]]]]
{{main|Operation Matterhorn}}
===Preparations===
In late 1943 the United States [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] approved a proposal to begin the [[Strategic bombing|strategic air campaign]] against the Japanese home islands and East Asia by basing [[B-29 Superfortress]] heavy bombers in India and establishing forward airfields in areas of China. This strategy, which was designated [[Operation Matterhorn]], required the construction of large airstrips near [[Chengdu|Chengtu]] in inland China which would be supplied by Allied cargo aircraft and be used to refuel B-29s traveling from bases in [[Bengal]] en-route to bombing targets in Japan.<ref>Correll (2009), pp. 62–63</ref> [[XX Bomber Command]] was assigned responsibility for this effort and its ground crew began to leave the United States for India by sea in December 1943.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 75–79</ref><ref>Tillman (2010), p. 41</ref> The [[Twentieth Air Force]] was formed in April 1944 to oversee all B-29 operations. In an unprecedented move, the commander of the USAAF, General [[Henry H. Arnold]], took personal command of this unit and ran it from [[the Pentagon]].<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 45</ref> The [[58th Air Division|58th Bombardment Wing]] was XX Bomber Command's main combat unit, and its movement from Kansas to India took place from April to mid-May.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 43–44</ref>

The Japanese military began transferring fighter aircraft from China and the Pacific to the home islands in early 1944 in anticipation of B-29 raids. The IJAAF established three air divisions to defend [[Honshū]] and [[Kyūshū]] and the IJN also contributed air units to support the Army. Further anti-aircraft gun batteries and searchlight units were also established to protect major cities and military bases. These defenses remained inadequate, however, as Japan had few aircraft and anti-aircraft guns capable of effectively engaging B-29s at their cruising altitude of {{convert|30000|ft|m}} and only a small number of radar stations were established to provide early warning of raids.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 60–64</ref>
[[File:Air Raid Drill in Japan during World War II1.JPG|thumb|left|Civilians participating in an air-raid drill during 1942]]

In response to the Doolittle Raid and the threat of further attacks the Japanese Government also sought to improve the country's civil defenses. The central government placed the burden of constructing civilian air-raid shelters on the [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectural governments]], though shortages of concrete and steel hindered their construction. In October 1943 the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (Japan)|Ministry of Home Affairs]] directed households in the main cities to build their own shelters, though these were normally only [[Trench|trenches]].<ref name=Zaloga_25 /> Tunnels and natural caves were later used to shelter civilians from B-29 raids, and less than two percent of civilians had access to bombproof air-raid shelters. A small number of sophisticated shelters were also constructed for air defense headquarters and to protect key telephone facilities.<ref name="Zaloga_27">Zaloga (2010), p. 27</ref> Following the outbreak of war the Ministry of Home Affairs also expanded the number of firefighters, though these generally remained amateur volunteers who lacked adequate training and equipment.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 142–146</ref> Civilians were also trained to fight fires and encouraged to swear an 'air defense oath' to respond to attacks from incendiary or high explosive bombs.<ref name="Dear-Foot_484">Dear and Foot (2005), p. 484</ref>

The Japanese Government stepped-up its civil defenses from the northern autumn of 1943. In November that year an air defense general headquarters was established and a program of demolishing large numbers of buildings in major cities to create [[firebreak]]s began during December. By the end of the war 614,000 housing units had been destroyed to clear firebreaks; these accounted for a fifth of all housing losses and displaced 3.5 million people.<ref>Havens (1978), pp. 158–159</ref> The Japanese Government also encouraged old people, children and women in cities which were believed likely to be attacked to [[Evacuations of civilians in Japan during World War II|evacuate to the countryside]] from December 1943, and a program of evacuating entire classes of schoolchildren was implemented. By August 1944 330,000 schoolchildren had been evacuated in school groups and another 459,000 had moved to the countryside with their family.<ref name=Dear-Foot_484 /> Little was done to disperse industrial facilities so they were less vulnerable to attack, however, as this was logistically difficult.<ref>Havens (1978), p. 158</ref>

===Attacks from China===
XX Bomber Command began flying missions against Japan in mid-June 1944. The first raid took place on the night of 15/16 June when 75 B-29s were dispatched to [[Bombing of Yawata (June 1944)|attack the Imperial Iron and Steel Works]] at [[Yahata, Fukuoka|Yawata]] in northern Kyūshū. This raid caused little damage and cost seven B-29s, but received positive media coverage in the United States and indicated to Japanese civilians that the war was not going well.<ref name="Correll_63">Correll (2009), p. 63</ref><ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 102</ref> Arnold relieved XX Bomber Command's commander, Brigadier General Kenneth Wolfe, when he was unable to make follow-up attacks on Japan shortly after this raid due to insufficient fuel stockpiles at the bases in China. Wolfe's replacement was Major General [[Curtis LeMay]], a veteran of [[Eighth Air Force]] bombing attacks against Germany.<ref>Spector (1984), pp. 490–491</ref>
[[File:B-29s June 1944.jpg|thumb|alt=Four 4-engined World War II-era aircraft sitting on the ground at an airstrip. Groups of people are working near each aircraft.|B-29s photographed shortly before they participated in the [[Bombing of Yawata (June 1944)|15–16 June 1944 raid on Yawata]]]]

Subsequent B-29 raids staging through China were generally not successful. The second raid on Japan took place on 7 July when 17 B-29s attacked [[Sasebo, Nagasaki|Sasebo]], [[Ōmura, Nagasaki|Ōmura]] and [[Tobata-ku, Kitakyūshū|Tobata]], causing little damage, and on the night of August 10–11 24 Superfortresses attacked [[Nagasaki]]. A second raid was conducted against Yawata on 20 August, but this also caused little damage and twelve out of the 75 B-29s dispatched were shot down.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 53–56</ref> [[Japanese propaganda during World War II‎|Japanese Government propaganda]] claimed that 100 bombers had been shot down in this attack and one of the crashed B-29s was placed on display in Tokyo.<ref>Hoyt (1987), p. 363</ref> XX Bomber Command's performance improved after LeMay instituted a training program for aircrew and improved the organization of the B-29 maintenance units during August and September. A successful attack was mounted against Ōmura on 25 October which destroyed the city's small aircraft factory, though a follow-up raid on 11 November was not successful. The city was attacked again by 61 B-29s on 21 November and 17 bombers on 19 December. XX Bomber Command staged its ninth and final raid on Japan on 6 January 1945 when 28 B-29s once again bombed Ōmura. During the same period the command conducted a number of raids on targets in [[Manchuria]], China and [[Taiwan|Formosa]] from its bases in China as well as striking targets in [[South East Asia]] from India. The command flew its final mission from India, a [[Bombing of Singapore (1944–1945)|raid on Singapore]], on 29 March and its constituent units were then transferred to the Mariana Islands.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 58–65</ref>

Operation Matterhorn was not successful. The nine raids conducted against Japan via bases in China succeeded only in destroying Ōmura's aircraft factory and XX Bomber Command lost 125 B-29s during all of its operations from bases in India and China, though only 29 were destroyed by Japanese forces.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 65</ref> The attacks had a limited impact on Japanese civilian morale and forced the Japanese military to reinforce the home islands' air defenses at the expense of other areas. However, these limited successes did not justify the large expenditure of resources required by the operation.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 172–175</ref>

==Initial attacks from the Mariana Islands==
[[United States Marine Corps]] and [[United States Army]] forces captured the Japanese-held islands of [[Guam]], [[Saipan]] and [[Tinian]] in the [[Mariana Islands]] between June and August 1944.<ref name="Tillman_68">Tillman (2010), p. 68</ref> In the subsequent months USAAF engineers and USN [[Seabee]]s constructed six massive airfields on the islands capable of accommodating hundreds of B-29s.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 71–75</ref> These bases were much better suited to supporting an intensive air campaign against Japan than China as they could be easily supplied by sea and lay just {{convert|1500|mi|km}} south of Japan, which would allow B-29s to strike most of the home islands.<ref name="Wolk_72">Wolk (2004), p. 72</ref>
[[File:Briefing for attack on Tokyo November 1944.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Brigadier General [[Haywood S. Hansell]] posing with a map of the Tokyo region during November 1944]]

The Twentieth Air Force's [[XXI Bomber Command]] began to arrive in the Mariana Islands during October 1944. The Command was led by Brigadier General [[Haywood S. Hansell]] who had participated in Eighth Air Force operations against Germany. XXI Bomber Command B-29s flew six practice missions against targets in the Central Pacific during October and November in preparation for their first attack on Japan.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 77–79</ref> On 1 November a F-13 photo reconnaissance variant of the B-29 successfully overflew Tokyo; this was the first American aircraft over the city since the Doolittle Raid. Further F-13 sorties were conducted during early November to gather intelligence on aircraft plants and port facilities in the Tokyo–[[Yokosuka, Kanagawa|Yokosuka]] area.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 555–556</ref>

XXI Bomber Command's initial attacks on Japan were focused on the country's aircraft industry.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 553–554</ref> The first attack, codenamed [[Operation San Antonio I]], was made against the Musashino aircraft plant in the outskirts of Tokyo on 24 November 1944. Only 24 of the 111 B-29s dispatched attacked the raid's primary target, and the others bombed port facilities and industrial and urban areas. The Americans were intercepted by 125 Japanese fighters but only one B-29 was shot down.<ref name=Wolk_72 /> This attack caused some damage to the aircraft plant and caused many Japanese civilians to realize that the Japanese military was incapable of protecting their cities from air attack.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 559–560</ref> In response to this raid the Japanese stepped-up their [[Japanese air attacks on the Mariana Islands|air attacks]] on B-29 bases in the Mariana Islands on 27 November; these attacks continued until January 1945 and resulted in the destruction of eleven Superfortresses and damage to another 43 for the loss of approximately 37 Japanese aircraft.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 581–582</ref> The IJA also began launching fire balloons against the United States during November. This campaign caused little damage and was abandoned in March 1945; by this time 9,000 balloons had been dispatched but only 285 were reported to have reached the United States.<ref>Horn (2005), pp. 205–207</ref>

The next American raids on Japan were not successful. XXI Bomber Command attacked Tokyo a further three times between 27 November and 3 December; two of these attacks were made against the Musashino aircraft plant while the other targeted an industrial area using [[M-69 Incendiary cluster bomb]]s which had been specifically developed to attack Japanese urban areas.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 54–56</ref> Little damage was caused to the aircraft plant attacked on 27 November and 3 December as high winds and clouds prevented accurate bombing. The incendiary raid conducted on the night of 29/30 November by 29 Superfortresses burnt out one tenth of a square mile and was also judged to be unsuccessful by 20th Air Force Headquarters.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 108–109</ref>
[[File:B-29 shot down by flak.jpg|thumb|alt=|A B-29 falls in flames after a direct hit by an [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft shell]] over Japan]]

Four of XXI Bomber Command's next five raids were [[Bombing of Nagoya in World War II|made against targets in Nagoya]]. The first two of these attacks on 13 and 18 December used precision bombing tactics and damaged the city's aircraft plants.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 564–565</ref> The third raid was conducted as a daylight incendiary attack on the city in response to a 20th Air Force directive that the command dispatch 100 B-29s armed with M-69 bombs in order to test their effectiveness on a Japanese city. Hansell protested this order as he believed that precision attacks were starting to produce results and moving to [[area bombardment]] would be counter-productive, but agreed to the operation after he was assured that it did not represent a general shift in tactics.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 117–118</ref> Despite the change in armament, the 22 December raid was planned as a precision attack on an aircraft factory using only 78 bombers and bad weather over Nagoya meant that little damage was caused.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 564</ref> XXI Bomber Command raided the Musashino aircraft plant again on 27 December, but did not damage the facility. On 3 January 1945 97 B-29s were dispatched to conduct an area bombing raid on Nagoya. This attack started a number of fires, but these were quickly brought under control by Japanese fire fighters.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 118–119</ref>

In late December 1944 Arnold decided to relieve Hansell of his command and transfer LeMay to lead XXI Bomber Command. Hansell was informed of this decision on 6 January, but remained in his position until mid January. During this period XXI Bomber Command conducted unsuccessful precision bombing attacks on the Musashino aircraft plant in Tokyo and a Mitsubishi Aircraft Works factory in Nagoya on 9 and 14 January respectively. The last attack planned by Hansell was more successful, however, with a force of 77 B-29s crippling a [[Kawasaki Aerospace Company|Kawasaki Aircraft Industries]] factory near [[Akashi, Hyōgo|Akashi]] on 19 January.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 565–568</ref> During XXI Bomber Command's first three months of operations it suffered a loss rate of 4.1 percent of aircraft per raid.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 99</ref>

During late January 1945 the [[Imperial General Headquarters]] belatedly adopted a civil defense plan to counter American air raids. This plan assigned responsibility for fighting fires to community councils and neighborhood groups as the professional firefighting units were short-handed. Civilians were to observe a [[Blackout (wartime)|blackout]] from 10 PM. Japanese positions in the [[Bonin Islands]] were normally able to provide an hour's warning of American raids and [[Civil defense siren|air raid sirens]] were sounded in cities threatened by attack.<ref>Havens (1978), pp. 159–161</ref>

The first attacks conducted under LeMay's leadership achieved mixed results. XXI Bomber Command flew six major missions between 23 January and 19 February with limited success, though an incendiary raid [[Bombing of Kobe in World War II|against Kobe]] on 4 February caused significant damage to the city and its main factories.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 568–570</ref> Moreover, while improved maintenance procedures implemented by LeMay reduced the number of B-29s which had to abort raids due to technical problems, the command suffered a loss rate of 5.1 percent in these operations.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 99–100</ref> From 19 February to 3 March the command conducted a series of precision bombing raids on aircraft factories which sought to tie down Japanese air units so they couldn't participate in the [[Battle of Iwo Jima]]. Again, these attacks were frustrated by high winds or cloud cover, and little damage was inflicted on the factories. A firebombing raid conducted against Tokyo by 172 B-29s on 25 February was considered successful, however, as it burnt or damaged approximately one square mile of the city's urban area.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 570–573</ref> This attack was conducted as a large-scale test of the effectiveness of firebombing.<ref name="Haulman_22">Haulman (1999), p. 22</ref>

==Firebombing attacks==
===LeMay changes tactics===
[[File:Curtis LeMay 1940s.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Black and white photo of a heavyset man wearing formal military uniform|[[Curtis LeMay]]]]
The USAAF had been assessing the possibility of a firebombing campaign against Japanese cities since 1943. USAAF planners had determined that Japan's industry was concentrated in a small number of large cities and much of the industrial production took place in residential homes and small factories located in urban areas. As a result, it was estimated that incendiary bomb attacks on Japan's six largest cities would have a major impact on the country's industrial production through causing physical damage to almost 40 percent of key industrial facilities as well as the loss of 7.6 million man-months of labor. It was estimated that such attacks would kill over 500,000 people, render about 7.75 million homeless and force almost 3.5 million people to be evacuated to other areas.<ref>Wolk (2010), pp. 112–113</ref> In preparation for such attacks the USAAF had tested the effectiveness of incendiary bombs on Japanese-style buildings at [[Eglin Air Force Base|Eglin Field]] and the "[[Japanese village]]" at [[Dugway Proving Ground]].<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 610–611</ref> The American military also attempted to develop "[[bat bomb]]s", which would have involved using air-dropped [[bat]]s armed with incendiary bombs to attack Japanese cities, but this project was abandoned in 1944.<ref>Glines (1990)</ref>

In light of the poor results of precision bombing campaign and the success of the February 25 raid in destroying a large area of Tokyo, LeMay decided to begin firebombing attacks on Japan's main cities during early March.<ref name="Wolk_2004_73">Wolk (2004), p. 73</ref> This was in line with Arnold's targeting directive for XXI Bomber Command which specified that Japan's urban areas should be given the second-highest priority for attacks after only aircraft factories and that firebombing raids be conducted once the M-69 bombs had been tested in combat and a sufficient force of B-29s had been assembled to launch an intensive campaign.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 145–146</ref> LeMay did not seek Arnold's approval before launching the firebombing campaign, however, in order to protect the USAAF commander from criticism if the campaign was unsuccessful; the Twentieth Air Force's Chief of Staff Brigadier General [[Lauris Norstad]] was aware of the change in tactics though and provided support.<ref>Wolk (2010), p. 124</ref> In order to improve the effectiveness of the firebombing attacks, LeMay directed that the B-29s would fly at the low altitude of {{convert|5000|ft|m}} and bomb by night, rather than the previous tactic of high-altitude daylight bombing. As Japan's force of [[night fighter]]s was weak and its anti-aircraft batteries were less effective at night, LeMay also had most of the B-29s' defensive guns removed to enable them to carry more bombs.<ref name=Haulman_22 /> These changes were not popular with the XXI Bomber Command's aircrew as they believed that it was safer to fly heavily armed B-29s at high altitude.<ref>Dorr (2002), p. 36</ref>

===March firebombing campaign===

The first firebombing attack in this campaign was conducted against Tokyo on the night of March 9–10 and proved the single most destructive bombing raid of the war.<ref>Wolk (2010), p. 125</ref> XXI Bomber Command mounted a maximum effort for this raid, and on the afternoon of March 9 346 B-29s left the Marianas bound for Tokyo. They began to arrive over Tokyo at 2 am Guam time on March 10, and 279 bombers dropped 1,665 tons of bombs on the city.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 64–66</ref> This caused a massive [[firestorm]] that overwhelmed Tokyo's civil defenses and destroyed 16 square miles of buildings, representing seven percent of the city.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 149–153</ref> The Japanese police estimated that 83,793 people were killed, another 40,918 were injured and just over a million lost their homes; postwar estimates of deaths in this attack have ranged from 80,000 to 100,000.<ref name="Kerr_207">Kerr (1991), p. 207</ref><ref>Ferguson (2007), p. 573</ref> Damage to Tokyo's war production was also substantial.<ref name=Kerr_207 /> Japanese opposition to this attack was relatively weak, and American losses were limited to 14 B-29s lost due to combat and mechanical faults and a further 42 damaged by anti-aircraft fire.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 66–67</ref> Following the attack on Tokyo the Japanese Government ordered that all schoolchildren in the third to sixth grades be evacuated from the main cities, and 87 percent of them had been moved to the countryside by early April.<ref name=Dear-Foot_484 />
[[File:Tokyo kushu 1945-3.jpg|thumb|left|Charred remains of Japanese civilians following the [[Bombing of Tokyo|March 9–10 raid on Tokyo]]]]

XXI Bomber Command followed up the firebombing of Tokyo with similar raids against other major cities. On March 11, 310 B-29s were dispatched against Nagoya. The bombing of the city was less concentrated than that of Tokyo, and as a result the attack caused less damage. Nevertheless 2.05 square miles were burnt out and no B-29s were lost to the Japanese defenses. On the night of March 13–14, 274 Superfortresses [[Bombing of Osaka|attacked Osaka]] and destroyed 8.1 square miles of the city for the loss of two aircraft. Kobe was the next target in the firebombing campaign, and was attacked by 331 B-29s on the night of March 16–17. The resulting firestorm destroyed seven square miles of the city (equivalent to half its area) and three B-29s were lost. Nagoya was attacked again on the night of March 18-19, and the B-29s destroyed 2.95 square miles of the city. Only one Superfortress was shot down during this attack and all members of its crew were rescued. This attack marked the end of the first firebombing campaign as XXI Bomber Command had exhausted its stock of incendiary bombs.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 68–69</ref> The command's next major raid was a night precision attack on the Mitsubishi aircraft engine factory conducted on the night of March 23–24. This raid was not successful, as the 251 aircraft dispatched caused little damage and the Japanese shot down five B-29s.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 69</ref>

The USAAF's assessments of the firebombing campaign judged that it had been highly successful, and noted that American losses in the night firebombing attacks were much lower than those from day precision raids. As a result the Joint Target Group drew up a new set of priorities for XXI Bomber Command which left aircraft engine factories as the command's first priority but placed emphasis on continuing the attacks on Japan's main urban areas. While this bombing campaign was intended to form part of preparations for the Allied invasion of Japan, LeMay and some members of Arnold's staff believed that it alone would be sufficient to force Japan's surrender.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 623–627</ref>

The Japanese government was concerned about the results of the March firebombing attacks. The raids had demonstrated that the Japanese military was unable to protect the nation's airspace and that as a result the American bombers could cause widespread damage while suffering only light losses. The raids also caused increased absenteeism in the cities which were attacked as civilians were afraid to leave their homes and work in factories which might be bombed.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 156–157</ref>

===Destruction of Japan's main cities===
[[File:Areas of principal Japanese cities destoyed by US bombing.jpg|thumb|The areas of Japan's main cities which were destroyed in air attacks during World War II]]

The expanded firebombing campaign was delayed by the use of B-29s to support the Allied forces engaged in the [[Battle of Okinawa]]. In an attempt to reduce [[kamikaze]] suicide attacks on the Allied fleet, it was decided to use the XXI Bomber Command to attack airfields in southern Japan. These attacks began on March 20 and were expanded from March 27.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 628–631</ref> On March 31, the day before the landing, XXI Bomber Command mounted a diversionary precision bombing attack on industrial facilities at [[Tachiarai, Fukuoka|Tachiarai]] and an airfield at [[Ōmura, Nagasaki|Ōmura]]. Despite these raids, large scale kamikaze attacks were conducted against the Allied ships following the landing. As part of the Allied response, XXI Bomber Command conducted major attacks on airfields in Kyushu on April 8 and 16, though the first of these attacks was diverted to strike residential areas in [[Kagoshima]] after the airfields were found to be covered by cloud. From April 17 until the B-29s were released for other duties on May 11, about three quarters of XXI Bomber Command's effort was devoted to attacking airfields and other targets in direct support of the Battle of Okinawa; this included 2,104 sorties flown against 17 airfields. These raids cost XXI Bomber Command 24 B-29s destroyed and 233 damaged and were not successful in completely suppressing kamikaze attacks from the airfields which were bombed.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 631–633</ref><ref>Frank (1999), p. 72</ref> From April 12 the [[46th Fighter Wing (World War II)|VII Fighter Command's]] [[North American P-51 Mustang|P-51 Mustang]] very long range fighters which were based on Iwo Jima also attacked airfields in Honshu and Kyushu. The fighter pilots claimed to have destroyed 64 Japanese aircraft and damaged another 180 on the ground as well as shooting down 10 in the air for the loss of eleven fighters in combat and seven from other causes.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 634–635</ref>

Limited attacks on Japanese cities were conducted while the Battle of Okinawa continued. A night precision bombing raid was flown against the Nakajima engine factory in Tokyo by 121 B-29s on April 1 and three similar attacks were conducted on the night of April 3. These raids proved unsuccessful as XXI Bomber Command lacked the specialized equipment needed to strike targets accurately at night and LeMay decided against continuing the night precision bombing campaign.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 647</ref> Small forces of B-29s struck Tokyo and nearby [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]] on April 4. Two successful large-scale precision bombing raids were flown against aircraft factories in Tokyo and Nagoya on April 7; the raid on Tokyo was the first to be escorted by Iwo Jima-based P-51 Mustangs and the B-29s and fighters claimed to have shot down 101 Japanese aircraft for the loss of two P-51s and seven B-29s.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 164</ref><ref name="Kerr_226">Kerr (1991), p. 226</ref> Over 250 B-29s struck three different aircraft factories on April 12, and the [[73d Air Division|73rd Bombardment Wing]] inflicted heavy damage on the Musashino aircraft plant which had been attacked nine times previously.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 165</ref><ref>Kerr (1991), p. 225</ref> LeMay resumed night firebombing raids on April 13 when 327 B-29s attacked the arsenal district of Tokyo, destroying 11.4 square miles of the city, including a number of armaments factories. On April 15 a force of 303 B-29s attacked the Tokyo region and destroyed six square miles of Tokyo, 3.6 square miles of Kawasaki and 1.5 square miles of Yokohama for the loss of twelve bombers.<ref name=Kerr_226 /><ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 636</ref> On April 24 the Tachikawa aircraft engine factory at Yamato near Tokyo was destroyed by 131 B-29s, though an attack on the aircraft arsenal at Tachikawa six days later was aborted due to cloud cover; some of the heavy bombers attacked the city of [[Hamamatsu]] instead. Another precision raid was made against the Hiro Naval Aircraft Factory at Kure on May 5 when 148 B-29s inflicted heavy damage on the facility.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_649">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 649</ref> Five days later B-29s successfully attacked oil storage facilities at [[Iwakuni, Yamaguchi|Iwakuni]], Ōshima and [[Toltuyama]].<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 66</ref> On 11 May a small force of B-29s also destroyed an airframe factory at Konan.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_649 /> XXI Bomber Command reached its full strength in April when the 58th and [[315th Air Division|315th Bombardment Wings]] arrived in the Marianas; at this time the command comprised five [[Wing (military aviation unit)|wings]] equipped with B-29s and was the most powerful air unit in the world.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 167</ref>
[[File:Boeing B-29A-45-BN Superfortress 44-61784 6 BG 24 BS - Incendiary Journey.jpg|thumb|left|A B-29 over [[Bombing of Osaka|Osaka on 1 June 1945]]]]

From mid-May XXI Bomber Command conducted an intensive firebombing campaign against Japan's main cities. A force of 472 B-29s struck Nagoya by day on May 13 and destroyed 3.15 square miles of the city. The Japanese mounted a strong defense which downed two B-29s and damaged another 64 (another eight B-29s were lost to other causes) and the Americans claimed 18 Japanese fighter "kills" as well as another 30 probables and 16 damaged. Nagoya was attacked again by 457 B-29s on the night of May 16 and the resulting fires destroyed 3.82 square miles of the city. Japanese defenses were much weaker by night, and all three of the bombers which were lost crashed due to mechanical problems. The two raids on Nagoya killed 3,866 Japanese and rendered another 472,701 homeless.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 637–638</ref> On May 19, 318 B-29s conducted an unsuccessful precision bombing raid on the Tachikawa Aircraft Company.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 638, 650</ref> XXI Bomber Command made further large-scale firebombing attacks against Tokyo on the nights of May 23 and 25. In the first of these raids 520 B-29s destroyed 5.3 square miles southern Tokyo for the loss of 17 aircraft and 69 damaged.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 638</ref> The second attack involved 502 B-29 and destroyed 16.8 square miles of the city's central area, including the headquarters of several key government ministries and much of the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]]. Japanese defenses were relatively successful, with 26 B-29s being shot down and another 100 damaged.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 638–639</ref><ref>Frank (1999), pp. 74–75</ref> By the end of these raids just over half (50.8 percent) of Tokyo had been destroyed and the city was removed from XXI Bomber Command's target list.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 639</ref> The command's last major raid of May was a daylight incendiary attack on Yokohama on May 29 conducted by 517 B-29s escorted by 101 P-51s. This force was intercepted by 150 [[Mitsubishi A6M Zero|A6M Zero]] fighters, sparking an intense air battle in which five B-29s were shot down and another 175 damaged. In return, the P-51 pilots claimed 26 "kills" and 23 "probables" for the loss of three fighters. The 454 B-29s which reached Yokohama struck its main business district and destroyed 6.9 square miles of buildings.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 639–640</ref> Overall, the attacks in May destroyed 94 square miles of buildings, which was equivalent to one seventh of Japan's total urban area. The [[Home Ministry (Japan)|Minister of Home Affairs]], [[Iwao Yamazaki]], concluded after these raids that Japan's civil defense arrangements were "considered to be futile".<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 172–173</ref>

The firebombing campaign against major cities concluded in June. On the first day of the month 521 B-29s escorted by 148 P-51s were dispatched in a daylight raid against Osaka. While en-route to the city the Mustangs flew through thick cloud, and 27 of the fighters were destroyed in collisions. Nevertheless 458 heavy bombers and 27 P-51s reached the city, and the bombardment killed 3,960 Japanese and destroyed 3.15 square miles of buildings. On June 5, 473 B-29s struck Kobe by day and destroyed 4.35 square miles of the city for the loss of eleven bombers. Osaka was attacked again by 409 B-29s on June 7 and these destroyed 2.21 square miles of the city without loss. The city was bombed for the fourth time in the month on June 15 when 444 B-29s destroyed 1.9 square miles of buildings in Osaka and another 0.59 square miles in nearby [[Amagasaki]]. <ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 640–642</ref> This attack marked the end of the first phase of XXI Bomber Command's attack on Japan's cities. During May and June the bombers had destroyed much of the country's six largest cities, killing between 112,000 and 126,762 people and rendering millions homeless. The widespread destruction and high number of casualties from these raids caused many Japanese to realize that their country's military was no longer able to defend the home islands. American losses were relatively low, with 136 B-29s being lost.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 642–644</ref><ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 261–262</ref><ref>Frank (1999), pp. 76–77</ref>

==Attacks on small cities==
[[File:B-29 target cities in Japan.png|thumb|300px|Japanese cities attacked by B-29 bombers during World War II]]

In mid-June Arnold visited LeMay's headquarters at Saipan. On June 14 he approved a proposal to send the B-29s against 25 cities with populations ranging from 323,000 to 62,280 people as well as making precision attacks on key targets. This decision was made despite a recommendation from the [[Strategic bombing survey|United States Strategic Bombing Survey]] team which was assessing the effectiveness of air attacks on Germany that raids on Japan be focused on the country's transportation network and other targets with the goal of crippling the movement of goods and destroying food supplies.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 258–260</ref> LeMay's plan called for precision attacks on important industrial targets on days where the weather over Japan was clear and incendiary attacks guided by radar on overcast days. As both the cities and industrial facilities targeted were relatively small, the B-29 force would be sent against multiple locations on days in which attacks were conducted. This targeting policy (which was labeled the "Empire Plan") remained in force until the end of the war.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 650–651</ref>

Five major precision bombing attacks were conducted as part of the "Empire Plan". On June 9, two groups of B-29s bombed an aircraft factory at [[Shinkamigotō, Nagasaki|Narao]] and another two raided a factory in [[Atsuta-ku, Nagoya|Atsuta]]; both facilities were badly damaged. A single group of B-29s also attempted to bomb a Kawasaki Aircraft Industries factory at Akashi but accidentally struck a nearby village instead. The next day XXI Bomber Command aircraft escorted by 107 P-51s successfully attacked six different factories in the Tokyo Bay region.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p651">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 651</ref> The next precision bombing raids were conducted on June 22, when 382 B-29s attacked six targets at [[Kure, Hiroshima|Kure]], [[Kakamigahara, Gifu|Kakamigahara]], [[Himeji, Hyōgo|Himeji]], Mizushima and Akashi in southern Honshu. Most of the factories targeted in these raids were badly damaged.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 651–652</ref> Four days later 510 B-29s escorted by 148 P-51s were sent against nine factories in southern Honshu and Shikoku. Heavy cloud over the region meant that many of these bombers attacked targets of opportunity individually or in small groups, and little damage was done to most of the raid's intended targets.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p652">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 652</ref> Cloudy weather prevented any further large-scale precision attacks until July 24, when 625 B-29s were dispatched against seven targets near Nagoya and Osaka. Four of the factories attacked suffered heavy damage. Renewed cloudy weather prevented any further "Empire Plan" precision attacks from being conducted.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_p652 />

XXI Bomber Command began attacking smaller cities from June 17. On that night Hamamatsu, Kagoshima, [[Ōmuta, Fukuoka|Ōmuta]], [[Yokkaichi, Mie|Yokkaichi]] were each attacked by a wing of B-29s using similar tactics to those employed in the firebombing raids against the major cities. Of the 477 B-29s dispatched, 456 struck their targets and Hamamatsu, Kagoshima, Yokkaichi suffered extensive damage; overall 6.073 square miles of buildings were destroyed. The cities were almost undefended and no B-29s were lost to Japanese actions.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 653–654</ref><ref name="Kerr_262">Kerr (1991), p. 262</ref> This operation was judged a success, and set the pattern for XXI Bomber Command's attacks until the end of the war. As the campaign continued and the most important cities were destroyed, the bombers were sent against smaller and less significant cities. On the nights that raids were conducted four cities were normally attacked, each by a wing of bombers. Two-wing operations were conducted against [[Fukuoka]] on June 19 and Ōmuta on July 26, however. Sixteen multi-city incendiary attacks were conducted by the end of the war (an average of two per week), with 58 different cities being struck in this period. The incendiary raids were coordinated with precision bombing attacks during the last weeks of the war in an attempt to force the Japanese Government to surrender.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 654–655</ref> As the small cities were not defended by anti-aircraft guns and Japan's night fighter force was ineffective only a single B-29 was shot down during this campaign; a further 66 were damaged and 18 were lost in accidents.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p656">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 656</ref>
[[File:Okayama after the 1945 air raid.jpg|thumb|left|Part of [[Okayama]] after it was bombed on June 28, 1945]]

The second incendiary raid against smaller cities took place on June 19. On this night B-29s struck Fukuoka, [[Bombing of Shizuoka in World War II|Shizuoka]] and [[Toyohashi Air Raid|Toyohashi]]. On June 28 [[Moji-ku, Kitakyūshū|Moji]], [[Nobeoka, Miyazaki|Nobeoka]], [[Okayama]] and [[Sasebo, Nagasaki|Sasebo]] were attacked. [[Kumamoto, Kumamoto|Kumamoto]], Kure, [[Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi|Shimonoseki]] and [[Ube, Yamaguchi|Ube]] were struck on July 1. Two nights later Himeji, [[Kōchi, Kōchi|Kōchi]], [[Takamatsu, Kagawa|Takamatsu]] and [[Tokushima, Tokushima|Tokushima]] were bombed. On July 6, Akashi, [[Chiba, Chiba|Chiba]], [[Kōfu, Yamanashi|Kōfu]] and [[Shimizu-ku, Shizuoka|Shimizu]] were attacked. [[Gifu, Gifu|Gifu]], [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]], [[Sendai]] and [[Wakayama, Wakayama|Wakayama]] were struck on July 9. Three nights later the B-29s targeted [[Ichinomiya, Aichi|Ichinomiya]], [[Tsuruga, Fukui|Tsuruga]], [[Utsunomiya, Tochigi|Utsunomiya]] and [[Uwajima, Ehime|Uwajima]]. On July 16, [[Hiratsuka, Kanagawa|Hiratsuka]], [[Kuwana, Mie|Kuwana]], Namazu and [[Ōita, Ōita|Ōita]] were attacked. [[Chōshi, Chiba|Choshi]], [[Fukui, Fukui|Fukui]], [[Hitachi, Ibaraki|Hitachi]], [[Okazaki, Aichi|Okazaki]] were bombed on July 19. After a break of almost a week, [[Matsuyama, Ehime|Matsuyama]], Omuta and [[Tokuyama, Yamaguchi|Tokuyama]] were firebombed on July 26. The cities of [[Aomori, Aomori|Aomori]], Ichinomiya, [[Tsu, Mie|Tsu]], [[Ise, Mie|Uji-Yamada]] [[Ōgaki, Gifu|Ōgaki]] and Uwajima were attacked on July 28.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 674–675</ref> On the night of July 27-28 six B-29s dropped leaflets over eleven Japanese cities warning that they would be attacked in the future; this was intended to lower the morale of Japanese civilians and convince them that the United States was seeking to minimize civilian casualties.<ref name="Frank_153">Frank (1999), p. 153</ref>

August 1945 began with continued large-scale raids against Japanese cities. On the first of the month 836 B-29s staged the largest single raid of World War II, dropping 6,145 tons of bombs and mines. The cities of [[Hachiōji, Tokyo|Hachiōji]], [[Mito, Ibaraki|Mito]] and [[Nagaoka, Niigata|Nagaoka]] [[Toyama, Toyama|Toyama]] were the main targets of this operation; all four suffered extensive damage with 99.5 percent of buildings in Toyama being destroyed.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 267–268</ref><ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p675">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 675</ref>

From late June the 315th Bombardment Wing conducted a series of night precision bombing attacks against the Japanese oil industry which were conducted independently of the precision day and night incendiary raids. This wing's B-29s were fitted with the advanced [[AN/APQ-7]] radar which allowed targets to be accurately located at night. It arrived in the Marianas in April 1945 and, after a period of operational training, flew its first attack against the Utsube Oil Refinery at Yokkaichi on the night of June 26.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 658–661</ref> The 30 bombers (out of 38 dispatched) which struck the refinery destroyed or damaged 30 percent of the facility.<ref name="Tillman_240">Tillman (2010), p. 240</ref> The unit's next attack was made against a refinery at [[Kudamatsu, Yamaguchi|Kudamatsu]] three nights later and on the night of 2 July it struck another refinery at [[Arida, Wakayama|Minoshima]].<ref name="Kerr_331">Kerr (1991), p. 331</ref> On the night of July 6–7 the 315th Bombardment Wing destroyed the Maruzen oil refinery near Osaka and three nights later it completed the destruction of the Utsube refinery.<ref name=Tillman_240 /> The wing had conducted 15 operations against Japanese oil facilities by the end of the war. During these attacks it destroyed six of the nine targets attacked for the loss of only four B-29s. As Japan had almost no crude oil to refine as a result of the Allied naval blockade of the home islands, the raids against oil refineries had almost no impact on the country's war effort.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 152</ref>

During mid-July the USAAF strategic bomber forces in the Pacific were reorganized. On July 16 XXI Bomber Command was redesignated the Twentieth Air Force and LeMay appointed its commander. Two days later the [[United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific]] (USASTAF) was established at Guam under the command of General [[Carl Andrew Spaatz|Carl Spaatz]]. USASTAF's role was to command the Twentieth Air Force as well as the [[Eighth Air Force]], which at the time was in the process of being reequipped with B-29s and moving from Europe to Okinawa under the command of James Doolittle (who was now a General). The Commonwealth [[Tiger Force (air)|Tiger Force]], which was to include Australian, British, Canadian and New Zealand heavy bomber squadrons and attack Japan from Okinawa, was also to come under the command of USASTAF when it arrived in the region during late 1945.<ref name=Frank_153 /><ref>{{cite web|title=July 1945|url=http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/PopTopics/chron/45jul.htm|work=U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II: Combat Chronology|publisher=Air Force Historical Studies Office|accessdate=6 March 2011}}</ref>

==Aerial minelaying==

From mid-1944 the US Navy pressed for B-29s to be used to lay [[naval mine]]s in Japan's home waters. Arnold and his staff were unenthusiastic about the Navy's proposals as they believed that such missions would divert Superfortresses from precision bombing attacks. In response to repeated requests from the Navy Arnold decided in November 1944 to conduct mine laying operations once aircraft were available. In January LeMay selected the [[313th Air Division|313rd Bombardment Wing]] as the Twentieth Air Force's specialist mine laying unit, and the Navy provided assistance with its training and logistics. LeMay also developed a plan designated [[Operation Starvation]] to use air-dropped mines to to implement a [[blockade]] of Japan.<ref>Cate and Olsen (1953), "The All-Out B-29 Attack", pp. 662–666</ref> As the United States had made little use of mines up to this time the Japanese military had placed relatively little emphasis on keeping its [[Minesweeper (ship)|minesweeping]] force up to date and it was unprepared for a large-scale offensive.<ref name="Tillman_198">Tillman (2010), p. 198</ref>

The first B-29 mine laying operation in Japanese waters was conducted by the 313rd Bombardment Wing on the night of 27/28 March 1945 when it mined the [[Kanmon Straits|Shimonoseki Strait]] to prevent Japanese warships from using it to attack the U.S. landing force off Okinawa.<ref>Cate and Olsen (1953), "Urban Area Attacks", p. 631</ref> Minelaying operations in April were disrupted by the use of the wing to support operations in Okinawa as well as participate in conventional bombing raids, but the rate of effort increased in May with missions being conducted against harbors and other choke points around Honshu and Kyushu. From an early stage the air-dropped minefields greatly disrupted Japanese coastal shipping and they sank more ships than Allied [[submarine]]s during May.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 668–670</ref>

LeMay ordered a further increase to minelaying sorties in June and the [[505th Bombardment Group]] joined the 313rd on occasion. In response to this offensive the Japanese greatly expanded their minesweeping force by 349 ships and 20,000 men and deployed additional anti-aircraft guns around the Shimonoseki Strait, but had little success in permanently clearing minefields or downing the B-29s. As a result, many of Japan's major harbors, including those of Tokyo, Yokohama and Nagoya, became permanently closed to shipping. During the last weeks of the war B-29s continued to drop large numbers of mines off Japan and expanded the campaign into Korean waters. The 313rd Bombardment Wing lost only 16 B-29s during its mine laying raids up to the Japanese surrender.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 670–674</ref> Overall, mines dropped by Superfortresses off the Japanese home islands sank 293 ships, which represented 9.3 percent of all Japanese merchant shipping destroyed during the Pacific War and 60 per cent of losses between April and August 1945. Following the war the [[Strategic bombing survey|United States Strategic Bombing Survey]] (USSBS) assessed that the 20th Air Force should have had a greater focus on attacking Japanese shipping, including conducting a more intensive minelaying effort.<ref>Cate and Olsen (1953), p. 754</ref><ref name=Tillman_198 />

==Naval air attacks==
[[File:TBMs and SB2Cs dropping bombs.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a large number of propeller-driven monoplanes dropping bombs|US Navy aircraft dropping bombs on [[Hakodate, Hokkaidō|Hakodate]] during July 1945]]
The United States Navy conducted its first attacks against Japan since the Doolittle Raid in mid-February 1945. This operation was undertaken primarily to destroy Japanese aircraft which could attack the US Navy and Marine Corps forces involved with the [[Battle of Iwo Jima|landing on Iwo Jima]] on the 19th of the month and was conducted by [[Fast Carrier Task Force|Task Force 58]] (TF 58). This was the US Navy's main striking force in the Pacific, and comprised eleven [[fleet carrier]]s, five [[light aircraft carrier]]s and a powerful force of escorts which included eight [[battleships]], the large cruiser {{USS|Alaska|CB-1|6}}, five [[heavy cruiser]]s, nine [[light cruiser]]s and 77 [[destroyer]]s under the command of Rear Admiral [[Marc Mitscher]].<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 20–21</ref> TF 58 approached Japan undetected and attacked airfields and aircraft factories in the Tokyo region on 16 and 17 February. The American naval aviators claimed 341 'kills' against Japanese aircraft and the destruction of a further 160 on the ground for the loss of 60 aircraft in combat and 28 in accidents. Several ships were also attacked and sunk in [[Tokyo Bay]].<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 22–25</ref> The actual Japanese aircraft losses in this operation are uncertain, however, with the Imperial General Headquarters admitting losing 78 aircraft in dogfights and not providing a figure for those destroyed on the ground. TF 58's ships were not attacked during this period in Japanese waters, and on 18 February sailed south to provide direct support to the landings on Iwo Jima. The Task Force attempted further attacks on the Tokyo area on 25 February, but these were largely frustrated by bad weather and the ships sailed south to attack [[Okinawa]] from 1 March instead.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 123–124</ref>

Task Force 58 renewed its attacks on Japan in mid-March in an attempt to reduce the Japanese aircraft available to contest the [[Battle of Okinawa|landing on Okinawa]] on 1 April.<ref>Royal Navy (1995), p. 192</ref> On 18 March the carrier aircraft attacked Japanese airfields and other military facilities on [[Kyushu]]. The next day they attacked Japanese warships at [[Kure, Hiroshima|Kure]] and [[Kobe]], damaging the battleship [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamoto'']] and aircraft carrier [[Japanese aircraft carrier Amagi|''Amagi'']]. The Japanese fought back against these raids with [[Kamikaze]] suicide aircraft and conventional attacks, and inflicted light damage on three carriers on 18 March and severe damage on {{USS|Franklin|CV-13|6}} on the 19th.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 94–95</ref> On 20 March TF 58 sailed south but continued fighter sweeps over Kyushu to suppress Japanese aircraft. During the attacks on 18 and 19 March the American naval aviators claimed to have destroyed 223 Japanese aircraft in the air and 250 on the ground while the Japanese placed their losses as 161 of of the 191 aircraft they committed in the air and an unspecified number on the ground.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 99–100</ref> From 23 March TF 58 conducted strikes against Okinawa, though its aircraft made further sweeps of Kyushu on the 28th and 29th of the month. Following the landing on 1 April TF 58 provided air defense for the naval force off Okinawa and regularly conducted patrols over Kyushu. In an attempt to stem the large-scale Japanese air attacks against the Allied ships, part of TF 58 struck at kamikaze aircraft bases on Kyushu and [[Shikoku]] on 12 and 13 May.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 132–133</ref> On 27 May Admiral [[William Halsey, Jr.|William Halsey]] assumed command of the Fifth Fleet from Admiral [[Raymond A. Spruance]] and it was redesignated the Third Fleet; as part of this change TF 58 became TF 38.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 272</ref> The Task Force continued operations off Okinawa in late May and June, and on 2 and 3 June one of its task groups attacked airfields on Kyushu.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 299</ref> Another attack was made against these targets on 8 June, and on the 10th of the month TF 38 left Japanese waters for a period of recuperation at [[Leyte Island|Leyte]] in the Philippines.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 307</ref>
[[File:Allied naval operations off Japan during July and August 1945.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Major Allied naval air attacks and bombardments of targets in Japan during July and August 1945]]

On 1 July TF 38 sailed from Leyte to strike at the Japanese home islands. At this time it comprised nine fleet carriers, six light carriers and their escorts.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 310</ref> On 10 July the Task Force's aircraft conducted raids on airfields in the Tokyo region, destroying a number of aircraft on the ground. No Japanese fighters were encountered in the air, however, as they were being kept in reserve for a planned large-scale suicide attack on the Allied fleet.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 201</ref><ref>Morison (1960), pp. 310–311</ref> Following this raid TF 38 steamed north and began a major attack on [[United States Navy attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu|raids on Hokkaido and northern Honshu]] on 14 July. These strikes continued the next day, and succeeded in sinking eight of the twelve railway car ferries which carried coal from Hokkaido to Honshu and damaging the remaining four. Many other ships were also destroyed in this area, including 70 out of the 272 small sailing ships which carried coal between the islands. Once again no Japanese aircraft opposed this attack, though 25 were destroyed on the ground.<ref>Morrison (1960), pp. 311–312</ref> The loss of the railway car ferries reduced the amount of coal shipped from Hokkaido to Honshu by 80 percent, which greatly hindered production in Honshu's factories.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 202</ref> This was the single most effective strategic air attack of the Pacific War.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 157</ref> TF 38 also began a series of [[Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II|bombardments of industrial targets]] by warships on 14 July which continued until almost the end of the war.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 157–158</ref>

Following the attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu TF 38 sailed south and was reinforced by the main body of the [[British Pacific Fleet]] (which was designated Task Force 37) and included another four fleet carriers.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 204</ref><ref name="Morison_314">Morison (1960), p. 314</ref> Strikes on the Tokyo area on 17 July were disrupted by bad weather, but the next day aircraft from the fleet attacked [[United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka|Yokosuka naval base]] and damaged the battleship [[Japanese battleship Nagato|''Nagato'']] as well as sinking eight other warships.<ref name=Morison_314 /><ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 209–211</ref> On 24, 25 and 28 July the Allied fleet [[Bombing of Kure (July 1945)|attacked Kure and the Inland Sea]] and sank an aircraft carrier and three battleships as well as two heavy cruisers, a light cruiser and several other warships.<ref>Royal Navy (1995), p. 223</ref> A force of 79 USAAF Liberators flying from Okinawa participated in this attack on 28 July.<ref>Futrell and Taylor (1953), p. 698</ref> Allied casualties were heavy, however, with 126 aircraft being shot down.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 217</ref> On 29 and 30 July the carrier aircraft struck at [[Maizuru, Kyoto|Maizuru]], sinking three small warships and twelve merchant vessels, before the fleet sailed east to avoid a typhoon and replenish its supplies.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 331–332</ref> Its next attacks against Japan took place on 9 and 10 August and were directed at a build up of Japanese aircraft in northern Honshu which Allied intelligence had determined were to be used to conduct a commando raid [[Japanese air attacks on the Mariana Islands|against the B-29 bases in the Marianas]]. The naval aviators claimed to have destroyed 251 aircraft in their attacks on 9 August as well as damaging a further 141, though the destroyer {{USS|Borie|DD-704|6}} was badly damaged by a kamikaze while on radar picket duty {{convert|50|mi|km}} from TF 38.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 332</ref> On 13 August TF 38's aircraft attacked the Tokyo region again and claimed to have destroyed 254 Japanese aircraft on the ground and 18 in the air. Another attack was launched against Tokyo on the morning of 15 August, and the 103 aircraft of its first wave attacked their targets. The second wave aborted its attack when word was received that Japan had agreed to surrender; several Japanese aircraft attempted to attack TF 38 later that day, however, and were shot down.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 334–335</ref><ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 242–244</ref>

==Raids from Okinawa==

From May 1945 aircraft of the [[Fifth Air Force]] and [[Seventh Air Force]], which were grouped under the [[Pacific Air Forces|Far East Air Force]] (FEAF), attacked targets in Kyushu and western Honshu from bases in Okinawa and other locations in the [[Ryukyu Islands]] in preparation for the planned invasion of Japan.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 695–696</ref> From May 17 American [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt|P-47 Thunderbolt]] fighters flying from the Ryukyus made frequent day and night patrols over Kyushu to disrupt the Japanese air units there. On June 21 an additional fighter group jointed this effort, and it was further expanded with bombers and another fighter group from July 1. These American operations were initially fiercely contested, from early July onwards they encountered little opposition as the Japanese aircraft were withdrawn in order to be preserved for later operations. Between July 1 and 13, the Americans flew 286 medium and heavy bomber sorties over Kyushu without loss. As the fighter aircraft met few Japanese aircraft they were mainly used to attack transportation infrastructure and targets of opportunity; these included at least two [[strafing]] attacks on groups of civilians.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p696">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 696</ref>

Attacks on airfields and transportation infrastructure in southern Japan continued until the end of the war. By this time the Fifth Air Force's bombers had flown 138 sorties against airfields in Kyushu and the Seventh Air Force had flown a further 784. Road and railway bridges were attacked by both fighters and bombers and the city of Kagoshima was frequently bombed. Seventh Air Force B-24 Liberators also bombed the railway terminals in the port of [[Nagasaki]] on July 31 and August 1. While these raids were focused on tactical targets, the Okinawa-based aircraft also made strategic attacks against industrial facilities on occasion; these included an unsuccessful raid on a coal liquefaction plant at Ōmuta on August 7. Bombers of the Fifth and Seventh Air Forces also made firebombing attacks against [[Tarumizu, Kagoshima|Tarumizu]] on August 5, Kumamoto on August 10 and [[Kurume, Fukuoka|Kurume]] on August 11. The FEAF staged its last attacks against Japan on August 12, though aircraft were dispatched on August 14 but recalled while en-route to their targets. Overall, the two air forces flew 6,435 sorties against targets in Kyushu during July and August for the loss of 43 aircraft to Japanese anti-aircraft guns and fighters.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 697–700</ref>

==Japanese military response==
[[File:B-29SurvivorNiigata.jpg|thumb|upright|A B-29 crewman being led from a village hall after he was captured and tortured by civilians<ref>{{cite news|last=Jeffs|first=Angela|title=Remembering those who fell in a 'field of spears'|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20071208a1.html|accessdate=16 March 2011|newspaper=The Japan Times Online}}</ref>]]
===Air defenses===
Japan's air defenses proved inadequate to stop the Allied air attacks.<ref>Zaloga (2010), p. 51</ref> Due to the short range of Japan's land-based radars and Allied attacks on the IJN's picket ships, the defenders typically had only about an hour to respond to incoming forces of B-29s once they had been detected. This was not an adequate time for fighter units to [[Scrambling (military)|scramble]] and climb to the B-29s' cruising altitude, and as a result most heavy bomber attacks were intercepted by small numbers of fighters. Moreover, the American bombers were capable of flying faster at high altitude than many Japanese fighters could. Japanese [[signals intelligence]] units could provide longer warning times of incoming raids by eavesdropping on the bombers radio communications, but were unable to predict the target of the attack.<ref>Zaloga (2010), pp. 52–53</ref> From August 1944 some Japanese aircraft conducted suicide ramming attacks on B-29s, and several specialized kamikaze fighter units were established in October; by the end of the war ramming tactics destroyed nine B-29s and damaged another 13 for the loss of 21 Japanese fighters.<ref name="Zaloga_53">Zaloga (2010), p. 53</ref> Japan's weak anti-aircraft defenses were strengthened from November 1944 when {{convert|12|cm|in}} anti-aircraft guns began to be issued to supplement the inadequate {{convert|7.5|cm|in|adj=on}} and {{convert|8|cm|in|adj=on}} weapons.<ref name=Zaloga_53 />

Air combat was most intense in late 1944 and early 1945. Following the first B-29 raids on Tokyo the number of IJN aircraft assigned to air defense duties was greatly increased and all the {{convert|12|cm|in}} guns were allocated to protect the capital.<ref name=Zaloga_53 /> Fighters stationed to defend Japan's main industrial areas frequently intercepted attacking B-29s between November 24 1944 to February 25 1945, causing significant losses for a period. The number of fighters available declined for late January, however.<ref>Coox (1994), pp. 404–405</ref> The Americans suffered few losses from Japanese fighters during the night raids from March 1945 until the end of the war.<ref>Coox (1994), pp. 413–414, 426</ref> On April 15 the IJAAF and IJN air defense units were belatedly placed under a single command when the [[Air General Army]] was formed, but by this time the fighter force's effectiveness had been greatly reduced due to high rates of attrition and casualties in training accidents. Due to the poor standard of the remaining pilots and the advent of American fighters escorting the B-29s, the Japanese decided in April to reserve their aircraft to counter the Allied invasion. As a result, few of the subsequent Allied air attacks met much fighter opposition.<ref name="Zaloga_54">Zaloga (2010), p. 54</ref> As anti-aircraft guns were mainly stationed around the main industrial areas, many Allied raids were almost unopposed.<ref>Coox (1994), pp. 415–416</ref> Imperial General Headquarters decided to allow attacks on Allied bombers from late June, but by this time there were too few fighters available for this to have any results.<ref>Coox (1994), p. 427</ref> Overall, Japanese fighters shot down 74 B-29s, anti-aircraft guns accounted for a further 54 and 19 were downed by a combination of anti-aircraft guns and fighters. IJAAF and IJN losses during the defense of Japan were 1,450 aircraft in combat and another 2,750 to other causes.<ref>Zaloga (2010), pp. 54–55</ref>

===Treatment of prisoners of war===

Most of the Allied airmen captured after being shot down over Japan were mistreated. The Japanese considered B-29 crewmen to be [[war criminal]]s, and they were subject to trial and possible execution for indiscriminate bombing.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 250</ref> Japanese civilians sometimes killed airmen, and 29 were killed by mobs immediately after being captured.<ref name="Tillman_170">Tillman (2010), p. 170</ref> Most captured airmen were also tortured. Overall, of the 550 Allied airmen who were captured in the Japanese home islands (excluding the Kurils), 29 were killed by civilians, 132 were killed in prison and another 94 died from other causes, including 64 who were killed when they were deliberetly not evacuated from a prison in Tokyo during the May 25–26 raid on Tokyo.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 171–172</ref> Six survivors of a B-29 shot down on May 5 were later subjected to [[vivisection]] at the [[Kyushu University|Kyushu Imperial University]].<ref name="Tillman_171">Tillman (2010), p. 171</ref>

==Atomic bombings and final attacks==
[[File:Atomic cloud over Hiroshima.jpg|thumb|The [[mushroom cloud]] rising over Hiroshima shortly after it was attacked on August 5, 1945.]]
{{main|Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki}}
Beginning in 1942 the United States, with assistance from Britain and other Allied countries, devoted considerable resources to developing [[nuclear weapon]]s through the [[Manhattan Project]]. In December 1944 the USAAF's [[509th Composite Group]] was formed under the command of Colonel [[Paul Tibbets]] to deliver these weapons once they were complete and, after a period of training, it deployed to Tinian during May and June 1945.<ref>Polmar (2004), pp. 17–20</ref> On July 16 the "[[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity]]" test of the first nuclear bomb was successful.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 269</ref> Four days later the 509th Composite Group's modified "[[Silverplate]]" B-29s began flying practice raids against Japanese cities, each armed with a single high explosive [[pumpkin bomb|"pumpkin" bomb]]; further practice missions were conducted on July 24, 26 and 29. Japanese fighters did not attempt to intercept these aircraft and their bombing altitude of {{convert|30000|ft|m}} was beyond the range of most anti-aircraft guns.<ref>Polmar (2004), p. 25</ref> Meanwhile, on July 24 President [[Harry S. Truman]] approved the use of atomic bombs against Japan and the next day General Spaatz received written orders to this effect. His orders specified that the first attack should be made after August 3, and named [[Hiroshima]], [[Kokura]], [[Niigata (city)|Niigata]] and Nagasaki as the targets for the atomic bombs.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 262</ref> On July 26 the United States, Britain and China issued the [[Potsdam Declaration]] which demanded Japan's surrender after warning that the country would be devastated if the war continued. The Japanese Government rejected the Allied demands on July 28.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 232–234</ref> Components for the "[[Little Boy]]" atomic bomb arrived on Tinian in late July and the weapon was ready on August 1.<ref>Polmar (2004), p. 27</ref>

Hiroshima was attacked on August 5. At 8:15 am local time the B-29 ''[[Enola Gay]]'', which was piloted by Colonel Tibbets, dropped "Little Boy" over the center of the city. The resulting explosion killed tens of thousands of people and destroyed about 4.7 square miles of buildings.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 271</ref> The six American aircraft involved in this attack returned to the Marianas safely.<ref>Polmar (2004), pp. 31 and 33</ref> Postwar estimates of casualties from the attack on Hiroshima range from 66,000 to 80,000 fatalities and 69,000 to 151,000 injured.<ref name="Frank_286">Frank (1999), p. 286</ref> Tens of thousands more subsequently died as a result of radiation and other injuries from the attack; it has been estimated that 140,000 people had died as a result of the atomic bomb by the end of 1945 and estimates of the total fatalities range as high as 230,000.<ref>Polmar (2004), p. 33</ref><ref>McCurry (2005), p. 441</ref> Of the survivors of the bombing, 171,000 were rendered homeless.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 723</ref> The Twentieth Air Force also conducted incendiary raids against the cities of [[Imabari, Ehime|Imabari]], [[Maebashi, Gunma|Maebashi]], [[Nishinomiya]] and [[Saga, Saga|Saga]] on August 5.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_p675 />

On August 6, a statement from President Truman was broadcast which announced that the United States had used an atomic bomb against Hiroshima and that further air attacks would be conducted on Japanese industrial facilities and transportation network. The statement included a threat that if Japan did not surrender under the terms specified in the Potsdam Declaration it would be subjected to "a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on earth".<ref>Frank (1999), p. 269</ref> Two days later daylight incendiary raids were made against the cities of Yawata and [[Fukuyama, Hiroshima|Fukuyama]]; these attacks destroyed 21 percent of Yawata's urban area and over 73 percent of Fukuyama.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_p675 /> Japanese aircraft intercepted the force dispatched against Yawata and shot down a B-29 and five of the escorting P-47s for the loss of approximately twelve fighters.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 655</ref>
[[File:Nagasaki temple destroyed.jpg|thumb|left|Part of Nagasaki six weeks after the atomic bombing]]

The second atomic bomb attack was made on August 9. On this day the B-29 ''[[Bockscar]]'' was dispatched to attack Kokura with the "[[Fat Man]]" bomb. When the aircraft arrived over the city it was found to be covered in smoke and haze. As a result, the plane's pilot, Major [[Charles Sweeney]], decided to attack the secondary target of Nagasaki instead. Nagasaki was also covered in cloud, but Major Sweeney and the weapon technicians decided to use radar rather than visual aiming. The bomb was dropped at 10:58 am local time, and the resulting 20 [[TNT equivalent|kiloton]] explosion destroyed 1.45 square miles of buildings in the [[Urakami]] district.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 283–285</ref><ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 719–720, 725</ref> Estimates of Japanese casualties range from 23,753 to 45,000 killed and 25,000 to 60,000 wounded.<ref name=Frank_286 /> All the American planes involved in the operation returned safely to Tinian, though ''Bockscar'' had to make an emergency landing at Okinawa after running low on fuel.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 720</ref> The [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria]] also began on August 9, with the [[Red Army]] making rapid progress.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 281–283</ref>

In response the the atomic bomb attacks and Soviet intervention in the Pacific War, the Japanese began negotiations with the Allies about the terms of surrender on August 10.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 273–274</ref> During this period B-29 attacks on Japan were limited to a raid by the 315th Bombardment Wing against an oil target on the night of August 9–10 and a daytime precision bombing attack on a factory in Tokyo on August 10. The next day President Truman ordered a halt to the bombing due to the possibility that it might be seen as a sign that peace negotiations had failed.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 302–303</ref> On August 11 General Spaatz also issued a new targeting directive for any renewed attacks which reduced the emphasis on bombing cities in favor of intensified attacks on transportation infrastructure.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 303–304</ref> On August 13, B-29s dropped copies of the Japanese government's conditional offer to surrender over Japanese cities.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 313–314</ref> Negotiations appeared to be stalled, and on August 14 Spaatz received orders to resume the bombing campaign. General Arnold requested the largest attack possible, and hoped that USASTAF could dispatch 1,000 aircraft against the Tokyo region. In the event, 828 B-29s escorted by 186 fighters (for a total of 1,014 aircraft) were dispatched; during the day aircraft conducted precision attacks on targets at Iwakuni, Osaka and Tokoyama and at night the cities of [[Kumagaya, Saitama|Kumagaya]] and [[Isesaki, Gunma|Isesaki]] were firebombed.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 732–733</ref><ref>Frank (1999), p. 313</ref> While the Eighth Air Force units at Okinawa had not yet conducted any missions against Japan, General Doolittle decided against contributing aircraft to this operation as he did not wish to risk the lives of his men when the war was effectively over.<ref>Miller (2008), p. 519</ref> These were the last air raids against Japan as at noon on August 15 the Japanese Emperor [[Hirohito]] made a radio broadcast announcing his country's intention to surrender.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 275</ref>

==Postwar==
[[File:Missouri-flyover.jpg|thumb|USN carrier aircraft flying over the Allied fleet in Tokyo Bay following the Japanese surrender on September 2 1945<ref>{{cite web|title=Formal Surrender of Japan, 2 September 1945 -- Aircraft Flyover as the Ceremonies Conclude|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/japansur/js-8i.htm|work=Online Library of Selected Images|publisher=United States Navy Naval Historical Center|accessdate=13 March 2011}}</ref>]]
Limited air operations continued over Japan in the weeks after the Japanese surrender. On August 17 and 18 [[Consolidated B-32 Dominator|B-32 Dominators]] flying reconnaissance missions from Okinawa were attacked by IJN fighters near Tokyo.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 247–248</ref> From August 17 the Twentieth Air Force was responsible for supplying Allied POW camps in Japan, Korea and China until the prisoners were evacuated. Supply drops began on August 27 and continued until September 20. During this period the B-29s flew almost 1,000 sorties and delivered close to 4,500 tons of supplies.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 250–251</ref> Eight aircraft crashed during these missions and another was damaged a Soviet fighter over Korea.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 735</ref> While General Spaatz ordered that B-29s and fighters fly continuous [[show of force]] patrols of the Tokyo area from August 19 until the formal surrender ceremony, these were initially frustrated by bad weather and logistics problems and the first patrols weren't flown until August 30 when they were made in conjunction with the landing of the [[11th Airborne Division (United States)|11th Airborne Division]] and General [[Douglas MacArthur]] at [[Naval Air Facility Atsugi|Atsugi airfield]].<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 733–734</ref> A similar operation was conducted the next day, and on September 2 a force of 462 B-29s and many naval aircraft overflew the Allied fleet in Tokyo Bay after the surrender ceremony onboard {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}} concluded.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p734">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 734</ref>

Allied air units participated in the [[occupation of Japan]] after the war. Advance parties of the FEAF began to arrive at Atsugi airfield on August 30, and units of the Fifth Air Force were established across the Japanese home islands during September and October.<ref>MacArthur (1950), pp. 268–270</ref> In addition to transporting occupation troops, the Fifth Air Force conducted armed patrols over Japan and Korea as well as many photo reconnaissance and mapping sorties.<ref>MacArthur (1950), p. 270</ref> [[Royal Australian Air Force]], British [[Royal Air Force]], [[Indian Air Force]], [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]], US Navy and [[United States Marine Corps]] air units were also deployed to Japan for occupation duties.<ref>Stephens (2006), p. 213</ref><ref>MacArthur (1950), p. 290</ref> There was no Japanese resistance to the Allied occupation, and the number of air units stationed in the country was gradually reduced from late 1945.<ref>MacArthur (1950), pp. 270–277</ref>

==Assessments==
===Results===
The air attacks on Japan caused hundreds of thousands of casualties, though estimates of the number of Japanese killed and wounded vary. The strategic attacks by the Twentieth Air Force resulted in most of the casualties and damage. The United States Strategic Bombing Survey estimated that 333,000 Japanese were killed and 472,000 wounded while the postwar Japanese Government calculated in 1949 that the number of deaths from air attack in the Home Islands was 323,495. In 1999 historian [[Richard B. Frank]] estimated that about 410,000 Japanese had been killed, of whom all but 100,000 died in the March 9–10 firebombing raid on Tokyo and the two atomic attacks.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 334–335</ref> The Japanese Government estimated that the total number of military casualties during the war was 780,000.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 754</ref> The Twentieth Air Force lost 414 B-29s during attacks on Japan. Over 2,600 American bomber crew members were killed, including POWs who died in captivity, and a further 414 were wounded.<ref name=Kerr_276 />

Much of Japan's industrial capacity was destroyed by Allied bombing. Over 600 major industrial facilities were destroyed or badly damaged, contributing to a large decline in industrial production.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 278–279</ref> Absenteeism caused by the air attacks further disrupted production.<ref name="Kerr_280">Kerr (1991), p. 280</ref> It is not possible to determine the exact damage bombing caused to Japan's economy, however, as the general breakdown which occurred from late 1944 was also the result of the Allied naval blockade. Statistics complied by the USSBS show a correlation between the number of B-29 sorties directed at different industries and amount by which their production declined, but air attacks were not the only reason for these differences.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 752–753</ref> In addition to the heavy bomber attacks, strikes by Allied aircraft carriers tightened the blockade by disrupting Japanese coastal shipping; the naval aircraft were unable to carry enough bombs to seriously affect Japanese industry, however.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 262, 264</ref> As well the damage caused to Japan's industry, the rice crop of 1945 failed and this, in combination with Japan's inability to import food due to the Allied blockade, caused widespread malnutrition and mass starvation would have occurred had the war continued.<ref name="Kerr_281">Kerr (1991), p. 281</ref>

The attacks also caused extensive damage to Japan's urban areas. Approximately 40 percent of the urban area of the 66 cities subjected to area attacks were destroyed.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p751">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 751</ref> This included the loss of about 2.5 million housing units which rendered 8.5 million people homeless.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 280–281</ref> The Allied urban area attacks reduced the morale of the Japanese population, and postwar [[Statistical survey|surveys]] conducted by the USSBS found that air attacks were the most important factor in convincing the Japanese that the war had been lost. During the final months of the war the raids also contributed to the deterioration of the Japanese social fabric.<ref name="Kerr_282">Kerr (1991), p. 282</ref> To achieve this, the American 20th Strategic Air Force, in concert with its Allies, dropped 160,800 tons of bombs on the Japanese home islands. Of this total, 147,000 tons of bombs was dropped by the B-29 bomber force. Around 90 percent of the American tonnage dropped fell in the last five months of the war.<ref>Hall 1998, p. 366.</ref>

Allied air raids significantly influenced the Japanese Government's decision to surrender. The USSBS concluded that Japan would have been forced to surrender by November 1 1945 due to pressure from air attacks and blockade. While the survey did not state that any single factor caused the surrender, during interrogations most Japanese wartime leaders nominated the prolonged air attacks on the home islands as being the single most important factor which influenced their decision to end the war.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 756</ref> In particular, Prime Minister [[Kantarō Suzuki]] believed that the combination of the conventional B-29 raids, Potsdam Declaration and atomic bombings gave the Government the opportunity to begin negotiations with the Allies and Emperor Hirohito cited damage from the attacks, inadequate preparations to resist invasion and the Soviet offensive as his justifications for authorizing the surrender.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 292–293</ref><ref>Frank (1999), p. 345</ref>

===Morality===

There has been debate over the morality of the air campaign against Japan since World War II. During the war the American public approved of the bombing of Germany and Japan, and the few people who criticized the raids were attacked as being unrealistic or even traitors. Some United States government and military personnel believed that the bombing campaign was morally ambiguous, however, but rarely voiced their views publicly.<ref>Dower (1986), p. 41</ref> The moral concerns over the attacks have been focused on the large number of civilian casualties and property damage they caused. It has been suggested that the USAAF's use of widespread firebombing tactics against Japan and focus on precision bombing in Germany was motivated by [[anti-Japanese sentiment]]. In response to this claim, Richard B. Frank argues that this difference was attributable to the evolution in views towards bombing over the course of the war as well as the Allies limited intelligence on structure of the Japanese economy and the much greater vulnerability of Japanese cities to incendiary bombs.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 336</ref> [[Barrett Tillman]] has also written that due to the limitations of technology at the time and the high winds over Japan, most 'precision' bombing also caused widespread damage and that the area attacks against Japanese cities were successful in destroying the country's aircraft industry.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 262–264</ref>

The atomic bomb attacks have been the [[Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|subject of long-running controversy]]. Shortly after the attacks an opinion poll found that about 85 percent of Americans supported their use and the wartime generation believed that they had saved millions of lives. Criticisms over the decision to use the bombs increased over time, however, and arguments made against the attacks include that Japan would have eventually surrendered and that the attacks were made to either intimidate the Soviet Union or justify the Manhattan Project. By 1994 an opinion poll found that only 55 percent of Americans supported the decision to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 331–332</ref> When registering the only dissenting opinion of the judges involved in the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]] in 1947, Justice [[Radhabinod Pal]] argued that Japan's leadership had not conspired to commit atrocities and stated that the decision to make the atomic bomb attacks was the clearest example of a direct order to conduct "indiscriminate murder" during the Pacific War.<ref>Dower (1986), pp. 37–38</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|3}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
{{commons|Category:Bombing of Japan in World War II|Bombing of Japan in World War II}}
* {{cite book|last=Chun|first=Clayton K.S.|title=The Doolittle Raid 1942: America's first strike back at Japan|year=2006|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=1841769185|location=Oxford}}
* {{cite book|last=Coles|first=Harry L.|coauthors=Olson, James C.|title=The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan August 1942 to July 1944|editor=Craven, Wesley Frank and Cate, James Lea|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago and London|date=1951|series=The Army Air Forces in World War II. Volume 5|chapter=The North Pacific|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/IV/index.html}}
* {{cite book|last=Coox|first=Alvin D.|title=Case studies in the achievement of air superiority|year=1994|publisher=Center for Air Force History|location=Washington, D.C.|editor=Cooling, B. Franklin|chapter=Air War Against Japan|isbn=0912799633|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=keUMn-pi5vkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{cite journal|last=Correll|first=John T.|date=2009|title=The Matterhorn Missions|journal=Air Force Magazine|publisher=The Air Force Association|location=Arlington|issue=March 2009|url=http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2009/March%202009/0309matterhorn.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last=Craven|first=Wesley|coauthors=Cate, James (editors)|title=The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1953|series=The Army Air Forces in World War II|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/V/index.html}}
* {{cite book|last=Dear, I.C.B and Foot, M.R.D. (editors)|title=The Oxford Companion to World War II|editor=|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|date=2005|pages=|chapter=|isbn=9780192806703}}
* {{cite book|last=Dorr|first=Robert F.|title=B-29 Superfortress Units of World War 2|year=2002|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Oxford|isbn=9781841762852|date=2002}}
* {{cite book|last=Dower|first=John|title=War Without Mercy : Race and Power in the Pacific War|year=1986|publisher=Faber|location=London|isbn=0571146058}}
* {{cite journal|last=Dower|first=John W.|title=The Bombed: Hiroshimas and Nagasakis in Japanese Memory|journal=Diplomatic History|date=28 February 1995|volume=19|issue=2|pages=275–295|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.1995.tb00658.x}}
* {{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Niall|title=The War of the World. History's Age of Hatred|publisher=Penguin Books|location=London|year=2007|isbn=9780141013824}}
* {{cite book|last=Foreign Histories Division, Headquarters, United States Army Japan|title=Japanese Monograph No. 157: Homeland Air Defense Operations Record|publisher=Garland Publishing |location=New York City|date=1980|series=War in Asia and the Pacific. Volume 12: Defense of the Homeland and End of the War|isbn=0824032969}}
* {{cite book|last=Frank|first=Richard B.|title=Downfall. The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York|date=1999|isbn=014101461}}
* {{cite book|last=Futrell|first=Frank|coauthors=Taylor, James|title=The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki June 1944 to August 1945|editor=Craven, Wesley Frank and Cate, James Lea|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago and London|date=1953|series=The Army Air Forces in World War II. Volume V|chapter=Reorganization for Victory}}
* {{cite journal|last=Glines|first=C.V.|title=The Bat Bombers|journal=Air Force Magazine|date=October 1990|volume=73|issue=10|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080531082803/http://www.afa.org/magazine/1990/1090bat.html}}
* Hall, Cargill (1998). ''Case Studies In Strategic Bombardment''. Air Force History and Museums Program. ISBN 0-16-049781-7.
* {{cite web|last=Haulman|first=Daniel L.|date=1999|title=Hitting Home: The Air Offensive Against Japan|url=http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/Publications/fulltext/hitting_home.pdf|work=The U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II|publisher=Air Force Historical Studies Office|format=PDF}}
* {{cite book|last=Havens|first=Thomas R.H.|title=Valley of Darkness : The Japanese People and World War Two|year=1978|publisher=Norton|location=New York|isbn=0393056562}}
* {{cite book|last=Horn|first=Steve|title=The Second Attack on Pearl Harbor : Operation K and other Japanese Attempts to Bomb America in World War II|year=2005|publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis|isbn=1591143888}}
* {{cite book|last=Hoyt|first=Edwin P.|title=Japan's War: The Great Pacific Conflict|year=1987|publisher=Arrow Books|isbn=0099635003|location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Kerr|first=E. Bartlett|title=Flames Over Tokyo: The U.S. Army Air Forces' Incendiary Campaign Against Japan 1944-1945|publisher=Donald I. Fine Inc|location=New York City|date=1991|isbn=1556113013}}
*{{cite book|last=MacArthur|first=Douglas|title=MacArthur in Japan: The Occupation Phase|year=1950|publisher=United States Army Center for Military History|location=Washington D.C.|url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/macarthur%20reports/macarthur%20v1%20sup/|series=Reports of General MacArthur}}
* {{cite journal|last=McCurry|first=Justin|title=The Day the Bomb Fell|journal=The Lancet|date=11 August 2005|volume=366|issue=9484|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67041-9|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(05)67041-9/fulltext}}
* {{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald L.|title=Eighth Air Force : The American Bomber Crews in Britain|year=2008|publisher=Aurum|location=London|isbn=9781845133368}}
* {{cite book|last=Morison|first=Samuel Eliot|title=Victory in the Pacific|publisher=University of Illinois|location=Champaign|date=1960 (2002 reprint) |series=History of United States Naval Operations in World War II|isbn=0252070658}}
* {{cite book|last=Overy|first=Richard|title=The Air War 1939–1945|year=1980|publisher=Europa |isbn=0905118537|location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Polmar|first=Norman|title=The Enola Gay: The B-29 That Dropped the Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima|publisher=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum|location=Washington, D.C.|date=2004|isbn=1574888595}}
* {{cite book|last=Royal Navy|title=War with Japan. Volume VI Advance to Japan|publisher=HMSO|location=London|date=1995|isbn=0117728217}}
* {{cite book|last=Sakaida|first=Henry|coauthors=Takaki, Kōji|title=B-29 Hunters of the JAAF|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Oxford|date=2001|series=Aviation Elite Units|isbn=1841761613|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=4p1pDSXzZZUC&dq=Raid+on+Yawata&source=gbs_navlinks_s}}
* {{cite book|last=Spector|first=Ronald H.|title=Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan|year=1984|publisher=Cassell & Co|isbn=0304359793|location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Stephens |first=Alan |origyear=2001 |year=2006 |title=The Royal Australian Air Force: A History |location=Melbourne|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0195555414}}
* {{cite book|last=Tillman|first=Barrett|title=Whirlwind: The Air War Against Japan 1942–1945|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|date=2010|isbn=9781416584407}}
* {{cite journal|last=Wolk|first=Herman S.|date=2004|title=The Twentieth Against Japan|journal=Air Force Magazine|publisher=The Air Force Association|location=Arlington|issue=April 2004|url=http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2004/April%202004/0404japan.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Wolk|first=Herman S.|title=Cataclysm : General Hap Arnold and the Defeat of Japan|year=2010|publisher=University of North Texas Press|location=Denton, Texas|isbn=9781574412819}}
* {{cite book|last=Zaloga|first=Steven J|title=Defense of Japan 1945|year=2010|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=1846036879|location=Oxford|series=Fortress}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.japanairraids.org/ Japanairraids.org]

{{World War II}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Japanese Home Islands}}
[[Category:Military history of Japan during World War II]]
[[Category:Japanese home islands campaign]]
[[Category:Strategic bombing operations and battles]]
[[Category:World War II Pacific Theatre]]

[[ja:日本本土空襲]]
[[zh:空襲日本]]

Luftangriffe auf Japan

2011-03-28T14:11:55Z

Dapi89: /* References */ +1

{{infobox military conflict
| conflict = Air raids on Japan
| partof = [[Pacific War]], [[World War II]]
| image = [[File:Incendaries-b29.jpg|300px|B-29 Superfortress bombers dropping incendiary bombs on [[Yokohama]] during May 1945]]
| caption = B-29 Superfortress bombers dropping incendiary bombs on [[Yokohama]] during May 1945<ref name=Wolk_72 />
| date = April 18, 1942 – August 15, 1945
| place = Japan
| coordinates =
| map_type =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| territory =
| result =
| status =
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|USA|1912}} [[United States]] {{flagicon|UK}} [[United Kingdom]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Japan|alt}} [[Empire of Japan]]
| combatant3 =
| commander1 =
| commander2 =
| commander3 =
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| strength3 =
| casualties1 = '''20th Air Force:''' 414 B-29 bombers, Over 2,600 killed<ref name="Kerr_276">Kerr (1991), p. 276</ref>
| casualties2 = At least 300,000 killed<ref name="Tillman_256">Tillman (2010), p. 256</ref>
| casualties3 =
| notes =
}}
{{Campaignbox Japan}}
During [[World War II]] the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces conducted many '''air raids on Japan''' which caused extensive destruction to the country's cities and killed over 300,000 people. These attacks began with the [[Doolittle Raid]] in mid-April 1942, but did not resume until June 1944 when [[United States Army Air Forces]] (USAAF) [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress|B-29 Superfortress]] heavy bombers began a series of attacks from bases in China. From November 1944 until the end of the war the USAAF conducted a major [[Strategic bombing during World War II|strategic bombing]] offensive against Japan; these attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities, but from March 1945 were frequently directed against Japanese urban areas. During early August 1945 the cities of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] were [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|attacked with atomic bombs]]. Aircraft flying from Allied [[aircraft carrier]]s and the [[Ryukyu Islands]] also frequently attacked targets in Japan during 1945. The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks, and the country's [[civil defense]] preparations proved inadequate. Along the with [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria]], the Allied bombing campaign was one of the main factors which influenced the Japanese Government's [[Surrender of Japan|decision to surrender]] in mid-August.

==Background==
===United States preparations===

The United States Army Air Corps began preparing to bomb the Japanese home islands during 1940. During that year the naval attaché to the [[Embassy of the United States in Tokyo]] reported on Japan's weak [[civil defense]]s and proposals were developed for US volunteer aircrew to assist the Chinese forces in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]. The first [[American Volunteer Group]] (the '[[Flying Tigers]]') began operations in support of the Chinese in late 1941 using fighter aircraft. A second Air Volunteer Group was subsequently formed to attack Japan from bases in China using [[Lockheed Hudson|Hudson]] and [[Douglas A-20 Havoc|A-20 Havoc]] medium bombers, but was diverted elsewhere in Asia following the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] on 7 December 1941 which led to open hostilities between the US and Japan.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 31–32</ref>

Japanese successes during the opening months of the [[Pacific War]] nullified pre-war US plans for attacks against the Japanese homeland. Prior to the outbreak of war the USAAF planned operations against Japan from [[Wake Island]], [[Guam]], the [[Philippines]] and coastal areas in China.<ref name="Tillman_32">Tillman (2010), p. 32</ref> These areas were rapidly captured by Japan, however, and the USAAF heavy bomber force in the Philippines was largely destroyed when [[Clark Air Base]] was attacked on 8 December 1941.<ref>Chun (2006), pp. 7, 30</ref> The USAAF attempted to send 13 heavy bombers to China in March and April 1942 to attack the Japanese home islands. These aircraft reached India, but remained there when the [[Japanese conquest of Burma]] caused logistics problems and Chinese Nationalist leader [[Chiang Kai-shek]] proved reluctant to allow the aircraft territory under his control. A further 13 [[Consolidated B-24 Liberator|B-24 Liberator]] heavy bombers were dispatched from the United States to China in May 1942 as the [[HALPRO]] force, but were instead retasked to support Allied operations in the Mediterranean when they reached [[Egypt]].<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 32–33</ref> In July 1942 the commander of the American Volunteer Group, Colonel [[Claire Lee Chennault]], sought a force of 100 [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt|P-47 Thunderbolt]] fighters and 30 [[North American B-25 Mitchell|B-25 Mitchell]] medium bombers which he believed would be sufficient to "destroy" the Japanese aircraft industry. Three months later Chennault told President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] that a force of 105 modern fighters and 40 bombers (including 12 heavy bombers) would be able to "accomplish the downfall of Japan" within six to twelve months. These claims were not considered credible by the USAAF's headquarters, and the requests for reinforcements were not granted.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 32–33</ref>

===Pre-war Japanese defenses===
[[File:Construction of Air-raid shelter in Japan.JPG|thumb|An [[air-raid shelter]] being built in Japan during 1940]]

Japanese air defenses were weak at the start of the Pacific War. The Japanese government did not expect that the home islands would experience anything other than sporadic attacks by [[United States Navy]] aircraft carriers, however. In early 1942 forces allocated to the defense of Japan comprised 100 [[Imperial Japanese Army Air Force]] (IJAAF) and 200 [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (IJN) fighter aircraft (many of which were obsolete) and 500 Army-manned anti-aircraft guns and 200 IJN-manned guns. In addition, the Army operated a network of military and civilian-manned observation posts to provide warning of air attack and was in the process of building radar stations. Command and control of the air defenses was fragmented and the IJAAF and IJN did not coordinate their activities or communicate with each other. As a result, the forces were unable to react to a sudden air attack.<ref>Chun (2006), pp. 24–27</ref>

Japan's [[civil defense]] organization was also inadequate to cope with large-scale air attacks. Air raid drills had been held in Tokyo and Osaka since 1928, and from 1937 local governments were required to provide manuals to civilians with information on how to respond to air attacks.<ref>Havens (1978), p. 155</ref> Few cities had full-time professional [[firefighter]]s, and most relied on volunteers. Such firefighting forces that did exist lacked modern equipment and used outdated tactics.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 142–143</ref> In addition, few measures were undertaken to provide air defense facilities for civilians or industry such as the construction of [[air-raid shelter]]s.<ref name="Zaloga_25">Zaloga (2010), p. 25</ref>

==Early raids==
===Doolittle Raid===
[[File:Doolittle Raid (USS Hornet).jpg|thumb|A [[North American B-25 Mitchell|B-25 Mitchell]] taking off from {{USS|Hornet|CV-8|6}} on 18 April 1942]]
{{main|Doolittle Raid}}
USAAF aircraft bombed Japan for the first time in mid-April 1942. In an operation conducted primarily to raise morale in the United States, 16 B-25 Mitchell medium bombers were embarked aboard the aircraft carrier {{USS|Hornet|CV-8|6}} which carried them from [[San Francisco]] to within range of Japan. The aircraft were flown off several hours earlier than intended on 18 April and individually bombed targets in Tokyo, [[Yokohama]], [[Yokosuka]], [[Nagoya]] and [[Kobe]]. The few Japanese air defense units were taken by surprise, and all of the B-25s escaped without serious damage. The aircraft then continued to China and the Soviet Union, though several crashed in Japanese-held territory due to fuel shortages.<ref name="NMUSAF_Doolittle">{{cite web|title=America Hits Back: The Doolittle Tokyo Raiders|url=http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15351|work=Factsheets|publisher=National Museum of the US Air Force|accessdate=30 June 2010}}</ref> Japanese casualties in this attack were 50 killed, over 400 wounded and approximately 200 houses destroyed.<ref>Coox (1994), p. 394</ref>

Although the raid did little damage, it had important ramifications. The attack succeeded in raising morale in the United States and made a hero out of its commander, Lieutenant Colonel [[James H. Doolittle]]; Doolittle later commanded several major air units in the Mediterranean and Europe. The weak state of Japan's air defenses greatly embarrassed the Japanese military leadership and four fighter groups were transferred from the Pacific to defend the home islands. In an attempt to prevent further attacks, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched an offensive in the Pacific Ocean which ended in defeat during the [[Battle of Midway]].<ref>Chun (2006), pp. 84, 88–91</ref> The [[Imperial Japanese Army]] also conducted the [[Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign]] to capture the air bases in central China at which the Doolittle Raiders had intended to land. This offensive achieved its objectives and resulted in the deaths of 250,000 Chinese soldiers and civilians, including many civilians killed in [[war crime]]s.<ref>Hoyt (1987), pp. 277–279</ref> In an attempt to retaliate against the Doolittle Raid the IJA began developing [[fire balloons]] capable of carrying incendiary and anti-personnel bombs from Japan to the continental United States.<ref>Horn (2005), pp. 205–206</ref>

===Bombing of the Kuril Islands===

Following the Doolittle Raid, the next air attacks on Japan were made against the [[Kuril Islands]] in mid-1943. The liberation of [[Attu Island]] in May 1943 during the [[Aleutian Islands Campaign]] provided the USAAF with bases within range of the Kurils. As part of the preparations for the liberation of [[Kiska Island]] the [[Eleventh Air Force]] planned a series of raids against the Kurils to suppress Japanese air units stationed there. The first of these attacks was made by eight B-25s on 10 July against southern [[Shumshu]] and northern [[Paramushir|Paramushiru]]. A second raid was staged against the Kurils on 18 July by six B-24 Liberator heavy bombers, and the unopposed liberation of Kiska ([[Operation Cottage]]) took place on 15 August.<ref>Coles (1951), pp. 387–391</ref>

The Eleventh Air Force and US Navy units continued to make small-scale harassing raids on the Kuril Islands until the closing months of the war. The USAAF attacks were broken off for five months following a raid on 11 September when nine of the 20 B-24s and B-25s dispatched were lost, but US Navy [[Consolidated PBY Catalina|PBY Catalinas]] continued to bomb Japanese positions in the Kurils. In response to the US attacks the IJN established the North-East Area Fleet in August 1943 and by November that year Japanese fighter strength in the Kurils and [[Hokkaidō]] peaked at 260 aircraft. The USAAF resumed its offensive in February 1944 with the addition of two squadrons of [[Lockheed P-38 Lightning|P-38 Lightning]] escort fighters, and Eleventh Air Force bombers continued to attack targets in the Kurils until June 1945.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 273–275</ref> While these raids caused little damage, they forced the Japanese to divert large numbers of soldiers to defend their northern islands against a potential United States invasion.<ref>Coles (1951), p. 401</ref>

==Operation Matterhorn==
[[File:B-29 targets from China.jpg|thumb|alt=A black and white map of east Asia. Most of the cities depicted on the map are marked with bomb symbols.|Locations of B-29 bomber bases in China and the main targets they attacked in East Asia during [[Operation Matterhorn]]]]
{{main|Operation Matterhorn}}
===Preparations===
In late 1943 the United States [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] approved a proposal to begin the [[Strategic bombing|strategic air campaign]] against the Japanese home islands and East Asia by basing [[B-29 Superfortress]] heavy bombers in India and establishing forward airfields in areas of China. This strategy, which was designated [[Operation Matterhorn]], required the construction of large airstrips near [[Chengdu|Chengtu]] in inland China which would be supplied by Allied cargo aircraft and be used to refuel B-29s traveling from bases in [[Bengal]] en-route to bombing targets in Japan.<ref>Correll (2009), pp. 62–63</ref> [[XX Bomber Command]] was assigned responsibility for this effort and its ground crew began to leave the United States for India by sea in December 1943.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 75–79</ref><ref>Tillman (2010), p. 41</ref> The [[Twentieth Air Force]] was formed in April 1944 to oversee all B-29 operations. In an unprecedented move, the commander of the USAAF, General [[Henry H. Arnold]], took personal command of this unit and ran it from [[the Pentagon]].<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 45</ref> The [[58th Air Division|58th Bombardment Wing]] was XX Bomber Command's main combat unit, and its movement from Kansas to India took place from April to mid-May.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 43–44</ref>

The Japanese military began transferring fighter aircraft from China and the Pacific to the home islands in early 1944 in anticipation of B-29 raids. The IJAAF established three air divisions to defend [[Honshū]] and [[Kyūshū]] and the IJN also contributed air units to support the Army. Further anti-aircraft gun batteries and searchlight units were also established to protect major cities and military bases. These defenses remained inadequate, however, as Japan had few aircraft and anti-aircraft guns capable of effectively engaging B-29s at their cruising altitude of {{convert|30000|ft|m}} and only a small number of radar stations were established to provide early warning of raids.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 60–64</ref>
[[File:Air Raid Drill in Japan during World War II1.JPG|thumb|left|Civilians participating in an air-raid drill during 1942]]

In response to the Doolittle Raid and the threat of further attacks the Japanese Government also sought to improve the country's civil defenses. The central government placed the burden of constructing civilian air-raid shelters on the [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectural governments]], though shortages of concrete and steel hindered their construction. In October 1943 the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (Japan)|Ministry of Home Affairs]] directed households in the main cities to build their own shelters, though these were normally only [[Trench|trenches]].<ref name=Zaloga_25 /> Tunnels and natural caves were later used to shelter civilians from B-29 raids, and less than two percent of civilians had access to bombproof air-raid shelters. A small number of sophisticated shelters were also constructed for air defense headquarters and to protect key telephone facilities.<ref name="Zaloga_27">Zaloga (2010), p. 27</ref> Following the outbreak of war the Ministry of Home Affairs also expanded the number of firefighters, though these generally remained amateur volunteers who lacked adequate training and equipment.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 142–146</ref> Civilians were also trained to fight fires and encouraged to swear an 'air defense oath' to respond to attacks from incendiary or high explosive bombs.<ref name="Dear-Foot_484">Dear and Foot (2005), p. 484</ref>

The Japanese Government stepped-up its civil defenses from the northern autumn of 1943. In November that year an air defense general headquarters was established and a program of demolishing large numbers of buildings in major cities to create [[firebreak]]s began during December. By the end of the war 614,000 housing units had been destroyed to clear firebreaks; these accounted for a fifth of all housing losses and displaced 3.5 million people.<ref>Havens (1978), pp. 158–159</ref> The Japanese Government also encouraged old people, children and women in cities which were believed likely to be attacked to [[Evacuations of civilians in Japan during World War II|evacuate to the countryside]] from December 1943, and a program of evacuating entire classes of schoolchildren was implemented. By August 1944 330,000 schoolchildren had been evacuated in school groups and another 459,000 had moved to the countryside with their family.<ref name=Dear-Foot_484 /> Little was done to disperse industrial facilities so they were less vulnerable to attack, however, as this was logistically difficult.<ref>Havens (1978), p. 158</ref>

===Attacks from China===
XX Bomber Command began flying missions against Japan in mid-June 1944. The first raid took place on the night of 15/16 June when 75 B-29s were dispatched to [[Bombing of Yawata (June 1944)|attack the Imperial Iron and Steel Works]] at [[Yahata, Fukuoka|Yawata]] in northern Kyūshū. This raid caused little damage and cost seven B-29s, but received positive media coverage in the United States and indicated to Japanese civilians that the war was not going well.<ref name="Correll_63">Correll (2009), p. 63</ref><ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 102</ref> Arnold relieved XX Bomber Command's commander, Brigadier General Kenneth Wolfe, when he was unable to make follow-up attacks on Japan shortly after this raid due to insufficient fuel stockpiles at the bases in China. Wolfe's replacement was Major General [[Curtis LeMay]], a veteran of [[Eighth Air Force]] bombing attacks against Germany.<ref>Spector (1984), pp. 490–491</ref>
[[File:B-29s June 1944.jpg|thumb|alt=Four 4-engined World War II-era aircraft sitting on the ground at an airstrip. Groups of people are working near each aircraft.|B-29s photographed shortly before they participated in the [[Bombing of Yawata (June 1944)|15–16 June 1944 raid on Yawata]]]]

Subsequent B-29 raids staging through China were generally not successful. The second raid on Japan took place on 7 July when 17 B-29s attacked [[Sasebo, Nagasaki|Sasebo]], [[Ōmura, Nagasaki|Ōmura]] and [[Tobata-ku, Kitakyūshū|Tobata]], causing little damage, and on the night of August 10–11 24 Superfortresses attacked [[Nagasaki]]. A second raid was conducted against Yawata on 20 August, but this also caused little damage and twelve out of the 75 B-29s dispatched were shot down.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 53–56</ref> [[Japanese propaganda during World War II‎|Japanese Government propaganda]] claimed that 100 bombers had been shot down in this attack and one of the crashed B-29s was placed on display in Tokyo.<ref>Hoyt (1987), p. 363</ref> XX Bomber Command's performance improved after LeMay instituted a training program for aircrew and improved the organization of the B-29 maintenance units during August and September. A successful attack was mounted against Ōmura on 25 October which destroyed the city's small aircraft factory, though a follow-up raid on 11 November was not successful. The city was attacked again by 61 B-29s on 21 November and 17 bombers on 19 December. XX Bomber Command staged its ninth and final raid on Japan on 6 January 1945 when 28 B-29s once again bombed Ōmura. During the same period the command conducted a number of raids on targets in [[Manchuria]], China and [[Taiwan|Formosa]] from its bases in China as well as striking targets in [[South East Asia]] from India. The command flew its final mission from India, a [[Bombing of Singapore (1944–1945)|raid on Singapore]], on 29 March and its constituent units were then transferred to the Mariana Islands.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 58–65</ref>

Operation Matterhorn was not successful. The nine raids conducted against Japan via bases in China succeeded only in destroying Ōmura's aircraft factory and XX Bomber Command lost 125 B-29s during all of its operations from bases in India and China, though only 29 were destroyed by Japanese forces.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 65</ref> The attacks had a limited impact on Japanese civilian morale and forced the Japanese military to reinforce the home islands' air defenses at the expense of other areas. However, these limited successes did not justify the large expenditure of resources required by the operation.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 172–175</ref>

==Initial attacks from the Mariana Islands==
[[United States Marine Corps]] and [[United States Army]] forces captured the Japanese-held islands of [[Guam]], [[Saipan]] and [[Tinian]] in the [[Mariana Islands]] between June and August 1944.<ref name="Tillman_68">Tillman (2010), p. 68</ref> In the subsequent months USAAF engineers and USN [[Seabee]]s constructed six massive airfields on the islands capable of accommodating hundreds of B-29s.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 71–75</ref> These bases were much better suited to supporting an intensive air campaign against Japan than China as they could be easily supplied by sea and lay just {{convert|1500|mi|km}} south of Japan, which would allow B-29s to strike most of the home islands.<ref name="Wolk_72">Wolk (2004), p. 72</ref>
[[File:Briefing for attack on Tokyo November 1944.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Brigadier General [[Haywood S. Hansell]] posing with a map of the Tokyo region during November 1944]]

The Twentieth Air Force's [[XXI Bomber Command]] began to arrive in the Mariana Islands during October 1944. The Command was led by Brigadier General [[Haywood S. Hansell]] who had participated in Eighth Air Force operations against Germany. XXI Bomber Command B-29s flew six practice missions against targets in the Central Pacific during October and November in preparation for their first attack on Japan.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 77–79</ref> On 1 November a F-13 photo reconnaissance variant of the B-29 successfully overflew Tokyo; this was the first American aircraft over the city since the Doolittle Raid. Further F-13 sorties were conducted during early November to gather intelligence on aircraft plants and port facilities in the Tokyo–[[Yokosuka, Kanagawa|Yokosuka]] area.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 555–556</ref>

XXI Bomber Command's initial attacks on Japan were focused on the country's aircraft industry.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 553–554</ref> The first attack, codenamed [[Operation San Antonio I]], was made against the Musashino aircraft plant in the outskirts of Tokyo on 24 November 1944. Only 24 of the 111 B-29s dispatched attacked the raid's primary target, and the others bombed port facilities and industrial and urban areas. The Americans were intercepted by 125 Japanese fighters but only one B-29 was shot down.<ref name=Wolk_72 /> This attack caused some damage to the aircraft plant and caused many Japanese civilians to realize that the Japanese military was incapable of protecting their cities from air attack.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 559–560</ref> In response to this raid the Japanese stepped-up their [[Japanese air attacks on the Mariana Islands|air attacks]] on B-29 bases in the Mariana Islands on 27 November; these attacks continued until January 1945 and resulted in the destruction of eleven Superfortresses and damage to another 43 for the loss of approximately 37 Japanese aircraft.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 581–582</ref> The IJA also began launching fire balloons against the United States during November. This campaign caused little damage and was abandoned in March 1945; by this time 9,000 balloons had been dispatched but only 285 were reported to have reached the United States.<ref>Horn (2005), pp. 205–207</ref>

The next American raids on Japan were not successful. XXI Bomber Command attacked Tokyo a further three times between 27 November and 3 December; two of these attacks were made against the Musashino aircraft plant while the other targeted an industrial area using [[M-69 Incendiary cluster bomb]]s which had been specifically developed to attack Japanese urban areas.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 54–56</ref> Little damage was caused to the aircraft plant attacked on 27 November and 3 December as high winds and clouds prevented accurate bombing. The incendiary raid conducted on the night of 29/30 November by 29 Superfortresses burnt out one tenth of a square mile and was also judged to be unsuccessful by 20th Air Force Headquarters.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 108–109</ref>
[[File:B-29 shot down by flak.jpg|thumb|alt=|A B-29 falls in flames after a direct hit by an [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft shell]] over Japan]]

Four of XXI Bomber Command's next five raids were [[Bombing of Nagoya in World War II|made against targets in Nagoya]]. The first two of these attacks on 13 and 18 December used precision bombing tactics and damaged the city's aircraft plants.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 564–565</ref> The third raid was conducted as a daylight incendiary attack on the city in response to a 20th Air Force directive that the command dispatch 100 B-29s armed with M-69 bombs in order to test their effectiveness on a Japanese city. Hansell protested this order as he believed that precision attacks were starting to produce results and moving to [[area bombardment]] would be counter-productive, but agreed to the operation after he was assured that it did not represent a general shift in tactics.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 117–118</ref> Despite the change in armament, the 22 December raid was planned as a precision attack on an aircraft factory using only 78 bombers and bad weather over Nagoya meant that little damage was caused.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 564</ref> XXI Bomber Command raided the Musashino aircraft plant again on 27 December, but did not damage the facility. On 3 January 1945 97 B-29s were dispatched to conduct an area bombing raid on Nagoya. This attack started a number of fires, but these were quickly brought under control by Japanese fire fighters.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 118–119</ref>

In late December 1944 Arnold decided to relieve Hansell of his command and transfer LeMay to lead XXI Bomber Command. Hansell was informed of this decision on 6 January, but remained in his position until mid January. During this period XXI Bomber Command conducted unsuccessful precision bombing attacks on the Musashino aircraft plant in Tokyo and a Mitsubishi Aircraft Works factory in Nagoya on 9 and 14 January respectively. The last attack planned by Hansell was more successful, however, with a force of 77 B-29s crippling a [[Kawasaki Aerospace Company|Kawasaki Aircraft Industries]] factory near [[Akashi, Hyōgo|Akashi]] on 19 January.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 565–568</ref> During XXI Bomber Command's first three months of operations it suffered a loss rate of 4.1 percent of aircraft per raid.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 99</ref>

During late January 1945 the [[Imperial General Headquarters]] belatedly adopted a civil defense plan to counter American air raids. This plan assigned responsibility for fighting fires to community councils and neighborhood groups as the professional firefighting units were short-handed. Civilians were to observe a [[Blackout (wartime)|blackout]] from 10 PM. Japanese positions in the [[Bonin Islands]] were normally able to provide an hour's warning of American raids and [[Civil defense siren|air raid sirens]] were sounded in cities threatened by attack.<ref>Havens (1978), pp. 159–161</ref>

The first attacks conducted under LeMay's leadership achieved mixed results. XXI Bomber Command flew six major missions between 23 January and 19 February with limited success, though an incendiary raid [[Bombing of Kobe in World War II|against Kobe]] on 4 February caused significant damage to the city and its main factories.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 568–570</ref> Moreover, while improved maintenance procedures implemented by LeMay reduced the number of B-29s which had to abort raids due to technical problems, the command suffered a loss rate of 5.1 percent in these operations.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 99–100</ref> From 19 February to 3 March the command conducted a series of precision bombing raids on aircraft factories which sought to tie down Japanese air units so they couldn't participate in the [[Battle of Iwo Jima]]. Again, these attacks were frustrated by high winds or cloud cover, and little damage was inflicted on the factories. A firebombing raid conducted against Tokyo by 172 B-29s on 25 February was considered successful, however, as it burnt or damaged approximately one square mile of the city's urban area.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 570–573</ref> This attack was conducted as a large-scale test of the effectiveness of firebombing.<ref name="Haulman_22">Haulman (1999), p. 22</ref>

==Firebombing attacks==
===LeMay changes tactics===
[[File:Curtis LeMay 1940s.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Black and white photo of a heavyset man wearing formal military uniform|[[Curtis LeMay]]]]
The USAAF had been assessing the possibility of a firebombing campaign against Japanese cities since 1943. USAAF planners had determined that Japan's industry was concentrated in a small number of large cities and much of the industrial production took place in residential homes and small factories located in urban areas. As a result, it was estimated that incendiary bomb attacks on Japan's six largest cities would have a major impact on the country's industrial production through causing physical damage to almost 40 percent of key industrial facilities as well as the loss of 7.6 million man-months of labor. It was estimated that such attacks would kill over 500,000 people, render about 7.75 million homeless and force almost 3.5 million people to be evacuated to other areas.<ref>Wolk (2010), pp. 112–113</ref> In preparation for such attacks the USAAF had tested the effectiveness of incendiary bombs on Japanese-style buildings at [[Eglin Air Force Base|Eglin Field]] and the "[[Japanese village]]" at [[Dugway Proving Ground]].<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 610–611</ref> The American military also attempted to develop "[[bat bomb]]s", which would have involved using air-dropped [[bat]]s armed with incendiary bombs to attack Japanese cities, but this project was abandoned in 1944.<ref>Glines (1990)</ref>

In light of the poor results of precision bombing campaign and the success of the February 25 raid in destroying a large area of Tokyo, LeMay decided to begin firebombing attacks on Japan's main cities during early March.<ref name="Wolk_2004_73">Wolk (2004), p. 73</ref> This was in line with Arnold's targeting directive for XXI Bomber Command which specified that Japan's urban areas should be given the second-highest priority for attacks after only aircraft factories and that firebombing raids be conducted once the M-69 bombs had been tested in combat and a sufficient force of B-29s had been assembled to launch an intensive campaign.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 145–146</ref> LeMay did not seek Arnold's approval before launching the firebombing campaign, however, in order to protect the USAAF commander from criticism if the campaign was unsuccessful; the Twentieth Air Force's Chief of Staff Brigadier General [[Lauris Norstad]] was aware of the change in tactics though and provided support.<ref>Wolk (2010), p. 124</ref> In order to improve the effectiveness of the firebombing attacks, LeMay directed that the B-29s would fly at the low altitude of {{convert|5000|ft|m}} and bomb by night, rather than the previous tactic of high-altitude daylight bombing. As Japan's force of [[night fighter]]s was weak and its anti-aircraft batteries were less effective at night, LeMay also had most of the B-29s' defensive guns removed to enable them to carry more bombs.<ref name=Haulman_22 /> These changes were not popular with the XXI Bomber Command's aircrew as they believed that it was safer to fly heavily armed B-29s at high altitude.<ref>Dorr (2002), p. 36</ref>

===March firebombing campaign===

The first firebombing attack in this campaign was conducted against Tokyo on the night of March 9–10 and proved the single most destructive bombing raid of the war.<ref>Wolk (2010), p. 125</ref> XXI Bomber Command mounted a maximum effort for this raid, and on the afternoon of March 9 346 B-29s left the Marianas bound for Tokyo. They began to arrive over Tokyo at 2 am Guam time on March 10, and 279 bombers dropped 1,665 tons of bombs on the city.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 64–66</ref> This caused a massive [[firestorm]] that overwhelmed Tokyo's civil defenses and destroyed 16 square miles of buildings, representing seven percent of the city.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 149–153</ref> The Japanese police estimated that 83,793 people were killed, another 40,918 were injured and just over a million lost their homes; postwar estimates of deaths in this attack have ranged from 80,000 to 100,000.<ref name="Kerr_207">Kerr (1991), p. 207</ref><ref>Ferguson (2007), p. 573</ref> Damage to Tokyo's war production was also substantial.<ref name=Kerr_207 /> Japanese opposition to this attack was relatively weak, and American losses were limited to 14 B-29s lost due to combat and mechanical faults and a further 42 damaged by anti-aircraft fire.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 66–67</ref> Following the attack on Tokyo the Japanese Government ordered that all schoolchildren in the third to sixth grades be evacuated from the main cities, and 87 percent of them had been moved to the countryside by early April.<ref name=Dear-Foot_484 />
[[File:Tokyo kushu 1945-3.jpg|thumb|left|Charred remains of Japanese civilians following the [[Bombing of Tokyo|March 9–10 raid on Tokyo]]]]

XXI Bomber Command followed up the firebombing of Tokyo with similar raids against other major cities. On March 11, 310 B-29s were dispatched against Nagoya. The bombing of the city was less concentrated than that of Tokyo, and as a result the attack caused less damage. Nevertheless 2.05 square miles were burnt out and no B-29s were lost to the Japanese defenses. On the night of March 13–14, 274 Superfortresses [[Bombing of Osaka|attacked Osaka]] and destroyed 8.1 square miles of the city for the loss of two aircraft. Kobe was the next target in the firebombing campaign, and was attacked by 331 B-29s on the night of March 16–17. The resulting firestorm destroyed seven square miles of the city (equivalent to half its area) and three B-29s were lost. Nagoya was attacked again on the night of March 18-19, and the B-29s destroyed 2.95 square miles of the city. Only one Superfortress was shot down during this attack and all members of its crew were rescued. This attack marked the end of the first firebombing campaign as XXI Bomber Command had exhausted its stock of incendiary bombs.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 68–69</ref> The command's next major raid was a night precision attack on the Mitsubishi aircraft engine factory conducted on the night of March 23–24. This raid was not successful, as the 251 aircraft dispatched caused little damage and the Japanese shot down five B-29s.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 69</ref>

The USAAF's assessments of the firebombing campaign judged that it had been highly successful, and noted that American losses in the night firebombing attacks were much lower than those from day precision raids. As a result the Joint Target Group drew up a new set of priorities for XXI Bomber Command which left aircraft engine factories as the command's first priority but placed emphasis on continuing the attacks on Japan's main urban areas. While this bombing campaign was intended to form part of preparations for the Allied invasion of Japan, LeMay and some members of Arnold's staff believed that it alone would be sufficient to force Japan's surrender.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 623–627</ref>

The Japanese government was concerned about the results of the March firebombing attacks. The raids had demonstrated that the Japanese military was unable to protect the nation's airspace and that as a result the American bombers could cause widespread damage while suffering only light losses. The raids also caused increased absenteeism in the cities which were attacked as civilians were afraid to leave their homes and work in factories which might be bombed.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 156–157</ref>

===Destruction of Japan's main cities===
[[File:Areas of principal Japanese cities destoyed by US bombing.jpg|thumb|The areas of Japan's main cities which were destroyed in air attacks during World War II]]

The expanded firebombing campaign was delayed by the use of B-29s to support the Allied forces engaged in the [[Battle of Okinawa]]. In an attempt to reduce [[kamikaze]] suicide attacks on the Allied fleet, it was decided to use the XXI Bomber Command to attack airfields in southern Japan. These attacks began on March 20 and were expanded from March 27.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 628–631</ref> On March 31, the day before the landing, XXI Bomber Command mounted a diversionary precision bombing attack on industrial facilities at [[Tachiarai, Fukuoka|Tachiarai]] and an airfield at [[Ōmura, Nagasaki|Ōmura]]. Despite these raids, large scale kamikaze attacks were conducted against the Allied ships following the landing. As part of the Allied response, XXI Bomber Command conducted major attacks on airfields in Kyushu on April 8 and 16, though the first of these attacks was diverted to strike residential areas in [[Kagoshima]] after the airfields were found to be covered by cloud. From April 17 until the B-29s were released for other duties on May 11, about three quarters of XXI Bomber Command's effort was devoted to attacking airfields and other targets in direct support of the Battle of Okinawa; this included 2,104 sorties flown against 17 airfields. These raids cost XXI Bomber Command 24 B-29s destroyed and 233 damaged and were not successful in completely suppressing kamikaze attacks from the airfields which were bombed.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 631–633</ref><ref>Frank (1999), p. 72</ref> From April 12 the [[46th Fighter Wing (World War II)|VII Fighter Command's]] [[North American P-51 Mustang|P-51 Mustang]] very long range fighters which were based on Iwo Jima also attacked airfields in Honshu and Kyushu. The fighter pilots claimed to have destroyed 64 Japanese aircraft and damaged another 180 on the ground as well as shooting down 10 in the air for the loss of eleven fighters in combat and seven from other causes.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 634–635</ref>

Limited attacks on Japanese cities were conducted while the Battle of Okinawa continued. A night precision bombing raid was flown against the Nakajima engine factory in Tokyo by 121 B-29s on April 1 and three similar attacks were conducted on the night of April 3. These raids proved unsuccessful as XXI Bomber Command lacked the specialized equipment needed to strike targets accurately at night and LeMay decided against continuing the night precision bombing campaign.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 647</ref> Small forces of B-29s struck Tokyo and nearby [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]] on April 4. Two successful large-scale precision bombing raids were flown against aircraft factories in Tokyo and Nagoya on April 7; the raid on Tokyo was the first to be escorted by Iwo Jima-based P-51 Mustangs and the B-29s and fighters claimed to have shot down 101 Japanese aircraft for the loss of two P-51s and seven B-29s.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 164</ref><ref name="Kerr_226">Kerr (1991), p. 226</ref> Over 250 B-29s struck three different aircraft factories on April 12, and the [[73d Air Division|73rd Bombardment Wing]] inflicted heavy damage on the Musashino aircraft plant which had been attacked nine times previously.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 165</ref><ref>Kerr (1991), p. 225</ref> LeMay resumed night firebombing raids on April 13 when 327 B-29s attacked the arsenal district of Tokyo, destroying 11.4 square miles of the city, including a number of armaments factories. On April 15 a force of 303 B-29s attacked the Tokyo region and destroyed six square miles of Tokyo, 3.6 square miles of Kawasaki and 1.5 square miles of Yokohama for the loss of twelve bombers.<ref name=Kerr_226 /><ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 636</ref> On April 24 the Tachikawa aircraft engine factory at Yamato near Tokyo was destroyed by 131 B-29s, though an attack on the aircraft arsenal at Tachikawa six days later was aborted due to cloud cover; some of the heavy bombers attacked the city of [[Hamamatsu]] instead. Another precision raid was made against the Hiro Naval Aircraft Factory at Kure on May 5 when 148 B-29s inflicted heavy damage on the facility.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_649">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 649</ref> Five days later B-29s successfully attacked oil storage facilities at [[Iwakuni, Yamaguchi|Iwakuni]], Ōshima and [[Toltuyama]].<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 66</ref> On 11 May a small force of B-29s also destroyed an airframe factory at Konan.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_649 /> XXI Bomber Command reached its full strength in April when the 58th and [[315th Air Division|315th Bombardment Wings]] arrived in the Marianas; at this time the command comprised five [[Wing (military aviation unit)|wings]] equipped with B-29s and was the most powerful air unit in the world.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 167</ref>
[[File:Boeing B-29A-45-BN Superfortress 44-61784 6 BG 24 BS - Incendiary Journey.jpg|thumb|left|A B-29 over [[Bombing of Osaka|Osaka on 1 June 1945]]]]

From mid-May XXI Bomber Command conducted an intensive firebombing campaign against Japan's main cities. A force of 472 B-29s struck Nagoya by day on May 13 and destroyed 3.15 square miles of the city. The Japanese mounted a strong defense which downed two B-29s and damaged another 64 (another eight B-29s were lost to other causes) and the Americans claimed 18 Japanese fighter "kills" as well as another 30 probables and 16 damaged. Nagoya was attacked again by 457 B-29s on the night of May 16 and the resulting fires destroyed 3.82 square miles of the city. Japanese defenses were much weaker by night, and all three of the bombers which were lost crashed due to mechanical problems. The two raids on Nagoya killed 3,866 Japanese and rendered another 472,701 homeless.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 637–638</ref> On May 19, 318 B-29s conducted an unsuccessful precision bombing raid on the Tachikawa Aircraft Company.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 638, 650</ref> XXI Bomber Command made further large-scale firebombing attacks against Tokyo on the nights of May 23 and 25. In the first of these raids 520 B-29s destroyed 5.3 square miles southern Tokyo for the loss of 17 aircraft and 69 damaged.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 638</ref> The second attack involved 502 B-29 and destroyed 16.8 square miles of the city's central area, including the headquarters of several key government ministries and much of the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]]. Japanese defenses were relatively successful, with 26 B-29s being shot down and another 100 damaged.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 638–639</ref><ref>Frank (1999), pp. 74–75</ref> By the end of these raids just over half (50.8 percent) of Tokyo had been destroyed and the city was removed from XXI Bomber Command's target list.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 639</ref> The command's last major raid of May was a daylight incendiary attack on Yokohama on May 29 conducted by 517 B-29s escorted by 101 P-51s. This force was intercepted by 150 [[Mitsubishi A6M Zero|A6M Zero]] fighters, sparking an intense air battle in which five B-29s were shot down and another 175 damaged. In return, the P-51 pilots claimed 26 "kills" and 23 "probables" for the loss of three fighters. The 454 B-29s which reached Yokohama struck its main business district and destroyed 6.9 square miles of buildings.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 639–640</ref> Overall, the attacks in May destroyed 94 square miles of buildings, which was equivalent to one seventh of Japan's total urban area. The [[Home Ministry (Japan)|Minister of Home Affairs]], [[Iwao Yamazaki]], concluded after these raids that Japan's civil defense arrangements were "considered to be futile".<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 172–173</ref>

The firebombing campaign against major cities concluded in June. On the first day of the month 521 B-29s escorted by 148 P-51s were dispatched in a daylight raid against Osaka. While en-route to the city the Mustangs flew through thick cloud, and 27 of the fighters were destroyed in collisions. Nevertheless 458 heavy bombers and 27 P-51s reached the city, and the bombardment killed 3,960 Japanese and destroyed 3.15 square miles of buildings. On June 5, 473 B-29s struck Kobe by day and destroyed 4.35 square miles of the city for the loss of eleven bombers. Osaka was attacked again by 409 B-29s on June 7 and these destroyed 2.21 square miles of the city without loss. The city was bombed for the fourth time in the month on June 15 when 444 B-29s destroyed 1.9 square miles of buildings in Osaka and another 0.59 square miles in nearby [[Amagasaki]]. <ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 640–642</ref> This attack marked the end of the first phase of XXI Bomber Command's attack on Japan's cities. During May and June the bombers had destroyed much of the country's six largest cities, killing between 112,000 and 126,762 people and rendering millions homeless. The widespread destruction and high number of casualties from these raids caused many Japanese to realize that their country's military was no longer able to defend the home islands. American losses were relatively low, with 136 B-29s being lost.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 642–644</ref><ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 261–262</ref><ref>Frank (1999), pp. 76–77</ref>

==Attacks on small cities==
[[File:B-29 target cities in Japan.png|thumb|300px|Japanese cities attacked by B-29 bombers during World War II]]

In mid-June Arnold visited LeMay's headquarters at Saipan. On June 14 he approved a proposal to send the B-29s against 25 cities with populations ranging from 323,000 to 62,280 people as well as making precision attacks on key targets. This decision was made despite a recommendation from the [[Strategic bombing survey|United States Strategic Bombing Survey]] team which was assessing the effectiveness of air attacks on Germany that raids on Japan be focused on the country's transportation network and other targets with the goal of crippling the movement of goods and destroying food supplies.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 258–260</ref> LeMay's plan called for precision attacks on important industrial targets on days where the weather over Japan was clear and incendiary attacks guided by radar on overcast days. As both the cities and industrial facilities targeted were relatively small, the B-29 force would be sent against multiple locations on days in which attacks were conducted. This targeting policy (which was labeled the "Empire Plan") remained in force until the end of the war.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 650–651</ref>

Five major precision bombing attacks were conducted as part of the "Empire Plan". On June 9, two groups of B-29s bombed an aircraft factory at [[Shinkamigotō, Nagasaki|Narao]] and another two raided a factory in [[Atsuta-ku, Nagoya|Atsuta]]; both facilities were badly damaged. A single group of B-29s also attempted to bomb a Kawasaki Aircraft Industries factory at Akashi but accidentally struck a nearby village instead. The next day XXI Bomber Command aircraft escorted by 107 P-51s successfully attacked six different factories in the Tokyo Bay region.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p651">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 651</ref> The next precision bombing raids were conducted on June 22, when 382 B-29s attacked six targets at [[Kure, Hiroshima|Kure]], [[Kakamigahara, Gifu|Kakamigahara]], [[Himeji, Hyōgo|Himeji]], Mizushima and Akashi in southern Honshu. Most of the factories targeted in these raids were badly damaged.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 651–652</ref> Four days later 510 B-29s escorted by 148 P-51s were sent against nine factories in southern Honshu and Shikoku. Heavy cloud over the region meant that many of these bombers attacked targets of opportunity individually or in small groups, and little damage was done to most of the raid's intended targets.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p652">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 652</ref> Cloudy weather prevented any further large-scale precision attacks until July 24, when 625 B-29s were dispatched against seven targets near Nagoya and Osaka. Four of the factories attacked suffered heavy damage. Renewed cloudy weather prevented any further "Empire Plan" precision attacks from being conducted.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_p652 />

XXI Bomber Command began attacking smaller cities from June 17. On that night Hamamatsu, Kagoshima, [[Ōmuta, Fukuoka|Ōmuta]], [[Yokkaichi, Mie|Yokkaichi]] were each attacked by a wing of B-29s using similar tactics to those employed in the firebombing raids against the major cities. Of the 477 B-29s dispatched, 456 struck their targets and Hamamatsu, Kagoshima, Yokkaichi suffered extensive damage; overall 6.073 square miles of buildings were destroyed. The cities were almost undefended and no B-29s were lost to Japanese actions.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 653–654</ref><ref name="Kerr_262">Kerr (1991), p. 262</ref> This operation was judged a success, and set the pattern for XXI Bomber Command's attacks until the end of the war. As the campaign continued and the most important cities were destroyed, the bombers were sent against smaller and less significant cities. On the nights that raids were conducted four cities were normally attacked, each by a wing of bombers. Two-wing operations were conducted against [[Fukuoka]] on June 19 and Ōmuta on July 26, however. Sixteen multi-city incendiary attacks were conducted by the end of the war (an average of two per week), with 58 different cities being struck in this period. The incendiary raids were coordinated with precision bombing attacks during the last weeks of the war in an attempt to force the Japanese Government to surrender.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 654–655</ref> As the small cities were not defended by anti-aircraft guns and Japan's night fighter force was ineffective only a single B-29 was shot down during this campaign; a further 66 were damaged and 18 were lost in accidents.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p656">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 656</ref>
[[File:Okayama after the 1945 air raid.jpg|thumb|left|Part of [[Okayama]] after it was bombed on June 28, 1945]]

The second incendiary raid against smaller cities took place on June 19. On this night B-29s struck Fukuoka, [[Bombing of Shizuoka in World War II|Shizuoka]] and [[Toyohashi Air Raid|Toyohashi]]. On June 28 [[Moji-ku, Kitakyūshū|Moji]], [[Nobeoka, Miyazaki|Nobeoka]], [[Okayama]] and [[Sasebo, Nagasaki|Sasebo]] were attacked. [[Kumamoto, Kumamoto|Kumamoto]], Kure, [[Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi|Shimonoseki]] and [[Ube, Yamaguchi|Ube]] were struck on July 1. Two nights later Himeji, [[Kōchi, Kōchi|Kōchi]], [[Takamatsu, Kagawa|Takamatsu]] and [[Tokushima, Tokushima|Tokushima]] were bombed. On July 6, Akashi, [[Chiba, Chiba|Chiba]], [[Kōfu, Yamanashi|Kōfu]] and [[Shimizu-ku, Shizuoka|Shimizu]] were attacked. [[Gifu, Gifu|Gifu]], [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]], [[Sendai]] and [[Wakayama, Wakayama|Wakayama]] were struck on July 9. Three nights later the B-29s targeted [[Ichinomiya, Aichi|Ichinomiya]], [[Tsuruga, Fukui|Tsuruga]], [[Utsunomiya, Tochigi|Utsunomiya]] and [[Uwajima, Ehime|Uwajima]]. On July 16, [[Hiratsuka, Kanagawa|Hiratsuka]], [[Kuwana, Mie|Kuwana]], Namazu and [[Ōita, Ōita|Ōita]] were attacked. [[Chōshi, Chiba|Choshi]], [[Fukui, Fukui|Fukui]], [[Hitachi, Ibaraki|Hitachi]], [[Okazaki, Aichi|Okazaki]] were bombed on July 19. After a break of almost a week, [[Matsuyama, Ehime|Matsuyama]], Omuta and [[Tokuyama, Yamaguchi|Tokuyama]] were firebombed on July 26. The cities of [[Aomori, Aomori|Aomori]], Ichinomiya, [[Tsu, Mie|Tsu]], [[Ise, Mie|Uji-Yamada]] [[Ōgaki, Gifu|Ōgaki]] and Uwajima were attacked on July 28.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 674–675</ref> On the night of July 27-28 six B-29s dropped leaflets over eleven Japanese cities warning that they would be attacked in the future; this was intended to lower the morale of Japanese civilians and convince them that the United States was seeking to minimize civilian casualties.<ref name="Frank_153">Frank (1999), p. 153</ref>

August 1945 began with continued large-scale raids against Japanese cities. On the first of the month 836 B-29s staged the largest single raid of World War II, dropping 6,145 tons of bombs and mines. The cities of [[Hachiōji, Tokyo|Hachiōji]], [[Mito, Ibaraki|Mito]] and [[Nagaoka, Niigata|Nagaoka]] [[Toyama, Toyama|Toyama]] were the main targets of this operation; all four suffered extensive damage with 99.5 percent of buildings in Toyama being destroyed.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 267–268</ref><ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p675">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 675</ref>

From late June the 315th Bombardment Wing conducted a series of night precision bombing attacks against the Japanese oil industry which were conducted independently of the precision day and night incendiary raids. This wing's B-29s were fitted with the advanced [[AN/APQ-7]] radar which allowed targets to be accurately located at night. It arrived in the Marianas in April 1945 and, after a period of operational training, flew its first attack against the Utsube Oil Refinery at Yokkaichi on the night of June 26.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 658–661</ref> The 30 bombers (out of 38 dispatched) which struck the refinery destroyed or damaged 30 percent of the facility.<ref name="Tillman_240">Tillman (2010), p. 240</ref> The unit's next attack was made against a refinery at [[Kudamatsu, Yamaguchi|Kudamatsu]] three nights later and on the night of 2 July it struck another refinery at [[Arida, Wakayama|Minoshima]].<ref name="Kerr_331">Kerr (1991), p. 331</ref> On the night of July 6–7 the 315th Bombardment Wing destroyed the Maruzen oil refinery near Osaka and three nights later it completed the destruction of the Utsube refinery.<ref name=Tillman_240 /> The wing had conducted 15 operations against Japanese oil facilities by the end of the war. During these attacks it destroyed six of the nine targets attacked for the loss of only four B-29s. As Japan had almost no crude oil to refine as a result of the Allied naval blockade of the home islands, the raids against oil refineries had almost no impact on the country's war effort.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 152</ref>

During mid-July the USAAF strategic bomber forces in the Pacific were reorganized. On July 16 XXI Bomber Command was redesignated the Twentieth Air Force and LeMay appointed its commander. Two days later the [[United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific]] (USASTAF) was established at Guam under the command of General [[Carl Andrew Spaatz|Carl Spaatz]]. USASTAF's role was to command the Twentieth Air Force as well as the [[Eighth Air Force]], which at the time was in the process of being reequipped with B-29s and moving from Europe to Okinawa under the command of James Doolittle (who was now a General). The Commonwealth [[Tiger Force (air)|Tiger Force]], which was to include Australian, British, Canadian and New Zealand heavy bomber squadrons and attack Japan from Okinawa, was also to come under the command of USASTAF when it arrived in the region during late 1945.<ref name=Frank_153 /><ref>{{cite web|title=July 1945|url=http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/PopTopics/chron/45jul.htm|work=U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II: Combat Chronology|publisher=Air Force Historical Studies Office|accessdate=6 March 2011}}</ref>

==Aerial minelaying==

From mid-1944 the US Navy pressed for B-29s to be used to lay [[naval mine]]s in Japan's home waters. Arnold and his staff were unenthusiastic about the Navy's proposals as they believed that such missions would divert Superfortresses from precision bombing attacks. In response to repeated requests from the Navy Arnold decided in November 1944 to conduct mine laying operations once aircraft were available. In January LeMay selected the [[313th Air Division|313rd Bombardment Wing]] as the Twentieth Air Force's specialist mine laying unit, and the Navy provided assistance with its training and logistics. LeMay also developed a plan designated [[Operation Starvation]] to use air-dropped mines to to implement a [[blockade]] of Japan.<ref>Cate and Olsen (1953), "The All-Out B-29 Attack", pp. 662–666</ref> As the United States had made little use of mines up to this time the Japanese military had placed relatively little emphasis on keeping its [[Minesweeper (ship)|minesweeping]] force up to date and it was unprepared for a large-scale offensive.<ref name="Tillman_198">Tillman (2010), p. 198</ref>

The first B-29 mine laying operation in Japanese waters was conducted by the 313rd Bombardment Wing on the night of 27/28 March 1945 when it mined the [[Kanmon Straits|Shimonoseki Strait]] to prevent Japanese warships from using it to attack the U.S. landing force off Okinawa.<ref>Cate and Olsen (1953), "Urban Area Attacks", p. 631</ref> Minelaying operations in April were disrupted by the use of the wing to support operations in Okinawa as well as participate in conventional bombing raids, but the rate of effort increased in May with missions being conducted against harbors and other choke points around Honshu and Kyushu. From an early stage the air-dropped minefields greatly disrupted Japanese coastal shipping and they sank more ships than Allied [[submarine]]s during May.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 668–670</ref>

LeMay ordered a further increase to minelaying sorties in June and the [[505th Bombardment Group]] joined the 313rd on occasion. In response to this offensive the Japanese greatly expanded their minesweeping force by 349 ships and 20,000 men and deployed additional anti-aircraft guns around the Shimonoseki Strait, but had little success in permanently clearing minefields or downing the B-29s. As a result, many of Japan's major harbors, including those of Tokyo, Yokohama and Nagoya, became permanently closed to shipping. During the last weeks of the war B-29s continued to drop large numbers of mines off Japan and expanded the campaign into Korean waters. The 313rd Bombardment Wing lost only 16 B-29s during its mine laying raids up to the Japanese surrender.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 670–674</ref> Overall, mines dropped by Superfortresses off the Japanese home islands sank 293 ships, which represented 9.3 percent of all Japanese merchant shipping destroyed during the Pacific War and 60 per cent of losses between April and August 1945. Following the war the [[Strategic bombing survey|United States Strategic Bombing Survey]] (USSBS) assessed that the 20th Air Force should have had a greater focus on attacking Japanese shipping, including conducting a more intensive minelaying effort.<ref>Cate and Olsen (1953), p. 754</ref><ref name=Tillman_198 />

==Naval air attacks==
[[File:TBMs and SB2Cs dropping bombs.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a large number of propeller-driven monoplanes dropping bombs|US Navy aircraft dropping bombs on [[Hakodate, Hokkaidō|Hakodate]] during July 1945]]
The United States Navy conducted its first attacks against Japan since the Doolittle Raid in mid-February 1945. This operation was undertaken primarily to destroy Japanese aircraft which could attack the US Navy and Marine Corps forces involved with the [[Battle of Iwo Jima|landing on Iwo Jima]] on the 19th of the month and was conducted by [[Fast Carrier Task Force|Task Force 58]] (TF 58). This was the US Navy's main striking force in the Pacific, and comprised eleven [[fleet carrier]]s, five [[light aircraft carrier]]s and a powerful force of escorts which included eight [[battleships]], the large cruiser {{USS|Alaska|CB-1|6}}, five [[heavy cruiser]]s, nine [[light cruiser]]s and 77 [[destroyer]]s under the command of Rear Admiral [[Marc Mitscher]].<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 20–21</ref> TF 58 approached Japan undetected and attacked airfields and aircraft factories in the Tokyo region on 16 and 17 February. The American naval aviators claimed 341 'kills' against Japanese aircraft and the destruction of a further 160 on the ground for the loss of 60 aircraft in combat and 28 in accidents. Several ships were also attacked and sunk in [[Tokyo Bay]].<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 22–25</ref> The actual Japanese aircraft losses in this operation are uncertain, however, with the Imperial General Headquarters admitting losing 78 aircraft in dogfights and not providing a figure for those destroyed on the ground. TF 58's ships were not attacked during this period in Japanese waters, and on 18 February sailed south to provide direct support to the landings on Iwo Jima. The Task Force attempted further attacks on the Tokyo area on 25 February, but these were largely frustrated by bad weather and the ships sailed south to attack [[Okinawa]] from 1 March instead.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 123–124</ref>

Task Force 58 renewed its attacks on Japan in mid-March in an attempt to reduce the Japanese aircraft available to contest the [[Battle of Okinawa|landing on Okinawa]] on 1 April.<ref>Royal Navy (1995), p. 192</ref> On 18 March the carrier aircraft attacked Japanese airfields and other military facilities on [[Kyushu]]. The next day they attacked Japanese warships at [[Kure, Hiroshima|Kure]] and [[Kobe]], damaging the battleship [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamoto'']] and aircraft carrier [[Japanese aircraft carrier Amagi|''Amagi'']]. The Japanese fought back against these raids with [[Kamikaze]] suicide aircraft and conventional attacks, and inflicted light damage on three carriers on 18 March and severe damage on {{USS|Franklin|CV-13|6}} on the 19th.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 94–95</ref> On 20 March TF 58 sailed south but continued fighter sweeps over Kyushu to suppress Japanese aircraft. During the attacks on 18 and 19 March the American naval aviators claimed to have destroyed 223 Japanese aircraft in the air and 250 on the ground while the Japanese placed their losses as 161 of of the 191 aircraft they committed in the air and an unspecified number on the ground.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 99–100</ref> From 23 March TF 58 conducted strikes against Okinawa, though its aircraft made further sweeps of Kyushu on the 28th and 29th of the month. Following the landing on 1 April TF 58 provided air defense for the naval force off Okinawa and regularly conducted patrols over Kyushu. In an attempt to stem the large-scale Japanese air attacks against the Allied ships, part of TF 58 struck at kamikaze aircraft bases on Kyushu and [[Shikoku]] on 12 and 13 May.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 132–133</ref> On 27 May Admiral [[William Halsey, Jr.|William Halsey]] assumed command of the Fifth Fleet from Admiral [[Raymond A. Spruance]] and it was redesignated the Third Fleet; as part of this change TF 58 became TF 38.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 272</ref> The Task Force continued operations off Okinawa in late May and June, and on 2 and 3 June one of its task groups attacked airfields on Kyushu.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 299</ref> Another attack was made against these targets on 8 June, and on the 10th of the month TF 38 left Japanese waters for a period of recuperation at [[Leyte Island|Leyte]] in the Philippines.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 307</ref>
[[File:Allied naval operations off Japan during July and August 1945.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Major Allied naval air attacks and bombardments of targets in Japan during July and August 1945]]

On 1 July TF 38 sailed from Leyte to strike at the Japanese home islands. At this time it comprised nine fleet carriers, six light carriers and their escorts.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 310</ref> On 10 July the Task Force's aircraft conducted raids on airfields in the Tokyo region, destroying a number of aircraft on the ground. No Japanese fighters were encountered in the air, however, as they were being kept in reserve for a planned large-scale suicide attack on the Allied fleet.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 201</ref><ref>Morison (1960), pp. 310–311</ref> Following this raid TF 38 steamed north and began a major attack on [[United States Navy attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu|raids on Hokkaido and northern Honshu]] on 14 July. These strikes continued the next day, and succeeded in sinking eight of the twelve railway car ferries which carried coal from Hokkaido to Honshu and damaging the remaining four. Many other ships were also destroyed in this area, including 70 out of the 272 small sailing ships which carried coal between the islands. Once again no Japanese aircraft opposed this attack, though 25 were destroyed on the ground.<ref>Morrison (1960), pp. 311–312</ref> The loss of the railway car ferries reduced the amount of coal shipped from Hokkaido to Honshu by 80 percent, which greatly hindered production in Honshu's factories.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 202</ref> This was the single most effective strategic air attack of the Pacific War.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 157</ref> TF 38 also began a series of [[Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II|bombardments of industrial targets]] by warships on 14 July which continued until almost the end of the war.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 157–158</ref>

Following the attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu TF 38 sailed south and was reinforced by the main body of the [[British Pacific Fleet]] (which was designated Task Force 37) and included another four fleet carriers.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 204</ref><ref name="Morison_314">Morison (1960), p. 314</ref> Strikes on the Tokyo area on 17 July were disrupted by bad weather, but the next day aircraft from the fleet attacked [[United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka|Yokosuka naval base]] and damaged the battleship [[Japanese battleship Nagato|''Nagato'']] as well as sinking eight other warships.<ref name=Morison_314 /><ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 209–211</ref> On 24, 25 and 28 July the Allied fleet [[Bombing of Kure (July 1945)|attacked Kure and the Inland Sea]] and sank an aircraft carrier and three battleships as well as two heavy cruisers, a light cruiser and several other warships.<ref>Royal Navy (1995), p. 223</ref> A force of 79 USAAF Liberators flying from Okinawa participated in this attack on 28 July.<ref>Futrell and Taylor (1953), p. 698</ref> Allied casualties were heavy, however, with 126 aircraft being shot down.<ref>Tillman (2010), p. 217</ref> On 29 and 30 July the carrier aircraft struck at [[Maizuru, Kyoto|Maizuru]], sinking three small warships and twelve merchant vessels, before the fleet sailed east to avoid a typhoon and replenish its supplies.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 331–332</ref> Its next attacks against Japan took place on 9 and 10 August and were directed at a build up of Japanese aircraft in northern Honshu which Allied intelligence had determined were to be used to conduct a commando raid [[Japanese air attacks on the Mariana Islands|against the B-29 bases in the Marianas]]. The naval aviators claimed to have destroyed 251 aircraft in their attacks on 9 August as well as damaging a further 141, though the destroyer {{USS|Borie|DD-704|6}} was badly damaged by a kamikaze while on radar picket duty {{convert|50|mi|km}} from TF 38.<ref>Morison (1960), p. 332</ref> On 13 August TF 38's aircraft attacked the Tokyo region again and claimed to have destroyed 254 Japanese aircraft on the ground and 18 in the air. Another attack was launched against Tokyo on the morning of 15 August, and the 103 aircraft of its first wave attacked their targets. The second wave aborted its attack when word was received that Japan had agreed to surrender; several Japanese aircraft attempted to attack TF 38 later that day, however, and were shot down.<ref>Morison (1960), pp. 334–335</ref><ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 242–244</ref>

==Raids from Okinawa==

From May 1945 aircraft of the [[Fifth Air Force]] and [[Seventh Air Force]], which were grouped under the [[Pacific Air Forces|Far East Air Force]] (FEAF), attacked targets in Kyushu and western Honshu from bases in Okinawa and other locations in the [[Ryukyu Islands]] in preparation for the planned invasion of Japan.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 695–696</ref> From May 17 American [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt|P-47 Thunderbolt]] fighters flying from the Ryukyus made frequent day and night patrols over Kyushu to disrupt the Japanese air units there. On June 21 an additional fighter group jointed this effort, and it was further expanded with bombers and another fighter group from July 1. These American operations were initially fiercely contested, from early July onwards they encountered little opposition as the Japanese aircraft were withdrawn in order to be preserved for later operations. Between July 1 and 13, the Americans flew 286 medium and heavy bomber sorties over Kyushu without loss. As the fighter aircraft met few Japanese aircraft they were mainly used to attack transportation infrastructure and targets of opportunity; these included at least two [[strafing]] attacks on groups of civilians.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p696">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 696</ref>

Attacks on airfields and transportation infrastructure in southern Japan continued until the end of the war. By this time the Fifth Air Force's bombers had flown 138 sorties against airfields in Kyushu and the Seventh Air Force had flown a further 784. Road and railway bridges were attacked by both fighters and bombers and the city of Kagoshima was frequently bombed. Seventh Air Force B-24 Liberators also bombed the railway terminals in the port of [[Nagasaki]] on July 31 and August 1. While these raids were focused on tactical targets, the Okinawa-based aircraft also made strategic attacks against industrial facilities on occasion; these included an unsuccessful raid on a coal liquefaction plant at Ōmuta on August 7. Bombers of the Fifth and Seventh Air Forces also made firebombing attacks against [[Tarumizu, Kagoshima|Tarumizu]] on August 5, Kumamoto on August 10 and [[Kurume, Fukuoka|Kurume]] on August 11. The FEAF staged its last attacks against Japan on August 12, though aircraft were dispatched on August 14 but recalled while en-route to their targets. Overall, the two air forces flew 6,435 sorties against targets in Kyushu during July and August for the loss of 43 aircraft to Japanese anti-aircraft guns and fighters.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 697–700</ref>

==Japanese military response==
[[File:B-29SurvivorNiigata.jpg|thumb|upright|A B-29 crewman being led from a village hall after he was captured and tortured by civilians<ref>{{cite news|last=Jeffs|first=Angela|title=Remembering those who fell in a 'field of spears'|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20071208a1.html|accessdate=16 March 2011|newspaper=The Japan Times Online}}</ref>]]
===Air defenses===
Japan's air defenses proved inadequate to stop the Allied air attacks.<ref>Zaloga (2010), p. 51</ref> Due to the short range of Japan's land-based radars and Allied attacks on the IJN's picket ships, the defenders typically had only about an hour to respond to incoming forces of B-29s once they had been detected. This was not an adequate time for fighter units to [[Scrambling (military)|scramble]] and climb to the B-29s' cruising altitude, and as a result most heavy bomber attacks were intercepted by small numbers of fighters. Moreover, the American bombers were capable of flying faster at high altitude than many Japanese fighters could. Japanese [[signals intelligence]] units could provide longer warning times of incoming raids by eavesdropping on the bombers radio communications, but were unable to predict the target of the attack.<ref>Zaloga (2010), pp. 52–53</ref> From August 1944 some Japanese aircraft conducted suicide ramming attacks on B-29s, and several specialized kamikaze fighter units were established in October; by the end of the war ramming tactics destroyed nine B-29s and damaged another 13 for the loss of 21 Japanese fighters.<ref name="Zaloga_53">Zaloga (2010), p. 53</ref> Japan's weak anti-aircraft defenses were strengthened from November 1944 when {{convert|12|cm|in}} anti-aircraft guns began to be issued to supplement the inadequate {{convert|7.5|cm|in|adj=on}} and {{convert|8|cm|in|adj=on}} weapons.<ref name=Zaloga_53 />

Air combat was most intense in late 1944 and early 1945. Following the first B-29 raids on Tokyo the number of IJN aircraft assigned to air defense duties was greatly increased and all the {{convert|12|cm|in}} guns were allocated to protect the capital.<ref name=Zaloga_53 /> Fighters stationed to defend Japan's main industrial areas frequently intercepted attacking B-29s between November 24 1944 to February 25 1945, causing significant losses for a period. The number of fighters available declined for late January, however.<ref>Coox (1994), pp. 404–405</ref> The Americans suffered few losses from Japanese fighters during the night raids from March 1945 until the end of the war.<ref>Coox (1994), pp. 413–414, 426</ref> On April 15 the IJAAF and IJN air defense units were belatedly placed under a single command when the [[Air General Army]] was formed, but by this time the fighter force's effectiveness had been greatly reduced due to high rates of attrition and casualties in training accidents. Due to the poor standard of the remaining pilots and the advent of American fighters escorting the B-29s, the Japanese decided in April to reserve their aircraft to counter the Allied invasion. As a result, few of the subsequent Allied air attacks met much fighter opposition.<ref name="Zaloga_54">Zaloga (2010), p. 54</ref> As anti-aircraft guns were mainly stationed around the main industrial areas, many Allied raids were almost unopposed.<ref>Coox (1994), pp. 415–416</ref> Imperial General Headquarters decided to allow attacks on Allied bombers from late June, but by this time there were too few fighters available for this to have any results.<ref>Coox (1994), p. 427</ref> Overall, Japanese fighters shot down 74 B-29s, anti-aircraft guns accounted for a further 54 and 19 were downed by a combination of anti-aircraft guns and fighters. IJAAF and IJN losses during the defense of Japan were 1,450 aircraft in combat and another 2,750 to other causes.<ref>Zaloga (2010), pp. 54–55</ref>

===Treatment of prisoners of war===

Most of the Allied airmen captured after being shot down over Japan were mistreated. The Japanese considered B-29 crewmen to be [[war criminal]]s, and they were subject to trial and possible execution for indiscriminate bombing.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 250</ref> Japanese civilians sometimes killed airmen, and 29 were killed by mobs immediately after being captured.<ref name="Tillman_170">Tillman (2010), p. 170</ref> Most captured airmen were also tortured. Overall, of the 550 Allied airmen who were captured in the Japanese home islands (excluding the Kurils), 29 were killed by civilians, 132 were killed in prison and another 94 died from other causes, including 64 who were killed when they were deliberetly not evacuated from a prison in Tokyo during the May 25–26 raid on Tokyo.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 171–172</ref> Six survivors of a B-29 shot down on May 5 were later subjected to [[vivisection]] at the [[Kyushu University|Kyushu Imperial University]].<ref name="Tillman_171">Tillman (2010), p. 171</ref>

==Atomic bombings and final attacks==
[[File:Atomic cloud over Hiroshima.jpg|thumb|The [[mushroom cloud]] rising over Hiroshima shortly after it was attacked on August 5, 1945.]]
{{main|Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki}}
Beginning in 1942 the United States, with assistance from Britain and other Allied countries, devoted considerable resources to developing [[nuclear weapon]]s through the [[Manhattan Project]]. In December 1944 the USAAF's [[509th Composite Group]] was formed under the command of Colonel [[Paul Tibbets]] to deliver these weapons once they were complete and, after a period of training, it deployed to Tinian during May and June 1945.<ref>Polmar (2004), pp. 17–20</ref> On July 16 the "[[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity]]" test of the first nuclear bomb was successful.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 269</ref> Four days later the 509th Composite Group's modified "[[Silverplate]]" B-29s began flying practice raids against Japanese cities, each armed with a single high explosive [[pumpkin bomb|"pumpkin" bomb]]; further practice missions were conducted on July 24, 26 and 29. Japanese fighters did not attempt to intercept these aircraft and their bombing altitude of {{convert|30000|ft|m}} was beyond the range of most anti-aircraft guns.<ref>Polmar (2004), p. 25</ref> Meanwhile, on July 24 President [[Harry S. Truman]] approved the use of atomic bombs against Japan and the next day General Spaatz received written orders to this effect. His orders specified that the first attack should be made after August 3, and named [[Hiroshima]], [[Kokura]], [[Niigata (city)|Niigata]] and Nagasaki as the targets for the atomic bombs.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 262</ref> On July 26 the United States, Britain and China issued the [[Potsdam Declaration]] which demanded Japan's surrender after warning that the country would be devastated if the war continued. The Japanese Government rejected the Allied demands on July 28.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 232–234</ref> Components for the "[[Little Boy]]" atomic bomb arrived on Tinian in late July and the weapon was ready on August 1.<ref>Polmar (2004), p. 27</ref>

Hiroshima was attacked on August 5. At 8:15 am local time the B-29 ''[[Enola Gay]]'', which was piloted by Colonel Tibbets, dropped "Little Boy" over the center of the city. The resulting explosion killed tens of thousands of people and destroyed about 4.7 square miles of buildings.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 271</ref> The six American aircraft involved in this attack returned to the Marianas safely.<ref>Polmar (2004), pp. 31 and 33</ref> Postwar estimates of casualties from the attack on Hiroshima range from 66,000 to 80,000 fatalities and 69,000 to 151,000 injured.<ref name="Frank_286">Frank (1999), p. 286</ref> Tens of thousands more subsequently died as a result of radiation and other injuries from the attack; it has been estimated that 140,000 people had died as a result of the atomic bomb by the end of 1945 and estimates of the total fatalities range as high as 230,000.<ref>Polmar (2004), p. 33</ref><ref>McCurry (2005), p. 441</ref> Of the survivors of the bombing, 171,000 were rendered homeless.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 723</ref> The Twentieth Air Force also conducted incendiary raids against the cities of [[Imabari, Ehime|Imabari]], [[Maebashi, Gunma|Maebashi]], [[Nishinomiya]] and [[Saga, Saga|Saga]] on August 5.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_p675 />

On August 6, a statement from President Truman was broadcast which announced that the United States had used an atomic bomb against Hiroshima and that further air attacks would be conducted on Japanese industrial facilities and transportation network. The statement included a threat that if Japan did not surrender under the terms specified in the Potsdam Declaration it would be subjected to "a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on earth".<ref>Frank (1999), p. 269</ref> Two days later daylight incendiary raids were made against the cities of Yawata and [[Fukuyama, Hiroshima|Fukuyama]]; these attacks destroyed 21 percent of Yawata's urban area and over 73 percent of Fukuyama.<ref name=Craven_Cate_1953_p675 /> Japanese aircraft intercepted the force dispatched against Yawata and shot down a B-29 and five of the escorting P-47s for the loss of approximately twelve fighters.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 655</ref>
[[File:Nagasaki temple destroyed.jpg|thumb|left|Part of Nagasaki six weeks after the atomic bombing]]

The second atomic bomb attack was made on August 9. On this day the B-29 ''[[Bockscar]]'' was dispatched to attack Kokura with the "[[Fat Man]]" bomb. When the aircraft arrived over the city it was found to be covered in smoke and haze. As a result, the plane's pilot, Major [[Charles Sweeney]], decided to attack the secondary target of Nagasaki instead. Nagasaki was also covered in cloud, but Major Sweeney and the weapon technicians decided to use radar rather than visual aiming. The bomb was dropped at 10:58 am local time, and the resulting 20 [[TNT equivalent|kiloton]] explosion destroyed 1.45 square miles of buildings in the [[Urakami]] district.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 283–285</ref><ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 719–720, 725</ref> Estimates of Japanese casualties range from 23,753 to 45,000 killed and 25,000 to 60,000 wounded.<ref name=Frank_286 /> All the American planes involved in the operation returned safely to Tinian, though ''Bockscar'' had to make an emergency landing at Okinawa after running low on fuel.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 720</ref> The [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria]] also began on August 9, with the [[Red Army]] making rapid progress.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 281–283</ref>

In response the the atomic bomb attacks and Soviet intervention in the Pacific War, the Japanese began negotiations with the Allies about the terms of surrender on August 10.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 273–274</ref> During this period B-29 attacks on Japan were limited to a raid by the 315th Bombardment Wing against an oil target on the night of August 9–10 and a daytime precision bombing attack on a factory in Tokyo on August 10. The next day President Truman ordered a halt to the bombing due to the possibility that it might be seen as a sign that peace negotiations had failed.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 302–303</ref> On August 11 General Spaatz also issued a new targeting directive for any renewed attacks which reduced the emphasis on bombing cities in favor of intensified attacks on transportation infrastructure.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 303–304</ref> On August 13, B-29s dropped copies of the Japanese government's conditional offer to surrender over Japanese cities.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 313–314</ref> Negotiations appeared to be stalled, and on August 14 Spaatz received orders to resume the bombing campaign. General Arnold requested the largest attack possible, and hoped that USASTAF could dispatch 1,000 aircraft against the Tokyo region. In the event, 828 B-29s escorted by 186 fighters (for a total of 1,014 aircraft) were dispatched; during the day aircraft conducted precision attacks on targets at Iwakuni, Osaka and Tokoyama and at night the cities of [[Kumagaya, Saitama|Kumagaya]] and [[Isesaki, Gunma|Isesaki]] were firebombed.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 732–733</ref><ref>Frank (1999), p. 313</ref> While the Eighth Air Force units at Okinawa had not yet conducted any missions against Japan, General Doolittle decided against contributing aircraft to this operation as he did not wish to risk the lives of his men when the war was effectively over.<ref>Miller (2008), p. 519</ref> These were the last air raids against Japan as at noon on August 15 the Japanese Emperor [[Hirohito]] made a radio broadcast announcing his country's intention to surrender.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 275</ref>

==Postwar==
[[File:Missouri-flyover.jpg|thumb|USN carrier aircraft flying over the Allied fleet in Tokyo Bay following the Japanese surrender on September 2 1945<ref>{{cite web|title=Formal Surrender of Japan, 2 September 1945 -- Aircraft Flyover as the Ceremonies Conclude|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/japansur/js-8i.htm|work=Online Library of Selected Images|publisher=United States Navy Naval Historical Center|accessdate=13 March 2011}}</ref>]]
Limited air operations continued over Japan in the weeks after the Japanese surrender. On August 17 and 18 [[Consolidated B-32 Dominator|B-32 Dominators]] flying reconnaissance missions from Okinawa were attacked by IJN fighters near Tokyo.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 247–248</ref> From August 17 the Twentieth Air Force was responsible for supplying Allied POW camps in Japan, Korea and China until the prisoners were evacuated. Supply drops began on August 27 and continued until September 20. During this period the B-29s flew almost 1,000 sorties and delivered close to 4,500 tons of supplies.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 250–251</ref> Eight aircraft crashed during these missions and another was damaged a Soviet fighter over Korea.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 735</ref> While General Spaatz ordered that B-29s and fighters fly continuous [[show of force]] patrols of the Tokyo area from August 19 until the formal surrender ceremony, these were initially frustrated by bad weather and logistics problems and the first patrols weren't flown until August 30 when they were made in conjunction with the landing of the [[11th Airborne Division (United States)|11th Airborne Division]] and General [[Douglas MacArthur]] at [[Naval Air Facility Atsugi|Atsugi airfield]].<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), pp. 733–734</ref> A similar operation was conducted the next day, and on September 2 a force of 462 B-29s and many naval aircraft overflew the Allied fleet in Tokyo Bay after the surrender ceremony onboard {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}} concluded.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p734">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 734</ref>

Allied air units participated in the [[occupation of Japan]] after the war. Advance parties of the FEAF began to arrive at Atsugi airfield on August 30, and units of the Fifth Air Force were established across the Japanese home islands during September and October.<ref>MacArthur (1950), pp. 268–270</ref> In addition to transporting occupation troops, the Fifth Air Force conducted armed patrols over Japan and Korea as well as many photo reconnaissance and mapping sorties.<ref>MacArthur (1950), p. 270</ref> [[Royal Australian Air Force]], British [[Royal Air Force]], [[Indian Air Force]], [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]], US Navy and [[United States Marine Corps]] air units were also deployed to Japan for occupation duties.<ref>Stephens (2006), p. 213</ref><ref>MacArthur (1950), p. 290</ref> There was no Japanese resistance to the Allied occupation, and the number of air units stationed in the country was gradually reduced from late 1945.<ref>MacArthur (1950), pp. 270–277</ref>

==Assessments==
===Results===
The air attacks on Japan caused hundreds of thousands of casualties, though estimates of the number of Japanese killed and wounded vary. The strategic attacks by the Twentieth Air Force resulted in most of the casualties and damage. The United States Strategic Bombing Survey estimated that 333,000 Japanese were killed and 472,000 wounded while the postwar Japanese Government calculated in 1949 that the number of deaths from air attack in the Home Islands was 323,495. In 1999 historian [[Richard B. Frank]] estimated that about 410,000 Japanese had been killed, of whom all but 100,000 died in the March 9–10 firebombing raid on Tokyo and the two atomic attacks.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 334–335</ref> The Japanese Government estimated that the total number of military casualties during the war was 780,000.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 754</ref> The Twentieth Air Force lost 414 B-29s during attacks on Japan. Over 2,600 American bomber crew members were killed, including POWs who died in captivity, and a further 414 were wounded.<ref name=Kerr_276 />

Much of Japan's industrial capacity was destroyed by Allied bombing. Over 600 major industrial facilities were destroyed or badly damaged, contributing to a large decline in industrial production.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 278–279</ref> Absenteeism caused by the air attacks further disrupted production.<ref name="Kerr_280">Kerr (1991), p. 280</ref> It is not possible to determine the exact damage bombing caused to Japan's economy, however, as the general breakdown which occurred from late 1944 was also the result of the Allied naval blockade. Statistics complied by the USSBS show a correlation between the number of B-29 sorties directed at different industries and amount by which their production declined, but air attacks were not the only reason for these differences.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 752–753</ref> In addition to the heavy bomber attacks, strikes by Allied aircraft carriers tightened the blockade by disrupting Japanese coastal shipping; the naval aircraft were unable to carry enough bombs to seriously affect Japanese industry, however.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 262, 264</ref> As well the damage caused to Japan's industry, the rice crop of 1945 failed and this, in combination with Japan's inability to import food due to the Allied blockade, caused widespread malnutrition and mass starvation would have occurred had the war continued.<ref name="Kerr_281">Kerr (1991), p. 281</ref>

The attacks also caused extensive damage to Japan's urban areas. Approximately 40 percent of the urban area of the 66 cities subjected to area attacks were destroyed.<ref name="Craven_Cate_1953_p751">Craven and Cate (1953), p. 751</ref> This included the loss of about 2.5 million housing units which rendered 8.5 million people homeless.<ref>Kerr (1991), p. 280–281</ref> The Allied urban area attacks reduced the morale of the Japanese population, and postwar [[Statistical survey|surveys]] conducted by the USSBS found that air attacks were the most important factor in convincing the Japanese that the war had been lost. During the final months of the war the raids also contributed to the deterioration of the Japanese social fabric.<ref name="Kerr_282">Kerr (1991), p. 282</ref>

Allied air raids significantly influenced the Japanese Government's decision to surrender. The USSBS concluded that Japan would have been forced to surrender by November 1 1945 due to pressure from air attacks and blockade. While the survey did not state that any single factor caused the surrender, during interrogations most Japanese wartime leaders nominated the prolonged air attacks on the home islands as being the single most important factor which influenced their decision to end the war.<ref>Craven and Cate (1953), p. 756</ref> In particular, Prime Minister [[Kantarō Suzuki]] believed that the combination of the conventional B-29 raids, Potsdam Declaration and atomic bombings gave the Government the opportunity to begin negotiations with the Allies and Emperor Hirohito cited damage from the attacks, inadequate preparations to resist invasion and the Soviet offensive as his justifications for authorizing the surrender.<ref>Kerr (1991), pp. 292–293</ref><ref>Frank (1999), p. 345</ref>

===Morality===

There has been debate over the morality of the air campaign against Japan since World War II. During the war the American public approved of the bombing of Germany and Japan, and the few people who criticized the raids were attacked as being unrealistic or even traitors. Some United States government and military personnel believed that the bombing campaign was morally ambiguous, however, but rarely voiced their views publicly.<ref>Dower (1986), p. 41</ref> The moral concerns over the attacks have been focused on the large number of civilian casualties and property damage they caused. It has been suggested that the USAAF's use of widespread firebombing tactics against Japan and focus on precision bombing in Germany was motivated by [[anti-Japanese sentiment]]. In response to this claim, Richard B. Frank argues that this difference was attributable to the evolution in views towards bombing over the course of the war as well as the Allies limited intelligence on structure of the Japanese economy and the much greater vulnerability of Japanese cities to incendiary bombs.<ref>Frank (1999), p. 336</ref> [[Barrett Tillman]] has also written that due to the limitations of technology at the time and the high winds over Japan, most 'precision' bombing also caused widespread damage and that the area attacks against Japanese cities were successful in destroying the country's aircraft industry.<ref>Tillman (2010), pp. 262–264</ref>

The atomic bomb attacks have been the [[Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|subject of long-running controversy]]. Shortly after the attacks an opinion poll found that about 85 percent of Americans supported their use and the wartime generation believed that they had saved millions of lives. Criticisms over the decision to use the bombs increased over time, however, and arguments made against the attacks include that Japan would have eventually surrendered and that the attacks were made to either intimidate the Soviet Union or justify the Manhattan Project. By 1994 an opinion poll found that only 55 percent of Americans supported the decision to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki.<ref>Frank (1999), pp. 331–332</ref> When registering the only dissenting opinion of the judges involved in the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]] in 1947, Justice [[Radhabinod Pal]] argued that Japan's leadership had not conspired to commit atrocities and stated that the decision to make the atomic bomb attacks was the clearest example of a direct order to conduct "indiscriminate murder" during the Pacific War.<ref>Dower (1986), pp. 37–38</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|3}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
{{commons|Category:Bombing of Japan in World War II|Bombing of Japan in World War II}}
* {{cite book|last=Chun|first=Clayton K.S.|title=The Doolittle Raid 1942: America's first strike back at Japan|year=2006|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=1841769185|location=Oxford}}
* {{cite book|last=Coles|first=Harry L.|coauthors=Olson, James C.|title=The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan August 1942 to July 1944|editor=Craven, Wesley Frank and Cate, James Lea|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago and London|date=1951|series=The Army Air Forces in World War II. Volume 5|chapter=The North Pacific|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/IV/index.html}}
* {{cite book|last=Coox|first=Alvin D.|title=Case studies in the achievement of air superiority|year=1994|publisher=Center for Air Force History|location=Washington, D.C.|editor=Cooling, B. Franklin|chapter=Air War Against Japan|isbn=0912799633|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=keUMn-pi5vkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{cite journal|last=Correll|first=John T.|date=2009|title=The Matterhorn Missions|journal=Air Force Magazine|publisher=The Air Force Association|location=Arlington|issue=March 2009|url=http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2009/March%202009/0309matterhorn.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last=Craven|first=Wesley|coauthors=Cate, James (editors)|title=The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1953|series=The Army Air Forces in World War II|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/V/index.html}}
* {{cite book|last=Dear, I.C.B and Foot, M.R.D. (editors)|title=The Oxford Companion to World War II|editor=|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|date=2005|pages=|chapter=|isbn=9780192806703}}
* {{cite book|last=Dorr|first=Robert F.|title=B-29 Superfortress Units of World War 2|year=2002|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Oxford|isbn=9781841762852|date=2002}}
* {{cite book|last=Dower|first=John|title=War Without Mercy : Race and Power in the Pacific War|year=1986|publisher=Faber|location=London|isbn=0571146058}}
* {{cite journal|last=Dower|first=John W.|title=The Bombed: Hiroshimas and Nagasakis in Japanese Memory|journal=Diplomatic History|date=28 February 1995|volume=19|issue=2|pages=275–295|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.1995.tb00658.x}}
* {{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Niall|title=The War of the World. History's Age of Hatred|publisher=Penguin Books|location=London|year=2007|isbn=9780141013824}}
* {{cite book|last=Foreign Histories Division, Headquarters, United States Army Japan|title=Japanese Monograph No. 157: Homeland Air Defense Operations Record|publisher=Garland Publishing |location=New York City|date=1980|series=War in Asia and the Pacific. Volume 12: Defense of the Homeland and End of the War|isbn=0824032969}}
* {{cite book|last=Frank|first=Richard B.|title=Downfall. The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York|date=1999|isbn=014101461}}
* {{cite book|last=Futrell|first=Frank|coauthors=Taylor, James|title=The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki June 1944 to August 1945|editor=Craven, Wesley Frank and Cate, James Lea|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago and London|date=1953|series=The Army Air Forces in World War II. Volume V|chapter=Reorganization for Victory}}
* {{cite journal|last=Glines|first=C.V.|title=The Bat Bombers|journal=Air Force Magazine|date=October 1990|volume=73|issue=10|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080531082803/http://www.afa.org/magazine/1990/1090bat.html}}
* Hall, Cargill (1998). ''Case Studies In Strategic Bombardment''. Air Force History and Museums Program. ISBN 0-16-049781-7.
* {{cite web|last=Haulman|first=Daniel L.|date=1999|title=Hitting Home: The Air Offensive Against Japan|url=http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/Publications/fulltext/hitting_home.pdf|work=The U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II|publisher=Air Force Historical Studies Office|format=PDF}}
* {{cite book|last=Havens|first=Thomas R.H.|title=Valley of Darkness : The Japanese People and World War Two|year=1978|publisher=Norton|location=New York|isbn=0393056562}}
* {{cite book|last=Horn|first=Steve|title=The Second Attack on Pearl Harbor : Operation K and other Japanese Attempts to Bomb America in World War II|year=2005|publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis|isbn=1591143888}}
* {{cite book|last=Hoyt|first=Edwin P.|title=Japan's War: The Great Pacific Conflict|year=1987|publisher=Arrow Books|isbn=0099635003|location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Kerr|first=E. Bartlett|title=Flames Over Tokyo: The U.S. Army Air Forces' Incendiary Campaign Against Japan 1944-1945|publisher=Donald I. Fine Inc|location=New York City|date=1991|isbn=1556113013}}
*{{cite book|last=MacArthur|first=Douglas|title=MacArthur in Japan: The Occupation Phase|year=1950|publisher=United States Army Center for Military History|location=Washington D.C.|url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/macarthur%20reports/macarthur%20v1%20sup/|series=Reports of General MacArthur}}
* {{cite journal|last=McCurry|first=Justin|title=The Day the Bomb Fell|journal=The Lancet|date=11 August 2005|volume=366|issue=9484|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67041-9|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(05)67041-9/fulltext}}
* {{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald L.|title=Eighth Air Force : The American Bomber Crews in Britain|year=2008|publisher=Aurum|location=London|isbn=9781845133368}}
* {{cite book|last=Morison|first=Samuel Eliot|title=Victory in the Pacific|publisher=University of Illinois|location=Champaign|date=1960 (2002 reprint) |series=History of United States Naval Operations in World War II|isbn=0252070658}}
* {{cite book|last=Overy|first=Richard|title=The Air War 1939–1945|year=1980|publisher=Europa |isbn=0905118537|location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Polmar|first=Norman|title=The Enola Gay: The B-29 That Dropped the Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima|publisher=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum|location=Washington, D.C.|date=2004|isbn=1574888595}}
* {{cite book|last=Royal Navy|title=War with Japan. Volume VI Advance to Japan|publisher=HMSO|location=London|date=1995|isbn=0117728217}}
* {{cite book|last=Sakaida|first=Henry|coauthors=Takaki, Kōji|title=B-29 Hunters of the JAAF|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Oxford|date=2001|series=Aviation Elite Units|isbn=1841761613|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=4p1pDSXzZZUC&dq=Raid+on+Yawata&source=gbs_navlinks_s}}
* {{cite book|last=Spector|first=Ronald H.|title=Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan|year=1984|publisher=Cassell & Co|isbn=0304359793|location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Stephens |first=Alan |origyear=2001 |year=2006 |title=The Royal Australian Air Force: A History |location=Melbourne|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0195555414}}
* {{cite book|last=Tillman|first=Barrett|title=Whirlwind: The Air War Against Japan 1942–1945|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|date=2010|isbn=9781416584407}}
* {{cite journal|last=Wolk|first=Herman S.|date=2004|title=The Twentieth Against Japan|journal=Air Force Magazine|publisher=The Air Force Association|location=Arlington|issue=April 2004|url=http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2004/April%202004/0404japan.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Wolk|first=Herman S.|title=Cataclysm : General Hap Arnold and the Defeat of Japan|year=2010|publisher=University of North Texas Press|location=Denton, Texas|isbn=9781574412819}}
* {{cite book|last=Zaloga|first=Steven J|title=Defense of Japan 1945|year=2010|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=1846036879|location=Oxford|series=Fortress}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.japanairraids.org/ Japanairraids.org]

{{World War II}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Japanese Home Islands}}
[[Category:Military history of Japan during World War II]]
[[Category:Japanese home islands campaign]]
[[Category:Strategic bombing operations and battles]]
[[Category:World War II Pacific Theatre]]

[[ja:日本本土空襲]]
[[zh:空襲日本]]

Jagdgeschwader 5

2010-11-01T20:24:59Z

Dapi89: /* I./JG 5 */

{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name=Jagdgeschwader 5
|image=[[Image:JG5 emblem.jpg|150px]]
|caption=
|dates=1942–1945
|country={{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Nazi Germany]]
|allegiance=
|branch=Air Force
|type=[[Fighter Aircraft]]
|role=[[Air superiority]]
|size=Air Force Wing
|command_structure=
|current_commander=
|garrison=
|ceremonial_chief=
|colonel_of_the_regiment=
|nickname=''Eismeer''
|patron=
|motto=
|colors=
|identification_symbol=
|march=
|mascot=
|battles=
|notable_commanders=[[Heinrich Ehrler]](May 1944 - February 1945)
|anniversaries=
|decorations=
|battle_honours=
}}
'''Jagdgeschwader 5 (JG 5) ''Eismeer'' ''' was a ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' [[fighter aircraft|fighter]] [[Wing (air force unit)|Wing]] that served during [[World War II]]. As the name ''Eismeer'' (Ice Sea) implies, it was created to operate in the far North of Europe, namely [[Norway]], Scandinavia and northern parts of [[Finland]], all nearest the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Just over two dozen fighter aircraft that once served with JG 5 during the war still survive in the 21st century, more than from any other combat wing of any of the Axis air forces of World War II.

==History==
=== 1942 ===
JG 5 was formed when elements of the I. ''Gruppe''/[[JG 77]]<ref>Hafsten[et al.], Flyalarm - Luftkrigen over Norge 1939-1945, 145</ref> already stationed in Norway was redesignated as I./JG 5 in January 1942. The II. ''Gruppe'' was newly created and III. ''Gruppe'' was formed from elements of I./[[Jagdgeschwader 1 (World War 2)|JG 1]] in May. The unit had the responsibility for providing fighter-cover over occupied territories under [[Luftflotte 5|''Luftflotte'' 5]], and also to provide fighter-support for the ''[[German Army|Heer]]'' (Army) units fighting on the Arctic front in the [[Murmansk]] area. JG 5 also had the important task of disrupting traffic on the Murmansk rail-line, as this was the main artery of the [[Karelian Front]] defenders.

I. ''Gruppe'' was based on the west coast of Norway, in [[Stavanger]], to defend against Allied anti-shipping attacks. II. and III. ''Gruppe'' was stationed at [[Pechengsky District|Petsamo]] in Finland, to support operations in the East. JG 5 had to cope with challenges that were unique within the ''Luftwaffe'', from 24-hour days during summer when the sun never set, to the complete darkness and extreme cold of the Polar winter.

By the beginning of Polar Summer of 1942, ''[[Luftflotte 5]]'' had been reinforced and by July 1942 possessed a total of 250 serviceable aircraft. Operationally, these were controlled by ''Fliegerfuhrer Nord-Ost'' Obstlt. Walter Lehwess-Litzmann, responsible for operations over the front-line and by ''Fliegerführer Lofoten'', Oberst. Ernst-August Roth, responsible for anti-shipping operations. Due to the air superiority established by II. and III./JG 5 early in the year, ''Luftflotte 5'' enjoyed a numerical and considerable qualitative superiority, and the Soviet opposition amounted to just 170 serviceable combat aircraft. Fliegerführer Nord-Ost benefited from a Freya early-warning radar network.

During the Summer the Soviets brought in new units, including 20 lAP equipped with the new Yak-l and an effective counter to the Bf 109 F. On 19 July 7./JG 5's Lt. Bodo Helms and Ofw. Franz Dorr claimed one Yak-1 each, and Uffz. Werner Schumacher claimed two fighters shot down. ( Actual Soviet losses were five: a MiG-3, 3 Airacobras and Kittyhawks, and a Hurricane.) In return, JG 5's Fw. Leopold Knier and Uffz. Hans Dobrich (14 victories) were shot down. Both German pilots baled out. Knier was taken prisoner, but Dobrich walked back to his own lines.

''Luftflotte 5'' recorded 26 combat losses in July 1942, while the VVS lost 32 of its own aircraft shot down or missing, mainly to JG 5.

On 21 August, 6./JG 5 claimed 14 Soviet fighters shot down. According to Soviet records 2 LaGG-3s and 2 1-16s were shot down over [[Vayenga]], and two aircraft made forced landings. JG 5 lost two Bf 109s, one flown by ''Staffelkapitän'' of 6./JG 5, ObIt. Hans Dieter Hartwein (16 Kills) posted missing.

During this period, overclaims were made by both sides. JG 5 claimed some 72 victories in August, but Soviet records indicate 24 Soviet aircraft lost with another 7 damaged and 13 aircraft missing, and another 4 were shot down by ground fire.

As 1942 wore on, the increased Allied air pressure towards Norway meant that a part of III. ''Gruppe'' and the newly created IV. ''Gruppe'' had to be stationed around [[Trondheim]]. A second part of III. ''Gruppe'' was stationed in [[Kirkenes]], both to provide cover from marauding [[Soviet Air Force]] formations, and to help with the intensifying attacks against the [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic convoys]]. ''Leutnant'' [[Heinrich Ehrler]] (6. JG 5) was awarded the ''[[Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes]]'' on 4 September for 64 victories.

=== 1943 ===
By January 1943 I. and IV./JG 5 were stationed in Southern Norway, being equipped with the [[Focke-Wulf Fw 190|Fw 190A-2]], A-3 and A-4. I./JG 5 had its bases on [[Lista]], [[Stavanger Airport, Sola|Sola]], [[Kristiansand Airport, Kjevik|Kjevik]] and [[Herdla]] in the southern part of Norway. IV./JG 5 were distributed on bases around [[Trondheim]], and were equipped with [[Bf 109]]Fs and Fw 190As. II. and III. ''Gruppe'' faced the Soviets on the Polar Sea Front; at this time they were equipped with the Bf 109F-4. Stab, 4./JG 5 and 6./JG 5 were stationed in Alakurtti, 5., 8., and 9./JG 5 were stationed at [[Kirkenes]] and 7./JG 5 was based at Petsamo. As early as March 1943 6. ''Staffel'' (commanded by Hpt. [[Heinrich Ehrler]]) reached 500 victories.

In early 1943 a ''Jabo'' (fighter-bomber) unit was formed within JG 5. 14.(J)/JG 5 was equipped with modified Fw 190A's and commanded by Hptm. [[Friedrich-Wilhelm Strakeljahn]].
In May 1943 the unit was responsible for the sinking of two submarines and two freighters within three days and by the end of 1943 has claimed to have sunk over 39,000 tons of Soviet merchant shipping in over 1,000 sorties.

In June 1943 Oberstlt. [[Gotthard Handrick]] was transferred to ''[[8th Fighter Division (Germany)|8. Jagddivision]]'', and replaced by the ''Gruppenkommandeur'' III./JG 5, Major [[Günther Scholz]]. Mid 1943 also saw JG 5 at its maximum strength. It consisted of 14 ''Staffeln''; 12 regular single-engined fighter ''Staffels'' equipped with the [[Bf 109]] and [[Fw 190]], one Bf 110-equipped ''Zerstörerstaffel'' and finally the ''[[Fighter-bomber|Jabo]]'' unit, 14.(J)/JG 5 with the Fw 190. 1943 was also the last year in which JG 5's four ''Gruppen'' had any sense of operational unity. I and II. ''Gruppe'' left Norway and Finland for good in late 1943 to fight the rest of the war away from their parent ''Geschwader''.

In November 1943, I. ''Gruppe'' moved to [[Romania]] as protection for the vital [[Ploieşti]] oil refineries. The ''gruppe'' were placed under the command of ''[[Luftflotte 1]]'' for the remainder of 1943. On 26 March 1944 Hauptmann [[Horst Carganico]] was appointed ''Gruppenkommandeur'' of I./JG 5 participating in the ''Reichsverteidigung'' ([[Defense of the Reich]]). After combat with USAAF B-17's on 27 May 1944, he was killed when his Bf 109 crashed after hitting high tension cables while force-landing near Chevry, France. Carganico had claimed 60 kills.

=== 1944 ===
In 1944 I. ''Gruppe'' was redesignated as III./[[JG 6]] and sent to [[France]], and it was never replaced. In June - July 1944, ''Gruppenkommandeur'' [[Theodor Weissenberger]] was credited with 25 victories over Normandy (half the total score by the whole unit during this period).

II. ''Gruppe'' was transferred to Northern [[Russia]] under the command of ''[[Luftflotte 1]]'', and then redesignated as IV./[[JG 4]] and sent back to [[Germany]] in early 1945.

IV./JG 5 and 14./JG 5 were transferred to the Arctic Front from Southern Norway in August 1944. The ''Gruppe'' joined the first of several large air battles commencing on October 9, opposing the final Soviet offensive against Petsamo. When the day was over, III. and IV./JG 5 had claimed 85 Soviet aircraft shot down (among them the 3,000th victory for JG 5) against the loss of only one pilot killed.

On 1 August 1944 Major Ehrler was promoted to ''[[Geschwaderkommodore]]'' of JG 5.

In November 1944, IV./JG 5 returned to Southern Norway. Up to the end of the war this unit formed the air defence against the Allied raids on targets in Norway, principally the submarine bases at [[Trondheim]] and [[Bergen]].

=== The Sinking of the Tirpitz ===
On 12 November 1944 [[Avro Lancaster]] bombers of [[No. 9 Squadron RAF|9]] and [[No. 617 Squadron RAF|617]] Squadrons raided the [[German battleship Tirpitz|Tirpitz]] in Tromsø fjord. Major Ehrler belatedly scrambled to intercept at the head of a formation of JG 5 Bf 109G's, but the fighters were too late. The Tirpitz was sunk with the loss of a thousand sailors. Ehrler was court martialed and sentenced to three years ''Festungshaft'', and stripped of his command. (He was killed flying with [[JG 7]] on 4 April 1945).

=== Surviving aircraft that served with JG 5 ===

About twenty of JG 5's [[Messerschmitt Bf 109 survivors|Messerschmitt Bf 109]]s, comprising six E-models, eight 109F-models and seven G-models; and six of JG 5's [[Focke-Wulf Fw 190#Survivors|Focke-Wulf Fw 190]]s, five of them A-models and one F-model, survive into the 21st century, believed to be (at about 27 aircraft) the highest number of surviving WW II-era piston-engined German combat aircraft from any single ''Geschwader''-designated operational unit. The oldest existing aircraft of all that served with JG 5 in World War II is the Bf 109E-3 with ''Werknummer'' 1983 that was assigned to JG 5's 5th ''Staffel'', housed at Charleston Aviation Services, Colchester, England in the UK currently undergoing restoration, with the oldest Fw 190 remaining in the world, the A-2 model that served with JG 5, bearing s/n 5476, existing in Texas awaiting restoration. The lone surviving Fw 190 F-model that served with JG 5 is under restoration in Florida to possibly become the first restored, original [[BMW 801]] radial-engined Fw 190 since the end of World War II to fly again in coming years with ''The White 1 Foundation'' in Kissimmee, Florida.

== Commanding officers ==
=== ''Geschwaderkommodore'' ===
*''Oberstleutnant'' [[Gotthard Handrick]], May 1942 - June 1943
*''Oberstleutnant'' [[Günther Scholz]], June 1943 - May 1944
*Major Heinrich Ehrler, May 1944 - February 1945
*''Oberstleutnant'' Günther Scholz, February 1945 - May 1945

=== Gruppenkommandeure ===
==== I./JG 5 ====
*Major Joachim Seegert, January 1942 - April 1942
*''Hauptmann'' Gerhard von Wehren, April 1942 - February 1943
*''Hauptmann'' Gerhard Wengel, February 1943 - 10 January 1944
*''Oberleutnant'' Robert Müller, 10 January 1944 - 25 January 1944
*Major Erich Gerlitz, 25 January 1944 - 16 March 1944
*Major Horst Carganico, 26 March 1944 - 27 May 1944
*''Hauptmann'' [[Theodor Weissenberger]], 4 June 1944 - 14 October 1944

==== II./JG 5 ====
*Major Hennig Strümpell, January 1942 - April 1942
*''Hauptmann'' Horst Carganico, April 1942 - 26 March 1944
*''Hauptmann'' Theodor Weissenberger, 26 March 1944 - 3 June 1944
*''Oberleutnant'' Hans Tetzner, 4 June 1944 - 19.7 1944
*''Oberstleutant'' Franz Wienhusen, 1 September 1944 - October 1944
*''Hauptmann'' Herbert Treppe, February 1945 - May 1945

==== III./JG 5 ====
*''Hauptmann'' Günther Scholz, March 1942 - June 1943
*Major [[Heinrich Ehrler]], June 1943 - May 1944
*''Hauptmann'' [[Franz Dörr]], May 1944 - May 1945
*''Oberleutnant'' Rudolf Glöckner, 1944/1945

==== IV./JG 5 ====
*''Hauptmann'' Hans Kriegel, unknown - April 1944
*''Oberleutnant'' Rudolf Lüder, 3 October 1943 - unknown
*''Hauptmann'' Fritz Stendel, 15 May 1944 - May 1945

=== Staffelkapitäne ===
==== 13. (Z)/JG 5 ====
*Olt Felix Maria Brandis, 25.1.42 - 2.2.42
*Olt Max Franzisket<ref group="Notes">Max Franzisket was the brother of [[Ludwig Franzisket]]. Max was killed in action on 19 July 1943 on the Eastern Front.</ref>, February 1942 - March 1942
*''Oberleutnant'' Karl-Fritz Schloßstein, March 1942 - June 1942
*Oberleutnant Hans Kirchmeier, June 1943 - September 1943
*Hauptmann Herbert Treppe, September 1943 - July 1944

==== 14. (Jabo)/JG 5 ====
*''Hauptmann'' Friedrich-Wilhelm Strakeljahn, February 1943 - February 1944

==See also==
*[[Organization of the Luftwaffe during World War II]]

{{Jagdgeschwader of the Luftwaffe}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="Notes"}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*Bjørn Hafsten[et al.](1991). ''Flyalarm - Luftkrigen over Norge 1939-1945'', Sem & Stenersen AS. (ISBN 82-7046-058-3).
*[http://www.luftwaffe.no Luftwaffe.no, a reference site for the German airforces operating in Norway and Finland]
*Girbig, Werner: ''Jagdgeschwader 5 "Eismeerjäger"'' (Motorbuch Verlag 1976)

==External links==
*[http://www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de/Gliederungen/Jagdgeschwader/JG5-R.htm A history of JG 5 and a complete list of commanders(In German)]

[[Category:Luftwaffe Wings|Jagdgeschwader 005]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1942]]
[[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1945]]

[[cs:Jagdgeschwader 5]]
[[ru:Jagdgeschwader 5]]

Jagdgeschwader 5

2010-11-01T20:24:31Z

Dapi89: /* Achievements */Delete problematic section

{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name=Jagdgeschwader 5
|image=[[Image:JG5 emblem.jpg|150px]]
|caption=
|dates=1942–1945
|country={{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Nazi Germany]]
|allegiance=
|branch=Air Force
|type=[[Fighter Aircraft]]
|role=[[Air superiority]]
|size=Air Force Wing
|command_structure=
|current_commander=
|garrison=
|ceremonial_chief=
|colonel_of_the_regiment=
|nickname=''Eismeer''
|patron=
|motto=
|colors=
|identification_symbol=
|march=
|mascot=
|battles=
|notable_commanders=[[Heinrich Ehrler]](May 1944 - February 1945)
|anniversaries=
|decorations=
|battle_honours=
}}
'''Jagdgeschwader 5 (JG 5) ''Eismeer'' ''' was a ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' [[fighter aircraft|fighter]] [[Wing (air force unit)|Wing]] that served during [[World War II]]. As the name ''Eismeer'' (Ice Sea) implies, it was created to operate in the far North of Europe, namely [[Norway]], Scandinavia and northern parts of [[Finland]], all nearest the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Just over two dozen fighter aircraft that once served with JG 5 during the war still survive in the 21st century, more than from any other combat wing of any of the Axis air forces of World War II.

==History==
=== 1942 ===
JG 5 was formed when elements of the I. ''Gruppe''/[[JG 77]]<ref>Hafsten[et al.], Flyalarm - Luftkrigen over Norge 1939-1945, 145</ref> already stationed in Norway was redesignated as I./JG 5 in January 1942. The II. ''Gruppe'' was newly created and III. ''Gruppe'' was formed from elements of I./[[Jagdgeschwader 1 (World War 2)|JG 1]] in May. The unit had the responsibility for providing fighter-cover over occupied territories under [[Luftflotte 5|''Luftflotte'' 5]], and also to provide fighter-support for the ''[[German Army|Heer]]'' (Army) units fighting on the Arctic front in the [[Murmansk]] area. JG 5 also had the important task of disrupting traffic on the Murmansk rail-line, as this was the main artery of the [[Karelian Front]] defenders.

I. ''Gruppe'' was based on the west coast of Norway, in [[Stavanger]], to defend against Allied anti-shipping attacks. II. and III. ''Gruppe'' was stationed at [[Pechengsky District|Petsamo]] in Finland, to support operations in the East. JG 5 had to cope with challenges that were unique within the ''Luftwaffe'', from 24-hour days during summer when the sun never set, to the complete darkness and extreme cold of the Polar winter.

By the beginning of Polar Summer of 1942, ''[[Luftflotte 5]]'' had been reinforced and by July 1942 possessed a total of 250 serviceable aircraft. Operationally, these were controlled by ''Fliegerfuhrer Nord-Ost'' Obstlt. Walter Lehwess-Litzmann, responsible for operations over the front-line and by ''Fliegerführer Lofoten'', Oberst. Ernst-August Roth, responsible for anti-shipping operations. Due to the air superiority established by II. and III./JG 5 early in the year, ''Luftflotte 5'' enjoyed a numerical and considerable qualitative superiority, and the Soviet opposition amounted to just 170 serviceable combat aircraft. Fliegerführer Nord-Ost benefited from a Freya early-warning radar network.

During the Summer the Soviets brought in new units, including 20 lAP equipped with the new Yak-l and an effective counter to the Bf 109 F. On 19 July 7./JG 5's Lt. Bodo Helms and Ofw. Franz Dorr claimed one Yak-1 each, and Uffz. Werner Schumacher claimed two fighters shot down. ( Actual Soviet losses were five: a MiG-3, 3 Airacobras and Kittyhawks, and a Hurricane.) In return, JG 5's Fw. Leopold Knier and Uffz. Hans Dobrich (14 victories) were shot down. Both German pilots baled out. Knier was taken prisoner, but Dobrich walked back to his own lines.

''Luftflotte 5'' recorded 26 combat losses in July 1942, while the VVS lost 32 of its own aircraft shot down or missing, mainly to JG 5.

On 21 August, 6./JG 5 claimed 14 Soviet fighters shot down. According to Soviet records 2 LaGG-3s and 2 1-16s were shot down over [[Vayenga]], and two aircraft made forced landings. JG 5 lost two Bf 109s, one flown by ''Staffelkapitän'' of 6./JG 5, ObIt. Hans Dieter Hartwein (16 Kills) posted missing.

During this period, overclaims were made by both sides. JG 5 claimed some 72 victories in August, but Soviet records indicate 24 Soviet aircraft lost with another 7 damaged and 13 aircraft missing, and another 4 were shot down by ground fire.

As 1942 wore on, the increased Allied air pressure towards Norway meant that a part of III. ''Gruppe'' and the newly created IV. ''Gruppe'' had to be stationed around [[Trondheim]]. A second part of III. ''Gruppe'' was stationed in [[Kirkenes]], both to provide cover from marauding [[Soviet Air Force]] formations, and to help with the intensifying attacks against the [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic convoys]]. ''Leutnant'' [[Heinrich Ehrler]] (6. JG 5) was awarded the ''[[Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes]]'' on 4 September for 64 victories.

=== 1943 ===
By January 1943 I. and IV./JG 5 were stationed in Southern Norway, being equipped with the [[Focke-Wulf Fw 190|Fw 190A-2]], A-3 and A-4. I./JG 5 had its bases on [[Lista]], [[Stavanger Airport, Sola|Sola]], [[Kristiansand Airport, Kjevik|Kjevik]] and [[Herdla]] in the southern part of Norway. IV./JG 5 were distributed on bases around [[Trondheim]], and were equipped with [[Bf 109]]Fs and Fw 190As. II. and III. ''Gruppe'' faced the Soviets on the Polar Sea Front; at this time they were equipped with the Bf 109F-4. Stab, 4./JG 5 and 6./JG 5 were stationed in Alakurtti, 5., 8., and 9./JG 5 were stationed at [[Kirkenes]] and 7./JG 5 was based at Petsamo. As early as March 1943 6. ''Staffel'' (commanded by Hpt. [[Heinrich Ehrler]]) reached 500 victories.

In early 1943 a ''Jabo'' (fighter-bomber) unit was formed within JG 5. 14.(J)/JG 5 was equipped with modified Fw 190A's and commanded by Hptm. [[Friedrich-Wilhelm Strakeljahn]].
In May 1943 the unit was responsible for the sinking of two submarines and two freighters within three days and by the end of 1943 has claimed to have sunk over 39,000 tons of Soviet merchant shipping in over 1,000 sorties.

In June 1943 Oberstlt. [[Gotthard Handrick]] was transferred to ''[[8th Fighter Division (Germany)|8. Jagddivision]]'', and replaced by the ''Gruppenkommandeur'' III./JG 5, Major [[Günther Scholz]]. Mid 1943 also saw JG 5 at its maximum strength. It consisted of 14 ''Staffeln''; 12 regular single-engined fighter ''Staffels'' equipped with the [[Bf 109]] and [[Fw 190]], one Bf 110-equipped ''Zerstörerstaffel'' and finally the ''[[Fighter-bomber|Jabo]]'' unit, 14.(J)/JG 5 with the Fw 190. 1943 was also the last year in which JG 5's four ''Gruppen'' had any sense of operational unity. I and II. ''Gruppe'' left Norway and Finland for good in late 1943 to fight the rest of the war away from their parent ''Geschwader''.

In November 1943, I. ''Gruppe'' moved to [[Romania]] as protection for the vital [[Ploieşti]] oil refineries. The ''gruppe'' were placed under the command of ''[[Luftflotte 1]]'' for the remainder of 1943. On 26 March 1944 Hauptmann [[Horst Carganico]] was appointed ''Gruppenkommandeur'' of I./JG 5 participating in the ''Reichsverteidigung'' ([[Defense of the Reich]]). After combat with USAAF B-17's on 27 May 1944, he was killed when his Bf 109 crashed after hitting high tension cables while force-landing near Chevry, France. Carganico had claimed 60 kills.

=== 1944 ===
In 1944 I. ''Gruppe'' was redesignated as III./[[JG 6]] and sent to [[France]], and it was never replaced. In June - July 1944, ''Gruppenkommandeur'' [[Theodor Weissenberger]] was credited with 25 victories over Normandy (half the total score by the whole unit during this period).

II. ''Gruppe'' was transferred to Northern [[Russia]] under the command of ''[[Luftflotte 1]]'', and then redesignated as IV./[[JG 4]] and sent back to [[Germany]] in early 1945.

IV./JG 5 and 14./JG 5 were transferred to the Arctic Front from Southern Norway in August 1944. The ''Gruppe'' joined the first of several large air battles commencing on October 9, opposing the final Soviet offensive against Petsamo. When the day was over, III. and IV./JG 5 had claimed 85 Soviet aircraft shot down (among them the 3,000th victory for JG 5) against the loss of only one pilot killed.

On 1 August 1944 Major Ehrler was promoted to ''[[Geschwaderkommodore]]'' of JG 5.

In November 1944, IV./JG 5 returned to Southern Norway. Up to the end of the war this unit formed the air defence against the Allied raids on targets in Norway, principally the submarine bases at [[Trondheim]] and [[Bergen]].

=== The Sinking of the Tirpitz ===
On 12 November 1944 [[Avro Lancaster]] bombers of [[No. 9 Squadron RAF|9]] and [[No. 617 Squadron RAF|617]] Squadrons raided the [[German battleship Tirpitz|Tirpitz]] in Tromsø fjord. Major Ehrler belatedly scrambled to intercept at the head of a formation of JG 5 Bf 109G's, but the fighters were too late. The Tirpitz was sunk with the loss of a thousand sailors. Ehrler was court martialed and sentenced to three years ''Festungshaft'', and stripped of his command. (He was killed flying with [[JG 7]] on 4 April 1945).

=== Surviving aircraft that served with JG 5 ===

About twenty of JG 5's [[Messerschmitt Bf 109 survivors|Messerschmitt Bf 109]]s, comprising six E-models, eight 109F-models and seven G-models; and six of JG 5's [[Focke-Wulf Fw 190#Survivors|Focke-Wulf Fw 190]]s, five of them A-models and one F-model, survive into the 21st century, believed to be (at about 27 aircraft) the highest number of surviving WW II-era piston-engined German combat aircraft from any single ''Geschwader''-designated operational unit. The oldest existing aircraft of all that served with JG 5 in World War II is the Bf 109E-3 with ''Werknummer'' 1983 that was assigned to JG 5's 5th ''Staffel'', housed at Charleston Aviation Services, Colchester, England in the UK currently undergoing restoration, with the oldest Fw 190 remaining in the world, the A-2 model that served with JG 5, bearing s/n 5476, existing in Texas awaiting restoration. The lone surviving Fw 190 F-model that served with JG 5 is under restoration in Florida to possibly become the first restored, original [[BMW 801]] radial-engined Fw 190 since the end of World War II to fly again in coming years with ''The White 1 Foundation'' in Kissimmee, Florida.

== Commanding officers ==
=== ''Geschwaderkommodore'' ===
*''Oberstleutnant'' [[Gotthard Handrick]], May 1942 - June 1943
*''Oberstleutnant'' [[Günther Scholz]], June 1943 - May 1944
*Major Heinrich Ehrler, May 1944 - February 1945
*''Oberstleutnant'' Günther Scholz, February 1945 - May 1945

=== Gruppenkommandeure ===
==== I./JG 5 ====
*Major Joachim Seegert, January 1942 - April 1942
*''Hauptmann'' Gerhard von Wehren, April 1942 - February 1943
*''Hauptmann'' Gerhard Wengel, February 1943 - 10 January 1944
*''Oberleutnant'' Robert Müller, 10 January 1944 - 25 January 1944
*Major Erich Gerlitz, 25 January 1944 - 16 March 1944
*Major Horst Carganico, 26 March 1944 - 27 May 1944
*''Hauptmann'' Theodor Weissenberger, 4 June 1944 - 14 October 1944

==== II./JG 5 ====
*Major Hennig Strümpell, January 1942 - April 1942
*''Hauptmann'' Horst Carganico, April 1942 - 26 March 1944
*''Hauptmann'' Theodor Weissenberger, 26 March 1944 - 3 June 1944
*''Oberleutnant'' Hans Tetzner, 4 June 1944 - 19.7 1944
*''Oberstleutant'' Franz Wienhusen, 1 September 1944 - October 1944
*''Hauptmann'' Herbert Treppe, February 1945 - May 1945

==== III./JG 5 ====
*''Hauptmann'' Günther Scholz, March 1942 - June 1943
*Major [[Heinrich Ehrler]], June 1943 - May 1944
*''Hauptmann'' [[Franz Dörr]], May 1944 - May 1945
*''Oberleutnant'' Rudolf Glöckner, 1944/1945

==== IV./JG 5 ====
*''Hauptmann'' Hans Kriegel, unknown - April 1944
*''Oberleutnant'' Rudolf Lüder, 3 October 1943 - unknown
*''Hauptmann'' Fritz Stendel, 15 May 1944 - May 1945

=== Staffelkapitäne ===
==== 13. (Z)/JG 5 ====
*Olt Felix Maria Brandis, 25.1.42 - 2.2.42
*Olt Max Franzisket<ref group="Notes">Max Franzisket was the brother of [[Ludwig Franzisket]]. Max was killed in action on 19 July 1943 on the Eastern Front.</ref>, February 1942 - March 1942
*''Oberleutnant'' Karl-Fritz Schloßstein, March 1942 - June 1942
*Oberleutnant Hans Kirchmeier, June 1943 - September 1943
*Hauptmann Herbert Treppe, September 1943 - July 1944

==== 14. (Jabo)/JG 5 ====
*''Hauptmann'' Friedrich-Wilhelm Strakeljahn, February 1943 - February 1944

==See also==
*[[Organization of the Luftwaffe during World War II]]

{{Jagdgeschwader of the Luftwaffe}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="Notes"}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*Bjørn Hafsten[et al.](1991). ''Flyalarm - Luftkrigen over Norge 1939-1945'', Sem & Stenersen AS. (ISBN 82-7046-058-3).
*[http://www.luftwaffe.no Luftwaffe.no, a reference site for the German airforces operating in Norway and Finland]
*Girbig, Werner: ''Jagdgeschwader 5 "Eismeerjäger"'' (Motorbuch Verlag 1976)

==External links==
*[http://www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de/Gliederungen/Jagdgeschwader/JG5-R.htm A history of JG 5 and a complete list of commanders(In German)]

[[Category:Luftwaffe Wings|Jagdgeschwader 005]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1942]]
[[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1945]]

[[cs:Jagdgeschwader 5]]
[[ru:Jagdgeschwader 5]]

Adolph Malan

2008-08-22T22:21:19Z

Dapi89: numbers under 10 are written.

{{Infobox Military Person
|name=Adolph Gysbert Malan
|lived=[[March 24]], [[1910]] – [[September 17]], [[1963]]
|placeofbirth=[[Wellington, South Africa]]
|placeofdeath=
|image=
|caption=
|nickname=Sailor
|allegiance=[[South Africa]]/[[United Kingdom]]
|serviceyears=1935–1946
|rank=[[Group Captain]]
|branch= {{air force|United Kingdom}}
|commands=- [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] - 19 Fighter Wing, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|2nd TAF]] - 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing
|unit=
|battles=[[World War II]]
*[[Battle of Britain]]
|awards=[[Distinguished Service Order|Distinguished Service Order & Bar]] [[Distinguished Flying Cross (UK)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]
|laterwork=
}}
'''Adolph Gysbert Malan''' [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO & Bar]] [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|DFC]] ([[March 24]], [[1910]] – [[September 17]], [[1963]]), better known as '''Sailor Malan''', was a famed [[World War II]] [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] fighter pilot who led [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] during the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Under his leadership the 74 became one of the RAF's best units. Malan was scored 27 kills, seven shared destroyed, three probably destroyed and 16 damaged.<ref>Price 1997, p. 65.</ref>

==Early life==
Malan was born in [[Wellington, South Africa|Wellington]], [[Cape Province]], [[South Africa]] . He joined the South African Training Ship "General Botha" in 1924 and 1925 as a cadet at the age of 15, (cadet number 168), after which he joined the [[Union-Castle Line]] of the [[International Mercantile Marine Co.]] which later earned him the nickname of "Sailor" amongst his pilot colleagues.

==Royal Air Force==
In 1935 the RAF started the rapid expansion of its pilot corps, and Malan was one of the people who joined up. He learned to fly on [[Tiger Moth (plane)|Tiger Moth]] at an elementary flying school near [[Bristol]], flying for the first time on [[January 6]], [[1936]]. He completed training by the end of the year, and was sent to join 74 Squadron on [[December 20]], [[1936]]. He was promoted to [[Pilot Officer]] in January 1937, and was appointed to acting [[Flight Commander]] of "A" Flight, flying Spitfires, in August. He received another promotion to [[Flight Lieutenant]] just before the opening of the war.

==The Second World War==
===The Battle of Barking Creek===
74 Squadron saw its first action only 15 hours after war was declared, sent to intercept a bomber raid that turned out to be returning RAF planes. On [[September 6]] [[1939]] "A" Flight was scrambled to intercept a suspected enemy radar track and ran into the Hurricanes of [[No. 56 Squadron RAF]]. Believing 56 to be the enemy Malan ordered an attack, and in the subsequent tragic battle pilots Paddy Byrne and [[John Freeborn]] downed two RAF aircraft, killing one officer, Montague Hulton-Harrop. This [[friendly fire]] incident became known as the ''[[Battle of Barking Creek]]''. At the subsequent [[courts martial]], the court accepted that the entire incident was an unfortunate error.

===Dunkirk===
Events soon overtook the squadron. After fierce fighting over Dunkrik during [[Operation Dynamo|the evacuation of Dunkirk]] on June 28, 1940, Sailor was awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (UK)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] having achieved 5 'kill' claims. During this battle he first exhibited his fearless and implacable fighting spirit. In one incident he was able to coolly change the light bulb in his gunsight while in combat and then quickly return to the fray. During the night of 19/20 June Malan flew a night sortie in bright moonlight and shot down two [[Heinkel He-111]] bombers, a then unique feat for which a bar to his DFC was awarded.

Malan and his senior pilots also decided to abandon the "vic" formation used by the RAF, and turned to a looser formation based on the "finger four" that the [[Luftwaffe]] had developed just before the war started. Legend has it that on [[July 28]] he met [[Werner Mölders]] in combat, damaging his plane and wounding him, but failing to bring him down. Recent research has suggested however that Mölders was wounded in a fight with [[No. 41 Squadron RAF]].

===Squadron Leader – 74 Squadron===
On August 8th Malan was given command of 74 Squadron and promoted to Acting [[Squadron Leader]]. This was at the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Three days later, on the 11th, action started at 7am when 74 was sent to intercept a raid near [[Dover, England|Dover]], but this was followed by another three raids, lasting all day. At the end of the day 74 had claimed to have shot down 38 aircraft, and was known from then on as "Sailor's August the Eleventh". Malan himself simply commented, "''thus ended a very successful morning of combat''."

On the ground Malan was remembered as an inveterate gambler and often owed his subordinates money. Malan was older than most of his charges and although sociable and relaxed off duty spent most of his time with his wife and family living near Biggin Hill. He would soon develop a routine of flying the first sortie of the day and then handing the squadron to a subordinate while he stayed on the ground to do paperwork. Despite frosty relations after the Battle of Barking Creek he would often give command of the squadron to [[John Freeborn]] (himself an [[Flying ace|ace]] of note), showing Malan's ability to keep the personal and professional separate. Malan commanded 74 Squadron with strict discipline and did not suffer fools gladly, and could be high-handed with sergeant pilots (many non-commissioned pilots were joining the RAF at this time). He could also be reluctant to hand out decorations, and he had a strict yardstick by which he would make recommendations for medals: six kills confirmed for a DFC, twelve for a bar to the DFC; eighteen for a DSO.

===Wing Commander – Biggin Hill===
On December 24th Malan received the [[Distinguished Service Order]], and on July 22, 1941, Bars to the Order. On 10th March 1941 he was appointed as one of the first [[Wing Commander (rank)|Wing Leaders]] for the offensive operations that spring and summer, leading the Biggin Hill Wing until mid August, when he was rested from operations.
He finished his active fighter career in 1941 with 27 kills destroyed, 7 shared destroyed and 2 unconfirmed, 3 probables and 16 damaged, at the time the RAF's leading ace, and the one of the highest scoring pilots to have served wholly with Fighter Command during WW2.

===Group Captain===
After tours to the USA and the Central Gunnery School, Malan was promoted to [[Group Captain]] in 1941 and became Station Commander at [[Biggin Hill]]. Malan remained keen to fly on operations, often ignoring standing orders for Station Commanders not to risk getting shot down. In October 1943 he became OC 19 Fighter Wing, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|2nd TAF]], then commander of the 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing in time for D-day, leading a section of the wing over the beaches during the late afternoon.

==Rules of Air Fighting==
Although not an instinctive, gifted pilot Malan was an exceptional shot and a very aggressive air fighter, and above all a superb tactician who instilled the methods and techniques he had honed in 1940 into successive generations of young fighter pilots who followed him.

Malan developed a set of simple rules for fighter pilots, to be disseminated throughout [[RAF Fighter Command]], which eventually could be found tacked to the wall of most airbases:

'''TEN OF MY RULES FOR AIR FIGHTING'''

# Wait until you see the whites of his eyes. Fire short bursts of one to two seconds only when your sights are definitely "ON".
# Whilst shooting think of nothing else, brace the whole of your body: have both hands on the stick: concentrate on your ring sight.
# Always keep a sharp lookout. "Keep your finger out".
# Height gives you the initiative.
# Always turn and face the attack.
# Make your decisions promptly. It is better to act quickly even though your tactics are not the best.
# Never fly straight and level for more than 30 seconds in the combat area.
# When diving to attack always leave a proportion of your formation above to act as a top guard.
# INITIATIVE, AGGRESSION, AIR DISCIPLINE, and TEAM WORK are words that MEAN something in Air Fighting.
# Go in quickly - Punch hard - Get out!

==Later life==
In 1946 Malan left the RAF and returned to South Africa. In the 1950s he formed a protest group of ex-servicemen called the [[Torch Commando]] to fight the National Party's plans to remove Cape's "coloured" voters from the roll. The Torch Commando fought a battle for more than five years, and at its height had 250,000 members. The government was alarmed by the number of judges, public servants and military officers joining the organisation that a new law was passed to ban anyone in public service or the military from joining.

Malan died in 1963 from [[Parkinson's Disease]], at the time a rare and essentially mysterious malady. A considerable sum of money was raised in his name to further study the disease, a fund that continues to this day.

He was survived by his wife, Lynda, son Jonathan, and daughter Valerie.

In the 1969 war film [[Battle of Britain (film)|''Battle of Britain'']] the [[Robert Shaw (actor)|Robert Shaw]] character 'Squadron Leader Skipper' was explicitly based on Malan, as recounted by director [[Guy Hamilton]] in the documentary 'A Film for the Few', which was included with the 2004 Special Edition DVD release.

==Awards==
* [[Distinguished Service Order]] and Bar
* [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]
* Belgium [[Croix de Guerre]]
* Czecho-Slovakian Military Cross
* French Legion Of Honour
* French Croix de Guerre

==References==
===Bibliography===
* Price, Dr Alfred. (1997). ''Spitfire Mark V Aces 1941-45''. Osprey Publishing, London. ISBN 978-1-85532-635-4
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Flying ace]]
*[[List of top World War II aces]]
*[[List of World War II aces from South Africa]]
*[[Huguenots in South Africa]], for the history of French surnames (like Malan) in South Africa.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malan, Adolph}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1963 deaths]]
[[Category:Afrikaner people]]
[[Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force officers]]
[[Category:South African military personnel]]
[[Category:South African World War II flying aces]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross]]
[[Category:South Africans of Huguenot descent]]
[[Category:British World War II flying aces]]
[[af:Sailor Malan]]
[[ja:アドルフ・マラン]]

Adolph Malan

2008-08-20T23:45:18Z

Dapi89:

{{Infobox Military Person
|name=Adolph Gysbert Malan
|lived=[[March 24]], [[1910]] – [[September 17]], [[1963]]
|placeofbirth=[[Wellington, South Africa]]
|placeofdeath=
|image=
|caption=
|nickname=Sailor
|allegiance=[[South Africa]]/[[United Kingdom]]
|serviceyears=1935–1946
|rank=[[Group Captain]]
|branch= {{air force|United Kingdom}}
|commands=- [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] - 19 Fighter Wing, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|2nd TAF]] - 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing
|unit=
|battles=[[World War II]]
*[[Battle of Britain]]
|awards=[[Distinguished Service Order|Distinguished Service Order & Bar]] [[Distinguished Flying Cross (UK)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]
|laterwork=
}}
'''Adolph Gysbert Malan''' [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO & Bar]] [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|DFC]] ([[March 24]], [[1910]] – [[September 17]], [[1963]]), better known as '''Sailor Malan''', was a famed [[World War II]] [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] fighter pilot who led [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] during the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Under his leadership the 74 became one of the RAF's best units. Malan was scored 27 kills, seven shared destroyed, three probably destroyeda and 16 damaged.<ref>Price 1997, p. 65.</ref>

==Early life==
Malan was born in [[Wellington, South Africa|Wellington]], [[Cape Province]], [[South Africa]] . He joined the South African Training Ship "General Botha" in 1924 and 1925 as a cadet at the age of 15, (cadet number 168), after which he joined the [[Union-Castle Line]] of the [[International Mercantile Marine Co.]] which later earned him the nickname of "Sailor" amongst his pilot colleagues.

==Royal Air Force==
In 1935 the RAF started the rapid expansion of its pilot corps, and Malan was one of the people who joined up. He learned to fly on [[Tiger Moth (plane)|Tiger Moth]] at an elementary flying school near [[Bristol]], flying for the first time on [[January 6]], [[1936]]. He completed training by the end of the year, and was sent to join 74 Squadron on [[December 20]], [[1936]]. He was promoted to [[Pilot Officer]] in January 1937, and was appointed to acting [[Flight Commander]] of "A" Flight, flying Spitfires, in August. He received another promotion to [[Flight Lieutenant]] just before the opening of the war.

==The Second World War==
===The Battle of Barking Creek===
74 Squadron saw its first action only 15 hours after war was declared, sent to intercept a bomber raid that turned out to be returning RAF planes. On [[September 6]] [[1939]] "A" Flight was scrambled to intercept a suspected enemy radar track and ran into the Hurricanes of [[No. 56 Squadron RAF]]. Believing 56 to be the enemy Malan ordered an attack, and in the subsequent tragic battle pilots Paddy Byrne and [[John Freeborn]] downed two RAF aircraft, killing one officer, Montague Hulton-Harrop. This [[friendly fire]] incident became known as the ''[[Battle of Barking Creek]]''. At the subsequent [[courts martial]], the court accepted that the entire incident was an unfortunate error.

===Dunkirk===
Events soon overtook the squadron. After fierce fighting over Dunkrik during [[Operation Dynamo|the evacuation of Dunkirk]] on June 28, 1940, Sailor was awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (UK)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] having achieved 5 'kill' claims. During this battle he first exhibited his fearless and implacable fighting spirit. In one incident he was able to coolly change the light bulb in his gunsight while in combat and then quickly return to the fray. During the night of 19/20 June Malan flew a night sortie in bright moonlight and shot down two [[Heinkel He-111]] bombers, a then unique feat for which a bar to his DFC was awarded.

Malan and his senior pilots also decided to abandon the "vic" formation used by the RAF, and turned to a looser formation based on the "finger four" that the [[Luftwaffe]] had developed just before the war started. Legend has it that on [[July 28]] he met [[Werner Mölders]] in combat, damaging his plane and wounding him, but failing to bring him down. Recent research has suggested however that Mölders was wounded in a fight with [[No. 41 Squadron RAF]].

===Squadron Leader – 74 Squadron===
On August 8th Malan was given command of 74 Squadron and promoted to Acting [[Squadron Leader]]. This was at the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Three days later, on the 11th, action started at 7am when 74 was sent to intercept a raid near [[Dover, England|Dover]], but this was followed by another three raids, lasting all day. At the end of the day 74 had claimed to have shot down 38 aircraft, and was known from then on as "Sailor's August the Eleventh". Malan himself simply commented, "''thus ended a very successful morning of combat''."

On the ground Malan was remembered as an inveterate gambler and often owed his subordinates money. Malan was older than most of his charges and although sociable and relaxed off duty spent most of his time with his wife and family living near Biggin Hill. He would soon develop a routine of flying the first sortie of the day and then handing the squadron to a subordinate while he stayed on the ground to do paperwork. Despite frosty relations after the Battle of Barking Creek he would often give command of the squadron to [[John Freeborn]] (himself an [[Flying ace|ace]] of note), showing Malan's ability to keep the personal and professional separate. Malan commanded 74 Squadron with strict discipline and did not suffer fools gladly, and could be high-handed with sergeant pilots (many non-commissioned pilots were joining the RAF at this time). He could also be reluctant to hand out decorations, and he had a strict yardstick by which he would make recommendations for medals: six kills confirmed for a DFC, twelve for a bar to the DFC; eighteen for a DSO.

===Wing Commander – Biggin Hill===
On December 24th Malan received the [[Distinguished Service Order]], and on July 22, 1941, Bars to the Order. On 10th March 1941 he was appointed as one of the first [[Wing Commander (rank)|Wing Leaders]] for the offensive operations that spring and summer, leading the Biggin Hill Wing until mid August, when he was rested from operations.
He finished his active fighter career in 1941 with 27 kills destroyed, 7 shared destroyed and 2 unconfirmed, 3 probables and 16 damaged, at the time the RAF's leading ace, and the one of the highest scoring pilots to have served wholly with Fighter Command during WW2.

===Group Captain===
After tours to the USA and the Central Gunnery School, Malan was promoted to [[Group Captain]] in 1941 and became Station Commander at [[Biggin Hill]]. Malan remained keen to fly on operations, often ignoring standing orders for Station Commanders not to risk getting shot down. In October 1943 he became OC 19 Fighter Wing, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|2nd TAF]], then commander of the 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing in time for D-day, leading a section of the wing over the beaches during the late afternoon.

==Rules of Air Fighting==
Although not an instinctive, gifted pilot Malan was an exceptional shot and a very aggressive air fighter, and above all a superb tactician who instilled the methods and techniques he had honed in 1940 into successive generations of young fighter pilots who followed him.

Malan developed a set of simple rules for fighter pilots, to be disseminated throughout [[RAF Fighter Command]], which eventually could be found tacked to the wall of most airbases:

'''TEN OF MY RULES FOR AIR FIGHTING'''

# Wait until you see the whites of his eyes. Fire short bursts of one to two seconds only when your sights are definitely "ON".
# Whilst shooting think of nothing else, brace the whole of your body: have both hands on the stick: concentrate on your ring sight.
# Always keep a sharp lookout. "Keep your finger out".
# Height gives you the initiative.
# Always turn and face the attack.
# Make your decisions promptly. It is better to act quickly even though your tactics are not the best.
# Never fly straight and level for more than 30 seconds in the combat area.
# When diving to attack always leave a proportion of your formation above to act as a top guard.
# INITIATIVE, AGGRESSION, AIR DISCIPLINE, and TEAM WORK are words that MEAN something in Air Fighting.
# Go in quickly - Punch hard - Get out!

==Later life==
In 1946 Malan left the RAF and returned to South Africa. In the 1950s he formed a protest group of ex-servicemen called the [[Torch Commando]] to fight the National Party's plans to remove Cape's "coloured" voters from the roll. The Torch Commando fought a battle for more than five years, and at its height had 250,000 members. The government was alarmed by the number of judges, public servants and military officers joining the organisation that a new law was passed to ban anyone in public service or the military from joining.

Malan died in 1963 from [[Parkinson's Disease]], at the time a rare and essentially mysterious malady. A considerable sum of money was raised in his name to further study the disease, a fund that continues to this day.

He was survived by his wife, Lynda, son Jonathan, and daughter Valerie.

In the 1969 war film [[Battle of Britain (film)|''Battle of Britain'']] the [[Robert Shaw (actor)|Robert Shaw]] character 'Squadron Leader Skipper' was explicitly based on Malan, as recounted by director [[Guy Hamilton]] in the documentary 'A Film for the Few', which was included with the 2004 Special Edition DVD release.

==Awards==
* [[Distinguished Service Order]] and Bar
* [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]
* Belgium [[Croix de Guerre]]
* Czecho-Slovakian Military Cross
* French Legion Of Honour
* French Croix de Guerre

==References==
===Bibliography===
* Price, Dr Alfred. (1997). ''Spitfire Mark V Aces 1941-45''. Osprey Publishing, London. ISBN 978-1-85532-635-4
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Flying ace]]
*[[List of top World War II aces]]
*[[List of World War II aces from South Africa]]
*[[Huguenots in South Africa]], for the history of French surnames (like Malan) in South Africa.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malan, Adolph}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1963 deaths]]
[[Category:Afrikaner people]]
[[Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force officers]]
[[Category:South African military personnel]]
[[Category:South African World War II flying aces]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross]]
[[Category:South Africans of Huguenot descent]]
[[Category:British World War II flying aces]]
[[af:Sailor Malan]]
[[ja:アドルフ・マラン]]

Adolph Malan

2008-08-20T23:38:46Z

Dapi89: /* Awards */

{{unreferenced|date=July 2008}}
{{Infobox Military Person
|name=Adolph Gysbert "Sailor" Malan
|lived=[[March 24]], [[1910]] – [[September 17]], [[1963]]
|placeofbirth=[[Wellington, South Africa]]
|placeofdeath=
|image=
|caption=
|nickname=Sailor
|allegiance=[[South Africa]]/[[United Kingdom]]
|serviceyears=1935–1946
|rank=[[Group Captain]]
|branch= {{air force|United Kingdom}}
|commands=- [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] - 19 Fighter Wing, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|2nd TAF]] - 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing
|unit=
|battles=[[World War II]]
*[[Battle of Britain]]
|awards=[[Distinguished Service Order|Distinguished Service Order & Bar]] [[Distinguished Flying Cross (UK)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]
|laterwork=
}}
'''Adolph Gysbert Malan''' [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO & Bar]] [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|DFC]] ([[March 24]], [[1910]] – [[September 17]], [[1963]]), better known as '''Sailor Malan''', was a famed [[World War II]] [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] fighter pilot who led [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] during the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Under his leadership the 74 became one of the RAF's best units.

==Early life==
Malan was born in [[Wellington, South Africa|Wellington]], [[Cape Province]], [[South Africa]] . He joined the South African Training Ship "General Botha" in 1924 and 1925 as a cadet at the age of 15, (cadet number 168), after which he joined the [[Union-Castle Line]] of the [[International Mercantile Marine Co.]] which later earned him the nickname of "Sailor" amongst his pilot colleagues.

==Royal Air Force==
In 1935 the RAF started the rapid expansion of its pilot corps, and Malan was one of the people who joined up. He learned to fly on [[Tiger Moth (plane)|Tiger Moth]] at an elementary flying school near [[Bristol]], flying for the first time on [[January 6]], [[1936]]. He completed training by the end of the year, and was sent to join 74 Squadron on [[December 20]], [[1936]]. He was promoted to [[Pilot Officer]] in January 1937, and was appointed to acting [[Flight Commander]] of "A" Flight, flying Spitfires, in August. He received another promotion to [[Flight Lieutenant]] just before the opening of the war.

==The Second World War==
===The Battle of Barking Creek===
74 Squadron saw its first action only 15 hours after war was declared, sent to intercept a bomber raid that turned out to be returning RAF planes. On [[September 6]] [[1939]] "A" Flight was scrambled to intercept a suspected enemy radar track and ran into the Hurricanes of [[No. 56 Squadron RAF]]. Believing 56 to be the enemy Malan ordered an attack, and in the subsequent tragic battle pilots Paddy Byrne and [[John Freeborn]] downed two RAF aircraft, killing one officer, Montague Hulton-Harrop. This [[friendly fire]] incident became known as the ''[[Battle of Barking Creek]]''. At the subsequent [[courts martial]], the court accepted that the entire incident was an unfortunate error.

===Dunkirk===
Events soon overtook the squadron. After fierce fighting over Dunkrik during [[Operation Dynamo|the evacuation of Dunkirk]] on June 28, 1940, Sailor was awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (UK)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] having achieved 5 'kill' claims. During this battle he first exhibited his fearless and implacable fighting spirit. In one incident he was able to coolly change the light bulb in his gunsight while in combat and then quickly return to the fray. During the night of 19/20 June Malan flew a night sortie in bright moonlight and shot down two [[Heinkel He-111]] bombers, a then unique feat for which a bar to his DFC was awarded.

Malan and his senior pilots also decided to abandon the "vic" formation used by the RAF, and turned to a looser formation based on the "finger four" that the [[Luftwaffe]] had developed just before the war started. Legend has it that on [[July 28]] he met [[Werner Mölders]] in combat, damaging his plane and wounding him, but failing to bring him down. Recent research has suggested however that Mölders was wounded in a fight with [[No. 41 Squadron RAF]].

===Squadron Leader – 74 Squadron===
On August 8th Malan was given command of 74 Squadron and promoted to Acting [[Squadron Leader]]. This was at the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Three days later, on the 11th, action started at 7am when 74 was sent to intercept a raid near [[Dover, England|Dover]], but this was followed by another three raids, lasting all day. At the end of the day 74 had claimed to have shot down 38 aircraft, and was known from then on as "Sailor's August the Eleventh". Malan himself simply commented, "''thus ended a very successful morning of combat''."

On the ground Malan was remembered as an inveterate gambler and often owed his subordinates money. Malan was older than most of his charges and although sociable and relaxed off duty spent most of his time with his wife and family living near Biggin Hill. He would soon develop a routine of flying the first sortie of the day and then handing the squadron to a subordinate while he stayed on the ground to do paperwork. Despite frosty relations after the Battle of Barking Creek he would often give command of the squadron to [[John Freeborn]] (himself an [[Flying ace|ace]] of note), showing Malan's ability to keep the personal and professional separate. Malan commanded 74 Squadron with strict discipline and did not suffer fools gladly, and could be high-handed with sergeant pilots (many non-commissioned pilots were joining the RAF at this time). He could also be reluctant to hand out decorations, and he had a strict yardstick by which he would make recommendations for medals: six kills confirmed for a DFC, twelve for a bar to the DFC; eighteen for a DSO.

===Wing Commander – Biggin Hill===
On December 24th Malan received the [[Distinguished Service Order]], and on July 22, 1941, Bars to the Order. On 10th March 1941 he was appointed as one of the first [[Wing Commander (rank)|Wing Leaders]] for the offensive operations that spring and summer, leading the Biggin Hill Wing until mid August, when he was rested from operations.
He finished his active fighter career in 1941 with 27 kills destroyed, 7 shared destroyed and 2 unconfirmed, 3 probables and 16 damaged, at the time the RAF's leading ace, and the one of the highest scoring pilots to have served wholly with Fighter Command during WW2.

===Group Captain===
After tours to the USA and the Central Gunnery School, Malan was promoted to [[Group Captain]] in 1941 and became Station Commander at [[Biggin Hill]]. Malan remained keen to fly on operations, often ignoring standing orders for Station Commanders not to risk getting shot down. In October 1943 he became OC 19 Fighter Wing, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|2nd TAF]], then commander of the 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing in time for D-day, leading a section of the wing over the beaches during the late afternoon.

==Rules of Air Fighting==
Although not an instinctive, gifted pilot Malan was an exceptional shot and a very aggressive air fighter, and above all a superb tactician who instilled the methods and techniques he had honed in 1940 into successive generations of young fighter pilots who followed him.

Malan developed a set of simple rules for fighter pilots, to be disseminated throughout [[RAF Fighter Command]], which eventually could be found tacked to the wall of most airbases:

'''TEN OF MY RULES FOR AIR FIGHTING'''

# Wait until you see the whites of his eyes. Fire short bursts of one to two seconds only when your sights are definitely "ON".
# Whilst shooting think of nothing else, brace the whole of your body: have both hands on the stick: concentrate on your ring sight.
# Always keep a sharp lookout. "Keep your finger out".
# Height gives you the initiative.
# Always turn and face the attack.
# Make your decisions promptly. It is better to act quickly even though your tactics are not the best.
# Never fly straight and level for more than 30 seconds in the combat area.
# When diving to attack always leave a proportion of your formation above to act as a top guard.
# INITIATIVE, AGGRESSION, AIR DISCIPLINE, and TEAM WORK are words that MEAN something in Air Fighting.
# Go in quickly - Punch hard - Get out!

==Later life==
In 1946 Malan left the RAF and returned to South Africa. In the 1950s he formed a protest group of ex-servicemen called the [[Torch Commando]] to fight the National Party's plans to remove Cape's "coloured" voters from the roll. The Torch Commando fought a battle for more than five years, and at its height had 250,000 members. The government was alarmed by the number of judges, public servants and military officers joining the organisation that a new law was passed to ban anyone in public service or the military from joining.

Malan died in 1963 from [[Parkinson's Disease]], at the time a rare and essentially mysterious malady. A considerable sum of money was raised in his name to further study the disease, a fund that continues to this day.

He was survived by his wife, Lynda, son Jonathan, and daughter Valerie.

In the 1969 war film [[Battle of Britain (film)|''Battle of Britain'']] the [[Robert Shaw (actor)|Robert Shaw]] character 'Squadron Leader Skipper' was explicitly based on Malan, as recounted by director [[Guy Hamilton]] in the documentary 'A Film for the Few', which was included with the 2004 Special Edition DVD release.

==Awards==
* [[Distinguished Service Order]] and Bar
* [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]
* Belgium [[Croix de Guerre]]
* Czecho-Slovakian Military Cross
* French Legion Of Honour
* French Croix de Guerre

==References==
===Bibliography===
* Price, Dr Alfred. (1997). ''Spitfire Mark V Aces 1941-45''. Osprey Publishing, London. ISBN 978-1-85532-635-4
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Flying ace]]
*[[List of top World War II aces]]
*[[List of World War II aces from South Africa]]
*[[Huguenots in South Africa]], for the history of French surnames (like Malan) in South Africa.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malan, Adolph}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1963 deaths]]
[[Category:Afrikaner people]]
[[Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force officers]]
[[Category:South African military personnel]]
[[Category:South African World War II flying aces]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross]]
[[Category:South Africans of Huguenot descent]]
[[Category:British World War II flying aces]]
[[af:Sailor Malan]]
[[ja:アドルフ・マラン]]

Adolph Malan

2008-08-20T23:34:59Z

Dapi89: /* See also */

{{unreferenced|date=July 2008}}
{{Infobox Military Person
|name=Adolph Gysbert "Sailor" Malan
|lived=[[March 24]], [[1910]] – [[September 17]], [[1963]]
|placeofbirth=[[Wellington, South Africa]]
|placeofdeath=
|image=
|caption=
|nickname=Sailor
|allegiance=[[South Africa]]/[[United Kingdom]]
|serviceyears=1935–1946
|rank=[[Group Captain]]
|branch= {{air force|United Kingdom}}
|commands=- [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] - 19 Fighter Wing, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|2nd TAF]] - 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing
|unit=
|battles=[[World War II]]
*[[Battle of Britain]]
|awards=[[Distinguished Service Order|Distinguished Service Order & Bar]] [[Distinguished Flying Cross (UK)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]
|laterwork=
}}
'''Adolph Gysbert Malan''' [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO & Bar]] [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|DFC]] ([[March 24]], [[1910]] – [[September 17]], [[1963]]), better known as '''Sailor Malan''', was a famed [[World War II]] [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] fighter pilot who led [[No. 74 Squadron RAF]] during the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Under his leadership the 74 became one of the RAF's best units.

==Early life==
Malan was born in [[Wellington, South Africa|Wellington]], [[Cape Province]], [[South Africa]] . He joined the South African Training Ship "General Botha" in 1924 and 1925 as a cadet at the age of 15, (cadet number 168), after which he joined the [[Union-Castle Line]] of the [[International Mercantile Marine Co.]] which later earned him the nickname of "Sailor" amongst his pilot colleagues.

==Royal Air Force==
In 1935 the RAF started the rapid expansion of its pilot corps, and Malan was one of the people who joined up. He learned to fly on [[Tiger Moth (plane)|Tiger Moth]] at an elementary flying school near [[Bristol]], flying for the first time on [[January 6]], [[1936]]. He completed training by the end of the year, and was sent to join 74 Squadron on [[December 20]], [[1936]]. He was promoted to [[Pilot Officer]] in January 1937, and was appointed to acting [[Flight Commander]] of "A" Flight, flying Spitfires, in August. He received another promotion to [[Flight Lieutenant]] just before the opening of the war.

==The Second World War==
===The Battle of Barking Creek===
74 Squadron saw its first action only 15 hours after war was declared, sent to intercept a bomber raid that turned out to be returning RAF planes. On [[September 6]] [[1939]] "A" Flight was scrambled to intercept a suspected enemy radar track and ran into the Hurricanes of [[No. 56 Squadron RAF]]. Believing 56 to be the enemy Malan ordered an attack, and in the subsequent tragic battle pilots Paddy Byrne and [[John Freeborn]] downed two RAF aircraft, killing one officer, Montague Hulton-Harrop. This [[friendly fire]] incident became known as the ''[[Battle of Barking Creek]]''. At the subsequent [[courts martial]], the court accepted that the entire incident was an unfortunate error.

===Dunkirk===
Events soon overtook the squadron. After fierce fighting over Dunkrik during [[Operation Dynamo|the evacuation of Dunkirk]] on June 28, 1940, Sailor was awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (UK)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] having achieved 5 'kill' claims. During this battle he first exhibited his fearless and implacable fighting spirit. In one incident he was able to coolly change the light bulb in his gunsight while in combat and then quickly return to the fray. During the night of 19/20 June Malan flew a night sortie in bright moonlight and shot down two [[Heinkel He-111]] bombers, a then unique feat for which a bar to his DFC was awarded.

Malan and his senior pilots also decided to abandon the "vic" formation used by the RAF, and turned to a looser formation based on the "finger four" that the [[Luftwaffe]] had developed just before the war started. Legend has it that on [[July 28]] he met [[Werner Mölders]] in combat, damaging his plane and wounding him, but failing to bring him down. Recent research has suggested however that Mölders was wounded in a fight with [[No. 41 Squadron RAF]].

===Squadron Leader – 74 Squadron===
On August 8th Malan was given command of 74 Squadron and promoted to Acting [[Squadron Leader]]. This was at the height of the [[Battle of Britain]]. Three days later, on the 11th, action started at 7am when 74 was sent to intercept a raid near [[Dover, England|Dover]], but this was followed by another three raids, lasting all day. At the end of the day 74 had claimed to have shot down 38 aircraft, and was known from then on as "Sailor's August the Eleventh". Malan himself simply commented, "''thus ended a very successful morning of combat''."

On the ground Malan was remembered as an inveterate gambler and often owed his subordinates money. Malan was older than most of his charges and although sociable and relaxed off duty spent most of his time with his wife and family living near Biggin Hill. He would soon develop a routine of flying the first sortie of the day and then handing the squadron to a subordinate while he stayed on the ground to do paperwork. Despite frosty relations after the Battle of Barking Creek he would often give command of the squadron to [[John Freeborn]] (himself an [[Flying ace|ace]] of note), showing Malan's ability to keep the personal and professional separate. Malan commanded 74 Squadron with strict discipline and did not suffer fools gladly, and could be high-handed with sergeant pilots (many non-commissioned pilots were joining the RAF at this time). He could also be reluctant to hand out decorations, and he had a strict yardstick by which he would make recommendations for medals: six kills confirmed for a DFC, twelve for a bar to the DFC; eighteen for a DSO.

===Wing Commander – Biggin Hill===
On December 24th Malan received the [[Distinguished Service Order]], and on July 22, 1941, Bars to the Order. On 10th March 1941 he was appointed as one of the first [[Wing Commander (rank)|Wing Leaders]] for the offensive operations that spring and summer, leading the Biggin Hill Wing until mid August, when he was rested from operations.
He finished his active fighter career in 1941 with 27 kills destroyed, 7 shared destroyed and 2 unconfirmed, 3 probables and 16 damaged, at the time the RAF's leading ace, and the one of the highest scoring pilots to have served wholly with Fighter Command during WW2.

===Group Captain===
After tours to the USA and the Central Gunnery School, Malan was promoted to [[Group Captain]] in 1941 and became Station Commander at [[Biggin Hill]]. Malan remained keen to fly on operations, often ignoring standing orders for Station Commanders not to risk getting shot down. In October 1943 he became OC 19 Fighter Wing, [[RAF Second Tactical Air Force|2nd TAF]], then commander of the 145 (Free French) Fighter Wing in time for D-day, leading a section of the wing over the beaches during the late afternoon.

==Rules of Air Fighting==
Although not an instinctive, gifted pilot Malan was an exceptional shot and a very aggressive air fighter, and above all a superb tactician who instilled the methods and techniques he had honed in 1940 into successive generations of young fighter pilots who followed him.

Malan developed a set of simple rules for fighter pilots, to be disseminated throughout [[RAF Fighter Command]], which eventually could be found tacked to the wall of most airbases:

'''TEN OF MY RULES FOR AIR FIGHTING'''

# Wait until you see the whites of his eyes. Fire short bursts of one to two seconds only when your sights are definitely "ON".
# Whilst shooting think of nothing else, brace the whole of your body: have both hands on the stick: concentrate on your ring sight.
# Always keep a sharp lookout. "Keep your finger out".
# Height gives you the initiative.
# Always turn and face the attack.
# Make your decisions promptly. It is better to act quickly even though your tactics are not the best.
# Never fly straight and level for more than 30 seconds in the combat area.
# When diving to attack always leave a proportion of your formation above to act as a top guard.
# INITIATIVE, AGGRESSION, AIR DISCIPLINE, and TEAM WORK are words that MEAN something in Air Fighting.
# Go in quickly - Punch hard - Get out!

==Later life==
In 1946 Malan left the RAF and returned to South Africa. In the 1950s he formed a protest group of ex-servicemen called the [[Torch Commando]] to fight the National Party's plans to remove Cape's "coloured" voters from the roll. The Torch Commando fought a battle for more than five years, and at its height had 250,000 members. The government was alarmed by the number of judges, public servants and military officers joining the organisation that a new law was passed to ban anyone in public service or the military from joining.

Malan died in 1963 from [[Parkinson's Disease]], at the time a rare and essentially mysterious malady. A considerable sum of money was raised in his name to further study the disease, a fund that continues to this day.

He was survived by his wife, Lynda, son Jonathan, and daughter Valerie.

In the 1969 war film [[Battle of Britain (film)|''Battle of Britain'']] the [[Robert Shaw (actor)|Robert Shaw]] character 'Squadron Leader Skipper' was explicitly based on Malan, as recounted by director [[Guy Hamilton]] in the documentary 'A Film for the Few', which was included with the 2004 Special Edition DVD release.

==Awards==
* [[Distinguished Service Order]] and Bar
* [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]
* Belgium [[Croix de Guerre]]
* Czecho-Slovakian Military Cross
* French Legion Of Honour
* French Croix de Guerre

==See also==
*[[Flying ace]]
*[[List of top World War II aces]]
*[[List of World War II aces from South Africa]]
*[[Huguenots in South Africa]], for the history of French surnames (like Malan) in South Africa.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malan, Adolph}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1963 deaths]]
[[Category:Afrikaner people]]
[[Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force officers]]
[[Category:South African military personnel]]
[[Category:South African World War II flying aces]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross]]
[[Category:South Africans of Huguenot descent]]
[[Category:British World War II flying aces]]
[[af:Sailor Malan]]
[[ja:アドルフ・マラン]]