https://de.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=CarcharothWikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]2025-05-14T10:28:06ZBenutzerbeiträgeMediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.28https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basilika_St._Patrick_(Ottawa)&diff=181727399Basilika St. Patrick (Ottawa)2016-12-31T13:43:50Z<p>Carcharoth: convert five references to National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials template</p>
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<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}<br />
{{other uses2|St. Patrick's Cathedral}}<br />
{{Infobox church<br />
|name=St Patrick's Basilica, [[Ottawa]]<br />
|image=St Patrick's Basilica Ottawa.jpg<br />
|caption=St. Patrick's Basilica<br />
|coordinates={{coord|45.416678|-75.700505|type:landmark_region:CA-ON|format=dms|display=inline,title}}<br />
|location=220 Nepean Street<br />[[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]<br />K1R 5G2<br />
|dedication=[[St. Patrick]]<br />
|denomination=[[Roman Catholic]]<br />
|parish=Ontario<br />
|diocese=[[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Ottawa]]<br />
|province=[[Ecclesiastical Province of Canada|Canada]]<br />
|organistdom=<br />
|dean=<br />
|website= {{URL|www.basilica.org}}<br />
}}<br />
'''St Patrick's Basilica''' is a [[Roman Catholic Church]] in [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. Located at 281 Nepean Street (at the corner of Nepean and Kent) in [[Downtown Ottawa]], it is the oldest church in the city that serves the English-speaking community.<ref name="Parish">Parish website http://www.basilica.org</ref><br />
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==History==<br />
The parish was founded in 1855. Originally, it was intended to serve not only the English-speaking Catholics of Ottawa, but also those of the City of [[Hull, Quebec|Hull]] (now absorbed into [[Gatineau]]) across the [[Ottawa River]] in Quebec as well. These were mostly of Irish descent; thus the parish was dedicated to [[St. Patrick]], the [[patron saint]] of Ireland.<ref name="Parish"/><br />
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A memorial plaque was unveiled on June 11, 1916 and is dedicated to St. Patrick's Basilica in appreciation for the privilege of worshipping in this church by the commanding officer (from 19 Jun 1916 to 13 Sep 1916) Lieutenant Colonel D.R. Street, officers N.C.O.s. and Men of the (Ottawa) 77th Overseas Battalion Canadian Expeditionary Force (C.E.F.).<ref>{{National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials|id=8387|title=77th Overseas Battalion Canadian Expeditionary Force plaque: St Patrick's Basilica, Ottawa: Memorial 35059-074 Ottawa, ON|access-date=31 December 2016}}</ref> <br />
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A World War I memorial painting, which depicts angels meeting a dying soldier on the battlefield and Jesus Christ on the cross, was erected by the parishioners and is dedicated to the soldiers of the St. Patrick's Basilica parish who fell during The Great War. At the bottom of the painting's wooden frame is the list of those soldiers.<ref>{{National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials|id=8388|title=Great War memorial painting: St Patrick's Basilica, Ottawa: Memorial 35059-075 Ottawa, ON|access-date=31 December 2016}}</ref><br />
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The Holy Name Society and Tabernacle Society erected a pair of stained glass windows depicting [[Military saint]]s, which are dedicated to the Parish members who returned from World War II and those who made the supreme sacrifice.<ref>{{National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials|id=8395|title=Military saints memorial windows: St Patrick's Basilica, Ottawa: Memorial 35059-078 Ottawa, ON|access-date=31 December 2016}}</ref><br />
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Memorial scrolls are dedicated to the members of the St. Patrick's Basilica Parish<ref>{{National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials|id=8407|title=Second World War memorial scroll (St Patrick's Basilica): St Patrick's Basilica, Ottawa: Memorial 35059-086 Ottawa, ON|access-date=31 December 2016}}</ref> and Our lady of Perpetual Help Parish who volunteered for active service with Canada's fighting forces during World War II.<ref>{{National Inventory of Canadian Military Memorials|id=8396|title=Second World War memorial scroll (Our Lady of Perpetual Help): St Patrick's Basilica, Ottawa: Memorial 35059-079 Ottawa, ON|access-date=31 December 2016}}</ref><br />
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The Church was elevated to [[Basilica]] status on [[St. Patrick's Day]], 1995.<ref>[http://www.gcatholic.org/basilicas/canada.htm ]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref><br />
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==Architecture==<br />
[[File:St.Hubert Ottawa St.Patrick RC Basilica.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hubertus|St. Hubert]] stained glass window in St. Patrick's Basilica, Ottawa by [[Franz Mayer & Co.]] of Munich 1898]]<br />
[[File:St.Elizabeth of Hungary Ottawa St.Patrick Basilica.jpg|thumb|left|St. Elizabeth of Hungary and Ludwig IV of Thuringia in St. Patrick Basilica, Ottawa by [[Franz Mayer & Co.]] of Munich 1898]]Design for the present church building started in 1869 under the direction of architect [[Augustus Laver]].<ref>[http://www.dictionaryofarchitectsincanada.org/architects/view/1437 Augustus Laver]. Dictionaryofarchitectsincanada.org. Retrieved on 6 January 2014.</ref><br />
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Laver's firm, [[Fuller and Laver]], also designed the East and West blocks of Ottawa's [[Parliament Hill|Parliament Buildings]]. In 1872, the cornerstone was blessed by [[Joseph-Bruno Guigues|Bishop Guigues]] (the first Bishop of Ottawa), and was laid by [[Sir John A. Macdonald]] (the first Prime Minister of Canada). <br />
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King McCord Arnoldi (architect) was responsible from 1874–75 for the completion of the original design prepared in 1869 by Augustus Laver.<ref>(Free Press [Ottawa], 20 July 1874, 2, t.c.) [http://www.dictionaryofarchitectsincanada.org/architects/view/1267 King McCord Arnoldi]</ref> <br />
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In 1875 the building, not quite complete, was blessed by Bishop Guigues' successor, [[Joseph-Thomas Duhamel|Bishop Duhamel]]. <br />
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In 1898, Louis Zephirin Gauthier designed major alterations and a new altar for St. Patrick's, Kent Street at Nepean Street.<ref>[http://www.dictionaryofarchitectsincanada.org/architects/view/1586 Louis Zephirin Gauthier]. Dictionaryofarchitectsincanada.org. Retrieved on 6 January 2014.</ref> <br />
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The Basilica is one of the regular buildings featured in the Doors Open Ottawa architectural heritage day.<ref>[http://ottawa.ca/residents/heritage/doorsopen/buildings/index_en.html#P1291_65968 ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091228051628/http://ottawa.ca/residents/heritage/doorsopen/buildings/index_en.html#P1291_65968 |date=28 December 2009 }}</ref><br />
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The building is made of local stone<ref name="OttawaPlus">OttawaPlus http://www.ottawaplus.ca/ottawa/venues/saint-patricks-basilica-centretown?set_language=en</ref> in the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]] style and features a carved and stencilled ceiling, marble [[Altar (Catholicism)|altars]], [[stained glass]] windows, and oak [[pew]]s dating to 1954. The base of the current Altar of Sacrifice was originally the site of the raised marble [[pulpit]]. This latter was originally installed in 1930 and relocated slightly in an interior renovation of 2003. The Altar of Reservation was built in 1902. To the right of the altar is a beautiful replica of Murillo's Assumption of the Virgin Mary, hand painted by [[Québéc]] nuns in 1929.<ref name="OttawaPlus"/> The ceiling, most of the murals, and some of the stained glass windows are the work of [[Guido Nincheri]] from the 1920s and 1930s. The [[Stations of the Cross]] are bas-reliefs from 1876.<br />
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At the main entrance to the church are the [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] memorials listing the names of parishioners who died in those wars.<br />
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The church seats about 1,000.<br />
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In 1998 the basement of the church was excavated to form a basement (called the Scavi) containing a kitchen, meeting rooms, the Book Shop, and a [[Our Lady of Lourdes|Lourdes Grotto]]. The large area around the Lourdes Grotto is about two-thirds the size of the main church used for [[Eucharist in the Catholic Church|Mass]] on occasions when the main church cannot be used.<br />
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===Restoration===<br />
In 2009, the Basilica won the North American Copper in Architecture Awards (NACIA) in the Historical Restoration division. Engineering consultant John G. Cooke of John G. Cooke & Associates collaborated with building contracting firm Lari Construction to repair, replace and repoint stones, install anchors, and install a new copper roof. Heather & Little furnished the structure with a new copper steeple, copper cornice and dentil bands, belfry louvers, ornaments, and the stunning 20-oz copper ceiling of the spire.<ref>[http://heatherandlittle.com/index.php/st_patricks_basilica_steeple_restoration.html Copper Metal Stampings for Restoration of Sheet Metal Exterior of Church Steeple]. Heatherandlittle.com. Retrieved on 6 January 2014.</ref><ref>[http://www.coppercanada.ca/NACIA2009/Basilica/Basilica.html St. Patrick’s Basilica]. Coppercanada.ca. Retrieved on 6 January 2014.</ref><ref>[http://www.copper.org/publications/newsletters/ba-news/2010/january/homepage.html Building & Architecture News – January 2010]. Copper.org (25 August 2010). Retrieved on 6 January 2014.</ref> Work was done following the Canadian Federal Government publication ''Standards and Guidelines for the Conservation of Historic Places in Canada''.<ref>[http://www.jgcooke.com/MCooke.shtml ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422224220/http://www.jgcooke.com/MCooke.shtml |date=22 April 2009 }}</ref><br />
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==Organ==<br />
The first [[pipe organ]] of 1887 was built by S.R. Warren & Son. It was a two manual (Great and Swell) with pedal. About 30% of the present organ is from the original Warren. [[Casavant Frères|Casavant]] rebuilt and enlarged the Warren in 1898 to a three manual and pedal. Finally, Casavant rebuilt most of the mechanical parts of the organ again in 1930, adding chimes and a [[tremulant]].<ref>http://www.basilica.org/pdf/History_Basilica_Organ.pdf</ref> The electric wiring was installed at that time as well, replacing an earlier water-powered motor.<ref name="Parish"/><br />
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==Choirs==<br />
The basilica has five choirs<ref name="Parish"/> under the direction of organist and choir director Francesca Bailey, A.R.C.T. The Adoremus Choir is an [[SATB]] choir focusing on the sacred classics in English and [[Latin]] at the 12:15 p.m. [[Mass]] on Sundays. The Saint Patrick's Singers are a group of volunteer soloist singers who provide their professional services on alternating weeks with the Basilica Choir, the oldest one at the St. Patrick's, who sing predominantly English [[Unison#Choral music|unison]] music at the 11:00 a.m. Sunday Mass. A Youth Choir and a Children's Choir sing at the 9:30 a.m. Sunday Mass on alternate weeks.<ref name="Parish"/><br />
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==Parish life==<br />
St. Patrick's Basilica has a number of social and devotional groups for parishioners:<br />
* [[Knights of Columbus]]<ref>Saint Patrick's Basilica Council 12158 http://www.kofcstpatsbasilica.org/</ref><br />
* [[Legion of Mary]]<ref>Legion of Mary Senatus of Ottawa http://sites.google.com/site/legionofmarysenatusofontario/</ref><br />
* Christian Meditation Group<ref>Christian Meditation Group http://www.basilica.org/pages/meditation_group.php</ref><ref>[http://www.wccm.org/item.asp?recordid=medgrp16&pagestyle=default ]{{dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref><br />
* Traditional Franciscan [[Third Order]]<br />
* Women of Grace<br />
* [[Pro-life]] Group<br />
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Regular devotional events include:<br />
* Parish Missions<br />
* Monthly all-night Vigils of [[Eucharistic Adoration]]<ref>[http://www.therealpresence.org/canada/ontario.htm Eucharistic Adoration in the Province of Ontario Canada]. Therealpresence.org. Retrieved on 6 January 2014.</ref><br />
The Basilica offers masses, confessions, daily holy hours and Novena throughout the week.<ref name="OttawaPlus"/> The Basilica offers masses, confessions, daily holy hours and Novena throughout the week.<ref>[http://www.ottawaplus.ca/ottawa/venues/saint-patricks-basilica-centretown?set_language=en Saint Patrick's Basilica-Centretown — Ottawa Plus.ca]. Ottawaplus.ca (27 July 2009). Retrieved on 6 January 2014.</ref> Daily Masses before work (7:00&nbsp;a.m., 8:00&nbsp;a.m.), during lunch (12:15&nbsp;p.m.), and after the workday (4:30&nbsp;p.m.), with confessions before each service; Catholics citywide make use of the confessionals at Saint Patrick's.<ref name="Parish"/><br />
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Masses for Sunday obligation are:<br />
* Saturdays: 4:30pm (Low Mass)<br />
* Sundays: 8:00am (Low Mass), 9:30am, 11:00am, 12:15pm, 9:00pm<br />
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Educational activities include a formal [[Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults|R.C.I.A.]] program and a Continuing Adult Faith Formation program which has featured a variety of guest speakers. There is also a Book and Gift Shop in the Scavi.<br />
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Social events include pancake breakfasts by the Knights of Columbus and a St. Patrick's day dinner.<ref name="Parish"/><br />
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==Pastors and rectors==<br />
St. Patrick's has had a dozen pastors and, since its elevation to Basilica status, three Rectors.<ref name="Parish"/><br />
* Father Aeneas McDonnell Dawson (Pastor 1855–61)<br />
* Father James McGrath, OMI (Pastor 1861–66)<br />
* Father John Joseph Collins (Pastor 1866–77)<br />
* Father John Lalor O'Connor (Pastor 1877–81)<br />
* Father Matthew J. Whelan (Pastor 1881–1922)<br />
* Monsignor George Edward Fitzgerald (Pastor 1922–39)<br />
* Monsignor George David Prudhomme (Pastor 1939–51)<br />
* Monsignor J. Leo LeSage (Pastor 1951–61)<br />
* Bishop Joseph Raymond Windle (Pastor 1961–69)<br />
* Bishop John M. Beahen (Pastor 1969–77)<br />
* Monsignor Francis French (Pastor 1977–93)<br />
* Monsignor David J. P. Corkery (Pastor 1993–95, First Rector 1995–98 )<br />
* Monsignor Robert Martineau (Rector 1999–2009)<br />
* Father Richard Siok (Rector 2009–2013, 2015-2016)<br />
* Father Bosco Wong (Rector 2013-2015)<br />
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The rector since 2016 is Msgr Kevin Beach.<br />
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==Gallery==<br />
<gallery><br />
File:St. Patrick's Basilica interior, Ottawa.JPG|Interior<br />
File:St. Patrick's Basilica view, Ottawa.JPG|North side of church<br />
</gallery><br />
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==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Catholicism|Religion|Ottawa}}<br />
* [[Notre-Dame Cathedral Basilica (Ottawa)|Notre-Dame Cathedral Basilica, Ottawa]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
*{{Citation<br />
|last = Casey<br />
|first = Maurice<br />
|title = The Parish of St. Patrick of Ottawa And What Led To It: An Historical Sketch by Maurice Casey<br />
|date = 18 August 2010<br />
|publisher = Nabu Press This is a reproduction of a book published before 1923.<br />
|publication-place = Ottawa, Ontario<br />
|isbn = <br />
}}<br />
*{{Citation<br />
|last = McEvoy <br />
|first = Maurice<br />
|title = Enduring Faith; a History of Saint Patrick's Basilica Parish, Ottawa, 1855 - 2005<br />
|date = <br />
|publisher = Saint Patrick's Basilica <br />
|publication-place = Ottawa, Ontario 365.M.22.0<br />
|isbn = <br />
}}<br />
*{{Citation<br />
|last = O'Dwyer<br />
|first = William C <br />
|title = Highways of Destiny; a History of the Diocese of Pembroke, Ottawa Valley, Canada [Roman Catholic Church] <br />
|date = <br />
|publisher = S<br />
|publication-place = Ottawa, Ontario 365.O.03.0 <br />
|isbn = <br />
}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
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=={{anchor|Genealogy Links}}Genealogy links==<br />
*[http://www.bytown.net/stpatdowntowndeaths.htm Marriages, Baptisms, and Burials from St. Patrick's Basilica 1867–1881]<br />
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==External links==<br />
{{Commons|Category:St. Patrick's Basilica, Ottawa|St. Patrick's Basilica, Ottawa}}<br />
*[http://www.basilica.org Parish website]<br />
{{Basilicas in Canada}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches in Ottawa]]<br />
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches in Ontario]]<br />
[[Category:Basilica churches in Ottawa|Patrick]]<br />
[[Category:Gothic Revival architecture in Ottawa|Patrick's]]<br />
[[Category:Irish-Canadian culture in Ontario]]<br />
[[Category:Gothic Revival churches in Canada]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170029125Canadian National Vimy Memorial2016-08-23T12:51:14Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Sociocultural influence */ restore sentence on Urquhart's novel with reference, see FAC</p>
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<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br /><small>Mémorial national du Canada à Vimy</small><br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br />[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = [[File:Vimy Memorial - Allward design submission.jpg|300px|alt=A black and white drawing of a white limestone memorial built on the top of a hill. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall.]]<br />
|caption = Walter Allward's memorial design submission<br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and missing, presumed dead, in France.<br />
|unveiled = 26 July 1936<br />By King [[Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50|22|46|N|02|46|25|E|scale:2500|display=title}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br />{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{refn|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, there are a number of individuals who are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.{{sfn|Reynolds|2008|pp=57–68}} Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|source={{cwgc cemetery|87900}}<br />
<br />
{{Designation list |embed=yes |designation1=NHSC |designation1_offname=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada |designation1_date=1996 }}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a memorial site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|100|ha|acre|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the initial [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] offensive of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[Trench warfare|trenches]], craters, and unexploded munitions still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, a number of other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park.<br />
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The memorial took designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] 11 years to see built. King [[Edward VIII]] unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]] and more than 50,000 Canadian and French veterans and their families. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] re-dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The site is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]. This Vimy Memorial and the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] are the only two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] outside of Canada.<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}} The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|loc=pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3}}<br />
<br />
===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.{{sfn|Boire|2007|pp=52–53}} The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=68}} The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=8}}<br />
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The [[United Kingdom|British]] XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.{{sfn|Boire|1992|p=15}} On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|1800|m|yd|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{refn|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=149}}|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref>{{cite news |title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF |newspaper=[[New York Times]]|format=PDF |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=21 August 1916 |accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{refn|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}<br />
<br />
===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main article|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=120}} The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=229}} Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=39}} The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=149}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines – Black, Red, Blue, and Brown|alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[Barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|91|m|yd}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<br />
{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=117}} The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]], and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Canadian Division captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=255}}{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=178–179}}{{sfn|Hayes|2007|p=200}} The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=202–203}} Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}}{{refn|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades.{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=309}}|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=179}} The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=179–181}} By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=182}} By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}} On 12 April, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.{{sfn|Moran|2007|p=139}} The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties, and around 4,000 men became [[prisoners of war]].<ref name=Gibbs>{{cite news| first=Philip |last=Gibbs |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF |title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans |newspaper=New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |format=PDF |date=11 April 1917 |accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=1}}{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=233}} According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}} The idea that Canada's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Selection===<br />
{{see also|Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission}}<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}}{{refn|The eight sites were Vimy, Bourlon Wood, Le Quesnel, Dury, and Courcelette in France and St. Julien, Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood), and Passchendaele in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web | title = Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/Memorials/can_battle_committee | accessdate =12 January 2008}}</ref>|group=Note}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}} In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors, and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/> The jury consisted of [[Charles Herbert Reilly]] representing the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]], [[Paul Philippe Cret]] representing the [[Société centrale des architectes français]] and [[Frank Darling (architect)|Frank Darling]] representing the [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]].{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref>{{cite web | title = Design Competition | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition | accessdate =22 May 2013}}</ref> The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} In October 1921, the commission formally selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] as the winner of the competition and that of Frederick Chapman Clemesha as runner-up.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}} The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor [[Percy Erskine Nobbs]], who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}} The consensus however went in Allward's favour with his design receiving both public and critical approval.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}{{refn|Critical approval included [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]] artist [[A. Y. Jackson]] providing a supporting position in a letter published by [[Canadian Forum]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}|group="Note"}} The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—those of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|left|A design model of the memorial|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background.]]<br />
At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The jury's assessment was that Allward's submission was best suited to a "low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge".{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} The commission committee initially recommended placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]], near the location of the [[Battle of Mont Sorrel]], as the site provided an imposing view.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=283}} This ran counter to the desires of the Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] who, while speaking in the [[House of Commons of Canada]] in May 1922, argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} King's position received the unanimous support of the House and, in the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|pp=66–69}} The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward's design.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} On 5 December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|100|ha|acre}} of land on Vimy Ridge, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name=DFAIT>{{cite web | title = Canada Treaty Information | publisher = Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade | date = 26 February 2002 | url = http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661 | accessdate =4 January 2008}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name=DFAIT/><br />
<br />
===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.|Laying the foundation of the memorial]]<br />
<br />
Following the competition, Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the Spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} After selling his home and studio, Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} and spent a number of months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then [[Paris]], though Allward eventually set up a studio in [[London]], [[England]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}<br />
<br />
Allward had initially hoped to use white marble for the memorial's facing stone,{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a "ghost like" appearance.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} He found it in the ruins of [[Diocletian's Palace]] at [[Split, Croatia]]; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, which Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} His choice—Seget limestone—came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].{{sfn|Fabijančić|2003|p=127}} The difficulties with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927 and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
<br />
On Allward's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=285}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Faber had recently designed the substructure for the [[Menin Gate]] at Ypres and he selected a design that employed cast-in-place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web | title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge – Fast Facts | url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/battle | work=VAC Canada Remembers | publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada | date=n.d. | accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}}<br />
<br />
While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and make the Grange Subway more accessible.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument: limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of Seget limestone.<ref name=Picard>{{cite news | last=Picard | first=Andréa | title=Restoring Loss at Vimy |periodical =Canadian Architect | publication-date=May 2006 | url=http://www.canadianarchitect.com/news/restoring-loss-at-vimy/1000204056/ |publisher=Business Information Group |accessdate =1 August 2009|ref=harv}}</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 human figures on site from large blocks of stone. The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=206}} The carvers conducted their work year-round inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory | title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |date=12 August 1998|accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{refn|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
<br />
===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[File:1936 Vimy pilgrimage passport.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Special passport issued by Canada for the 1936 Vimy pilgrimage|alt=A Passport with the Canadian coat of arms in the middle and text in both French and English identifying the book as a passport for the Vimy Pigrimage]]<br />
<br />
In 1919, the year after the war ended, around 60,000 British tourists and mourners made pilgrimages to the Western Front.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The transatlantic voyage was longer and more expensive from Canada; many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed, and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small, unofficial groups.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the [[Canadian Legion]] passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields. A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial, which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Due to construction delays with the memorial, it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial. Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set, the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic—1,200 inquiries by November 1934.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on [[Canada Day|Dominion Day]], 1 July 1936, even though the government still did not know when it would be completed.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
<br />
For event planning purposes the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible. The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial. The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage. For the Legion this included planning meals, accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=41}} The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers, and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3½-week trip, inclusive of all meals, accommodation, health insurance, and sea and land transportation would be {{CAD|160}} per person (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|CA|160|1935|r=2}}}} as of 2016). Indirect assistance came in a number of forms. The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=197}} The government and a number of private sector firms also provided paid leave for their participating employees.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date, 26 July 1936.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} On 16 July 1936, the five transatlantic liners, escorted by {{HMCS|Champlain|1919|6}} and {{HMCS|Saguenay|D79|6}}, departed the [[Port of Montreal]] with approximately 6,200 passengers and arrived in [[Le Havre]] on 24 and 25 July.{{refn|The ships were {{SS|Montrose|1922|6}}, {{SS|Montcalm}}, SS ''Antonia'', [[RMS Ascania (1923)|SS ''Ascania'']] and [[RMS Empress of France (1928)|SS ''Duchess of Bedford'']].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}|group="Note"}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}{{sfn|Reynolds|2007|p=68}} The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}} <br />
{{rquote|right|''It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.''|King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx |accessdate=4 January 2010 |date=n.d. |publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>}}<br />
[[File:HM King Edward VIII unveiling the figure of Canada on the Vimy Ridge Memorial.jpg|thumb|left|King [[Edward VIII]] unveiling the figure ''Canada Bereft'' on the Vimy Ridge Memorial|alt=A figure standing on flag covered stage located in from of the statue of Canada Bereft.]]<br />
<br />
On 26 July 1936, the day of the ceremony, pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument. For the ceremony, sailors from HMCS ''Saguenay'' provided the [[guard of honour]]. Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band, French army engineers, and French-Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the [[Second Battle of Artois]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the [[Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission]] over [[shortwave radio]], with facilities of the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] transmitting the ceremony to Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President Albert Lebrun, and over 50,000 Canadian, British, and French veterans and their families attended the event.<ref name="Fast Facts"/> Absent, however, was Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
<br />
Before the ceremony began, King [[Edward VIII]], present in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|king of Canada]], inspected the guard of honour, was introduced to the honoured guests, and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} Two [[Royal Air Force]] and two [[French Air Force]] squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the [[Church of England]], the [[United Church of Canada]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} [[Ernest Lapointe]], [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Canadian Minister of Justice]], spoke first,{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} followed by Edward VIII, who, in both French and English, thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The King then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].{{sfn|Morton|Wright|1987|p=221}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}}{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=139}} The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name=Foot>{{Cite news| last=Foot| first=Richard| title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own| newspaper=The Vancouver Sun| publication-place=Vancouver | date=4 April 2007| page=A4}}</ref> The pilgrimage continued, and most participants toured [[Ypres]] before being taken to London to be hosted by the [[British Legion]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=51}} One-third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August, while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=52}}<br />
<br />
===Second World War===<br />
[[File:Hitler touring Vimy Memorial in June 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|Hitler touring the Vimy Memorial in 1940|alt=A group of men dressed in Nazi German soldier, front and centre is Adolf Hitler. The twin pylons of the memorial are clearly displayed in the background.]]<br />
In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial. Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments. When war did break out, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}} In late May 1940, following the British retreat after the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to Allied forces.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=293}} The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=300}} The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=294}} The rumours led the German [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=297}} To demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated [[Adolf Hitler]], who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature, was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Canadian Unknown Soldier |journal=After the Battle |issue=109 |publisher=Battle of Britain Intl. Ltd. |issn=0306-154X}}</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when the [[Welsh Guards]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=298}}<br />
<br />
===Post-war years===<br />
Immediately following the Second World War very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=76}} The ''[[Winnipeg Free Press]]'' and ''The Legionary'', the magazine of the Canadian Legion, were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=79}} The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice with only the ''[[Halifax Herald]]'' making any mention.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, paired with the [[Canadian Centennial]].{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of [[Canadian Confederation]] and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] and at least 5,000 people<!-- were these 5000 Canadians? -->.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge 'sacrifice' forged unity PM declares |newspaper=Toronto Star |page=A3 |first=Patrick |last=Doyle |date=10 April 1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=107}} Subsequent smaller-scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://legionmagazine.com/en/1997/09/return-to-the-ridge/ |title=Return To The Ridge |date=1 September 1997 |magazine=Legion Magazine |first=Tom |last=MacGregor |publisher=Royal Canadian Legion}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ceremony marks 85th anniversary of Vimy Ridge battle |publisher=Canadian Press |date=7 April 2002}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
<br />
By the end of the century, the large number of repairs undertaken since the memorial's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours, and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major $30&nbsp;million [[Canadian dollar]] restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name=Valpy>{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Valpy | title=Setting a legend in stone |url=http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070407.wvimymemorial0407/front/Front/Front/ |work=[[Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name=Valpy/><br />
<br />
Time, wear, and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive being water damage.<ref name=Valpy/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} through its walls and platforms, dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name=Valpy/> As the water exited, it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces, obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform, terrace, and stairs.<ref name=Valpy/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs, and platforms.<ref name=Valpy/> In order to respect Allward's initial vision of a seamless structure, the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs, replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia, and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze-thaw activity.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} Underlying structural flaws were also corrected.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=53}}<br />
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Queen [[Elizabeth II]], escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=140}} Other senior Canadian officials, including Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]] among them, attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV">{{Cite episode |title= |date=9 April 2007 |series=National News |series-link= |first=Tom |last=Kennedy |network=CTV Television Network}}</ref> The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV"/><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the trench lines of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=216}}{{sfn|Lloyd|1998|p=120}} The total area of the site is {{convert|100|ha|acre}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and buried unexploded munitions make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name=CWGC2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |title=Annual Report 2007–2008 |format=PDF |year=2008 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |page=16 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110614233601/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |archivedate=14 June 2011 }}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=7}}<br />
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The memorial site was established to honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but it also contains a number of other memorials. These include memorials dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]], and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries on site: [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/2103985/CANADIAN%20CEMETERY%20NO.2,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/68402/GIVENCHY%20ROAD%20CANADIAN%20CEMETERY,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast| accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref>[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park, and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=22 March 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20071113094920/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca:80/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |archivedate=13 November 2007 }}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project| url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/cbmr |accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007}}</ref><br />
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===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial (September 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|Left-front view showing an entire aspect of the Memorial|alt=The Vimy memorial from the front facing side. The memorial is very wide indicative of being a photo from after the restoration.]]<br />
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Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=12}} The memorial contains a large number of stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} There is a cannon barrel draped in laurel and olive branches carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize peace.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.{{sfn|Bolling|2003|p=310}} This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.{{sfn|Prost|1997|p=316}} The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada's sympathy for the weak and oppressed.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=156}}<br />
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The figure of a cloaked young woman stands on top and at the centre of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. She has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]] and a sword, and draped in laurel branches.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}}{{refn|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space, which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre, that fanned out from the monument's front wall for a distance of {{convert|270|ft|m}} while the battle-damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=46}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name.]]<br />
The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform; one bears the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name=Valpy/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace'';{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=13}} ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}} The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} The remainder of the ''Chorus'' is located directly below the senior figures: ''Faith'', ''Hope'' and ''Truth'' on the eastern pylon; and ''Honour'', ''Charity'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western pylon.{{sfn|Vincent|2011|p=59}} Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain, and France. Large crosses adorn the outside of each pylon.{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments and a dedicatory message to Canada's war dead in both French and English are located at the base of the pylons. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base between the two pylons.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'', by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}}<br />
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The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]], [[Italy]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France whose final resting place is unknown.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format in a manner that permits the modification of panels as remains are found and identified. Allward instead sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name=Valpy/>{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} As a consequence, as remains were discovered it was not possible to remove commemorated names without interrupting the seamless list and as a consequence there are individuals who have a known grave but are commemorated on the memorial. The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]], and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name=VCs>{{cite web| title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/medals-decorations/orders-decorations/canadian-victoria-cross-recipients |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada }}</ref><br />
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===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
{{Main article|Moroccan Division (France)|Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the [[Moroccan Division (France)|Moroccan Division]], killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925, having been built without planning permission.<ref name=France24/><ref>{{Citation|title=Inauguration du monument à la Division marocaine élevé à la cote 140, plateau de Vimy, route de Neuville-Saint-Vaast à Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), le 14 juin 1925 |location= Paris |publisher=Berger-Levrault|trans-title=Inauguration of the Moroccan Division raised on hill 140, Vimy Ridge, Road Neuville-Saint-Vaast in Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), 14 June 1925|year=1926 |language=french}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tourism-lenslievin.co.uk/monument-aux-morts-de-la-division-marocaine/givenchy-en-gohelle/tabid/20656/offreid/47f2449b-2791-4864-8e41-7b4680260aa1/details.aspx |publisher=Lens-Liévin Tourist Information and Cultural Heritage Office |title=Monument aux morts de la division marocaine |trans-title=War memorial of the Moroccan division |date=n.d.}}</ref> Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the Memorial, Campaign battles are inscribed on the left and right hand side corner view of the memorial. The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only division where all subordinate units had been awarded the [[Legion of Honour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf |title=Forgotten Heroes North Africans and the Great War 1914–1919 |publisher=Forgotten Heroes 14–19 Foundation |page=10}}</ref><br />
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The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the [[Marching Division of Morocco]]. The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise, it did not in fact contain any units originating from [[Morocco]].{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}} [[Moroccans]] were part of the [[Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion]] which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment with the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 2nd Foreign Regiment, both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades. The division contained [[Tirailleur]]s and [[Zouave]]s, of principally [[Tunisia]]n and [[Algeria]]n origin, and most notably [[French Foreign Legion|Legionnaires]] from the [[2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment]] and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment.{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<ref name=France24>{{cite web|title=Grande Guerre : la Division marocaine qui n'avait de marocaine que le nom | trans-title = Great War: the Moroccan Division is Moroccan in name only|first=Stéphanie |last=Trouillard |date=6 May 2015 |publisher=France 24 |language=french |url=http://www.france24.com/fr/20150509-premiere-guerre-mondiale-division-marocaine-vimy-crete-tirailleurs-algeriens-tunisiens-legions-etrangeres-artois}}</ref> The French Legionnaires came, as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial, from 52 different countries and included amongst them American, Polish, Russian, Italian, Greek, German, Czech, Swedish and Swiss volunteers, such as writer [[Blaise Cendrars]].{{sfn|Das|2011|p=316}}{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<br />
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In the battle, General [[Victor d'Urbal]], commander of the [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]], sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]].{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains.{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division did however suffer heavy casualties. Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division's brigade commanders, Colonels [[Gaston Cros]] and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legionetrangere.fr/index.php/archives/79-infos-fsale/489-histoire-la-bataille-de-l-artois-du-9-mai-au-22-juin-1915-avec-l-attaque-du-2e-regiment-de-marche-du-1er-etranger |title=HISTOIRE : La bataille de l'Artois du 9 mai au 22 juin 1915 avec l'attaque du 2e Régiment de marche du 1er Etranger |publisher=Fédération des Sociétés d' Anciens de la Légion étrangère |trans-title=HISTORY: The Battle of Artois from 9 May to 22 June 1915 with the attack of the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion |language=french |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
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===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways, and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely, and unseen.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=90}}<br />
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The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}}<br />
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===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistic Corps]], and a leading British [[Bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Beaver |title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html |work=[[The Independent]] |date=14 August 1998 |accessdate=26 April 2009 |location=[[London]]}}</ref> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
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===Visitors' centre===<br />
The site has a visitors' centre, staffed by Canadian student guides, which is open seven days a week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/overseas/first-world-war/france/vimy/vimy_contact |title=Visitor information |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |accessdate=10 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> During the memorial restoration, the original visitors' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one, which remains in use today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/news/salute/article/870 |title=New Visitor Education Centre For Vimy |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=25 November 2015 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The visitors' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines, close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway.{{sfn|Pedersen|2012|loc=Chapter 7}} Construction of a new {{CAD|5}} million visitors' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017, in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge Memorial in France to get visitor centre |url=http://globalnews.ca/news/560616/vimy-ridge-memorial-to-get-visitor-centre/ |publisher=Global News |date=14 May 2013 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref><br />
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==Sociocultural influence==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial war recruitment poster.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The Vimy Memorial displayed in a Canadian [[World War II]] recruitment posters|alt=A white skeleton body holds alight a torch and the background the two white pillars of the Vimy memorial are displayed. the entire poster is displayed in white with a background of blue.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely repeated in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}} Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].{{sfn|Thomson|1995–1996|pp=5–27}} Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War, while expressing the enormous impact of war in general,{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} and also considers that the 2005 restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as a National Historic Site of Canada; it was so designated in 1997, and is one of only two outside of Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vimycerm | title=Canadian National Historic Site Designation |date=9 September 1999 |accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. Remembrance has also taken other forms: the [[Vimy Foundation]], having been established to preserve and promote Canada's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, and [[Vimy Ridge Day]], to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/about/mission/ | title=Mission |publisher=Vimy Foundation |accessdate=9 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen |last=Harris |newspaper=[[London Free Press]]| publisher=Sum Media Corp |title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets |date=13 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne |last=Arsenault |url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
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The memorial is not without its critics. Alana Vincent has argued that constituent parts of the monument are in conflict and as a result the message conveyed by the monument is not unified.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=58–60}} Visually, Vincent argues there is a dichotomy between the triumphant pose of the figures at the top of the pylons and the mourning posture of those figures at the base. Textually, she argues the inscription text celebrating the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge strikes a very different tone to the list of names of the missing at the base of the monument.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=59–60}}<br />
<br />
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name="longstaff">{{cite web|url=https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes/ |title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate) |date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010 |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada, including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The 1936 'Vimy Ridge' Issue |issue=259 |date=March 2011 |first=Mick |last=Bister |publisher=Journal of the France and Colonies Philatelic Society}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory |title=Designing and Constructing |series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier |date= 5 May 2000 |accessdate=8 January 2010 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The [[Never Forgotten National Memorial]] was intended to be a {{convert|24|m|ft|adj=on}} statue inspired by the ''Canada Bereft'' statue on the memorial, before the project was cancelled in February 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parks Canada backs out of controversial 'Mother Canada' war memorial project in Cape Breton|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/parks-canada-backs-out-of-controversial-mother-canada-war-memorial-project-in-cape-breton|accessdate=8 February 2016|work=National Post|date=5 February 2016}}</ref> A 2001 Canadian [[historical novel]] ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'' by [[Jane Urquhart]] involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial.{{sfn|Cavell|2015|pp=68–69}} In 2007, the memorial was a short-listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Vimy Memorial, France |url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |date=n.d. }}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on a number of occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian military [[Military awards and decorations|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref>{{cite news |title=New military medal to honour combat casualties |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-military-medal-to-honour-combat-casualties-1.770264 |date=29 August 2008 |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent [[bas relief]] sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web| title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit |url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm |date=January 2004 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Embassy of France in Canada }}</ref> The memorial is featured on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the [[Frontier Series]] Canadian polymer [[Canadian twenty-dollar bill|$20]] banknote, which was released by the [[Bank of Canada]] on 7 November 2012.<ref>{{cite web| title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadians-see-twin-towers-pornography-in-20-bill-design-1.806190 |accessdate=6 May 2012 |publisher=CTV |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}<br />
* [[World War I memorials]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{Research help|Mil}}<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914–1918 |last1= Barton | first1=Peter |last2= Doyle |first2=Peter |last3=Vandewalle |first3=Johan |year= 2004 |publisher= McGill-Queen's University Press|location= Montreal & Kingston | isbn = 0-7735-2949-7|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| last1=Bell| first1=Lynne| last2=Bousfield |first2=Arthur |last3=Toffoli |first3=Gary| title=Queen and Consort:Elizabeth and Philip – 60 Years of Marriage| publisher=Dundurn Press| year=2007| location=Toronto| isbn=978-1-55002-725-9|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Boire |first = Michael| title = The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 15–24| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf| accessdate =2 January 2009 |format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Boire |first = Michael| year = 2007 | contribution = The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914–1916 | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =51–61 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Bolling |first = Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers|pages=295–318 | title= Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor1-last=Antor |editor1-first = Heinz | editor2-last = Brown | editor2-first = Sylvia | editor3-last = Considine | editor3-first = John | editor4-last = Stierstorfer | editor4-first = Klaus |year= 2003 |publisher= de Gruyter|location= Berlin | isbn = 978-3-11-017666-7|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Borestad |first = Lane |title=Walter Allward: Sculptor and Architect of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |pages=23–38 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Art or Memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art|last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 | publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Brown |first = Eric |last2=Cook |first2=Tim | title = The 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 33–54| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |last=Busch |first=Briton Cooper |year=2003| publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Campbell | first = David | year = 2007 | contribution = The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =171–192 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia | last = Cavell | first = Richard | editor-last = Sugars | editor-first = Cynthia | title = Remembering Canada: The Politics of Cultural Memory | encyclopedia = The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Literature | year = 2015 | publisher = Oxford University Press | ISBN = 9780199941865 | pages = 64–79 | ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Cook | first = Tim | year = 2007 | contribution = The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike | title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =105–124 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title=Race, Empire and First World War Writing |first=Santanu |last=Das |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-50984-8 |year=2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| last=Doughty| first=Robert A.| title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War|year=2005| publisher=Belknap Press|publication-place =Cambridge and London|isbn=0-674-01880-X|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Duffy |first = Denis| title = Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward | journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–206| publisher = Routledge | date =2008 |doi = 10.1080/02722010809481708|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Durflinger |first = Serge| year = 2007 | contribution = Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War| editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =291–305 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first= Tony |year= 2003 |publisher= University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first= Don |year= 2007 |publisher= Helion & Company Limited |location= Solihull |isbn=978-1-874622-99-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Godefroy |first = Andrew| authorlink=Andrew Godefroy| year = 2007 | contribution = The German Army at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =225–238 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hayes |first = Geoffrey| year = 2007 | contribution = The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =193–210 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement|last= Hopkins|first= J. Castell|year= 1919|publisher= Canadian Annual Review|location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline|year = 2007 | contribution = The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =279–290 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline |title=Vimy: A Monument for the Modern World |pages=39–48 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last = Humphries|first = Mark Osborne| year = 2007| contribution = 'Old Wine in New Bottles': A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| publication-place = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =65–85| isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last= Inglis|first= Dave| title = Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years| year = 1995| publisher=Simon Fraser University| location=Burnaby|url =http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6687/b17448906.pdf| accessdate =22 May 2013|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first= David |year= 1998 |publisher= Berg Publishing |location= Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first= Duncan E. |year= 1967 |publisher= Peter Martin Associates |location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Moran |first = Heather| year = 2007 | contribution = The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =139–154 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last1=Morton | first1=Desmond | first2=Glenn | last2=Wright | title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915–1930 | publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1962 |publisher= Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location= Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf | format=PDF |accessdate =1 January 2007| ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= "We will remember&nbsp;...": Overseas Memorials to Canada's War Dead |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location= Ottawa|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Pierce |first = John| title = Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial| journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 4–14| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf| accessdate =2 February 2009|format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite book |title= ANZACS on the Western Front: The Australian War Memorial Battlefield Guide |last= Pedersen |first=Peter | year= 2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location= New YOrk|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Prost |first = Antoine| year = 1997 | contribution = Monuments to the Dead | editor-last = Nora | editor-first = Pierre | editor2-last = Kritzman | editor2-first = Lawrence | editor3-last = Goldhammer | editor3-first = Arthur | title = Realms of memory: the construction of the French past | publication-place = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | pages =307–332| isbn = 0-231-10634-3|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2007 |title="Not A Man Fell Out and the Party Marched Into Arras Singing": The Royal Guard and the Unveiling of the Vimy Memorial, 1936|journal=Canadian Military History |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–68 |ref=harv}}*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2008 |title=From Alberta to Avion: Private Herbert Peterson, 49th Battalion, CEF |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=67–74 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1= Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year= 2000 |publisher= Geological Society |location= London |isbn=0-85052-463-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996| publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Saunders |first = Nicholas| title =Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001| journal = Antiquity | volume = 76 | issue = 291 | pages = 101–108| publisher = Portland Press| year = 2002 |ref=Saunders}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914–1917|last= Sheldon| first= Jack|year= 2008|publisher= Pen & Sword Military|location= Barnsley (UK)| isbn = 978-1-84415-680-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917–1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Smith |first = Julian |title=Restoring Vimy: The Challenges of Confronting Emerging Modernism |pages=49–56 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal| first=Denise | last=Thomson |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918–1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995–1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia| editor-last = Tucker| editor-first = Spencer| year=1996| publisher= Garland Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0-8153-0399-8|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander| year=2005| publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5|ref=harv }}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997| publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{citation|chapter=Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians&nbsp;... From Africa to the Artois |first=Philippe |last=Vincent-Chaissac |publisher=L'Echo du Pas-de-Calais |title=They Came from Across the Globe |p=3 |chapter-url=http://memoire.pas-de-calais.com/images/_uk/pdf-nationalites/marocain.pdf |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Literature and Theology: New Interdisciplinary Spaces |year=2011 |editor-first=Heather |editor-last=Walton |publisher=Ashgate |<br />
contribution=Two (and two, and two) Towers: Interdisciplinary, Borrowing and Limited Interpretation |first=Alana |last=Vincent |pages=55–66 |isbn=978-1-4094-0011-0 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Making Memory: Jewish and Christian Explorations in Monument, Narrative, and Liturgy |first=Alana |last=Vincent |year=2014 |publisher=James Clarke & Co |isbn=978-0-227-17431-9 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General|last= Williams|first= Jeffery|year= 1983|publisher= Secker & Warburg|location= London| isbn = 0-436-57110-2|ref=harv}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/ Canadian National Vimy Memorial] – official website<br />
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation] – Canadian educational charity<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1936-vimy-ridge-memorial-unveiled Radio recording of King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony] from [[CBC Archives]]<br />
* [http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/87900/VIMY%20MEMORIAL Vimy Memorial] and casualty records at [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=cr&CRid=1119613 Vimy Memorial] and photographs at [[Find a Grave]]<br />
* [http://www.britishpathe.com/video/canadians-at-vimy-ridge Canadians at Vimy Ridge in 1940], news reel from [[British Pathé]]<br />
* [http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx Return to Vimy], including video clip of the 1936 unveiling (Archives of Ontario)<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
{{NHSC}}<br />
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}<br />
<br />
{{Good article}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]<br />
[[Category:World War I in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada in France]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]<br />
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170029124Canadian National Vimy Memorial2016-08-23T12:44:10Z<p>Carcharoth: /* References */ add new source, Cavell (2015) from 'The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Literature'</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br /><small>Mémorial national du Canada à Vimy</small><br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br />[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = [[File:Vimy Memorial - Allward design submission.jpg|300px|alt=A black and white drawing of a white limestone memorial built on the top of a hill. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall.]]<br />
|caption = Walter Allward's memorial design submission<br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and missing, presumed dead, in France.<br />
|unveiled = 26 July 1936<br />By King [[Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50|22|46|N|02|46|25|E|scale:2500|display=title}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br />{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{refn|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, there are a number of individuals who are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.{{sfn|Reynolds|2008|pp=57–68}} Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|source={{cwgc cemetery|87900}}<br />
<br />
{{Designation list |embed=yes |designation1=NHSC |designation1_offname=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada |designation1_date=1996 }}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a memorial site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|100|ha|acre|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the initial [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] offensive of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[Trench warfare|trenches]], craters, and unexploded munitions still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, a number of other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park.<br />
<br />
The memorial took designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] 11 years to see built. King [[Edward VIII]] unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]] and more than 50,000 Canadian and French veterans and their families. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] re-dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The site is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]. This Vimy Memorial and the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] are the only two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] outside of Canada.<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}} The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|loc=pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3}}<br />
<br />
===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.{{sfn|Boire|2007|pp=52–53}} The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=68}} The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=8}}<br />
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The [[United Kingdom|British]] XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.{{sfn|Boire|1992|p=15}} On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|1800|m|yd|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{refn|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=149}}|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref>{{cite news |title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF |newspaper=[[New York Times]]|format=PDF |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=21 August 1916 |accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{refn|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}<br />
<br />
===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main article|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=120}} The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=229}} Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=39}} The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=149}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines – Black, Red, Blue, and Brown|alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[Barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|91|m|yd}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<br />
{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=117}} The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]], and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Canadian Division captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=255}}{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=178–179}}{{sfn|Hayes|2007|p=200}} The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=202–203}} Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}}{{refn|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades.{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=309}}|group="Note"}}<br />
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On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=179}} The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=179–181}} By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=182}} By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}} On 12 April, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.{{sfn|Moran|2007|p=139}} The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties, and around 4,000 men became [[prisoners of war]].<ref name=Gibbs>{{cite news| first=Philip |last=Gibbs |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF |title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans |newspaper=New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |format=PDF |date=11 April 1917 |accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
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Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=1}}{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=233}} According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}} The idea that Canada's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Selection===<br />
{{see also|Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission}}<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}}{{refn|The eight sites were Vimy, Bourlon Wood, Le Quesnel, Dury, and Courcelette in France and St. Julien, Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood), and Passchendaele in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web | title = Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/Memorials/can_battle_committee | accessdate =12 January 2008}}</ref>|group=Note}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}} In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors, and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/> The jury consisted of [[Charles Herbert Reilly]] representing the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]], [[Paul Philippe Cret]] representing the [[Société centrale des architectes français]] and [[Frank Darling (architect)|Frank Darling]] representing the [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]].{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref>{{cite web | title = Design Competition | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition | accessdate =22 May 2013}}</ref> The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} In October 1921, the commission formally selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] as the winner of the competition and that of Frederick Chapman Clemesha as runner-up.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}} The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor [[Percy Erskine Nobbs]], who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}} The consensus however went in Allward's favour with his design receiving both public and critical approval.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}{{refn|Critical approval included [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]] artist [[A. Y. Jackson]] providing a supporting position in a letter published by [[Canadian Forum]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}|group="Note"}} The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—those of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|left|A design model of the memorial|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background.]]<br />
At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The jury's assessment was that Allward's submission was best suited to a "low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge".{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} The commission committee initially recommended placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]], near the location of the [[Battle of Mont Sorrel]], as the site provided an imposing view.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=283}} This ran counter to the desires of the Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] who, while speaking in the [[House of Commons of Canada]] in May 1922, argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} King's position received the unanimous support of the House and, in the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|pp=66–69}} The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward's design.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} On 5 December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|100|ha|acre}} of land on Vimy Ridge, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name=DFAIT>{{cite web | title = Canada Treaty Information | publisher = Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade | date = 26 February 2002 | url = http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661 | accessdate =4 January 2008}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name=DFAIT/><br />
<br />
===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.|Laying the foundation of the memorial]]<br />
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Following the competition, Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the Spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} After selling his home and studio, Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} and spent a number of months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then [[Paris]], though Allward eventually set up a studio in [[London]], [[England]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}<br />
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Allward had initially hoped to use white marble for the memorial's facing stone,{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a "ghost like" appearance.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} He found it in the ruins of [[Diocletian's Palace]] at [[Split, Croatia]]; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, which Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} His choice—Seget limestone—came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].{{sfn|Fabijančić|2003|p=127}} The difficulties with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927 and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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On Allward's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=285}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Faber had recently designed the substructure for the [[Menin Gate]] at Ypres and he selected a design that employed cast-in-place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web | title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge – Fast Facts | url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/battle | work=VAC Canada Remembers | publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada | date=n.d. | accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}}<br />
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While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and make the Grange Subway more accessible.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument: limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of Seget limestone.<ref name=Picard>{{cite news | last=Picard | first=Andréa | title=Restoring Loss at Vimy |periodical =Canadian Architect | publication-date=May 2006 | url=http://www.canadianarchitect.com/news/restoring-loss-at-vimy/1000204056/ |publisher=Business Information Group |accessdate =1 August 2009|ref=harv}}</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 human figures on site from large blocks of stone. The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=206}} The carvers conducted their work year-round inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory | title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |date=12 August 1998|accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{refn|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
<br />
===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[File:1936 Vimy pilgrimage passport.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Special passport issued by Canada for the 1936 Vimy pilgrimage|alt=A Passport with the Canadian coat of arms in the middle and text in both French and English identifying the book as a passport for the Vimy Pigrimage]]<br />
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In 1919, the year after the war ended, around 60,000 British tourists and mourners made pilgrimages to the Western Front.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The transatlantic voyage was longer and more expensive from Canada; many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed, and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small, unofficial groups.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the [[Canadian Legion]] passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields. A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial, which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Due to construction delays with the memorial, it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial. Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set, the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic—1,200 inquiries by November 1934.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on [[Canada Day|Dominion Day]], 1 July 1936, even though the government still did not know when it would be completed.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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For event planning purposes the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible. The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial. The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage. For the Legion this included planning meals, accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=41}} The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers, and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3½-week trip, inclusive of all meals, accommodation, health insurance, and sea and land transportation would be {{CAD|160}} per person (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|CA|160|1935|r=2}}}} as of 2016). Indirect assistance came in a number of forms. The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=197}} The government and a number of private sector firms also provided paid leave for their participating employees.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date, 26 July 1936.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} On 16 July 1936, the five transatlantic liners, escorted by {{HMCS|Champlain|1919|6}} and {{HMCS|Saguenay|D79|6}}, departed the [[Port of Montreal]] with approximately 6,200 passengers and arrived in [[Le Havre]] on 24 and 25 July.{{refn|The ships were {{SS|Montrose|1922|6}}, {{SS|Montcalm}}, SS ''Antonia'', [[RMS Ascania (1923)|SS ''Ascania'']] and [[RMS Empress of France (1928)|SS ''Duchess of Bedford'']].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}|group="Note"}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}{{sfn|Reynolds|2007|p=68}} The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}} <br />
{{rquote|right|''It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.''|King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx |accessdate=4 January 2010 |date=n.d. |publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>}}<br />
[[File:HM King Edward VIII unveiling the figure of Canada on the Vimy Ridge Memorial.jpg|thumb|left|King [[Edward VIII]] unveiling the figure ''Canada Bereft'' on the Vimy Ridge Memorial|alt=A figure standing on flag covered stage located in from of the statue of Canada Bereft.]]<br />
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On 26 July 1936, the day of the ceremony, pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument. For the ceremony, sailors from HMCS ''Saguenay'' provided the [[guard of honour]]. Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band, French army engineers, and French-Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the [[Second Battle of Artois]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the [[Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission]] over [[shortwave radio]], with facilities of the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] transmitting the ceremony to Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President Albert Lebrun, and over 50,000 Canadian, British, and French veterans and their families attended the event.<ref name="Fast Facts"/> Absent, however, was Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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Before the ceremony began, King [[Edward VIII]], present in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|king of Canada]], inspected the guard of honour, was introduced to the honoured guests, and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} Two [[Royal Air Force]] and two [[French Air Force]] squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the [[Church of England]], the [[United Church of Canada]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} [[Ernest Lapointe]], [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Canadian Minister of Justice]], spoke first,{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} followed by Edward VIII, who, in both French and English, thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The King then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].{{sfn|Morton|Wright|1987|p=221}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}}{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=139}} The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name=Foot>{{Cite news| last=Foot| first=Richard| title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own| newspaper=The Vancouver Sun| publication-place=Vancouver | date=4 April 2007| page=A4}}</ref> The pilgrimage continued, and most participants toured [[Ypres]] before being taken to London to be hosted by the [[British Legion]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=51}} One-third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August, while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=52}}<br />
<br />
===Second World War===<br />
[[File:Hitler touring Vimy Memorial in June 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|Hitler touring the Vimy Memorial in 1940|alt=A group of men dressed in Nazi German soldier, front and centre is Adolf Hitler. The twin pylons of the memorial are clearly displayed in the background.]]<br />
In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial. Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments. When war did break out, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}} In late May 1940, following the British retreat after the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to Allied forces.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=293}} The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=300}} The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=294}} The rumours led the German [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=297}} To demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated [[Adolf Hitler]], who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature, was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Canadian Unknown Soldier |journal=After the Battle |issue=109 |publisher=Battle of Britain Intl. Ltd. |issn=0306-154X}}</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when the [[Welsh Guards]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=298}}<br />
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===Post-war years===<br />
Immediately following the Second World War very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=76}} The ''[[Winnipeg Free Press]]'' and ''The Legionary'', the magazine of the Canadian Legion, were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=79}} The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice with only the ''[[Halifax Herald]]'' making any mention.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, paired with the [[Canadian Centennial]].{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of [[Canadian Confederation]] and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] and at least 5,000 people<!-- were these 5000 Canadians? -->.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge 'sacrifice' forged unity PM declares |newspaper=Toronto Star |page=A3 |first=Patrick |last=Doyle |date=10 April 1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=107}} Subsequent smaller-scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://legionmagazine.com/en/1997/09/return-to-the-ridge/ |title=Return To The Ridge |date=1 September 1997 |magazine=Legion Magazine |first=Tom |last=MacGregor |publisher=Royal Canadian Legion}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ceremony marks 85th anniversary of Vimy Ridge battle |publisher=Canadian Press |date=7 April 2002}}</ref><br />
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===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
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By the end of the century, the large number of repairs undertaken since the memorial's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours, and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major $30&nbsp;million [[Canadian dollar]] restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name=Valpy>{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Valpy | title=Setting a legend in stone |url=http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070407.wvimymemorial0407/front/Front/Front/ |work=[[Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name=Valpy/><br />
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Time, wear, and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive being water damage.<ref name=Valpy/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} through its walls and platforms, dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name=Valpy/> As the water exited, it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces, obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform, terrace, and stairs.<ref name=Valpy/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs, and platforms.<ref name=Valpy/> In order to respect Allward's initial vision of a seamless structure, the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs, replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia, and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze-thaw activity.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} Underlying structural flaws were also corrected.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=53}}<br />
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Queen [[Elizabeth II]], escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=140}} Other senior Canadian officials, including Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]] among them, attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV">{{Cite episode |title= |date=9 April 2007 |series=National News |series-link= |first=Tom |last=Kennedy |network=CTV Television Network}}</ref> The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV"/><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the trench lines of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=216}}{{sfn|Lloyd|1998|p=120}} The total area of the site is {{convert|100|ha|acre}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and buried unexploded munitions make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name=CWGC2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |title=Annual Report 2007–2008 |format=PDF |year=2008 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |page=16 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110614233601/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |archivedate=14 June 2011 }}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=7}}<br />
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The memorial site was established to honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but it also contains a number of other memorials. These include memorials dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]], and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries on site: [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/2103985/CANADIAN%20CEMETERY%20NO.2,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/68402/GIVENCHY%20ROAD%20CANADIAN%20CEMETERY,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast| accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref>[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park, and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=22 March 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20071113094920/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca:80/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |archivedate=13 November 2007 }}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project| url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/cbmr |accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007}}</ref><br />
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===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial (September 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|Left-front view showing an entire aspect of the Memorial|alt=The Vimy memorial from the front facing side. The memorial is very wide indicative of being a photo from after the restoration.]]<br />
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Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=12}} The memorial contains a large number of stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} There is a cannon barrel draped in laurel and olive branches carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize peace.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.{{sfn|Bolling|2003|p=310}} This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.{{sfn|Prost|1997|p=316}} The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada's sympathy for the weak and oppressed.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=156}}<br />
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The figure of a cloaked young woman stands on top and at the centre of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. She has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]] and a sword, and draped in laurel branches.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}}{{refn|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space, which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre, that fanned out from the monument's front wall for a distance of {{convert|270|ft|m}} while the battle-damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=46}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name.]]<br />
The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform; one bears the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name=Valpy/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace'';{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=13}} ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}} The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} The remainder of the ''Chorus'' is located directly below the senior figures: ''Faith'', ''Hope'' and ''Truth'' on the eastern pylon; and ''Honour'', ''Charity'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western pylon.{{sfn|Vincent|2011|p=59}} Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain, and France. Large crosses adorn the outside of each pylon.{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments and a dedicatory message to Canada's war dead in both French and English are located at the base of the pylons. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base between the two pylons.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'', by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}}<br />
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The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]], [[Italy]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France whose final resting place is unknown.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format in a manner that permits the modification of panels as remains are found and identified. Allward instead sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name=Valpy/>{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} As a consequence, as remains were discovered it was not possible to remove commemorated names without interrupting the seamless list and as a consequence there are individuals who have a known grave but are commemorated on the memorial. The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]], and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name=VCs>{{cite web| title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/medals-decorations/orders-decorations/canadian-victoria-cross-recipients |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada }}</ref><br />
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===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
{{Main article|Moroccan Division (France)|Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the [[Moroccan Division (France)|Moroccan Division]], killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925, having been built without planning permission.<ref name=France24/><ref>{{Citation|title=Inauguration du monument à la Division marocaine élevé à la cote 140, plateau de Vimy, route de Neuville-Saint-Vaast à Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), le 14 juin 1925 |location= Paris |publisher=Berger-Levrault|trans-title=Inauguration of the Moroccan Division raised on hill 140, Vimy Ridge, Road Neuville-Saint-Vaast in Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), 14 June 1925|year=1926 |language=french}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tourism-lenslievin.co.uk/monument-aux-morts-de-la-division-marocaine/givenchy-en-gohelle/tabid/20656/offreid/47f2449b-2791-4864-8e41-7b4680260aa1/details.aspx |publisher=Lens-Liévin Tourist Information and Cultural Heritage Office |title=Monument aux morts de la division marocaine |trans-title=War memorial of the Moroccan division |date=n.d.}}</ref> Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the Memorial, Campaign battles are inscribed on the left and right hand side corner view of the memorial. The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only division where all subordinate units had been awarded the [[Legion of Honour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf |title=Forgotten Heroes North Africans and the Great War 1914–1919 |publisher=Forgotten Heroes 14–19 Foundation |page=10}}</ref><br />
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The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the [[Marching Division of Morocco]]. The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise, it did not in fact contain any units originating from [[Morocco]].{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}} [[Moroccans]] were part of the [[Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion]] which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment with the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 2nd Foreign Regiment, both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades. The division contained [[Tirailleur]]s and [[Zouave]]s, of principally [[Tunisia]]n and [[Algeria]]n origin, and most notably [[French Foreign Legion|Legionnaires]] from the [[2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment]] and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment.{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<ref name=France24>{{cite web|title=Grande Guerre : la Division marocaine qui n'avait de marocaine que le nom | trans-title = Great War: the Moroccan Division is Moroccan in name only|first=Stéphanie |last=Trouillard |date=6 May 2015 |publisher=France 24 |language=french |url=http://www.france24.com/fr/20150509-premiere-guerre-mondiale-division-marocaine-vimy-crete-tirailleurs-algeriens-tunisiens-legions-etrangeres-artois}}</ref> The French Legionnaires came, as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial, from 52 different countries and included amongst them American, Polish, Russian, Italian, Greek, German, Czech, Swedish and Swiss volunteers, such as writer [[Blaise Cendrars]].{{sfn|Das|2011|p=316}}{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<br />
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In the battle, General [[Victor d'Urbal]], commander of the [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]], sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]].{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains.{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division did however suffer heavy casualties. Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division's brigade commanders, Colonels [[Gaston Cros]] and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legionetrangere.fr/index.php/archives/79-infos-fsale/489-histoire-la-bataille-de-l-artois-du-9-mai-au-22-juin-1915-avec-l-attaque-du-2e-regiment-de-marche-du-1er-etranger |title=HISTOIRE : La bataille de l'Artois du 9 mai au 22 juin 1915 avec l'attaque du 2e Régiment de marche du 1er Etranger |publisher=Fédération des Sociétés d' Anciens de la Légion étrangère |trans-title=HISTORY: The Battle of Artois from 9 May to 22 June 1915 with the attack of the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion |language=french |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
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===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways, and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely, and unseen.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=90}}<br />
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The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}}<br />
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===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistic Corps]], and a leading British [[Bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Beaver |title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html |work=[[The Independent]] |date=14 August 1998 |accessdate=26 April 2009 |location=[[London]]}}</ref> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
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===Visitors' centre===<br />
The site has a visitors' centre, staffed by Canadian student guides, which is open seven days a week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/overseas/first-world-war/france/vimy/vimy_contact |title=Visitor information |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |accessdate=10 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> During the memorial restoration, the original visitors' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one, which remains in use today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/news/salute/article/870 |title=New Visitor Education Centre For Vimy |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=25 November 2015 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The visitors' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines, close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway.{{sfn|Pedersen|2012|loc=Chapter 7}} Construction of a new {{CAD|5}} million visitors' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017, in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge Memorial in France to get visitor centre |url=http://globalnews.ca/news/560616/vimy-ridge-memorial-to-get-visitor-centre/ |publisher=Global News |date=14 May 2013 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref><br />
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==Sociocultural influence==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial war recruitment poster.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The Vimy Memorial displayed in a Canadian [[World War II]] recruitment posters|alt=A white skeleton body holds alight a torch and the background the two white pillars of the Vimy memorial are displayed. the entire poster is displayed in white with a background of blue.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely repeated in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}} Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].{{sfn|Thomson|1995–1996|pp=5–27}} Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War, while expressing the enormous impact of war in general,{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} and also considers that the 2005 restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as a National Historic Site of Canada; it was so designated in 1997, and is one of only two outside of Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vimycerm | title=Canadian National Historic Site Designation |date=9 September 1999 |accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. Remembrance has also taken other forms: the [[Vimy Foundation]], having been established to preserve and promote Canada's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, and [[Vimy Ridge Day]], to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/about/mission/ | title=Mission |publisher=Vimy Foundation |accessdate=9 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen |last=Harris |newspaper=[[London Free Press]]| publisher=Sum Media Corp |title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets |date=13 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne |last=Arsenault |url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
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The memorial is not without its critics. Alana Vincent has argued that constituent parts of the monument are in conflict and as a result the message conveyed by the monument is not unified.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=58–60}} Visually, Vincent argues there is a dichotomy between the triumphant pose of the figures at the top of the pylons and the mourning posture of those figures at the base. Textually, she argues the inscription text celebrating the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge strikes a very different tone to the list of names of the missing at the base of the monument.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=59–60}}<br />
<br />
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name="longstaff">{{cite web|url=https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes/ |title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate) |date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010 |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada, including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The 1936 'Vimy Ridge' Issue |issue=259 |date=March 2011 |first=Mick |last=Bister |publisher=Journal of the France and Colonies Philatelic Society}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory |title=Designing and Constructing |series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier |date= 5 May 2000 |accessdate=8 January 2010 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The [[Never Forgotten National Memorial]] was intended to be a {{convert|24|m|ft|adj=on}} statue inspired by the ''Canada Bereft'' statue on the memorial, before the project was cancelled in February 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parks Canada backs out of controversial 'Mother Canada' war memorial project in Cape Breton|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/parks-canada-backs-out-of-controversial-mother-canada-war-memorial-project-in-cape-breton|accessdate=8 February 2016|work=National Post|date=5 February 2016}}</ref> In 2007, the memorial was a short-listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Vimy Memorial, France |url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |date=n.d. }}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on a number of occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian military [[Military awards and decorations|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref>{{cite news |title=New military medal to honour combat casualties |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-military-medal-to-honour-combat-casualties-1.770264 |date=29 August 2008 |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent [[bas relief]] sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web| title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit |url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm |date=January 2004 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Embassy of France in Canada }}</ref> The memorial is featured on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the [[Frontier Series]] Canadian polymer [[Canadian twenty-dollar bill|$20]] banknote, which was released by the [[Bank of Canada]] on 7 November 2012.<ref>{{cite web| title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadians-see-twin-towers-pornography-in-20-bill-design-1.806190 |accessdate=6 May 2012 |publisher=CTV |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}<br />
* [[World War I memorials]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{Research help|Mil}}<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914–1918 |last1= Barton | first1=Peter |last2= Doyle |first2=Peter |last3=Vandewalle |first3=Johan |year= 2004 |publisher= McGill-Queen's University Press|location= Montreal & Kingston | isbn = 0-7735-2949-7|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| last1=Bell| first1=Lynne| last2=Bousfield |first2=Arthur |last3=Toffoli |first3=Gary| title=Queen and Consort:Elizabeth and Philip – 60 Years of Marriage| publisher=Dundurn Press| year=2007| location=Toronto| isbn=978-1-55002-725-9|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Boire |first = Michael| title = The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 15–24| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf| accessdate =2 January 2009 |format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Boire |first = Michael| year = 2007 | contribution = The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914–1916 | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =51–61 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Bolling |first = Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers|pages=295–318 | title= Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor1-last=Antor |editor1-first = Heinz | editor2-last = Brown | editor2-first = Sylvia | editor3-last = Considine | editor3-first = John | editor4-last = Stierstorfer | editor4-first = Klaus |year= 2003 |publisher= de Gruyter|location= Berlin | isbn = 978-3-11-017666-7|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Borestad |first = Lane |title=Walter Allward: Sculptor and Architect of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |pages=23–38 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Art or Memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art|last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 | publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Brown |first = Eric |last2=Cook |first2=Tim | title = The 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 33–54| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |last=Busch |first=Briton Cooper |year=2003| publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Campbell | first = David | year = 2007 | contribution = The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =171–192 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia | last = Cavell | first = Richard | editor-last = Sugars | editor-first = Cynthia | title = Remembering Canada: The Politics of Cultural Memory | encyclopedia = The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Literature | year = 2015 | publisher = Oxford University Press | ISBN = 9780199941865 | pages = 64–79 | ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Cook | first = Tim | year = 2007 | contribution = The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike | title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =105–124 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title=Race, Empire and First World War Writing |first=Santanu |last=Das |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-50984-8 |year=2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| last=Doughty| first=Robert A.| title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War|year=2005| publisher=Belknap Press|publication-place =Cambridge and London|isbn=0-674-01880-X|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Duffy |first = Denis| title = Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward | journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–206| publisher = Routledge | date =2008 |doi = 10.1080/02722010809481708|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Durflinger |first = Serge| year = 2007 | contribution = Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War| editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =291–305 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first= Tony |year= 2003 |publisher= University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first= Don |year= 2007 |publisher= Helion & Company Limited |location= Solihull |isbn=978-1-874622-99-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Godefroy |first = Andrew| authorlink=Andrew Godefroy| year = 2007 | contribution = The German Army at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =225–238 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hayes |first = Geoffrey| year = 2007 | contribution = The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =193–210 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement|last= Hopkins|first= J. Castell|year= 1919|publisher= Canadian Annual Review|location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline|year = 2007 | contribution = The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =279–290 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline |title=Vimy: A Monument for the Modern World |pages=39–48 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last = Humphries|first = Mark Osborne| year = 2007| contribution = 'Old Wine in New Bottles': A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| publication-place = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =65–85| isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last= Inglis|first= Dave| title = Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years| year = 1995| publisher=Simon Fraser University| location=Burnaby|url =http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6687/b17448906.pdf| accessdate =22 May 2013|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first= David |year= 1998 |publisher= Berg Publishing |location= Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first= Duncan E. |year= 1967 |publisher= Peter Martin Associates |location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Moran |first = Heather| year = 2007 | contribution = The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =139–154 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last1=Morton | first1=Desmond | first2=Glenn | last2=Wright | title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915–1930 | publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1962 |publisher= Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location= Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf | format=PDF |accessdate =1 January 2007| ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= "We will remember&nbsp;...": Overseas Memorials to Canada's War Dead |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location= Ottawa|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Pierce |first = John| title = Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial| journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 4–14| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf| accessdate =2 February 2009|format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite book |title= ANZACS on the Western Front: The Australian War Memorial Battlefield Guide |last= Pedersen |first=Peter | year= 2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location= New YOrk|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Prost |first = Antoine| year = 1997 | contribution = Monuments to the Dead | editor-last = Nora | editor-first = Pierre | editor2-last = Kritzman | editor2-first = Lawrence | editor3-last = Goldhammer | editor3-first = Arthur | title = Realms of memory: the construction of the French past | publication-place = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | pages =307–332| isbn = 0-231-10634-3|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2007 |title="Not A Man Fell Out and the Party Marched Into Arras Singing": The Royal Guard and the Unveiling of the Vimy Memorial, 1936|journal=Canadian Military History |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–68 |ref=harv}}*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2008 |title=From Alberta to Avion: Private Herbert Peterson, 49th Battalion, CEF |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=67–74 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1= Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year= 2000 |publisher= Geological Society |location= London |isbn=0-85052-463-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996| publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Saunders |first = Nicholas| title =Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001| journal = Antiquity | volume = 76 | issue = 291 | pages = 101–108| publisher = Portland Press| year = 2002 |ref=Saunders}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914–1917|last= Sheldon| first= Jack|year= 2008|publisher= Pen & Sword Military|location= Barnsley (UK)| isbn = 978-1-84415-680-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917–1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Smith |first = Julian |title=Restoring Vimy: The Challenges of Confronting Emerging Modernism |pages=49–56 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal| first=Denise | last=Thomson |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918–1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995–1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia| editor-last = Tucker| editor-first = Spencer| year=1996| publisher= Garland Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0-8153-0399-8|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander| year=2005| publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5|ref=harv }}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997| publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{citation|chapter=Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians&nbsp;... From Africa to the Artois |first=Philippe |last=Vincent-Chaissac |publisher=L'Echo du Pas-de-Calais |title=They Came from Across the Globe |p=3 |chapter-url=http://memoire.pas-de-calais.com/images/_uk/pdf-nationalites/marocain.pdf |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Literature and Theology: New Interdisciplinary Spaces |year=2011 |editor-first=Heather |editor-last=Walton |publisher=Ashgate |<br />
contribution=Two (and two, and two) Towers: Interdisciplinary, Borrowing and Limited Interpretation |first=Alana |last=Vincent |pages=55–66 |isbn=978-1-4094-0011-0 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Making Memory: Jewish and Christian Explorations in Monument, Narrative, and Liturgy |first=Alana |last=Vincent |year=2014 |publisher=James Clarke & Co |isbn=978-0-227-17431-9 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General|last= Williams|first= Jeffery|year= 1983|publisher= Secker & Warburg|location= London| isbn = 0-436-57110-2|ref=harv}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/ Canadian National Vimy Memorial] – official website<br />
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation] – Canadian educational charity<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1936-vimy-ridge-memorial-unveiled Radio recording of King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony] from [[CBC Archives]]<br />
* [http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/87900/VIMY%20MEMORIAL Vimy Memorial] and casualty records at [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=cr&CRid=1119613 Vimy Memorial] and photographs at [[Find a Grave]]<br />
* [http://www.britishpathe.com/video/canadians-at-vimy-ridge Canadians at Vimy Ridge in 1940], news reel from [[British Pathé]]<br />
* [http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx Return to Vimy], including video clip of the 1936 unveiling (Archives of Ontario)<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
{{NHSC}}<br />
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}<br />
<br />
{{Good article}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]<br />
[[Category:World War I in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada in France]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]<br />
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170029106Canadian National Vimy Memorial2016-07-25T20:56:51Z<p>Carcharoth: copyedit</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br /><small>Mémorial national du Canada à Vimy</small><br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br />[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = [[File:Vimy Memorial - Allward design submission.jpg|300px|alt=A black and white drawing of a white limestone memorial built on the top of a hill. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall.]]<br />
|caption = Walter Allward's memorial design submission<br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and missing, presumed dead, in France.<br />
|unveiled = 26 July 1936<br />By King [[Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50|22|46|N|02|46|25|E|scale:2500|display=title}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br />{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{refn|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, there are a number of individuals who are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.{{sfn|Reynolds|2008|pp=57–68}} Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|source={{cwgc cemetery|87900}}<br />
<br />
{{Designation list |embed=yes |designation1=NHSC |designation1_offname=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada |designation1_date=1996 }}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a memorial site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|100|ha|acre|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the initial [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] offensive of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[Trench warfare|trenches]], craters, and unexploded munitions still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, a number of other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park.<br />
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The memorial took designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] 11 years to see built. King [[Edward VIII]] unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]] and more than 50,000 Canadian and French veterans and their families. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] re-dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The site is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]. This Vimy Memorial and the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] are the only two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] outside of Canada.<br />
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==Background==<br />
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===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}} The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|loc=pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3}}<br />
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===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.{{sfn|Boire|2007|pp=52–53}} The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=68}} The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=8}}<br />
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The [[United Kingdom|British]] XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.{{sfn|Boire|1992|p=15}} On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|1800|m|yd|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{refn|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=149}}|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref>{{cite news |title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF |newspaper=[[New York Times]]|format=PDF |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=21 August 1916 |accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{refn|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}<br />
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===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main article|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=120}} The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=229}} Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=39}} The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=149}}<br />
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[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines – Black, Red, Blue, and Brown|alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[Barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|91|m|yd}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<br />
{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=117}} The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]], and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Canadian Division captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=255}}{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=178–179}}{{sfn|Hayes|2007|p=200}} The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=202–203}} Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}}{{refn|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades.{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=309}}|group="Note"}}<br />
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On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=179}} The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=179–181}} By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=182}} By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}} On 12 April, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.{{sfn|Moran|2007|p=139}} The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties, and around 4,000 men became [[prisoners of war]].<ref name=Gibbs>{{cite news| first=Philip |last=Gibbs |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF |title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans |newspaper=New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |format=PDF |date=11 April 1917 |accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
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Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=1}}{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=233}} According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}} The idea that Canada's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}}<br />
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==History==<br />
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===Selection===<br />
{{see also|Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission}}<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}}{{refn|The eight sites were Vimy, Bourlon Wood, Le Quesnel, Dury, and Courcelette in France and St. Julien, Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood), and Passchendaele in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web | title = Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/Memorials/can_battle_committee | accessdate =12 January 2008}}</ref>|group=Note}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}} In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors, and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/> The jury consisted of [[Charles Herbert Reilly]] representing the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]], [[Paul Philippe Cret]] representing the [[Société centrale des architectes français]] and [[Frank Darling (architect)|Frank Darling]] representing the [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]].{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref>{{cite web | title = Design Competition | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition | accessdate =22 May 2013}}</ref> The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} In October 1921, the commission formally selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] as the winner of the competition and that of Frederick Chapman Clemesha as runner-up.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}} The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor [[Percy Erskine Nobbs]], who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}} The consensus however went in Allward's favour with his design receiving both public and critical approval.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}{{refn|Critical approval included [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]] artist [[A. Y. Jackson]] providing a supporting position in a letter published by [[Canadian Forum]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}|group="Note"}} The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—those of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|left|A design model of the memorial|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background.]]<br />
At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The jury's assessment was that Allward's submission was best suited to a "low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge".{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} The commission committee initially took the position of placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]], near the location of the [[Battle of Mont Sorrel]], as the site provided an imposing view.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=283}} This however ran counter to the desires of the Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] who, while speaking in the [[House of Commons of Canada]] in May 1922, argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} King's position received unanimous support of the House and, in the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|pp=66–69}} The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward's design.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} On 5 December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|100|ha|acre}} of land on Vimy Ridge, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name=DFAIT>{{cite web | title = Canada Treaty Information | publisher = Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade | date = 26 February 2002 | url = http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661 | accessdate =4 January 2008}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name=DFAIT/><br />
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===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.|Laying the foundation of the memorial]]<br />
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Following the competition, Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the Spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} After selling his home and studio, Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} and spent a number of months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then [[Paris]], though Allward eventually set up a studio in [[London]], [[England]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}<br />
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Allward had initially hoped to use white marble for the memorial's facing stone,{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a "ghost like" appearance.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} He found it in the ruins of the [[Diocletian's Palace]] at [[Split, Croatia]]; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, which Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} His choice—Seget limestone—came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].{{sfn|Fabijančić|2003|p=127}} The difficulties with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927 and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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On Allward's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=285}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Faber had recently designed the substructure for the [[Menin Gate]] at Ypres and he selected a design that employed cast-in-place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web | title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge – Fast Facts | url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/battle | work=VAC Canada Remembers | publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada | date=n.d. | accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}}<br />
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While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and the Grange Subway more accessible.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument: limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of Seget limestone.<ref name=Picard>{{cite news | last=Picard | first=Andréa | title=Restoring Loss at Vimy |periodical =Canadian Architect | publication-date=May 2006 | url=http://www.canadianarchitect.com/news/restoring-loss-at-vimy/1000204056/ |publisher=Business Information Group |accessdate =1 August 2009|ref=harv}}</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 human figures on site from large blocks of stone. The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=206}} The carvers conducted their work year-round inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory | title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |date=12 August 1998|accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{refn|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[File:1936 Vimy pilgrimage passport.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Special passport issued by Canada for the 1936 Vimy pilgrimage|alt=A Passport with the Canadian coat of arms in the middle and text in both French and English identifying the book as a passport for the Vimy Pigrimage]]<br />
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In 1919, the year after the war ended, around 60,000 British tourists and mourners made pilgrimages to the Western Front.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The transatlantic voyage was however longer and more expensive from Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed, and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small, unofficial groups.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the [[Canadian Legion]] passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields. A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial, which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Due to construction delays with the memorial, it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial. Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set, the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic—1,200 inquiries by November 1934.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on [[Canada Day|Dominion Day]], 1 July 1936, even though the government still did not know when it would be completed.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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For event planning purposes the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible. The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial. The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage. For the Legion this included planning meals, accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=41}} The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers, and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3½-week trip, inclusive of all meals, accommodation, health insurance, and sea and land transportation would be {{CAD|160}} per person (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|CA|160|1935|r=2}}}} in present terms). Indirect assistance came in a number of forms. The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=197}} The government and a number of private sector firms also provided paid leave for their participating employees.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date, 26 July 1936.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} On 16 July 1936, the five transatlantic liners, escorted by {{HMCS|Champlain|1919|6}} and {{HMCS|Saguenay|D79|6}}, departed the [[Port of Montreal]] with approximately 6,200 passengers and arrived in [[Le Havre]] on 24 and 25 July.{{refn|The ships were {{SS|Montrose|1922|6}}, {{SS|Montcalm}}, SS ''Antonia'', [[RMS Ascania (1923)|SS ''Ascania'']] and [[RMS Empress of France (1928)|SS ''Duchess of Bedford'']].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}|group="Note"}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}{{sfn|Reynolds|2007|p=68}} The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}} <br />
{{rquote|right|''It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.''|King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx |accessdate=4 January 2010 |date=n.d. |publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>}}<br />
[[File:HM King Edward VIII unveiling the figure of Canada on the Vimy Ridge Memorial.jpg|thumb|left|King [[Edward VIII]] unveiling the figure ''Canada Bereft'' on the Vimy Ridge Memorial|alt=A figure standing on flag covered stage located in from of the statue of Canada Bereft.]]<br />
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On 26 July 1936, the day of the ceremony, pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument. For the ceremony, sailors from HMCS ''Saguenay'' provided the [[guard of honour]]. Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band, French army engineers, and French-Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the [[Second Battle of Artois]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the [[Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission]] over [[shortwave radio]], with facilities of the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] transmitting the ceremony to Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President Albert Lebrun, and over 50,000 Canadian, British, and French veterans and their families attended the event.<ref name="Fast Facts"/> Absent, however, was Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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Before the ceremony began, King [[Edward VIII]], present in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|king of Canada]], inspected the guard of honour, was introduced to the honoured guests, and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} Two [[Royal Air Force]] and two [[French Air Force]] squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the [[Church of England]], the [[United Church of Canada]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} [[Ernest Lapointe]], [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Canadian Minister of Justice]], spoke first,{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} followed by Edward VIII, who, in both French and English, thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The King then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].{{sfn|Morton|Wright|1987|p=221}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}}{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=139}} The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name=Foot>{{Cite news| last=Foot| first=Richard| title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own| newspaper=The Vancouver Sun| publication-place=Vancouver | date=4 April 2007| page=A4}}</ref> The pilgrimage continued, and most participants toured [[Ypres]] before being taken to London to be hosted by the [[British Legion]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=51}} One-third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August, while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=52}}<br />
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===Second World War===<br />
[[File:Hitler touring Vimy Memorial in June 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|Hitler touring the Vimy Memorial in 1940|alt=A group of men dressed in Nazi German soldier, front and centre is Adolf Hitler. The twin pylons of the memorial are clearly displayed in the background.]]<br />
In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial. Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments. When war did break out, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}} In late May 1940, following the British retreat after the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to Allied forces.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=293}} The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=300}} The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=294}} The rumours led the German [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=297}} To demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated [[Adolf Hitler]], who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature, was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Canadian Unknown Soldier |journal=After The Battle |issue=109 |publisher=Battle of Britain Intl. Ltd. |issn=0306-154X}}</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when the [[Welsh Guards]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=298}}<br />
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===Post-war years===<br />
Immediately following the Second World War very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial, having been overshadowed by more contemporary events.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=76}} The ''[[Winnipeg Free Press]]'' and ''The Legionary'', the magazine of the Canadian Legion, were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=79}} The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice with only the ''[[Halifax Herald]]'' making any mention.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, paired with the [[Canadian Centennial]].{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of [[Canadian Confederation]] and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] and at least 5,000 people<!-- were these 5000 Canadians? -->.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge 'sacrifice' forged unity PM declares |newspaper=Toronto Star |page=A3 |first=Patrick |last=Doyle |date=10 April 1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=107}} Subsequent smaller-scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://legionmagazine.com/en/1997/09/return-to-the-ridge/ |title=Return To The Ridge |date=1 September 1997 |magazine=Legion Magazine |first=Tom |last=MacGregor |publisher=Royal Canadian Legion}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ceremony marks 85th anniversary of Vimy Ridge battle |publisher=Canadian Press |date=7 April 2002}}</ref><br />
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===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
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By the end of the century, the large number of repairs undertaken since the memorial's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours, and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major $30&nbsp;million [[Canadian dollar]] restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name=Valpy>{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Valpy | title=Setting a legend in stone |url=http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070407.wvimymemorial0407/front/Front/Front/ |work=[[Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name=Valpy/><br />
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Time, wear, and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive being water damage.<ref name=Valpy/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} through its walls and platforms, dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name=Valpy/> As the water exited, it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces, obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform, terrace, and stairs.<ref name=Valpy/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs, and platforms.<ref name=Valpy/> In order to respect Allward's initial vision of a seamless structure, the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs, replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia, and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze-thaw activity.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} Underlying structural flaws were also corrected.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=53}}<br />
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Queen [[Elizabeth II]], escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=140}} Other senior Canadian officials, including Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]] among them, attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV">{{Cite episode |title= |date=9 April 2007 |series=National News |series-link= |first=Tom |last=Kennedy |network=CTV Television Network}}</ref> The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV"/><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the trench lines of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=216}}{{sfn|Lloyd|1998|p=120}} The total area of the site is {{convert|100|ha|acre}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and unearthed unexploded munitions make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name=CWGC2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |title=Annual Report 2007–2008 |format=PDF |year=2008 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |page=16 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110614233601/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |archivedate=14 June 2011 }}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=7}}<br />
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The memorial site was established to honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but it also contains a number of other memorials. These include memorials dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]], and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries on site: [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/2103985/CANADIAN%20CEMETERY%20NO.2,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/68402/GIVENCHY%20ROAD%20CANADIAN%20CEMETERY,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast| accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref>[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park, and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=22 March 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20071113094920/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca:80/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |archivedate=13 November 2007 }}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project| url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/cbmr |accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007}}</ref><br />
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===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial (September 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|Left-front view showing an entire aspect of the Memorial|alt=The Vimy memorial from the front facing side. The memorial is very wide indicative of being a photo from after the restoration.]]<br />
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Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=12}} The memorial contains a large number of stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} There is a cannon barrel draped in laurel and olive branches carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize peace.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.{{sfn|Bolling|2003|p=310}} This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.{{sfn|Prost|1997|p=316}} The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada's sympathy for the weak and oppressed.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=156}}<br />
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The figure of a cloaked young female stands on top and at the centre of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. The woman has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]], a sword and draped in laurel branches.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}}{{refn|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space, which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre, that fanned out from the monument's front wall for a distance of {{convert|270|ft|m}} while the battle damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=46}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name.]]<br />
The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform; one bears the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name=Valpy/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace'';{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=13}} ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}} The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} The remainder of the ''Chorus'' is located directly below the senior figures: ''Faith'', ''Hope'' and ''Truth'' on the eastern pylon; and ''Honour'', ''Charity'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western pylon.{{sfn|Vincent|2011|p=59}} Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain, and France. Large crosses adorn the outside of each pylon.{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments and a dedicatory message to Canada's war dead in both French and English are located at the base of the pylons. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base between the two pylons.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'', by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}}<br />
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The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]], [[Italy]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France and whose final resting place is unknown.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format in a manner that permits the modification of panels as remains are found and identified. Allward instead sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name=Valpy/>{{sfn|Vincent|2014|p=99}} As a consequence, as remains were discovered it was not possible to remove commemorated names without interrupting the seamless list and as a consequence there are individuals who have a known grave but are commemorated on the memorial. The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]], and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name=VCs>{{cite web| title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/medals-decorations/orders-decorations/canadian-victoria-cross-recipients |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada }}</ref><br />
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===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
{{Main article|Moroccan Division (France)|Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the [[Moroccan Division (France)|Moroccan Division]], killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925, having been built without planning permission.<ref name=France24/><ref>{{Citation|title=Inauguration du monument à la Division marocaine élevé à la cote 140, plateau de Vimy, route de Neuville-Saint-Vaast à Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), le 14 juin 1925 |location= Paris |publisher=Berger-Levrault|trans-title=Inauguration of the Moroccan Division raised on hill 140, Vimy Ridge, Road Neuville-Saint-Vaast in Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), 14 June 1925|year=1926 |language=french}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tourism-lenslievin.co.uk/monument-aux-morts-de-la-division-marocaine/givenchy-en-gohelle/tabid/20656/offreid/47f2449b-2791-4864-8e41-7b4680260aa1/details.aspx |publisher=Lens-Liévin Tourist Information and Cultural Heritage Office |title=Monument aux morts de la division marocaine |trans-title=War memorial of the Moroccan division |date=n.d.}}</ref> Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the Memorial; Campaign battles are inscribed on the left and right hand side corner view of the memorial. The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only divisions where all subordinate units had been awarded the [[Legion of Honour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf |title=Forgotten Heroes North Africans and the Great War 1914–1919 |publisher=Forgotten Heroes 14–19 Foundation |page=10}}</ref><br />
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The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the [[Marching Division of Morocco]]. The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise, did not in fact contain any units originating from [[Morocco]].{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}} [[Moroccans]] were part of the [[Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion]] which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment with 2nd Marching Regiment of the 2nd Foreign Regiment, both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades. The division contained [[Tirailleur]]s and [[Zouave]]s, of principally [[Tunisia]]n and [[Algeria]]n origin and most notably [[French Foreign Legion|Legionnaires]] from the [[2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment]] and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment.{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<ref name=France24>{{cite web|title=Grande Guerre : la Division marocaine qui n'avait de marocaine que le nom | trans-title = Great War: the Moroccan Division is Moroccan in name only|first=Stéphanie |last=Trouillard |date=6 May 2015 |publisher=France 24 |language=french |url=http://www.france24.com/fr/20150509-premiere-guerre-mondiale-division-marocaine-vimy-crete-tirailleurs-algeriens-tunisiens-legions-etrangeres-artois}}</ref> The French Legionnaires came, as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial, from 52 different countries and included amongst them American, Polish, Russian, Italian, Greek, German, Czech, Swedish and Swiss volunteers, such as writer [[Blaise Cendrars]].{{sfn|Das|2011|p=316}}{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<br />
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In the battle, General [[Victor d'Urbal]], commander of the [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]], sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]].{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains.{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division did however suffer heavy casualties. Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division's brigade commanders, Colonels [[Gaston Cros]] and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legionetrangere.fr/index.php/archives/79-infos-fsale/489-histoire-la-bataille-de-l-artois-du-9-mai-au-22-juin-1915-avec-l-attaque-du-2e-regiment-de-marche-du-1er-etranger |title=HISTOIRE : La bataille de l'Artois du 9 mai au 22 juin 1915 avec l'attaque du 2e Régiment de marche du 1er Etranger |publisher=Fédération des Sociétés d' Anciens de la Légion étrangère |trans-title=HISTORY: The Battle of Artois from 9 May to 22 June 1915 with the attack of the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion |language=french |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
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===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways, and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely, and unseen.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=90}}<br />
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The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}}<br />
<br />
===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistic Corps]], and a leading British [[Bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Beaver |title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html |work=[[The Independent]] |date=14 August 1998 |accessdate=26 April 2009 |location=[[London]]}}</ref> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
<br />
===Visitors' centre===<br />
The site has a visitors' centre, staffed by Canadian student guides, which is open seven days a week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/overseas/first-world-war/france/vimy/vimy_contact |title=Visitor information |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |accessdate=10 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> During the memorial restoration, the original visitors' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one, which remains in use today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/news/salute/article/870 |title=New Visitor Education Centre For Vimy |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=25 November 2015 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The visitors' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines, close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway.{{sfn|Pedersen|2012|loc=Chapter 7}} Construction of a new {{CAD|5}} million visitors' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017, in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge Memorial in France to get visitor centre |url=http://globalnews.ca/news/560616/vimy-ridge-memorial-to-get-visitor-centre/ |publisher=Global News |date=14 May 2013 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Sociocultural influence==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial war recruitment poster.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The Vimy Momerial displayed in a Canadian [[World War II]] recruitment posters|alt=A white skeleton body holds alight a torch and the background the two white pillars of the Vimy memorial are displayed. the entire poster is displayed in white with a background of blue.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely published in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}} Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].{{sfn|Thomson|1995–1996|pp=5–27}} Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War, while expressing the enormous impact of war in general.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} Hucker also suggest that the 2005 restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as a National Historic Site of Canada; it was so designated, one of only two outside of Canada, in 1997.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vimycerm | title=Canadian National Historic Site Designation |date=9 September 1999 |accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. Remembrance has also taken other forms: the [[Vimy Foundation]], having been established to preserve and promote Canada's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, and [[Vimy Ridge Day]], to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/about/mission/ | title=Mission |publisher=Vimy Foundation |accessdate=9 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen |last=Harris |newspaper=[[London Free Press]]| publisher=Sum Media Corp |title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets |date=13 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne |last=Arsenault |url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref> The memorial is not without its critics. Alana Vincent has argued that constituent parts of the monument are in conflict and as a result the message conveyed by the monument is not unified.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=58–60}} Visually, Vincent argues there is a dichotomy between the triumphant pose of the figures at the top of the pylons and the mourning posture of those figures at the base. Textually, she argues the inscription text celebrating the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge strikes a very different tone to the list of names of the missing at the base of the monument.{{sfn|Vincent|2014|pp=59–60}}<br />
<br />
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name=longstaff>{{cite web|url=https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes/ |title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate) |date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010 |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada, including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The 1936 'Vimy Ridge' Issue |issue=259 |date=March 2011 |first=Mick |last=Bister |publisher=Journal of the France and Colonies Philatelic Society}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory |title=Designing and Constructing |series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier |date= 5 May 2000 |accessdate=8 January 2010 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The [[Never Forgotten National Memorial]] was intended to be a {{convert|24|m|ft|adj=on}} statue inspired by the ''Canada Bereft'' statue on the memorial, before the project was cancelled in February 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parks Canada backs out of controversial 'Mother Canada' war memorial project in Cape Breton|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/parks-canada-backs-out-of-controversial-mother-canada-war-memorial-project-in-cape-breton|accessdate=8 February 2016|work=National Post|date=5 February 2016}}</ref> A 2001 Canadian [[historical novel]] ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'' by [[Jane Urquhart]] involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial. In 2007, the memorial was a short-listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Vimy Memorial, France |url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |date=n.d. }}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on a number of occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian military [[Military awards and decorations|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref>{{cite news |title=New military medal to honour combat casualties |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-military-medal-to-honour-combat-casualties-1.770264 |date=29 August 2008 |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent [[bas relief]] sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web| title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit |url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm |date=January 2004 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Embassy of France in Canada }}</ref> The memorial is featured on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the [[Frontier Series]] Canadian polymer [[Canadian twenty-dollar bill|$20]] banknote, which was released by the [[Bank of Canada]] on 7 November 2012.<ref>{{cite web| title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadians-see-twin-towers-pornography-in-20-bill-design-1.806190 |accessdate=6 May 2012 |publisher=CTV |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}<br />
* [[World War I memorials]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{Research help|Mil}}<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
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* {{cite book| last1=Bell| first1=Lynne| last2=Bousfield |first2=Arthur |last3=Toffoli |first3=Gary| title=Queen and Consort:Elizabeth and Philip – 60 Years of Marriage| publisher=Dundurn Press| year=2007| location=Toronto| isbn=978-1-55002-725-9|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Boire |first = Michael| title = The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 15–24| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf| accessdate =2 January 2009 |format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Boire |first = Michael| year = 2007 | contribution = The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914–1916 | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =51–61 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Bolling |first = Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers|pages=295–318 | title= Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor1-last=Antor |editor1-first = Heinz | editor2-last = Brown | editor2-first = Sylvia | editor3-last = Considine | editor3-first = John | editor4-last = Stierstorfer | editor4-first = Klaus |year= 2003 |publisher= de Gruyter|location= Berlin | isbn = 978-3-11-017666-7|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Borestad |first = Lane |title=Walter Allward: Sculptor and Architect of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |pages=23–38 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Art or Memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art|last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 | publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Brown |first = Eric |last2=Cook |first2=Tim | title = The 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 33–54| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |last=Busch |first=Briton Cooper |year=2003| publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Campbell | first = David | year = 2007 | contribution = The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =171–192 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Cook | first = Tim | year = 2007 | contribution = The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike | title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =105–124 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title=Race, Empire and First World War Writing |first=Santanu |last=Das |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-50984-8 |year=2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
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* {{cite journal |last = Duffy |first = Denis| title = Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward | journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–206| publisher = Routledge | date =2008 |doi = 10.1080/02722010809481708|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Durflinger |first = Serge| year = 2007 | contribution = Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War| editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =291–305 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first= Tony |year= 2003 |publisher= University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |accessdate =2 January 2009|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first= Don |year= 2007 |publisher= Helion & Company Limited |location= Solihull |isbn=978-1-874622-99-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Godefroy |first = Andrew| authorlink=Andrew Godefroy| year = 2007 | contribution = The German Army at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =225–238 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hayes |first = Geoffrey| year = 2007 | contribution = The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =193–210 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement|last= Hopkins|first= J. Castell|year= 1919|publisher= Canadian Annual Review|location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline|year = 2007 | contribution = The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =279–290 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline |title=Vimy: A Monument for the Modern World |pages=39–48 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last = Humphries|first = Mark Osborne| year = 2007| contribution = 'Old Wine in New Bottles': A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| publication-place = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =65–85| isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last= Inglis|first= Dave| title = Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years| year = 1995| publisher=Simon Fraser University| location=Burnaby|url =http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6687/b17448906.pdf| accessdate =22 May 2013|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first= David |year= 1998 |publisher= Berg Publishing |location= Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first= Duncan E. |year= 1967 |publisher= Peter Martin Associates |location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Moran |first = Heather| year = 2007 | contribution = The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =139–154 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last1=Morton | first1=Desmond | first2=Glenn | last2=Wright | title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915–1930 | publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1962 |publisher= Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location= Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf | format=PDF |accessdate =1 January 2007| ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= "We will remember&nbsp;...": Overseas Memorials to Canada's War Dead |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location= Ottawa|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Pierce |first = John| title = Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial| journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 4–14| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf| accessdate =2 February 2009|format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite book |title= ANZACS on the Western Front: The Australian War Memorial Battlefield Guide |last= Pedersen |first=Peter | year= 2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location= New YOrk|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Prost |first = Antoine| year = 1997 | contribution = Monuments to the Dead | editor-last = Nora | editor-first = Pierre | editor2-last = Kritzman | editor2-first = Lawrence | editor3-last = Goldhammer | editor3-first = Arthur | title = Realms of memory: the construction of the French past | publication-place = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | pages =307–332| isbn = 0-231-10634-3|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2007 |title="Not A Man Fell Out and the Party Marched Into Arras Singing": The Royal Guard and the Unveiling of the Vimy Memorial, 1936|journal=Canadian Military History |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–68 |ref=harv}}*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2008 |title=From Alberta to Avion: Private Herbert Peterson, 49th Battalion, CEF |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=67–74 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1= Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year= 2000 |publisher= Geological Society |location= London |isbn=0-85052-463-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996| publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Saunders |first = Nicholas| title =Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001| journal = Antiquity | volume = 76 | issue = 291 | pages = 101–108| publisher = Portland Press| year = 2002 |ref=Saunders}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914–1917|last= Sheldon| first= Jack|year= 2008|publisher= Pen & Sword Military|location= Barnsley (UK)| isbn = 978-1-84415-680-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917–1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Smith |first = Julian |title=Restoring Vimy: The Challenges of Confronting Emerging Modernism |pages=49–56 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal| first=Denise | last=Thomson |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918–1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995–1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia| editor-last = Tucker| editor-first = Spencer| year=1996| publisher= Garland Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0-8153-0399-8|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander| year=2005| publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5|ref=harv }}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997| publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{citation|chapter=Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians&nbsp;... From Africa to the Artois |first=Philippe |last=Vincent-Chaissac |publisher=L'Echo du Pas-de-Calais |title=They Came from Across the Globe |p=3 |chapter-url=http://memoire.pas-de-calais.com/images/_uk/pdf-nationalites/marocain.pdf |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Literature and Theology: New Interdisciplinary Spaces |year=2011 |editor-first=Heather |editor-last=Walton |publisher=Ashgate |<br />
contribution=Two (and two, and two) Towers: Interdisciplinary, Borrowing and Limited Interpretation |first=Alana |last=Vincent |pages=55–66 |isbn=978-1-4094-0011-0 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Making Memory: Jewish and Christian Explorations in Monument, Narrative, and Liturgy |first=Alana |last=Vincent |year=2014 |publisher=James Clarke & Co |isbn=978-0-227-17431-9 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General|last= Williams|first= Jeffery|year= 1983|publisher= Secker & Warburg|location= London| isbn = 0-436-57110-2|ref=harv}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/ Canadian National Vimy Memorial] – official website<br />
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation] – Canadian educational charity<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1936-vimy-ridge-memorial-unveiled Radio recording of King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony] from [[CBC Archives]]<br />
* [http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/87900/VIMY%20MEMORIAL Vimy Memorial] and casualty records at [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=cr&CRid=1119613 Vimy Memorial] and photographs at [[Find a Grave]]<br />
* [http://www.britishpathe.com/video/canadians-at-vimy-ridge Canadians at Vimy Ridge in 1940], news reel from [[British Pathé]]<br />
* [http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx Return to Vimy], including video clip of the 1936 unveiling (Archives of Ontario)<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
{{NHSC}}<br />
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}<br />
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{{Good article}}<br />
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[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]<br />
[[Category:World War I in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada in France]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]<br />
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170029089Canadian National Vimy Memorial2016-07-18T13:08:51Z<p>Carcharoth: /* External links */ one more</p>
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<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br /><small>Mémorial national du Canada à Vimy</small><br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br />[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = [[File:Vimy Memorial - Allward design submission.jpg|300px|alt=A black and white drawing of a white limestone memorial built on the top of a hill. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall.]]<br />
|caption = Walter Allward's memorial design submission<br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and missing, presumed dead, in France.<br />
|unveiled = 26 July 1936<br />By King [[Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50|22|46|N|02|46|25|E|scale:2500|display=title}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br />{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{refn|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, there are a number of individuals who are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.{{sfn|Reynolds|2008|pp=57–68}} Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|source={{cwgc cemetery|87900}}<br />
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{{Designation list |embed=yes |designation1=NHSC |designation1_offname=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada |designation1_date=1996 }}<br />
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The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a memorial site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|100|ha|acre|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the initial [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] offensive of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[Trench warfare|trenches]], craters, and unexploded munitions still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, a number of other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park.<br />
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The memorial took designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] 11 years to see built. King [[Edward VIII]] unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]] and more than 50,000 Canadian and French veterans and their families. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] re-dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The site is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]. This Vimy Memorial and the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] are the only two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] outside of Canada.<br />
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==Background==<br />
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===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}} The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|loc=pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3}}<br />
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===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.{{sfn|Boire|2007|pp=52–53}} The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=68}} The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=8}}<br />
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The [[United Kingdom|British]] XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.{{sfn|Boire|1992|p=15}} On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|1800|m|yd|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{refn|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=149}}|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref>{{cite news |title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF |newspaper=[[New York Times]]|format=PDF |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=21 August 1916 |accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{refn|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}<br />
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===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=120}} The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=229}} Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=39}} The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=149}}<br />
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[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines – Black, Red, Blue, and Brown|alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[Barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|91|m|yd}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<br />
{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=117}} The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]], and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Canadian Division captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=255}}{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=178–179}}{{sfn|Hayes|2007|p=200}} The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=202–203}} Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}}{{refn|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades.{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=309}}|group="Note"}}<br />
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On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=179}} The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=179–181}} By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=182}} By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}} On 12 April, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.{{sfn|Moran|2007|p=139}} The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties, and around 4,000 men became [[prisoners of war]].<ref name=Gibbs>{{cite news| first=Philip |last=Gibbs |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF |title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans |newspaper=New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |format=PDF |date=11 April 1917 |accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
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Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=1}}{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=233}} According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}} The idea that Canada's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}}<br />
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==History==<br />
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===Selection===<br />
{{see also|Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission}}<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}}{{refn|The eight sites were Vimy, Bourlon Wood, Le Quesnel, Dury, and Courcelette in France and St. Julien, Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood), and Passchendaele in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web | title = Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/Memorials/can_battle_committee | accessdate =12 January 2008}}</ref>|group=Note}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}} In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors, and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/> The jury consisted of [[Charles Herbert Reilly]] representing the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]], [[Paul Philippe Cret]] representing the [[Société centrale des architectes français]] and [[Frank Darling (architect)|Frank Darling]] representing the [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]].{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref>{{cite web | title = Design Competition | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition | accessdate =22 May 2013}}</ref> The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} In October 1921, the commission formally selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] as the winner of the competition and that of Frederick Chapman Clemesha as runner-up.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}} The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor [[Percy Erskine Nobbs]], who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}} The consensus however went in Allward's favour with his design receiving both public and critical approval.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}{{refn|Critical approval included [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]] artist [[A. Y. Jackson]] providing a supporting position in a letter published by [[Canadian Forum]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}|group="Note"}} The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—those of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|left|A design model of the memorial|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background.]]<br />
At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The jury's assessment was that Allward's submission was best suited to a "low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge".{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} The commission committee initially took the position of placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]], near the location of the [[Battle of Mont Sorrel]], as the site provided an imposing view.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=283}} This however ran counter to the desires of the Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] who, while speaking in the [[House of Commons of Canada]] in May 1922, argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} King's position received unanimous support of the House and, in the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|pp=66–69}} The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward's design.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} On 5 December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|100|ha|acre}} of land on Vimy Ridge, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name=DFAIT>{{cite web | title = Canada Treaty Information | publisher = Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade | date = 26 February 2002 | url = http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661 | accessdate =4 January 2008}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name=DFAIT/><br />
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===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.|Laying the foundation of the memorial]]<br />
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Following the competition, Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the Spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} After selling his home and studio, Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} and spent a number of months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then [[Paris]], though Allward eventually set up a studio in [[London]], [[England]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}<br />
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Allward had initially hoped to use white marble for the memorial's facing stone,{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a "ghost like" appearance.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} He found it in the ruins of the [[Diocletian's Palace]] at [[Split, Croatia]]; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, which Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} His choice—Seget limestone—came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].{{sfn|Fabijančić|2003|p=127}} The difficulties with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927 and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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On Allward's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=285}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Faber had recently designed the substructure for the [[Menin Gate]] at Ypres and he selected a design that employed cast-in-place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web | title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge – Fast Facts | url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/battle | work=VAC Canada Remembers | publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada | date=n.d. | accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}}<br />
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While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and the Grange Subway more accessible.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument: limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of Seget limestone.<ref name=Picard>{{cite news | last=Picard | first=Andréa | title=Restoring Loss at Vimy |periodical =Canadian Architect | publication-date=May 2006 | url=http://www.canadianarchitect.com/news/restoring-loss-at-vimy/1000204056/ |publisher=Business Information Group |accessdate =1 August 2009|ref=harv}}</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 human figures on site from large blocks of stone. The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=206}} The carvers conducted their work year-round inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory | title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |date=12 August 1998|accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{refn|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[File:1936 Vimy pilgrimage passport.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Special passport issued by Canada for the 1936 Vimy pilgrimage|alt=A Passport with the Canadian coat of arms in the middle and text in both French and English identifying the book as a passport for the Vimy Pigrimage]]<br />
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In 1919, the year after the war ended, around 60,000 British tourists and mourners made pilgrimages to the Western Front.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The transatlantic voyage was however longer and more expensive from Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed, and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small, unofficial groups.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the [[Canadian Legion]] passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields. A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial, which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Due to construction delays with the memorial, it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial. Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set, the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic—1200 inquiries by November 1934.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on [[Canada Day|Dominion Day]], 1 July 1936, even though the government still did not know when it would be completed.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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For event planning purposes the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible. The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial. The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage. For the Legion this included planning meals, accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=41}} The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers, and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3½-week trip, inclusive of all meals, accommodation, health insurance, and sea and land transportation would be {{CAD|160}} per person (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|CA|160|1935|r=2}}}} in present terms). Indirect assistance came in a number of forms. The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=197}} The government and a number of private sector firms also provided paid leave for their participating employees.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date, 26 July 1936.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} On 16 July 1936, the five transatlantic liners, escorted by {{HMCS|Champlain|1919|6}} and {{HMCS|Saguenay|D79|6}}, departed the [[Port of Montreal]] with approximately 6,200 passengers and arrived in [[Le Havre]] on 24 and 25 July.{{refn|The ships were {{SS|Montrose|1922|6}}, {{SS|Montcalm}}, SS ''Antonia'', [[RMS Ascania (1923)|SS ''Ascania'']] and [[RMS Empress of France (1928)|SS ''Duchess of Bedford'']].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}|group="Note"}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}{{sfn|Reynolds|2007|p=68}} The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}} <br />
{{rquote|right|''It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.''|King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx |accessdate=4 January 2010 |date=n.d. |publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>}}<br />
[[File:HM King Edward VIII unveiling the figure of Canada on the Vimy Ridge Memorial.jpg|thumb|left|King [[Edward VIII]] unveiling the figure ''Canada Bereft'' on the Vimy Ridge Memorial|alt=A figure standing on flag covered stage located in from of the statue of Canada Bereft.]]<br />
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On 26 July 1936, the day of the ceremony, pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument. For the ceremony, sailors from HMCS ''Saguenay'' provided the [[guard of honour]]. Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band, French army engineers, and French-Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the [[Second Battle of Artois]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the [[Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission]] over [[shortwave radio]], with facilities of the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] transmitting the ceremony to Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President Albert Lebrun, and over 50,000 Canadian, British, and French veterans and their families attended the event.<ref name="Fast Facts"/> Absent, however, was Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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Before the ceremony began, King [[Edward VIII]], present in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|king of Canada]], inspected the guard of honour, was introduced to the honoured guests, and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} Two [[Royal Air Force]] and two [[French Air Force]] squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the [[Church of England]], the [[United Church of Canada]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} [[Ernest Lapointe]], [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Canadian Minister of Justice]], spoke first,{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} followed by Edward VIII, who, in both French and English, thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The King then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].{{sfn|Morton|Wright|1987|p=221}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}}{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=139}} The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name=Foot>{{Cite news| last=Foot| first=Richard| title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own| newspaper=The Vancouver Sun| publication-place=Vancouver | date=4 April 2007| page=A4}}</ref> The pilgrimage continued, and most participants toured [[Ypres]] before being taken to London to be hosted by the [[British Legion]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=51}} One-third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August, while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=52}}<br />
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===Second World War===<br />
[[File:Hitler touring Vimy Memorial in June 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|Hitler touring the Vimy Memorial in 1940|alt=A group of men dressed in Nazi German soldier, front and centre is Adolf Hitler. The twin pylons of the memorial are clearly displayed in the background.]]<br />
In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial. Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments. When war did break out, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}} In late May 1940, following the British retreat after the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to Allied forces.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=293}} The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=300}} The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=294}} The rumours led the German [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=297}} [[Adolf Hitler]], who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature, was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940 to demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Canadian Unknown Soldier |journal=After The Battle |issue=109 |publisher=Battle of Britain Intl. Ltd. |issn=0306-154X}}</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when the [[Welsh Guards]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=298}}<br />
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===Post-war years===<br />
Immediately following the Second World War very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial, having been overshadowed by more contemporary events.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=76}} The ''[[Winnipeg Free Press]]'' and ''The Legionary'', the magazine of the Canadian Legion, were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=79}} The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice with only the ''[[Halifax Herald]]'' making any mention.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, paired with the [[Canadian Centennial]].{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of [[Canadian Confederation]] and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] and at least 5000 people<!-- were these 5000 Canadians? -->.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge 'sacrifice' forged unity PM declares |newspaper=Toronto Star |page=A3 |first=Patrick |last=Doyle |date=10 April 1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=107}} Subsequent smaller-scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://legionmagazine.com/en/1997/09/return-to-the-ridge/ |title=Return To The Ridge |date=1 September 1997 |magazine=Legion Magazine |first=Tom |last=MacGregor |publisher=Royal Canadian Legion}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ceremony marks 85th anniversary of Vimy Ridge battle |publisher=Canadian Press |date=7 April 2002}}</ref><br />
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===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
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By the end of the century, the large number of repairs undertaken since the memorial's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours, and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major $30&nbsp;million [[Canadian dollar]] restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name=Valpy>{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Valpy | title=Setting a legend in stone |url=http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070407.wvimymemorial0407/front/Front/Front/ |work=[[Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name=Valpy/><br />
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Time, wear, and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive being water damage.<ref name=Valpy/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} through its walls and platforms, dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name=Valpy/> As the water exited, it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces, obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform, terrace, and stairs.<ref name=Valpy/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs, and platforms.<ref name=Valpy/> In order to respect Allward's initial vision of a seamless structure, the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs, replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia, and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze-thaw activity.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} Underlying structural flaws were also corrected.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=53}}<br />
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Queen [[Elizabeth II]], escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=140}} Other senior Canadian officials, including Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]] among them, attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV">{{Cite episode |title= |date=9 April 2007 |series=National News |series-link= |first=Tom |last=Kennedy |network=CTV Television Network}}</ref> The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV"/><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the trench lines of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=216}}{{sfn|Lloyd|1998|p=120}} The total area of the site is {{convert|100|ha|acre}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and unearthed unexploded munitions make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name=CWGC2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |title=Annual Report 2007–2008 |format=PDF |year=2008 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |page=16 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110614233601/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |archivedate=14 June 2011 }}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=7}}<br />
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The site was founded to principally honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but also contains a number of other memorials. These include memorials dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]], and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission maintained cemeteries on site: [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/2103985/CANADIAN%20CEMETERY%20NO.2,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/68402/GIVENCHY%20ROAD%20CANADIAN%20CEMETERY,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast| accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref>[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park, and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=22 March 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20071113094920/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca:80/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |archivedate=13 November 2007 }}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project| url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/cbmr |accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007}}</ref><br />
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===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial (September 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|Left-front view showing an entire aspect of the Memorial|alt=The Vimy memorial from the front facing side. The memorial is very wide indicative of being a photo from after the restoration.]]<br />
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Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=12}} The memorial contains a large number of stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} There is a cannon barrel draped in laurel and olive branches carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize peace.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.{{sfn|Bolling|2003|p=310}} This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.{{sfn|Prost|1997|p=316}} The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada's sympathy for the weak and oppressed.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=156}}<br />
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The figure of a cloaked young female stands on top of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. The woman has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level of the former battlefield is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]], a sword and draped in laurel branches.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}}{{refn|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space, which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre, that fanned out from the monument's front wall for a distance of {{convert|270|ft|m}} while the battle damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=46}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name.]]<br />
The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform; one bears the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name=Valpy/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace'';{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=13}} ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}} The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} The figures of ''Hope'', ''Charity'', ''Honour'', and ''Faith'' are located below ''Justice'' and ''Peace'', on the eastern side, with ''Truth'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western side. Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain, and France and large crosses adorn the outside of each pylon.{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments and a dedicatory inscription to Canada's war dead, in both French and English, also appear on the monument. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base, between the two pylons.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'', by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}}<br />
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The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]], [[Italy]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France and whose final resting place is unknown.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format. Allward sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name=Valpy/> The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]], and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name=VCs>{{cite web| title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/medals-decorations/orders-decorations/canadian-victoria-cross-recipients |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada }}</ref><br />
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===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
{{Main|Moroccan Division (France)|Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the [[Moroccan Division (France)|Moroccan Division]], killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925, having been built without planning permission.<ref name=France24/><ref>{{Citation|title=Inauguration du monument à la Division marocaine élevé à la cote 140, plateau de Vimy, route de Neuville-Saint-Vaast à Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), le 14 juin 1925 |location= Paris |publisher=Berger-Levrault|trans-title=Inauguration of the Moroccan Division raised on hill 140, Vimy Ridge, Road Neuville-Saint-Vaast in Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), 14 June 1925|year=1926 |language=french}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tourism-lenslievin.co.uk/monument-aux-morts-de-la-division-marocaine/givenchy-en-gohelle/tabid/20656/offreid/47f2449b-2791-4864-8e41-7b4680260aa1/details.aspx |publisher=Lens-Liévin Tourist Information and Cultural Heritage Office |title=Monument aux morts de la division marocaine |trans-title=War memorial of the Moroccan division |date=n.d.}}</ref> Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the Memorial; Campaign battles are inscribed on the left and right hand side corner view of the memorial. The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only divisions where all subordinate units had been awarded the [[Legion of Honour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf |title=Forgotten Heroes North Africans and the Great War 1914–1919 |publisher=Forgotten Heroes 14–19 Foundation |page=10}}</ref><br />
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The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the [[Marching Division of Morocco]]. The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise, did not in fact contain any units originating from [[Morocco]].{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}} [[Moroccans]] were part of the [[Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion]] which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment with 2nd Marching Regiment of the 2nd Foreign Regiment, both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades. The division contained [[Tirailleur]]s and [[Zouave]]s, of principally [[Tunisia]]n and [[Algeria]]n origin and most notably [[French Foreign Legion|Legionnaires]] from the [[2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment]] and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment.{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<ref name=France24>{{cite web|title=Grande Guerre : la Division marocaine qui n'avait de marocaine que le nom | trans-title = Great War: the Moroccan Division is Moroccan in name only|first=Stéphanie |last=Trouillard |date=6 May 2015 |publisher=France 24 |language=french |url=http://www.france24.com/fr/20150509-premiere-guerre-mondiale-division-marocaine-vimy-crete-tirailleurs-algeriens-tunisiens-legions-etrangeres-artois}}</ref> The French Legionnaires came, as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial, from 52 different countries and included amongst them American, Polish, Russian, Italian, Greek, German, Czech, Swedish and Swiss volunteers, such as writer [[Blaise Cendrars]].{{sfn|Das|2011|p=316}}{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<br />
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In the battle, General [[Victor d'Urbal]], commander of the [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]], sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]].{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains.{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division did however suffer heavy casualties. Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division's brigade commanders, Colonels [[Gaston Cros]] and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legionetrangere.fr/index.php/archives/79-infos-fsale/489-histoire-la-bataille-de-l-artois-du-9-mai-au-22-juin-1915-avec-l-attaque-du-2e-regiment-de-marche-du-1er-etranger |title=HISTOIRE : La bataille de l'Artois du 9 mai au 22 juin 1915 avec l'attaque du 2e Régiment de marche du 1er Etranger |publisher=Fédération des Sociétés d' Anciens de la Légion étrangère |trans-title=HISTORY: The Battle of Artois from 9 May to 22 June 1915 with the attack of the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion |language=french |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
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===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways, and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely, and unseen.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=90}}<br />
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The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}}<br />
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===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistic Corps]], and a leading British [[Bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Beaver |title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html |work=[[The Independent]] |date=14 August 1998 |accessdate=26 April 2009 |location=[[London]]}}</ref> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
<br />
===Visitors' centre===<br />
The site has a visitors' centre, staffed by Canadian student guides, which is open seven days a week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/overseas/first-world-war/france/vimy/vimy_contact |title=Visitor information |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |accessdate=10 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> During the memorial restoration, the original visitors' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one, which remains in use today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/news/salute/article/870 |title=New Visitor Education Centre For Vimy |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=25 November 2015 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The visitors' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines, close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway.{{sfn|Pedersen|2012|loc=Chapter 7}} Construction of a new {{CAD|5}} million visitors' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017, in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge Memorial in France to get visitor centre |url=http://globalnews.ca/news/560616/vimy-ridge-memorial-to-get-visitor-centre/ |publisher=Global News |date=14 May 2013 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Sociocultural influence==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial war recruitment poster.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The Vimy Momerial displayed in a Canadian [[World War II]] recruitment posters|alt=A white skeleton body holds alight a torch and the background the two white pillars of the Vimy memorial are displayed. the entire poster is displayed in white with a background of blue.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely published in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}} Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].{{sfn|Thomson|1995–1996|pp=5–27}} Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War, while expressing the enormous impact of war in general.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} Hucker also suggest that the most recent{{when|date=June 2016}} restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as a National Historic Site of Canada; it was so designated, one of only two outside of Canada, in 1997.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vimycerm | title=Canadian National Historic Site Designation |date=9 September 1999 |accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. Remembrance has also taken other forms: the [[Vimy Foundation]], having been established to preserve and promote Canada's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, and [[Vimy Ridge Day]], to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/about/mission/ | title=Mission |publisher=Vimy Foundation |accessdate=9 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen |last=Harris |newspaper=[[London Free Press]]| publisher=Sum Media Corp |title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets |date=13 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne |last=Arsenault |url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name=longstaff>{{cite web|url=https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes/ |title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate) |date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010 |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada, including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The 1936 'Vimy Ridge' Issue |issue=259 |date=March 2011 |first=Mick |last=Bister |publisher=Journal of the France and Colonies Philatelic Society}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory |title=Designing and Constructing |series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier |date= 5 May 2000 |accessdate=8 January 2010 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The [[Never Forgotten National Memorial]] was intended to be a {{convert|24|m|ft|adj=on}} statue inspired by the ''Canada Bereft'' statue on the memorial, before the project was cancelled in February 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parks Canada backs out of controversial 'Mother Canada' war memorial project in Cape Breton|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/parks-canada-backs-out-of-controversial-mother-canada-war-memorial-project-in-cape-breton|accessdate=8 February 2016|work=National Post|date=5 February 2016}}</ref> A 2001 Canadian [[historical novel]] ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'' by [[Jane Urquhart]] involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial. In 2007, the memorial was a short-listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Vimy Memorial, France |url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |date=n.d. }}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on a number of occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian military [[Military awards and decorations|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref>{{cite news |title=New military medal to honour combat casualties |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-military-medal-to-honour-combat-casualties-1.770264 |date=29 August 2008 |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent [[bas relief]] sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web| title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit |url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm |date=January 2004 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Embassy of France in Canada }}</ref> The memorial is featured on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the [[Frontier Series]] Canadian polymer [[Canadian twenty-dollar bill|$20]] banknote, which was released by the [[Bank of Canada]] on 7 November 2012.<ref>{{cite web| title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadians-see-twin-towers-pornography-in-20-bill-design-1.806190 |accessdate=6 May 2012 |publisher=CTV |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}<br />
* [[World War I memorials]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{Research help|Mil}}<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914–1918 |last1= Barton | first1=Peter |last2= Doyle |first2=Peter |last3=Vandewalle |first3=Johan |year= 2004 |publisher= McGill-Queen's University Press|location= Montreal & Kingston | isbn = 0-7735-2949-7|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| last1=Bell| first1=Lynne| last2=Bousfield |first2=Arthur |last3=Toffoli |first3=Gary| title=Queen and Consort:Elizabeth and Philip – 60 Years of Marriage| publisher=Dundurn Press| year=2007| location=Toronto| isbn=978-1-55002-725-9|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Boire |first = Michael| title = The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 15–24| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf| accessdate =2 January 2009 |format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Boire |first = Michael| year = 2007 | contribution = The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914–1916 | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =51–61 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Bolling |first = Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers|pages=295–318 | title= Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor1-last=Antor |editor1-first = Heinz | editor2-last = Brown | editor2-first = Sylvia | editor3-last = Considine | editor3-first = John | editor4-last = Stierstorfer | editor4-first = Klaus |year= 2003 |publisher= de Gruyter|location= Berlin | isbn = 978-3-11-017666-7|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Borestad |first = Lane |title=Walter Allward: Sculptor and Architect of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |pages=23–38 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Art or Memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art|last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 | publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Brown |first = Eric |last2=Cook |first2=Tim | title = The 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 33–54| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |last=Busch |first=Briton Cooper |year=2003| publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Campbell | first = David | year = 2007 | contribution = The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =171–192 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Cook | first = Tim | year = 2007 | contribution = The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike | title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =105–124 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title=Race, Empire and First World War Writing |first=Santanu |last=Das |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-50984-8 |year=2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| last=Doughty| first=Robert A.| title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War|year=2005| publisher=Belknap Press|publication-place =Cambridge and London|isbn=0-674-01880-X|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Duffy |first = Denis| title = Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward | journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–206| publisher = Routledge | date =2008 |doi = 10.1080/02722010809481708|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Durflinger |first = Serge| year = 2007 | contribution = Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War| editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =291–305 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first= Tony |year= 2003 |publisher= University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |accessdate =2 January 2009|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first= Don |year= 2007 |publisher= Helion & Company Limited |location= Solihull |isbn=978-1-874622-99-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Godefroy |first = Andrew| authorlink=Andrew Godefroy| year = 2007 | contribution = The German Army at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =225–238 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hayes |first = Geoffrey| year = 2007 | contribution = The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =193–210 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement|last= Hopkins|first= J. Castell|year= 1919|publisher= Canadian Annual Review|location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline|year = 2007 | contribution = The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =279–290 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline |title=Vimy: A Monument for the Modern World |pages=39–48 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last = Humphries|first = Mark Osborne| year = 2007| contribution = 'Old Wine in New Bottles': A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| publication-place = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =65–85| isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last= Inglis|first= Dave| title = Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years| year = 1995| publisher=Simon Fraser University| location=Burnaby|url =http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6687/b17448906.pdf| accessdate =22 May 2013|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first= David |year= 1998 |publisher= Berg Publishing |location= Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first= Duncan E. |year= 1967 |publisher= Peter Martin Associates |location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Moran |first = Heather| year = 2007 | contribution = The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =139–154 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last1=Morton | first1=Desmond | first2=Glenn | last2=Wright | title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915–1930 | publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1962 |publisher= Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location= Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf | format=PDF |accessdate =1 January 2007| ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= "We will remember&nbsp;...": Overseas Memorials to Canada's War Dead |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location= Ottawa|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Pierce |first = John| title = Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial| journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 4–14| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf| accessdate =2 February 2009|format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite book |title= ANZACS on the Western Front: The Australian War Memorial Battlefield Guide |last= Pedersen |first=Peter | year= 2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location= New YOrk|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Prost |first = Antoine| year = 1997 | contribution = Monuments to the Dead | editor-last = Nora | editor-first = Pierre | editor2-last = Kritzman | editor2-first = Lawrence | editor3-last = Goldhammer | editor3-first = Arthur | title = Realms of memory: the construction of the French past | publication-place = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | pages =307–332| isbn = 0-231-10634-3|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2007 |title="Not A Man Fell Out and the Party Marched Into Arras Singing": The Royal Guard and the Unveiling of the Vimy Memorial, 1936|journal=Canadian Military History |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–68 |ref=harv}}*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2008 |title=From Alberta to Avion: Private Herbert Peterson, 49th Battalion, CEF |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=67–74 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1= Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year= 2000 |publisher= Geological Society |location= London |isbn=0-85052-463-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996| publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Saunders |first = Nicholas| title =Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001| journal = Antiquity | volume = 76 | issue = 291 | pages = 101–108| publisher = Portland Press| year = 2002 |ref=Saunders}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914–1917|last= Sheldon| first= Jack|year= 2008|publisher= Pen & Sword Military|location= Barnsley (UK)| isbn = 978-1-84415-680-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917–1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Smith |first = Julian |title=Restoring Vimy: The Challenges of Confronting Emerging Modernism |pages=49–56 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal| first=Denise | last=Thomson |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918–1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995–1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia| editor-last = Tucker| editor-first = Spencer| year=1996| publisher= Garland Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0-8153-0399-8|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander| year=2005| publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5|ref=harv }}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997| publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{citation|chapter=Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians&nbsp;... From Africa to the Artois |first=Philippe |last=Vincent-Chaissac |publisher=L'Echo du Pas-de-Calais |title=They Came from Across the Globe |p=3 |chapter-url=http://memoire.pas-de-calais.com/images/_uk/pdf-nationalites/marocain.pdf |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General|last= Williams|first= Jeffery|year= 1983|publisher= Secker & Warburg|location= London| isbn = 0-436-57110-2|ref=harv}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/ Canadian National Vimy Memorial] – official website<br />
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation] – Canadian educational charity<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1936-vimy-ridge-memorial-unveiled Radio recording of King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony] from [[CBC Archives]]<br />
* [http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/87900/VIMY%20MEMORIAL Vimy Memorial] and casualty records at [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=cr&CRid=1119613 Vimy Memorial] and photographs at [[Find a Grave]]<br />
* [http://www.britishpathe.com/video/canadians-at-vimy-ridge Canadians at Vimy Ridge in 1940], news reel from [[British Pathé]]<br />
* [http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx Return to Vimy], including video clip of the 1936 unveiling (Archives of Ontario)<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
{{NHSC}}<br />
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}<br />
<br />
{{Good article}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]<br />
[[Category:World War I in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada in France]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]<br />
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170029088Canadian National Vimy Memorial2016-07-18T12:58:33Z<p>Carcharoth: /* External links */ add some and tidy existing links</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br /><small>Mémorial national du Canada à Vimy</small><br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br />[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = [[File:Vimy Memorial - Allward design submission.jpg|300px|alt=A black and white drawing of a white limestone memorial built on the top of a hill. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall.]]<br />
|caption = Walter Allward's memorial design submission<br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and missing, presumed dead, in France.<br />
|unveiled = 26 July 1936<br />By King [[Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50|22|46|N|02|46|25|E|scale:2500|display=title}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br />{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{refn|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, there are a number of individuals who are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.{{sfn|Reynolds|2008|pp=57–68}} Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|source={{cwgc cemetery|87900}}<br />
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{{Designation list |embed=yes |designation1=NHSC |designation1_offname=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada |designation1_date=1996 }}<br />
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}}<br />
The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a memorial site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|100|ha|acre|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the initial [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] offensive of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[Trench warfare|trenches]], craters, and unexploded munitions still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, a number of other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park.<br />
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The memorial took designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] 11 years to see built. King [[Edward VIII]] unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]] and more than 50,000 Canadian and French veterans and their families. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] re-dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The site is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]. This Vimy Memorial and the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] are the only two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] outside of Canada.<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}} The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|loc=pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3}}<br />
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===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.{{sfn|Boire|2007|pp=52–53}} The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=68}} The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=8}}<br />
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The [[United Kingdom|British]] XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.{{sfn|Boire|1992|p=15}} On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|1800|m|yd|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{refn|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=149}}|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref>{{cite news |title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF |newspaper=[[New York Times]]|format=PDF |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=21 August 1916 |accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{refn|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}<br />
<br />
===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=120}} The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=229}} Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=39}} The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=149}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines – Black, Red, Blue, and Brown|alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[Barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|91|m|yd}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<br />
{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=117}} The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]], and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Canadian Division captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=255}}{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=178–179}}{{sfn|Hayes|2007|p=200}} The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=202–203}} Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}}{{refn|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades.{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=309}}|group="Note"}}<br />
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On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=179}} The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=179–181}} By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=182}} By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}} On 12 April, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.{{sfn|Moran|2007|p=139}} The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties, and around 4,000 men became [[prisoners of war]].<ref name=Gibbs>{{cite news| first=Philip |last=Gibbs |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF |title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans |newspaper=New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |format=PDF |date=11 April 1917 |accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
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Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=1}}{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=233}} According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}} The idea that Canada's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Selection===<br />
{{see also|Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission}}<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}}{{refn|The eight sites were Vimy, Bourlon Wood, Le Quesnel, Dury, and Courcelette in France and St. Julien, Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood), and Passchendaele in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web | title = Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/Memorials/can_battle_committee | accessdate =12 January 2008}}</ref>|group=Note}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}} In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors, and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/> The jury consisted of [[Charles Herbert Reilly]] representing the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]], [[Paul Philippe Cret]] representing the [[Société centrale des architectes français]] and [[Frank Darling (architect)|Frank Darling]] representing the [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]].{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref>{{cite web | title = Design Competition | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition | accessdate =22 May 2013}}</ref> The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} In October 1921, the commission formally selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] as the winner of the competition and that of Frederick Chapman Clemesha as runner-up.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}} The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor [[Percy Erskine Nobbs]], who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}} The consensus however went in Allward's favour with his design receiving both public and critical approval.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}{{refn|Critical approval included [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]] artist [[A. Y. Jackson]] providing a supporting position in a letter published by [[Canadian Forum]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}|group="Note"}} The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—those of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|left|A design model of the memorial|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background.]]<br />
At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The jury's assessment was that Allward's submission was best suited to a "low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge".{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} The commission committee initially took the position of placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]], near the location of the [[Battle of Mont Sorrel]], as the site provided an imposing view.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=283}} This however ran counter to the desires of the Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] who, while speaking in the [[House of Commons of Canada]] in May 1922, argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} King's position received unanimous support of the House and, in the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|pp=66–69}} The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward's design.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} On 5 December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|100|ha|acre}} of land on Vimy Ridge, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name=DFAIT>{{cite web | title = Canada Treaty Information | publisher = Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade | date = 26 February 2002 | url = http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661 | accessdate =4 January 2008}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name=DFAIT/><br />
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===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.|Laying the foundation of the memorial]]<br />
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Following the competition, Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the Spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} After selling his home and studio, Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} and spent a number of months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then [[Paris]], though Allward eventually set up a studio in [[London]], [[England]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}<br />
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Allward had initially hoped to use white marble for the memorial's facing stone,{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a "ghost like" appearance.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} He found it in the ruins of the [[Diocletian's Palace]] at [[Split, Croatia]]; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, which Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} His choice—Seget limestone—came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].{{sfn|Fabijančić|2003|p=127}} The difficulties with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927 and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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On Allward's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=285}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Faber had recently designed the substructure for the [[Menin Gate]] at Ypres and he selected a design that employed cast-in-place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web | title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge – Fast Facts | url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/battle | work=VAC Canada Remembers | publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada | date=n.d. | accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}}<br />
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While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and the Grange Subway more accessible.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument: limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of Seget limestone.<ref name=Picard>{{cite news | last=Picard | first=Andréa | title=Restoring Loss at Vimy |periodical =Canadian Architect | publication-date=May 2006 | url=http://www.canadianarchitect.com/news/restoring-loss-at-vimy/1000204056/ |publisher=Business Information Group |accessdate =1 August 2009|ref=harv}}</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 human figures on site from large blocks of stone. The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=206}} The carvers conducted their work year-round inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory | title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |date=12 August 1998|accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{refn|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[File:1936 Vimy pilgrimage passport.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Special passport issued by Canada for the 1936 Vimy pilgrimage|alt=A Passport with the Canadian coat of arms in the middle and text in both French and English identifying the book as a passport for the Vimy Pigrimage]]<br />
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In 1919, the year after the war ended, around 60,000 British tourists and mourners made pilgrimages to the Western Front.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The transatlantic voyage was however longer and more expensive from Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed, and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small, unofficial groups.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the [[Canadian Legion]] passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields. A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial, which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Due to construction delays with the memorial, it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial. Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set, the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic—1200 inquiries by November 1934.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on [[Canada Day|Dominion Day]], 1 July 1936, even though the government still did not know when it would be completed.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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For event planning purposes the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible. The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial. The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage. For the Legion this included planning meals, accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=41}} The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers, and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3½-week trip, inclusive of all meals, accommodation, health insurance, and sea and land transportation would be {{CAD|160}} per person (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|CA|160|1935|r=2}}}} in present terms). Indirect assistance came in a number of forms. The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=197}} The government and a number of private sector firms also provided paid leave for their participating employees.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date, 26 July 1936.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} On 16 July 1936, the five transatlantic liners, escorted by {{HMCS|Champlain|1919|6}} and {{HMCS|Saguenay|D79|6}}, departed the [[Port of Montreal]] with approximately 6,200 passengers and arrived in [[Le Havre]] on 24 and 25 July.{{refn|The ships were {{SS|Montrose|1922|6}}, {{SS|Montcalm}}, SS ''Antonia'', [[RMS Ascania (1923)|SS ''Ascania'']] and [[RMS Empress of France (1928)|SS ''Duchess of Bedford'']].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}|group="Note"}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}{{sfn|Reynolds|2007|p=68}} The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}} <br />
{{rquote|right|''It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.''|King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx |accessdate=4 January 2010 |date=n.d. |publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>}}<br />
[[File:HM King Edward VIII unveiling the figure of Canada on the Vimy Ridge Memorial.jpg|thumb|left|King [[Edward VIII]] unveiling the figure ''Canada Bereft'' on the Vimy Ridge Memorial|alt=A figure standing on flag covered stage located in from of the statue of Canada Bereft.]]<br />
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On 26 July 1936, the day of the ceremony, pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument. For the ceremony, sailors from HMCS ''Saguenay'' provided the [[guard of honour]]. Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band, French army engineers, and French-Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the [[Second Battle of Artois]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the [[Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission]] over [[shortwave radio]], with facilities of the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] transmitting the ceremony to Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President Albert Lebrun, and over 50,000 Canadian, British, and French veterans and their families attended the event.<ref name="Fast Facts"/> Absent, however, was Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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Before the ceremony began, King [[Edward VIII]], present in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|king of Canada]], inspected the guard of honour, was introduced to the honoured guests, and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} Two [[Royal Air Force]] and two [[French Air Force]] squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the [[Church of England]], the [[United Church of Canada]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} [[Ernest Lapointe]], [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Canadian Minister of Justice]], spoke first,{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} followed by Edward VIII, who, in both French and English, thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The King then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].{{sfn|Morton|Wright|1987|p=221}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}}{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=139}} The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name=Foot>{{Cite news| last=Foot| first=Richard| title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own| newspaper=The Vancouver Sun| publication-place=Vancouver | date=4 April 2007| page=A4}}</ref> The pilgrimage continued, and most participants toured [[Ypres]] before being taken to London to be hosted by the [[British Legion]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=51}} One-third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August, while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=52}}<br />
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===Second World War===<br />
[[File:Hitler touring Vimy Memorial in June 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|Hitler touring the Vimy Memorial in 1940|alt=A group of men dressed in Nazi German soldier, front and centre is Adolf Hitler. The twin pylons of the memorial are clearly displayed in the background.]]<br />
In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial. Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments. When war did break out, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}} In late May 1940, following the British retreat after the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to Allied forces.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=293}} The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=300}} The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=294}} The rumours led the German [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=297}} [[Adolf Hitler]], who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature, was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940 to demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Canadian Unknown Soldier |journal=After The Battle |issue=109 |publisher=Battle of Britain Intl. Ltd. |issn=0306-154X}}</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when the [[Welsh Guards]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=298}}<br />
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===Post-war years===<br />
Immediately following the Second World War very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial, having been overshadowed by more contemporary events.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=76}} The ''[[Winnipeg Free Press]]'' and ''The Legionary'', the magazine of the Canadian Legion, were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=79}} The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice with only the ''[[Halifax Herald]]'' making any mention.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, paired with the [[Canadian Centennial]].{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of [[Canadian Confederation]] and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] and at least 5000 people<!-- were these 5000 Canadians? -->.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge 'sacrifice' forged unity PM declares |newspaper=Toronto Star |page=A3 |first=Patrick |last=Doyle |date=10 April 1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=107}} Subsequent smaller-scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://legionmagazine.com/en/1997/09/return-to-the-ridge/ |title=Return To The Ridge |date=1 September 1997 |magazine=Legion Magazine |first=Tom |last=MacGregor |publisher=Royal Canadian Legion}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ceremony marks 85th anniversary of Vimy Ridge battle |publisher=Canadian Press |date=7 April 2002}}</ref><br />
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===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
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By the end of the century, the large number of repairs undertaken since the memorial's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours, and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major $30&nbsp;million [[Canadian dollar]] restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name=Valpy>{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Valpy | title=Setting a legend in stone |url=http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070407.wvimymemorial0407/front/Front/Front/ |work=[[Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name=Valpy/><br />
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Time, wear, and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive being water damage.<ref name=Valpy/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} through its walls and platforms, dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name=Valpy/> As the water exited, it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces, obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform, terrace, and stairs.<ref name=Valpy/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs, and platforms.<ref name=Valpy/> In order to respect Allward's initial vision of a seamless structure, the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs, replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia, and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze-thaw activity.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} Underlying structural flaws were also corrected.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=53}}<br />
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Queen [[Elizabeth II]], escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=140}} Other senior Canadian officials, including Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]] among them, attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV">{{Cite episode |title= |date=9 April 2007 |series=National News |series-link= |first=Tom |last=Kennedy |network=CTV Television Network}}</ref> The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV"/><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the trench lines of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=216}}{{sfn|Lloyd|1998|p=120}} The total area of the site is {{convert|100|ha|acre}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and unearthed unexploded munitions make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name=CWGC2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |title=Annual Report 2007–2008 |format=PDF |year=2008 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |page=16 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110614233601/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |archivedate=14 June 2011 }}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=7}}<br />
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The site was founded to principally honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but also contains a number of other memorials. These include memorials dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]], and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission maintained cemeteries on site: [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/2103985/CANADIAN%20CEMETERY%20NO.2,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/68402/GIVENCHY%20ROAD%20CANADIAN%20CEMETERY,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast| accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref>[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park, and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=22 March 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20071113094920/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca:80/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |archivedate=13 November 2007 }}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project| url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/cbmr |accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007}}</ref><br />
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===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial (September 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|Left-front view showing an entire aspect of the Memorial|alt=The Vimy memorial from the front facing side. The memorial is very wide indicative of being a photo from after the restoration.]]<br />
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Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=12}} The memorial contains a large number of stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} There is a cannon barrel draped in laurel and olive branches carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize peace.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.{{sfn|Bolling|2003|p=310}} This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.{{sfn|Prost|1997|p=316}} The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada's sympathy for the weak and oppressed.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=156}}<br />
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The figure of a cloaked young female stands on top of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. The woman has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level of the former battlefield is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]], a sword and draped in laurel branches.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}}{{refn|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space, which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre, that fanned out from the monument's front wall for a distance of {{convert|270|ft|m}} while the battle damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=46}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name.]]<br />
The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform; one bears the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name=Valpy/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace'';{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=13}} ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}} The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} The figures of ''Hope'', ''Charity'', ''Honour'', and ''Faith'' are located below ''Justice'' and ''Peace'', on the eastern side, with ''Truth'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western side. Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain, and France and large crosses adorn the outside of each pylon.{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments and a dedicatory inscription to Canada's war dead, in both French and English, also appear on the monument. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base, between the two pylons.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'', by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}}<br />
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The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]], [[Italy]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France and whose final resting place is unknown.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format. Allward sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name=Valpy/> The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]], and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name=VCs>{{cite web| title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/medals-decorations/orders-decorations/canadian-victoria-cross-recipients |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada }}</ref><br />
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===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
{{Main|Moroccan Division (France)|Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the [[Moroccan Division (France)|Moroccan Division]], killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925, having been built without planning permission.<ref name=France24/><ref>{{Citation|title=Inauguration du monument à la Division marocaine élevé à la cote 140, plateau de Vimy, route de Neuville-Saint-Vaast à Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), le 14 juin 1925 |location= Paris |publisher=Berger-Levrault|trans-title=Inauguration of the Moroccan Division raised on hill 140, Vimy Ridge, Road Neuville-Saint-Vaast in Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), 14 June 1925|year=1926 |language=french}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tourism-lenslievin.co.uk/monument-aux-morts-de-la-division-marocaine/givenchy-en-gohelle/tabid/20656/offreid/47f2449b-2791-4864-8e41-7b4680260aa1/details.aspx |publisher=Lens-Liévin Tourist Information and Cultural Heritage Office |title=Monument aux morts de la division marocaine |trans-title=War memorial of the Moroccan division |date=n.d.}}</ref> Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the Memorial; Campaign battles are inscribed on the left and right hand side corner view of the memorial. The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only divisions where all subordinate units had been awarded the [[Legion of Honour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf |title=Forgotten Heroes North Africans and the Great War 1914–1919 |publisher=Forgotten Heroes 14–19 Foundation |page=10}}</ref><br />
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The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the [[Marching Division of Morocco]]. The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise, did not in fact contain any units originating from [[Morocco]].{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}} [[Moroccans]] were part of the [[Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion]] which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment with 2nd Marching Regiment of the 2nd Foreign Regiment, both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades. The division contained [[Tirailleur]]s and [[Zouave]]s, of principally [[Tunisia]]n and [[Algeria]]n origin and most notably [[French Foreign Legion|Legionnaires]] from the [[2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment]] and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment.{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<ref name=France24>{{cite web|title=Grande Guerre : la Division marocaine qui n'avait de marocaine que le nom | trans-title = Great War: the Moroccan Division is Moroccan in name only|first=Stéphanie |last=Trouillard |date=6 May 2015 |publisher=France 24 |language=french |url=http://www.france24.com/fr/20150509-premiere-guerre-mondiale-division-marocaine-vimy-crete-tirailleurs-algeriens-tunisiens-legions-etrangeres-artois}}</ref> The French Legionnaires came, as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial, from 52 different countries and included amongst them American, Polish, Russian, Italian, Greek, German, Czech, Swedish and Swiss volunteers, such as writer [[Blaise Cendrars]].{{sfn|Das|2011|p=316}}{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<br />
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In the battle, General [[Victor d'Urbal]], commander of the [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]], sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]].{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains.{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division did however suffer heavy casualties. Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division's brigade commanders, Colonels [[Gaston Cros]] and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legionetrangere.fr/index.php/archives/79-infos-fsale/489-histoire-la-bataille-de-l-artois-du-9-mai-au-22-juin-1915-avec-l-attaque-du-2e-regiment-de-marche-du-1er-etranger |title=HISTOIRE : La bataille de l'Artois du 9 mai au 22 juin 1915 avec l'attaque du 2e Régiment de marche du 1er Etranger |publisher=Fédération des Sociétés d' Anciens de la Légion étrangère |trans-title=HISTORY: The Battle of Artois from 9 May to 22 June 1915 with the attack of the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion |language=french |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
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===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways, and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely, and unseen.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=90}}<br />
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The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}}<br />
<br />
===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistic Corps]], and a leading British [[Bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Beaver |title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html |work=[[The Independent]] |date=14 August 1998 |accessdate=26 April 2009 |location=[[London]]}}</ref> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
<br />
===Visitors' centre===<br />
The site has a visitors' centre, staffed by Canadian student guides, which is open seven days a week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/overseas/first-world-war/france/vimy/vimy_contact |title=Visitor information |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |accessdate=10 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> During the memorial restoration, the original visitors' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one, which remains in use today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/news/salute/article/870 |title=New Visitor Education Centre For Vimy |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=25 November 2015 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The visitors' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines, close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway.{{sfn|Pedersen|2012|loc=Chapter 7}} Construction of a new {{CAD|5}} million visitors' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017, in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge Memorial in France to get visitor centre |url=http://globalnews.ca/news/560616/vimy-ridge-memorial-to-get-visitor-centre/ |publisher=Global News |date=14 May 2013 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Sociocultural influence==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial war recruitment poster.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The Vimy Momerial displayed in a Canadian [[World War II]] recruitment posters|alt=A white skeleton body holds alight a torch and the background the two white pillars of the Vimy memorial are displayed. the entire poster is displayed in white with a background of blue.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely published in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}} Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].{{sfn|Thomson|1995–1996|pp=5–27}} Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War, while expressing the enormous impact of war in general.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} Hucker also suggest that the most recent{{when|date=June 2016}} restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as a National Historic Site of Canada; it was so designated, one of only two outside of Canada, in 1997.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vimycerm | title=Canadian National Historic Site Designation |date=9 September 1999 |accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. Remembrance has also taken other forms: the [[Vimy Foundation]], having been established to preserve and promote Canada's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, and [[Vimy Ridge Day]], to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/about/mission/ | title=Mission |publisher=Vimy Foundation |accessdate=9 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen |last=Harris |newspaper=[[London Free Press]]| publisher=Sum Media Corp |title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets |date=13 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne |last=Arsenault |url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name=longstaff>{{cite web|url=https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes/ |title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate) |date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010 |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada, including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The 1936 'Vimy Ridge' Issue |issue=259 |date=March 2011 |first=Mick |last=Bister |publisher=Journal of the France and Colonies Philatelic Society}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory |title=Designing and Constructing |series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier |date= 5 May 2000 |accessdate=8 January 2010 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The [[Never Forgotten National Memorial]] was intended to be a {{convert|24|m|ft|adj=on}} statue inspired by the ''Canada Bereft'' statue on the memorial, before the project was cancelled in February 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parks Canada backs out of controversial 'Mother Canada' war memorial project in Cape Breton|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/parks-canada-backs-out-of-controversial-mother-canada-war-memorial-project-in-cape-breton|accessdate=8 February 2016|work=National Post|date=5 February 2016}}</ref> A 2001 Canadian [[historical novel]] ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'' by [[Jane Urquhart]] involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial. In 2007, the memorial was a short-listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Vimy Memorial, France |url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |date=n.d. }}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on a number of occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian military [[Military awards and decorations|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref>{{cite news |title=New military medal to honour combat casualties |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-military-medal-to-honour-combat-casualties-1.770264 |date=29 August 2008 |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent [[bas relief]] sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web| title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit |url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm |date=January 2004 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Embassy of France in Canada }}</ref> The memorial is featured on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the [[Frontier Series]] Canadian polymer [[Canadian twenty-dollar bill|$20]] banknote, which was released by the [[Bank of Canada]] on 7 November 2012.<ref>{{cite web| title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadians-see-twin-towers-pornography-in-20-bill-design-1.806190 |accessdate=6 May 2012 |publisher=CTV |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}<br />
* [[World War I memorials]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{Research help|Mil}}<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914–1918 |last1= Barton | first1=Peter |last2= Doyle |first2=Peter |last3=Vandewalle |first3=Johan |year= 2004 |publisher= McGill-Queen's University Press|location= Montreal & Kingston | isbn = 0-7735-2949-7|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| last1=Bell| first1=Lynne| last2=Bousfield |first2=Arthur |last3=Toffoli |first3=Gary| title=Queen and Consort:Elizabeth and Philip – 60 Years of Marriage| publisher=Dundurn Press| year=2007| location=Toronto| isbn=978-1-55002-725-9|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Boire |first = Michael| title = The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 15–24| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf| accessdate =2 January 2009 |format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Boire |first = Michael| year = 2007 | contribution = The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914–1916 | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =51–61 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Bolling |first = Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers|pages=295–318 | title= Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor1-last=Antor |editor1-first = Heinz | editor2-last = Brown | editor2-first = Sylvia | editor3-last = Considine | editor3-first = John | editor4-last = Stierstorfer | editor4-first = Klaus |year= 2003 |publisher= de Gruyter|location= Berlin | isbn = 978-3-11-017666-7|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Borestad |first = Lane |title=Walter Allward: Sculptor and Architect of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |pages=23–38 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Art or Memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art|last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 | publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Brown |first = Eric |last2=Cook |first2=Tim | title = The 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 33–54| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |last=Busch |first=Briton Cooper |year=2003| publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Campbell | first = David | year = 2007 | contribution = The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =171–192 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Cook | first = Tim | year = 2007 | contribution = The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike | title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =105–124 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title=Race, Empire and First World War Writing |first=Santanu |last=Das |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-50984-8 |year=2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| last=Doughty| first=Robert A.| title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War|year=2005| publisher=Belknap Press|publication-place =Cambridge and London|isbn=0-674-01880-X|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Duffy |first = Denis| title = Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward | journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–206| publisher = Routledge | date =2008 |doi = 10.1080/02722010809481708|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Durflinger |first = Serge| year = 2007 | contribution = Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War| editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =291–305 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first= Tony |year= 2003 |publisher= University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |accessdate =2 January 2009|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first= Don |year= 2007 |publisher= Helion & Company Limited |location= Solihull |isbn=978-1-874622-99-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Godefroy |first = Andrew| authorlink=Andrew Godefroy| year = 2007 | contribution = The German Army at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =225–238 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hayes |first = Geoffrey| year = 2007 | contribution = The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =193–210 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement|last= Hopkins|first= J. Castell|year= 1919|publisher= Canadian Annual Review|location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline|year = 2007 | contribution = The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =279–290 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline |title=Vimy: A Monument for the Modern World |pages=39–48 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last = Humphries|first = Mark Osborne| year = 2007| contribution = 'Old Wine in New Bottles': A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| publication-place = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =65–85| isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last= Inglis|first= Dave| title = Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years| year = 1995| publisher=Simon Fraser University| location=Burnaby|url =http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6687/b17448906.pdf| accessdate =22 May 2013|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first= David |year= 1998 |publisher= Berg Publishing |location= Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first= Duncan E. |year= 1967 |publisher= Peter Martin Associates |location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Moran |first = Heather| year = 2007 | contribution = The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =139–154 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last1=Morton | first1=Desmond | first2=Glenn | last2=Wright | title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915–1930 | publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1962 |publisher= Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location= Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf | format=PDF |accessdate =1 January 2007| ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= "We will remember&nbsp;...": Overseas Memorials to Canada's War Dead |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location= Ottawa|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Pierce |first = John| title = Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial| journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 4–14| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf| accessdate =2 February 2009|format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite book |title= ANZACS on the Western Front: The Australian War Memorial Battlefield Guide |last= Pedersen |first=Peter | year= 2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location= New YOrk|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Prost |first = Antoine| year = 1997 | contribution = Monuments to the Dead | editor-last = Nora | editor-first = Pierre | editor2-last = Kritzman | editor2-first = Lawrence | editor3-last = Goldhammer | editor3-first = Arthur | title = Realms of memory: the construction of the French past | publication-place = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | pages =307–332| isbn = 0-231-10634-3|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2007 |title="Not A Man Fell Out and the Party Marched Into Arras Singing": The Royal Guard and the Unveiling of the Vimy Memorial, 1936|journal=Canadian Military History |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–68 |ref=harv}}*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2008 |title=From Alberta to Avion: Private Herbert Peterson, 49th Battalion, CEF |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=67–74 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1= Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year= 2000 |publisher= Geological Society |location= London |isbn=0-85052-463-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996| publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Saunders |first = Nicholas| title =Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001| journal = Antiquity | volume = 76 | issue = 291 | pages = 101–108| publisher = Portland Press| year = 2002 |ref=Saunders}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914–1917|last= Sheldon| first= Jack|year= 2008|publisher= Pen & Sword Military|location= Barnsley (UK)| isbn = 978-1-84415-680-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917–1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Smith |first = Julian |title=Restoring Vimy: The Challenges of Confronting Emerging Modernism |pages=49–56 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal| first=Denise | last=Thomson |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918–1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995–1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia| editor-last = Tucker| editor-first = Spencer| year=1996| publisher= Garland Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0-8153-0399-8|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander| year=2005| publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5|ref=harv }}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997| publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{citation|chapter=Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians&nbsp;... From Africa to the Artois |first=Philippe |last=Vincent-Chaissac |publisher=L'Echo du Pas-de-Calais |title=They Came from Across the Globe |p=3 |chapter-url=http://memoire.pas-de-calais.com/images/_uk/pdf-nationalites/marocain.pdf |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General|last= Williams|first= Jeffery|year= 1983|publisher= Secker & Warburg|location= London| isbn = 0-436-57110-2|ref=harv}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/ Canadian National Vimy Memorial] – official website<br />
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation] – Canadian educational charity<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1936-vimy-ridge-memorial-unveiled Radio recording of King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony] from [[CBC Archives]]<br />
* [http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/87900/VIMY%20MEMORIAL Vimy Memorial] and casualty records at [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=cr&CRid=1119613 Vimy Memorial] and photographs at [[Find a Grave]]<br />
* [http://www.britishpathe.com/video/canadians-at-vimy-ridge Canadians at Vimy Ridge in 1940] from [[British Pathé]]<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
{{NHSC}}<br />
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}<br />
<br />
{{Good article}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]<br />
[[Category:World War I in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada in France]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]<br />
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170029087Canadian National Vimy Memorial2016-07-18T12:36:59Z<p>Carcharoth: /* External links */ fix link to CBC archives</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br /><small>Mémorial national du Canada à Vimy</small><br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br />[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = [[File:Vimy Memorial - Allward design submission.jpg|300px|alt=A black and white drawing of a white limestone memorial built on the top of a hill. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall.]]<br />
|caption = Walter Allward's memorial design submission<br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and missing, presumed dead, in France.<br />
|unveiled = 26 July 1936<br />By King [[Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50|22|46|N|02|46|25|E|scale:2500|display=title}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br />{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{refn|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, there are a number of individuals who are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.{{sfn|Reynolds|2008|pp=57–68}} Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|source={{cwgc cemetery|87900}}<br />
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{{Designation list |embed=yes |designation1=NHSC |designation1_offname=Vimy Ridge National Historic Site of Canada |designation1_date=1996 }}<br />
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}}<br />
The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a memorial site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|100|ha|acre|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the initial [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] offensive of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice. France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, [[Trench warfare|trenches]], craters, and unexploded munitions still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, a number of other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park.<br />
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The memorial took designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] 11 years to see built. King [[Edward VIII]] unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]] and more than 50,000 Canadian and French veterans and their families. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, Queen [[Elizabeth II]] re-dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The site is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]. This Vimy Memorial and the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] are the only two [[National Historic Sites of Canada]] outside of Canada.<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
<br />
===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}} The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|loc=pp. 396–397, Fig. 14.3}}<br />
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===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.{{sfn|Boire|2007|pp=52–53}} The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the Vimy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=68}} The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.{{sfn|Tucker|1996|p=8}}<br />
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The [[United Kingdom|British]] XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.{{sfn|Boire|1992|p=15}} On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|1800|m|yd|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{refn|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}}{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=149}}|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref>{{cite news |title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF |newspaper=[[New York Times]]|format=PDF |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=21 August 1916 |accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{refn|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.{{sfn|Samuels|1996|pp=200–202}} The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.{{sfn|Farr|2007|p=147}}<br />
<br />
===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=120}} The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=229}} Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=39}} The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} [[Karl von Fasbender|Karl Ritter von Fasbender]], was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=149}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines – Black, Red, Blue, and Brown|alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[Barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|91|m|yd}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<br />
{{sfn|Cook|2007|p=117}} The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]], and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=254}} The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Canadian Division captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=255}}{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=178–179}}{{sfn|Hayes|2007|p=200}} The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=202–203}} Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}}{{refn|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades.{{sfn|Sheldon|2008|p=309}}|group="Note"}}<br />
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On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=179}} The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|pp=179–181}} By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.{{sfn|Campbell|2007|p=182}} By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Godefroy|2007|p=220}} On 12 April, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.{{sfn|Nicholson|1962|p=263}} The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.{{sfn|Moran|2007|p=139}} The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties, and around 4,000 men became [[prisoners of war]].<ref name=Gibbs>{{cite news| first=Philip |last=Gibbs |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF |title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans |newspaper=New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |format=PDF |date=11 April 1917 |accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
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Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=1}}{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=233}} According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}} The idea that Canada's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Selection===<br />
{{see also|Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission}}<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites—five in France and three in Belgium—on which to erect memorials.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}}{{refn|The eight sites were Vimy, Bourlon Wood, Le Quesnel, Dury, and Courcelette in France and St. Julien, Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood), and Passchendaele in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web | title = Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/Memorials/can_battle_committee | accessdate =12 January 2008}}</ref>|group=Note}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=205}} In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors, and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/> The jury consisted of [[Charles Herbert Reilly]] representing the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]], [[Paul Philippe Cret]] representing the [[Société centrale des architectes français]] and [[Frank Darling (architect)|Frank Darling]] representing the [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]].{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref>{{cite web | title = Design Competition | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition | accessdate =22 May 2013}}</ref> The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} In October 1921, the commission formally selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] as the winner of the competition and that of Frederick Chapman Clemesha as runner-up.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}} The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor [[Percy Erskine Nobbs]], who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}} The consensus however went in Allward's favour with his design receiving both public and critical approval.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}{{refn|Critical approval included [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]] artist [[A. Y. Jackson]] providing a supporting position in a letter published by [[Canadian Forum]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=32}}|group="Note"}} The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials—those of Allward and Clemesha—and six smaller identical memorials.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=67}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|left|A design model of the memorial|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background.]]<br />
At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.{{sfn|Vance|1997|p=66}} The jury's assessment was that Allward's submission was best suited to a "low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge".{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} The commission committee initially took the position of placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]], near the location of the [[Battle of Mont Sorrel]], as the site provided an imposing view.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=283}} This however ran counter to the desires of the Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] who, while speaking in the [[House of Commons of Canada]] in May 1922, argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} King's position received unanimous support of the House and, in the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site.{{sfn|Vance|1997|pp=66–69}} The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward's design.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=61}} On 5 December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|100|ha|acre}} of land on Vimy Ridge, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name=DFAIT>{{cite web | title = Canada Treaty Information | publisher = Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade | date = 26 February 2002 | url = http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.aspx?id=102661 | accessdate =4 January 2008}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name=DFAIT/><br />
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===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.|Laying the foundation of the memorial]]<br />
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Following the competition, Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the Spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe.{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} After selling his home and studio, Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}} and spent a number of months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then [[Paris]], though Allward eventually set up a studio in [[London]], [[England]].{{sfn|Borestad|2008|p=33}}<br />
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Allward had initially hoped to use white marble for the memorial's facing stone,{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a "ghost like" appearance.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=42}} Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} He found it in the ruins of the [[Diocletian's Palace]] at [[Split, Croatia]]; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, which Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} His choice—Seget limestone—came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].{{sfn|Fabijančić|2003|p=127}} The difficulties with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927 and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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On Allward's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=285}}{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Faber had recently designed the substructure for the [[Menin Gate]] at Ypres and he selected a design that employed cast-in-place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=43}} Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}}{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web | title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge – Fast Facts | url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/battle | work=VAC Canada Remembers | publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada | date=n.d. | accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}}<br />
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While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and the Grange Subway more accessible.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument: limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of Seget limestone.<ref name=Picard>{{cite news | last=Picard | first=Andréa | title=Restoring Loss at Vimy |periodical =Canadian Architect | publication-date=May 2006 | url=http://www.canadianarchitect.com/news/restoring-loss-at-vimy/1000204056/ |publisher=Business Information Group |accessdate =1 August 2009|ref=harv}}</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 human figures on site from large blocks of stone. The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=206}} The carvers conducted their work year-round inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory | title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |date=12 August 1998|accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}{{refn|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}}|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=197}} The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}<br />
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===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[File:1936 Vimy pilgrimage passport.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Special passport issued by Canada for the 1936 Vimy pilgrimage|alt=A Passport with the Canadian coat of arms in the middle and text in both French and English identifying the book as a passport for the Vimy Pigrimage]]<br />
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In 1919, the year after the war ended, around 60,000 British tourists and mourners made pilgrimages to the Western Front.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The transatlantic voyage was however longer and more expensive from Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed, and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small, unofficial groups.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the [[Canadian Legion]] passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields. A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial, which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} Due to construction delays with the memorial, it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial. Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set, the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=40}} The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic—1200 inquiries by November 1934.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on [[Canada Day|Dominion Day]], 1 July 1936, even though the government still did not know when it would be completed.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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For event planning purposes the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible. The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial. The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage. For the Legion this included planning meals, accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=41}} The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers, and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3½-week trip, inclusive of all meals, accommodation, health insurance, and sea and land transportation would be {{CAD|160}} per person (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|CA|160|1935|r=2}}}} in present terms). Indirect assistance came in a number of forms. The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=197}} The government and a number of private sector firms also provided paid leave for their participating employees.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date, 26 July 1936.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}} On 16 July 1936, the five transatlantic liners, escorted by {{HMCS|Champlain|1919|6}} and {{HMCS|Saguenay|D79|6}}, departed the [[Port of Montreal]] with approximately 6,200 passengers and arrived in [[Le Havre]] on 24 and 25 July.{{refn|The ships were {{SS|Montrose|1922|6}}, {{SS|Montcalm}}, SS ''Antonia'', [[RMS Ascania (1923)|SS ''Ascania'']] and [[RMS Empress of France (1928)|SS ''Duchess of Bedford'']].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}|group="Note"}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}}{{sfn|Reynolds|2007|p=68}} The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=45}} <br />
{{rquote|right|''It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.''|King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/mould/vimy.aspx |accessdate=4 January 2010 |date=n.d. |publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>}}<br />
[[File:HM King Edward VIII unveiling the figure of Canada on the Vimy Ridge Memorial.jpg|thumb|left|King [[Edward VIII]] unveiling the figure ''Canada Bereft'' on the Vimy Ridge Memorial|alt=A figure standing on flag covered stage located in from of the statue of Canada Bereft.]]<br />
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On 26 July 1936, the day of the ceremony, pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument. For the ceremony, sailors from HMCS ''Saguenay'' provided the [[guard of honour]]. Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band, French army engineers, and French-Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the [[Second Battle of Artois]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the [[Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission]] over [[shortwave radio]], with facilities of the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] transmitting the ceremony to Canada.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President Albert Lebrun, and over 50,000 Canadian, British, and French veterans and their families attended the event.<ref name="Fast Facts"/> Absent, however, was Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=42}}<br />
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Before the ceremony began, King [[Edward VIII]], present in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|king of Canada]], inspected the guard of honour, was introduced to the honoured guests, and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} Two [[Royal Air Force]] and two [[French Air Force]] squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=46}} The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the [[Church of England]], the [[United Church of Canada]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} [[Ernest Lapointe]], [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Canadian Minister of Justice]], spoke first,{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}} followed by Edward VIII, who, in both French and English, thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The King then pulled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'' and the military band played the [[Last Post]].{{sfn|Morton|Wright|1987|p=221}}{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=47}}{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=139}} The ceremony was one of the King's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated the throne]].<ref name=Foot>{{Cite news| last=Foot| first=Richard| title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own| newspaper=The Vancouver Sun| publication-place=Vancouver | date=4 April 2007| page=A4}}</ref> The pilgrimage continued, and most participants toured [[Ypres]] before being taken to London to be hosted by the [[British Legion]].{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=51}} One-third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August, while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home.{{sfn|Brown|Cook|2011|p=52}}<br />
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===Second World War===<br />
[[File:Hitler touring Vimy Memorial in June 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|Hitler touring the Vimy Memorial in 1940|alt=A group of men dressed in Nazi German soldier, front and centre is Adolf Hitler. The twin pylons of the memorial are clearly displayed in the background.]]<br />
In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial. Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments. When war did break out, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=292}} In late May 1940, following the British retreat after the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to Allied forces.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=293}} The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=300}} The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=294}} The rumours led the German [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=297}} [[Adolf Hitler]], who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature, was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940 to demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Canadian Unknown Soldier |journal=After The Battle |issue=109 |publisher=Battle of Britain Intl. Ltd. |issn=0306-154X}}</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when the [[Welsh Guards]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.{{sfn|Durflinger|2007|p=298}}<br />
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===Post-war years===<br />
Immediately following the Second World War very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial, having been overshadowed by more contemporary events.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=76}} The ''[[Winnipeg Free Press]]'' and ''The Legionary'', the magazine of the Canadian Legion, were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=79}} The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice with only the ''[[Halifax Herald]]'' making any mention.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, paired with the [[Canadian Centennial]].{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=80}} A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of [[Canadian Confederation]] and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}} The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] and at least 5000 people<!-- were these 5000 Canadians? -->.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=92}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge 'sacrifice' forged unity PM declares |newspaper=Toronto Star |page=A3 |first=Patrick |last=Doyle |date=10 April 1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=107}} Subsequent smaller-scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://legionmagazine.com/en/1997/09/return-to-the-ridge/ |title=Return To The Ridge |date=1 September 1997 |magazine=Legion Magazine |first=Tom |last=MacGregor |publisher=Royal Canadian Legion}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ceremony marks 85th anniversary of Vimy Ridge battle |publisher=Canadian Press |date=7 April 2002}}</ref><br />
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===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
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By the end of the century, the large number of repairs undertaken since the memorial's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours, and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major $30&nbsp;million [[Canadian dollar]] restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name=Valpy>{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Valpy | title=Setting a legend in stone |url=http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070407.wvimymemorial0407/front/Front/Front/ |work=[[Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=22 May 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name=Valpy/><br />
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Time, wear, and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive being water damage.<ref name=Valpy/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} through its walls and platforms, dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name=Valpy/> As the water exited, it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces, obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=288}} Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform, terrace, and stairs.<ref name=Valpy/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs, and platforms.<ref name=Valpy/> In order to respect Allward's initial vision of a seamless structure, the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs, replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia, and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze-thaw activity.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=52}} Underlying structural flaws were also corrected.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=53}}<br />
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Queen [[Elizabeth II]], escorted by [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]], rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle.{{sfn|Bell|Bousfield|Toffoli|2007|p=140}} Other senior Canadian officials, including Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]], and senior French representatives, [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]] among them, attended the event, along with thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy.<ref name="CTV">{{Cite episode |title= |date=9 April 2007 |series=National News |series-link= |first=Tom |last=Kennedy |network=CTV Television Network}}</ref> The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV"/><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the trench lines of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=216}}{{sfn|Lloyd|1998|p=120}} The total area of the site is {{convert|100|ha|acre}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and unearthed unexploded munitions make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name=CWGC2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |title=Annual Report 2007–2008 |format=PDF |year=2008 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |page=16 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110614233601/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |archivedate=14 June 2011 }}</ref> Instead, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=7}}<br />
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The site was founded to principally honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but also contains a number of other memorials. These include memorials dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]], and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission maintained cemeteries on site: [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/2103985/CANADIAN%20CEMETERY%20NO.2,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/68402/GIVENCHY%20ROAD%20CANADIAN%20CEMETERY,%20NEUVILLE-ST.%20VAAST |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details – Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast| accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref>[[#Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101–108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park, and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=22 March 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20071113094920/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca:80/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |archivedate=13 November 2007 }}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project| url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/cbmr |accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007}}</ref><br />
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===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[File:Vimy Memorial (September 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|Left-front view showing an entire aspect of the Memorial|alt=The Vimy memorial from the front facing side. The memorial is very wide indicative of being a photo from after the restoration.]]<br />
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Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=12}} The memorial contains a large number of stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} There is a cannon barrel draped in laurel and olive branches carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize peace.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.{{sfn|Bolling|2003|p=310}} This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.{{sfn|Prost|1997|p=316}} The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.{{sfn|Pierce|1992|p=6}} In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada's sympathy for the weak and oppressed.{{sfn|MacIntyre|1967|p=156}}<br />
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The figure of a cloaked young female stands on top of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. The woman has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level of the former battlefield is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]], a sword and draped in laurel branches.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}} The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=282}}{{refn|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}}|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space, which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre, that fanned out from the monument's front wall for a distance of {{convert|270|ft|m}} while the battle damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched.{{sfn|Hucker|2008|p=46}}<br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name.]]<br />
The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform; one bears the [[maple leaf]] for Canada and the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries.{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=10}} At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name=Valpy/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace'';{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=13}} ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}} The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} The figures of ''Hope'', ''Charity'', ''Honour'', and ''Faith'' are located below ''Justice'' and ''Peace'', on the eastern side, with ''Truth'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western side. Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain, and France and large crosses adorn the outside of each pylon.{{sfn|Hopkins|1919|p=188}} The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments and a dedicatory inscription to Canada's war dead, in both French and English, also appear on the monument. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base, between the two pylons.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.{{sfn|Duffy|2008|p=194}} In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'', by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.{{sfn|Nicholson|1973|p=33}}<br />
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The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]], [[Italy]].{{sfn|Brandon|2006|p=12}} Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France and whose final resting place is unknown.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=286}} Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format. Allward sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name=Valpy/> The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]], and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name=VCs>{{cite web| title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/medals-decorations/orders-decorations/canadian-victoria-cross-recipients |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada }}</ref><br />
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===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
{{Main|Moroccan Division (France)|Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion}}<br />
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[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the [[Moroccan Division (France)|Moroccan Division]], killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925, having been built without planning permission.<ref name=France24/><ref>{{Citation|title=Inauguration du monument à la Division marocaine élevé à la cote 140, plateau de Vimy, route de Neuville-Saint-Vaast à Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), le 14 juin 1925 |location= Paris |publisher=Berger-Levrault|trans-title=Inauguration of the Moroccan Division raised on hill 140, Vimy Ridge, Road Neuville-Saint-Vaast in Givenchy-en-Gohelle (Pas de Calais), 14 June 1925|year=1926 |language=french}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tourism-lenslievin.co.uk/monument-aux-morts-de-la-division-marocaine/givenchy-en-gohelle/tabid/20656/offreid/47f2449b-2791-4864-8e41-7b4680260aa1/details.aspx |publisher=Lens-Liévin Tourist Information and Cultural Heritage Office |title=Monument aux morts de la division marocaine |trans-title=War memorial of the Moroccan division |date=n.d.}}</ref> Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the Memorial; Campaign battles are inscribed on the left and right hand side corner view of the memorial. The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only divisions where all subordinate units had been awarded the [[Legion of Honour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forgottenheroes.eu/EN_LR.pdf |title=Forgotten Heroes North Africans and the Great War 1914–1919 |publisher=Forgotten Heroes 14–19 Foundation |page=10}}</ref><br />
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The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the [[Marching Division of Morocco]]. The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise, did not in fact contain any units originating from [[Morocco]].{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}} [[Moroccans]] were part of the [[Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion]] which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment with 2nd Marching Regiment of the 2nd Foreign Regiment, both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades. The division contained [[Tirailleur]]s and [[Zouave]]s, of principally [[Tunisia]]n and [[Algeria]]n origin and most notably [[French Foreign Legion|Legionnaires]] from the [[2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment]] and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment.{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<ref name=France24>{{cite web|title=Grande Guerre : la Division marocaine qui n'avait de marocaine que le nom | trans-title = Great War: the Moroccan Division is Moroccan in name only|first=Stéphanie |last=Trouillard |date=6 May 2015 |publisher=France 24 |language=french |url=http://www.france24.com/fr/20150509-premiere-guerre-mondiale-division-marocaine-vimy-crete-tirailleurs-algeriens-tunisiens-legions-etrangeres-artois}}</ref> The French Legionnaires came, as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial, from 52 different countries and included amongst them American, Polish, Russian, Italian, Greek, German, Czech, Swedish and Swiss volunteers, such as writer [[Blaise Cendrars]].{{sfn|Das|2011|p=316}}{{sfn|Vincent-Chaissac|p=33}}<br />
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In the battle, General [[Victor d'Urbal]], commander of the [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]], sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]].{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains.{{sfn|Simkins|Jukes|Hickey|2002|p=48}} The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.{{sfn|Boire|2007|p=56}} Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=159}} The division did however suffer heavy casualties. Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division's brigade commanders, Colonels [[Gaston Cros]] and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legionetrangere.fr/index.php/archives/79-infos-fsale/489-histoire-la-bataille-de-l-artois-du-9-mai-au-22-juin-1915-avec-l-attaque-du-2e-regiment-de-marche-du-1er-etranger |title=HISTOIRE : La bataille de l'Artois du 9 mai au 22 juin 1915 avec l'attaque du 2e Régiment de marche du 1er Etranger |publisher=Fédération des Sociétés d' Anciens de la Légion étrangère |trans-title=HISTORY: The Battle of Artois from 9 May to 22 June 1915 with the attack of the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion |language=french |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
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===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways, and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely, and unseen.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.{{sfn|Turner|2005|p=90}}<br />
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The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavated 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}} The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.{{sfn|Rose|Nathanail|2000|p=398}} This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.{{sfn|Barton|Doyle|Vandewalle|2004|p=200}}<br />
<br />
===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistic Corps]], and a leading British [[Bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Beaver |title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html |work=[[The Independent]] |date=14 August 1998 |accessdate=26 April 2009 |location=[[London]]}}</ref> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosives located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
<br />
===Visitors' centre===<br />
The site has a visitors' centre, staffed by Canadian student guides, which is open seven days a week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/memorials/overseas/first-world-war/france/vimy/vimy_contact |title=Visitor information |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |accessdate=10 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> During the memorial restoration, the original visitors' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one, which remains in use today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/news/salute/article/870 |title=New Visitor Education Centre For Vimy |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=25 November 2015 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref> The visitors' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines, close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway.{{sfn|Pedersen|2012|loc=Chapter 7}} Construction of a new {{CAD|5}} million visitors' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017, in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vimy Ridge Memorial in France to get visitor centre |url=http://globalnews.ca/news/560616/vimy-ridge-memorial-to-get-visitor-centre/ |publisher=Global News |date=14 May 2013 |accessdate=10 February 2016}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Sociocultural influence==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial war recruitment poster.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The Vimy Momerial displayed in a Canadian [[World War II]] recruitment posters|alt=A white skeleton body holds alight a torch and the background the two white pillars of the Vimy memorial are displayed. the entire poster is displayed in white with a background of blue.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely published in military and general histories of Canada.{{sfn|Inglis|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Humphries|2007|p=66}} Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].{{sfn|Thomson|1995–1996|pp=5–27}} Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War, while expressing the enormous impact of war in general.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} Hucker also suggest that the most recent{{when|date=June 2016}} restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.{{sfn|Hucker|2007|p=280}} The [[Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada]] recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as a National Historic Site of Canada; it was so designated, one of only two outside of Canada, in 1997.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vimycerm | title=Canadian National Historic Site Designation |date=9 September 1999 |accessdate=22 May 2013 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The other is the [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]], also in France. Remembrance has also taken other forms: the [[Vimy Foundation]], having been established to preserve and promote Canada's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, and [[Vimy Ridge Day]], to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/about/mission/ | title=Mission |publisher=Vimy Foundation |accessdate=9 February 2016 |date=n.d.}}</ref> Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen |last=Harris |newspaper=[[London Free Press]]| publisher=Sum Media Corp |title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets |date=13 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne |last=Arsenault |url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects. In 1931, [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, though the memorial was still several years away from completion.<ref name=longstaff>{{cite web|url=https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes/ |title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate) |date=n.d.|accessdate=11 January 2010 |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada, including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The 1936 'Vimy Ridge' Issue |issue=259 |date=March 2011 |first=Mick |last=Bister |publisher=Journal of the France and Colonies Philatelic Society}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/vmemory |title=Designing and Constructing |series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier |date= 5 May 2000 |accessdate=8 January 2010 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The [[Never Forgotten National Memorial]] was intended to be a {{convert|24|m|ft|adj=on}} statue inspired by the ''Canada Bereft'' statue on the memorial, before the project was cancelled in February 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parks Canada backs out of controversial 'Mother Canada' war memorial project in Cape Breton|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/parks-canada-backs-out-of-controversial-mother-canada-war-memorial-project-in-cape-breton|accessdate=8 February 2016|work=National Post|date=5 February 2016}}</ref> A 2001 Canadian [[historical novel]] ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'' by [[Jane Urquhart]] involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial. In 2007, the memorial was a short-listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Vimy Memorial, France |url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |date=n.d. }}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on a number of occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian military [[Military awards and decorations|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref>{{cite news |title=New military medal to honour combat casualties |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-military-medal-to-honour-combat-casualties-1.770264 |date=29 August 2008 |accessdate=7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent [[bas relief]] sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the [[Embassy of France in Canada]] to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web| title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit |url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm |date=January 2004 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Embassy of France in Canada }}</ref> The memorial is featured on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the [[Frontier Series]] Canadian polymer [[Canadian twenty-dollar bill|$20]] banknote, which was released by the [[Bank of Canada]] on 7 November 2012.<ref>{{cite web| title=Twenty Dollar Bill|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadians-see-twin-towers-pornography-in-20-bill-design-1.806190 |accessdate=6 May 2012 |publisher=CTV |date=n.d.}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Canadian Armed Forces}}<br />
* [[World War I memorials]]<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{Research help|Mil}}<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914–1918 |last1= Barton | first1=Peter |last2= Doyle |first2=Peter |last3=Vandewalle |first3=Johan |year= 2004 |publisher= McGill-Queen's University Press|location= Montreal & Kingston | isbn = 0-7735-2949-7|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| last1=Bell| first1=Lynne| last2=Bousfield |first2=Arthur |last3=Toffoli |first3=Gary| title=Queen and Consort:Elizabeth and Philip – 60 Years of Marriage| publisher=Dundurn Press| year=2007| location=Toronto| isbn=978-1-55002-725-9|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Boire |first = Michael| title = The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 15–24| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf| accessdate =2 January 2009 |format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Boire |first = Michael| year = 2007 | contribution = The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914–1916 | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =51–61 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Bolling |first = Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers|pages=295–318 | title= Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor1-last=Antor |editor1-first = Heinz | editor2-last = Brown | editor2-first = Sylvia | editor3-last = Considine | editor3-first = John | editor4-last = Stierstorfer | editor4-first = Klaus |year= 2003 |publisher= de Gruyter|location= Berlin | isbn = 978-3-11-017666-7|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Borestad |first = Lane |title=Walter Allward: Sculptor and Architect of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |pages=23–38 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Art or Memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art|last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 | publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1-55238-178-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Brown |first = Eric |last2=Cook |first2=Tim | title = The 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 33–54| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers |last=Busch |first=Briton Cooper |year=2003| publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0-7735-2570-X|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Campbell | first = David | year = 2007 | contribution = The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =171–192 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last = Cook | first = Tim | year = 2007 | contribution = The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike | title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =105–124 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title=Race, Empire and First World War Writing |first=Santanu |last=Das |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-50984-8 |year=2011 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| last=Doughty| first=Robert A.| title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War|year=2005| publisher=Belknap Press|publication-place =Cambridge and London|isbn=0-674-01880-X|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Duffy |first = Denis| title = Complexity and contradiction in Canadian public sculpture: the case of Walter Allward | journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–206| publisher = Routledge | date =2008 |doi = 10.1080/02722010809481708|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Durflinger |first = Serge| year = 2007 | contribution = Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War| editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =291–305 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first= Tony |year= 2003 |publisher= University of Alberta |isbn=0-88864-397-7 |accessdate =2 January 2009|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first= Don |year= 2007 |publisher= Helion & Company Limited |location= Solihull |isbn=978-1-874622-99-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Godefroy |first = Andrew| authorlink=Andrew Godefroy| year = 2007 | contribution = The German Army at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =225–238 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hayes |first = Geoffrey| year = 2007 | contribution = The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =193–210 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement|last= Hopkins|first= J. Castell|year= 1919|publisher= Canadian Annual Review|location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline|year = 2007 | contribution = The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =279–290 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline |title=Vimy: A Monument for the Modern World |pages=39–48 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last = Humphries|first = Mark Osborne| year = 2007| contribution = 'Old Wine in New Bottles': A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| publication-place = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =65–85| isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|last= Inglis|first= Dave| title = Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years| year = 1995| publisher=Simon Fraser University| location=Burnaby|url =http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6687/b17448906.pdf| accessdate =22 May 2013|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 |last=Lloyd |first= David |year= 1998 |publisher= Berg Publishing |location= Oxford |isbn=1-85973-174-0|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first= Duncan E. |year= 1967 |publisher= Peter Martin Associates |location= Toronto|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Moran |first = Heather| year = 2007 | contribution = The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =139–154 | isbn = 0-88920-508-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book | last1=Morton | first1=Desmond | first2=Glenn | last2=Wright | title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915–1930 | publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1962 |publisher= Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location= Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf | format=PDF |accessdate =1 January 2007| ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title= "We will remember&nbsp;...": Overseas Memorials to Canada's War Dead |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location= Ottawa|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Pierce |first = John| title = Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial| journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 4–14| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf| accessdate =2 February 2009|format=PDF|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite book |title= ANZACS on the Western Front: The Australian War Memorial Battlefield Guide |last= Pedersen |first=Peter | year= 2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location= New YOrk|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last = Prost |first = Antoine| year = 1997 | contribution = Monuments to the Dead | editor-last = Nora | editor-first = Pierre | editor2-last = Kritzman | editor2-first = Lawrence | editor3-last = Goldhammer | editor3-first = Arthur | title = Realms of memory: the construction of the French past | publication-place = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | pages =307–332| isbn = 0-231-10634-3|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2007 |title="Not A Man Fell Out and the Party Marched Into Arras Singing": The Royal Guard and the Unveiling of the Vimy Memorial, 1936|journal=Canadian Military History |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=57–68 |ref=harv}}*{{cite journal |last=Reynolds |first=Ken |year=2008 |title=From Alberta to Avion: Private Herbert Peterson, 49th Battalion, CEF |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=67–74 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1= Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year= 2000 |publisher= Geological Society |location= London |isbn=0-85052-463-6|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996| publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0-7146-4570-2|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Saunders |first = Nicholas| title =Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914–2001| journal = Antiquity | volume = 76 | issue = 291 | pages = 101–108| publisher = Portland Press| year = 2002 |ref=Saunders}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914–1917|last= Sheldon| first= Jack|year= 2008|publisher= Pen & Sword Military|location= Barnsley (UK)| isbn = 978-1-84415-680-1|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917–1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-348-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last = Smith |first = Julian |title=Restoring Vimy: The Challenges of Confronting Emerging Modernism |pages=49–56 |journal = Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | publisher = Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada | date = 2008 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal| first=Denise | last=Thomson |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918–1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995–1996 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=5–27|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia| editor-last = Tucker| editor-first = Spencer| year=1996| publisher= Garland Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0-8153-0399-8|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander| year=2005| publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1-84176-871-5|ref=harv }}<br />
* {{cite book| title= Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997| publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0-7748-0600-1|ref=harv}}<br />
*{{citation|chapter=Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians&nbsp;... From Africa to the Artois |first=Philippe |last=Vincent-Chaissac |publisher=L'Echo du Pas-de-Calais |title=They Came from Across the Globe |p=3 |chapter-url=http://memoire.pas-de-calais.com/images/_uk/pdf-nationalites/marocain.pdf |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book|title= Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General|last= Williams|first= Jeffery|year= 1983|publisher= Secker & Warburg|location= London| isbn = 0-436-57110-2|ref=harv}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* [http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/memorials/france/vimy/ Canadian National Vimy Memorial] – official website<br />
* [http://www.vimyfoundation.ca/ The Vimy Foundation]<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1936-vimy-ridge-memorial-unveiled CBC Archives: King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony]<br />
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=cr&CRid=1119613 Vimy Memorial] at [[Find a Grave]]<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
{{NHSC}}<br />
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}<br />
<br />
{{Good article}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials in France]]<br />
[[Category:World War I in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada in France]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]<br />
[[Category:Canada in World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Walter Seymour Allward]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Gregory_(Chemiker)&diff=143431098William Gregory (Chemiker)2013-08-16T21:35:52Z<p>Carcharoth: fix URL to Doyle article</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox scientist<br />
|name = William Gregory (chemist)<br />
|image =William Gregory (1803-1858).jpg<br />
|image_size =220px<br />
|caption = <br />
|birth_date = 25 December 1803<br />
|birth_place = <br />
|death_date = 24 April 1858<br />
|death_place = <br />
|residence = |citizenship = <br />
|nationality = Scottish<br />
|ethnicity = <br />
|field = chemistry<br />
|work_institutions = <br />
|alma_mater = <br />
|doctoral_advisor = <br />
|doctoral_students = <br />
|known_for = [[mesmerism]]<br/>[[phrenology]]<br />
|author_abbrev_bot =|author_abbrev_zoo = <br />
|influences = <br />
|influenced = <br />
|prizes = <br />
|religion = |footnotes = |signature =<br />
}}'''William Gregory''' (25 December 1803 – 24 April 1858) was a Scottish [[physician]] and [[chemist]]. He studied under and translated some of the works of [[Justus von Liebig|Liebig]], the German chemist. Gregory also had interests in [[mesmerism]] and [[phrenology]].<ref>{{cite journal |last = Kaufman | first = Matthew H. |year = 2008 | month = August |title = William Gregory (1803–58): Professor of Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh and enthusiast for phrenology and mesmerism | journal = [[Journal of Medical Biography]] |volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 128–33 | location = [[England]] | issn = 0967-7720 | pmid = 18653829 | doi = 10.1258/jmb.2007.007009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Life==<br />
He was the fourth son of [[James Gregory (physician)|James Gregory]], and was born at [[Edinburgh]]. After a medical education he graduated at Edinburgh in 1828, and moved into chemistry. In 1831 he introduced a process for making the "muriate of morphia", which came into general use.<ref name=DNB>{{cite DNB|wstitle=Gregory, William (1803–1858)}}</ref> "Gregory's salt" in terms of modern chemistry was a mixture of [[morphine hydrochloride]] and [[codeine hydrochloride]], obtained from [[opium]] by use of [[calcium chloride]].<ref>[http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1950-01-01_3_page004.html André Barbier, ''The Extraction of Opium Alkaloids'' (1950).]</ref><br />
<br />
After studying for some time on the continent he established himself as an extra-academical lecturer on chemistry at Edinburgh. He lectured on chemistry at the [[Andersonian University]], Glasgow, and then at the [[Dublin Medical School]], and in 1839 was appointed professor of medicine and chemistry in [[King's College, Aberdeen]]. In 1844 he was elected to the chair of chemistry at Edinburgh in succession to his old teacher [[Thomas Charles Hope]]. He was a successful expository lecturer, but in his later years suffered much from a disabling disease.<ref name=DNB/><br />
<br />
Gregory was interested in [[animal magnetism]] and mesmerism. He died on 24 April 1858, leaving a widow and one son.<ref name=DNB/><br />
<br />
==Works==<br />
Gregory was a pupil of Justus Liebig at [[Giessen]], and translated and edited several of his works. His own chemical works gave prominence to [[organic chemistry]]. A list of forty chemical papers by him was given in the [[Royal Society]]'s ''Catalogue of Scientific Papers''. Restricted to a sedentary life, he wrote a number of papers on [[diatom]]s. His books were:<ref name=DNB/><br />
<br />
* ''Outlines of Chemistry'', 1845; 2nd edition, 1847; divided subsequently into two volumes, ''The Handbook of Inorganic'' and ''Organic Chemistry'' respectively, 1853; the latter was issued in Germany, edited by Theodor Gerding, Brunswick, 1854. <br />
* ''Letters to a Candid Inquirer on Animal Magnetism'', 1851.<br />
<br />
Besides editing English editions of Liebig's ''Animal Chemistry'', ''Chemistry in its Applications to Agriculture and Physiology'', ''Familiar Letters on Chemistry'', ''Instructions for Chemical Analysis of Organic Bodies'', ''Agricultural Chemistry'', ''Chemistry of Food'', and ''Researches on the Motion of the Juices in the Animal Body'', Gregory translated and edited [[Karl Reichenbach]]'s ''Researches on Magnetism, Electricity, Heat, &c., in their relation to Vital Force'', 1850. He also, with Liebig, edited [[Edward Turner (chemist)|Edward Turner]]'s ''Elements of Chemistry''.<ref name=DNB/><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
* {{cite journal | title = Account of the Life and Labours of Dr William Gregory | author = Dr. Alison | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh | year = 1858–1859 | volume = 4 | issue = 49 | pages = 121–122 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=ryfavu8Z0FsC&pg=RA1-PA121&dq=william+gregory+Edinburgh}}<br />
* {{cite web | title = William Gregory (1803–1858) | author = Doyle, W. P. | url = http://www.chem.ed.ac.uk/about/professors/gregory.html | accessdate = 2008-09-27}}<br />
* {{cite journal | author = MacKenzie, John E. | title = The Chair of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh in the XVIIIth and XIXth Centuries | journal = Journal of Chemical Education | year = 1035 | volume = 12 | issue = 11 | pages = 503–511 | doi = 10.1021/ed012p503 }}<br />
* {{cite book | author = [[Agnes Grainger Stewart|Stewart, Agnes Grainger]] | title = The Academic Gregories | year = 1901 | publisher = [[Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier]] | location = Edinburgh | pages = 141–147 | url = http://www.archive.org/details/academicgregorie00stewrich}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
<br />
* {{cite web | title = Scientific Identity: Portraits from the Dibner Library of the History of Science and Technology, 2003 | url = http://www.sil.si.edu/imagegalaxy/imagegalaxy_imageDetail.cfm?id_image=1116 | accessdate = 2008-09-27 }}<br />
<br />
;Attribution<br />
{{DNB|wstitle=Gregory, William (1803–1858)}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control|VIAF=60498038}}<br />
{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. --><br />
| NAME = Gregory, William<br />
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =<br />
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =<br />
| DATE OF BIRTH = 25 December 1803<br />
| PLACE OF BIRTH =<br />
| DATE OF DEATH = 24 April 1858<br />
| PLACE OF DEATH =<br />
}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gregory, William}}<br />
[[Category:1803 births]]<br />
[[Category:1858 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Scottish chemists]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh]]<br />
[[Category:19th-century Scottish medical doctors]]<br />
[[Category:Scottish translators]]<br />
[[Category:German–English translators]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{UK-chemist-stub}}<br />
{{UK-translator-stub}}</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_C._Young&diff=237818258Leo C. Young2012-12-14T02:39:34Z<p>Carcharoth: direct link to Stuart Ballantine Medal</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Leo C. Young''' (12 January 1891-16 January 1981) was an American radio engineer who had many accomplishments during a long career at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. Although self-educated, he was a member of a small, creative team that is generally credited with developing the world's first true radar system. <br />
<br />
==Background and Career==<br />
Leo Crawford Young grew up on a farm near [[Van Wert, Ohio]]. Although his formal education stopped with high-school, he was self-educated in early radio technology. He built his first [[crystal radio]] when he was 14 years old. To receive stations, he learned the [[Morse Code]], and soon built his own [[spark-gap transmitter]], joining the ranks of [[amateur radio]] enthusiasts in the pre-license days. (Young was later issued the call sign W3WV). After high school, he used his ability with Morse code to gain employment as a railroad [[telegrapher]]. In 1913, he joined the Naval Communications Reserves and set up the central control station for the Navy-Amateur Network.<ref>Geny, Doug; "Pioneer Radar Developer is Former Van Werter", by ''Times Bulletin'', Van Wert, Ohio, September 24, 1964</ref><br />
<br />
The Navy Reserve was activated at the start of World War I in 1917. Young was assigned to the District Communications Office at [[Great Lakes, Illinois]], where [[Albert Hoyt Taylor]] was the Director. Taylor was also an amateur radio operator (call sign 9YN), and he and Young began a personal and professional relationship that existed for the rest of their lives. In 1918, Taylor was sent to the former [[Marconi Company|Marconi]] Communications Station in [[Belmar, New Jersey]], to head the Navy's Trans-Atlantic Communications System, and then went to the Navy's Aircraft Radio Laboratory (ARL) at [[Anacostia, Washington, D.C.]]; Taylor arranged for Young to follow him in both of these assignments. In 1919, both Young and Taylor returned to civilian life, but stayed as employees at the ARL<br />
<br />
In 1922, Taylor and Young were making measurements with a transmitter located at the ARL and a receiver on the opposite shore of the [[Potomac River]]. A wavering in the strength of the received signal was noted as a wooded ship crossed the signal path. Taylor reported this to higher authorities as a potential method of detecting ships intruding into a formation, but no further tests were authorized. <br />
<br />
One of Young's projects of the ARL was in developing [[amplitude modulation]] for transmitters, allowing [[Sound|audio]] communications as an alternate to Morse code. To test the equipment, he began "[[broadcasting]]" music and short news items using call letters NSF. By 1922, this expanded to broadcasts from Congress, including an address by President [[Warren G. Harding]]. Requests for "air time" began to interfere with the Young's research work, and in early 1923, the broadcasting operation was transferred to Radio Virginia, the Naval Radio Service in Arlington, Virginia. <br />
<br />
The [[Naval Research Laboratory]] (NRL) was opened in July 1923, at [[Bellevue, Washington, D.C.|Bellevue]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], close by Anacosia. This absorbed a number of existing Naval research operations, including the ARL. Taylor was named Superintendent of the Radio Division with Young as his assistant. Over the next decade, Young had a major role in most of the early radio developments of the NRL, including their round-the-world [[high-frequency]] experiment in 1925, communicating 10,000 miles between Radio Virginia and a U.S. Navy ship in Australia.<br />
<br />
[[Gregory Breit]] and [[Merle A. Tuve]] at the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] were studying the characteristics of the [[ionosphere]] (then called the [[Kennelly-Heaviside layer]]) using a transmitter built at the NRL. In attempting to determine the distance to the layer, they asked Young if he could design an appropriate modulation technique. Young suggested using pulse modulation, with the height possibly determined from the lapsed time between transmitted and received pulses. Young built the modulator, and in 1925 Breit and Tuve used this to determine that the height varied between 55 and 130 miles.<ref>Breit, G, and M.A. Tuve; "The Height of the Ionized Layer," ''Physical Review'', Vol. 28 (1926), p. 554</ref> <br />
<br />
In 1930, [[Lawrence A. Hyland]], another member of Taylor's team dating back to Great Lakes, was testing an antenna and observed interference from a passing aircraft. Reminded of the 1922 observation of a similar nature, Taylor and Young submitted a report titled "Radio-Echo Signals from Moving Objects," and again suggested that this might be used for detection purpose. The report slowly made its way through the bureaucracy in Washington, and in early 1932 was forwarded to the Army's [[Signal Corps Laboratories]] where it fell on "deaf ears." <br />
<br />
Taylor convinced the NRL Director to allow an internally funded low-level project on interference-based detection. Lack of success by early 1934, however, led Young to suggest trying a pulsed transmitter, similar to the one built earlier for Breit and Tuve; this would not only provide a higher peak power but the timing between the transmitted and received pulse could be used to determine the distance to the target.<br />
<br />
[[Robert Morris Page]] was assigned by Taylor to construct an experimental apparatus to test this concept. Page used a pulsed transmitter to drive an existing antenna atop the main NRL building. A receiver, modified to pass pulsed signals, had its antenna mounted some distance away from the transmitter. Both the transmitted and received signals were displayed on a commercial [[oscilloscope]].<br />
<br />
In December 1934, this system successfully detected an aircraft at distances up to one mile as it flew up and down the Potomac River. Although the displayed signal was almost indistinct and the range was small, this was a proof of the basic concept. Based on this, Page, Taylor, and Young are usually credited with building and demonstrating the world's first true [[radar]]. (Radar is a name coming from an [[acronym]] for RAdio Detection And Ranging. A number of earlier devices, dating back to 1904, had been developed for detecting remote objects, but none of these measured the distance (range) to the target; thus, they were not radar systems.)<ref>Buderi, Robert; ''The Invention That Changed the World'', Simon & Schuster, p. 65, 1996</ref><br />
<br />
With this success, in 1935 funds were officially provided for further research and development of the system. The early proof-of-concept equipment operated at 60 [[MHz]] and required an antenna impractically large for shipboard use. For the follow-on system, the frequency was raised to 200&nbsp;MHz, the limit for transmitter tubes and other components at that time. This allowed the antenna to be greatly reduced in size (antenna size is [[inversely proportional]] to the operating frequency). <br />
<br />
Young and Page developed another very important component, the [[duplexer]]. This device allowed a common antenna to be used for both transmitting and receiving. With other improvements, a full prototype system was first tested at sea in April 1937. Initially designated the XAF, the system was improved and tested, then placed into production as the [[CXAM radar]], the first such system deployed by the U.S. Navy starting in May 1940. (The acronym RADAR was coined by the Navy at that time as a cover for the highly [[classified information|classified]] work in this new technology.) <br />
<br />
Young continued to work at the NRL as a research engineer until his retirement in 1961. Mr. Young died on January 16, 1981, in [[Forestville, Maryland]].<ref>"Leo Young, Retired Scientist, Helped Develop Early Radar", ''The Washington Post'', January 24, 1981</ref><br />
<br />
==Recognitions==<br />
<br />
Leo C. Young's many honors associated with the Naval Research Laboratory included<br />
*The Presidential Certificate of Merit from President [[Harry S. Truman]] in 1946, and<br />
*The Navy Department's Distinguished Civilian Service Award in 1958. <br />
<br />
In recognition of Young's contributions to the field of radio, he received<br />
*The [[Stuart Ballantine Medal]] of the Franklin Institute in 1957, and <br />
*A 50-year gold certificate from the Quarter-Century Wireless Association in 1966.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
===Notes===<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
===General===<br />
*Brown, Louis; ''A Radar History of World War II'', Institute of Physics Publishing, 1999<br />
*Page, Robert Morris; ''The Origin of Radar'', Doubleday & Company, 1962<br />
*Watson, Raymond C., Jr.; ''Radar Origins Worldwide'', Trafford Publishing, 2009<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.nrl.navy.mil/NewsRoom/images/horizon.pdf#search=%22%22Search%20Radar%22%20%22robert%20guthrie%22%20%22naval%20research%22%22 Naval Research Laboratory] Seventy-Five Years of High Stakes Science and Technology<br />
<br />
{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. --><br />
| NAME = Young, Leo C.<br />
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =<br />
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American radio pioneer<br />
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1891<br />
| PLACE OF BIRTH =<br />
| DATE OF DEATH = 1981<br />
| PLACE OF DEATH =<br />
}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Young, Leo C.}}<br />
[[Category:Radio pioneers]]<br />
[[Category:Radar pioneers]]<br />
[[Category:Amateur radio people]]<br />
[[Category:1891 births]]<br />
[[Category:1981 deaths]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georg_Andreas_B%C3%B6ckler&diff=105383783Georg Andreas Böckler2012-07-09T23:09:52Z<p>Carcharoth: um 1617</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Georg Andreas Böckler''' (* um [[1617]] in [[Cronheim]]; † [[21. Februar]] [[1687]] in [[Ansbach]]) war ein deutscher [[Architekt]], Erfinder und Autor. Die Lebenszeit von Böckler ist nicht durch Urkunden abgesichert, datiert wird sie in der Forschung um 1644 bis 1698. Dies ist vermutlich auf die Jahre der Veröffentlichung seiner Bücher zurückzuführen. Das Letzte erschien 1698 nach seinem Tod durch [[Andrea Palladio]].<br />
<br />
== Leben ==<br />
Über Böcklers Person ist nur wenig bekannt. Sein Vater war [[Protestantismus|evangelischer]] [[Pfarrer]], ein Bruder Professor in [[Straßburg]]. <br />
1756 war er Baumeister am Hofe [[Eberhard III. (Württemberg, Herzog)|Eberhards III.]] als Nachfolger von Heinrich Kretzmeier.<ref>Horst Ossenberg,'' Was bleibt, das schaffen die Baumeister:das württembergische Hof- und Staats-Bauwesen vom 15. bis 20. Jahrhundert', S. 40-41 </ref><br />
Er sollte vor allem die im Dreißigjährigen Krieg zerstörten Festungen wieder instand setzen. 1673 fertigte er die Pläne für das [[Mühlburg_(Karlsruhe)|Schloss Mühlburg]], das schon 1689 durch französische Truppen wieder zerstört wurde. Ab 1679 war er zudem Baumeister der Markgrafen von [[Brandenburg-Ansbach]].<br />
<br />
== Werk ==<br />
Von den Bauten Böcklers ist nichts erhalten. Seine Bedeutung für die Nachwelt liegt in den zahlreichen Büchern, die er hinterlassen hat:<br />
<br />
* „Compendium architecturae civilis“, 1648, [http://books.google.de/books?id=BIA_AAAAcAAJ Digitalisat]<br />
:mit diesem Werk wollte er an das Wissen vor dem [[dreißigjähriger Krieg|Krieg]] anknüpfen, in der Kenntnis, dass in dieser Zeit nicht nur viele Menschen und Bauten vernichtet worden war, sondern auch viel Fachwissen verloren ging.* Kunstbüchlein handelt von der Radier- und Etzkunst, 1652 [http://books.google.de/books?id=C1aXPQAACAAJ Digitalisat]<br />
* Handbüchlein über die Fortification u. Vestungsbaukunst, 1659<br />
[[Datei:Fotothek df tg 0002878 Geometrie ^ Vermessung ^ Höhe ^ Turm.jpg|thumb|Beispiel zur Berechnung einer Turmhöhe, aus Arithmetica nova militaris von 1661]]<br />
* Arithmetica nova militaris, 1661.<br />
:Ein Mathematikbuch für Militärs.<br />
* Theatrum Machinarum Novum, 1661 Nürnberg [http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?mode=imagepath&url=/mpiwg/online/permanent/library/KYZ02P4T/pageimg&viewMode=images Digitalisat]<br />
:Das Buch über er die ''mechanischen Künste'' wurde in zahlreichen Auflagen gedruckt: 1661, 1662, 1673, 1703 etc.<br />
* „Architectura curiosa d. i. … Bau- und Wasserkunst“, Nürnberg 1664 [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/boeckler1666bd1 Digitalisat], hierzu folgte noch 1704 ein zweite Auflage<br />
* Darinnen nach dem Leben abgezeichnet und abgebildet zu ersehen seynd 36. schöner Grotten, Palacien, Lusthäuser und Lustgärten [http://books.google.de/books?id=rYngGwAACAAJ Digitalisat]<br />
* Schola militaris moderna, 1665 [http://books.google.de/books?id=WeqIg3GV1esC Digitalisat]<br />
* Furnologia, oder, Haushältliche Oefen-Kunst. 1666, [http://books.google.de/books?id=acETHQAACAAJ Digitalisat]<br />
* Geometriae practicae novae libri, 1667, [http://books.google.de/books?id=8IM_AAAAcAAJ Digitalisat]<br />
* Nützliche Hauß- und Feldschule, 1678 [http://books.google.de/books?id=zBpAAAAAcAAJ Digitalisat], : ein Handbuch für Ökonomen, ein ungewöhnlich umfassendes Werk, das sich nicht nur mit der Anlage eines [[Meierhof]]es beschäftigt, sondern auch die Kochkunst und das Herstellen von Arzneimitteln abhandelt. <br />
* Neues Und zuvor nie also eingerichtetes vollkommenes Seulen-Buch, 1684, [http://books.google.de/books?id=4P-DPgAACAAJ Digitalisat]<br />
<!-- Aus der Literatur ist unklar ob es eine Neuauflage von ''Schola militaris moderna'' ist oder ein echte Bearbeitung mir neuen Inhalten--> <br />
* Neu vermehrte Kriegsschule, 1685, ein Handbuch für den Kriegsmann.<br />
: Das Buch handelt von den Kriegsämtern, Proviant, Sold, Munition, Armatur, Artillerie, Exerzieren, Kriegsrecht, Kommando, Taktik, Lager- und Festungsbau, Friedensschluß, Allianzen usw.<br />
* Ars heraldica, 1688. [http://books.google.de/books?id=crVAAAAAcAAJ Digitalisat]<br />
* Die Baumeisterin Pallas: oder, Der in Teutschland erstandene Palladius (1698 Andrea Palladio, Georg Andreas Böckler)<br />
<br />
== Literatur ==<br />
* {{ADB|2|787|788|Böckler, Georg Andreas|[[Rochus von Liliencron]]|ADB:Böckler, Georg Andreas}} <br />
* Johann Rudolf Fuessli,Hans Heinrich Füssli, ''Allgemeines Künstlerlexikon'', S. 89, [http://books.google.de/books?id=iDEuAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA89 Digitalisat]<br />
* Bernd Vollmar: Die deutsche Palladio-Ausgabe des Georg Andreas Böckler, Nürnberg 1698. Ein Beitrag zur Architekturtheorie des 17. Jahrhunderts, Ansbach 1983.<br />
<br />
== Weblinks ==<br />
* [http://www.gunzenhausen.de/geschichte/bergun1.html Kurzbiographie]<br />
* [http://www.manako.de/geschichte/entstehung_17_19.htm Mühlburg]<br />
* [http://www.furnologia.de/furnologia/a_hauptseiten/furnologia_begriff.htm furnologia]<br />
<br />
{{commonscat}}<br />
== Einzelnachweise ==<br />
<references/><br />
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{{Normdaten|PND=118660535|LCCN=n/86/26966|VIAF=95968387}}<br />
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{{SORTIERUNG:Bockler, Georg Andreas}}<br />
[[Kategorie:Baumeister]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Deutscher Architekt]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Sachliteratur]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1617]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1687]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Mann]]<br />
<br />
{{Personendaten<br />
|NAME=Böckler, Georg Andreas<br />
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=<br />
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=deutscher Architekt, Erfinder und Autor<br />
|GEBURTSDATUM=1617<br />
|GEBURTSORT=[[Cronheim]]<br />
|STERBEDATUM=21. Februar 1687<br />
|STERBEORT=[[Ansbach]]<br />
}}<br />
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[[en:Georg Andreas Böckler]]<br />
[[hu:Georg Andreas Böckler]]<br />
[[ja:ゲオルク・ベックラー]]<br />
[[ru:Бёклер, Георг Андреас]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diskussion:Georg_Andreas_B%C3%B6ckler&diff=105204798Diskussion:Georg Andreas Böckler2012-07-05T06:41:08Z<p>Carcharoth: Neuer Abschnitt /* Birth and death years */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Birth and death years ==<br />
<br />
Would any editors here be able to help answer the questions I have asked about the birth and death years at the English Wikipedia article [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Georg_Andreas_B%C3%B6ckler#Birth_and_death_years]? <small>Google translation: Geburts-und Todesjahr: Würden alle Redakteure hier in der Lage sein zu helfen, die Fragen beantworten, die ich über die Geburt und Tod Jahren an der englischen Wikipedia-Artikel hier haben gefragt.</small> Danke! [[Benutzer:Carcharoth|Carcharoth]] ([[Benutzer Diskussion:Carcharoth|Diskussion]]) 08:41, 5. Jul. 2012 (CEST)</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mordfall_Hammersmith-Geist&diff=123164085Mordfall Hammersmith-Geist2011-12-28T19:59:44Z<p>Carcharoth: added Category:Crime in London using HotCat</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Hammersmith Ghost.PNG|thumb|right|Engraving of the Hammersmith Ghost in ''Kirby's Wonderful and Scientific Museum'', a magazine published in 1804<ref name=Kirby>{{citation | title=Kirby's Wonderful and Scientific Museum | chapter=The Hammersmith Ghosts | pages=65–79 | year=1804 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ggMhkDz-33EC&pg=PA65 | author=R.S. Kirby}}</ref>]]<br />
The '''Hammersmith Ghost murder case''' of 1804 set a legal precedent in the [[UK]] regarding self-defence: whether someone could be held liable for their actions even if they were the consequence of a mistaken belief.<br />
<br />
Near the end of 1803, a number of people claimed to have seen and even been attacked by a ghost in the [[Hammersmith]] area of London, a ghost believed by locals to be the spirit of a suicide victim. On 3&nbsp;January 1804, a member of one of the armed patrols set up in the wake of the reports shot and killed a [[plasterer]], Thomas Millwood, mistaking the white clothes of Millwood's trade for a ghostly apparition. The culprit, a 29-year-old excise officer named Francis Smith, was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death, commuted to one year's hard labour.<br />
<br />
The issues surrounding the case were not settled for 180 years, until a [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales|Court of Appeal]] decision in 1984.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3364467.stm |title=UK &#124; England &#124; London &#124; The case of the murdered ghost |publisher=BBC News |date=2004-01-03 |accessdate=2011-10-31}}</ref><ref>{{citation | title=Outlines of Criminal Law | author=Courtney Stanhope Kenny | page=103 | year=1911 | publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref><ref>{{citation | title=The practice of courts-martial, and other military courts | author=William Hough | quote=The Judge said it must be either ''murder, or of acquittal''. If the jury believed the facts, there was no extenuation that could be admitted; for supposing that the unfortunate man was the individual really meant (''ghost''), and had been shot, the prisoner would have been guilty of murder. | pages=340–341 | year=1834}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Death of Thomas Millwood==<br />
In late 1803 a number of people claimed to have seen, and some to have been attacked by, a ghost in the [[Hammersmith]] area.<ref name="BBC"></ref> Local people said the ghost was of a man who had committed suicide the previous year, and had been buried in Hammersmith churchyard. The contemporary belief was that suicide victims should not be buried in [[consecrated ground]], as their [[soul]]s would not then be at rest.<ref>{{citation | title=Religion, death, and dying, Volume 3| page=110 | year=2009 | url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IvS11snZnQ0C&pg=RA1-PA110&lpg=RA1-PA110 | author=Lucy Bregman}}</ref> On 3&nbsp;January 1804 one of the armed citizens patrolling the area, 29-year-old [[excise]] officer Francis Smith, shot and killed a white figure in Black Lion Lane, [[plasterer]] Thomas Millwood, who was wearing the normal white clothing of his trade: "linen {{sic|trow|sers}} entirely white, washed very clean, a waistcoat of flannel, apparently new, very white, and an apron, which he wore round him".<ref>{{citation |url=http://blogs.forteana.org/node/71 |title=Ghosts, witches, vampires, fairies and the law of murder |author=Mike Dash |publisher=Charles Fort Institute |date=March 24, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Trial of Francis Smith==<br />
Smith was tried for [[willful murder]]. One witness, a Mrs Fulbrooke, stated that she had warned the deceased to cover his white clothing with a [[greatcoat]], as he had already been mistaken for the ghost on a previous occasion.<br />
{{quote|text=On Saturday evening, he and I were at home, for he lived with me; he said he had frightened two ladies and a gentleman who were coming along the terrace in a carriage, for that the man said, he dared to say there goes the ghost; that he said he was no more a ghost than he was, and asked him, using a bad word, did he want a punch of the head; I begged of him to change his dress; Thomas, says I, as there is a piece of work about the ghost, and your {{sic|clo|aths|nolink=y}} look white, pray do put on your great coat, that you may not run any danger;|sign=Mrs Fulbrooke's testimony at the Old Bailey trial<ref name="OB">{{citation |url=http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/browse.jsp?id=t18040111-79&div=t18040111-79 |title=The Proceedings of the Old Bailey |chapter=Francis Smith, Killing |date=11&nbsp;January 1804}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
Millwood's sister testified that although Smith had called on her brother to stop or he would shoot, Smith discharged the gun almost immediately. Despite a number of declarations of Smith's good character, the chief judge, Lord Chief Baron Macdonald, advised the jury that ''[[malice prepense|malice]]'' was not required of murder, merely an intent to kill:<br />
<br />
{{quote|text=I should betray my duty, and injure the public security, if I did not persist in asserting that this is a clear case of murder, if the facts be proved to your satisfaction. All killing whatever amounts to murder, unless justified by the law, or in self-defence. In cases of some involuntary acts, or some sufficiently violent provocation, it becomes manslaughter. Not one of these circumstances occur here.|sign=Lord Chief Baron Macdonald<ref>{{cite book|last=Medland, Weobly (eds.)|title=A collection of remarkable and interesting criminal trials, actions at law, and other legal decisions|year=1804|publisher=John Badcock|location=London|pages=213|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=c5YuAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The accused had not been directly provoked, nor made any attempt to apprehend the supposed ghost, therefore Macdonald directed the jury to find the accused guilty of murder if they believed the facts presented by the witnesses. After considering for an hour, the jury returned a verdict of [[manslaughter]]. Macdonald informed the jury that "the Court could not receive such a verdict", and that they must either find Smith guilty of murder, or acquit him: that Smith believed Millwood to be a ghost was irrelevant. The jury then returned with a verdict of guilty. After passing the customary sentence of death,<ref name=Kirby/> Macdonald stated his intent to report the case to [[George III of the United Kingdom|the king]], who had the power to commute the sentence. <br />
<br />
The initial sentence of [[hanging]] and [[dissection]] was commuted to a year's hard labour.<ref name="BBC"></ref> The huge publicity given to the case had meanwhile persuaded the true culprit to come forward&mdash;John Graham, an elderly shoemaker. He had been pretending to be a ghost by using a white sheet to frighten his [[apprentice]], who had been scaring the Graham children with ghost stories.<ref name=pbog>{{citation | title=The Penguin Book of Ghosts | author=Jennifer Westwood, Jacqueline Simpson | year=2008 | chapter=Hammersmith}}</ref><ref name=LL>{{citation | title=London Lore | author=Steve Roud | chapter=Hammersmith | year=2010}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Effect on UK law==<br />
The question of whether acting on a mistaken belief was a sufficient defence to a criminal charge was debated for more than a century until it was clarified at the Court of Appeal in the case [[R v Williams (Gladstone)|''R. v Williams (Gladstone) (1984)'']], concerning an appeal heard in November 1983. The [[appellant]], Gladstone Williams, had seen a man dragging a younger man violently along the street whilst the latter shouted for help. Mistakenly believing that an assault was taking place, he intervened and subsequently injured the purported assailant, who was actually a police officer attempting to arrest a suspected thief. Williams was subsequently convicted of [[assault occasioning actual bodily harm]]. At the appeal, [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales|Lord Chief Justice]] [[Geoffrey Lane, Baron Lane|Lane]] referred to the previous debate;<br />
{{quote|text=(the case) raised issues of law which have been the subject of debate for more years than one likes to think about and the subject of more learned academic articles than one would care to read in an evening.|sign=Lord Chief Justice Lane<ref name="COA">{{cite journal|last=Court of Appeal, Criminal Division|title=R. v Gladstone Williams|year=1984|publisher=England and Wales Court of Appeal (Criminal Division)|url=http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Crim/1983/4.html|accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref>}}<br />
Lane went on to clarify the problematic issue;<br />
{{quote|text=In a case of self-defence, where self-defence or the prevention of crime is concerned, if the jury came to the conclusion that the defendant believed, or may have believed, that he was being attacked or that a crime was being committed, and that force was necessary to protect himself or to prevent the crime, then the prosecution have not proved their case. If however the defendant's alleged belief was mistaken and if the mistake was an unreasonable one, that may be a peaceful reason for coming to the conclusion that the belief was not honestly held and should be rejected. Even if the jury come to the conclusion that the mistake was an unreasonable one, if the defendant may genuinely have been labouring under it, he is entitled to rely upon it.|sign=Lord Chief Justice Lane<ref name="COA"></ref>}}<br />
The appeal was allowed, and the conviction quashed. The decision was approved by the Privy Council in ''Beckford v The Queen (1988)'' and was later written into law in the [[Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008]], Section 76.<ref>{{cite web|last=Baskin|first=Eric|title=Law relating to Self Defence|url=http://www.bsdgb.co.uk/index.php?Information:Law_Relating_to_Self_Defence|publisher=British Self Defence Governing Body|accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Cock Lane ghost]]<br />
* [[Reportedly haunted locations in the United Kingdom|Haunted places in the UK]]<br />
* [[London Monster]]<br />
* [[Spring-heeled Jack]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|colwidth=33em}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.real-british-ghosts.com/hammersmith-ghost.html The Strange Case of the Hammersmith Ghost]<br />
* [http://www.indyrs.co.uk/?p=181 The Hammersmith Ghost]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ghosts]]<br />
[[Category:English legendary characters]]<br />
[[Category:Urban legends]]<br />
[[Category:History of London]]<br />
[[Category:Crime in London]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mordfall_Hammersmith-Geist&diff=123164084Mordfall Hammersmith-Geist2011-12-28T19:55:53Z<p>Carcharoth: added Category:History of London using HotCat</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Hammersmith Ghost.PNG|thumb|right|Engraving of the Hammersmith Ghost in ''Kirby's Wonderful and Scientific Museum'', a magazine published in 1804<ref name=Kirby>{{citation | title=Kirby's Wonderful and Scientific Museum | chapter=The Hammersmith Ghosts | pages=65–79 | year=1804 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ggMhkDz-33EC&pg=PA65 | author=R.S. Kirby}}</ref>]]<br />
The '''Hammersmith Ghost murder case''' of 1804 set a legal precedent in the [[UK]] regarding self-defence: whether someone could be held liable for their actions even if they were the consequence of a mistaken belief.<br />
<br />
Near the end of 1803, a number of people claimed to have seen and even been attacked by a ghost in the [[Hammersmith]] area of London, a ghost believed by locals to be the spirit of a suicide victim. On 3&nbsp;January 1804, a member of one of the armed patrols set up in the wake of the reports shot and killed a [[plasterer]], Thomas Millwood, mistaking the white clothes of Millwood's trade for a ghostly apparition. The culprit, a 29-year-old excise officer named Francis Smith, was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death, commuted to one year's hard labour.<br />
<br />
The issues surrounding the case were not settled for 180 years, until a [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales|Court of Appeal]] decision in 1984.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3364467.stm |title=UK &#124; England &#124; London &#124; The case of the murdered ghost |publisher=BBC News |date=2004-01-03 |accessdate=2011-10-31}}</ref><ref>{{citation | title=Outlines of Criminal Law | author=Courtney Stanhope Kenny | page=103 | year=1911 | publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref><ref>{{citation | title=The practice of courts-martial, and other military courts | author=William Hough | quote=The Judge said it must be either ''murder, or of acquittal''. If the jury believed the facts, there was no extenuation that could be admitted; for supposing that the unfortunate man was the individual really meant (''ghost''), and had been shot, the prisoner would have been guilty of murder. | pages=340–341 | year=1834}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Death of Thomas Millwood==<br />
In late 1803 a number of people claimed to have seen, and some to have been attacked by, a ghost in the [[Hammersmith]] area.<ref name="BBC"></ref> Local people said the ghost was of a man who had committed suicide the previous year, and had been buried in Hammersmith churchyard. The contemporary belief was that suicide victims should not be buried in [[consecrated ground]], as their [[soul]]s would not then be at rest.<ref>{{citation | title=Religion, death, and dying, Volume 3| page=110 | year=2009 | url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IvS11snZnQ0C&pg=RA1-PA110&lpg=RA1-PA110 | author=Lucy Bregman}}</ref> On 3&nbsp;January 1804 one of the armed citizens patrolling the area, 29-year-old [[excise]] officer Francis Smith, shot and killed a white figure in Black Lion Lane, [[plasterer]] Thomas Millwood, who was wearing the normal white clothing of his trade: "linen {{sic|trow|sers}} entirely white, washed very clean, a waistcoat of flannel, apparently new, very white, and an apron, which he wore round him".<ref>{{citation |url=http://blogs.forteana.org/node/71 |title=Ghosts, witches, vampires, fairies and the law of murder |author=Mike Dash |publisher=Charles Fort Institute |date=March 24, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Trial of Francis Smith==<br />
Smith was tried for [[willful murder]]. One witness, a Mrs Fulbrooke, stated that she had warned the deceased to cover his white clothing with a [[greatcoat]], as he had already been mistaken for the ghost on a previous occasion.<br />
{{quote|text=On Saturday evening, he and I were at home, for he lived with me; he said he had frightened two ladies and a gentleman who were coming along the terrace in a carriage, for that the man said, he dared to say there goes the ghost; that he said he was no more a ghost than he was, and asked him, using a bad word, did he want a punch of the head; I begged of him to change his dress; Thomas, says I, as there is a piece of work about the ghost, and your {{sic|clo|aths|nolink=y}} look white, pray do put on your great coat, that you may not run any danger;|sign=Mrs Fulbrooke's testimony at the Old Bailey trial<ref name="OB">{{citation |url=http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/browse.jsp?id=t18040111-79&div=t18040111-79 |title=The Proceedings of the Old Bailey |chapter=Francis Smith, Killing |date=11&nbsp;January 1804}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
Millwood's sister testified that although Smith had called on her brother to stop or he would shoot, Smith discharged the gun almost immediately. Despite a number of declarations of Smith's good character, the chief judge, Lord Chief Baron Macdonald, advised the jury that ''[[malice prepense|malice]]'' was not required of murder, merely an intent to kill:<br />
<br />
{{quote|text=I should betray my duty, and injure the public security, if I did not persist in asserting that this is a clear case of murder, if the facts be proved to your satisfaction. All killing whatever amounts to murder, unless justified by the law, or in self-defence. In cases of some involuntary acts, or some sufficiently violent provocation, it becomes manslaughter. Not one of these circumstances occur here.|sign=Lord Chief Baron Macdonald<ref>{{cite book|last=Medland, Weobly (eds.)|title=A collection of remarkable and interesting criminal trials, actions at law, and other legal decisions|year=1804|publisher=John Badcock|location=London|pages=213|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=c5YuAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The accused had not been directly provoked, nor made any attempt to apprehend the supposed ghost, therefore Macdonald directed the jury to find the accused guilty of murder if they believed the facts presented by the witnesses. After considering for an hour, the jury returned a verdict of [[manslaughter]]. Macdonald informed the jury that "the Court could not receive such a verdict", and that they must either find Smith guilty of murder, or acquit him: that Smith believed Millwood to be a ghost was irrelevant. The jury then returned with a verdict of guilty. After passing the customary sentence of death,<ref name=Kirby/> Macdonald stated his intent to report the case to [[George III of the United Kingdom|the king]], who had the power to commute the sentence. <br />
<br />
The initial sentence of [[hanging]] and [[dissection]] was commuted to a year's hard labour.<ref name="BBC"></ref> The huge publicity given to the case had meanwhile persuaded the true culprit to come forward&mdash;John Graham, an elderly shoemaker. He had been pretending to be a ghost by using a white sheet to frighten his [[apprentice]], who had been scaring the Graham children with ghost stories.<ref name=pbog>{{citation | title=The Penguin Book of Ghosts | author=Jennifer Westwood, Jacqueline Simpson | year=2008 | chapter=Hammersmith}}</ref><ref name=LL>{{citation | title=London Lore | author=Steve Roud | chapter=Hammersmith | year=2010}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Effect on UK law==<br />
The question of whether acting on a mistaken belief was a sufficient defence to a criminal charge was debated for more than a century until it was clarified at the Court of Appeal in the case [[R v Williams (Gladstone)|''R. v Williams (Gladstone) (1984)'']], concerning an appeal heard in November 1983. The [[appellant]], Gladstone Williams, had seen a man dragging a younger man violently along the street whilst the latter shouted for help. Mistakenly believing that an assault was taking place, he intervened and subsequently injured the purported assailant, who was actually a police officer attempting to arrest a suspected thief. Williams was subsequently convicted of [[assault occasioning actual bodily harm]]. At the appeal, [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales|Lord Chief Justice]] [[Geoffrey Lane, Baron Lane|Lane]] referred to the previous debate;<br />
{{quote|text=(the case) raised issues of law which have been the subject of debate for more years than one likes to think about and the subject of more learned academic articles than one would care to read in an evening.|sign=Lord Chief Justice Lane<ref name="COA">{{cite journal|last=Court of Appeal, Criminal Division|title=R. v Gladstone Williams|year=1984|publisher=England and Wales Court of Appeal (Criminal Division)|url=http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Crim/1983/4.html|accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref>}}<br />
Lane went on to clarify the problematic issue;<br />
{{quote|text=In a case of self-defence, where self-defence or the prevention of crime is concerned, if the jury came to the conclusion that the defendant believed, or may have believed, that he was being attacked or that a crime was being committed, and that force was necessary to protect himself or to prevent the crime, then the prosecution have not proved their case. If however the defendant's alleged belief was mistaken and if the mistake was an unreasonable one, that may be a peaceful reason for coming to the conclusion that the belief was not honestly held and should be rejected. Even if the jury come to the conclusion that the mistake was an unreasonable one, if the defendant may genuinely have been labouring under it, he is entitled to rely upon it.|sign=Lord Chief Justice Lane<ref name="COA"></ref>}}<br />
The appeal was allowed, and the conviction quashed. The decision was approved by the Privy Council in ''Beckford v The Queen (1988)'' and was later written into law in the [[Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008]], Section 76.<ref>{{cite web|last=Baskin|first=Eric|title=Law relating to Self Defence|url=http://www.bsdgb.co.uk/index.php?Information:Law_Relating_to_Self_Defence|publisher=British Self Defence Governing Body|accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Cock Lane ghost]]<br />
* [[Reportedly haunted locations in the United Kingdom|Haunted places in the UK]]<br />
* [[London Monster]]<br />
* [[Spring-heeled Jack]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|colwidth=33em}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.real-british-ghosts.com/hammersmith-ghost.html The Strange Case of the Hammersmith Ghost]<br />
* [http://www.indyrs.co.uk/?p=181 The Hammersmith Ghost]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ghosts]]<br />
[[Category:English legendary characters]]<br />
[[Category:Urban legends]]<br />
[[Category:History of London]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariel_Fernandez&diff=157518231Ariel Fernandez2011-02-13T21:55:22Z<p>Carcharoth: fix wikilinking failure</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Scientist<br />
|name = Ariel Fernandez<br />
| image = <br />
| image_size = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
|box_width =<br />
|birth_date = April 8, 1957<br />
|residence = <br />
|citizenship = Argentina, USA<br />
|nationality = <br />
|ethnicity = <br />
|field = [[biophysics]], [[molecular targeted therapy]]<br />
|work_institutions = [[Rice University]], [[University of Chicago]], [[Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry]]<br />
|alma_mater = [[Yale University]]<br />
|doctoral_advisor = [[Oktay Sinanoglu]]<br />
|awards = [[Camille and Henry Dreyfus Distinguished New Faculty]], [[Camille and Henry Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar]], [[Humboldt Awardee]], [[Guggenheim Fellow]], [[Feinberg Fellow]], [[State of Buenos Aires Medal]], [[Eli Lilly Awardee]], [[Honorary Member of Collegium Basilea (Switzerland)]]<br />
|doctoral_students = [[Gustavo Appignanesi]], [[Xi Zhang]], [[Jianping Chen]]<br />
|known_for = [[dehydron]] theory, [[center manifold theory]] for [[nonequilibrium thermodynamics]]<br />
|signature =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Ariel Fernandez''' is an Argentinian-American physical chemist, currently holding the Karl F. Hasselmann Professorship of Bioengineering at [[Rice University]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cs.uchicago.edu/people/ariel/ |title=Ariel Fernandez |publisher=[[Rice University]] |accessdate=22 October 2010 }}</ref> He was born in [[Bahía Blanca]], [[Argentina]] in 1957. Formally trained as a mathematician, he earned a Ph. D. in chemical physics from [[Yale University]] in 1984 and pursued his research endeavors in [[Goettingen]] under the tutelage of Nobel laureate [[Manfred Eigen]]. His widely acclaimed research spans various areas of [[algebra]] (representation theory), [[physical chemistry]], [[molecular biophysics]], [[dehydron]] physics and more recently, [[molecular evolution]] and [[drug discovery]]. In the latter field he pioneered the so-called wrapping technology and outlined this therapeutic paradigm in his book [http://www.amazon.com/Transformative-Concepts-Drug-Design-Wrapping/dp/3642117910/ "Transformative Concepts for Drug Design: Target Wrapping"].<ref>Fernandez, Ariel. ''Transformative Concepts for Drug Design: Target Wrapping''. (ISBN: 978-3642117916), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2010.</ref> Target wrapping introduces a new binding mode and a selectivity filter to broaden the universe of molecular prototypes while tightening the drug-discovery funnel by generating compounds capable of withstanding long-term attrition.<br />
<br />
<br />
Ariel Fernandez's wrapping technology enables selectivity control in molecular targeted therapy and hinges on a pivotal concept: the [[dehydron]]. A dehydron is a structural singularity in a [[protein]] target, consisting of an intramolecular [[hydrogen bond]] incompletely shielded from [[water|water attack]], thereby endowed with a propensity to promote its own [[dehydration]]. The dehydron pattern of a target protein is not conserved across other proteins with common ancestry, hence this pattern constitutes a selectivity filter for drug design. Thus, Ariel Fernandez pioneered the exploitation of evolutionary insights to enhance the safety and efficacy of molecular targeted therapy.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. --><br />
| NAME = Fernandez, Ariel <br />
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =<br />
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = <br />
| DATE OF BIRTH =<br />
| PLACE OF BIRTH = <br />
| DATE OF DEATH =<br />
| PLACE OF DEATH =<br />
}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fernandez, Ariel }}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://arielfernandez.rice.edu/ Ariel Fernandez Lab]<br />
* [http://afinnovation.com/ Ariel Fernandez Innovation]<br />
<br />
[[Category: living people]]<br />
[[Category: 1957 births]]<br />
[[Category: Argentine educators]]<br />
[[Category: Yale University alumni]]<br />
[[Category: Argentine researchers]]<br />
[[Category: biophysicists]]<br />
[[Category: Argentine scientists]]<br />
[[Category: Argentine expatriates in the United States]]<br />
[[Category: people from Bahía Blanca]]<br />
[[Category: Argentine chemists]]<br />
[[Category: Yale graduates]]<br />
[[Category: translational medicine experts]]<br />
[[Category: physical chemists]]<br />
[[Category: pharmaceutical consultants]]<br />
[[Category: theoretical chemists]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Gold,_Baron_Gold&diff=109784854David Gold, Baron Gold2011-02-07T01:22:47Z<p>Carcharoth: add reference for Herbert Smith information (last edit for now)</p>
<hr />
<div>'''David Laurence Gold, Baron Gold''' (born 1 March 1951)<ref name="Debretts">[http://www.debretts.com/people/biographies/browse/g/11965/David%20Laurence+GOLD.aspx The Lord Gold], Debretts People of Today, online edition, accessed 07/02/2011</ref> is a senior litigation partner at [[Herbert Smith LLP]], an international law firm headquartered in London.<ref name="Herbert Smith">[http://www.herbertsmith.com/People/DavidGold.htm David Gold], Herbert Smith website, accessed 07/02/2011</ref><br />
<br />
Gold was appointed a [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] peer in 2010.<ref>[http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/latest-news/2010/11/peerages-honours-and-appointments-2-57256 Latest Peerages announced], number10.gov.uk (Official site of the Prime Minister's Office), published Friday 19 November 2010, accessed 07/02/2011</ref> He will sit in the [[House of Lords]] as '''Baron Gold''', of [[Westcliff-on-Sea]] in the County of [[Essex]].<ref name="Debretts"/><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.herbertsmith.com/People/DavidGold.htm David Gold] (Herbert Smith)<br />
*[http://www.thelawyer.com/focus-david-gold-as-good-as-gold/1002175.article Focus: David Gold: As good as Gold] (''[[The Lawyer]]'', 05 October 2009)<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gold, David}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Conservative Party (UK) life peers]]<br />
[[Category:English solicitors]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of the London School of Economics]]<br />
[[Category:1951 births]]<br />
[[Category:English Jews]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Gold,_Baron_Gold&diff=109784853David Gold, Baron Gold2011-02-07T01:21:31Z<p>Carcharoth: rephrase</p>
<hr />
<div>'''David Laurence Gold, Baron Gold''' (born 1 March 1951)<ref name="Debretts">[http://www.debretts.com/people/biographies/browse/g/11965/David%20Laurence+GOLD.aspx The Lord Gold], Debretts People of Today, online edition, accessed 07/02/2011</ref> is a senior litigation partner at [[Herbert Smith LLP]], an international law firm headquartered in London. <br />
<br />
Gold was appointed a [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] peer in 2010.<ref>[http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/latest-news/2010/11/peerages-honours-and-appointments-2-57256 Latest Peerages announced], number10.gov.uk (Official site of the Prime Minister's Office), published Friday 19 November 2010, accessed 07/02/2011</ref> He will sit in the [[House of Lords]] as '''Baron Gold''', of [[Westcliff-on-Sea]] in the County of [[Essex]].<ref name="Debretts"/><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.herbertsmith.com/People/DavidGold.htm David Gold] (Herbert Smith)<br />
*[http://www.thelawyer.com/focus-david-gold-as-good-as-gold/1002175.article Focus: David Gold: As good as Gold] (''[[The Lawyer]]'', 05 October 2009)<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gold, David}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Conservative Party (UK) life peers]]<br />
[[Category:English solicitors]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of the London School of Economics]]<br />
[[Category:1951 births]]<br />
[[Category:English Jews]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Gold,_Baron_Gold&diff=109784852David Gold, Baron Gold2011-02-07T01:20:50Z<p>Carcharoth: add Herbert Smith page as an external link</p>
<hr />
<div>'''David Laurence Gold, Baron Gold''' (born 1 March 1951)<ref name="Debretts">[http://www.debretts.com/people/biographies/browse/g/11965/David%20Laurence+GOLD.aspx The Lord Gold], Debretts People of Today, online edition, accessed 07/02/2011</ref> is a senior litigation partner at [[Herbert Smith LLP]], a leading international law firm with its main office in London. <br />
<br />
Gold was appointed a [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] peer in 2010.<ref>[http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/latest-news/2010/11/peerages-honours-and-appointments-2-57256 Latest Peerages announced], number10.gov.uk (Official site of the Prime Minister's Office), published Friday 19 November 2010, accessed 07/02/2011</ref> He will sit in the [[House of Lords]] as '''Baron Gold''', of [[Westcliff-on-Sea]] in the County of [[Essex]].<ref name="Debretts"/><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.herbertsmith.com/People/DavidGold.htm David Gold] (Herbert Smith)<br />
*[http://www.thelawyer.com/focus-david-gold-as-good-as-gold/1002175.article Focus: David Gold: As good as Gold] (''[[The Lawyer]]'', 05 October 2009)<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gold, David}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Conservative Party (UK) life peers]]<br />
[[Category:English solicitors]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of the London School of Economics]]<br />
[[Category:1951 births]]<br />
[[Category:English Jews]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Gold,_Baron_Gold&diff=109784851David Gold, Baron Gold2011-02-07T01:19:10Z<p>Carcharoth: blank text lifted verbatim until it has been discussed or rewritten</p>
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<div></div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Gold,_Baron_Gold&diff=109784850David Gold, Baron Gold2011-02-07T01:12:34Z<p>Carcharoth: add Debretts references</p>
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<div></div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Gold,_Baron_Gold&diff=109784849David Gold, Baron Gold2011-02-07T00:52:31Z<p>Carcharoth: add DEFAULTSORT</p>
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<div></div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Gold,_Baron_Gold&diff=109784848David Gold, Baron Gold2011-02-07T00:49:26Z<p>Carcharoth: external link and link to The Lawyer</p>
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<div></div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Gold,_Baron_Gold&diff=109784847David Gold, Baron Gold2011-02-07T00:45:53Z<p>Carcharoth: tidy reference a bit (though not fully)</p>
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<div></div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Gold,_Baron_Gold&diff=109784846David Gold, Baron Gold2011-02-07T00:43:31Z<p>Carcharoth: links and copyedit</p>
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<div></div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_John_Phipps&diff=189359521Charles John Phipps2010-04-21T12:40:37Z<p>Carcharoth: link Star and Garter Hotel, Richmond</p>
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<div>[[Image:C-j-phipps.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Phipps in 1890]]<br />
'''Charles John Phipps''' FSA, known as '''C.J. Phipps''' (1835 &ndash; 25 May 1897) was an [[English people|English]] [[architect]] best known for his [[theatre]]s.<br />
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==Biography==<br />
Born in [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]], his first major work was the rebuilding of [[Theatre Royal, Bath]] in 1862/3, after the old theatre had been destroyed by fire. Moving to [[London]], he quickly established himself as the leading theatrical architect, building, in rapid succession, the [[Queen's Theatre, Long Acre|Queen's Theatre]] (1867), the [[Gaiety Theatre, London|Gaiety Theatre]] (1868), the [[Olympic Theatre]] (1870) and the [[Vaudeville Theatre]] (1871). His [[Savoy Theatre]] (1881), a state-of-the-art facility, was the first public building in the world lit entirely by electric light.<ref>Burgess, Michael. "Richard D'Oyly Carte", ''The Savoyard'', January 1975, pp. 7–11</ref> Other major London theatres included the [[Royal Strand Theatre|Strand]] (1882), the [[Prince's Theatre, London|Prince's]] (1884), the [[Lyric Theatre (London)|Lyric]] (1888), the [[Original Shaftesbury Theatre]] (1888), the [[Garrick Theatre|Garrick]] (1889), the Tivoli (1890), [[Queen's Hall]] (1893) and [[Daly's Theatre|Daly's]] (1893). In addition the Phipps's London theatres, he was responsible for over forty theatres in the provinces. He also designed [[Leinster Hall]] in [[Dublin]] (opened in 1886 and closed in 1895), the [[Star and Garter Hotel, Richmond|Star and Garter Hotel]] at Richmond (demolished in 1919) and the Savoy Turkish Bath.<br />
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Phipps was chosen to design the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]]’ own premises at 9 Conduit Street. The building is still there, though no longer occupied by the RIBA (now in [[Portland Place]]) and is considered by some to reflect the influence of the architect’s native town.<br />
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Phipps died on 25 May 1897, aged 62. Though ill with afflictions of heart and kidneys, he continued active in the theatre right to the last. He had felt sufficiently strong to run down to Dover to inspect the building of one of his theatres, took a severe chill, and died three days later. Less than three weeks before his death, his last London theatre, [[Her Majesty's Theatre|Her Majesty's]], had opened in the Haymarket.<br />
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==Theatres==<br />
Among the theatres Phipps designed, or co-designed, are:<br />
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* [[Theatre Royal, Bath]] (1862/3)<br />
* [[Theatre Royal, Nottingham]] (1865)<br />
* [[Queen's Theatre, Long Acre]] (1867)<br />
* [[Gaiety Theatre, London]] (1868)<br />
* [[Olympic Theatre]] (1870)<br />
* Varieties Music Hall, [[Hoxton]] (1870), demolished c. 1980<br />
* [[Vaudeville Theatre]], London (1871)<br />
* [[Gaiety Theatre, Dublin]] (1871)<br />
* [[Theatre Royal, Glasgow]] (1880) and (1895)<br />
* [[Theatre Royal, Belfast]] (1881), demolished 1961<br />
* [[Savoy Theatre]], London (1881)<ref>{{cite journal| title=C.J. Phipps, architect of the theatre|journal=The Savoyard|volume=20|issue=2|pages=7|date=September 1981}}</ref> (rebuilt 1929)<br />
* [[Royal Strand Theatre]] (1882, demolished 1905)<ref>Earl and Sell (2000) pp. 250</ref><br />
* [[Royal Lyceum Theatre]], Edinburgh (1883)<br />
* [[Royal Hippodrome Theatre]] (originally Theatre Royal and Opera House), Eastbourne (1883)<br />
* [[Prince's Theatre, London]] (1884) also known as the [[Prince of Wales Theatre]]; demolished 1934<ref>Earl and Sell (2000) pp. 133</ref><br />
* [[Royal Theatre (Northampton)|Royal Theatre]], Northampton (1884)<br />
* [[Theatre Royal, Portsmouth]] (1884)<br />
* [[Theatre Royal, Exeter]] (1886), destroyed by fire 1887<br />
* [[Lyric Theatre (London)|Lyric Theatre]], London (1888)<br />
* [[Original Shaftesbury Theatre]] (1888)<br />
* [[Garrick Theatre]], London, with [[Walter Emden]] (1889)<br />
* Tivoli Theatre, London (1890), demolished 1957<br />
* [[Queen's Hall]] (1893), bombed in 1941<br />
* [[Daly's Theatre]] (1893), demolished<br />
* [[Wolverhampton Grand Theatre|Grand Theatre, Wolverhampton]] (1894)<br />
* Grand Theatre, Lichfield (1894)<br />
* [[Folly Theatre]] (1895), never built<br />
* [[Her Majesty's Theatre]], London (1897)<br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
*''Guide to British Theatres 1750-1950'', John Earl and Michael Sell pp. 279&ndash;82 (Theatres Trust, 2000) ISBN 0-7136-5688-3<br />
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==External links==<br />
*[http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/ University of Bristol Theatre Collection], [[University of Bristol]]<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Phipps, Charles J.}}<br />
[[Category:English theatre architects]]<br />
[[Category:1835 births]]<br />
[[Category:1897 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:People from Bath]]<br />
[[Category:Charles J. Phipps buildings|*]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Expeditionary_Force&diff=138193995New Zealand Expeditionary Force2010-02-11T08:55:40Z<p>Carcharoth: /* See also */ add one</p>
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<div>{{New_Zealand_Army}}<br />
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The '''New Zealand [[Expeditionary warfare |Expeditionary Force]]''' (NZEF) was the title of the [[military]] forces sent from [[New Zealand]] to fight for [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]]. Ultimately, the NZEF of World War I was known as the ''First New Zealand Expeditionary Force''. The NZEF of World War II was known as the ''Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force''.<br />
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==1st New Zealand Expeditionary Force==<br />
{{see also|Military history of New Zealand during World War I}}<br />
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The New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) was the title of the military forces sent from New Zealand to fight for Britain during World War I. Upon the outbreak of war, New Zealand immediately offered to provide two [[brigade]]s &mdash; one of [[infantry]] and one of mounted troops &mdash; a total of 8,500 men. [[Image:Officers in Egypt.jpg|left|thumb|A group of officers, taken at a WW1 camp in Egypt]] This contingent sailed for [[Australia]] within two months of the start of the war and then joined with the [[Australian Imperial Force (1st)|Australian Imperial Force]] in a convoy sailing for [[Egypt]].<br />
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The NZEF was commanded throughout the war by General [[Alexander Godley]], a British officer who in 1910, on the recommendation of [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum|Lord Kitchener]], had been appointed as the commander of the [[Military of New Zealand|New Zealand Defence Forces]].<br />
New Zealand, like Australia, had a pre-war policy of compulsory military training but the NZEF was initially reinforced by volunteers only. Conscription was introduced on 1 August 1916 and by the end of the war 124,000 men &mdash; nearly half the eligible male population of 250,000 &mdash; had served with the NZEF. Of these, about 100,000 had been sent overseas.<br />
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The NZEF was closely tied to the AIF for much of the war. When the [[Battle of Gallipoli|Gallipoli]] campaign began, the New Zealand contingent was insufficient to complete a [[division (military)|division]] of their own so was combined with the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade to form the [[New Zealand and Australian Division]], General Godley commanding. [[Image:General Birdwood.jpg|left|thumb|General Birdwood APEX Gallipoli in WW1 5th December 1915]] This division, along with the [[Australian 1st Division (World War I)|Australian 1st Division]], formed the famous [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (army corps)|Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZAC) under the command of General [[William Birdwood]].<br />
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After the end of the Gallipoli campaign, the NZEF formed its own infantry division; the [[New Zealand Division]] which served on the [[Western Front]] for the rest of the war. General Godley was promoted to a [[corps]] command and given [[II Anzac Corps]], which contained the New Zealand Division. From 1916 until the formation of the [[Australian Corps]] in 1918 (made up of the five Australian divisions) there were always two "Anzac" corps &mdash; [[I Anzac Corps]] and II Anzac Corps &mdash; despite the fact that there was only one New Zealand Division to go around.<br />
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The mounted arm of the NZEF was the [[New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade]], the brigade remained in Egypt and, combined with the 1st and 2nd Australian [[Light Horse]] Brigades, made up the [[Anzac Mounted Division]] which served through the [[Sinai peninsula|Sinai]] and [[Palestine]] campaign.<br />
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The New Zealand Expeditionary Force (later called the 1st NZEF) was finally disbanded on 31 December 1921.<br />
<br />
==2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force==<br />
{{see also|Military history of New Zealand during World War II}}<br />
<br />
The '''2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force''' - at the outbreak of war in 1939 it was decided that New Zealand should provide an Expeditionary Force of one division, under then Major General [[Bernard Freyberg]]. This force became known as 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force and the division as [[New Zealand 2nd Division|2nd New Zealand Division]]. The first echelon of 2NZEF Headquarters and a Brigade Group landed in Egypt in February 1940. The second echelon, also a Brigade Group, was diverted to Britain on Italy's entry into the War and did not reach Egypt until March 1941. The third echelon arrived in Egypt in September 1940 and concentration of the division was completed just before it was deployed to northern Greece in March 1941.<br />
This force remained as part of the [[British Eighth Army]] to the end of WWII in 1945 during which it fought in the [[Battle of Greece]] (March–April 1941), [[Battle of Crete]] (May), [[Operation Crusader]] (November–December), [[Military history of New Zealand during World War II#North Africa|Minqar Qaim]] (June 1942) [[Battle of El Alamein]] (July–November), [[Western Desert Campaign#Montgomery's Allied offensive|Libya]] and [[Tunisia Campaign|Tunisia]] (December–May 1943),[[Bernhardt_Line#8th Army advance from the Sangro|The Sangro]] (October–December), [[Battle of Monte Cassino]] (February–March 1944), [[Gothic Line|Central Italy]] (May–December), [[Spring 1945 offensive in Italy|Adriatic Coast]] (April–May 1945)<br />
<ref>[http://www.diggerhistory.info/pages-nz/2div-nzef-ww2.htm 2 Div NZFE] [http://www.diggerhistory.info/pages-help/legal.htm DiggerHistory.Info Inc]</ref>.<br />
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==2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force in the Pacific==<br />
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The [[New Zealand 3rd Division]] was the main New Zealand Army unit of the '''2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force in the Pacific''' and it fought in the [[Pacific Ocean Areas]] during [[World War II]]. The Division saw action in the [[Solomon Islands campaign]] during 1943-44.<br />
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In early 1944 the New Zealand Government faced a manpower crisis caused by the demands of maintaining two divisions overseas while simultaneously maintaining agricultural and industrial production to meet the needs of the Allied countries. In order to cope with this crisis the New Zealand Government saw no option other than to disband one the country's two infantry divisions. The decision to disband the 3rd Division was made after consulting with the British and United States Governments, who were of the view that 2nd Division's contribution to the campaign in Italy was of greater importance than 3rd Division's contribution in the Pacific.<br />
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3rd Division was withdrawn to [[New Caledonia]] in June 1944 and returned to New Zealand in August. The Division was rapidly downsized and was formally disbanded on 20 October 1944. About 4,000 veterans of 3rd NZ Division were dispatched to Italy to reinforce 2nd Division with the remaining men of the division returning to civilian employment.<br />
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==3rd New Zealand Expeditionary Force, 1950-1961==<br />
From 1950 onwards, a division sized force, reserves (Territorial Force) maintained by conscription, formed the principal striking force of the New Zealand Army. The division was alternatively known as '3NZEF.'<ref>Damien Marc Fenton, 'A False Sense of Security,' Centre for Strategic Studies:New Zealand, 1998, p.12</ref> It was disbanded in 1961.<br />
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==See also==<br />
* [[Military history of New Zealand in World War I]]<br />
* [[Māori Battalion]]<br />
* [[Buttes New British Cemetery (New Zealand) Memorial]]<br />
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==References==<br />
<references/><br />
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==Further reading==<br />
*[http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/category/tid/215 NZ History online ''The First World War'']<br />
*{{cite web | url = http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/node/1216 | title = New Zealand and the First World War - Overview | publisher = New Zealand's History Online | accessdate = 2007-01-26 }}<br />
*[http://nla.gov.au/nla.pic-3312596 Rex Nan Kivell Collection of negatives ca. 1917-1919 held in Pictures Collection, National Library of Australia]<br />
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[[Category:Military of New Zealand]]<br />
[[Category:New Zealand and World War I]]<br />
[[Category:Military history of New Zealand during World War II]]<br />
[[Category:Expeditionary units and formations]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadian_National_Vimy_Memorial&diff=170028620Canadian National Vimy Memorial2010-01-12T09:26:14Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Site */ typo fix</p>
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{{Infobox Military Memorial<br />
|name = Canadian National Vimy Memorial<br />
|body = [[Veterans Affairs Canada]]<br />[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]<br />
|image = [[Image:Vimy Memorial From the Front (cropped & balanced).jpg|300px|alt=A white limestone memorial is built into the side of a hill and surrounded by green grass and backed by a blue sky. The memorial has a large front wall with rising steps on each end. Two large pylons of stone rise from a platform at the top of the wall. Human statues are located at the base of the wall on both ends, the top centre of the wall, at the base between the stone towers and near the top of the stone towers themselves.]]<br />
|caption = The front of the Vimy Memorial. <br />
|commemorates = First World War Canadian dead and First World War Canadian missing, presumed dead in France.<br />
|unveiled = 26 July 1936<br />By [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VIII]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|50|22|46|N|02|46|25|E|scale:2500|display=title}}<br />
|nearest_town = [[Vimy]], [[Pas-de-Calais]], [[France]]<br />
|designer = [[Walter Seymour Allward]] <br />
|inscription = {{lang-en|To the valour of their countrymen in the Great War and in memory of their sixty thousand dead this monument is raised by the people of Canada.}}<br>{{lang-fr|À la vaillance de ses fils pendant la Grande Guerre et en mémoire de ses soixante mille morts, le peuple canadien a élevé ce monument.}}<br />
|commemorated = 11,169{{#tag:ref|It is not possible to remove the names of those whose bodies have been discovered or identified since the construction of the memorial. As a result, there are a number of individuals who are commemorated on both the memorial and by a headstone.<ref name=Peterson">{{cite web |title=Private Herbert Peterson |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=feature/vimy90/events/hpeterson |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=4 April 2007 |accessdate=5 January 2010}}</ref> Although 11,285 names appear on the memorial only 11,169 are commemorated as missing.|group="Note"}}<br />
|source={{cwgc cemetery|87900}} <br />
}}<br />
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The '''Canadian National Vimy Memorial''' is a memorial site in [[France]] dedicated to the memory of [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] members killed during the [[First World War]]. It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed or presumed dead in France, that have no known grave. The monument is the centrepiece of a {{convert|250|acre|ha|adj=on}} preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the grounds over which the [[Canadian Corps]] made their assault during the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]], a military engagement fought as part of the [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]].<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion whereupon all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation, and thus became a Canadian nationalistic symbol of achievement and sacrifice. In recognition of Canada's war efforts, France granted Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge under the understanding that the Canadians use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial. Wartime tunnels, trenches, craters and unexploded munitions still honeycomb the grounds of the site, which remains largely closed off for public safety. Along with preserved trench lines, there are a number of other memorials and cemeteries contained within the site. <br />
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The memorial took monument designer [[Walter Seymour Allward]] eleven years to build. [[King Edward VIII]] unveiled the memorial on 26 July 1936, in the presence of [[President of France|French President]] [[Albert Lebrun]], 50,000 or more Canadian and French veterans, and their families. Following an extensive multi-year restoration, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] rededicated the memorial on 9 April 2007 during a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. The memorial site is one of two [[Canadian National Historic Site]]s located outside of [[Canada]] and is maintained by [[Veterans Affairs Canada]].<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
===Topography===<br />
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising [[escarpment]] on the western edge of the Douai Plains, eight kilometres northeast of [[Arras]]. The ridge gradually rises on its western side, dropping more quickly on the eastern side.<ref name="Farr 147"/> The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length and culminates at an elevation of {{convert|145|m|ft}} above [[sea level]], or {{convert|60|m|ft}} above the Douai Plains, providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions.<ref name="Farr 147"/><ref name="Geology 396-397">[[#Reference-Geology|Rose & Nathanail]] pp. 396&ndash;397, Fig. 14.3</ref><br />
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===Early conflicts on site===<br />
[[Image:VCRichardBasilBrandramJones.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Victoria Cross]] recipient Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones|Richard Jones]]|alt=Head and shoulders of a young British officer. He is Caucasian with brown hair that is parted to the right. He is wearing a military uniform with the Victoria Cross pinned to the left breast.]]<br />
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914, during the [[Race to the Sea]], as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France.<ref name="Boire 52-53">[[#Reference-Boire2|Boire (2007)]] pp. 52&ndash;53</ref> The [[Tenth Army (France)|French Tenth Army]] attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the [[Second Battle of Artois]] in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and [[Notre Dame de Lorette]]. During the attack, the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge, where the VImy memorial is currently located, but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements.<ref name="Boire 56">[[#Reference-Boire2|Boire (2007)]] p. 56</ref> The French made another attempt during the [[Third Battle of Artois]] in September 1915, but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge.<ref name="Tucker 68">[[#Reference-Tucker|Tucker]] p. 68</ref> The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.<ref name="Turner 8">[[#Reference-Turner|Turner]] p. 8</ref> <br />
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The [[United Kingdom|British]] XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916.<ref>[[#Reference-Boire|Boire (1992)]] p. 15</ref> On 21 May 1916, the German infantry attacked the British lines along a {{convert|2000|yd|m|adj=on}} front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" >[[#Reference-Samuels|Samuels]] pp. 200&ndash;202</ref> The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and [[Mining (military)|mine]] craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" />{{#tag:ref|The Germans grew uneasy about the proximity of the British positions to the top of the ridge, particularly after the increase in British tunnelling and counter mining activities.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" /><ref name="Sheldon 149">[[#Reference-Sheldon|Sheldon]] p. 149</ref>|group="Note"}} Temporary Lieutenant [[Richard Basil Brandram Jones]] was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack.<ref name="Jones NY Times">{{cite news |title=Victoria Cross List Tells Heroic Deeds |url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9504E7D81E3FE233A25752C2A96E9C946796D6CF |newspaper=[[New York Times]]|format=PDF |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=21 August 1916 |accessdate=17 September 2009}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|The Broadmarsh Crater remains visible and is located within the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park.|group="Note"}} British counter-attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation.<ref name = "Samuels 200-202" /> The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.<ref name="Farr 147">[[#Reference-Farr|Farr]] p. 147</ref><br />
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===Battle of Vimy Ridge===<br />
{{main|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}<br />
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together, as a cohesive formation.<ref name="Cook 120">[[#Reference-Cook|Cook]] p. 120</ref> The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities.<ref name = "Nicholson 229">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 229</ref> Consequently, the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]] and supplementary artillery, engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place. The [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] supported the Canadian Crops along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south.<ref name="Turner 39">[[#Reference-Turner|Turner]] p. 39</ref> The ad hoc {{lang|de|''Gruppe Vimy''}} formation, based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander {{lang|de|''General der Infanterie''}} Karl Ritter von Fasbender, was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps.<ref name="Williams 149">[[#Reference-Williams|Williams]] p. 149</ref> <br />
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[[Image:Plan of Attack Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The Canadian Corps plan of attack outlining the four objective lines{{ndash}} Black, Red, Blue and Brown. |alt=Diagram of the battle illustrating the positions for each of the Canadian Corps division and brigades. The map shows the westerly direction of the attack, up an over the topography of the ridge.]]<br />
The attack began at 5:30&nbsp;am on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917. Light [[field gun]]s laid down a [[Barrage (artillery)|barrage]] that advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|100|yd|m}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy [[howitzer]]s established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead.<ref name="Cook 117">[[#Reference-Cook|Cook]] p. 117</ref> The [[1st Canadian Division|1st]], [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd]] and [[3rd Canadian Division]]s quickly captured their first objectives.<ref name="Nicholson 254">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 254</ref> The [[4th Canadian Division]] encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.<ref name="Nicholson 254" /> The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Canadian Division captured their second objective by approximately 7:30&nbsp;am.<ref name="Nicholson 255">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 255</ref><ref name="Campbell 178-179">[[#Reference-Campbell|Campbell]] pp. 178&ndash;179</ref><ref name="Hayes 200">[[#Reference-Hayes|Hayes]] p. 200</ref> The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north.<ref name="Hayes 202-203">[[#Reference-Hayes|Hayes]] pp. 202&ndash;203</ref> Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill&nbsp;145 to withdraw.<ref name="Godefroy 220">[[#Reference-Godefroy|Godefroy (2007a)]] p. 220</ref>{{#tag:ref|German records indicate that the defending German units withdrew because they had fully run out of ammunition, mortar rounds and grenades.<ref name="Sheldon 300">[[#Reference-Sheldon2|Sheldon]] p. 309</ref>|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
On the morning of 10 April, Canadian Corps commander [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Julian Byng]] moved up three fresh [[brigade]]s to support the continued advance.<ref name="Campbell 179">[[#Reference-Campbell|Campbell]] pp. 179</ref> The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], by 11:00&nbsp;am.<ref name="Campbell 179-181">[[#Reference-Campbell|Campbell]] pp. 179&ndash;181</ref> By 2:00&nbsp;pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives.<ref name="Campbell 182">[[#Reference-Campbell|Campbell]] p. 182</ref> By this point the "Pimple", a heavily defended knoll west of the town of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge.<ref name="Godefroy 220" /> On 12 April, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops, with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division.<ref name="Nicholson 263">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson (1962)]] p. 263</ref> By nightfall on 12 April, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.<ref name="Nicholson 263"/> The Canadian Corps suffered 10,602 casualties: 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.<ref name="Moran 139">[[#Reference-Moran|Moran]] p. 139</ref> The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties with an approximate 4,000 men becoming [[prisoners of war]].<ref name="Gibbs">{{cite news| first=Philip |last=Gibbs |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF |title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans |newspaper=New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company |format=PDF |date=11 April 1917 |accessdate= 14 November 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
The Battle of Vimy Ridge has considerable significance for Canada.<ref name="Inglis 1">[[#Reference-Inglis|Inglis]] p. 1</ref> Although the battle is not generally considered Canada's greatest military achievement, the image of national unity and achievement gave the battle importance.<ref name="Vance 233">[[#Reference-Vance|Vance]] p. 233</ref> According to Pierce, "the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada's coming of age as a nation."<ref name="Pierce 5">[[#Reference-Pierce|Pierce]] p. 5</ref> The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada.<ref name="Inglis 2">[[#Reference-Inglis|Inglis]] p. 2</ref><ref name="Humphries 66">[[#Reference-Humphries|Humphries]] p. 66</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Selection===<br />
[[Image:Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission - Design Comp.jpg|thumb|right|Design competition submissions.|alt=Approximately a dozen monument models sit on tables in a stone walled room.]]<br />
In 1920, the Government of Canada announced that the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission|Imperial War Graves Commission]] had awarded Canada eight sites&mdash;five in France and three in Belgium&mdash;on which to erect memorials.<ref name="Busch 205">[[#Reference-Busch|Busch]] p. 205</ref>{{#tag:ref|The eight sites were Vimy, Bourlon Wood, Le Quesnel, Dury and Courcelette in France, and St. Julien, Hill 62 (Sanctuary Wood) and Passchendaele in Belgium.<ref name="VAC CBMC"/>|group="Note"}} Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments.<ref name="Busch 205">[[#Referece-Busch|Busch]] p. 205</ref> In September 1920, the Canadian government formed the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe.<ref name="Vance 66">[[#Reference-Vance|Vance]] p. 66</ref> The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the [[architectural design competition]] would be open to all Canadian architects, designers, sculptors and artists.<ref name="VAC CBMC">{{cite web | title = Canadian Battlefields Memorials Committee | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=Memorials/can_battle_committee | accessdate = 12 January 2008}}</ref> Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings and the jury selected 17&nbsp;submissions for consideration, commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster [[maquette]] of their respective design.<ref name="VAC Design Comp">{{cite web | title = Design Competition | publisher = Veteran Affairs Canada | date = 25 March 2007 | url = http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/sg/01_artwork/04_competition | accessdate = 12 January 2008 }}</ref> In October 1921, the commission selected the submission of [[Toronto]] sculptor and designer Walter Seymour Allward as the winner of the competition, and that of Frederick Chapman Clemesha as runner-up.<ref name="Vance 66"/> The complexity of Allward's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site.<ref name="Vance 67">[[#Reference-Vance|Vance]] p. 67</ref> The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials&mdash;that of Allward and Clemesha&mdash;and six smaller identical memorials.<ref name="Vance 67"/> At the outset, members of the commission debated where to build Allward's winning design.<ref name="Vance 66"/> Committee member and former Canadian Corps commander, Lieutenant-General [[Arthur Currie]] argued in favour of the government placing the monument in Belgium on [[Hill 62 Memorial|Hill 62]].<ref name="Pierce 5"/><ref name="Hucker 283">[[#Reference-Hucker|Hucker]] p. 283</ref> In the end, the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site, largely because of its elevation above the plain below.<ref name="Vance 66–69">[[#Reference-Vance|Vance]] pp. 66–69</ref><br />
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The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward’s design.<ref name="Inglis 61">[[#Reference-Inglis|Inglis]] p. 61</ref> In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the [[14th Canadian Parliament]], [[Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons]] [[Rodolphe Lemieux]] went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land.<ref name="Inglis 61"/> In December 1922, Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada "freely and for all time" the use of {{convert|250|acre|ha}} of land on Vimy Ridge, in recognition of Canada's war effort.<ref name="DFAIT">{{cite web | title = Canada Treaty Information | publisher = Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade | date = 26 February 2002 | url = http://www.treaty-accord.gc.ca/text-texte.asp?id=102661 | accessdate = 4 January 2008}}</ref> The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park.<ref name="DFAIT"/><br />
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===Memorial construction===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Foundation construction.jpg|thumb|right|Laying the foundation of the memorial.|alt=Scaffolding surrounds a half finished concrete foundation. Dozens of metal steel poles rise from the foundation. A dozen workmen are visible and involved in various construction tasks.]]<br />
In 1924, the [[Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission]] hired Dr. Oscar Faber, a Danish structural engineer, to prepare foundation plans as well as provide general supervision of the foundation work.<ref name="Hucker 285">[[#Reference-Hucker|Hucker]] p. 285</ref> Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site.<ref name="Durflinger 292">[[#Reference-Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 292</ref><ref name="Hucker 286"/> Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise the construction of the monument and the carving of the sculptures.<ref name="Pierce 6">[[#Reference-Pierce|Pierce]] p. 6</ref> Construction of the memorial commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete.<ref name="Fast Facts"/> The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping.<ref name="Pierce 6"/><br />
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In June 1922, Allward set up a studio in [[London]], [[England]] and toured for almost two years in an attempt to find a stone of the right colour, texture, and luminosity for the memorial.<ref name="Hucker 286">[[#Reference-Hucker|Hucker]] p. 286</ref> He eventually found it in the ruins of the [[Diocletian's Palace]]. Allward observed that the palace had not weathered over the years, a fact that Allward took as evidence of the stone's durability.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Allward's choice, Seget limestone, came from an ancient Roman quarry located near [[Seget]], [[Croatia]].<ref name="Fabijančić 127">[[#Reference-Fabijančić|Fabijančić]] p. 127</ref> The difficulties associated with the quarrying process, coupled with complicated transportation logistics, delayed delivery of the stone, which consequently delayed construction of the memorial.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> The first shipment of stone did not arrive at the memorial site until 1927, and the larger blocks, intended for the human figures, did not begin to arrive until 1931.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> <br />
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While awaiting the first delivery of stone, Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied, Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line as well make the Grange Subway more accessible.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall, on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group, in concrete.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and, after excavating a portion of the tunnel system, installed electric lighting.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> <br />
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[[Image:Vimy Memorial - half finished statue and plaster models.jpg|left|thumb|Statue carving in progress.|alt=The partially completed statue of a reclined woman sits to the right of a half sized model of the same statue. It appears the work is being conducted inside a temporary structure.]]<br />
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument; limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame. A foundation bed of 11,000 tonnes of concrete, reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel, served as the support bed for the memorial. The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6,000 tonnes of a Seget limestone.<ref name="Picard">[[#Reference-Picard|Picard]] (online)</ref> Sculptors carved the 20 human figures on-site, from large blocks of stone. The carvers used half-size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio, now on display at the [[Canadian War Museum]], and an instrument called a [[pantograph]] to reproduce the figures at the proper scale.<ref name="Busch 206">[[#Reference-Busch|Busch]] p. 206</ref> The carvers conducted their work year-round, inside temporary studios built around each figure.<ref name="VAC construction">{{cite web |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/vmemory | title=Design and Construction of the Vimy Ridge Memorial |date=12 August 1998|accessdate=14 November 2009 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design and Allward was unhappy when the government subsequently asked him to include them.<ref name="Duffy 197">[[#Reference-Duffy|Duffy]] p. 197</ref>{{#tag:ref|The government was acting on behalf of a request by the Imperial War Graves Commission which was tasked with commemorating all killed and missing Commonwealth soldiers and was, as a result, prepared to share in the cost of the memorial.<ref name="Duffy 197"/>|group="Note"}} Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning.<ref name="Duffy 197"/> Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927, Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument.<ref name="Duffy 197"/> The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls.<ref name="Duffy 197"/> The task of inscribing the names did not begin until early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed specifically for the monument.<ref name="Hucker 286"/><br />
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===Pilgrimage and unveiling===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Dedication - aerial shot of ceremony.jpg|thumb|right|The dedication of the Vimy Memorial.|alt=A memorial ceremony. Thousands of people are surround the monument on all sides. A crowd of people are also standing on the main platform of the memorial.]]<br />
In preparation for the 1936 Vimy Pilgrimage, the Government of Canada made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims, at no extra cost.<ref name = "MacIntyre 197">[[#Reference-MacIntyre|MacIntyre]] p. 197</ref> On 16 July 1936, five trans-Atlantic liners departed the port of [[Montreal]] for the unveiling of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in France.{{#tag:ref|The ships were the SS ''Montrose'', SS ''Montcalm'', SS ''Antonia'', SS ''Ascania'' and the SS ''Duchess of Bedford''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=feature/vimy90/media/backgrounders/1936dedication |title=Dedication of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher= Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref>|group="Note"}} About 6,400 people sailed on the five steamships from Canada and 1,365 Canadians came from England.<ref name = "MacIntyre 159">[[#Reference-MacIntyre|MacIntyre]] p. 159</ref> King Edward VIII, in his capacity as [[Monarchy of Canada|King of Canada]], officially unveiled the monument on 26 July 1936.<ref name="Foot">{{Cite news | last=Foot | first=Richard | title=Vimy memorial had a turbulent history of its own| newspaper=[[The Vancouver Sun]] | publication-place=Vancouver | date=4 April 2007 | year=2007 | month=April | page=A4 }}</ref><ref name="Lloyd 221">[[#Reference-Lloyd|Lloyd]] p. 221</ref> The ceremony was one of King Edward VIII's few official duties before he [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdicated]] the throne.<ref name="Foot"/> Senior Canadian, British, and European officials, including French President Albert Lebrun and over 50,000 Canadian, British and French veterans and their families, attended the event.<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web | title=The Battle of Vimy Ridge — Fast Facts | url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/battle | work=VAC Canada Remembers | publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada | date=n.d. | accessdate=26 March 2009}}</ref> The ceremony included a guard of honour made of [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] officers, a contingent of Canadian Naval Guard members with rifles, and flyovers by two Canadian squadrons and two French squadrons. Edward VIII gave a speech, starting in French and switching to English, thanking France for its generosity and assuring those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead. The king then unveiled the [[Union Flag|Royal Union Flag]] from the central figure of ''Canada Bereft'', and the military band played the [[Last Post]].<ref name="Morton 221">[[#Reference-Morton|Morton & Wright]] p. 221</ref><br />
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===Second World War===<br />
The general safety of the memorial was a cause for concern for the Canadian government. In 1939, the increased threat of conflict with [[Nazi Germany]] amplified the Canadian government’s level of concern.<ref name="Durflinger 292"/> Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments.<ref name="Durflinger 292"/> When war did break out, the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector, which included Vimy.<ref name="Durflinger 292"/> In late May 1940, following the British retreat in the aftermath of the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]], the status and condition of the memorial became unknown.<ref name="Durflinger 293">[[#Reference-Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 293</ref> The Germans took control of the site and held the site's caretaker, George Stubbs, in an [[Ilag]] internment camp for Allied civilians in [[Ilag#St.Denis|St. Denis]], France.<ref name="Durflinger 300">[[#Reference-Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 300</ref> <br />
The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial, either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans, was widely reported in both Canada and the United Kingdom.<ref name="Durflinger 294">[[#Reference-Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 294</ref> The rumours eventually led the German [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] to publish denials.<ref name="Durflinger 297">[[#Reference-Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 297</ref> [[Adolf Hitler]] even personally toured the Vimy Memorial and its preserved trenches on 2 June 1940, and was photographed doing so, to demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated.<ref> (2000). "Remembrance: The Canadian Unknown Soldier". In: ''After The Battle'', '''109'''. [[ISSN|ISSN 0306-154X]].</ref> The undamaged state of the memorial was not conclusively confirmed until September 1944 when the [[Welsh Guards]] recaptured Vimy Ridge.<ref name="Durflinger 298">[[#Reference-Durflinger|Durflinger]] p. 298</ref><br />
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===Restoration and rededication===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - panel of names before restoration.jpg|thumb|right|A name panel on the memorial damaged by mineral deposits.|alt=Names carved into a wall are covered in unidentified mineral deposits. Many of the names are no longer readable or are heavily distorted.]]<br />
In May 2001, the Government of Canada announced the [[Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project]], a major 30&nbsp;million [[Canadian dollar]] restoration project to restore Canada's memorial sites in France and Belgium, in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner.<ref name="Valpy">{{cite news |first=Micheal |last=Valpy | title=Setting a legend in stone |url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/archives/article752525.ece |work=[[Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=28 April 2009}}</ref><ref name="Hucker 288">[[#Reference-Hucker|Hucker]] p. 288</ref> In 2005, the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work. Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, consultants and specialists in military history.<ref name="Valpy"/><br />
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Time, wear and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems, the single most pervasive problem being water damage.<ref name="Valpy"/> In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone, Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time.<ref name="Hucker 288"/> The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones, which resulted in water infiltrating the structure.<ref name="Hucker 288"/> Over time, water entered the monument through its walls and platforms and coursed through the structure, dissolving lime from the concrete foundation and masonry.<ref name="Valpy"/> As the water exited, it deposited lime on exterior surface walls obscuring many of the names inscribed on the memorial.<ref name="Hucker 288"/> Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant erosion and deterioration to the platform, terrace and stairs.<ref name="Valpy"/> The restoration project intended to address the root causes of the deterioration and included repairs to the stone, walkways, walls, terraces, stairs and platforms of the memorial.<ref name="Valpy"/><br />
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Queen Elizabeth II rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle. Senior Canadian and French officials, including Canadian [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Stephen Harper]] and French [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Dominique de Villepin]] attended the event. Thousands of Canadian students, veterans of the [[Second World War]] and of more recent conflicts, and descendants of those who fought at Vimy also attended the ceremony.<ref name="CTV"/> The rededication ceremony comprised the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication.<ref name="CTV">Tom Kennedy, CTV National News, 9 April 2007.</ref><br />
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==Site==<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - German trenches, mortar emplacement.jpg|thumb|left|Trenches preserved in concrete.|alt=Curved trench lines, preserved in concrete are surrounded by shell craters that are now covered in grass. In the immediate foreground, a small half-destroyer piece of artillery sits in a three walled position that is off of the main trench line.]]<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras, France, near the towns of Vimy and [[Neuville-Saint-Vaast]]. The site is one of the few places on the former [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] where a visitor can see the trench lines of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state.<ref name="Geology 216">[[#Reference-Geology|Rose & Nathanail]] p. 216</ref><ref name="Lloyd 120">[[#Reference-Lloyd|Lloyd]] p. 120</ref> The total area of the site is {{convert|250|acre|ha}}, much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety. The site's rough terrain and unearthed unexploded munitions make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators.<ref name="CWGC2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Annual%20Report%202007-08%20Part1.pdf |title=Annual Report 2007-2008 | format=PDF |date=2008 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|page=16}}</ref> As a result, sheep graze the open meadows of the site.<ref name="Turner 7">[[#Reference-Turner|Turner]] p. 7</ref> <br />
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The site was founded to principally honour the memory of the Canadian Corps, but also contains a number of other memorials. These include memorials dedicated to the French Moroccan Division, [[Lions Club International]] and Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins. There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission maintained cemeteries on site; [[Canadian Cemetery No. 2]] and [[Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery]].<ref name="cwgc CCN2">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/search/cemetery_details.aspx?cemetery=2103985&mode=1 |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details - Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-St. Vaast|accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref><ref name="cwgc GRCC">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/search/cemetery_details.aspx?cemetery=68402&mode=1 |title=CWGC :: Cemetery Details - Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery, Neuville-St. Vaast| accessdate=13 March 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |date=n.d.}}</ref> Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours, the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War [[battlefield archaeology]], because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state.<ref name="archeology 1">[[#Reference-Saunders|Saunders]] pp. 101&ndash;108</ref> The site's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial, the preserved battlefield park and the history of the Battle of Vimy within the context of Canada's participation in the First World War.<ref name="VAC Museum">{{cite web| url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/interpret |title=Interpretive Centre at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=22 March 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2009 }}</ref> The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]] sites comprise close to 80&nbsp;percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year.<ref name="VAC Restoration">{{cite web|title=Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project| url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=feature/vimy90/media/backgrounders/cbmrbackground |accessdate=13 March 2009|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=19 January 2007}}</ref> <br />
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===Vimy memorial===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Memorial - Design model.jpg|thumb|right|A design model of the memorial.|alt=A white plaster design model of the Vimy Memorial from the front side, displayed against a black background.]]<br />
Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge.<ref name="Busch 12">[[#Reference-Busch|Busch]] p. 12</ref> The memorial contains a large number of stylized features, including 20 human figures, which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole. The front wall, normally mistaken for the rear, is {{convert|24|ft|m}} high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence.<ref name="Pierce 6"/> There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall, next to the base of the steps.<ref name="Brandon 10"/> The ''Breaking of the Sword'' is located at the southern corner of the front wall while ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'' is located at the northern corner.<ref name="Hucker 282"/> Collectively, the two groups are ''The Defenders'' and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war.<ref name="Hucker 282"/> There is a cannon barrel draped in laurel and olive branches carved into the wall above each group, to symbolize peace.<ref name="Brandon 10">[[#Reference-Brandon|Brandon]] p. 10</ref><ref name="Hopkins 188">[[#Reference-Hopkins|Hopkins]] p. 188</ref> In ''Breaking of the Sword'', three young men are present, one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword.<ref name="Hucker 282"/> This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace.<ref name="Bolling 310">[[#Reference-Bolling|Bolling]] p. 310</ref> This grouping of figures is the most overt image to [[pacifism]] in the monument, the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials.<ref name="Prost 316">[[#Reference-Prost|Prost]] p. 316</ref> The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with their foot.<ref name="Pierce 6"/> Allward later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery.<ref name="Pierce 6"/> In ''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless'', one man stands erect while three other figures, stricken by hunger or disease, are crouched and kneeling around him. The standing man represents Canada’s sympathy for the weak and oppressed.<ref name = "MacIntyre 156">[[#Reference-MacIntyre|MacIntyre]] p. 156</ref> <br />
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[[File:Vimy Memorial - Layout.GIF|thumb|left|Layout map of the memorial.|alt=A schematic diagram of the Vimy Memorial that shows the orientation of the memorial and the location of names based upon alphabetical order of family name.]]<br />
The figure of a cloaked young female stands on top of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains. The woman has her head bowed, her eyes cast down, and her chin resting in one hand. Below her at ground level of the former battlefield is a sarcophagus, bearing a [[Brodie helmet]], a sword and draped in laurel branches.<ref name="Hucker 282">[[#Reference-Hucker|Hucker]] p. 282</ref> The saddened figure of ''Canada Bereft'', also known as ''Mother Canada'', is a [[national personification]] of the young nation of Canada, mourning her dead.<ref name="Hucker 282"/>{{#tag:ref|Dancer turned model Edna Moynihan served as the model with the statue itself being carved by Italian Luigi Rigamonti.<ref name="Hucker 286"/>|group="Note"}} The statue, a reference to traditional images of the {{lang|la|[[Mater Dolorosa]]}} and presented in a similar style to that of [[Michaelangelo]]'s [[Pietà (Michelangelo)|Pietà]], faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day.<ref name="Duffy 194">[[#Reference-Duffy|Duffy]] p. 194</ref> Unlike the other statues on the monument, stonemasons carved ''Canada Bereft'' from a single 30&nbsp;tonne block of stone.<ref name="Duffy 194"/> The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point.<ref name="Duffy 194"/><br />
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The twin pylons rise to a height 30&nbsp;metres above the memorial's stone platform. The twin white pylons, one bearing the [[maple leaf]] for Canada the other the [[fleur-de-lis]] for France, symbolize the unity and sacrifice of both countries.<ref name="Brandon 10"/> At the top of two pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the ''Chorus''.<ref name="Valpy"/> The most senior figures represent ''Justice'' and ''Peace''.<ref name="Brandon 13">[[#Reference-Brandon|Brandon]] p. 13</ref> ''Peace'' stands with a torch upraised, making it the highest point in the region.<ref name="Nicholson 33">[[#Reference-Nicholson 2|Nicholson (1973)]] p. 33</ref> The pair is in a style similar to Allward's previously commissioned statues of ''Truth'' and ''Justice'', located outside the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].<ref name="Brandon 12">[[#Reference-Brandon|Brandon]] p. 12</ref> The figures of ''Hope'', ''Charity'', ''Honour'' and ''Faith'' are located below ''Justice'' and ''Peace'' on the eastern side, with ''Truth'' and ''Knowledge'' on the western side. Around these figures are shields of Canada, Britain and France. Large crosses adorn the outside of each pylon.<ref name="Hopkins 188"/> The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments and a dedicatory inscription to Canada's war dead, in both French and English, also appear on the monument. The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' is located at the base between the two pylons.<ref name="Duffy 194"/> In the display, a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion-like pose, having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him.<ref name="Duffy 194"/> In a lightly veiled reference to the poem ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'' by [[John McCrae]], the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead.<ref name="Nicholson 33"/><br />
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{{Quote box | quote =It is an inspired expression in stone, chiselled by a skilful Canadian hand, of Canada's salute to her fallen sons.<ref name="Mould Fonds 62-63">{{cite web|title=John Mould Diaries : Return to Vimy |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/english/on-line-exhibits/mould/vimy.aspx |accessdate=4 January 2010 |date=n.d. |publisher=[[Archives of Ontario]]}}</ref>| source = King Edward VIII referring to the memorial during his 1936 speech. | width = 30% | align =right}}<br />
The Mourning Parents, one male and one female figure, are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument. They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence#Cappelle Medicee|Medici Tomb]] in [[Florence]], [[Italy]].<ref name="Brandon 12"/> Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11,285 Canadians killed in France, and whose final resting place is unknown.<ref name="Hucker 286"/> Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format. Allward sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands, across both vertical and horizontal seams, around the base of the monument.<ref name="Valpy"/> The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients; [[Robert Grierson Combe]], [[Frederick Hobson]], [[William Johnstone Milne]] and [[Robert Spall]].<ref name="VCs">{{cite web| title=Victoria Cross (VC) Recipients |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=feature/vimy90/media/backgrounders/vimyvc |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |date=31 November 2007 |accessdate=5 January 2010}}</ref><br />
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{{Image gallery<br />
|title=Elements of the Vimy Memorial<br />
|lines=4<br />
|width=125<br />
|Vimy Memorial - Front Wall, Breaking of the Sword (postcard).jpg|A large limestone wall from an angled perspective. In the foreground is one grouping of statues and in the farground an additional group of statues. |The front wall representing an impenetrable wall of defence.<br />
|Vimy3 tango7174.jpg|A statue of four people. One man stands tall and erect while three other figures are crouched and kneeling around him.|''Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless''.<br />
|Vimy2 tango7174.jpg|A statue of three muscular young men. Two men are standing and one is crouching and breaking a sword.|''Breaking of the Swords''<br />
|Vimy Memorial - Canons.JPG|The mouth of a cannon draped in laurel carved into the upper edge of a stone wall.|Cannons covered in laurel further symbolizing peace.<br />
|Canadian National Vimy Memorial - .Mother Canada.JPG|A statue of a mourning cloaked young woman. In one hand she has a bunch of laurel and holds her chin in the other hand.| ''Mother Canada'' mourning her dead.<br />
|Vimy Memorial - Sarcophagus.jpg|A sword, army helmet and laurel sit on top of a stone sarcophagus that is located in front of a stone wall.|The stone sarcophagus representing Canada's war dead.<br />
|Vimy Memorial - Spirit of Sacrifice figure.jpg|A gaunt man stands in a crucifixion pose. Behind him, a man stands holding a torch aloft. Both men stand between two large stone towers.|The ''Spirit of Sacrifice'' passing the torch.<br />
|Vimy1 tango7174.jpg|Two stone towers. A grouping of statues are located at the base between the two towers and and at the top of each tower.|The twin pylons representing France and Canada, partners in arms.<br />
|Vimy Memorial - Chorus western side (black and white).jpg|Angelic figures located near the top of two stone pylons.|The statues of ''The Chorus'' on the western side: ''Truth'' and ''Knowledge''.<br />
|Canadian National Vimy Memorial - male defender.JPG|A reclined male statue. The head of the half-naked figure sits in its right hand while its left hand sits on its knee.| ''Mourning Parents'': the male. <br />
|Canadian National Vimy Memorial - female defender.JPG|A reclined topless female statue that is visibly upset. Her hands fiddle with the sheet that covers her from her waist to her feet.|''Mourning Parents'': the female.<br />
|Vimy Memorial - names (black and white).JPG|A stone wall full of carved names.|Names of the missing carved on the memorial walls. <br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Moroccan Division Memorial===<br />
[[Image:Vimy Ridge - Moroccan Division Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The Moroccan Division Memorial|alt=White rectangular stone memorial. It is inscribed "AUX MORTS DE LA DIVISION MAROCAINE", with other dedicatory messages in French, and with one phrase in Arabic.]]<br />
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the members of the French Moroccan Division killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915.<ref name="Boire 56"/> General Victor d'Urbal, commander of the French Tenth Army, sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette.<ref name="Simkins 48">[[#Reference-Simkins|Simkins]] p. 48</ref> When the attack began on 9 May 1915, the French XXXIII Corps made significant territorial gains.<ref name="Simkins 48"/> The Moroccan Division, which was part of the XXXIII Corps, quickly moved through the German defences and advanced {{convert|4|km|yd}} into German lines in two hours.<ref name="Doughty 159">[[#Reference-Doughty|Doughty]] p. 159</ref> The division managed to capture the height of the ridge, with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge, before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements.<ref name="Boire 56">[[#Reference-Boire2|Boire]] p. 56</ref> Even after German counter-attacks, the division managed to hold a territorial gain of {{convert|2100|m|yd}}.<ref name="Doughty 159"/><br />
<br />
===Grange Subway===<br />
The First World War's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels, subways and dugouts. The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately {{convert|800|m|yd}} in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line. This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely and unseen.<ref name="Geology 398">[[#Reference-Geology|Rose & Nathanail]] p. 398</ref> A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides.<ref name="Turner 90">[[#Reference-Turner|Turner]] p. 90</ref> <br />
<br />
The Arras-Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft, porous yet extremely stable nature of the [[chalk]] underground.<ref name="Geology 398"/> As a result, pronounced underground warfare had been an active feature of the Vimy sector since 1915.<ref name="Geology 398"/> In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge, five British tunnelling companies excavating 12&nbsp;subways along the Canadian Corps' front, the longest of which was {{convert|1.2|km|yd}} in length.<ref name="Barton 200"/> The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10&nbsp;metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire.<ref name="Barton 200">[[#Reference-Barton|Barton]] p. 200</ref> Tunnellers often dug the subways at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide.<ref name="Geology 398"/> This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts, and communication centres.<ref name="Barton 200"/><br />
<br />
===Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Watkins memorial===<br />
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Mike Watkins [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. Watkins was head of [[11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment (United Kingdom)|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition, [[Royal Logistics Corps]] and a leading British [[Bomb disposal|explosive ordnance disposal]] expert.<ref name="Watkins obit"/> In August 1998, he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site.<ref name="Watkins obit">{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Beaver |title=Obituary: Lt-Col Mike Watkins |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-ltcol-mike-watkins-1171486.html |work=[[The Independent]] |date=14 August 1998 |accessdate=26 April 2009 |location=[[London]]}}</ref> Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge. Earlier the same year, he participated in the successful disarming of a 3,000&nbsp;tonne mine of deteriorated [[ammonal]] explosive located under a road intersection on the site.<ref name="Watkins obit"/><br />
<br />
===Death of Georges Devloo===<br />
The memorial site is accessible by car, taxi and tour bus, but not by public transport. Canadians looking for transportation used to be able to get rides from a senior resident of Vimy, Georges Devloo. Known as the Grandpa of Vimy to the Canadian guides, he would offer car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge, as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy.<ref>{{cite news|first=Kathleen |last=Harris |newspaper=[[London Free Press]]| publisher=Sum Media Corp |title='Grandpa of Vimy' gives rides for sweets |accessdate=10 February 2009 |date=13 November 2009}}</ref> Devloo died in February 2009; he had been giving free rides to Canadians for 13 years.<ref>{{cite news|first=Adrienne |last=Arsenault<br />
|url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/02/09/f-rfa-arsenault.html |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |title=Au revoir to the grand-père of Vimy|accessdate=10 February 2009|date=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Sociocultural influence==<br />
<br />
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada. The idea that Canada's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely published in military and general histories of Canada.<ref name="Inglis 2">[[#Reference-Inglis|Inglis]] p. 2</ref><ref name="Humphries 66">[[#Reference-Humphries|Humphries]] p. 66</ref> Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the [[interwar period]].<ref name="Thomas">[[#Reference-Thomas|Thomas]] p. 5&ndash;27</ref> Meanwhile, Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole of the First World War, while concurrently expressing the enormous impact of war in general.<ref name="Hucker 280">[[#Reference|Hucker]] p.280</ref> Hucker also suggest that the most recent restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation's determination to remember Canada's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War.<ref name="Hucker 280">[[#Reference|Hucker]] p.288</ref><br />
<br />
[[Image:Ghosts of Vimy Ridge.jpeg|225px|left|thumb|''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'' by Will Longstaff|alt=A crowd of dark and ghostly soldiers are scattered on a hill of churned ground, shell holes and general battlefield detritus. A memorial, painted in white, is located at the top of the hill.]]<br />
The Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada recognized the importance of the site by classifying it as a Canada National Historic site, one of only two outside of Canada, in 1997.<ref name="VAC NHS">{{citeweb |url=http://vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy/vimycerm | title=Canadian National Historic Site Designation |date=9 September 1999 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> [[Will Longstaff]] painted ''Ghosts of Vimy Ridge'', depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial, in 1931 eventhough the memorials was still a number of years away from completion.<ref name="longstaff">{{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/menin/notes.asp |title=Will Longstaff's Menin Gate at midnight (Ghosts of Menin Gate) |date=n.d. |accessdate=11 January 2010 |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The Canadian ''[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Unknown Soldier]]'' was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and the design of the [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial.<ref name="Tomb design">{{cite web |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=Memorials/tomb/thetomb/tombconstruct |title=Designing and Constructing |series=Tomb of the Unknown Soldier |date= 5 May 2000 |accessdate=8 January 2010 |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada}}</ref> ''[[The Stone Carvers]]'', a 2001 Canadian [[bestseller|bestselling]] [[historical novel]] by [[Jane Urquhart]], involves the characters in the carving and creation of the memorial. In 2007, the memorial was a short listed selection for the [[Seven Wonders of Canada]].<ref name="CBC 7WoC">{{cite web| title=Vimy Memorial, France |url=http://www.cbc.ca/sevenwonders/wonder_vimy.html |accessdate= 7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company |date=n.d }}</ref> The [[Royal Canadian Mint]] released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on a number of occasions, including a 5&nbsp;cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30&nbsp;dollar sterling silver coin in 2007. The [[Sacrifice Medal]], a Canadian military [[Military awards and decorations|decoration]] created in 2008, features the image of ''Mother Canada'' on the reverse side of the medal.<ref name="SM web">{{cite web |title=New military medal to honour combat casualties |url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/08/29/sacrifice-medal.html?ref=rss&Authorized=1&AuthenticationKey=1_45_4c64df9a-89f8-4b1a-94ac-8efd26447be0.pakdllcidpafph |date=29 August 2008 |accessdate= 7 January 2010 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref> A permanent bas relief sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the Embassy of France in Canada to symbolize the close relations between the two countries.<ref name="FR embassy">{{cite web| title=Embassy of France in Canada, virtual visit |url=http://www.ambafrance-ca.org/gallery/genese/pages/vimy.htm |date=January 2004 |accessdate=10 January 2010 |publisher=Embassy of France in Canada }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|group="Note"}}<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{commonscat|Canadian National Vimy Memorial}}<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Barton|reference=<br />
{{cite book |title= Beneath Flanders Fields: The Tunnellers' War 1914-1918 |last= Barton | first=Peter | coauthors= Doyle, Peter; Vandewalle, Johan |year= 2004 |publisher= McGill-Queen's University Press|location= Montreal & Kingston | isbn = 0773529497}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Boire|reference=<br />
{{cite journal |last = Boire |first = Michael| title = The Underground War: Military Mining Operations in support of the attack on Vimy Ridge, 9 April 1917 | journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 15–24| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Boire%20-%20The%20Underground%20War.pdf| accessdate = 2 January 2009 |format=PDF}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Boire2|reference=<br />
{{Cite book |last = Boire |first = Michael| year = 2007 | contribution = The Battlefield before the Canadians, 1914-1916 | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =51–61 | isbn = 0889205086}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Bolling|reference=<br />
{{Cite book |last = Bolling |first = Gordon |contribution=Acts of (Re-)Construction: Traces of Germany in Jane Urquhart's Novel the Stone Carvers|pages=295–318 | title= Refractions of Germany in Canadian Literature and Culture |editor-last=Antor |editor-first = Heinz | editor2-last = Brown | editor2-first = Sylvia | editor3-last = Considine | editor3-first = John | editor4-last = Stierstorfer | editor4-first = Klaus|year= 2003 |publisher= de Gruyter|location= Berlin | isbn = 978-3-11-017666-7}}<br />
}}<br />
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*{{wikicite|id=Brandon|reference=<br />
{{cite book| title= Art or memorial? : The Forgotten History of Canada's War Art|last=Brandon |first=Laura |year=2006 | publisher=University of Calgary Press |location=Calgary |isbn=1552381781}}<br />
}} <br />
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*{{wikicite|id=Busch|reference=<br />
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}} <br />
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*{{wikicite|id=Campbell|reference=<br />
{{Cite book | last = Campbell | first = David | year = 2007 | contribution = The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =171–192 | isbn = 0889205086}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Cook|reference=<br />
{{Cite book | last = Cook | first = Tim | year = 2007 | contribution = The Gunners of Vimy Ridge: 'We are Hammering Fritz to Pieces' | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike | title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =105–124 | isbn = 0889205086}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Doughty|reference=<br />
{{cite book| last=Doughty| first=Robert A.| title=Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operation in the Great War|year=2005| publisher=Belknap Press|publication-place =Cambridge and London|isbn=067401880X}}<br />
}}<br />
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}}<br />
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*{{wikicite|id=Durflinger|reference=<br />
{{Cite book |last = Durflinger |first = Serge| year = 2007 | contribution = Safeguarding Sanctity: Canada and the Vimy Memorial during the Second World War| editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =291–305 | isbn = 0889205086}}<br />
}}<br />
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*{{wikicite|id=Fabijančić|reference=<br />
{{cite book |title=Croatia: Travels in Undiscovered Country |last=Fabijančić |first= Tony |year= 2003 |publisher= University of Alberta |isbn=0888643977 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sppa_IWNmosC&printsec=frontcover |accessdate = 2 January 2009}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Farr|reference=<br />
{{cite book |title=The Silent General: A Biography of Haig's Trusted Great War Comrade-in-Arms |last=Farr |first= Don |year= 2007 |publisher= Helion & Company Limited |location= Solihull |isbn=187462299}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Godefroy|reference=<br />
{{Cite book |last = Godefroy |first = Andrew| authorlink=Andrew Godefroy| year = 2007 | contribution = The German Army at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =225–238 | isbn = 0889205086}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Hayes|reference=<br />
{{Cite book |last = Hayes |first = Geoffrey| year = 2007 | contribution = The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =193–210 | isbn = 0889205086}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Hopkins|reference=<br />
{{Cite book|title= Canada at War, 1914–1918: A Record of Heroism and Achievement|last= Hopkins|first= J. Castell|year= 1919|publisher= Canadian Annual Review|location= Toronto}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Hucker|reference=<br />
{{Cite book |last = Hucker |first = Jacqueline|year = 2007 | contribution = The Meaning and Significance of the Vimy Monument | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =279–290 | isbn = 0889205086}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Humphries|reference=<br />
{{Cite book|last = Humphries|first = Mark Osborne| year = 2007| contribution = "Old Wine in New Bottles": A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| publication-place = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =65–85| isbn = 0889205086}}}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Inglis|reference=<br />
{{Cite book|last= Inglis|first= Dave| title = Vimy Ridge: 1917-1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years| date = 1995| publisher=Simon Fraser University| location=Burnaby|url =http://ir.lib.sfu.ca/bitstream/1892/8002/1/b17448906.pdf| accessdate = 2 February 2009}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Lloyd|reference=<br />
{{cite book |title=Battlefield tourism: pilgrimage and the commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919&ndash;1939 |last=Lloyd |first= David |year= 1998 |publisher= Berg Publishing |location= Oxford |isbn=1859731740}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=MacIntyre|reference=<br />
{{cite book |title=Canada at Vimy |last=MacIntyre |first= David |year= 1967 |publisher= Peter Martin Associates |location= Toronto}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Moran|reference=<br />
{{Cite book |last = Moran |first = Heather| year = 2007 | contribution = The Canadian Army Medical Corps at Vimy Ridge | editor-last = Hayes | editor-first = Geoffrey | editor2-last = Iarocci | editor2-first = Andrew | editor3-last = Bechthold | editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment | publication-place = Waterloo | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press | pages =139–154 | isbn = 0889205086}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Morton|reference=<br />
{{cite book | last1=Morton | first1=Desmond | first2=Glenn | last2=Wright | title=Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915-1930 | publisher=University of Toronto Press |place=Toronto |year=1987 }}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Nicholson|reference=<br />
{{cite book |title= Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919 |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1962 |publisher= Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationary |location= Ottawa |url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/CEF_e.pdf | format=PDF |accessdate = 1 January 2007}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Nicholson 2|reference=<br />
{{cite book |title= “We will remember…”: Overseas Memorials to Canada’s War Dead |last= Nicholson |first= Gerald W. L. | year= 1973 |publisher=Minister of Veterans Affairs for Canada |location= Ottawa}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Picard|reference=<br />
{{Cite news | last=Picard | first=Andréa | title=Restoring Loss at Vimy |periodical =Canadian Architect | publication-date=May 2006 | url=http://www.cdnarchitect.com/issues/ISArticle.asp?aid=1000204056&issue=05012006 |publisher=Business Information Group |accessdate = 1 August 2009}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Pierce|reference=<br />
{{cite journal |last = Pierce |first = John| title = Constructing Memory: The Vimy Memorial| journal = Canadian Military History | volume = 1 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 4–14| publisher = Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies | date = Spring 1992 | url = http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%201/issue%201-2/Pierce%20-%20Constructing%20Memory%20-%20The%20Vimy%20Memorial.pdf| accessdate = 2 February 2009|format=PDF}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Prost|reference=<br />
{{Cite book |last = Prost |first = Antoine| year = 1997 | contribution = Monuments to the Dead | editor-last = Nora | editor-first = Pierre | editor2-last = Kritzman | editor2-first = Lawrence | editor3-last = Goldhammer | editor3-first = Arthur | title = Realms of memory: the construction of the French past | publication-place = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | pages =307&ndash;332| isbn = 0231106343}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Geology|reference=<br />
{{cite book |title=Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations |last1=Rose |first1= Edward |first2=Paul |last2=Nathanail |year= 2000 |publisher= Geological Society |location= London |isbn=0850524636}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Samuels|reference = {{cite book| title= Command or Control?: Command, Training and Tactics in the British and German Armies, 1888–1918 |last=Samuels |first=Mart |year=1996| publisher=Frank Cass |location=Portland |isbn=0714645702}}}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Saunders|reference=<br />
{{cite journal |last = Saunders |first = Nicholas| title =Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914&ndash;2001| journal = Antiquity | volume = 76 | issue = 291 | pages = 101&ndash;108| publisher = Portland Press| year = 2002 }}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Sheldon2|reference=<br />
{{Cite book|title= The German Army on Vimy Ridge 1914-1917|last= Sheldon| first= Jack|year= 2008|publisher= Pen & Sword Military|location= Barnsley (UK)| isbn = 9781844156801}}}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Simkins|reference=<br />
{{cite book |last1=Simkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jukes |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Hickey |first3=Michael |title=The First World War: The Western Front, 1917-1918 |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=9781841763484}}}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Thomas|reference =<br />
{{cite journal| first=Denise | last=Thomas |title=National Sorrow, National Pride: Commemoration of War in Canada, 1918-1945 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |date=Winter 1995-1996 |volume=30 |number=4 |pages=5&ndash;27}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Tucker|reference =<br />
{{Cite book| title= The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia| editor-last = Tucker| editor-first = Spencer| year=1996| publisher= Garland Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0815303998}}}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Turner|reference = <br />
{{cite book| title= Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras |last=Turner |first=Alexander| year=2005| publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=London |isbn=1841768715}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Vance|reference=<br />
{{cite book| title= Death So Noble: Memory, Meaning, and the First World War |last=Vance |first=Jonathan Franklin |year=1997| publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=0774806001}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
*{{wikicite|id=Williams|reference=<br />
{{Cite book|title= Byng of Vimy, General and Governor General|last= Williams|first= Jeffery|year= 1983|publisher= Secker & Warburg|location= London| isbn = 0436571102}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=memorials/ww1mem/vimy Vimy Memorial—Veteran Affairs Canada]<br />
* [http://www.cbc.ca/newsinreview/may07/PDFs/vimy.pdf CBC: Remembering Vimy Ridge]<br />
* [http://archives.cbc.ca/war_conflict/first_world_war/topics/203-1006/ CBC Archives: King Edward VIII's speech at the dedication ceremony]<br />
<br />
{{Canadian First World War Memorials In Europe}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Canadian military memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:World War I memorials and cemeteries]]<br />
[[Category:First World War in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in the Pas-de-Calais]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Sites of Canada]]<br />
[[Category:Canada–France relations]]<br />
[[Category:Canada and World War I]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Memorial canadiense de Vimy]]<br />
[[fr:Mémorial de Vimy]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christina_Broom&diff=113899164Christina Broom2010-01-02T00:49:15Z<p>Carcharoth: default sort</p>
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<div>'''Christina Broom''' (28 December 1862 - 5 June 1939) was a British photographer, credited as "the UK's first female [[press photographer]]".<ref name=DM>{{cite web|title= Images of Great War's lost generation preparing to head off to the Western Front - captured by the UK's first female Press photographer|publisher= ''[[The Daily Mail]]''|author= Andrew Levy|url= http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1236319/WWI-photographs-taken-Christina-Broom-auction.html|accessdate= 2009-12-16}}</ref><ref name=ODNB>{{cite web|title= Broom (née Livingston), Christina (known as Mrs Albert Broom) (1862–1939), photographer|publisher= ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]''|author= Shirley Neale|url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/54345| accessdate = 2009-12-16}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Born at 8 [[King's Road]], Chelsea, London, the then-Christina Livingston married Albert Edward Broom (1864–1912) in 1889. In 1903, following the failure of the family ironmongery business and other business ventures, Broom borrowed a [[box camera]] and taught herself the rudiments of photography. She set up a stall in the [[Royal Mews]] at [[Buckingham Palace]], selling postcards of photographs that she had taken. She maintained this stall from 1904 until 1930.<ref name=DM/><ref name=ODNB/> <br />
<br />
When the family moved to Burnfoot Avenue, Broom used the [[coal cellar]] as her dark room. She was assisted by her daughter Winifred, who had left school to assist her mother; Albert wrote the captions for the postcards in his neat script. The postcards sold well: in one night-time session Broom printed 1000.<ref name=ODNB/><br />
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Broom was appointed official photographer to the [[Household Division]] from 1904-1939 and had a darkroom in the [[Chelsea Barracks]]; she also took many photographs of local scenes, including those at the Palace, as well as [[The Boat Race]] and [[Suffragette]] marches.<br />
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Albert died in 1912 and Broom and Winifred moved to Munster Road, Fulham. Broom took the professional name of Mrs Albert Broom. In the 1920s and 1930s her work was featured in publications such as the ''[[Illustrated London News]]'', ''[[The Tatler]]'', ''[[The Sphere (newspaper)|The Sphere]]'', and ''[[Country Life (magazine)|Country Life]]''.<ref name=ODNB/> <br />
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Broom died on 5 June 1939 and was buried in Fulham old cemetery.<ref name=ODNB/><br />
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Collections of Broom's photographs are held at the [[Museum of London]], the [[National Portrait Gallery]], the [[Imperial War Museum]], London, the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh, the Royal Maritime Museum, Greenwich, the Guards Museum, London; the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea Local Studies Library; the Hammersmith and Fulham Archive and the National Army Museum; Maidstone Art Gallery, Kent; and the [[Harry Ransom Center]] and the Gernsheim Collection, University of Texas, both at Austin, Texas, United States.<ref name=ODNB/> <br />
<br />
On 17 December 2009 a collection of some 2,000 of Broom's photographs, mainly of military subjects, was to be offered for sale by auction at [[Sotheby's]] in London. The collection was expected to make up to £35,000.<ref name=DM/><br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*Atkinson, D., ''Mrs Broom's Suffragette Photographs'' (1990) <br />
*Inselmann, A. (ed.), ''A Second Look'' (1993)<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.sothebys.com/app/live/lot/LotDetail.jsp?lot_id=159568072 Sotheby's auction catalogue entry]<br />
*[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1236319/WWI-photographs-taken-Christina-Broom-auction.html ''Daily Mail'' article]<br />
*[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/54345 ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' article]<br />
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6958075.ece Times article]<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Broom, Christina}}<br />
[[Category:1862 births]]<br />
[[Category:1939 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:English photographers]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pessach_Grupper&diff=126966631Pessach Grupper2009-03-28T19:06:42Z<p>Carcharoth: Quick-adding category "Living people" (using HotCat)</p>
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<div>{{MKs<br />
|Image =<br />
|Date of birth = {{bda|1924|8|21}}<br />
|Place of birth = [[Tel Aviv]], [[British Mandate of Palestine|Mandate Palestine]]<br />
|Year of Aliyah =<br />
|Date of death =<br />
|Place of death =<br />
|Knesset(s) = [[Israeli legislative election, 1973|8th]], [[Israeli legislative election, 1977|9th]], [[Israeli legislative election, 1981|10th]], [[Israeli legislative election, 1984|11th]], [[Israeli legislative election, 1988|12th]]<br />
|Party = [[New Liberal Party (Israel)|New Liberal Party]]<br />
|Former parties = [[Likud]]<br />
|Gov't roles = [[Agriculture Minister of Israel|Minister of Agriculture]]<br />
|}}<br />
<br />
'''Pesah Grupper''' ({{Lang-he|פסח גרופר}}, born [[21 August]] [[1924]]) is a former [[Israel]]i politician who served as [[Agriculture Minister of Israel|Minister of Agriculture]] between October 1983 and September 1984.<br />
<br />
==Biography==<br />
Grupper was born in [[Tel Aviv]] during the [[British Mandate of Palestine|Mandate era]]. He served as head of [[Atlit]] local council between 1959 and 1962 and again from 1969 until 1971.<br />
<br />
He was elected to the [[Knesset]] on [[Likud]]'s list in 1973, and retained his seat in elections in 1977 and 1981. In August 1981 he was appointed Deputy Minister of Agriculture, a role he held until 1983, when he became Minister of Agriculture in [[Yitzhak Shamir]]'s government. Although re-elected in 1984, he lost his place in the [[cabinet of Israel|cabinet]]. Following re-election in 1988, in March 1990 Grupper and four other Likud MKs left the party to form the [[New Liberal Party (Israel)|Party for the Advancement of the Zionist Idea]] (later renamed New Liberal Party). The party ran in the [[Israeli legislative election, 1992|1992 elections]], but failed to cross the [[electoral threshold]], resulting in Grupper losing his seat.<br />
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==External links==<br />
{{MKlink|id=348}}<br />
<br />
{{Israeli Agriculture Ministers}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Grupper, Pesah}}<br />
[[Category:1924 births]]<br />
[[Category:Former Members of the Knesset]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
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[[he:פסח גרופר]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mentmore_Towers&diff=138286120Mentmore Towers2008-08-30T13:51:49Z<p>Carcharoth: removing old ifd notice - picture was kept</p>
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<div>[[Image:Mentmore towers from below.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Mentmore in the 1990s]]<br />
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'''Mentmore Towers''' is a large [[Neo-Renaissance]] [[English country house]] in the village of [[Mentmore]] in [[Buckinghamshire]]. It takes its name from the village in which it stands, and from its numerous towers and [[pinnacle]]s. Historically it was always known as just Mentmore, and by locals and estate staff as the Mansion, as is the case at nearby [[Tring Park]]. However, the name Mentmore Towers has stuck and is the accepted one today. One of the house's former owners, [[Harry Primrose, 6th Earl of Rosebery|Lord Rosebery]], once said: "Mentmore Towers sounded like a second-rate boarding house". It is a [[Grade 1 listed building]].<br />
<br />
==The Rothschild era==<br />
[[Image:Mentmore.gif|thumb|left|208px|Mentmore photographed circa 1914.]]<br />
[[Image:Distant view of Mentmore Towers-cropped.jpg|thumb|right|200px|View of Mentmore.]]<br />
The house was built between 1852 and 1854 for [[Mayer Amschel de Rothschild|Baron Mayer de Rothschild]], who needed a house close to [[London]]. Later other Rothschild family homes were built at [[Tring]] in [[Hertfordshire]], [[Ascott, Buckinghamshire|Ascott]], [[Aston Clinton]], [[Waddesdon Manor|Waddesdon]] and [[Halton House|Halton]].<ref name=Cowles>{{cite book<br />
| last = Cowles<br />
| first = Virginia<br />
| year = 1975<br />
| title = The Rothschilds, a family of fortune<br />
| publisher = First Futura Publications<br />
| location = London<br />
| id = ISBN 08600 7206 1<br />
}}</ref> Since 1846 Baron Mayer had been slowly buying land in the area.<ref name=Binney>{{cite book<br />
| last = Binney, Marcus. John Robinson. William Allan<br />
| first = <br />
| year = 1977<br />
| title = SAVE Mentmore for the Nation<br />
| publisher = [[SAVE Britain's Heritage]]<br />
| location = London<br />
}}</ref> However, it was not until 1850 that he bought the manor and [[advowson]] of Mentmore for £12,400 from the trustees of the Harcourt family.<br />
<br />
The plans for the new mansion, which was begun in 1852, imitated [[Wollaton Hall]] in [[Nottingham]]; they were drawn by the architect [[Joseph Paxton]], famous for [[the Crystal Palace]] (see [[plans and interiors of Mentmore]]). <br />
<br />
The old manor house, with its later [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] façade, which had been built by the Wigg family in the 16th century, became known as the 'Garden House', the home of the Rothschild's head gardener; later it became the Estate Office. As of 2004, it is once again the village Manor House.<br />
<br />
==The Rosebery era==<!-- This section is linked from [[Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery]] --><br />
[[Image:Mentmore towers dining room.jpg|thumb|right|208px|The dining room. The [[boiseries]], or elaborately carved wood panels, were from the [[Hôtel de Villars]], [[Paris]], and are the first example of this type of decoration to be used in an English house. The fragments of the boiseries not used at Mentmore were later installed at [[Waddesdon Manor]]]]<br />
The Baron and his wife did not live long after the Towers' completion. After the Baroness's death it was inherited by her daughter [[Hannah Primrose, Countess of Rosebery|Hannah]], later Countess of Rosebery.<ref name=McKinstry>{{cite book<br />
| last = McKinstry<br />
| first = Leo<br />
| year = 2005<br />
| title = Rosebery, a statesman in turmoil<br />
| publisher = John Murray (publishers)<br />
| location = London<br />
| id = ISBN 0 7195 6586 3<br />
}}</ref> Following her death in 1890 aged 39 from [[Bright's Disease]], it became the home of her widower [[Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery]], later [[Prime Minister]] for two years from [[1894]].<ref name=McKinstry /> In the late 1920s the fifth earl gave the estate to his son [[Harry Primrose, 6th Earl of Rosebery|Harry]], Lord Dalmeny, who in 1929 on the death of his father became the sixth Earl.<ref name=McKinstry /><br />
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Both earls bred numerous winners of classic [[horse race]]s at the two stud farms on the estate, including five [[Epsom Derby]] winners. These were [[Ladas (horse)|Ladas]], [[Sir Visto]], and [[Cicero (horse)|Cicero]] from the [[Crafton Stud]]; plus [[Ocean Swell (horse)|Ocean Swell]] and [[Blue Peter (horse)|Blue Peter]] from the [[Mentmore Stud]]. Both stud farms were within a kilometre of the mansion and together with the stable yard designed by the architect [[George Devey]], who also designed many cottages in the estate's villages of Mentmore, Crafton and [[Ledburn]].<ref name=Binney /><br />
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During the [[Second World War]], the [[Gold State Coach]] was transferred to Mentmore to protect it from German bombing.<br />
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[[Image:Mentmore Tower grand staircase.jpg|thumb|left|208px|The staircase, view to the Grand Hall.]] Following the death of the sixth earl in [[1973]], the Labour government of [[James Callaghan]] refused to accept the contents in lieu of [[Inheritance Tax (United Kingdom)|inheritance taxes]], which would have turned the house into one of England's finest [[museum]]s of [[Europe]]an furniture, ''objets d'art'' and [[Victorian era]] [[architecture]]. The government was offered the house and contents for £2,000,000 but declined, and after three years of fruitless discussion, the executors of the estate sold the contents by public auction for over £6,000,000. Among the paintings sold were works by [[Thomas Gainsborough|Gainsborough]], [[Joshua Reynolds|Reynolds]], [[Francois Boucher|Boucher]], [[Drouais]], [[Giovanni Battista Moroni|Moroni]] and other well known artists, and cabinet makers, including [[Jean Henri Riesener]] and [[Thomas Chippendale|Chippendale]]. Also represented were the finest German and Russian silver- and goldsmiths, and makers of [[Limoges]] enamel. This Rothschild/Mentmore collection is said to have been one of the finest ever to be assembled in private hands, other than the collections of the [[Russia]]n and British royal families.<ref name=Sotheby's>{{cite book<br />
| last = Sotheby's<br />
| first = <br />
| year = 1977<br />
| title = Mentmore Volume I -V<br />
| publisher = Sotheby, Parke, Bernet & Co<br />
| location = London<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{Cite-section|date=May 2007}}<br />
The empty house, unaltered since the day it was built, was sold in 1977 for £220,000 to the [[Transcendental Meditation movement]] founded by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]]. In 1992 the movement made Mentmore the British national headquarters of its political arm, the [[Natural Law Party]]. <br />
<br />
[[Image:Sale 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Mentmore 1975, during the sale by Sotheby's of the contents]]<br />
[[Image:SAVEMentmore.jpg|thumb|left|208px|Cover of "SAVE Mentmore for the Nation". This booklet was published by SAVE Britain's Heritage in February 1977{{ifdc|1=Image:SAVEMentmore.jpg|log=2008 August 12}}]]<br />
From 1977 to 1979 the building housed the national office of the TM Movement, and was used for weekend and longer residence courses in Transcendental Meditation, as well as World Peace Assemblies for the practice of the more advanced TM-Sidhi Programme. In early 1979 Maharishi moved about a hundred young men, all TM teachers, to the property to maintain continuous group practice of the TM-Sidhi Programme. Mentmore was set up as the UK seat of the [[World Government for the Age of Enlightenment]] (founded in 1975) and was used as the launching point to establish [[City Parliaments]] in most of the UK's larger cities. For roughly three years (1979 through 1982) Mentmore Towers saw an immense level of activity, with numerous banquets to woo influential academic, government and business figures. A number of laboratories were built in the former servants' wing and used for TM research. These operated under the name [[Maharishi European Research University]] or MERU, after the original institution of the same name established earlier at Seelisberg in Switzerland. Several series of seminars were run, aimed at inspiring academics, principally from [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[Cambridge University|Cambridge Universities]], to do research on TM. Visiting speakers included Nobel Laureate [[Brian Josephson]], Professor [[Ilya Prigogine]], [[Hans Eysenck]], and many other leading international academics. <br />
<br />
In 1982 Mentmore's role was changed to become the home of [[Maharishi University of Natural Law]]. In 1992 it was transformed again, to be the UK headquarters of the [[Natural Law Party]], which launched over 300 candidates from the UK and Commonwealth countries to contest the election in that year. <br />
<br />
In a search for sources of income, the TM organisation ran a number of businesses out of Mentmore (including making fudge, selling silk dresses, hosting classical music concerts and using the building as a film location). After 1982 the number of staff at Mentmore decreased to about thirty until the building was sold.<br />
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==Future as a hotel==<br />
[[Image:Mentmore towers gold room.jpg|thumb|right|208px|The Gold Room, formerly the white drawing room with a specially designed modern carpet mirroring the ceiling plasterwork]]<br />
<br />
[[Image:mentmoremarblestaircase.jpg|thumb|left|The Marble Staircase]]<br />
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In 1997 Mentmore Towers was sold to a company, owned by [[Simon Halabi]], now named Mentmore Towers Ltd, that, while restoring it, plans to turn it into a luxury hotel with 101 suites, including 62 in a new wing on the slope below the house.<ref>[http://www.epr.co.uk/architect_hotels_mentmore.html# EPR Architects, Mentmore Towers] - accessed [[22 September]] [[2006]].</ref> However, in September 2004 a local resident won a last-minute [[injunction]] in the [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] to halt work on the hotel while a [[judicial review]] investigated if the [[planning permission]] granted had followed the correct procedures. In March 2005 the High Court ruled that [[Aylesbury Vale District Council]]'s decision to grant planning permission to the developers was "unimpeachable" and legally sound.<br />
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==Film location==<br />
In the last few years the house has appeared in many films, including ''[[Eyes Wide Shut]]'', ''[[Ali G Indahouse]]'', <br />
[[Terry Gilliam]]'s ''[[Brazil (movie)|Brazil]]'' and ''[[The Mummy Returns]]''. In ''[[Batman Begins]]'', Mentmore Towers was used as the gothic [[Wayne Manor]]. The [[Spice Girls]] filmed the video "[[Goodbye (Spice Girls song)|Goodbye]]" at the castle. It served as the filming location of the music video to [[Enya]]'s "Only If..." It also featured prominently in the 1989 film "[[Slipstream]]."<br />
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== Notes ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Rothschild properties in Buckinghamshire]]<br />
*[[Hannah, Countess of Rosebery]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.theclubcompany.com/clubs/Mentmore/ Mentmore Golf and Country Club]<br />
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{{commonscat|Mentmore Towers}}<br />
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[[Category:Houses in Buckinghamshire]]<br />
[[Category:Grade I listed houses]]<br />
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Buckinghamshire]]<br />
[[Category:Jacobethan architecture]]<br />
[[Category:Golf clubs and courses in England]]<br />
[[Category:Rothschild family]]<br />
[[Category:Hotels in England]]<br />
[[Category:1854 architecture]]<br />
[[Category:Transcendental Meditation]]<br />
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[[pt:Mentmore Towers]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azolla-Ereignis&diff=106793827Azolla-Ereignis2008-08-20T05:38:57Z<p>Carcharoth: Quick-adding category "Prehistory of the Arctic" (using HotCat)</p>
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<div>[[Image:Azolla filiculoides MUN.jpg|thumb|The modern fern ''[[Azolla filiculoides]]''. Blooms of a related organism may have pulled the [[Earth]] into the current icehouse world.]]<br />
<br />
The '''Azolla event''' occurred in the middle [[Eocene]] period,<ref name=Brinkhuis2006>{{citation<br />
| author = Henk Brinkhuis, Stefan Schouten; <br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Episodic fresh surface waters in the Eocene Arctic Ocean<br />
| journal = Nature<br />
| volume = 441<br />
| issue = 7093<br />
| pages = 606–609<br />
| doi = 10.1038/nature04692<br />
| url = http://media.eurekalert.org/aaasnewsroom/MCM/FIL_000000000249/Brinkhuis%20et%20al%202006%20total.pdf<br />
}}</ref> around {{Ma|49}}, when blooms of the freshwater [[fern]] ''[[Azolla]]'' occurred in the [[Arctic Ocean]]. As they sank to the stagnant sea floor, they were incorporated into the sediment; the resulting draw down of [[carbon]] from the atmosphere helped transform the planet from a "[[greenhouse Earth]]" state, hot enough for turtles and palm trees to prosper at the poles, to the [[icehouse Earth]] it has been since.<br />
<br />
==Geological evidence of the event==<br />
[[Image:65 Myr Climate Change.png|thumb|300px|right|{{delta|18|O}} - a proxy for temperature - over the past 65 million years. The Azolla event marks the end of the Eocene optimum and the beginning of a long-term decline in global temperatures.]]<br />
In sedimentary layers throughout the Arctic basin, a unit reaching at least 8&nbsp;m in thickness<ref>The bottom of the longest core was not recovered, but it may have reached 20&nbsp;m+</ref> is discernible. This unit consists of alternating layers; siliceous clastic layers representing the background sedimentation of [[plankton]]ic organisms, usual to marine sediments, switch with millimetre-thick laminations comprising [[fossil]]ised ''Azolla'' matter.<ref name=Waddell2006>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Waddell, L.M.<br />
| coauthors = Moore, T.C.<br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Salinity of the Early and Middle Eocene Arctic Ocean From Oxygen Isotope Analysis of Fish Bone Carbonate<br />
| journal = American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2006, abstract# OS53B-1097<br />
| url = http://www.agu.org/cgi-bin/wais?hh=OS53B-1097 <br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-16<br />
<br />
}}</ref> This organic matter can also be detected in the form of a [[gamma radiation]] spike, which has been noted throughout the Arctic basin, making the event a useful aid in lining up cores drilled at different locations. Palynological controls and calibration with the high-resolution magnetic reversal record allows the duration of the event to be estimated at 800,000&nbsp;years.<ref name=Brinkhuis2006/> The event coincides precisely with a catastrophic decline in [[carbon dioxide]] levels, which fell from 3500&nbsp;[[Parts-per notation|ppm]] in the early [[Eocene]] to 650&nbsp;ppm<ref>Parts per million. Today's concentration is 380&nbsp;ppm, and the concentration between the last glacial and the industrial revolution peaked at 280&nbsp;ppm.</ref> during this event.<br />
<br />
==''Azolla''==<br />
The fossil ferns are morphologically indistinguishable from modern examples of the genus, which has led to the formation of a working group to better understand the physiology of the organism. ''Azolla'' today is a freshwater fern which forms a symbiotic relationship with a [[cyanobacterium]], ''[[Anabaena]]''; this organism [[nitrogen fixation|fixes nitrogen]] very efficiently. ''Azolla'' has been deemed a "super-plant" as it can draw down as much as a tonne of nitrogen per acre per year<ref name=Belnap2002>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Belnap, J.<br />
| year = 2002<br />
| title = Nitrogen fixation in biological soil crusts from southeast Utah, USA<br />
| journal = Biology and Fertility of Soils<br />
| volume = 35<br />
| issue = 2<br />
| pages = 128–135<br />
| url = http://www.springerlink.com/index/04QV1MVMLBVCFRFP.pdf <br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-17<br />
<br />
| doi = 10.1007/s00374-002-0452-x<br />
}}</ref> (0.25kg/m²/yr); this is matched by 6&nbsp;tonnes of carbon drawdown (1.5kg/m²/yr). Its ability to use atmospheric nitrogen for growth means that the only effective limit to its growth is phosphorus: carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus being the three most essential elements for protein manufacture. The plant can grow at great speed in favourable conditions - which involve modest warmth and 20&nbsp;hours of sunlight, both of which were in evidence at the poles during the early Eocene - and can double its biomass over two to three days in such a climate.<ref name=Brinkhuis2006>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Brinkhuis, H.<br />
| coauthors = Schouten, S.; Collinson, M.E.; Sluijs, A.; Sinninghe Damsté, J.S.; Dickens, G.R.; Huber, M.; Cronin, T.M.; Onodera, J.; Takahashi, K. ''et al''. <br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Episodic fresh surface waters in the Eocene Arctic Ocean<br />
| journal = Nature<br />
| volume = 441<br />
| pages = 7093<br />
| url = http://www.nature.com/search/executeSearch?sp-q-9=NATURE&sp-q=Episodic+fresh+surface+waters+in+the+Eocene+Arctic+Ocean&sp-c=10&sp-x-9=cat&sp-s=date&submit=go&sp-a=sp1001702d&sp-sfvl-field=subject%7Cujournal&sp-x-1=ujournal&sp-p-1=phrase&sp-p=all<br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-17<br />
<br />
| doi = 10.1038/nature04692<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Conditions encouraging the event==<br />
[[Image:Early Eocene Arctic basin.PNG|thumb|The continental configuration during the Early Eocene resulted in an isolated Arctic basin.]]<br />
During the early Eocene, the [[continental drift|continental configuration]] was such that the Arctic sea was almost entirely cut off from the wider oceans. This meant that mixing — provided today by deep water currents such as the Gulf Stream — did not occur, leading to a stratified water column resembling today's [[Black Sea]].<ref name=Stein2006>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Stein, R.<br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = The Paleocene-Eocene (“Greenhouse“) Arctic Ocean paleoenvironment: Implications from organic-carbon and biomarker records (IODP-ACEX Expedition 302)<br />
| journal = Geophysical Research Abstracts<br />
| volume = 8<br />
| pages = 06718<br />
| url = http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU06/06718/EGU06-J-06718-1.pdf <br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-16<br />
<br />
| format = abstract<br />
}}</ref><br />
High temperatures and winds led to high evaporation, increasing the density of the ocean, and — through an increase in rainfall — high discharge from rivers which fed the basin. This low-density freshwater formed a [[nepheloid layer]], floating on the surface of the dense sea.<ref name=Gleason2007><br />
{{cite web| first1 = J.D. | last1 = Gleason | first2 = D.T. | last2 = Thomas | first3= T.C. last3= Moore | first4= J.D. | last4= Blum | first5= R.M. | last5= Owen | title = Water column structure of the Eocene Arctic Ocean from Nd-Sr isotope proxies in fossil fish debris | year = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-11-03 | url= http://www.goldschmidt2007.org/abstracts/A329.pdf | quote = The [[Strontium|Sr]]-[[Neodymium|Nd]] isotopic record is [...] indicative of a poorly mixed ocean and highly stratified water column with anoxic bottom waters. A stable, “fresh” water upper layer was likely a pervasive feature of the Eocene Arctic Ocean }}</ref><br />
Even a few centimetres of fresh water would be enough to allow the colonisation of ''Azolla''; further, this river water would be rich in minerals such as phosphorus, which it would accumulate from mud and rocks it interacted with as it crossed the continents. To further aid the growth of the plant, concentrations of carbon (in the form of carbon dioxide) and accessible nitrogen in the atmosphere are known to have been high at this time.<ref name=Pearson2000>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Pearson, P.N.<br />
| coauthors = Palmer, M.R.<br />
| year = 2000<br />
| title = Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years<br />
| journal = Nature<br />
| volume = 406<br />
| issue = 6797<br />
| pages = 695–699<br />
| url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v406/n6797/pdf/406695a0.pdf<br />
| accessdate = 2008-03-14<br />
<br />
| doi = 10.1038/35021000<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
Blooms alone are not enough to have any geological impact; to permanently draw down CO<sub>2</sub> and cause climate change, the carbon must be sequestered, by the plants being buried and eventually fossilised. The anoxic bottom of the Arctic basin, a result of the stratified water column, permitted just this: the anoxic environment inhibits the activity of decomposing organisms and allows the plants to sit unrotted until they are buried by sediment and incorporated into the fossil record.<br />
<br />
==Global effects==<br />
<br />
With 800,000&nbsp;years of ''Azolla'' bloom episodes and a 4,000,000&nbsp;km² basin to cover, even by very conservative estimates more than enough carbon could be sequestered by plant burial to account for the observed 80% drop in CO<sub>2</sub> by this one phenomenon alone.<ref>It should be stressed that other factors almost certainly played a role.</ref> This drop initiated a global temperature decline which continued for millions of years; the Arctic cooled from an average sea-surface temperature of 13&nbsp;°C to today's &minus;9&nbsp;°C,<ref name=Brinkhuis2006/> and the rest of the globe underwent a similar change. For perhaps the first time in its history,<ref>It is almost certainly the first time the planet had bipolar glaciation during the [[Phanerozoic]]; whether or not it was present during the Neoproterozoic "[[Snowball earth]]" is a matter of debate.</ref> the planet had ice caps at both of its poles. A geologically rapid decrease in temperature between 49 and {{Ma|47}}, around the ''Azolla'' event, is evident: [[dropstones]] — which are taken as evidence for the presence of ice — are common in Arctic sediments thereafter. This is set against a backdrop of gradual, long-term cooling: It is not until {{Ma|15}} that evidence for widespread polar freezing is common.<ref name=NatGeo/><br />
<br />
==Alternative explanations==<br />
Whilst a verdant Arctic Ocean is a viable working model, sceptical scientists point out that it would be possible for ''Azolla'' colonies in deltas or freshwater lagoons to be swept into the Arctic Ocean by strong currents, removing the necessity for a freshwater layer.<ref name=NatGeo>{{cite journal|journal=National Geographic|date=May 2005|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0505/resources_geo.html|title=Great green north|author=Tim Appenzeller}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Economic considerations==<br />
Much of the current interest in oil exploration in the Arctic regions, ironically made possible by [[global warming]], is directed towards the ''Azolla'' deposits. The burial of large amounts of organic material provides the source rock for oil, and given the right thermal history, it is possible that the preserved ''Azolla'' blooms may be converted to oil or gas.<ref name=NYT>{{cite news|journal=New York Times|date=2004-11-20|title="Under all that ice, maybe oil|author=ANDREW C. REVKIN|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/30/science/earth/30core.html|accessdate=2007-10-17}}</ref> While this does mean that much money is available for the study of this event — a centre having been set up in the Netherlands devoted to ''Azolla'' — it may also mean much of the climate change caused by ''Azolla'' will soon be reversed.<br />
<br />
{{Horizontal timeline<br />
|title=The Azolla event in geological time<br />
|caption=Million years ago. [[Age of Earth]] = 4,650<br />
|collapsible=yes<br />
|Row1={{Note row<br />
|from=-600<br />
|to=0<br />
|1-at=-49<br />
|1-text=Azolla event<br />
}}<br />
|Row3={{Geological eons|-600}}<br />
|Row2={{Geological periods|-600}}<br />
|Row4={{Scale row<br />
|from=-600<br />
|to=0<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Notes and references==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Climate change]]<br />
[[Category:Eocene]]<br />
[[Category:Geochronology]]<br />
[[Category:Environment of the Arctic]]<br />
[[Category:Prehistory of the Arctic]]<br />
<br />
[[ca:Esdeveniment d'Azolla]]<br />
[[es:Evento Azolla]]<br />
[[nl:Azolla event]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azolla-Ereignis&diff=106793825Azolla-Ereignis2008-08-20T05:37:51Z<p>Carcharoth: Removed category "Arctic research"; Quick-adding category "Environment of the Arctic" (using HotCat)</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Azolla filiculoides MUN.jpg|thumb|The modern fern ''[[Azolla filiculoides]]''. Blooms of a related organism may have pulled the [[Earth]] into the current icehouse world.]]<br />
<br />
The '''Azolla event''' occurred in the middle [[Eocene]] period,<ref name=Brinkhuis2006>{{citation<br />
| author = Henk Brinkhuis, Stefan Schouten; <br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Episodic fresh surface waters in the Eocene Arctic Ocean<br />
| journal = Nature<br />
| volume = 441<br />
| issue = 7093<br />
| pages = 606–609<br />
| doi = 10.1038/nature04692<br />
| url = http://media.eurekalert.org/aaasnewsroom/MCM/FIL_000000000249/Brinkhuis%20et%20al%202006%20total.pdf<br />
}}</ref> around {{Ma|49}}, when blooms of the freshwater [[fern]] ''[[Azolla]]'' occurred in the [[Arctic Ocean]]. As they sank to the stagnant sea floor, they were incorporated into the sediment; the resulting draw down of [[carbon]] from the atmosphere helped transform the planet from a "[[greenhouse Earth]]" state, hot enough for turtles and palm trees to prosper at the poles, to the [[icehouse Earth]] it has been since.<br />
<br />
==Geological evidence of the event==<br />
[[Image:65 Myr Climate Change.png|thumb|300px|right|{{delta|18|O}} - a proxy for temperature - over the past 65 million years. The Azolla event marks the end of the Eocene optimum and the beginning of a long-term decline in global temperatures.]]<br />
In sedimentary layers throughout the Arctic basin, a unit reaching at least 8&nbsp;m in thickness<ref>The bottom of the longest core was not recovered, but it may have reached 20&nbsp;m+</ref> is discernible. This unit consists of alternating layers; siliceous clastic layers representing the background sedimentation of [[plankton]]ic organisms, usual to marine sediments, switch with millimetre-thick laminations comprising [[fossil]]ised ''Azolla'' matter.<ref name=Waddell2006>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Waddell, L.M.<br />
| coauthors = Moore, T.C.<br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Salinity of the Early and Middle Eocene Arctic Ocean From Oxygen Isotope Analysis of Fish Bone Carbonate<br />
| journal = American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2006, abstract# OS53B-1097<br />
| url = http://www.agu.org/cgi-bin/wais?hh=OS53B-1097 <br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-16<br />
<br />
}}</ref> This organic matter can also be detected in the form of a [[gamma radiation]] spike, which has been noted throughout the Arctic basin, making the event a useful aid in lining up cores drilled at different locations. Palynological controls and calibration with the high-resolution magnetic reversal record allows the duration of the event to be estimated at 800,000&nbsp;years.<ref name=Brinkhuis2006/> The event coincides precisely with a catastrophic decline in [[carbon dioxide]] levels, which fell from 3500&nbsp;[[Parts-per notation|ppm]] in the early [[Eocene]] to 650&nbsp;ppm<ref>Parts per million. Today's concentration is 380&nbsp;ppm, and the concentration between the last glacial and the industrial revolution peaked at 280&nbsp;ppm.</ref> during this event.<br />
<br />
==''Azolla''==<br />
The fossil ferns are morphologically indistinguishable from modern examples of the genus, which has led to the formation of a working group to better understand the physiology of the organism. ''Azolla'' today is a freshwater fern which forms a symbiotic relationship with a [[cyanobacterium]], ''[[Anabaena]]''; this organism [[nitrogen fixation|fixes nitrogen]] very efficiently. ''Azolla'' has been deemed a "super-plant" as it can draw down as much as a tonne of nitrogen per acre per year<ref name=Belnap2002>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Belnap, J.<br />
| year = 2002<br />
| title = Nitrogen fixation in biological soil crusts from southeast Utah, USA<br />
| journal = Biology and Fertility of Soils<br />
| volume = 35<br />
| issue = 2<br />
| pages = 128–135<br />
| url = http://www.springerlink.com/index/04QV1MVMLBVCFRFP.pdf <br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-17<br />
<br />
| doi = 10.1007/s00374-002-0452-x<br />
}}</ref> (0.25kg/m²/yr); this is matched by 6&nbsp;tonnes of carbon drawdown (1.5kg/m²/yr). Its ability to use atmospheric nitrogen for growth means that the only effective limit to its growth is phosphorus: carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus being the three most essential elements for protein manufacture. The plant can grow at great speed in favourable conditions - which involve modest warmth and 20&nbsp;hours of sunlight, both of which were in evidence at the poles during the early Eocene - and can double its biomass over two to three days in such a climate.<ref name=Brinkhuis2006>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Brinkhuis, H.<br />
| coauthors = Schouten, S.; Collinson, M.E.; Sluijs, A.; Sinninghe Damsté, J.S.; Dickens, G.R.; Huber, M.; Cronin, T.M.; Onodera, J.; Takahashi, K. ''et al''. <br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Episodic fresh surface waters in the Eocene Arctic Ocean<br />
| journal = Nature<br />
| volume = 441<br />
| pages = 7093<br />
| url = http://www.nature.com/search/executeSearch?sp-q-9=NATURE&sp-q=Episodic+fresh+surface+waters+in+the+Eocene+Arctic+Ocean&sp-c=10&sp-x-9=cat&sp-s=date&submit=go&sp-a=sp1001702d&sp-sfvl-field=subject%7Cujournal&sp-x-1=ujournal&sp-p-1=phrase&sp-p=all<br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-17<br />
<br />
| doi = 10.1038/nature04692<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Conditions encouraging the event==<br />
[[Image:Early Eocene Arctic basin.PNG|thumb|The continental configuration during the Early Eocene resulted in an isolated Arctic basin.]]<br />
During the early Eocene, the [[continental drift|continental configuration]] was such that the Arctic sea was almost entirely cut off from the wider oceans. This meant that mixing — provided today by deep water currents such as the Gulf Stream — did not occur, leading to a stratified water column resembling today's [[Black Sea]].<ref name=Stein2006>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Stein, R.<br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = The Paleocene-Eocene (“Greenhouse“) Arctic Ocean paleoenvironment: Implications from organic-carbon and biomarker records (IODP-ACEX Expedition 302)<br />
| journal = Geophysical Research Abstracts<br />
| volume = 8<br />
| pages = 06718<br />
| url = http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU06/06718/EGU06-J-06718-1.pdf <br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-16<br />
<br />
| format = abstract<br />
}}</ref><br />
High temperatures and winds led to high evaporation, increasing the density of the ocean, and — through an increase in rainfall — high discharge from rivers which fed the basin. This low-density freshwater formed a [[nepheloid layer]], floating on the surface of the dense sea.<ref name=Gleason2007><br />
{{cite web| first1 = J.D. | last1 = Gleason | first2 = D.T. | last2 = Thomas | first3= T.C. last3= Moore | first4= J.D. | last4= Blum | first5= R.M. | last5= Owen | title = Water column structure of the Eocene Arctic Ocean from Nd-Sr isotope proxies in fossil fish debris | year = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-11-03 | url= http://www.goldschmidt2007.org/abstracts/A329.pdf | quote = The [[Strontium|Sr]]-[[Neodymium|Nd]] isotopic record is [...] indicative of a poorly mixed ocean and highly stratified water column with anoxic bottom waters. A stable, “fresh” water upper layer was likely a pervasive feature of the Eocene Arctic Ocean }}</ref><br />
Even a few centimetres of fresh water would be enough to allow the colonisation of ''Azolla''; further, this river water would be rich in minerals such as phosphorus, which it would accumulate from mud and rocks it interacted with as it crossed the continents. To further aid the growth of the plant, concentrations of carbon (in the form of carbon dioxide) and accessible nitrogen in the atmosphere are known to have been high at this time.<ref name=Pearson2000>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Pearson, P.N.<br />
| coauthors = Palmer, M.R.<br />
| year = 2000<br />
| title = Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years<br />
| journal = Nature<br />
| volume = 406<br />
| issue = 6797<br />
| pages = 695–699<br />
| url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v406/n6797/pdf/406695a0.pdf<br />
| accessdate = 2008-03-14<br />
<br />
| doi = 10.1038/35021000<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
Blooms alone are not enough to have any geological impact; to permanently draw down CO<sub>2</sub> and cause climate change, the carbon must be sequestered, by the plants being buried and eventually fossilised. The anoxic bottom of the Arctic basin, a result of the stratified water column, permitted just this: the anoxic environment inhibits the activity of decomposing organisms and allows the plants to sit unrotted until they are buried by sediment and incorporated into the fossil record.<br />
<br />
==Global effects==<br />
<br />
With 800,000&nbsp;years of ''Azolla'' bloom episodes and a 4,000,000&nbsp;km² basin to cover, even by very conservative estimates more than enough carbon could be sequestered by plant burial to account for the observed 80% drop in CO<sub>2</sub> by this one phenomenon alone.<ref>It should be stressed that other factors almost certainly played a role.</ref> This drop initiated a global temperature decline which continued for millions of years; the Arctic cooled from an average sea-surface temperature of 13&nbsp;°C to today's &minus;9&nbsp;°C,<ref name=Brinkhuis2006/> and the rest of the globe underwent a similar change. For perhaps the first time in its history,<ref>It is almost certainly the first time the planet had bipolar glaciation during the [[Phanerozoic]]; whether or not it was present during the Neoproterozoic "[[Snowball earth]]" is a matter of debate.</ref> the planet had ice caps at both of its poles. A geologically rapid decrease in temperature between 49 and {{Ma|47}}, around the ''Azolla'' event, is evident: [[dropstones]] — which are taken as evidence for the presence of ice — are common in Arctic sediments thereafter. This is set against a backdrop of gradual, long-term cooling: It is not until {{Ma|15}} that evidence for widespread polar freezing is common.<ref name=NatGeo/><br />
<br />
==Alternative explanations==<br />
Whilst a verdant Arctic Ocean is a viable working model, sceptical scientists point out that it would be possible for ''Azolla'' colonies in deltas or freshwater lagoons to be swept into the Arctic Ocean by strong currents, removing the necessity for a freshwater layer.<ref name=NatGeo>{{cite journal|journal=National Geographic|date=May 2005|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0505/resources_geo.html|title=Great green north|author=Tim Appenzeller}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Economic considerations==<br />
Much of the current interest in oil exploration in the Arctic regions, ironically made possible by [[global warming]], is directed towards the ''Azolla'' deposits. The burial of large amounts of organic material provides the source rock for oil, and given the right thermal history, it is possible that the preserved ''Azolla'' blooms may be converted to oil or gas.<ref name=NYT>{{cite news|journal=New York Times|date=2004-11-20|title="Under all that ice, maybe oil|author=ANDREW C. REVKIN|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/30/science/earth/30core.html|accessdate=2007-10-17}}</ref> While this does mean that much money is available for the study of this event — a centre having been set up in the Netherlands devoted to ''Azolla'' — it may also mean much of the climate change caused by ''Azolla'' will soon be reversed.<br />
<br />
{{Horizontal timeline<br />
|title=The Azolla event in geological time<br />
|caption=Million years ago. [[Age of Earth]] = 4,650<br />
|collapsible=yes<br />
|Row1={{Note row<br />
|from=-600<br />
|to=0<br />
|1-at=-49<br />
|1-text=Azolla event<br />
}}<br />
|Row3={{Geological eons|-600}}<br />
|Row2={{Geological periods|-600}}<br />
|Row4={{Scale row<br />
|from=-600<br />
|to=0<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Notes and references==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Climate change]]<br />
[[Category:Eocene]]<br />
[[Category:Geochronology]]<br />
[[Category:Environment of the Arctic]]<br />
<br />
[[ca:Esdeveniment d'Azolla]]<br />
[[es:Evento Azolla]]<br />
[[nl:Azolla event]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azolla-Ereignis&diff=106793824Azolla-Ereignis2008-08-20T05:37:26Z<p>Carcharoth: Quick-adding category "Arctic research" (using HotCat)</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Azolla filiculoides MUN.jpg|thumb|The modern fern ''[[Azolla filiculoides]]''. Blooms of a related organism may have pulled the [[Earth]] into the current icehouse world.]]<br />
<br />
The '''Azolla event''' occurred in the middle [[Eocene]] period,<ref name=Brinkhuis2006>{{citation<br />
| author = Henk Brinkhuis, Stefan Schouten; <br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Episodic fresh surface waters in the Eocene Arctic Ocean<br />
| journal = Nature<br />
| volume = 441<br />
| issue = 7093<br />
| pages = 606–609<br />
| doi = 10.1038/nature04692<br />
| url = http://media.eurekalert.org/aaasnewsroom/MCM/FIL_000000000249/Brinkhuis%20et%20al%202006%20total.pdf<br />
}}</ref> around {{Ma|49}}, when blooms of the freshwater [[fern]] ''[[Azolla]]'' occurred in the [[Arctic Ocean]]. As they sank to the stagnant sea floor, they were incorporated into the sediment; the resulting draw down of [[carbon]] from the atmosphere helped transform the planet from a "[[greenhouse Earth]]" state, hot enough for turtles and palm trees to prosper at the poles, to the [[icehouse Earth]] it has been since.<br />
<br />
==Geological evidence of the event==<br />
[[Image:65 Myr Climate Change.png|thumb|300px|right|{{delta|18|O}} - a proxy for temperature - over the past 65 million years. The Azolla event marks the end of the Eocene optimum and the beginning of a long-term decline in global temperatures.]]<br />
In sedimentary layers throughout the Arctic basin, a unit reaching at least 8&nbsp;m in thickness<ref>The bottom of the longest core was not recovered, but it may have reached 20&nbsp;m+</ref> is discernible. This unit consists of alternating layers; siliceous clastic layers representing the background sedimentation of [[plankton]]ic organisms, usual to marine sediments, switch with millimetre-thick laminations comprising [[fossil]]ised ''Azolla'' matter.<ref name=Waddell2006>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Waddell, L.M.<br />
| coauthors = Moore, T.C.<br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Salinity of the Early and Middle Eocene Arctic Ocean From Oxygen Isotope Analysis of Fish Bone Carbonate<br />
| journal = American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2006, abstract# OS53B-1097<br />
| url = http://www.agu.org/cgi-bin/wais?hh=OS53B-1097 <br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-16<br />
<br />
}}</ref> This organic matter can also be detected in the form of a [[gamma radiation]] spike, which has been noted throughout the Arctic basin, making the event a useful aid in lining up cores drilled at different locations. Palynological controls and calibration with the high-resolution magnetic reversal record allows the duration of the event to be estimated at 800,000&nbsp;years.<ref name=Brinkhuis2006/> The event coincides precisely with a catastrophic decline in [[carbon dioxide]] levels, which fell from 3500&nbsp;[[Parts-per notation|ppm]] in the early [[Eocene]] to 650&nbsp;ppm<ref>Parts per million. Today's concentration is 380&nbsp;ppm, and the concentration between the last glacial and the industrial revolution peaked at 280&nbsp;ppm.</ref> during this event.<br />
<br />
==''Azolla''==<br />
The fossil ferns are morphologically indistinguishable from modern examples of the genus, which has led to the formation of a working group to better understand the physiology of the organism. ''Azolla'' today is a freshwater fern which forms a symbiotic relationship with a [[cyanobacterium]], ''[[Anabaena]]''; this organism [[nitrogen fixation|fixes nitrogen]] very efficiently. ''Azolla'' has been deemed a "super-plant" as it can draw down as much as a tonne of nitrogen per acre per year<ref name=Belnap2002>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Belnap, J.<br />
| year = 2002<br />
| title = Nitrogen fixation in biological soil crusts from southeast Utah, USA<br />
| journal = Biology and Fertility of Soils<br />
| volume = 35<br />
| issue = 2<br />
| pages = 128–135<br />
| url = http://www.springerlink.com/index/04QV1MVMLBVCFRFP.pdf <br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-17<br />
<br />
| doi = 10.1007/s00374-002-0452-x<br />
}}</ref> (0.25kg/m²/yr); this is matched by 6&nbsp;tonnes of carbon drawdown (1.5kg/m²/yr). Its ability to use atmospheric nitrogen for growth means that the only effective limit to its growth is phosphorus: carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus being the three most essential elements for protein manufacture. The plant can grow at great speed in favourable conditions - which involve modest warmth and 20&nbsp;hours of sunlight, both of which were in evidence at the poles during the early Eocene - and can double its biomass over two to three days in such a climate.<ref name=Brinkhuis2006>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Brinkhuis, H.<br />
| coauthors = Schouten, S.; Collinson, M.E.; Sluijs, A.; Sinninghe Damsté, J.S.; Dickens, G.R.; Huber, M.; Cronin, T.M.; Onodera, J.; Takahashi, K. ''et al''. <br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Episodic fresh surface waters in the Eocene Arctic Ocean<br />
| journal = Nature<br />
| volume = 441<br />
| pages = 7093<br />
| url = http://www.nature.com/search/executeSearch?sp-q-9=NATURE&sp-q=Episodic+fresh+surface+waters+in+the+Eocene+Arctic+Ocean&sp-c=10&sp-x-9=cat&sp-s=date&submit=go&sp-a=sp1001702d&sp-sfvl-field=subject%7Cujournal&sp-x-1=ujournal&sp-p-1=phrase&sp-p=all<br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-17<br />
<br />
| doi = 10.1038/nature04692<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Conditions encouraging the event==<br />
[[Image:Early Eocene Arctic basin.PNG|thumb|The continental configuration during the Early Eocene resulted in an isolated Arctic basin.]]<br />
During the early Eocene, the [[continental drift|continental configuration]] was such that the Arctic sea was almost entirely cut off from the wider oceans. This meant that mixing — provided today by deep water currents such as the Gulf Stream — did not occur, leading to a stratified water column resembling today's [[Black Sea]].<ref name=Stein2006>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Stein, R.<br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = The Paleocene-Eocene (“Greenhouse“) Arctic Ocean paleoenvironment: Implications from organic-carbon and biomarker records (IODP-ACEX Expedition 302)<br />
| journal = Geophysical Research Abstracts<br />
| volume = 8<br />
| pages = 06718<br />
| url = http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU06/06718/EGU06-J-06718-1.pdf <br />
| accessdate = 2007-10-16<br />
<br />
| format = abstract<br />
}}</ref><br />
High temperatures and winds led to high evaporation, increasing the density of the ocean, and — through an increase in rainfall — high discharge from rivers which fed the basin. This low-density freshwater formed a [[nepheloid layer]], floating on the surface of the dense sea.<ref name=Gleason2007><br />
{{cite web| first1 = J.D. | last1 = Gleason | first2 = D.T. | last2 = Thomas | first3= T.C. last3= Moore | first4= J.D. | last4= Blum | first5= R.M. | last5= Owen | title = Water column structure of the Eocene Arctic Ocean from Nd-Sr isotope proxies in fossil fish debris | year = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-11-03 | url= http://www.goldschmidt2007.org/abstracts/A329.pdf | quote = The [[Strontium|Sr]]-[[Neodymium|Nd]] isotopic record is [...] indicative of a poorly mixed ocean and highly stratified water column with anoxic bottom waters. A stable, “fresh” water upper layer was likely a pervasive feature of the Eocene Arctic Ocean }}</ref><br />
Even a few centimetres of fresh water would be enough to allow the colonisation of ''Azolla''; further, this river water would be rich in minerals such as phosphorus, which it would accumulate from mud and rocks it interacted with as it crossed the continents. To further aid the growth of the plant, concentrations of carbon (in the form of carbon dioxide) and accessible nitrogen in the atmosphere are known to have been high at this time.<ref name=Pearson2000>{{cite journal<br />
| author = Pearson, P.N.<br />
| coauthors = Palmer, M.R.<br />
| year = 2000<br />
| title = Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years<br />
| journal = Nature<br />
| volume = 406<br />
| issue = 6797<br />
| pages = 695–699<br />
| url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v406/n6797/pdf/406695a0.pdf<br />
| accessdate = 2008-03-14<br />
<br />
| doi = 10.1038/35021000<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
Blooms alone are not enough to have any geological impact; to permanently draw down CO<sub>2</sub> and cause climate change, the carbon must be sequestered, by the plants being buried and eventually fossilised. The anoxic bottom of the Arctic basin, a result of the stratified water column, permitted just this: the anoxic environment inhibits the activity of decomposing organisms and allows the plants to sit unrotted until they are buried by sediment and incorporated into the fossil record.<br />
<br />
==Global effects==<br />
<br />
With 800,000&nbsp;years of ''Azolla'' bloom episodes and a 4,000,000&nbsp;km² basin to cover, even by very conservative estimates more than enough carbon could be sequestered by plant burial to account for the observed 80% drop in CO<sub>2</sub> by this one phenomenon alone.<ref>It should be stressed that other factors almost certainly played a role.</ref> This drop initiated a global temperature decline which continued for millions of years; the Arctic cooled from an average sea-surface temperature of 13&nbsp;°C to today's &minus;9&nbsp;°C,<ref name=Brinkhuis2006/> and the rest of the globe underwent a similar change. For perhaps the first time in its history,<ref>It is almost certainly the first time the planet had bipolar glaciation during the [[Phanerozoic]]; whether or not it was present during the Neoproterozoic "[[Snowball earth]]" is a matter of debate.</ref> the planet had ice caps at both of its poles. A geologically rapid decrease in temperature between 49 and {{Ma|47}}, around the ''Azolla'' event, is evident: [[dropstones]] — which are taken as evidence for the presence of ice — are common in Arctic sediments thereafter. This is set against a backdrop of gradual, long-term cooling: It is not until {{Ma|15}} that evidence for widespread polar freezing is common.<ref name=NatGeo/><br />
<br />
==Alternative explanations==<br />
Whilst a verdant Arctic Ocean is a viable working model, sceptical scientists point out that it would be possible for ''Azolla'' colonies in deltas or freshwater lagoons to be swept into the Arctic Ocean by strong currents, removing the necessity for a freshwater layer.<ref name=NatGeo>{{cite journal|journal=National Geographic|date=May 2005|url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0505/resources_geo.html|title=Great green north|author=Tim Appenzeller}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Economic considerations==<br />
Much of the current interest in oil exploration in the Arctic regions, ironically made possible by [[global warming]], is directed towards the ''Azolla'' deposits. The burial of large amounts of organic material provides the source rock for oil, and given the right thermal history, it is possible that the preserved ''Azolla'' blooms may be converted to oil or gas.<ref name=NYT>{{cite news|journal=New York Times|date=2004-11-20|title="Under all that ice, maybe oil|author=ANDREW C. REVKIN|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/30/science/earth/30core.html|accessdate=2007-10-17}}</ref> While this does mean that much money is available for the study of this event — a centre having been set up in the Netherlands devoted to ''Azolla'' — it may also mean much of the climate change caused by ''Azolla'' will soon be reversed.<br />
<br />
{{Horizontal timeline<br />
|title=The Azolla event in geological time<br />
|caption=Million years ago. [[Age of Earth]] = 4,650<br />
|collapsible=yes<br />
|Row1={{Note row<br />
|from=-600<br />
|to=0<br />
|1-at=-49<br />
|1-text=Azolla event<br />
}}<br />
|Row3={{Geological eons|-600}}<br />
|Row2={{Geological periods|-600}}<br />
|Row4={{Scale row<br />
|from=-600<br />
|to=0<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Notes and references==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Climate change]]<br />
[[Category:Eocene]]<br />
[[Category:Geochronology]]<br />
[[Category:Arctic research]]<br />
<br />
[[ca:Esdeveniment d'Azolla]]<br />
[[es:Evento Azolla]]<br />
[[nl:Azolla event]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universit%C3%A4t_der_Arktis&diff=58560106Universität der Arktis2008-08-16T21:44:07Z<p>Carcharoth: Removed category "Arctic"; Quick-adding category "Culture of the Arctic" (using HotCat)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox University<br />
|name = '''University of the Arctic'''<br />
|native_name = <br />
|image_name = <br />
|image_size = <br />
|caption = <br />
|latin_name = <br />
|motto = "In the North, for the North, by the North"<br />
|established = [[2001]]<br />
|type = Cooperative network<br />
|president = Lars Kullerud<br />
|city = [[Rovaniemi]] (International Secretariat)<br />
|country =[[Canada]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], [[USA]]<br />
|website =[http://www.uarctic.org/ www.uarctic.org]<br />
}}<br />
The '''University of the Arctic''' (UArctic) is an international cooperative network based in the circumpolar region, consisting of [[universities]], [[colleges]] and other organizations with an interest in promoting education and research in the [[Arctic|North]]. UArctic was launched on [[June 12]] [[2001]], endorsed by the [[Arctic Council]] and in conjunction with the 10th anniversary of the [[Rovaniemi Process]] and the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy. <br />
<br />
The overall goal of the University of the Arctic is to create a strong, sustainable circumpolar region by empowering indigenous peoples and other northerners through education, mobility and shared knowledge.<br />
<br />
==Member institutions==<br />
[[Image:Íslandsklukkan_við_Sólborg.jpeg|right|200px|Akureyri (Iceland)]]<br />
[[Image:Ilisagvik-College-bowhead-whale-skull.jpg|right|200px|Ilisagvik, Alaska (USA)]]<br />
[[Image:UNISbuilding.jpg|right|200px|Longyearbyen, Svalbard (Norway)]]<br />
[[Image:Arkhangelsk_technology_university.jpg|right|200px|Arkhangelsk, Arkhangelsk Province (Russia)]]<br />
[[Image:McGill_Campus_Twilight_smaller.jpg|right|200px|Montreal, Quebec (Canada)]]<br />
[[Image:Jaetkaenkynttilaebridge in Jyvaeskylae.JPG|right|200px|Rovaniemi, Lapland (Finland)]]<br />
[[Image:Nuuk_Panorama_image_small.jpg|right|200px|Nuuk, Greenland (Denmark)]]<br />
[[Image:Tirake_Metal_Che_Zaad.JPG|right|200px|Umeå, Western Bothnia (Sweden)]]<br />
<br />
There are 110 member institutions of UArctic, 85 of which are educational institutions from the 8 Arctic states (listed below). In addition, the [[University of the Highlands and Islands]] in [[Scotland]] is a member. The other institutions are mostly circumpolar indigenous organizations and research institutions.<br />
<br />
===Canada===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|[[Athabasca University]]<br />
|[[Aurora College]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Grande Prairie Regional College]]<br />
|[[Lakehead University]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Memorial University of Newfoundland]]<br />
|[[McGill University]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Northlands College]][http://www.canadian-universities.net/Community-Colleges/Northlands_College.html]<br />
|[[Northwest Community College]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Nunavut Arctic College]]<br />
|[[Saint Mary's University, Halifax|Saint Mary's University]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Royal Military College of Canada]]<br />
|[[University College of the North]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[University of Northern British Columbia]]<br />
|[[Université Laval]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[University of Alberta]]<br />
|[[University of Manitoba]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[University of Regina]]<br />
|[[University of Saskatchewan]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[University of Winnipeg]]<br />
|[[Yukon College]]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Denmark===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|[[Roskilde University]]<br />
|[[University of Greenland]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[University of the Faroe Islands ]]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Finland===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|[[Helsinki University of Technology]]<br />
|[[Kemi-Tornio University of Applied Sciences]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Oulu University of Applied Sciences]]<br />
|[[Rovaniemi University of Applied Sciences]][http://www.ramk.fi/?DeptID=11638]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Saami Education Institute]]<br />
|[[University of Helsinki]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[University of Lapland]]<br />
|[[University of Oulu]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[University of Turku]]<br />
|[[Diaconia University of Applied Sciences]][http://english.diak.fi/]<br />
|-<br />
|[[HUMAK University of Applied Sciences]][http://www.humak.edu/english/index.php]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Iceland===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|[[Iceland University of Education]]<br />
|[[University of Akureyri]]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Norway===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|[[Bodø University College]]<br />
|[[Finnmark University College]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Harstad University College]]<br />
|[[Narvik University College]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Northern Feminist University]][http://www.kun.nl.no/english.html]<br />
|[[Northern State Medical University]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Sámi University College]]<br />
|[[Tromsø University College]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[University Centre in Svalbard]]<br />
|[[University of Tromsø]]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Russia===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|[[Arkhangelsk State Technical University]][http://www.agtu.ru/]<br />
|[[Buryat State University]][http://www.bsu.ru/]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Kamchatka State University of Education]][http://www.kamgu.ru/english/]<br />
|[[Murmansk Humanities Institute]][http://www.mginet.ru/web/eng/index.htm]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Murmansk State Pedagogical University]][http://www.mspu.edu.ru/]<br />
|[[Murmansk State Technical University]][http://eng.mstu.edu.ru/]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Pomor State University]][http://www.pomorsu.ru/]<br />
|[[Professional Specialized School No.26]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Sakha State University of Russia]][http://www.ysu.ru/]<br />
|[[Surgut State University]][http://www.surgu.ru/]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Syktyvkar State University]][http://syktsu.ru/en/]<br />
|[[Technical Institute Yakutsk State University]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Ukhta State Technical University]][http://www.ugtu.net/]<br />
|[[Yakutsk Agricultural Academy]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Sweden===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|[[Luleå University of Technology]]<br />
|[[Mid Sweden University]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Skeria Utveckling]][http://www.skelleftea.se/default.asp?id=2185&ptid=&refid=21068]<br />
|[[Umeå University]]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===United States===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|[[Dartmouth College]]<br />
|[[Hunter College]]<br />
|[[University of Alaska Anchorage]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Ilisagvik College]]<br />
|[[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Organization and Governance==<br />
<br />
===The Council and Toyon===<br />
The Council of the University of the Arctic consists of representatives of all UArctic member institutions. The Council gives strategic guidance on academic priorities, is a forum for cooperation, and has the authority and primary responsibility for the following items. <br />
* Initiating and overseeing program development and delivery<br />
* Prioritizing academic programs within the approved program structure<br />
* Representing UArctic's members in its overall governance.<br />
* Changing the Governance Structure, which is the "constitution" of UArctic.<br />
* Forming standing committees on different issues.<br />
* Electing the Chair of the Council.<br />
* Electing the Board of Governors, where the Chair is an ex officio member.<br />
<br />
Issues requiring attention during the intervals between meetings of the Council, are handled by the Executive Committee of the Council - ''Toyon'' - which consists of the Chair, the vice-secretary, and the chairs of all standing committees of the Council.<br />
<br />
===The Board of Governors===<br />
UArctic's highest decision-making body is the Board of Governors (Board), which consists of up to 11 individuals who are elected by the Council to serve in their personal capacities and act on behalf of UArctic. At the Board meetings, the President and leader of the International Secretariat also participate. The Board has the authority and primary responsibility for the following items: <br />
* Strategic planning and setting institutional priorities.<br />
* Organizational development and institutional accountability.<br />
* Fundraising, finances, and budgeting (including personnel)<br />
* Public and external relations. <br />
* Electing the President of the University of the Arctic for a three year (renewable) term.<br />
<br />
The Board works with the Council and Administration on relevant issues. It may delegate specific tasks on the understanding that the Board maintains ultimate control over and responsibility for these functions.<br />
<br />
===Administration===<br />
'''The President'''<br />
The President of UArctic is the organization's chief executive officer and is responsible for overall administration and the development and delivery of its programs. S/he is accountable to the Board for the overall management of the University.<br />
The President participates ex officio in meetings of the Council, Toyon and the Board; and works closely with these bodies to ensure that programmatic activities are initiated and implemented in a timely manner. The President may form such committees or other subsidiary bodies as s/he deems necessary to carry out the programmatic activities of the University.<br />
<br />
'''The International Secretariat'''<br />
The Secretariat has the primary responsibility for coordinating internal and external information, particularly the production of the monthly UArctic newsletter, Shared Voices, and maintaining the website and news services. The Secretariat provides support for UArctic’s Council, Board of Governors, management, and the Director of UArctic. It is located at the [[University of Lapland]] in Rovaniemi, Finland.<br />
<br />
===The Programs, Pomot and Ofelas===<br />
<br />
===The Rectors' Forum===<br />
The Rectors' Forum brings together university and college Presidents, Rectors, Provosts, Chancellors as well as Vice-Presidents around specific themes. The Forum is reserved for institutional leadership and is not intended as an institutional representative forum; the Council of UArctic serves that function. Still, it serves the important function of letting member institutions' top leaders meet to debate the activity of the organization. In UArctic's history two Rectors' Forums have been held, in 2006 and 2008. The latter meeting coincided with the meeting of the Parliamentarians of the Arctic, and was held in [[Rovaniemi]], Finland.<br />
<br />
==Programs==<br />
===Bachelor of Circumpolar Studies===<br />
The Circumpolar Studies program is an exciting way for students attending University of the Arctic member institutions to learn about the North, with courses held in the classroom, online, outdoors, and around the world. <br />
<br />
The Circumpolar Studies program gives students the opportunity to learn about the lands, peoples, and issues of the circumpolar world and prepares them for advanced study or professional employment in fields as diverse as sustainable resource management, self-government, Arctic engineering, and northern tourism. Special emphasis is given to matters concerning Indigenous people of the Circumpolar North.<br />
<br />
The Circumpolar Studies program consists of two required components: The BCS Core and an Advanced Emphasis. <br />
<br />
The BCS Core consists of a single lower-level introductory course and six upper-level advanced courses in three interdisciplinary fields of study. Together, the core enables students to gain a broad knowledge and understanding of the lands, peoples, and critical issues of the circumpolar world. Advanced Emphases are programs of study, roughly equivalent to a semester of schooling, that focus on the advanced research of an area, issue, or problem of particular relevance to the North and for its people.<br />
<br />
===north2north===<br />
The north2north student exchange program provides opportunities for students from UArctic member institutions to experience different northern regions firsthand, and to share experiences face-to-face by allowing students to study at other UArctic institutions. <br />
<br />
As a north2north participant, students travel to another circumpolar institution for a period of 3-12 months. This time period is dependent on the needs of the student, as well as the structures of their home and host institutions. Students have the advantage of taking courses that may not be available at their home institution and the courses taken during the exchange year are credited toward your degree. Of course, the value of the knowledge students gain outside the classroom in their new communities is beyond measurement. Successful applicants will receive a mobility grant to facilitate their stay at the host institution.<br />
===GoNorth===<br />
GoNorth offers opportunities for students from the south to go study at a northern higher education institution and experience life in the Circumpolar North. GoNorth is a two-year Erasmus Mundus project with 12 member institutions of the UArctic. The project partners cooperate to make higher education in the North more visible and accessible worldwide. The result of the Erasmus Mundus project will subsequently be used by UArctic's GoNorth Mobility Program, which aims at recruiting students to higher education institutions in the circumpolar areas. <br />
===Studies Catalog===<br />
The Studies Catalog is a tool for UArctic programs and members to market and display their northern relevant study opportunity. The catalog will link to already existing online electronic material, updating the information automatically every 24 hours based on the information provided on the web-site of the institution that does the teaching. <br />
===Field School===<br />
The UArctic Field School incorporates a selection of short, thematically focussed courses that provide training for young researchers at member institutions in relevant fields. The Field School provides specialized study in authentic northern locations organized by northern institutions. The UArctic Field School catalogue is an online database of field excursion courses in which students from UArctic member institutions can participate.<br />
===northTREX===<br />
Northern Teaching Resources Exchange program, northTREX, provides opportunities for northern teachers to gain circumpolar experiences and perspectives, and strengthens northern institutions' abilities to share faculty resources. The program allows institutions to draw on a circumpolar pool of academic faculty, enabling UArctic partner institutions to enrich their curricular offerings. Mobility in this program normally lasts for less than 3 months. Faculty assignments are usually linked to thematic networks and student exchange in the north2north program. <br />
===Northern Research Forum===<br />
The Northern Research Forum provides a platform for effective, policy-relevant discussion and the sharing of research on northern issues. Meetings are held biennially with the participation of a wide variety of scientists, policy makers and representatives of other stakeholders. <br />
<br />
The purpose of the Northern Research Forum is to promote intensive dialogue among members of the research community and a wide range of other northern stakeholders. This dialogue addresses the critical issues, problems and opportunities facing circumpolar peoples in the context of social and environmental changes and economic globalization. The Forum provides an open meeting for policy-relevant discussion on the role of research in addressing issues of sustainable development, community viability, peace and security, social and environmental policy, and the impacts of global change.<br />
<br />
===Thematic Networks===<br />
UArctic Thematic Networks are independent and thematically focused networks of experts in specific areas of northern relevance. Thematic Networks encourage faculty and institutional cooperation on subjects of shared interest among UArctic members. UArctic Thematic Networks aim at stimulating cooperation, sharing of resources, and are important tools for developing the stable relations among member institutions that form the backbone of UArctic activities. This includes student and faculty exchange, and joint curriculum and degree development as well as research.<br />
<br />
A Thematic Network may focus its activities on one or several of the following: research cooperation, knowledge sharing, curriculum development, joint education programs in a specific field, or form the umbrella for UArctic participants in international workgroups. Examples of Thematic Networks includes: UArctic Indigenous Thematic Network on Community-based Natural Resource Co-management; Thematic Network in Arctic Agriculture and Nature Use - the Northern Agriculture PhD Network; Thematic Network on World Images of Indigenous Peoples of the North; Thematic Networks on Indigenous Arts and Crafts; and, Thematic Network on Northern Governance.<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
*[http://www.uarctic.org University of the Arctic]<br />
*[http://www.uarctic.org/orgs2full.aspx?group=GOvCouncil&title=Council&m=79 Members of the University of the Arctic]<br />
*[http://www.uarctic.org/governance_structure_os_230507_asosradn_RbRaX.pdf.file Governance Structure] (PDF)<br />
<br />
[[Category:University organizations]]<br />
[[Category:University research collaboratives]]<br />
[[Category:Culture of the Arctic]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benutzer:GDK/Akademik_Fyodorov&diff=77446015Benutzer:GDK/Akademik Fyodorov2008-08-16T19:56:47Z<p>Carcharoth: Quick-adding category "Arctic exploration vessels" (using HotCat)</p>
<hr />
<div>{|{{Infobox Ship Begin}}<br />
{{Infobox Ship Image<br />
|Ship image=[[Image:No Photo Available.svg]]<br />
|Ship caption=<br />
}}<br />
{{Infobox Ship Career<br />
|Hide header=<br />
|Ship country=[[USSR]]</br>[[Russia]] (since 1991)<br />
|Ship flag=[[Image:Naval Ensign of Russia.svg|60px]]<br />
|Ship name=''RV Akademik Fyodorov''<br />
|Ship owner=[[AARI]]<ref name="IPY">http://www.ipyeaso.aari.ru/akfedorov.html</ref><br />
|Ship operator=<br />
|Ship route=<br />
|Ship ordered=<br />
|Ship builder=[[Rauma, Finland|Rauma]], [[Finland]]<br />
|Ship yard number=<br />
|Ship way number=<br />
|Ship laid down=<br />
|Ship launched=[[September 8]] [[1987]]<ref name="OI">{{cite web|work=Federal Target Program World Ocean|title=Information on RV Akademik Fedorov|language=Russian|url=http://data.oceaninfo.ru/resource/objects/vessels/vesselDetails.jsp?id=3212}}</ref><br />
|Ship completed=<br />
|Ship christened=<br />
|Ship acquired=<br />
|Ship maiden voyage=[[October 24]] [[1987]]<ref name="OI"/><br />
|Ship out of service=<br />
|Ship registry=[[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]]<br />
|Ship fate=<br />
|Ship status=in service<br />
|Ship notes=<br />
}}<br />
{{Infobox Ship Characteristics<br />
|Hide header=<br />
|Header caption=<br />
|Ship class=<br />
|Ship tonnage=12,660&nbsp;t<ref name="IPY"/><br />
|Ship displacement=16,200&nbsp;t<ref name="IPY"/><br />
|Ship length=141.2&nbsp;metres<br />
|Ship beam=23.5&nbsp;metres <br />
|Ship height=<br />
|Ship draught=<br />
|Ship draft=8.5&nbsp;metres<br />
|Ship depth=<br />
|Ship decks=<br />
|Ship ice class=<br />
|Ship sail plan=<br />
|Ship power=<br />
|Ship propulsion=<br />
|Ship speed=16&nbsp;knots<ref name="IPY"/><br />
|Ship capacity=172 passengers<br />
|Ship crew=80<br />
|Ship notes=[[International Maritime Organization|IMO]] number 8519837<br />
}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The [[research vessel|R/V]] '''''Akademik Fyodorov''''' ({{lang-ru|Академик Фёдоров}}) is a [[Russia]]n scientific diesel-electric [[research vessel]], the [[flagship]] of the Russian polar research fleet.<ref>http://www.ipyeaso.aari.ru/news.html</ref> It was built in [[Rauma, Finland|Rauma]], [[Finland]]<ref name="PA">[http://polar.air.spb.ru/eng/databases/vessel/fedorov/ European Polar Consortium :: Data base :: Vessel :: Akademik Fedorov<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> for the [[Soviet Union]] and completed on [[September 8]] [[1987]]. It started operations on [[October 24]] [[1987]] in the [[USSR]].<ref name="OI"/>. The ship was named after a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] polar explorer, academician of the [[USSR Academy of Sciences]] [[Evgeny Fyodorov]], who worked on the first [[Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations|Soviet manned drifting ice station]] [[North Pole-1]].<ref>[http://www.warheroes.ru/hero/hero.asp?Hero_id=1369 Герой Советского Союза Фёдоров Евгений Константинович<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> <br />
<br />
==2007 Russian North Pole expedition==<br />
{{Main|2007 Russian North Pole expedition}}<br />
Akademik Fyodorov made news on August 1, 2007 when it sailed in the path of an [[icebreaker]] on the way to the [[North Pole]] as part of Russia's efforts to lay claim to the [[sea bed]] beneath the North Pole. <br />
<br />
On August 2, 2007, the Akademik Fyodorov sailed with 100 scientists and researchers and two deep sea mini-submarines to the North Pole where the scientists will be dispatched to a depth of more than 13,200 feet where they will drop a metal capsule containing a Russian [[flag]]. <br />
<br />
While the dropping of the flag is a symbolic gesture reminiscent of the [[United States|United States of America]]'s planting of an American flag on the surface of the [[moon]], the act will not guarantee Russian rights to extract [[oil]] and [[gas]] from the [[sea bed]].<br />
<br />
Accordingly, scientists aboard the Akademik Fyodorov are searching for evidence that a 1240 mile underwater mountain range, the Lomonosov Ridge, which extends through the north polar region, is actually a [[geologic]] extension of Russia, thus allowing Russia to lay claim to the region under the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]].<br />
<br />
[[Denmark]] contends that the [[Lomonosov Ridge]] is a geologic extension of [[Greenland]], a Danish territory, whereas [[Canada]] claims it is an extension of [[Ellesmere Island]]. The Danish and Canadian governments are expected to put forth their own scientific efforts to show that the Lomonosov Ridge is not part of Russia.<br />
<br />
Both the United States and Canada also maintain oil and gas rights within the region.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Akademik Fyodorov}}<br />
[[Category:Research vessels of Russia]]<br />
[[Category:Research vessels of the Soviet Union]]<br />
[[Category:Ships built in Finland]]<br />
[[Category:Arctic exploration vessels]]<br />
<br />
{{Ship-stub}}<br />
<br />
[[ru:Академик Фёдоров (судно)]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoher_Kasten_(Appenzeller_Alpen)&diff=49368233Hoher Kasten (Appenzeller Alpen)2008-08-09T22:48:48Z<p>Carcharoth: interwiki link</p>
<hr />
<div><!--schweizbezogen--><br />
{{Infobox Berg<br />
|BILD=Picswiss AI-04-35.jpg<br />
|BILDBESCHREIBUNG=Hoher Kasten<br />
|HÖHE=1795<br />
|HÖHE-BEZUG=ch<br />
|LAGE=Grenze [[Kanton St. Gallen]] / [[Kanton Appenzell-Innerrhoden]], [[Schweiz]]<br />
|GEBIRGE=[[Appenzeller Alpen]]<br />
|BREITENGRAD=47/17/2/N<br />
|LÄNGENGRAD=9/29/6/E<br />
|REGION-ISO=CH-SG/CH-AI<br />
|TYP=<br />
|GESTEIN=<br />
|ALTER=<br />
|ERSTBESTEIGUNG=<br />
|ERSCHLIESSUNG=seit 1964 durch Seilbahn<br />
|BESONDERHEITEN=<br />
|BILD1=Brülisau und Hoher Kasten.jpg<br />
|BILD1-BESCHREIBUNG=Blick von Brülisau auf Hoher Kasten und Kamor (links)<br />
}}<br />
Der '''Hohe Kasten''' ist mit {{Höhe|1795|CH-m}} der äusserste Berggipfel der Nordostschweiz. Er liegt an der Kantonsgrenze zwischen [[Kanton St. Gallen|St. Gallen]] und [[Kanton Appenzell-Innerrhoden]] und ist Teil des [[Alpstein]]s und der Gemeinden [[Altstätten]] und [[Sennwald]]. Über dem [[Rheintal (Alpenrhein)|St. Galler Rheintal]] gelegen, bildet der Hohe Kasten das Eingangstor in die Schweizer Alpen. Der markante Berggipfel wird seit 1964 von der Appenzeller Seite her mit einer Luftseilbahn erschlossen. Sie benötigt nur 8 Minuten, um die 871&nbsp;m Höhendifferenz ab [[Brülisau]] zu überwinden.<br />
<br />
== Wanderungen ==<br />
Der Hohe Kasten befindet sich im Wandergebiet des [[Alpstein]]s. Auf der Bergspitze befindet sich ein [[Drehrestaurant]], das im Mai 2008 eröffnet hat.<br />
<br />
Ein familienfreundlicher Wanderweg führt von [[Brülisau]] über Eggli, das Forstseeli und den [[Kamor]] auf den Hohen Kasten. Die Marschzeit beträgt ca. 4½ Stunden.<br />
<br />
Eine anspruchsvollere Höhenwanderung führt über den 1. Geologischen Wanderweg der Schweiz. 14 Schautafeln erklären die geologischen Phänomene des Alpsteins. Der Weg führt vom Hohen Kasten über einen Grat zur Staubern. Dort befindet sich ein Gasthaus sowie eine Seilbahnstation. Die Talstation liegt in [[Frümsen]] im [[Rheintal (Alpenrhein)|St. Galler Rheintal]]. Der Weg führt weiter zur [[Saxer Lücke]] und dem Berggasthaus Bollenwees, das am wildromantischen [[Fälensee]] liegt. Der Abstieg führt am [[Sämtisersee]] und dem Gasthaus Plattenbödeli zurück nach Brülisau.<br />
Die Marschzeit beträgt ca. 5½ Stunden, gefährliche Stellen sind durch Drahtseile gesichert. [[Trittsicherheit]] ist jedoch Voraussetzung. Eine weitere Wanderung geht von Rüthi im St. Galler Rheintal über den Brunnenberg und die Inneralp zum Hohen Kasten. Die Marschzeit beträgt ca. 4 Stunden.<br />
<br />
Eine andere Wanderung befindet sich an der Nordseite. Mit dem Auto bis zum Montlinger Schwamm ({{Höhe|1100|CH-m}}) und dann über den Resspass zum Kamorsattel und dann auf beide Gipfel (''Kamor'' und ''Hoher Kasten''). Die Marschzeit beträgt 2½ Stunden.<br />
<br />
== Sendeanlage ==<br />
Auf dem Hohen Kasten befindet sich ein Sendeturm in Stahlbetonbauweise der Telekommunikationsfirma Swisscom.<br />
Die Höhe des Turmes beträgt 72 Meter und wurde 1999 erbaut.<br />
<br />
== Weblinks ==<br />
* {{Commonscat}}<br />
* [http://www.hoherkasten.ch Offizielle Webseite]<br />
* [http://www.tourenguide.ch/d/wanderungen/zuerich/detail.php?touren_id=210 Wandervorschlag 1. Geologischer Wanderweg der Schweiz]<br />
* {{HLS|7458|Brülisau (AI)}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kasten, Hoher}}<br />
[[Kategorie:Berg in den Alpen]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Berg in Europa]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Berg im Kanton Appenzell Innerrhoden]]<br />
[[Kategorie:Berg im Kanton St. Gallen]]<br />
<br />
[[en:Hoher Kasten]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hamilton_Grange_National_Memorial&diff=56883342Hamilton Grange National Memorial2008-07-12T08:49:52Z<p>Carcharoth: add :Category:Relocated buildings and structures</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox nrhp<br />
| name = Hamilton Grange National Memorial<br />
| nrhp_type = nhl<br />
| image = Hamilton-Grange.jpg<br />
| caption = Hamilton Grange<br />
| location = [[Upper Manhattan]], [[New York City]], [[New York|NY]]<br />
| nearest_city = <br />
| lat_degrees = 40 | lat_minutes = 49 | lat_seconds = 20.55 | lat_direction = N<br />
| long_degrees = 73 | long_minutes = 56 | long_seconds = 53.87 | long_direction = W<br />
| area = <br />
| built = 1802<br />
| architect = [[John McComb Jr.]]<br />
| architecture = [[Federal architecture|Federal style]]<br />
| designated = [[December 19]], [[1960]] <ref name="nhlsum">{{cite web|url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=42&ResourceType=Building <br />
|title=Hamilton Grange (Alexander Hamilton House)|date=2007-09-14|work=National Historic Landmark summary listing|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><br />
| added = [[October 15]], [[1966]] <ref name="nris">{{cite web|url=http://www.nr.nps.gov/|title=National Register Information System|date=2007-01-23|work=National Register of Historic Places|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><br />
| visitation_num = | visitation_year = <br />
| refnum = 66000097<br />
| mpsub = <br />
| governing_body = [[National Park Service]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Hamilton Grange National Memorial''' is a [[National Park Service]] site in [[St. Nicholas Park]], [[New York City]] that preserves the early 19th-century home of American [[Founding Father]] [[Alexander Hamilton]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Alexander Hamilton was born and raised in the [[West Indies]] and came to New York in 1772 at age 17 to study at King's College (now [[Columbia University]]). During his career, Hamilton was a [[military officer]], lawyer, member of the [[Philadelphia Convention|United States Constitutional Convention]], American [[statesman]], and the first [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:Hamilton-Grange-perspective.jpg|thumb||left|292px|Drawing of the Grange before 1889.]]<br />
<br />
Hamilton commissioned architect [[John McComb Jr.]]<ref>Howard, Hugh and Straus III, Roger, Houses of the Founding Fathers (2007)</ref> to design a country home on Hamilton's 32-acre (0.13 km²) estate in upper Manhattan. The two-story frame [[Federal architecture|Federal style]] house was completed in 1802, just two years before Hamilton's death during a duel with political rival [[Aaron Burr]] on July 11, 1804. The house was named "The Grange" after Hamilton's grandfather's estate in Scotland. (A [[Grange (mediæval)|grange]] was originally a place where food was grown for a monastery.) Hamilton's mother, [[Rachel Faucett Lavien]], also lived there for a time and is buried at an estate named ''Grange'' on the island of [[Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. Croix]].<ref>Exhibit on Rachel Faucett Lavien in Fort Christiansvaern, [[Christiansted National Historic Site]]. Observed March 1, 2007.</ref> The Grange was the only home ever owned by Hamilton and it remained in his family for 30 years after his death.<br />
<br />
The [[Hamilton Heights]] neighborhood of [[Harlem]] derived its name from Hamilton and the Grange.<br />
<br />
==First Relocation==<br />
<br />
In 1889, the congregation of St. Luke's Episcopal Church in Greenwich Village decided to move uptown and purchased land in Hamilton Heights that included The Grange. The church moved the house four blocks west to a site at 287 Convent Avenue in order to free space for a profitable row house development. The original porches and other features were removed for the move. The staircase was removed and retrofitted to accommodate a makeshift entrance on the side of the house and original grand federal style entrance was boarded up. <br />
<br />
St. Lukes used the house for services and subsequently erected a Richardsonian Romanesque building on the site between 1892 and 1895, thus tightly enclosing the building between the church and an adjacent six-story apartment building and hiding many of its features. <ref>[http://www.nysun.com/arts/hamilton-heights-lose-its-namesake Francis Morrone, "Hamilton Heights To Lose Its Namesake?" ''New York Sun'', 27 March 2008] Accessed 4 July 2008.</ref> <ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/08/nyregion/08grange.html?em&ex=1213070400&en=9a165d615bf9adcf&ei=5087%0A David W. Dunlap, "Witnessing a House, and History, on the Move" ''New York Times'', 8 June 2008] Accessed 8 June 2008.</ref><br />
<br />
The property was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]] on [[December 19]], [[1960]] and [[United States Congress|Congress]] authorized the [[National Memorial]] on [[April 27]], [[1962]]. <ref name="nhlsum"/> <ref name="nrhpinv">{{citation|title={{PDFlink|[http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Text/66000097.pdf National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Hamilton Grange National Memorial]|334&nbsp;KB}}|author=Ricardo Torres-Reyes|date=April 1975|publisher=National Park Service}} and {{PDFlink|[http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Photos/66000097.pdf Accompanying photo, exterior, from 1975.]|32&nbsp;KB}}</ref> At the time it was determined that the claustrophobic Convent Avenue setting was inappropriate and that the country house should be viewed as freestanding building. However, the house was not relocated in 1962 because of overwhelming local opposition to moving it out of the neighborhood. The Grange was administratively listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] on [[October 15]], [[1966]].<br />
<br />
==Second Relocation==<br />
<br />
On May 9, 2006, The Hamilton Grange Memorial was closed to the public to allow for extensive architectural and structural investigations as part of a long term plan to move the house to nearby [[St. Nicholas Park]]. The park location was judged a more appropriate setting for display that would permit restoration of features lost in the 1889 move. The new location would also keep the house in the neighborhood and keep it on land that was within the boundary of Hamilton's original 32-acre estate. <br />
<br />
Work in St. Nicholas Park for tree removal and foundation construction began in February 2008. The actual move of the Grange began with elevation of the building in one piece over the loggia of St. Luke's Church and onto Convent Avenue. The Grange was placed on specially-built stilts that held the entire house approximately ten feet off the ground in the middle of Convent Avenue, between W. 145th and 142nd Street while traffic was routed around the house. The house completed its journey on June 7, 2008 by being rolled one block west on Convent Avenue and then one block south on 141st Street (down a 6% grade) to the new St. Nicholas Park location. The six-hour event was a popular neighborhood attraction covered extensively in the press. <ref>[http://gothamist.com/2008/06/08/moving_this_old.php Gothamist: Moving This Old House]</ref><ref>[http://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation/AP/story/562461.html Miami Herald AP story: Hamilton's home moved to new spot in Harlem]</ref><br />
<br />
Once the house is secured to its new foundation, the original porches will be rebuilt and the original main entrance doorway and main staircase within the entry foyer will be restored. Landscaping around the Grange's new home will include tree plantings, a stone wall and paths. The Grange will have security detail during the day and possible video monitoring during the evening hours.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* ''The National Parks: Index 2001–2003''. Washington: [[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of the Interior]].<br />
*Official NPS website: [http://www.nps.gov/hagr/ Hamilton Grange National Memorial]<br />
*[http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=42&ResourceType=Building Hamilton Grange (Alexander Hamilton House)] NHL information<br />
*[http://www.hamiltonsociety.org Alexander Hamilton Historical Society (AHHS)]<br />
*[http://www.stnicholaspark.org/index.html Friends of St. Nicholas Park]<br />
*[http://www.supportthegrange.com/index.html Support the Move to St. Nicholas Park]<br />
<br />
{{Registered Historic Places}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1962 establishments]]<br />
[[Category:Houses in New York]]<br />
[[Category:National Historic Landmarks in New York City]]<br />
[[Category:Manhattan]]<br />
[[Category:National Memorials of the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Registered Historic Places in Manhattan]]<br />
[[Category:Alexander Hamilton|Grange National Memorial]]<br />
[[Category:Museums in Manhattan]]<br />
[[Category:Relocated buildings and structures]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Hamilton Grange National Memorial]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076363Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-25T05:37:57Z<p>Carcharoth: tidy refs</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography">Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]].<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After Blair learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] by the [[London Assembly]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair continued to receive the support of the [[Metropolitan Police Authority]], the head of which said that he would not have accepted any resignation offered by Blair.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1998)<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair (1998-1999)<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (1999-2000)<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography"/><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-civ|pol}}<br />
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2000 &ndash; 2005}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Paul Stephenson (police officer)|Paul Stephenson]]}}<br />
|-<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2005 &ndash; present}}<br />
{{s-inc}}<br />
{{end}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Blair, Ian}}<br />
[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076362Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-25T05:35:05Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Education and early career */ typo</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<ref name="Metropolitan Police biography">Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After Blair learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] by the [[London Assembly]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair continued to receive the support of the [[Metropolitan Police Authority]], the head of which said that he would not have accepted any resignation offered by Blair.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1998)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair (1998-1999)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (1999-2000)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-civ|pol}}<br />
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2000 &ndash; 2005}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Paul Stephenson (police officer)|Paul Stephenson]]}}<br />
|-<br />
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{{s-inc}}<br />
{{end}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Blair, Ian}}<br />
[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076361Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-25T05:34:39Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Education and early career */ tweak</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<refname="MetropolitanPolicebiography">Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After Blair learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] by the [[London Assembly]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair continued to receive the support of the [[Metropolitan Police Authority]], the head of which said that he would not have accepted any resignation offered by Blair.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1998)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair (1998-1999)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (1999-2000)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
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[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
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[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076360Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-25T05:34:22Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Education and early career */ refname</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<refname="Metropolitan Police biography">Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After Blair learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] by the [[London Assembly]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair continued to receive the support of the [[Metropolitan Police Authority]], the head of which said that he would not have accepted any resignation offered by Blair.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1998)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair (1998-1999)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (1999-2000)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
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[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
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[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
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[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076359Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-25T05:31:04Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Ranks & Honours */ remove final fact tag and line</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After Blair learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] by the [[London Assembly]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair continued to receive the support of the [[Metropolitan Police Authority]], the head of which said that he would not have accepted any resignation offered by Blair.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1998)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair (1998-1999)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (1999-2000)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
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{{s-aft|after=[[Paul Stephenson (police officer)|Paul Stephenson]]}}<br />
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<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Blair, Ian}}<br />
[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076358Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-25T05:30:04Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Ranks & Honours */ refs and corrections of dates</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After Blair learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] by the [[London Assembly]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair continued to receive the support of the [[Metropolitan Police Authority]], the head of which said that he would not have accepted any resignation offered by Blair.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* Mr Ian Blair (1953-1974){{fact}}<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1998)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair (1998-1999)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (1999-2000)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-civ|pol}}<br />
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2000 &ndash; 2005}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Paul Stephenson (police officer)|Paul Stephenson]]}}<br />
|-<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2005 &ndash; present}}<br />
{{s-inc}}<br />
{{end}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Blair, Ian}}<br />
[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076357Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-25T05:24:19Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Education and early career */ refs</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After Blair learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] by the [[London Assembly]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair continued to receive the support of the [[Metropolitan Police Authority]], the head of which said that he would not have accepted any resignation offered by Blair.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* Mr Ian Blair (1953-1974){{fact}}<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985){{fact}}<br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988){{fact}}<br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991){{fact}}<br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994){{fact}}<br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997){{fact}}<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1999){{fact}}<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair QPM (1999-?){{fact}}<br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (?-2000){{fact}}<br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003){{fact}}<br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005){{fact}}<br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.{{fact}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-civ|pol}}<br />
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2000 &ndash; 2005}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Paul Stephenson (police officer)|Paul Stephenson]]}}<br />
|-<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2005 &ndash; present}}<br />
{{s-inc}}<br />
{{end}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Blair, Ian}}<br />
[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Maclear&diff=142332483Thomas Maclear2008-04-22T06:28:38Z<p>Carcharoth: add Royal Medal reference</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Thomas Maclear00.jpg|thumb|left|<center>'''Thomas Maclear 1833'''</center>]]<br />
[[Image:Mary Maclear00.jpg|thumb|<center>'''Mary Maclear'''</center>]]<br />
'''Sir Thomas Maclear''' ([[March 17]], [[1794]]&ndash;[[July 14]], [[1879]]) was an [[Ireland|Irish]]-born [[South Africa]]n [[astronomer]] who became [[Astronomer Royal]] at the [[Cape of Good Hope]].<br />
<br />
He was born in [[Newton Stewart]], [[Ireland]], the eldest son of James Maclear. In [[1808]] he was sent to England to be educated in the medical profession. After passing his examinations, in [[1815]] he was accepted into the ''Royal College of Surgeons'' of England. He then worked as house-surgeon in the Bedford Infirmary.<br />
<br />
In [[1823]] he went into partnership with his uncle at [[Biggleswade]], [[Bedfordshire]]. Two years later in [[1825]] he was married to Mary Pearse, the daughter of Theed Pearse, Clerk of the Peace for the county of Bedford.<br />
<br />
Dr. Maclear had a keen interest in amateur astronomy, and would begin a long association with the [[Royal Astronomical Society]], to which he would be named a Fellow. In [[1833]], when the post became vacant, he was named as Royal Astronomer at the [[Cape of Good Hope]], and arrived there aboard the ''Tam O'Shanter'' with his wife and 5 daughters, to take up his new duties in [[1834]]. He worked with [[John Herschel]] until [[1834]], performing a survey of the southern sky, and continued to perform important astronomical observations over several more decades. The Maclears and Herschels formed a close friendship, the wives drawn together by the unusual occupations of their husbands and the raising of their large families. Mary Maclear, like Margret Herschel, was a noted beauty and intelligent, though suffering from extreme deafness. <br />
<br />
In 1750 Abbe [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] had measured a triangulation arc northwards from Cape Town, to determine the shape of the earth and found that the curvature of the earth was less in southern latitudes than at corresponding northern ones. Sir [[George Everest]] visited the Cape in 1820 and visited the site of LaCailles measurements. From his experience in the Himalayas he believed that the presence of considerable mountain masses in the Cape could have caused false measurements to be made by LaCaille. Between [[1841]] and [[1848]] Maclear would be occupied in performing a geodesic survey for the purpose of recalculating the dimensions and shape of the Earth. He became close friends with [[David Livingstone]], and they shared a common interest in the exploration of [[Africa]]. He performed many other useful scientific activities, including collecting meteorological, magnetic and tide data.<br />
<br />
In [[1861]] his wife died. Two years later he was granted a pension, but did not retire from the observatory until [[1870]]. He lived thereafter at Grey Villa, Mowbray. By [[1876]] he had lost his sight, and he died three years later. He is buried next to his wife on the grounds of the Royal Observatory.<br />
<br />
==Awards and honors==<br />
* Knighted in [[1860]] for his achievements as an astronomer.<br />
* [[Royal Medal]] of the Royal Society (1869), for his measurement of an arc of meridian in the 1840s.<br />
* [[Maclear (crater)|Maclear crater]] on the [[Moon]] is named after him, as is Maclear's Beacon on [[Table Mountain]] and the town of Maclear.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Charles Piazzi Smyth]]<br />
* [[Edward James Stone]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/people/bios/maclear-t.htm Thomas Maclear 1794 - 1879] &mdash; SA History<br />
* [http://www.users.bigpond.com/nebula72/ Maclear family]<br />
* [http://www.saao.ac.za/assa/html/his-astr_-_maclear_t.html Thomas Maclear biography]<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Maclear, Thomas}}<br />
[[Category:1794 births]]<br />
[[Category:1879 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:South African astronomers]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076346Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-22T00:12:44Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis */ clarify</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]]. <br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After Blair learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] by the [[London Assembly]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair continued to receive the support of the [[Metropolitan Police Authority]], the head of which said that he would not have accepted any resignation offered by Blair.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* Mr Ian Blair (1953-1974)<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1999)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair QPM (1999-?)<br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (?-2000)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-civ|pol}}<br />
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2000 &ndash; 2005}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Paul Stephenson (police officer)|Paul Stephenson]]}}<br />
|-<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2005 &ndash; present}}<br />
{{s-inc}}<br />
{{end}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Blair, Ian}}<br />
[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076345Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-22T00:12:09Z<p>Carcharoth: doesn't need a neutrality tag anymore - article has been severely stubbed down</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]]. <br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After he learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] by the [[London Assembly]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair continued to receive the support of the [[Metropolitan Police Authority]], the head of which said that he would not have accepted any resignation offered by Blair.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* Mr Ian Blair (1953-1974)<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1999)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair QPM (1999-?)<br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (?-2000)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-civ|pol}}<br />
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2000 &ndash; 2005}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Paul Stephenson (police officer)|Paul Stephenson]]}}<br />
|-<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2005 &ndash; present}}<br />
{{s-inc}}<br />
{{end}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Blair, Ian}}<br />
[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076341Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-12T10:41:11Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis */ tweak</p>
<hr />
<div>{{POV|date=March 2008}}<br />
{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]]. <br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After he learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] by the [[London Assembly]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair continued to receive the support of the [[Metropolitan Police Authority]], the head of which said that he would not have accepted any resignation offered by Blair.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* Mr Ian Blair (1953-1974)<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1999)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair QPM (1999-?)<br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (?-2000)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-civ|pol}}<br />
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2000 &ndash; 2005}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Paul Stephenson (police officer)|Paul Stephenson]]}}<br />
|-<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2005 &ndash; present}}<br />
{{s-inc}}<br />
{{end}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Blair, Ian}}<br />
[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076339Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-12T10:40:21Z<p>Carcharoth: balance two sides</p>
<hr />
<div>{{POV|date=March 2008}}<br />
{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]]. <br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After he learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] by the [[London Assembly]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair continued to receive the support of the [[Metropolitan Police Authority]], the head of which said that he would not have accepted Blair's resignation.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* Mr Ian Blair (1953-1974)<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1999)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair QPM (1999-?)<br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (?-2000)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-civ|pol}}<br />
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2000 &ndash; 2005}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Paul Stephenson (police officer)|Paul Stephenson]]}}<br />
|-<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2005 &ndash; present}}<br />
{{s-inc}}<br />
{{end}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Blair, Ian}}<br />
[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076338Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-12T10:28:34Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis */ clarify</p>
<hr />
<div>{{POV|date=March 2008}}<br />
{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]]. <br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]] by anti-terrorism police who thought he was a suicide bomber. After he learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been mistaken, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Ranks & Honours==<br />
<br />
* Mr Ian Blair (1953-1974)<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1999)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair QPM (1999-?)<br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (?-2000)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-civ|pol}}<br />
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2000 &ndash; 2005}}<br />
{{s-aft|after=[[Paul Stephenson (police officer)|Paul Stephenson]]}}<br />
|-<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2005 &ndash; present}}<br />
{{s-inc}}<br />
{{end}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Blair, Ian}}<br />
[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharothhttps://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ian_Blair,_Baron_Blair_of_Boughton&diff=108076337Ian Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton2008-04-12T10:27:10Z<p>Carcharoth: /* Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis */ he was not a terrorism suspect - that phrasing is very misleading</p>
<hr />
<div>{{POV|date=March 2008}}<br />
{{Infobox Person<br />
| image = Replace this image male.svg <!-- Only freely-licensed images may be used to depict living people. See [[WP:NONFREE]]. --><br />
| image_size = 150px |<br />
| name=Sir Ian Blair<br />
| caption=Sir Ian Blair, QPM<br>Commissioner<br>Metropolitan Police Service<br />
| birth_date={{Birth date and age|1953|3|19|df=y}}<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Sir Ian Warwick Blair''', [[Queen's Police Medal|QPM]] (born [[19 March]] [[1953]]) is a senior [[United Kingdom]] [[police officer]] who currently holds the office of [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], or head of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]]. <br />
<br />
Blair is responsible for the policing the metropolitan area of the capital city of [[London]], with the notable exception of the [[City of London]] itself. The relatively small area of the City of London, essentially London's financial district, is policed by its own [[City of London Police]], under the command of its own Commissioner.<br />
<br />
As the head of the Metropolitan Police, Blair is often regarded as the most senior police officer in the United Kingdom, though technically his authority is confined to his own force.<br />
<br />
==Education and early career==<br />
<br />
After attending [[Wrekin College]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Harvard-Westlake School|Harvard High School]], [[Los Angeles]], Blair read English Language and English Literature at [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. He was awarded a second-class degree.<br />
<br />
He commenced his police career in 1974, joining under the graduate entry scheme. He started as a [[Police Constable]] in the [[Soho]] area of London, and served in both uniform and [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] in central London over the next 17 years. In 1985, he was Detective Chief Inspector at CID in [[Kentish Town]], north London, in which role he was responsible for identifying the victims of the [[King's Cross fire]]. He reached the rank of [[Chief Superintendent]] in 1991, and then spent two years outside the Met as Staff Officer in [[HM Inspectorate of Constabulary]]. <br />
<br />
In 1994, he moved to [[Thames Valley Police]] as [[Assistant Chief Constable]], and that same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the [[Newbury bypass]]. Blair became [[Deputy Chief Constable]] for the Thames Valley Police in 1997. He was awarded the [[Queen's Police Medal]] in 1999 and received a [[knight bachelor|knighthood]] in the [[Queen's Birthday Honours]] in 2003 for services to the Police.<br />
<br />
Blair was formerly [[Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Deputy Commissioner]], and before that [[Chief Constable]] of [[Surrey Police]].<br />
<br />
==Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis==<br />
{{seealso|Jean Charles de Menezes}}<br />
Blair took up his current post as [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] on [[1 February]] [[2005]], taking over from [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Sir John Stevens]] (now Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington). Several months into his tenure, he was heavily involved in an investigation into the shooting of [[Jean Charles de Menezes]]. After he learned that de Menezes was not a terrorist, he briefly considered resigning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4269502.stm "Police head 'considered quitting'"], [[BBC]], [[22 September]] [[2005]]</ref> On [[1 November]] [[2007]], a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/legal/article3121159.ece De Menezes shooting: Police guilty of 'catastrophic errors'] , [[The Independent]], [[2 November]] [[2007]]</ref> Blair rejected a [[vote of no confidence]] a week later.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article2824751.ece Sir Ian Blair defies no confidence motion], [[Times Online]], [[7 November]] [[2007]]</ref><br />
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==Ranks & Honours==<br />
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* Mr Ian Blair (1953-1974)<br />
* PC Ian Blair (1974-various ranks-1985)<br />
* DCI Ian Blair (1985-1988)<br />
* Supt. Ian Blair (1988-1991)<br />
* Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991-1994)<br />
* Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994-1997)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997-1999)<br />
* Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair QPM (1999-?)<br />
* Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (?-2000)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000-2003)<br />
* Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003-2005)<br />
* Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005-)<ref>Biography - Metropolitan Police Service website - http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm</ref><br />
<br />
The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Sergeant/Detective Sergeant and Inspector/Detective Inspector.<br />
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==References==<br />
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<references/><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
*''Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police'' (1985)<br />
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==External links==<br />
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/3960881.stm Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News]<br />
*[http://www.met.police.uk/about/blair.htm Biography on the Metropolitan Police website]<br />
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{{s-ttl|title=[[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]]|years=2005 &ndash; present}}<br />
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[[Category:1953 births]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:British Chief Constables]]<br />
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis]]<br />
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]<br />
[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Queen's Police Medal]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Old Wrekinians]]<br />
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[[es:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[fr:Ian Blair]]<br />
[[no:Ian Blair]]</div>Carcharoth