Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Josh Lambo

2015-05-01T17:22:48Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted 1 edit by 70.194.162.19 (talk): Cite source please. (TW)

{{Infobox college football player
|school=Texas A&M Aggies
|currentposition=[[Placekicker]]
|currentnumber=49
|class=Senior
|pastschools=
*[[Texas A&M Aggies football|Texas A&M]] (2012–present)
|birth_date={{Birth date and age|1990|11|19}}
|birth_place=[[Lansing, Michigan]]
|height_ft=6
|height_in=0
|weight_lbs=220
|highschool=
}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Josh Lambo
| image =
| fullname = Joshua Gregory Lambo<ref>{{cite web|title=FIFA U-20 World Cup Egypt 2009 – List of Players|url=http://www.fifadata.com/document/FWYC/2009/PDF/FWYC_2009_SquadLists.pdf|publisher=Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)|format=PDF|page=22|accessdate=26 July 2013}}</ref>
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1990|11|19}}
| birth_place = [[Lansing, Michigan]], United States
| height = {{height|m=1.85}}
| currentclub =
| clubnumber =
| position = [[Goalkeeper (association football)|Goalkeeper]]
| youthyears1 = 2005–2008 | youthclubs1 = [[IMG Soccer Academy]]
| years1 = 2008–2011 | clubs1 = [[FC Dallas]] | caps1 = 0 | goals1 = 0
| years2 = 2010 | clubs2 = → [[FC Tampa Bay]] (loan) | caps2 = 6 | goals2 = 0
| nationalyears1 = 2007 | nationalteam1 = [[United States men's national under-17 soccer team|United States U17]]
| nationalcaps1 = 2 | nationalgoals1 = 0
| nationalyears2 = 2008–2009 | nationalteam2 = [[United States men's national under-20 soccer team|United States U20]]
| nationalcaps2 = 4 | nationalgoals2 = 0
| medaltemplates =
| pcupdate = September 22, 2010
| ntupdate = April 20, 2010
}}
'''Joshua Gregory "Josh" Lambo''' (born November 19, 1990) is an [[American football]] [[placekicker|kicker]] who plays [[college football]] for [[Texas A&M University]] and is a former [[association football|soccer]] player.

==Career==

===Youth===
Born in Michigan, Lambo moved with his family to [[Chicago, Illinois]] when he was a small child.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} He played club soccer for Chicago Magic (where one of his teammates was USA national team goalkeeper [[Brad Guzan]]), before moving to [[Middleton, Wisconsin]] in the summer of 2005, where he attended [[Middleton High School (Middleton, Wisconsin)|Middleton High School]] for less than two months before signing a [[Generation Adidas]] contract and joining the USA Residency Program in [[Bradenton, Florida]]. As a 15-year old he spent the summer training with Everton F.C. during their US tour in 2006 on the recommendation of US international [[Tim Howard]] and was invited to [[Finch Farm]] before being offered a professional contract on the proviso that he could secure an EU passport due to his Greek heritage.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rating the goalkeepers|url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id=397087&cc=5739|work=ESPN|accessdate=2 July 2010}}</ref>

===Professional===
Lambo was drafted in the first round (8th overall) of the [[2008 MLS SuperDraft]] by [[FC Dallas]]. He played in the [[MLS Reserve Division]], and was a named first team substitute on several occasions, but missed most of the second half of the 2008 season after he broke his jaw in a reserve team game. He has yet to make his MLS debut, but did appear for his team in an international friendly match versus Costa Rica’s [[Club Sport Herediano|CS Herediano]] in June 2009.

He was loaned to [[USSF Division 2 Professional League]] expansion team [[FC Tampa Bay]] for the 2010 season.<ref>[http://www.pegasusnews.com/news/2010/mar/18/fc-dallas-josh-lambo-loaned-tampy-bay-rowdies/ FC Dallas’ Josh Lambo loaned to Tampy Bay Rowdies]</ref> He made his professional debut on May 14, 2010 in a 2-1 victory over the [[Carolina RailHawks FC|Carolina RailHawks]].<ref>http://ussf.demosphere.com/stats/2010/1634172.html</ref>

Lambo was waived by Dallas at the end of the 2011 season. He went on trial with [[D.C. United]] in January 2012.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/soccer-insider/post/update-on-dc-united-trialists/2012/01/23/gIQA18jsKQ_blog.html | work=The Washington Post | first=Steven | last=Goff | title=Stats, scores and schedules | date=23 January 2012}}</ref>

===International===
Lambo has made two appearances for the [[United States U-17 men's national soccer team|United States U-17]] national team, and was part of the [[United States U-20 men's national soccer team|United States U-20]] national team at the [[FIFA U-20 World Cup]] held in [[Egypt]].

===American football===
In the Fall of 2012 Lambo enrolled at Texas A&M University and joined the football team as a placekicker. He became starting field goal kicker after overtaking Taylor Bertolet during the 2013 season (Bertolet remained the kick-off specialist). His first career appearance came on September 22, 2012 when he made a PAT against South Carolina State. His first game winning field goal came against Ole Miss on October 12, 2013. With the game tied at 38 and only four seconds remaining in the game, Lambo kicked a 33-yard field goal to win the game for the Aggies 41-38.<ref>http://blog.chron.com/sportsupdate/2013/10/gameday-central-texas-am-at-ole-miss/</ref> Lambo was flawless on extra points for the 2014 season, hitting on all 59 attempts.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.12thman.com/ViewArticle.dbml?ATCLID=208706473&DB_OEM_ID=27300 Texas A&M profile]
* [http://www.mlssoccer.com/players/josh-lambo MLS player profile]
* {{FIFA player|273561}}

{{FCDallasFirstPick}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Lambo, Josh
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Lambo, Joshua Gregory
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American player of soccer and American football
| DATE OF BIRTH = November 19, 1990
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Lansing, Michigan
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lambo, Josh}}
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American football placekickers]]
[[Category:American soccer players]]
[[Category:Association football goalkeepers]]
[[Category:FC Dallas draft picks]]
[[Category:FC Dallas players]]
[[Category:USSF Division 2 Professional League players]]
[[Category:Tampa Bay Rowdies players]]
[[Category:Texas A&M Aggies football players]]
[[Category:United States men's youth international soccer players]]
[[Category:Major League Soccer first round draft picks]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Chicago, Illinois]]
[[Category:People from Dane County, Wisconsin]]
[[Category:People from East Lansing, Michigan]]
[[Category:Soccer players from Wisconsin]]

Little Dorrit

2015-01-20T19:35:04Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 12.251.134.242 (talk) to last version by FrescoBot

{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Little Dorrit
| title_orig =
| image = [[Image:Littledorrit serial cover.jpg|200px|]]
| caption = Cover of serial Vol. 4, March 1856
| author = [[Charles Dickens]]
| illustrator = [[Hablot Knight Browne]] ([[Phiz]])
| cover_artist = [[Hablot Knight Browne]] ([[Phiz]])
| country = England
| language = English
| series = Monthly: December 1855 – June 1857
| genre = Fiction, [[Social criticism]]
| publisher = [[Bradbury and Evans]]
| release_date = 1855 in monthly format and 1857 in book format
| media_type = Print
| pages =
| isbn =
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}

'''''Little Dorrit''''' is a [[Serial (literature)|serial novel]] by [[Charles Dickens]], originally published between 1855 and 1857. It is a work of satire on the shortcomings of the government and society of the period. Much of Dickens's ire is focused upon the institutions of [[debtors' prison]]s, in which people who owed money were imprisoned, unable to work, until they repaid their debts. The representative prison in this case is the [[Marshalsea]], where the author's own father had been imprisoned. Most of Dickens's other critiques in this particular novel concern the [[social safety net]]; industry and the treatment and safety of workers; the bureaucracy of the British [[HM Treasury|Treasury]] (as figured in the fictional "Circumlocution Office" [Bk. 1, Ch. 10]); and the separation of people based on the lack of interaction between the classes.

==Original publication==
''Little Dorrit'' was published in nineteen monthly instalments, each consisting of 32 pages with two illustrations by [[Hablot Knight Browne]] whose [[pen name]] was [[Hablot Knight Browne|Phiz]]. Each instalment cost a [[shilling]] except for the last, a double issue which cost two shillings.

===First Book: Poverty===
* I – December 1855 (chapters 1–4)
* II – January 1856 (chapters 5–8)
* III – February 1856 (chapters 9–11)
* IV – March 1856 (chapters 12–14)
* V – April 1856 (chapters 15–18)
* VI – May 1856 (chapters 19–22)
* VII – June 1856 (chapters 23–25)
* VIII – July 1856 (chapters 26–29)
* IX – August 1856 (chapters 30–32)
* X – September 1856 (chapters 33–36)

===Second Book: Riches===
* XI – October 1856 (chapters 1–4)
* XII – November 1856 (chapters 5–7)
* XIII – December 1856 (chapters 8–11)
* XIV – January 1857 (chapters 12–14)
* XV – February 1857 (chapters 15–18)
* XVI – March 1857 (chapters 19–22)
* XVII – April 1857 (chapters 23–26)
* XVIII – May 1857 (chapters 27–29)
* XIX-XX – June 1857 (chapters 30–34)

==Synopsis==
The novel begins in [[Marseilles]] "thirty years ago" (i.e., c. 1826), with the notorious murderer Rigaud telling his cell mate how he killed his wife. Arthur Clennam is returning to London to see his mother after the death of his father, with whom he had lived for twenty years in China. On his deathbed, his father had given him a mysterious watch murmuring "Your mother," which Arthur naturally assumed was intended for Mrs. Clennam, whom he and everyone else believed to be his mother.

[[File:Little Dorrit - Mr Flintwinch has a mild attack of irritability.jpg|thumb|Mr Flintwinch has a mild attack of [[irritability]]]]
Inside the watch casing was an old silk paper with the initials DNF (Do Not Forget) worked into it in beads. It was a message, but when Arthur showed it to the harsh and implacable Mrs Clennam, a religious fanatic, she refused to tell him what it meant and the two become estranged.

In London, William Dorrit, imprisoned as a debtor, has been a resident of [[Marshalsea]] debtors' prison for so long that his three children – snobbish Fanny, idle Edward (known as Tip) and Amy (known as Little Dorrit) — have all grown up there, although they are free to pass in and out of the prison as they please. Amy, devoted to her father, has been supporting them both through her sewing.

Once in London, Arthur is reacquainted with his former fiancée Flora Finching, who is now overweight and simpering. His supposed mother, Mrs Clennam, though arthritic and wheelchair-bound, still runs the family business with the help of her servant Jeremiah Flintwinch and his downtrodden wife Affery. When Arthur learns that Mrs Clennam has employed Little Dorrit as a seamstress, showing her unusual kindness, he wonders whether the young girl might be connected with the mystery of the watch. Suspecting his mother was partially responsible for the misfortunes of the Dorrits, Arthur follows the girl to the Marshalsea. He vainly tries to inquire about William Dorrit's debt in the poorly run Circumlocution Office, assuming the role of benefactor towards Amy, her father, and her brother. While at the Circumlocution Office he meets the struggling inventor Daniel Doyce, whom he decides to help by going into business with him. The grateful Amy falls in love with Arthur, but Arthur fails to recognise Amy's interest. At last, aided by the indefatigable rent-collector Pancks, Arthur discovers that William Dorrit is the lost heir to a large fortune, finally enabling him to pay his way out of prison.

The newly freed Dorrit decides that they should tour Europe as a newly respectable family. They travel over the [[Alps]] and take up residence for a time in [[Venice]], and finally in Rome, displaying an air of conceit over their new-found wealth (except for Amy). Eventually, after a spell of delirium, Dorrit dies in Rome as does his distraught brother Frederick, a kind-hearted musician who has always stood by him. Amy, left alone, returns to London to stay with newly married Fanny and her husband, the foppish Edmund Sparkler.

[[File:Little_Dorrit_avatar_1856.jpg|thumb|left|"Little Dorrit" avatar, 1856]]The fraudulent dealings (similar to a [[Ponzi scheme]]) of Edmund Sparkler's stepfather, Mr. Merdle, end with his suicide and the collapse of his bank business, and with it the savings of both the Dorrits and Arthur Clennam, who is now himself imprisoned in the Marshalsea, where he becomes ill and is nursed back to health by Amy. The French villain Rigaud, now in London, discovers that Mrs. Clennam has been hiding the fact that Arthur is not her real son, and tries to blackmail her. Arthur's biological mother was a beautiful young singer with whom his father had gone through some sort of non-marital ceremony, before being pressured by his wealthy uncle to marry the present Mrs. Clennam. The latter insisted on bringing up little Arthur and denying his mother the right to see him. Arthur's real mother died of grief at being separated from Arthur and his father; but Mr. Clennam's wealthy uncle, stung by remorse, had left a bequest to Arthur's biological mother and to "the youngest daughter of her patron", a kindly musician who had taught and befriended her – and who happened to be Amy Dorrit's paternal uncle, Frederick. As Frederick Dorrit had no daughter, the inheritance went to the youngest daughter of Frederick's younger brother, William. That is, to Amy Dorrit.

Mrs. Clennam has been withholding her knowledge that Amy is the heiress to an enormous fortune and estate. Overcome by passion, the old woman rises from her chair and totters out of her house to reveal the secret to Amy and beg her forgiveness, which the kind-hearted girl freely grants. The former then falls in the street, never to recover the use of her speech or limbs, as the house of Clennam literally collapses before her eyes, killing Rigaud. Rather than hurt Arthur, Amy chooses not to reveal what she has learned even though this means forfeiting her legacy.

When Arthur's business partner Daniel Doyce returns from [[Russia]] a wealthy man, Arthur is released with his fortunes revived, and Arthur and Amy are married.

==Subplots==
Like many of Dickens's novels, ''Little Dorrit'' contains numerous subplots. One subplot concerns Arthur Clennam's friends, the kind-hearted Meagles. They are upset when their daughter Pet marries an artist called Gowan, and when their servant and foster daughter Tattycoram is lured away from them to the sinister Miss Wade, an acquaintance of the criminal Rigaud. Miss Wade hates men, and it turns out she is the jilted sweetheart of Gowan.

The character Little Dorrit (Amy) was inspired by Mary Ann Cooper (née Mitton), whom Dickens sometimes visited along with her family. They lived in The Cedars, [[Hatton, London#Lost features|a house on Hatton Road]] west of London; its site is now under the east end of [[London Heathrow Airport]].<ref>page 52, Sherwood, Philip. (2009) Heathrow: 2000 Years of History. Stroud: The History Press ISBN 978-0-7509-5086-2</ref>

==Literary significance and reception==
Like much of Dickens' later fiction, this novel has seen many reversals of critical fortune. It has been shown to be a critique of [[HM Treasury]] and the blunders that led to the loss of life of 360 British soldiers at the [[Battle of Balaclava]].<ref>Philpotts, Trey. "Trevelyan, Treasury, and Circumlocution." ''Dickens Studies Annual.'' '''22''', 1993, 283–302.</ref> Imprisonment – both literal and figurative – is a major theme of the novel, with Clennam and the Meagles quarantined in Marseilles, Rigaud jailed for murder, Mrs. Clennam confined to her house, the Dorrits imprisoned in the Marshalsea, and most of the characters trapped within the rigidly defined English social class structure of the time.

[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]], a voracious reader and theatre-goer when he was not composing, was entranced by the book, which he presumably read in Russian, French or German translation, and recommended it enthusiastically to his younger twin brothers Modest and Anatoly in his voluminous correspondence with them.

==Adaptations==
''Little Dorrit'' has been adapted for the screen five times. The first three productions were in 1913, 1920, and 1934. The 1934 German adaptation, ''Kleine Dorrit'', starred [[Anny Ondra]] as Little Dorrit and [[Mathias Wieman]] as Arthur Clennam. It was directed by [[Karel Lamač]].<ref>[http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9406E3D81238E13ABC4152DFB667838E629EDE ''New York Times'' Movie Review, 19 October 1935.]</ref> The [[Little Dorrit (film)|fourth adaptation]], in 1988, was a UK feature film of the same title as the novel, directed by [[Christine Edzard]] and starring [[Alec Guinness]][as William Dorrit] and [[Derek Jacobi]][as Arthur Clennam], supported by a cast of over three hundred British actors.

[[Little Dorrit (TV series)|The fifth adaptation]] was a TV series co-produced by the [[BBC Television|BBC]] and [[WGBH-TV|WGBH Boston]], written by [[Andrew Davies (writer)|Andrew Davies]] and featuring [[Claire Foy]][as Little Dorrit], [[Freema Agyeman]][as Tattycoram], [[Bill Paterson]][as Mr Meagles], [[Andy Serkis]][as Rigaud/Blandois], [[Matthew Macfadyen]][as Arthur Clennam], [[Tom Courtenay]][as William Dorrit], [[Judy Parfitt]][as Mrs Clennam], [[Arthur Darvill]][as Edward 'Tip' Dorrit], [[Russell Tovey]][as John Chivery], [[Janine Duvitski]][as Mrs Meagles], [[James Fleet]][as Frederick Dorrit], [[Ruth Jones]][as Flora Casby Finching], [[Eve Myles]][as Maggy Plornish], [[Mackenzie Crook]], [[Stephane Cornicard]], [[Anton Lesser]][as Mr Merdle], [[Alun Armstrong]][as Jeremiah/Ephraim Flintwinch], [[Sue Johnston]][as Affery Flintwinch], [[Emma Pierson]][as Fanny Dorrit], [[Robert Hardy]][as Tite Barnacle], [[John Alderton]][as Mr Casby], [[Amanda Redman]][as Mrs Merdle]. The series aired between October and December 2008 in the UK, in the USA on [[PBS]]'s ''[[Masterpiece (TV series)|Masterpiece]]'' in April 2009, and in Australia, on ABC1 TV, in June and July 2010.

In 2001 [[BBC Radio 4]] broadcast a radio adaptation of five hour-long episodes, starring [[Ian McKellen|Sir Ian McKellen]] as the narrator.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/proginfo/2013/44/little-dorrit.html</ref>

''Little Dorrit'' formed the backdrop to [[Peter Ackroyd]]'s debut novel, ''[[The Great Fire of London (novel)|The Great Fire of London]]'' (1982).

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
{{Commons category}}
'''Online editions'''
*[http://www.archive.org/stream/littledorrit00dickrich#page/n7/mode/2up ''Little Dorrit''] at [[Internet Archive]].
*{{gutenberg|no=963|name=Little Dorrit}}
'''Map'''
*[http://www.communitywalk.com/little_dorrit_map/map/1661073 ''Little Dorrit Map''].
{{Charles Dickens}}
{{marshalseaend}}
{{Little Dorrit}}

[[Category:1857 novels]]
[[Category:Novels by Charles Dickens]]
[[Category:19th-century novels]]
[[Category:Novels first published in serial form]]
[[Category:Marshalsea]]
[[Category:English novels]]
[[Category:Victorian novels]]

Politischer Missbrauch der Psychiatrie in China

2014-04-25T17:05:35Z

CanadianLinuxUser: /* Canada, Quebec */ Redundant

'''Political abuse of psychiatry''' is the misuse of psychiatric diagnosis, detention and treatment for the purposes of obstructing the fundamental human rights of certain groups and individuals in a society.<ref name="van Voren 2010">{{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry—An Historical Overview|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|date=January 2010|volume=36|issue=1|pages=33–35|pmid=19892821|pmc=2800147|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp119}}</ref><ref name="Helmchen">{{cite book|last1=Helmchen|first1=Hanfried|last2=Sartorius|first2=Norman|authorlink2=Norman Sartorius|title=Ethics in Psychiatry: European Contributions|year=2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=90-481-8720-6|pages=491|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=70h31egRm40C&pg=PA491}}</ref>{{rp|491}} In other words, abuse of psychiatry including one for political purposes is deliberate action of getting citizens certified, who, because of their mental condition, need neither psychiatric restraint nor psychiatric treatment.<ref name="Глузман, 2010">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Глузман|first=Семён|title=Этиология злоупотреблений в психиатрии: попытка мультидисциплинарного анализа|journal=Нейроnews: Психоневрология и нейропсихиатрия| date=January 2010 |volume=|issue=№ 1 (20)|pages=|url=http://neuronews.com.ua/page/etiologiya-zloupotreblenij-v-psihiatrii-popytka-multidisciplinarnogo-analiza}}</ref> Psychiatrists have been involved in human rights abuses in states across the world when the definitions of mental disease were expanded to include political disobedience.<ref name=Semple>{{cite book|last1=Semple|first1=David|last2=Smyth|first2=Roger|last3=Burns|first3=Jonathan|title=Oxford handbook of psychiatry|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-852783-7|pages=6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1MeRuoTs0loC&pg=PA6}}</ref>{{rp|6}} As scholars have long argued, governmental and medical institutions code menaces to authority as mental diseases during political disturbances.<ref name="Metzl">{{cite book|last=Metzl|first=Jonathan|title=The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease|year=2010|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=0-8070-8592-8|page=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=t1Bg9QEiCAMC&pg=PA14}}</ref>{{rp|14}} Nowadays, in many countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions.<ref name="Noll">{{cite book|last=Noll|first=Richard|title=The encyclopedia of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=0-8160-6405-9|pages=3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jzoJxps189IC&pg=PA3}}</ref>{{rp|3}} Psychiatric confinement of sane people is a particularly pernicious form of repression.<ref name="Bonnie">{{cite journal|last=Bonnie|first=Richard|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the Soviet Union and in China: Complexities and Controversies|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=136–144|pmid=11931362|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/136.pdf|accessdate=12 December 2010}}</ref>

Psychiatry possesses a built-in capacity for abuse that is greater than in other areas of medicine.<ref name="Medicine betrayed">{{cite book|title=Medicine betrayed: the participation of doctors in human rights abuses|year=1992|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=1-85649-104-8|pages=65|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bMTu_oIfVsIC&pg=PA65}}</ref>{{rp|65}} The diagnosis of mental disease allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} In addition, receiving a psychiatric diagnosis can in itself be regarded as oppressive.<ref name="Malterud">{{cite book|last1=Malterud|first1=Kirsti|last2=Hunskaar|first2=Steinar|title=Chronic myofascial pain: a patient-centered approach|year=2002|publisher=Radcliffe Publishing|isbn=1-85775-947-8|page=94|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6K41rxULV34C&pg=PA94}}</ref>{{rp|94}} In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} The use of hospitals instead of jails prevents the victims from receiving legal aid before the courts, makes indefinite incarceration possible, discredits the individuals and their ideas.<ref name="Veenhoven">{{cite book|last1=Veenhoven|first1=Willem|last2=Ewing|first2=Winifred|last3=Samenlevingen|first3=Stichting|title=Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey|year=1975|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-247-1780-9|pages= 29|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RdazE7TGYjgC&pg=PA29}}</ref>{{rp|29}} In that manner, whenever open trials are undesirable, they are avoided.<ref name="Veenhoven"/>{{rp|29}}

Examples of political abuse of the power, entrusted in physicians and particularly psychiatrists, are abundant in history and seen during the Nazi era and the Soviet rule when political dissenters were labeled as “mentally ill” and subjected to inhumane “treatments.”<ref name=Shah>{{cite journal|last1=Shah|first1=Ruchita|last2=Basu|first2=Debasish|title=Coercion in psychiatric care: Global and Indian perspective|journal=[[Indian Journal of Psychiatry]]|date=July–September 2010|volume=52|issue=3|pages=203–206|doi=10.4103/0019-5545.70971|pmid=21180403|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2990818|accessdate=22 March 2012|pmc=2990818}}</ref> In the period from the 1960s up to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union, and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as [[Communist Romania|Romania]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Czechoslovakia]], and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|66}} The practice of incarceration of political dissidents in mental hospitals in Eastern Europe and the former USSR damaged the credibility of psychiatric practice in these states and entailed strong condemnation from the international community.<ref name="Declan">{{cite journal|last1=Declan|first1=Lyons|last2=Art|first2=O'Malley|title=The labelling of dissent — politics and psychiatry behind the Great Wall|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=2002|pages=443–444|doi=10.1192/pb.26.12.443|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/26/12/443.full|volume=26|issue=12}}</ref> Political abuse of psychiatry also takes place in the [[People's Republic of China]].<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> Psychiatric diagnoses such as the diagnosis of ‘[[sluggish schizophrenia]]’ in political dissidents in the USSR were used for political purposes.<ref name="Katona">{{cite book|last1=Katona|first1=Cornelius|last2=Robertson|first2=Mary|title=Psychiatry at a glance|year=2005|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=1-4051-2404-0|pages=77|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OSJRHpAtqPUC&pg=PA77}}</ref>{{rp|77}}

== Canada, Quebec ==

[[Duplessis Orphans]] :
Several thousand orphaned children were falsely certified as mentally ill by the government of the province of Quebec, Canada, and confined to psychiatric institutions.

MKUltra : An illegal human research operation experimenting in the behavioral engineering of humans through the CIA's Scientific Intelligence Division
[[Project MKUltra#Canadian experiments|MKUltra experiments of Dr Donald Ewen Cameron]]

Dr Donald Ewen Cameron's operation was running from what is today known as the Allen Memorial Institute (AMI), part of the Royal Victoria Hospital, and not to be confused with the non-governmental organization based in Montreal, AMI-Québec Agir contre la maladie mentale.

== China ==
In 2002, [[Human Rights Watch]] published the book ''Dangerous Minds: Political Psychiatry in China Today and its Origins in the Mao Era'' written by [[Robin Munro]] and based on the documents obtained by him.<ref name="Munro">{{cite book|last=Munro|first=Robin|title=Dangerous minds: political psychiatry in China today and its origins in the Mao era|year=2002|publisher=Human Rights Watch|isbn=1-56432-278-5|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ek8BtI3moPMC&printsec=frontcover}} (Google Books)</ref><ref name="Munro HTML">{{cite book|last=Munro|first=Robin|title=Dangerous Minds: Political Psychiatry in China Today and its Origins in the Mao Era|year=2002|publisher=Human Rights Watch|isbn=1-56432-278-5|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3deb868a1.html}} (HTML)</ref> The British researcher Robin Munro, a sinologist who was writing his dissertation in London after a long sojourn in China, had travelled to China several times to survey libraries in provincial towns and had gathered a large amount of literature which bore the stamp ‘secret’ but at the same time was openly available.<ref name="van Voren 2009">{{cite book|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=On Dissidents and Madness: From the Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev to the "Soviet Union" of Vladimir Putin|year=2009|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam—New York|isbn=978-90-420-2585-1|pages=242|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tyDIKu8XsgcC&pg=PA242}}</ref>{{rp|242}} This literature included even historical analyses going back to the days of the [[Cultural Revolution]] and concerned articles and reports on the number of people who were taken to mental hospitals because they complained of a series of issues.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|242}} It was found, according to Munro, that the involuntary confinement of religious groups, political dissidents, and whistleblowers had a lengthy history in China.<ref name="Freedman">{{cite journal|last=Freedman|first=M|title=Dangerous Minds: Political Psychiatry in China Today and Its Origin in the Mao Era|journal=Psychiatric Services|date=October 2003|volume=54|pages=1418–1419|url=http://psychservices.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/54/10/1418-a|accessdate=10 December 2010|issue=10|doi=10.1176/appi.ps.54.10.1418-a}}</ref> The abuse had begun in the 1950s and 1960s, and had grown extremely throughout the Cultural Revolution.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|242}} During the period of the Cultural Revolution, from 1966 to 1976, it achieved its apogee, then under the reign of [[Mao Zedong]] and the [[Gang of Four]], which established a very repressive and harsh regime.<ref name="Freedman"/> No deviance or opposition in thought or in practice was tolerated.<ref name="Freedman"/>

The documents told of a massive abuse of psychiatry for political purposes during the leadership of Mao Zedong, during which millions of people had been declared mentally sick.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|242}} In the 1980s, according to the official documents, there was political connotation to fifteen percent of all forensic psychiatric cases.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|242}} In the early 1990s, the numbers had dropped to five percent, but with beginning of the campaign against [[Falun Gong]], the percentage had again increased quite rapidly.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|242}}

Chinese official psychiatric literature testifies distinctly that the Communist Party's notion of ‘political dangerousness’ was long since institutionally engrafted in the diagnostic armory of China's psychiatry and included in the main concept of psychiatric dangerousness.<ref name="Munro"/>{{rp|4}}

The People’s Republic of China is the only country which appears to abuse psychiatry for political purposes in a systematic way, and despite international criticism, this seems to be continuing.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> Political abuse of psychiatry in the People’s Republic of China is high on the agenda and has produced recurring disputes in the international psychiatric community.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> The abuses there appear to be even more widespread than in the Soviet Union in the 1970s and 1980s and involve the incarceration of ‘petitioners’, human rights workers, trade union activists, followers of the Falun Gong movement, and people complaining against injustices by local authorities.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>

It also seemed that, China had hardly known high security forensic institutions until 1989.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|243}} However, since then, the Chinese authorities have constructed the entire network of special forensic mental hospitals called ''[[Ankang (asylum)|Ankang]]'' which in Chinese is for ‘Peace and Health.’<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|243}} By that time, China had had 20 Ankang institutions with the staff employed by the Ministry of State Security.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|243}} The psychiatrists who worked there were wearing uniforms under their white coats.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|243}}

The political abuse of psychiatry in China seems to take place only in the institutions under the authority of the police and the Ministry of State Security but not in those belonging to other governmental sectors.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|243}} Psychiatric care in China falls into four sectors that hardly connect up with each other.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|243}} These are Ankang institutions of the Ministry of State Security; those belonging to the police; those that fall under the authority of the Ministry of Social Affairs; those belonging to the Ministry of Health.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|243}} Both the sectors belonging to the police and the Ministry of State Security are the closed sectors, and, consequently, information hardly ever leaks out.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|243}} In the hospitals belonging to the Ministry of Health, psychiatrists do not contact with the Ankang institutions and, actually, had no idea of what occurred there, and could, thereby, sincerely state that they were not informed of political abuse of psychiatry in China.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|243}}

In China, the structure of forensic psychiatry was to a great extent identical to that in the USSR.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|243}} On its own, it is not so strange, since psychiatrists of the [[Moscow Serbsky Institute]] visited [[Beijing]] in 1957 to help their Chinese ‘brethren’, the same psychiatrists who promoted the system of political abuse of psychiatry in their own USSR.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|243}} As a consequence, diagnostics were not much different than in the Soviet Union.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|244}} The only difference was that the Soviets preferred ‘[[sluggish schizophrenia]]’ as a diagnosis, and the Chinese generally cleaved to the diagnosis ‘[[paranoia]]’ or ‘[[paranoid schizophrenia]]’.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|244}} However, the results were the same: long hospitalization in a mental hospital, involuntary treatment with [[neuroleptics]], torture, abuse, all aimed at breaking the victim’s will.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|244}}

In accordance with Chinese law that contains the concept of “political harm to society” as legally dangerous mentally ill behavior, police take into mental hospitals “political maniacs,” defined as persons who write reactionary letters, make anti-government speeches, or “express opinions on important domestic and international affairs.”<ref name=NYT>{{cite news|title=Contortions of Psychiatry in China|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/25/opinion/contortions-of-psychiatry-in-china.html?pagewanted=print&src=pm|accessdate=6 April 2012|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=25 March 2001}}</ref> Psychiatrists are frequently caught involved in such cases, unable and unwilling to challenge the police, according to psychiatry professor at the [[Peking University]] Yu Xin.<ref name=Demick>{{cite news|last=Demick|first=Barbara|title=China poised to limit use of mental hospitals to curb dissent|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-china-psychiatric-20120317,0,1464909,print.story|accessdate=6 April 2012|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=16 March 2012}}</ref> As Mr. Liu’s database suggests, today’s most frequent victims of psychiatric abuse are political dissidents, petitioners, and [[Falun Gong]] members.<ref name="LaFraniere">{{cite news|last1=LaFraniere|first1=Sharon|last2=Levin|first2=Dan|title=Assertive Chinese Held in Mental Wards|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/12/world/asia/12psych.html?_r=1&pagewanted=print|accessdate=22 March 2012|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=11 November 2010}}</ref> Psychiatrists are frequently caught involved in these cases, unable and unwilling to challenge the police, according to psychiatry professor at the [[Peking University]] Yu Xin. In the beginning of the 2000s, Human Rights Watch accused China of locking up Falun Gong members and dissidents in a number of Chinese mental hospitals managed by the Public Security Bureau.<ref name="LaFraniere"/> Access to the hospitals was requested by the [[World Psychiatric Association]] (WPA), but denied by China, and the controversy subsided.<ref name="LaFraniere"/>

The WPA attempted to confine the problem by presenting it as Falung Gong issue and, at the same time, make the impression that the members of the movement were likely not mentally sound, that it was a sect which likely brainwashed its members, etc.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|245}} There was even a diagnosis of ‘qigong syndrome’ which was used reflecting on the exercises practiced by Falung Gong.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|245}} It was the unfair game aiming to avoid the political abuse of psychiatry from dominating the WPA agenda.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|245}}

In August 2002, the General Assembly was to take place during the next WPA World Congress in [[Yokohama]].<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|247}} The issue of Chinese political abuse of psychiatry had been placed as one of the final items on the agenda of the General Assembly.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|251}} When the issue was broached during the General Assembly, the exact nature of compromise came to light.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|252}} In order to investigate the political abuse of psychiatry, the WPA would send an investigative mission to China.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|252}} The visit was projected for the spring of 2003 in order to assure that one could present a report during the annual meeting of the British [[Royal College of Psychiatrists]] in June/July of that year and the Annual Meeting of the [[American Psychiatric Association]] in May of the same year.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|252}} After the 2002 World Congress, the WPA Executive Committee’s half-hearted attitude in Yokohama came to light: it was an omen of a longstanding policy of diversion and postponement.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|252}} The 2003 investigative mission never took place, and when finally a visit to China did take place, this visit was more of scientific exchange.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|252}} In the meantime, the political abuse of psychiatry persisted unabatedly, nevertheless the WPA did not seem to care.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|252}}

== Cuba ==
Although Cuba has been politically connected to the Soviet Union since the United States broke off relations with Cuba shortly after the dictator [[Fidel Castro]] came to power in 1959, few considerable allegations regarding the political abuse of psychiatry in this country emerged before the late 1980s.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|74}} [[Americas Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]] published reports alluding to cases of possible unwarranted hospitalization and ill-treatment of political prisoners.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} These reports concerned the Gustavo Machin hospital in [[Santiago de Cuba]] in the southeast of the country and the major mental hospital in [[Havana]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} In 1977, a report on alleged abuse of psychiatry in Cuba presenting cases of ill-treatment in mental hospitals going back to the 1970s came out in the United States.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} It presents grave allegations that prisoners end up in the forensic ward of mental hospitals in Santiago de Cuba and Havana where they undergo ill-treatment including [[electroconvulsive therapy]] without [[muscle relaxants]] or [[anaesthesia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} The reported application of ECT in the forensic wards seems, at least in many of the cited cases, not to be an adequate clinical treatment for the diagnosed state of the prisoner — in some cases the prisoners seem not to have been diagnosed at all.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} Conditions in the forensic wards have been described in repulsive terms and apparently are in striking contrast to the other parts of the mental hospitals that are said to be well-kept and modern.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}}

In August 1981, the Marxist historian Ariel Hidalgo was apprehended and accused of ‘incitement against the social order, international solidarity and the Socialist State’ and sentenced to eight years’ imprisonment.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} In September 1981, he was transported from State Security Headquarters to the Carbó-Serviá (forensic) ward of Havana Psychiatric Hospital where he stayed for several weeks.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|76}}

== India ==
It was reported in June, 2012, that the [[Indian Government]] has approached [[NIMHANS]], a well known metal health establishment in [[South India]], to assist in suppressing anti-nuclear protests regards to building of the [[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant]]. The government was in talks with NIMHANS representatives to chalk up a plan to dispatch psychiatrists to [[Kudankulam]], for counselling protesters opposed to the building of the plant. To fulfill this, [[NIMHANS]] developed a team of 6 members, all of them, from the Department of Social Psychiatry. The psychiatrists were sent to get a ''"peek a into the protesters' minds"'' and help them learn the importance of the plant according to one news source.<ref>http://content.ibnlive.in.com/article/19-May-2012south-india/centre-to-deal-antinuke-mindset-with-nimhans-259386-60.html</ref><ref>http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/ColumnsOthers/No-margin-for-error/Article1-865997.aspx</ref><ref>http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=238299</ref><ref>http://newindianexpress.com/nation/article546418.ece</ref><ref>http://newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/article546439.ece</ref>

In July, 2013, the same institution, [[NIMHANS]], was involved in a controversy where it was alleged that it provided assistance to the [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] relating to some interrogation techninques.

== Japan ==
Japanese mental institutions during the country's imperial era reported an abnormally large number of patient deaths, peaking in 1945 after the surrender of Japan to Allied forces.<ref name="Totsuka">{{cite journal|last=Totsuka|first=Etsuro|title=The history of Japanese psychiatry and the rights of mental patients|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=1990|volume=14|issue=4|pages=193–200|pmid=|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/14/4/193.full.pdf|accessdate=19 March 2012}}</ref> The patients of these institutions were mistreated mainly because they were a hindrance to society. Under the oppressive Imperial Japanese government, citizens were expected to contribute in one way or another to the war effort, and the mentally ill were unable to do so, and as such were looked down upon and abused. The main cause of death for these patients was starvation, as caretakers did not supply the patients with adequate food, likely as a form of torture and a method of sedation. Because mentally ill patients were kept secluded from the outside world, the large number of deaths went unnoticed by the general public. After the end of Allied occupation, the [[Diet of Japan|National Diet of Japan]] passed the {{nihongo|Mental Hygiene Act|精神衛生法,|Seishin Eisei Hō}} in 1950, which improved the status of the mentally ill and prohibited the domestic containment of mental patients in medical institutions. However, the Mental Hygiene Act had unforeseen consequences. Along with many other reforms, the law prevented the mentally ill from being charged with any sort of crime in Japanese courts. Anyone who was found to be mentally unstable by a qualified psychiatrist was required to be hospitalized rather than incarcerated, regardless of the severity of any crime that person may have committed. The Ministry of Justice tried several times to amend the law, but was met with opposition from those who believed the legal system should not interfere with medical science.<ref name="Totsuka"/> After almost four decades, the {{nihongo|Mental Health Act|精神保健法,|Seishin Hoken Hō}} was finally passed in 1987. The new law corrected the flaws of the Mental Hygiene Act by allowing the Ministry of Health and Welfare to set regulations on the treatment of mental patients in both medical and legal settings. With the new law, the mentally ill have the right to voluntary hospitalization, the ability to be charged with a crime, and right to use the insanity defense in court, and the right to pursue legal action in the event of abuse or negligence on the part of medical professionals.

== Nazi Germany ==
{{main|Action T4}}
In [[Nazi Germany]] in 1940s, the abuse of psychiatry was the abuse of the 'duty to care' in enormous scale: 300,000 individuals were sterilized and 100,000 killed in Germany alone and many thousands further afield, mainly in [[eastern Europe]].<ref name="Birley">{{cite doi|10.1111/j.0902-4441.2000.007s020[dash]3.x}}</ref> For the first time in history, during the Nazi era, psychiatrists sought to systematically destroy their patients and were instrumental in establishing a system of identifying, notifying, transporting, and killing hundreds of thousands of "racially and cognitively compromised" persons and mentally ill in settings that ranged from centralized mental hospitals to jails and death camps. Psychiatrists played a central and prominent role in [[Sterilization (medicine)|sterilization]] and [[euthanasia]] constituting two categories of the [[crimes against humanity]].<ref name=Strous>{{cite journal|last=Strous|first=Rael|title=Psychiatry during the Nazi era: ethical lessons for the modern professional|journal=[[Annals of General Psychiatry]]|date=February 2007|volume=6|pages=8|doi=10.1186/1744-859X-6-8|pmid=17326822|url=http://www.annals-general-psychiatry.com/content/6/1/8|accessdate=21 March 2012|pmc=1828151|issue=1}}</ref> The taking of thousands of brains from euthanasia victims demonstrated the way medical research was connected to the psychiatric killings.<ref name="Weindling">{{cite book|last=Weindling|first=Paul Julian|title=Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials: From Medical War Crimes to Informed Consent|year=2006|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=0-230-50700-X|pages=6}}</ref> There were six psychiatric extermination centers: [[Bernburg Euthanasia Centre|Bernburg]], [[Brandenburg Euthanasia Centre|Brandenburg]], [[Grafeneck Euthanasia Centre|Grafeneck]], [[Hadamar Euthanasia Centre|Hadamar]], [[Hartheim Euthanasia Centre|Hartheim]], and [[Sonnenstein Euthanasia Centre|Sonnenstein]].<ref name=Breggin>{{cite journal|last=Breggin|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Breggin|title=Psychiatry's role in the holocaust|journal=International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine|pmid=23511221|doi=10.3233/JRS-1993-4204|year=1993|volume=4|issue=2|pages=133–148}}</ref><ref name=Torrey>{{cite journal|last1=Fuller Torrey|first1=Edwin|authorlink1=Edwin Fuller Torrey|last2=Yolken|first2=Robert|title=Psychiatric Genocide: Nazi Attempts to Eradicate Schizophrenia|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|date=January 2010|volume=36|issue=1|pages=26–32|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp097|pmid=19759092|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2800142|accessdate=28 March 2012|pmc=2800142}}</ref> They played a crucial role in developments leading to the [[holocaust]].<ref name=Breggin/>

== Norway ==
There have been a few accusations about abuse of psychiatry in Norway. See [[Arnold Juklerød]].

== Romania ==
In Romania, there have been allegations of some particular cases of psychiatric abuse during over a decade.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} In addition to particular cases, there is evidence that mental hospitals were utilized as short-term detainment centers.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} For instance, before the 1982 [[Universiade|International University Sports ‘Olympiad’]], over 600 dissidents were detained and kept out of public view in mental hospitals.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} Like in the Soviet Union, on the eve of Communist holidays, potential “troublemakers” were sent to mental hospitals by busloads and discharged when the holidays had passed.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>

== Russia ==
{{main|Political abuse of psychiatry in Russia}}
Reports on particular cases continue to come from Russia where the worsening political climate appears to make an atmosphere in which local authorities feel able to again use psychiatry as a means of frightening.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> In modern Russia, the fact that a person is a human rights defender again means that the person risks receiving a psychiatric diagnosis.<ref name="15 лет НПЖ">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|title=15 лет Независимому психиатрическому журналу|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 4|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2005/4/15years.htm|accessdate=24 July 2011|issn=1028-8554}}</ref>

== Soviet Union ==
{{main|Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union}}
From the early 1970s, during [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s rule of the Soviet Union, reports started reaching the West that religious and political dissenters were being detained in maximum-security mental hospitals in the USSR without medical justification.<ref name="Bonnie"/> In 1977, the [[World Psychiatric Association]] condemned the USSR for this practice, and six years later, the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists seceded from the WPA rather than face almost definite expulsion.<ref name="Bonnie"/> During this period, while reports of continuous repression multiplied, Soviet psychiatric officials refused to allow international bodies to see the hospitals and patients in question and denied the charges of abuse.<ref name="Bonnie"/> In 1989, however, the stonewalling of Soviet psychiatry was overcome by [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]].<ref name="Bonnie"/> Over the objection of the psychiatric establishment, the Soviet government permitted a delegation of psychiatrists from the USA, representing the U.S. Government, to carry out extensive interviews of suspected victims of abuse.<ref name="Bonnie"/>

In February 1989, a delegation of US psychiatrists and other experts visited the Soviet Union on the invitation of the Soviet government.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation was able systematically to interview and assess present and past involuntarily admitted mental patients chosen by the visiting team, as well as to talk over procedures and methods of treatment with some of the patients, their friends, relatives and, sometimes, their treating psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} Whereas the delegation originally sought interviews with 48 persons, it eventually saw 15 hospitalized and 12 discharged patients.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} About half of the hospitalized patients were released in the two months between the submission of the initial list of names to the Soviets authorities and the departure from the Soviet Union of the US delegation.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation came to the conclusion that nine of the 15 hospitalized patients had disorders which would be classified in the United States as serious psychoses, diagnoses corresponding broadly with those used by the Soviet psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} One of the hospitalized patients had been diagnosed as having [[schizophrenia]] although the US team saw no evidence of mental disorder.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} Among the 12 discharged patients examined, the US delegation found that nine had no evidence of any current or past mental disorder; the remaining three had comparatively slight symptoms which would not usually warrant involuntary commitment in Western countries.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} According to medical record, all these patients had diagnoses of psychopathology or schizophrenia.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}}

When returned home after a visit of more than two weeks, the delegation wrote its report which was pretty damaging to the Soviet authorities.<ref name="van Voren 2009">{{cite book|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=On Dissidents and Madness: From the Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev to the "Soviet Union" of Vladimir Putin|year=2009|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam—New York|isbn=978-90-420-2585-1|pages=242|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tyDIKu8XsgcC&pg=PA242}}</ref>{{rp|125}} The delegation established not only that there had taken place systematic political abuse of psychiatry but also that the abuse had not come to an end, that victims of the abuse still remained in mental hospitals, and that the Soviet authorities and particularly the Soviet Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists still denied that psychiatry had been employed as a method of repression.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|125}}

== United States ==
*[[Drapetomania]] was a supposed [[mental illness]] described by [[United States|American]] physician [[Samuel A. Cartwright]] in 1851 that caused [[Slavery in the United States|black slaves]] to flee captivity.<ref name="White">{{cite book|last=White|first=Kevin|title=An introduction to the sociology of health and illness|year=2002|publisher=SAGE|isbn=0-7619-6400-2|pages=41, 42|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5bHxQBNWGHMC&pg=PA41}}</ref>{{rp|41}} In addition to identifying drapetomania, Cartwright prescribed a remedy. His feeling was that with "proper medical advice, strictly followed, this troublesome practice that many Negroes have of running away can be almost entirely prevented."<ref name=Cartwright>{{cite journal|last=Cartwright|first=Samuel A.|authorlink=Samuel A. Cartwright|title=Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race|journal=[[DeBow's Review]]|year=1851|volume=XI|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3106t.html|accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref> In the case of slaves "sulky and dissatisfied without cause" — a warning sign of imminent flight — Cartwright prescribed "[[flagellation|whipping]] the devil out of them" as a "preventative measure".<ref name="Caplan">{{cite book|last1=Caplan|first1=Arthur|last2=McCartney|first2=James|last3=Sisti|first3=Dominic|title=Health, disease, and illness: concepts in medicine|year=2004|publisher=Georgetown University Press|isbn=1-58901-014-0|pages=35|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NmHCGb3GvJoC&pg=PA35}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Slavery & the Law |author= Paul Finkelman|year=1997|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=0-7425-2119-2|url= http://books.google.com/?id=1YI0DvuukxkC&pg=PA305| page=305}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Slavery and Emancipation |author= Rick Halpern, Enrico Dal Lago|year=2002|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=0-631-21735-5 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=svaQthjrcf0C&pg=RA1-PA273&sig=BuyUaEXNumrkqdvdpvtSh0P4CyU| page=273}}</ref> As a remedy for this disease, doctors also made running a physical impossibility by prescribing the removal of both big toes.<ref name="White"/>{{rp|42}}

*In the United States, political dissenters have been involuntarily committed. For example, in 1927 a demonstrator named Aurora D'Angelo was sent to a mental health facility for psychiatric evaluation after she participated in a rally in support of [[Sacco and Vanzetti]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Temkin |last=Moshik|title=The Sacco-Vanzetti Affair|publisher=Yale University Press Publishers |isbn=978-0-300-12484-2 |year=2009 |page=316}}</ref>

*When [[Clennon Washington King, Jr.|Clennon W. King, Jr.]], a black [[pastor]] and [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|civil rights activist]] attempted to enroll at the [[Racial segregation in the United States|all-white]] [[University of Mississippi]] for summer [[graduate school|graduate courses]] in 1958, the Mississippi police arrested him on the grounds that "any nigger who tried to enter Ole Miss ''must'' be crazy."<ref>{{Cite book|first=William H.|last=Tucker|title=[http://books.google.com/books?id=C-jIEhfKPaYC The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund]|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=0-252-02762-0|year=2002 |page=119}}</ref> Keeping King's whereabouts secret for 48 hours, the Mississippi authorities kept him confined to a mental hospital for twelve days before a panel of doctors established the activist's sanity.<ref name = "Negro Pastor Pronounced Sane">[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1798&dat=19580620&id=LgIdAAAAIBAJ&sjid=4YoEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7178,1936782 "Negro Pastor Pronounced Sane; Demands Mississippi Apologize".] UPI. ''[[Sarasota Journal]]'' 20 June 1958: 3.</ref>

*In the 1964 election, [[Fact magazine|''Fact'' magazine]] polled [[American Psychiatric Association]] members on whether [[Barry Goldwater]] was fit to be president and published "The Unconscious of a Conservative: A Special Issue on the Mind of Barry Goldwater." This led to the banning of diagnosing public figures when you have not performed an examination or been authorized to release information by the patient. This became the [[Goldwater rule]].<ref name=tele>{{cite news |author=[[Richard A. Friedman]] |coauthors= |title=How a Telescopic Lens Muddles Psychiatric Insights |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/24/health/views/24mind.html?ref=science |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=May 23, 2011 |accessdate=2011-05-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author= |coauthors= |title=LBJ Fit to Serve |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=D24hAAAAIBAJ&sjid=F4cFAAAAIBAJ&pg=882,4721408&dq=ralph+ginzburg&hl=en |quote=Publisher Ralph Ginzburg, defendant in a libel suit for an article on a poll of psychiatrists on Barry Goldwater that he conducted in 1964 says ... |newspaper=[[Associated Press]] |date=May 23, 1968 |accessdate=2011-05-24 }}</ref>

*In the 1970s, [[Martha Beall Mitchell]], wife of U.S. Attorney General [[John N. Mitchell|John Mitchell]], was diagnosed with a paranoid mental disorder for claiming that the administration of President [[Richard M. Nixon]] was engaged in illegal activities. Many of her claims were later proved correct, and the term "[[Martha Mitchell effect]]" was coined to describe mental health misdiagnoses when accurate claims are dismissed as delusional.

*In 1972 [[Thomas Eagleton]] was forced to withdraw as a vice presidential candidate for being treated for depression.<ref>{{cite news |author=[[George McGovern]] |coauthors= |title=Trashing' Candidates |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1983/05/11/opinion/trashing-candidates.html |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=May 11, 1983 |accessdate=2013-10-18 }}</ref>

*In 2006, Canadian psychiatrist Colin A. Ross's book was published, titled ''The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists''.<ref name="Ross">{{cite book|last=Ross|first=Colin|title=The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists|year=2006|publisher=Manitou Communications|isbn=0-9765508-0-6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PzLuAAAACAAJ}}</ref> The book presents evidence based on 15,000 pages of documents received from the [[CIA]] via the [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] that there have been systematic, pervasive violations of human rights by American psychiatrists during the recent 65 years.<ref name="Ross"/>

*In 2010, the book ''[[The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease]]'' by [[psychiatrist]] Jonathan Metzl (who also has a Ph.D. in [[American studies]]) was published.<ref name="Metzl"/> The book covers the history of the 1960s [[Ionia State Hospital]] located in [[Ionia, Michigan]] and now converted to a prison and focuses on exposing the trend of this hospital to diagnose [[African American]]s with [[schizophrenia]] because of their [[civil rights]] ideas.<ref name="Metzl"/> The book suggests that in part the sudden influx of such diagnoses could traced to a change in wording in the [[DSM-II]], which compared to the previous edition added "hostility" and "aggression" as signs of the disorder.<ref name="Metzl"/>

*Iduna Borger, an attorney in Ohio, had a fraudulent psychiatric report written about her by Dr Emmett Cooper which stated she refused to accept consensual reality about homosexuals. Her license was suspended in 2002 and remains suspended. The Board of the Ohio Supreme Court will not overturn the finding of mental illness.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}

== Psychiatric reprisals ==
[[Whistleblower|Whistle-blowers]] who part ranks with a government agency or major corporation can expect to be depicted as unhinged; it's in the agency's best interests. For example, [[Russ Tice]] was punished with psychiatric evaluations that labeled him as "mentally unbalanced" after persisting in his investigations of potentially illegal spying activity at the NSA.<ref>[http://www.slate.com/id/2134398 The Professional Paranoid: Why NSA whistle-blower Russ Tice may be right]</ref> As another example, an NYPD veteran who alleged falsified crime statistics in his department was forcibly committed to a mental institution.<ref>[http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2010/10/cop-nypd-psych-ward-whistleblowing/ Cop hauled off to psych ward after alleging fake crime stats]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Antipsychiatry]]
* ''[[The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease]]''
* [[Global Initiative on Psychiatry]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite journal|last1=Adler|first1=Nanci|last2=Mueller|first2=Gerard|last3=Ayat|first3=Mohammed|title=Psychiatry under tyranny: a report on the political abuse of Romanian psychiatry during the Ceausescu years|journal=Current Psychology|volume=12|issue=1|pages=3–17|year=1993|pmid=11652327|doi=10.1007/BF02737088|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/427306l26803v4u3/}}
* {{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Comparing Soviet and Chinese Political Psychiatry|journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=131–135|pmid=11931361|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/131.pdf|accessdate=27 February 2011}}

{{Anti-psychiatry}}
{{Unnecessary health care}}

[[Category:Political abuses of psychiatry| ]]
[[Category:History of psychiatry]]
[[Category:Psychiatry controversies]]
[[Category:Psychiatric treatments]]
[[Category:Psychiatric hospitals]]
[[Category:Psychiatric institutions]]
[[Category:Total institutions]]
[[Category:Imprisonment and detention]]
[[Category:Political repression]]
[[Category:Political repression in China]]
[[Category:Political repression in Cuba]]
[[Category:Political repression in Germany]]
[[Category:Political repression in Romania]]
[[Category:Political repression in Russia]]
[[Category:Political repression in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Political repression in the United States]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Books about mental health]]

Politischer Missbrauch der Psychiatrie in China

2014-04-25T08:56:16Z

CanadianLinuxUser: /* Canada, Quebec */ - Biased edits 0 No reliables sources

'''Political abuse of psychiatry''' is the misuse of psychiatric diagnosis, detention and treatment for the purposes of obstructing the fundamental human rights of certain groups and individuals in a society.<ref name="van Voren 2010">{{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry—An Historical Overview|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|date=January 2010|volume=36|issue=1|pages=33–35|pmid=19892821|pmc=2800147|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp119}}</ref><ref name="Helmchen">{{cite book|last1=Helmchen|first1=Hanfried|last2=Sartorius|first2=Norman|authorlink2=Norman Sartorius|title=Ethics in Psychiatry: European Contributions|year=2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=90-481-8720-6|pages=491|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=70h31egRm40C&pg=PA491}}</ref>{{rp|491}} In other words, abuse of psychiatry including one for political purposes is deliberate action of getting citizens certified, who, because of their mental condition, need neither psychiatric restraint nor psychiatric treatment.<ref name="Глузман, 2010">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Глузман|first=Семён|title=Этиология злоупотреблений в психиатрии: попытка мультидисциплинарного анализа|journal=Нейроnews: Психоневрология и нейропсихиатрия| date=January 2010 |volume=|issue=№ 1 (20)|pages=|url=http://neuronews.com.ua/page/etiologiya-zloupotreblenij-v-psihiatrii-popytka-multidisciplinarnogo-analiza}}</ref> Psychiatrists have been involved in human rights abuses in states across the world when the definitions of mental disease were expanded to include political disobedience.<ref name=Semple>{{cite book|last1=Semple|first1=David|last2=Smyth|first2=Roger|last3=Burns|first3=Jonathan|title=Oxford handbook of psychiatry|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-852783-7|pages=6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1MeRuoTs0loC&pg=PA6}}</ref>{{rp|6}} As scholars have long argued, governmental and medical institutions code menaces to authority as mental diseases during political disturbances.<ref name="Metzl">{{cite book|last=Metzl|first=Jonathan|title=The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease|year=2010|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=0-8070-8592-8|page=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=t1Bg9QEiCAMC&pg=PA14}}</ref>{{rp|14}} Nowadays, in many countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions.<ref name="Noll">{{cite book|last=Noll|first=Richard|title=The encyclopedia of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=0-8160-6405-9|pages=3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jzoJxps189IC&pg=PA3}}</ref>{{rp|3}} Psychiatric confinement of sane people is a particularly pernicious form of repression.<ref name="Bonnie">{{cite journal|last=Bonnie|first=Richard|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the Soviet Union and in China: Complexities and Controversies|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=136–144|pmid=11931362|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/136.pdf|accessdate=12 December 2010}}</ref>

Psychiatry possesses a built-in capacity for abuse that is greater than in other areas of medicine.<ref name="Medicine betrayed">{{cite book|title=Medicine betrayed: the participation of doctors in human rights abuses|year=1992|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=1-85649-104-8|pages=65|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bMTu_oIfVsIC&pg=PA65}}</ref>{{rp|65}} The diagnosis of mental disease allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} In addition, receiving a psychiatric diagnosis can in itself be regarded as oppressive.<ref name="Malterud">{{cite book|last1=Malterud|first1=Kirsti|last2=Hunskaar|first2=Steinar|title=Chronic myofascial pain: a patient-centered approach|year=2002|publisher=Radcliffe Publishing|isbn=1-85775-947-8|page=94|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6K41rxULV34C&pg=PA94}}</ref>{{rp|94}} In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} The use of hospitals instead of jails prevents the victims from receiving legal aid before the courts, makes indefinite incarceration possible, discredits the individuals and their ideas.<ref name="Veenhoven">{{cite book|last1=Veenhoven|first1=Willem|last2=Ewing|first2=Winifred|last3=Samenlevingen|first3=Stichting|title=Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey|year=1975|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-247-1780-9|pages= 29|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RdazE7TGYjgC&pg=PA29}}</ref>{{rp|29}} In that manner, whenever open trials are undesirable, they are avoided.<ref name="Veenhoven"/>{{rp|29}}

Examples of political abuse of the power, entrusted in physicians and particularly psychiatrists, are abundant in history and seen during the Nazi era and the Soviet rule when political dissenters were labeled as “mentally ill” and subjected to inhumane “treatments.”<ref name=Shah>{{cite journal|last1=Shah|first1=Ruchita|last2=Basu|first2=Debasish|title=Coercion in psychiatric care: Global and Indian perspective|journal=[[Indian Journal of Psychiatry]]|date=July–September 2010|volume=52|issue=3|pages=203–206|doi=10.4103/0019-5545.70971|pmid=21180403|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2990818|accessdate=22 March 2012|pmc=2990818}}</ref> In the period from the 1960s up to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union, and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as [[Communist Romania|Romania]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Czechoslovakia]], and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|66}} The practice of incarceration of political dissidents in mental hospitals in Eastern Europe and the former USSR damaged the credibility of psychiatric practice in these states and entailed strong condemnation from the international community.<ref name="Declan">{{cite journal|last1=Declan|first1=Lyons|last2=Art|first2=O'Malley|title=The labelling of dissent — politics and psychiatry behind the Great Wall|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=2002|pages=443–444|doi=10.1192/pb.26.12.443|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/26/12/443.full|volume=26|issue=12}}</ref> Political abuse of psychiatry also takes place in the [[People's Republic of China]].<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> Psychiatric diagnoses such as the diagnosis of ‘[[sluggish schizophrenia]]’ in political dissidents in the USSR were used for political purposes.<ref name="Katona">{{cite book|last1=Katona|first1=Cornelius|last2=Robertson|first2=Mary|title=Psychiatry at a glance|year=2005|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=1-4051-2404-0|pages=77|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OSJRHpAtqPUC&pg=PA77}}</ref>{{rp|77}}

== Canada, Quebec ==
{{Unreferenced|date=April 2014}}
[[Duplessis Orphans]] :
Several thousand orphaned children were falsely certified as mentally ill by the government of the province of Quebec, Canada, and confined to psychiatric institutions.

MKUltra : An illegal human research operation experimenting in the behavioral engineering of humans through the CIA's Scientific Intelligence Division
[[Project MKUltra#Canadian experiments|MKUltra experiments of Dr Donald Ewen Cameron]] The people working on the MKUltra project initially operated from the Royal Victoria hospital site.

Dr Donald Ewen Cameron's operation was running from what is today known as the Allen Memorial Institute (AMI), part of the Royal Victoria Hospital, and not to be confused with the non-governmental organization based in Montreal, AMI-Québec Agir contre la maladie mentale.

== Cuba ==
Although Cuba has been politically connected to the Soviet Union since the United States broke off relations with Cuba shortly after the dictator [[Fidel Castro]] came to power in 1959, few considerable allegations regarding the political abuse of psychiatry in this country emerged before the late 1980s.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|74}} [[Americas Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]] published reports alluding to cases of possible unwarranted hospitalization and ill-treatment of political prisoners.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} These reports concerned the Gustavo Machin hospital in [[Santiago de Cuba]] in the southeast of the country and the major mental hospital in [[Havana]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} In 1977, a report on alleged abuse of psychiatry in Cuba presenting cases of ill-treatment in mental hospitals going back to the 1970s came out in the United States.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} It presents grave allegations that prisoners end up in the forensic ward of mental hospitals in Santiago de Cuba and Havana where they undergo ill-treatment including [[electroconvulsive therapy]] without [[muscle relaxants]] or [[anaesthesia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} The reported application of ECT in the forensic wards seems, at least in many of the cited cases, not to be an adequate clinical treatment for the diagnosed state of the prisoner — in some cases the prisoners seem not to have been diagnosed at all.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} Conditions in the forensic wards have been described in repulsive terms and apparently are in striking contrast to the other parts of the mental hospitals that are said to be well-kept and modern.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}}

In August 1981, the Marxist historian Ariel Hidalgo was apprehended and accused of ‘incitement against the social order, international solidarity and the Socialist State’ and sentenced to eight years’ imprisonment.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} In September 1981, he was transported from State Security Headquarters to the Carbó-Serviá (forensic) ward of Havana Psychiatric Hospital where he stayed for several weeks.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|76}}

== India ==
It was reported in June, 2012, that the [[Indian Government]] has approached [[NIMHANS]], a well known metal health establishment in [[South India]], to assist in suppressing anti-nuclear protests regards to building of the [[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant]]. The government was in talks with NIMHANS representatives to chalk up a plan to dispatch psychiatrists to [[Kudankulam]], for counselling protesters opposed to the building of the plant. To fulfill this, [[NIMHANS]] developed a team of 6 members, all of them, from the Department of Social Psychiatry. The psychiatrists were sent to get a ''"peek a into the protesters' minds"'' and help them learn the importance of the plant according to one news source.<ref>http://content.ibnlive.in.com/article/19-May-2012south-india/centre-to-deal-antinuke-mindset-with-nimhans-259386-60.html</ref><ref>http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/ColumnsOthers/No-margin-for-error/Article1-865997.aspx</ref><ref>http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=238299</ref><ref>http://newindianexpress.com/nation/article546418.ece</ref><ref>http://newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/article546439.ece</ref>

In July, 2013, the same institution, [[NIMHANS]], was involved in a controversy where it was alleged that it provided assistance to the [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] relating to some interrogation techninques.

== Japan ==
Japanese mental institutions during the country's imperial era reported an abnormally large number of patient deaths, peaking in 1945 after the surrender of Japan to Allied forces.<ref name="Totsuka">{{cite journal|last=Totsuka|first=Etsuro|title=The history of Japanese psychiatry and the rights of mental patients|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=1990|volume=14|issue=4|pages=193–200|pmid=|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/14/4/193.full.pdf|accessdate=19 March 2012}}</ref> The patients of these institutions were mistreated mainly because they were a hindrance to society. Under the oppressive Imperial Japanese government, citizens were expected to contribute in one way or another to the war effort, and the mentally ill were unable to do so, and as such were looked down upon and abused. The main cause of death for these patients was starvation, as caretakers did not supply the patients with adequate food, likely as a form of torture and a method of sedation. Because mentally ill patients were kept secluded from the outside world, the large number of deaths went unnoticed by the general public. After the end of Allied occupation, the [[Diet of Japan|National Diet of Japan]] passed the {{nihongo|Mental Hygiene Act|精神衛生法,|Seishin Eisei Hō}} in 1950, which improved the status of the mentally ill and prohibited the domestic containment of mental patients in medical institutions. However, the Mental Hygiene Act had unforeseen consequences. Along with many other reforms, the law prevented the mentally ill from being charged with any sort of crime in Japanese courts. Anyone who was found to be mentally unstable by a qualified psychiatrist was required to be hospitalized rather than incarcerated, regardless of the severity of any crime that person may have committed. The Ministry of Justice tried several times to amend the law, but was met with opposition from those who believed the legal system should not interfere with medical science.<ref name="Totsuka"/> After almost four decades, the {{nihongo|Mental Health Act|精神保健法,|Seishin Hoken Hō}} was finally passed in 1987. The new law corrected the flaws of the Mental Hygiene Act by allowing the Ministry of Health and Welfare to set regulations on the treatment of mental patients in both medical and legal settings. With the new law, the mentally ill have the right to voluntary hospitalization, the ability to be charged with a crime, and right to use the insanity defense in court, and the right to pursue legal action in the event of abuse or negligence on the part of medical professionals.

== Nazi Germany ==
{{main|Action T4}}
In [[Nazi Germany]] in 1940s, the abuse of psychiatry was the abuse of the 'duty to care' in enormous scale: 300,000 individuals were sterilized and 100,000 killed in Germany alone and many thousands further afield, mainly in [[eastern Europe]].<ref name="Birley">{{cite doi|10.1111/j.0902-4441.2000.007s020[dash]3.x}}</ref> For the first time in history, during the Nazi era, psychiatrists sought to systematically destroy their patients and were instrumental in establishing a system of identifying, notifying, transporting, and killing hundreds of thousands of "racially and cognitively compromised" persons and mentally ill in settings that ranged from centralized mental hospitals to jails and death camps. Psychiatrists played a central and prominent role in [[Sterilization (medicine)|sterilization]] and [[euthanasia]] constituting two categories of the [[crimes against humanity]].<ref name=Strous>{{cite journal|last=Strous|first=Rael|title=Psychiatry during the Nazi era: ethical lessons for the modern professional|journal=[[Annals of General Psychiatry]]|date=February 2007|volume=6|pages=8|doi=10.1186/1744-859X-6-8|pmid=17326822|url=http://www.annals-general-psychiatry.com/content/6/1/8|accessdate=21 March 2012|pmc=1828151|issue=1}}</ref> The taking of thousands of brains from euthanasia victims demonstrated the way medical research was connected to the psychiatric killings.<ref name="Weindling">{{cite book|last=Weindling|first=Paul Julian|title=Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials: From Medical War Crimes to Informed Consent|year=2006|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=0-230-50700-X|pages=6}}</ref> There were six psychiatric extermination centers: [[Bernburg Euthanasia Centre|Bernburg]], [[Brandenburg Euthanasia Centre|Brandenburg]], [[Grafeneck Euthanasia Centre|Grafeneck]], [[Hadamar Euthanasia Centre|Hadamar]], [[Hartheim Euthanasia Centre|Hartheim]], and [[Sonnenstein Euthanasia Centre|Sonnenstein]].<ref name=Breggin>{{cite journal|last=Breggin|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Breggin|title=Psychiatry's role in the holocaust|journal=International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine|pmid=23511221|doi=10.3233/JRS-1993-4204|year=1993|volume=4|issue=2|pages=133–148}}</ref><ref name=Torrey>{{cite journal|last1=Fuller Torrey|first1=Edwin|authorlink1=Edwin Fuller Torrey|last2=Yolken|first2=Robert|title=Psychiatric Genocide: Nazi Attempts to Eradicate Schizophrenia|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|date=January 2010|volume=36|issue=1|pages=26–32|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp097|pmid=19759092|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2800142|accessdate=28 March 2012|pmc=2800142}}</ref> They played a crucial role in developments leading to the [[holocaust]].<ref name=Breggin/>

== Norway ==
There have been a few accusations about abuse of psychiatry in Norway. See [[Arnold Juklerød]].

== Romania ==
In Romania, there have been allegations of some particular cases of psychiatric abuse during over a decade.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} In addition to particular cases, there is evidence that mental hospitals were utilized as short-term detainment centers.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} For instance, before the 1982 [[Universiade|International University Sports ‘Olympiad’]], over 600 dissidents were detained and kept out of public view in mental hospitals.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} Like in the Soviet Union, on the eve of Communist holidays, potential “troublemakers” were sent to mental hospitals by busloads and discharged when the holidays had passed.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>

== Russia ==
{{main|Political abuse of psychiatry in Russia}}
Reports on particular cases continue to come from Russia where the worsening political climate appears to make an atmosphere in which local authorities feel able to again use psychiatry as a means of frightening.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> In modern Russia, the fact that a person is a human rights defender again means that the person risks receiving a psychiatric diagnosis.<ref name="15 лет НПЖ">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|title=15 лет Независимому психиатрическому журналу|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 4|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2005/4/15years.htm|accessdate=24 July 2011|issn=1028-8554}}</ref>

== Soviet Union ==
{{main|Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union}}
From the early 1970s, during [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s rule of the Soviet Union, reports started reaching the West that religious and political dissenters were being detained in maximum-security mental hospitals in the USSR without medical justification.<ref name="Bonnie"/> In 1977, the [[World Psychiatric Association]] condemned the USSR for this practice, and six years later, the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists seceded from the WPA rather than face almost definite expulsion.<ref name="Bonnie"/> During this period, while reports of continuous repression multiplied, Soviet psychiatric officials refused to allow international bodies to see the hospitals and patients in question and denied the charges of abuse.<ref name="Bonnie"/> In 1989, however, the stonewalling of Soviet psychiatry was overcome by [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]].<ref name="Bonnie"/> Over the objection of the psychiatric establishment, the Soviet government permitted a delegation of psychiatrists from the USA, representing the U.S. Government, to carry out extensive interviews of suspected victims of abuse.<ref name="Bonnie"/>

In February 1989, a delegation of US psychiatrists and other experts visited the Soviet Union on the invitation of the Soviet government.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation was able systematically to interview and assess present and past involuntarily admitted mental patients chosen by the visiting team, as well as to talk over procedures and methods of treatment with some of the patients, their friends, relatives and, sometimes, their treating psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} Whereas the delegation originally sought interviews with 48 persons, it eventually saw 15 hospitalized and 12 discharged patients.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} About half of the hospitalized patients were released in the two months between the submission of the initial list of names to the Soviets authorities and the departure from the Soviet Union of the US delegation.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation came to the conclusion that nine of the 15 hospitalized patients had disorders which would be classified in the United States as serious psychoses, diagnoses corresponding broadly with those used by the Soviet psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} One of the hospitalized patients had been diagnosed as having [[schizophrenia]] although the US team saw no evidence of mental disorder.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} Among the 12 discharged patients examined, the US delegation found that nine had no evidence of any current or past mental disorder; the remaining three had comparatively slight symptoms which would not usually warrant involuntary commitment in Western countries.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} According to medical record, all these patients had diagnoses of psychopathology or schizophrenia.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}}

When returned home after a visit of more than two weeks, the delegation wrote its report which was pretty damaging to the Soviet authorities.<ref name="van Voren 2009">{{cite book|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=On Dissidents and Madness: From the Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev to the "Soviet Union" of Vladimir Putin|year=2009|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam—New York|isbn=978-90-420-2585-1|pages=242|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tyDIKu8XsgcC&pg=PA242}}</ref>{{rp|125}} The delegation established not only that there had taken place systematic political abuse of psychiatry but also that the abuse had not come to an end, that victims of the abuse still remained in mental hospitals, and that the Soviet authorities and particularly the Soviet Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists still denied that psychiatry had been employed as a method of repression.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|125}}

== United States ==
*[[Drapetomania]] was a supposed [[mental illness]] described by [[United States|American]] physician [[Samuel A. Cartwright]] in 1851 that caused [[Slavery in the United States|black slaves]] to flee captivity.<ref name="White">{{cite book|last=White|first=Kevin|title=An introduction to the sociology of health and illness|year=2002|publisher=SAGE|isbn=0-7619-6400-2|pages=41, 42|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5bHxQBNWGHMC&pg=PA41}}</ref>{{rp|41}} In addition to identifying drapetomania, Cartwright prescribed a remedy. His feeling was that with "proper medical advice, strictly followed, this troublesome practice that many Negroes have of running away can be almost entirely prevented."<ref name=Cartwright>{{cite journal|last=Cartwright|first=Samuel A.|authorlink=Samuel A. Cartwright|title=Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race|journal=[[DeBow's Review]]|year=1851|volume=XI|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3106t.html|accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref> In the case of slaves "sulky and dissatisfied without cause" — a warning sign of imminent flight — Cartwright prescribed "[[flagellation|whipping]] the devil out of them" as a "preventative measure".<ref name="Caplan">{{cite book|last1=Caplan|first1=Arthur|last2=McCartney|first2=James|last3=Sisti|first3=Dominic|title=Health, disease, and illness: concepts in medicine|year=2004|publisher=Georgetown University Press|isbn=1-58901-014-0|pages=35|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NmHCGb3GvJoC&pg=PA35}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Slavery & the Law |author= Paul Finkelman|year=1997|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=0-7425-2119-2|url= http://books.google.com/?id=1YI0DvuukxkC&pg=PA305| page=305}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Slavery and Emancipation |author= Rick Halpern, Enrico Dal Lago|year=2002|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=0-631-21735-5 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=svaQthjrcf0C&pg=RA1-PA273&sig=BuyUaEXNumrkqdvdpvtSh0P4CyU| page=273}}</ref> As a remedy for this disease, doctors also made running a physical impossibility by prescribing the removal of both big toes.<ref name="White"/>{{rp|42}}

*In the United States, political dissenters have been involuntarily committed. For example, in 1927 a demonstrator named Aurora D'Angelo was sent to a mental health facility for psychiatric evaluation after she participated in a rally in support of [[Sacco and Vanzetti]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Temkin |last=Moshik|title=The Sacco-Vanzetti Affair|publisher=Yale University Press Publishers |isbn=978-0-300-12484-2 |year=2009 |page=316}}</ref>

*When [[Clennon Washington King, Jr.|Clennon W. King, Jr.]], a black [[pastor]] and [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|civil rights activist]] attempted to enroll at the [[Racial segregation in the United States|all-white]] [[University of Mississippi]] for summer [[graduate school|graduate courses]] in 1958, the Mississippi police arrested him on the grounds that "any nigger who tried to enter Ole Miss ''must'' be crazy."<ref>{{Cite book|first=William H.|last=Tucker|title=[http://books.google.com/books?id=C-jIEhfKPaYC The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund]|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=0-252-02762-0|year=2002 |page=119}}</ref> Keeping King's whereabouts secret for 48 hours, the Mississippi authorities kept him confined to a mental hospital for twelve days before a panel of doctors established the activist's sanity.<ref name = "Negro Pastor Pronounced Sane">[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1798&dat=19580620&id=LgIdAAAAIBAJ&sjid=4YoEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7178,1936782 "Negro Pastor Pronounced Sane; Demands Mississippi Apologize".] UPI. ''[[Sarasota Journal]]'' 20 June 1958: 3.</ref>

*In the 1964 election, [[Fact magazine|''Fact'' magazine]] polled [[American Psychiatric Association]] members on whether [[Barry Goldwater]] was fit to be president and published "The Unconscious of a Conservative: A Special Issue on the Mind of Barry Goldwater." This led to the banning of diagnosing public figures when you have not performed an examination or been authorized to release information by the patient. This became the [[Goldwater rule]].<ref name=tele>{{cite news |author=[[Richard A. Friedman]] |coauthors= |title=How a Telescopic Lens Muddles Psychiatric Insights |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/24/health/views/24mind.html?ref=science |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=May 23, 2011 |accessdate=2011-05-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author= |coauthors= |title=LBJ Fit to Serve |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=D24hAAAAIBAJ&sjid=F4cFAAAAIBAJ&pg=882,4721408&dq=ralph+ginzburg&hl=en |quote=Publisher Ralph Ginzburg, defendant in a libel suit for an article on a poll of psychiatrists on Barry Goldwater that he conducted in 1964 says ... |newspaper=[[Associated Press]] |date=May 23, 1968 |accessdate=2011-05-24 }}</ref>

*In the 1970s, [[Martha Beall Mitchell]], wife of U.S. Attorney General [[John N. Mitchell|John Mitchell]], was diagnosed with a paranoid mental disorder for claiming that the administration of President [[Richard M. Nixon]] was engaged in illegal activities. Many of her claims were later proved correct, and the term "[[Martha Mitchell effect]]" was coined to describe mental health misdiagnoses when accurate claims are dismissed as delusional.

*In 1972 [[Thomas Eagleton]] was forced to withdraw as a vice presidential candidate for being treated for depression.<ref>{{cite news |author=[[George McGovern]] |coauthors= |title=Trashing' Candidates |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1983/05/11/opinion/trashing-candidates.html |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=May 11, 1983 |accessdate=2013-10-18 }}</ref>

*In 2006, Canadian psychiatrist Colin A. Ross's book was published, titled ''The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists''.<ref name="Ross">{{cite book|last=Ross|first=Colin|title=The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists|year=2006|publisher=Manitou Communications|isbn=0-9765508-0-6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PzLuAAAACAAJ}}</ref> The book presents evidence based on 15,000 pages of documents received from the [[CIA]] via the [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] that there have been systematic, pervasive violations of human rights by American psychiatrists during the recent 65 years.<ref name="Ross"/>

*In 2010, the book ''[[The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease]]'' by [[psychiatrist]] Jonathan Metzl (who also has a Ph.D. in [[American studies]]) was published.<ref name="Metzl"/> The book covers the history of the 1960s [[Ionia State Hospital]] located in [[Ionia, Michigan]] and now converted to a prison and focuses on exposing the trend of this hospital to diagnose [[African American]]s with [[schizophrenia]] because of their [[civil rights]] ideas.<ref name="Metzl"/> The book suggests that in part the sudden influx of such diagnoses could traced to a change in wording in the [[DSM-II]], which compared to the previous edition added "hostility" and "aggression" as signs of the disorder.<ref name="Metzl"/>

*Iduna Borger, an attorney in Ohio, had a fraudulent psychiatric report written about her by Dr Emmett Cooper which stated she refused to accept consensual reality about homosexuals. Her license was suspended in 2002 and remains suspended. The Board of the Ohio Supreme Court will not overturn the finding of mental illness.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}

== Psychiatric reprisals ==
[[Whistleblower|Whistle-blowers]] who part ranks with a government agency or major corporation can expect to be depicted as unhinged; it's in the agency's best interests. For example, [[Russ Tice]] was punished with psychiatric evaluations that labeled him as "mentally unbalanced" after persisting in his investigations of potentially illegal spying activity at the NSA.<ref>[http://www.slate.com/id/2134398 The Professional Paranoid: Why NSA whistle-blower Russ Tice may be right]</ref> As another example, an NYPD veteran who alleged falsified crime statistics in his department was forcibly committed to a mental institution.<ref>[http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2010/10/cop-nypd-psych-ward-whistleblowing/ Cop hauled off to psych ward after alleging fake crime stats]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Antipsychiatry]]
* ''[[The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease]]''
* [[Global Initiative on Psychiatry]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite journal|last1=Adler|first1=Nanci|last2=Mueller|first2=Gerard|last3=Ayat|first3=Mohammed|title=Psychiatry under tyranny: a report on the political abuse of Romanian psychiatry during the Ceausescu years|journal=Current Psychology|volume=12|issue=1|pages=3–17|year=1993|pmid=11652327|doi=10.1007/BF02737088|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/427306l26803v4u3/}}
* {{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Comparing Soviet and Chinese Political Psychiatry|journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=131–135|pmid=11931361|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/131.pdf|accessdate=27 February 2011}}

{{Anti-psychiatry}}
{{Unnecessary health care}}

[[Category:Political abuses of psychiatry| ]]
[[Category:History of psychiatry]]
[[Category:Psychiatry controversies]]
[[Category:Psychiatric treatments]]
[[Category:Psychiatric hospitals]]
[[Category:Psychiatric institutions]]
[[Category:Total institutions]]
[[Category:Imprisonment and detention]]
[[Category:Political repression]]
[[Category:Political repression in China]]
[[Category:Political repression in Cuba]]
[[Category:Political repression in Germany]]
[[Category:Political repression in Romania]]
[[Category:Political repression in Russia]]
[[Category:Political repression in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Political repression in the United States]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Books about mental health]]

Politischer Missbrauch der Psychiatrie in China

2014-04-25T08:51:44Z

CanadianLinuxUser: /* Canada, Quebec */ Biased edits without reliable sources

'''Political abuse of psychiatry''' is the misuse of psychiatric diagnosis, detention and treatment for the purposes of obstructing the fundamental human rights of certain groups and individuals in a society.<ref name="van Voren 2010">{{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry—An Historical Overview|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|date=January 2010|volume=36|issue=1|pages=33–35|pmid=19892821|pmc=2800147|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp119}}</ref><ref name="Helmchen">{{cite book|last1=Helmchen|first1=Hanfried|last2=Sartorius|first2=Norman|authorlink2=Norman Sartorius|title=Ethics in Psychiatry: European Contributions|year=2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=90-481-8720-6|pages=491|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=70h31egRm40C&pg=PA491}}</ref>{{rp|491}} In other words, abuse of psychiatry including one for political purposes is deliberate action of getting citizens certified, who, because of their mental condition, need neither psychiatric restraint nor psychiatric treatment.<ref name="Глузман, 2010">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Глузман|first=Семён|title=Этиология злоупотреблений в психиатрии: попытка мультидисциплинарного анализа|journal=Нейроnews: Психоневрология и нейропсихиатрия| date=January 2010 |volume=|issue=№ 1 (20)|pages=|url=http://neuronews.com.ua/page/etiologiya-zloupotreblenij-v-psihiatrii-popytka-multidisciplinarnogo-analiza}}</ref> Psychiatrists have been involved in human rights abuses in states across the world when the definitions of mental disease were expanded to include political disobedience.<ref name=Semple>{{cite book|last1=Semple|first1=David|last2=Smyth|first2=Roger|last3=Burns|first3=Jonathan|title=Oxford handbook of psychiatry|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-852783-7|pages=6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1MeRuoTs0loC&pg=PA6}}</ref>{{rp|6}} As scholars have long argued, governmental and medical institutions code menaces to authority as mental diseases during political disturbances.<ref name="Metzl">{{cite book|last=Metzl|first=Jonathan|title=The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease|year=2010|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=0-8070-8592-8|page=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=t1Bg9QEiCAMC&pg=PA14}}</ref>{{rp|14}} Nowadays, in many countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions.<ref name="Noll">{{cite book|last=Noll|first=Richard|title=The encyclopedia of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=0-8160-6405-9|pages=3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jzoJxps189IC&pg=PA3}}</ref>{{rp|3}} Psychiatric confinement of sane people is a particularly pernicious form of repression.<ref name="Bonnie">{{cite journal|last=Bonnie|first=Richard|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the Soviet Union and in China: Complexities and Controversies|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=136–144|pmid=11931362|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/136.pdf|accessdate=12 December 2010}}</ref>

Psychiatry possesses a built-in capacity for abuse that is greater than in other areas of medicine.<ref name="Medicine betrayed">{{cite book|title=Medicine betrayed: the participation of doctors in human rights abuses|year=1992|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=1-85649-104-8|pages=65|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bMTu_oIfVsIC&pg=PA65}}</ref>{{rp|65}} The diagnosis of mental disease allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} In addition, receiving a psychiatric diagnosis can in itself be regarded as oppressive.<ref name="Malterud">{{cite book|last1=Malterud|first1=Kirsti|last2=Hunskaar|first2=Steinar|title=Chronic myofascial pain: a patient-centered approach|year=2002|publisher=Radcliffe Publishing|isbn=1-85775-947-8|page=94|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6K41rxULV34C&pg=PA94}}</ref>{{rp|94}} In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} The use of hospitals instead of jails prevents the victims from receiving legal aid before the courts, makes indefinite incarceration possible, discredits the individuals and their ideas.<ref name="Veenhoven">{{cite book|last1=Veenhoven|first1=Willem|last2=Ewing|first2=Winifred|last3=Samenlevingen|first3=Stichting|title=Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey|year=1975|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-247-1780-9|pages= 29|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RdazE7TGYjgC&pg=PA29}}</ref>{{rp|29}} In that manner, whenever open trials are undesirable, they are avoided.<ref name="Veenhoven"/>{{rp|29}}

Examples of political abuse of the power, entrusted in physicians and particularly psychiatrists, are abundant in history and seen during the Nazi era and the Soviet rule when political dissenters were labeled as “mentally ill” and subjected to inhumane “treatments.”<ref name=Shah>{{cite journal|last1=Shah|first1=Ruchita|last2=Basu|first2=Debasish|title=Coercion in psychiatric care: Global and Indian perspective|journal=[[Indian Journal of Psychiatry]]|date=July–September 2010|volume=52|issue=3|pages=203–206|doi=10.4103/0019-5545.70971|pmid=21180403|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2990818|accessdate=22 March 2012|pmc=2990818}}</ref> In the period from the 1960s up to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union, and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as [[Communist Romania|Romania]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Czechoslovakia]], and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|66}} The practice of incarceration of political dissidents in mental hospitals in Eastern Europe and the former USSR damaged the credibility of psychiatric practice in these states and entailed strong condemnation from the international community.<ref name="Declan">{{cite journal|last1=Declan|first1=Lyons|last2=Art|first2=O'Malley|title=The labelling of dissent — politics and psychiatry behind the Great Wall|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=2002|pages=443–444|doi=10.1192/pb.26.12.443|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/26/12/443.full|volume=26|issue=12}}</ref> Political abuse of psychiatry also takes place in the [[People's Republic of China]].<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> Psychiatric diagnoses such as the diagnosis of ‘[[sluggish schizophrenia]]’ in political dissidents in the USSR were used for political purposes.<ref name="Katona">{{cite book|last1=Katona|first1=Cornelius|last2=Robertson|first2=Mary|title=Psychiatry at a glance|year=2005|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=1-4051-2404-0|pages=77|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OSJRHpAtqPUC&pg=PA77}}</ref>{{rp|77}}

== Canada, Quebec ==
{{Unreferenced|date=April 2014}}
[[Duplessis Orphans]] :
Several thousand orphaned children were falsely certified as mentally ill by the government of the province of Quebec, Canada, and confined to psychiatric institutions.

MKUltra : An illegal human research operation experimenting in the behavioral engineering of humans through the CIA's Scientific Intelligence Division
[[Project MKUltra#Canadian experiments|MKUltra experiments of Dr Donald Ewen Cameron]] The people working on the MKUltra project initially operated from the Royal Victoria hospital site.

Dr Donald Ewen Cameron's operation was running from what is today known as the Allen Memorial Institute (AMI), part of the Royal Victoria Hospital, and not to be confused with the non-governmental organization based in Montreal, AMI-Québec Agir contre la maladie mentale.

Quebec has a government-owned health care system. All hospitals are owned and operated by the state and all health care practitioners have salaries paid by the government. This includes private practitioners who are in addition to charge an additional operational fee. Perhaps more interestingly, Montreal's public health care system is separated into two branches, the Mcgill University Health Center and the establishments affiliated with Université de Montréal. This segmentation coincides with Montreal's language divide, but also with the two only institutions in Montreal who can give medical degrees, a mandatory step to becoming a licensed doctor in Montreal. The same can be said of Montreal's public education system.

Quebec's education system is public as well. In the case where the political establishment is trying to expropriate a group of people or gentrify an area, it is easy for it to target the children of home and land owners from childhood onwards. Native Americans have persistently fought for their own education system due to these allegations. However, even today, these Native residential schools are known to have been responsible for abuses since the band councils are said to be run by "state-puppets".

Cases of medical malpractice in link with the language divide are rampant.

The racialization of Quebec since the early days of colonization is still the dominant pattern in Quebec society. Religious bigotry has been replaced by political bigotry.

The film Léolo by Canadian filmmaker Jean-Claude Lauzon describes a case where a young male is harassed by another male who is on "steroid and growth hormone". Since in Québec, growth hormone and steroids illegal unless prescribed by a doctor, it is safe to say that these cases of "rousting" and "harassment" are political in nature.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Léolo</ref>

== Cuba ==
Although Cuba has been politically connected to the Soviet Union since the United States broke off relations with Cuba shortly after the dictator [[Fidel Castro]] came to power in 1959, few considerable allegations regarding the political abuse of psychiatry in this country emerged before the late 1980s.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|74}} [[Americas Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]] published reports alluding to cases of possible unwarranted hospitalization and ill-treatment of political prisoners.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} These reports concerned the Gustavo Machin hospital in [[Santiago de Cuba]] in the southeast of the country and the major mental hospital in [[Havana]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} In 1977, a report on alleged abuse of psychiatry in Cuba presenting cases of ill-treatment in mental hospitals going back to the 1970s came out in the United States.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} It presents grave allegations that prisoners end up in the forensic ward of mental hospitals in Santiago de Cuba and Havana where they undergo ill-treatment including [[electroconvulsive therapy]] without [[muscle relaxants]] or [[anaesthesia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} The reported application of ECT in the forensic wards seems, at least in many of the cited cases, not to be an adequate clinical treatment for the diagnosed state of the prisoner — in some cases the prisoners seem not to have been diagnosed at all.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} Conditions in the forensic wards have been described in repulsive terms and apparently are in striking contrast to the other parts of the mental hospitals that are said to be well-kept and modern.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}}

In August 1981, the Marxist historian Ariel Hidalgo was apprehended and accused of ‘incitement against the social order, international solidarity and the Socialist State’ and sentenced to eight years’ imprisonment.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} In September 1981, he was transported from State Security Headquarters to the Carbó-Serviá (forensic) ward of Havana Psychiatric Hospital where he stayed for several weeks.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|76}}

== India ==
It was reported in June, 2012, that the [[Indian Government]] has approached [[NIMHANS]], a well known metal health establishment in [[South India]], to assist in suppressing anti-nuclear protests regards to building of the [[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant]]. The government was in talks with NIMHANS representatives to chalk up a plan to dispatch psychiatrists to [[Kudankulam]], for counselling protesters opposed to the building of the plant. To fulfill this, [[NIMHANS]] developed a team of 6 members, all of them, from the Department of Social Psychiatry. The psychiatrists were sent to get a ''"peek a into the protesters' minds"'' and help them learn the importance of the plant according to one news source.<ref>http://content.ibnlive.in.com/article/19-May-2012south-india/centre-to-deal-antinuke-mindset-with-nimhans-259386-60.html</ref><ref>http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/ColumnsOthers/No-margin-for-error/Article1-865997.aspx</ref><ref>http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=238299</ref><ref>http://newindianexpress.com/nation/article546418.ece</ref><ref>http://newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/article546439.ece</ref>

In July, 2013, the same institution, [[NIMHANS]], was involved in a controversy where it was alleged that it provided assistance to the [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] relating to some interrogation techninques.

== Japan ==
Japanese mental institutions during the country's imperial era reported an abnormally large number of patient deaths, peaking in 1945 after the surrender of Japan to Allied forces.<ref name="Totsuka">{{cite journal|last=Totsuka|first=Etsuro|title=The history of Japanese psychiatry and the rights of mental patients|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=1990|volume=14|issue=4|pages=193–200|pmid=|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/14/4/193.full.pdf|accessdate=19 March 2012}}</ref> The patients of these institutions were mistreated mainly because they were a hindrance to society. Under the oppressive Imperial Japanese government, citizens were expected to contribute in one way or another to the war effort, and the mentally ill were unable to do so, and as such were looked down upon and abused. The main cause of death for these patients was starvation, as caretakers did not supply the patients with adequate food, likely as a form of torture and a method of sedation. Because mentally ill patients were kept secluded from the outside world, the large number of deaths went unnoticed by the general public. After the end of Allied occupation, the [[Diet of Japan|National Diet of Japan]] passed the {{nihongo|Mental Hygiene Act|精神衛生法,|Seishin Eisei Hō}} in 1950, which improved the status of the mentally ill and prohibited the domestic containment of mental patients in medical institutions. However, the Mental Hygiene Act had unforeseen consequences. Along with many other reforms, the law prevented the mentally ill from being charged with any sort of crime in Japanese courts. Anyone who was found to be mentally unstable by a qualified psychiatrist was required to be hospitalized rather than incarcerated, regardless of the severity of any crime that person may have committed. The Ministry of Justice tried several times to amend the law, but was met with opposition from those who believed the legal system should not interfere with medical science.<ref name="Totsuka"/> After almost four decades, the {{nihongo|Mental Health Act|精神保健法,|Seishin Hoken Hō}} was finally passed in 1987. The new law corrected the flaws of the Mental Hygiene Act by allowing the Ministry of Health and Welfare to set regulations on the treatment of mental patients in both medical and legal settings. With the new law, the mentally ill have the right to voluntary hospitalization, the ability to be charged with a crime, and right to use the insanity defense in court, and the right to pursue legal action in the event of abuse or negligence on the part of medical professionals.

== Nazi Germany ==
{{main|Action T4}}
In [[Nazi Germany]] in 1940s, the abuse of psychiatry was the abuse of the 'duty to care' in enormous scale: 300,000 individuals were sterilized and 100,000 killed in Germany alone and many thousands further afield, mainly in [[eastern Europe]].<ref name="Birley">{{cite doi|10.1111/j.0902-4441.2000.007s020[dash]3.x}}</ref> For the first time in history, during the Nazi era, psychiatrists sought to systematically destroy their patients and were instrumental in establishing a system of identifying, notifying, transporting, and killing hundreds of thousands of "racially and cognitively compromised" persons and mentally ill in settings that ranged from centralized mental hospitals to jails and death camps. Psychiatrists played a central and prominent role in [[Sterilization (medicine)|sterilization]] and [[euthanasia]] constituting two categories of the [[crimes against humanity]].<ref name=Strous>{{cite journal|last=Strous|first=Rael|title=Psychiatry during the Nazi era: ethical lessons for the modern professional|journal=[[Annals of General Psychiatry]]|date=February 2007|volume=6|pages=8|doi=10.1186/1744-859X-6-8|pmid=17326822|url=http://www.annals-general-psychiatry.com/content/6/1/8|accessdate=21 March 2012|pmc=1828151|issue=1}}</ref> The taking of thousands of brains from euthanasia victims demonstrated the way medical research was connected to the psychiatric killings.<ref name="Weindling">{{cite book|last=Weindling|first=Paul Julian|title=Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials: From Medical War Crimes to Informed Consent|year=2006|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=0-230-50700-X|pages=6}}</ref> There were six psychiatric extermination centers: [[Bernburg Euthanasia Centre|Bernburg]], [[Brandenburg Euthanasia Centre|Brandenburg]], [[Grafeneck Euthanasia Centre|Grafeneck]], [[Hadamar Euthanasia Centre|Hadamar]], [[Hartheim Euthanasia Centre|Hartheim]], and [[Sonnenstein Euthanasia Centre|Sonnenstein]].<ref name=Breggin>{{cite journal|last=Breggin|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Breggin|title=Psychiatry's role in the holocaust|journal=International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine|pmid=23511221|doi=10.3233/JRS-1993-4204|year=1993|volume=4|issue=2|pages=133–148}}</ref><ref name=Torrey>{{cite journal|last1=Fuller Torrey|first1=Edwin|authorlink1=Edwin Fuller Torrey|last2=Yolken|first2=Robert|title=Psychiatric Genocide: Nazi Attempts to Eradicate Schizophrenia|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|date=January 2010|volume=36|issue=1|pages=26–32|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp097|pmid=19759092|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2800142|accessdate=28 March 2012|pmc=2800142}}</ref> They played a crucial role in developments leading to the [[holocaust]].<ref name=Breggin/>

== Norway ==
There have been a few accusations about abuse of psychiatry in Norway. See [[Arnold Juklerød]].

== Romania ==
In Romania, there have been allegations of some particular cases of psychiatric abuse during over a decade.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} In addition to particular cases, there is evidence that mental hospitals were utilized as short-term detainment centers.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} For instance, before the 1982 [[Universiade|International University Sports ‘Olympiad’]], over 600 dissidents were detained and kept out of public view in mental hospitals.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} Like in the Soviet Union, on the eve of Communist holidays, potential “troublemakers” were sent to mental hospitals by busloads and discharged when the holidays had passed.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>

== Russia ==
{{main|Political abuse of psychiatry in Russia}}
Reports on particular cases continue to come from Russia where the worsening political climate appears to make an atmosphere in which local authorities feel able to again use psychiatry as a means of frightening.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> In modern Russia, the fact that a person is a human rights defender again means that the person risks receiving a psychiatric diagnosis.<ref name="15 лет НПЖ">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|title=15 лет Независимому психиатрическому журналу|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 4|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2005/4/15years.htm|accessdate=24 July 2011|issn=1028-8554}}</ref>

== Soviet Union ==
{{main|Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union}}
From the early 1970s, during [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s rule of the Soviet Union, reports started reaching the West that religious and political dissenters were being detained in maximum-security mental hospitals in the USSR without medical justification.<ref name="Bonnie"/> In 1977, the [[World Psychiatric Association]] condemned the USSR for this practice, and six years later, the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists seceded from the WPA rather than face almost definite expulsion.<ref name="Bonnie"/> During this period, while reports of continuous repression multiplied, Soviet psychiatric officials refused to allow international bodies to see the hospitals and patients in question and denied the charges of abuse.<ref name="Bonnie"/> In 1989, however, the stonewalling of Soviet psychiatry was overcome by [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]].<ref name="Bonnie"/> Over the objection of the psychiatric establishment, the Soviet government permitted a delegation of psychiatrists from the USA, representing the U.S. Government, to carry out extensive interviews of suspected victims of abuse.<ref name="Bonnie"/>

In February 1989, a delegation of US psychiatrists and other experts visited the Soviet Union on the invitation of the Soviet government.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation was able systematically to interview and assess present and past involuntarily admitted mental patients chosen by the visiting team, as well as to talk over procedures and methods of treatment with some of the patients, their friends, relatives and, sometimes, their treating psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} Whereas the delegation originally sought interviews with 48 persons, it eventually saw 15 hospitalized and 12 discharged patients.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} About half of the hospitalized patients were released in the two months between the submission of the initial list of names to the Soviets authorities and the departure from the Soviet Union of the US delegation.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation came to the conclusion that nine of the 15 hospitalized patients had disorders which would be classified in the United States as serious psychoses, diagnoses corresponding broadly with those used by the Soviet psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} One of the hospitalized patients had been diagnosed as having [[schizophrenia]] although the US team saw no evidence of mental disorder.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} Among the 12 discharged patients examined, the US delegation found that nine had no evidence of any current or past mental disorder; the remaining three had comparatively slight symptoms which would not usually warrant involuntary commitment in Western countries.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} According to medical record, all these patients had diagnoses of psychopathology or schizophrenia.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}}

When returned home after a visit of more than two weeks, the delegation wrote its report which was pretty damaging to the Soviet authorities.<ref name="van Voren 2009">{{cite book|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=On Dissidents and Madness: From the Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev to the "Soviet Union" of Vladimir Putin|year=2009|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam—New York|isbn=978-90-420-2585-1|pages=242|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tyDIKu8XsgcC&pg=PA242}}</ref>{{rp|125}} The delegation established not only that there had taken place systematic political abuse of psychiatry but also that the abuse had not come to an end, that victims of the abuse still remained in mental hospitals, and that the Soviet authorities and particularly the Soviet Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists still denied that psychiatry had been employed as a method of repression.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|125}}

== United States ==
*[[Drapetomania]] was a supposed [[mental illness]] described by [[United States|American]] physician [[Samuel A. Cartwright]] in 1851 that caused [[Slavery in the United States|black slaves]] to flee captivity.<ref name="White">{{cite book|last=White|first=Kevin|title=An introduction to the sociology of health and illness|year=2002|publisher=SAGE|isbn=0-7619-6400-2|pages=41, 42|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5bHxQBNWGHMC&pg=PA41}}</ref>{{rp|41}} In addition to identifying drapetomania, Cartwright prescribed a remedy. His feeling was that with "proper medical advice, strictly followed, this troublesome practice that many Negroes have of running away can be almost entirely prevented."<ref name=Cartwright>{{cite journal|last=Cartwright|first=Samuel A.|authorlink=Samuel A. Cartwright|title=Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race|journal=[[DeBow's Review]]|year=1851|volume=XI|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3106t.html|accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref> In the case of slaves "sulky and dissatisfied without cause" — a warning sign of imminent flight — Cartwright prescribed "[[flagellation|whipping]] the devil out of them" as a "preventative measure".<ref name="Caplan">{{cite book|last1=Caplan|first1=Arthur|last2=McCartney|first2=James|last3=Sisti|first3=Dominic|title=Health, disease, and illness: concepts in medicine|year=2004|publisher=Georgetown University Press|isbn=1-58901-014-0|pages=35|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NmHCGb3GvJoC&pg=PA35}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Slavery & the Law |author= Paul Finkelman|year=1997|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=0-7425-2119-2|url= http://books.google.com/?id=1YI0DvuukxkC&pg=PA305| page=305}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Slavery and Emancipation |author= Rick Halpern, Enrico Dal Lago|year=2002|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=0-631-21735-5 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=svaQthjrcf0C&pg=RA1-PA273&sig=BuyUaEXNumrkqdvdpvtSh0P4CyU| page=273}}</ref> As a remedy for this disease, doctors also made running a physical impossibility by prescribing the removal of both big toes.<ref name="White"/>{{rp|42}}

*In the United States, political dissenters have been involuntarily committed. For example, in 1927 a demonstrator named Aurora D'Angelo was sent to a mental health facility for psychiatric evaluation after she participated in a rally in support of [[Sacco and Vanzetti]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Temkin |last=Moshik|title=The Sacco-Vanzetti Affair|publisher=Yale University Press Publishers |isbn=978-0-300-12484-2 |year=2009 |page=316}}</ref>

*When [[Clennon Washington King, Jr.|Clennon W. King, Jr.]], a black [[pastor]] and [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|civil rights activist]] attempted to enroll at the [[Racial segregation in the United States|all-white]] [[University of Mississippi]] for summer [[graduate school|graduate courses]] in 1958, the Mississippi police arrested him on the grounds that "any nigger who tried to enter Ole Miss ''must'' be crazy."<ref>{{Cite book|first=William H.|last=Tucker|title=[http://books.google.com/books?id=C-jIEhfKPaYC The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund]|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=0-252-02762-0|year=2002 |page=119}}</ref> Keeping King's whereabouts secret for 48 hours, the Mississippi authorities kept him confined to a mental hospital for twelve days before a panel of doctors established the activist's sanity.<ref name = "Negro Pastor Pronounced Sane">[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1798&dat=19580620&id=LgIdAAAAIBAJ&sjid=4YoEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7178,1936782 "Negro Pastor Pronounced Sane; Demands Mississippi Apologize".] UPI. ''[[Sarasota Journal]]'' 20 June 1958: 3.</ref>

*In the 1964 election, [[Fact magazine|''Fact'' magazine]] polled [[American Psychiatric Association]] members on whether [[Barry Goldwater]] was fit to be president and published "The Unconscious of a Conservative: A Special Issue on the Mind of Barry Goldwater." This led to the banning of diagnosing public figures when you have not performed an examination or been authorized to release information by the patient. This became the [[Goldwater rule]].<ref name=tele>{{cite news |author=[[Richard A. Friedman]] |coauthors= |title=How a Telescopic Lens Muddles Psychiatric Insights |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/24/health/views/24mind.html?ref=science |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=May 23, 2011 |accessdate=2011-05-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author= |coauthors= |title=LBJ Fit to Serve |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=D24hAAAAIBAJ&sjid=F4cFAAAAIBAJ&pg=882,4721408&dq=ralph+ginzburg&hl=en |quote=Publisher Ralph Ginzburg, defendant in a libel suit for an article on a poll of psychiatrists on Barry Goldwater that he conducted in 1964 says ... |newspaper=[[Associated Press]] |date=May 23, 1968 |accessdate=2011-05-24 }}</ref>

*In the 1970s, [[Martha Beall Mitchell]], wife of U.S. Attorney General [[John N. Mitchell|John Mitchell]], was diagnosed with a paranoid mental disorder for claiming that the administration of President [[Richard M. Nixon]] was engaged in illegal activities. Many of her claims were later proved correct, and the term "[[Martha Mitchell effect]]" was coined to describe mental health misdiagnoses when accurate claims are dismissed as delusional.

*In 1972 [[Thomas Eagleton]] was forced to withdraw as a vice presidential candidate for being treated for depression.<ref>{{cite news |author=[[George McGovern]] |coauthors= |title=Trashing' Candidates |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1983/05/11/opinion/trashing-candidates.html |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=May 11, 1983 |accessdate=2013-10-18 }}</ref>

*In 2006, Canadian psychiatrist Colin A. Ross's book was published, titled ''The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists''.<ref name="Ross">{{cite book|last=Ross|first=Colin|title=The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists|year=2006|publisher=Manitou Communications|isbn=0-9765508-0-6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PzLuAAAACAAJ}}</ref> The book presents evidence based on 15,000 pages of documents received from the [[CIA]] via the [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] that there have been systematic, pervasive violations of human rights by American psychiatrists during the recent 65 years.<ref name="Ross"/>

*In 2010, the book ''[[The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease]]'' by [[psychiatrist]] Jonathan Metzl (who also has a Ph.D. in [[American studies]]) was published.<ref name="Metzl"/> The book covers the history of the 1960s [[Ionia State Hospital]] located in [[Ionia, Michigan]] and now converted to a prison and focuses on exposing the trend of this hospital to diagnose [[African American]]s with [[schizophrenia]] because of their [[civil rights]] ideas.<ref name="Metzl"/> The book suggests that in part the sudden influx of such diagnoses could traced to a change in wording in the [[DSM-II]], which compared to the previous edition added "hostility" and "aggression" as signs of the disorder.<ref name="Metzl"/>

*Iduna Borger, an attorney in Ohio, had a fraudulent psychiatric report written about her by Dr Emmett Cooper which stated she refused to accept consensual reality about homosexuals. Her license was suspended in 2002 and remains suspended. The Board of the Ohio Supreme Court will not overturn the finding of mental illness.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}

== Psychiatric reprisals ==
[[Whistleblower|Whistle-blowers]] who part ranks with a government agency or major corporation can expect to be depicted as unhinged; it's in the agency's best interests. For example, [[Russ Tice]] was punished with psychiatric evaluations that labeled him as "mentally unbalanced" after persisting in his investigations of potentially illegal spying activity at the NSA.<ref>[http://www.slate.com/id/2134398 The Professional Paranoid: Why NSA whistle-blower Russ Tice may be right]</ref> As another example, an NYPD veteran who alleged falsified crime statistics in his department was forcibly committed to a mental institution.<ref>[http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2010/10/cop-nypd-psych-ward-whistleblowing/ Cop hauled off to psych ward after alleging fake crime stats]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Antipsychiatry]]
* ''[[The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease]]''
* [[Global Initiative on Psychiatry]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite journal|last1=Adler|first1=Nanci|last2=Mueller|first2=Gerard|last3=Ayat|first3=Mohammed|title=Psychiatry under tyranny: a report on the political abuse of Romanian psychiatry during the Ceausescu years|journal=Current Psychology|volume=12|issue=1|pages=3–17|year=1993|pmid=11652327|doi=10.1007/BF02737088|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/427306l26803v4u3/}}
* {{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Comparing Soviet and Chinese Political Psychiatry|journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=131–135|pmid=11931361|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/131.pdf|accessdate=27 February 2011}}

{{Anti-psychiatry}}
{{Unnecessary health care}}

[[Category:Political abuses of psychiatry| ]]
[[Category:History of psychiatry]]
[[Category:Psychiatry controversies]]
[[Category:Psychiatric treatments]]
[[Category:Psychiatric hospitals]]
[[Category:Psychiatric institutions]]
[[Category:Total institutions]]
[[Category:Imprisonment and detention]]
[[Category:Political repression]]
[[Category:Political repression in China]]
[[Category:Political repression in Cuba]]
[[Category:Political repression in Germany]]
[[Category:Political repression in Romania]]
[[Category:Political repression in Russia]]
[[Category:Political repression in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Political repression in the United States]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Books about mental health]]

Politischer Missbrauch der Psychiatrie in China

2014-04-25T08:49:30Z

CanadianLinuxUser: /* Canada, Quebec */ - No reference to Ultra working today - biased edit

'''Political abuse of psychiatry''' is the misuse of psychiatric diagnosis, detention and treatment for the purposes of obstructing the fundamental human rights of certain groups and individuals in a society.<ref name="van Voren 2010">{{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry—An Historical Overview|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|date=January 2010|volume=36|issue=1|pages=33–35|pmid=19892821|pmc=2800147|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp119}}</ref><ref name="Helmchen">{{cite book|last1=Helmchen|first1=Hanfried|last2=Sartorius|first2=Norman|authorlink2=Norman Sartorius|title=Ethics in Psychiatry: European Contributions|year=2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=90-481-8720-6|pages=491|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=70h31egRm40C&pg=PA491}}</ref>{{rp|491}} In other words, abuse of psychiatry including one for political purposes is deliberate action of getting citizens certified, who, because of their mental condition, need neither psychiatric restraint nor psychiatric treatment.<ref name="Глузман, 2010">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Глузман|first=Семён|title=Этиология злоупотреблений в психиатрии: попытка мультидисциплинарного анализа|journal=Нейроnews: Психоневрология и нейропсихиатрия| date=January 2010 |volume=|issue=№ 1 (20)|pages=|url=http://neuronews.com.ua/page/etiologiya-zloupotreblenij-v-psihiatrii-popytka-multidisciplinarnogo-analiza}}</ref> Psychiatrists have been involved in human rights abuses in states across the world when the definitions of mental disease were expanded to include political disobedience.<ref name=Semple>{{cite book|last1=Semple|first1=David|last2=Smyth|first2=Roger|last3=Burns|first3=Jonathan|title=Oxford handbook of psychiatry|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-852783-7|pages=6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1MeRuoTs0loC&pg=PA6}}</ref>{{rp|6}} As scholars have long argued, governmental and medical institutions code menaces to authority as mental diseases during political disturbances.<ref name="Metzl">{{cite book|last=Metzl|first=Jonathan|title=The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease|year=2010|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=0-8070-8592-8|page=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=t1Bg9QEiCAMC&pg=PA14}}</ref>{{rp|14}} Nowadays, in many countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions.<ref name="Noll">{{cite book|last=Noll|first=Richard|title=The encyclopedia of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=0-8160-6405-9|pages=3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jzoJxps189IC&pg=PA3}}</ref>{{rp|3}} Psychiatric confinement of sane people is a particularly pernicious form of repression.<ref name="Bonnie">{{cite journal|last=Bonnie|first=Richard|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the Soviet Union and in China: Complexities and Controversies|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=136–144|pmid=11931362|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/136.pdf|accessdate=12 December 2010}}</ref>

Psychiatry possesses a built-in capacity for abuse that is greater than in other areas of medicine.<ref name="Medicine betrayed">{{cite book|title=Medicine betrayed: the participation of doctors in human rights abuses|year=1992|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=1-85649-104-8|pages=65|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bMTu_oIfVsIC&pg=PA65}}</ref>{{rp|65}} The diagnosis of mental disease allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} In addition, receiving a psychiatric diagnosis can in itself be regarded as oppressive.<ref name="Malterud">{{cite book|last1=Malterud|first1=Kirsti|last2=Hunskaar|first2=Steinar|title=Chronic myofascial pain: a patient-centered approach|year=2002|publisher=Radcliffe Publishing|isbn=1-85775-947-8|page=94|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6K41rxULV34C&pg=PA94}}</ref>{{rp|94}} In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} The use of hospitals instead of jails prevents the victims from receiving legal aid before the courts, makes indefinite incarceration possible, discredits the individuals and their ideas.<ref name="Veenhoven">{{cite book|last1=Veenhoven|first1=Willem|last2=Ewing|first2=Winifred|last3=Samenlevingen|first3=Stichting|title=Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey|year=1975|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-247-1780-9|pages= 29|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RdazE7TGYjgC&pg=PA29}}</ref>{{rp|29}} In that manner, whenever open trials are undesirable, they are avoided.<ref name="Veenhoven"/>{{rp|29}}

Examples of political abuse of the power, entrusted in physicians and particularly psychiatrists, are abundant in history and seen during the Nazi era and the Soviet rule when political dissenters were labeled as “mentally ill” and subjected to inhumane “treatments.”<ref name=Shah>{{cite journal|last1=Shah|first1=Ruchita|last2=Basu|first2=Debasish|title=Coercion in psychiatric care: Global and Indian perspective|journal=[[Indian Journal of Psychiatry]]|date=July–September 2010|volume=52|issue=3|pages=203–206|doi=10.4103/0019-5545.70971|pmid=21180403|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2990818|accessdate=22 March 2012|pmc=2990818}}</ref> In the period from the 1960s up to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union, and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as [[Communist Romania|Romania]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Czechoslovakia]], and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|66}} The practice of incarceration of political dissidents in mental hospitals in Eastern Europe and the former USSR damaged the credibility of psychiatric practice in these states and entailed strong condemnation from the international community.<ref name="Declan">{{cite journal|last1=Declan|first1=Lyons|last2=Art|first2=O'Malley|title=The labelling of dissent — politics and psychiatry behind the Great Wall|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=2002|pages=443–444|doi=10.1192/pb.26.12.443|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/26/12/443.full|volume=26|issue=12}}</ref> Political abuse of psychiatry also takes place in the [[People's Republic of China]].<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> Psychiatric diagnoses such as the diagnosis of ‘[[sluggish schizophrenia]]’ in political dissidents in the USSR were used for political purposes.<ref name="Katona">{{cite book|last1=Katona|first1=Cornelius|last2=Robertson|first2=Mary|title=Psychiatry at a glance|year=2005|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=1-4051-2404-0|pages=77|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OSJRHpAtqPUC&pg=PA77}}</ref>{{rp|77}}

== Canada, Quebec ==
{{Unreferenced|date=April 2014}}
[[Duplessis Orphans]] :
Several thousand orphaned children were falsely certified as mentally ill by the government of the province of Quebec, Canada, and confined to psychiatric institutions.

MKUltra : An illegal human research operation experimenting in the behavioral engineering of humans through the CIA's Scientific Intelligence Division
[[Project MKUltra#Canadian experiments|MKUltra experiments of Dr Donald Ewen Cameron]] The people working on the MKUltra project initially operated from the Royal Victoria hospital site.

Dr Donald Ewen Cameron's operation was running from what is today known as the Allen Memorial Institute (AMI), part of the Royal Victoria Hospital, and not to be confused with the non-governmental organization based in Montreal, AMI-Québec Agir contre la maladie mentale. The later organization is associated with the current ongoing gentrification of the Decarie expressway in Montreal. In the case of the gentrification of the Decarie expressway, buildings owned by Canadians of non-European descent were and are still being systematically covered with hate-inducing graffitis.<ref>http://ville.montreal.qc.ca/portal/page?_pageid=5677,57727618&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL</ref>

Although Quebec has typically blamed these cases on the era where its health care system was either under federal, private or religious jurisdiction, it is well-known that not much has changed since the Duplessis or Cameron eras.

Since Premier Parizeau's comment on "visible minorities", which is a hidden term for Canadians of "non-European" descent, cases of psychiatric abuse on black people and Asians have been reported to ethnic and community groups. The term was used by Justice Abella. <ref>https://pi.library.yorku.ca/ojs/index.php/cws/article/viewFile/12792/11875</ref> <ref>http://www.immigrationwatchcanada.org/background/research/preferential-hiring/judging-abella/</ref>

It can safely be said that political abuse in Canada is a consequence of settlers of non-European descent fighting with settlers of European descent over resources, land and political power.

Throughout Canada, cases of Native Americans being institutionalized for their land have been reported.

Police "rousting" in Montreal is also associated with political abuse of psychiatry. The running argument used by the Montreal police and the psychiatric establishment is to determine if a "subject" is a danger to himself or someone else.<ref>http://nodogsoranglophones.blogspot.ca/2011/05/montreal-police-harass-entire-black.html</ref>

It can be noted that all licensed psychiatrists in Quebec are of European descent.

Quebec has a government-owned health care system. All hospitals are owned and operated by the state and all health care practitioners have salaries paid by the government. This includes private practitioners who are in addition to charge an additional operational fee. Perhaps more interestingly, Montreal's public health care system is separated into two branches, the Mcgill University Health Center and the establishments affiliated with Université de Montréal. This segmentation coincides with Montreal's language divide, but also with the two only institutions in Montreal who can give medical degrees, a mandatory step to becoming a licensed doctor in Montreal. The same can be said of Montreal's public education system.

Quebec's education system is public as well. In the case where the political establishment is trying to expropriate a group of people or gentrify an area, it is easy for it to target the children of home and land owners from childhood onwards. Native Americans have persistently fought for their own education system due to these allegations. However, even today, these Native residential schools are known to have been responsible for abuses since the band councils are said to be run by "state-puppets".

Cases of medical malpractice in link with the language divide are rampant.

The racialization of Quebec since the early days of colonization is still the dominant pattern in Quebec society. Religious bigotry has been replaced by political bigotry.

The film Léolo by Canadian filmmaker Jean-Claude Lauzon describes a case where a young male is harassed by another male who is on "steroid and growth hormone". Since in Québec, growth hormone and steroids illegal unless prescribed by a doctor, it is safe to say that these cases of "rousting" and "harassment" are political in nature.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Léolo</ref>

== Cuba ==
Although Cuba has been politically connected to the Soviet Union since the United States broke off relations with Cuba shortly after the dictator [[Fidel Castro]] came to power in 1959, few considerable allegations regarding the political abuse of psychiatry in this country emerged before the late 1980s.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|74}} [[Americas Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]] published reports alluding to cases of possible unwarranted hospitalization and ill-treatment of political prisoners.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} These reports concerned the Gustavo Machin hospital in [[Santiago de Cuba]] in the southeast of the country and the major mental hospital in [[Havana]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} In 1977, a report on alleged abuse of psychiatry in Cuba presenting cases of ill-treatment in mental hospitals going back to the 1970s came out in the United States.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} It presents grave allegations that prisoners end up in the forensic ward of mental hospitals in Santiago de Cuba and Havana where they undergo ill-treatment including [[electroconvulsive therapy]] without [[muscle relaxants]] or [[anaesthesia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} The reported application of ECT in the forensic wards seems, at least in many of the cited cases, not to be an adequate clinical treatment for the diagnosed state of the prisoner — in some cases the prisoners seem not to have been diagnosed at all.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} Conditions in the forensic wards have been described in repulsive terms and apparently are in striking contrast to the other parts of the mental hospitals that are said to be well-kept and modern.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}}

In August 1981, the Marxist historian Ariel Hidalgo was apprehended and accused of ‘incitement against the social order, international solidarity and the Socialist State’ and sentenced to eight years’ imprisonment.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} In September 1981, he was transported from State Security Headquarters to the Carbó-Serviá (forensic) ward of Havana Psychiatric Hospital where he stayed for several weeks.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|76}}

== India ==
It was reported in June, 2012, that the [[Indian Government]] has approached [[NIMHANS]], a well known metal health establishment in [[South India]], to assist in suppressing anti-nuclear protests regards to building of the [[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant]]. The government was in talks with NIMHANS representatives to chalk up a plan to dispatch psychiatrists to [[Kudankulam]], for counselling protesters opposed to the building of the plant. To fulfill this, [[NIMHANS]] developed a team of 6 members, all of them, from the Department of Social Psychiatry. The psychiatrists were sent to get a ''"peek a into the protesters' minds"'' and help them learn the importance of the plant according to one news source.<ref>http://content.ibnlive.in.com/article/19-May-2012south-india/centre-to-deal-antinuke-mindset-with-nimhans-259386-60.html</ref><ref>http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/ColumnsOthers/No-margin-for-error/Article1-865997.aspx</ref><ref>http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=238299</ref><ref>http://newindianexpress.com/nation/article546418.ece</ref><ref>http://newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/article546439.ece</ref>

In July, 2013, the same institution, [[NIMHANS]], was involved in a controversy where it was alleged that it provided assistance to the [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] relating to some interrogation techninques.

== Japan ==
Japanese mental institutions during the country's imperial era reported an abnormally large number of patient deaths, peaking in 1945 after the surrender of Japan to Allied forces.<ref name="Totsuka">{{cite journal|last=Totsuka|first=Etsuro|title=The history of Japanese psychiatry and the rights of mental patients|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=1990|volume=14|issue=4|pages=193–200|pmid=|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/14/4/193.full.pdf|accessdate=19 March 2012}}</ref> The patients of these institutions were mistreated mainly because they were a hindrance to society. Under the oppressive Imperial Japanese government, citizens were expected to contribute in one way or another to the war effort, and the mentally ill were unable to do so, and as such were looked down upon and abused. The main cause of death for these patients was starvation, as caretakers did not supply the patients with adequate food, likely as a form of torture and a method of sedation. Because mentally ill patients were kept secluded from the outside world, the large number of deaths went unnoticed by the general public. After the end of Allied occupation, the [[Diet of Japan|National Diet of Japan]] passed the {{nihongo|Mental Hygiene Act|精神衛生法,|Seishin Eisei Hō}} in 1950, which improved the status of the mentally ill and prohibited the domestic containment of mental patients in medical institutions. However, the Mental Hygiene Act had unforeseen consequences. Along with many other reforms, the law prevented the mentally ill from being charged with any sort of crime in Japanese courts. Anyone who was found to be mentally unstable by a qualified psychiatrist was required to be hospitalized rather than incarcerated, regardless of the severity of any crime that person may have committed. The Ministry of Justice tried several times to amend the law, but was met with opposition from those who believed the legal system should not interfere with medical science.<ref name="Totsuka"/> After almost four decades, the {{nihongo|Mental Health Act|精神保健法,|Seishin Hoken Hō}} was finally passed in 1987. The new law corrected the flaws of the Mental Hygiene Act by allowing the Ministry of Health and Welfare to set regulations on the treatment of mental patients in both medical and legal settings. With the new law, the mentally ill have the right to voluntary hospitalization, the ability to be charged with a crime, and right to use the insanity defense in court, and the right to pursue legal action in the event of abuse or negligence on the part of medical professionals.

== Nazi Germany ==
{{main|Action T4}}
In [[Nazi Germany]] in 1940s, the abuse of psychiatry was the abuse of the 'duty to care' in enormous scale: 300,000 individuals were sterilized and 100,000 killed in Germany alone and many thousands further afield, mainly in [[eastern Europe]].<ref name="Birley">{{cite doi|10.1111/j.0902-4441.2000.007s020[dash]3.x}}</ref> For the first time in history, during the Nazi era, psychiatrists sought to systematically destroy their patients and were instrumental in establishing a system of identifying, notifying, transporting, and killing hundreds of thousands of "racially and cognitively compromised" persons and mentally ill in settings that ranged from centralized mental hospitals to jails and death camps. Psychiatrists played a central and prominent role in [[Sterilization (medicine)|sterilization]] and [[euthanasia]] constituting two categories of the [[crimes against humanity]].<ref name=Strous>{{cite journal|last=Strous|first=Rael|title=Psychiatry during the Nazi era: ethical lessons for the modern professional|journal=[[Annals of General Psychiatry]]|date=February 2007|volume=6|pages=8|doi=10.1186/1744-859X-6-8|pmid=17326822|url=http://www.annals-general-psychiatry.com/content/6/1/8|accessdate=21 March 2012|pmc=1828151|issue=1}}</ref> The taking of thousands of brains from euthanasia victims demonstrated the way medical research was connected to the psychiatric killings.<ref name="Weindling">{{cite book|last=Weindling|first=Paul Julian|title=Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials: From Medical War Crimes to Informed Consent|year=2006|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=0-230-50700-X|pages=6}}</ref> There were six psychiatric extermination centers: [[Bernburg Euthanasia Centre|Bernburg]], [[Brandenburg Euthanasia Centre|Brandenburg]], [[Grafeneck Euthanasia Centre|Grafeneck]], [[Hadamar Euthanasia Centre|Hadamar]], [[Hartheim Euthanasia Centre|Hartheim]], and [[Sonnenstein Euthanasia Centre|Sonnenstein]].<ref name=Breggin>{{cite journal|last=Breggin|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Breggin|title=Psychiatry's role in the holocaust|journal=International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine|pmid=23511221|doi=10.3233/JRS-1993-4204|year=1993|volume=4|issue=2|pages=133–148}}</ref><ref name=Torrey>{{cite journal|last1=Fuller Torrey|first1=Edwin|authorlink1=Edwin Fuller Torrey|last2=Yolken|first2=Robert|title=Psychiatric Genocide: Nazi Attempts to Eradicate Schizophrenia|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|date=January 2010|volume=36|issue=1|pages=26–32|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp097|pmid=19759092|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2800142|accessdate=28 March 2012|pmc=2800142}}</ref> They played a crucial role in developments leading to the [[holocaust]].<ref name=Breggin/>

== Norway ==
There have been a few accusations about abuse of psychiatry in Norway. See [[Arnold Juklerød]].

== Romania ==
In Romania, there have been allegations of some particular cases of psychiatric abuse during over a decade.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} In addition to particular cases, there is evidence that mental hospitals were utilized as short-term detainment centers.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} For instance, before the 1982 [[Universiade|International University Sports ‘Olympiad’]], over 600 dissidents were detained and kept out of public view in mental hospitals.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} Like in the Soviet Union, on the eve of Communist holidays, potential “troublemakers” were sent to mental hospitals by busloads and discharged when the holidays had passed.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>

== Russia ==
{{main|Political abuse of psychiatry in Russia}}
Reports on particular cases continue to come from Russia where the worsening political climate appears to make an atmosphere in which local authorities feel able to again use psychiatry as a means of frightening.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> In modern Russia, the fact that a person is a human rights defender again means that the person risks receiving a psychiatric diagnosis.<ref name="15 лет НПЖ">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|title=15 лет Независимому психиатрическому журналу|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 4|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2005/4/15years.htm|accessdate=24 July 2011|issn=1028-8554}}</ref>

== Soviet Union ==
{{main|Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union}}
From the early 1970s, during [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s rule of the Soviet Union, reports started reaching the West that religious and political dissenters were being detained in maximum-security mental hospitals in the USSR without medical justification.<ref name="Bonnie"/> In 1977, the [[World Psychiatric Association]] condemned the USSR for this practice, and six years later, the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists seceded from the WPA rather than face almost definite expulsion.<ref name="Bonnie"/> During this period, while reports of continuous repression multiplied, Soviet psychiatric officials refused to allow international bodies to see the hospitals and patients in question and denied the charges of abuse.<ref name="Bonnie"/> In 1989, however, the stonewalling of Soviet psychiatry was overcome by [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]].<ref name="Bonnie"/> Over the objection of the psychiatric establishment, the Soviet government permitted a delegation of psychiatrists from the USA, representing the U.S. Government, to carry out extensive interviews of suspected victims of abuse.<ref name="Bonnie"/>

In February 1989, a delegation of US psychiatrists and other experts visited the Soviet Union on the invitation of the Soviet government.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation was able systematically to interview and assess present and past involuntarily admitted mental patients chosen by the visiting team, as well as to talk over procedures and methods of treatment with some of the patients, their friends, relatives and, sometimes, their treating psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} Whereas the delegation originally sought interviews with 48 persons, it eventually saw 15 hospitalized and 12 discharged patients.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} About half of the hospitalized patients were released in the two months between the submission of the initial list of names to the Soviets authorities and the departure from the Soviet Union of the US delegation.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation came to the conclusion that nine of the 15 hospitalized patients had disorders which would be classified in the United States as serious psychoses, diagnoses corresponding broadly with those used by the Soviet psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} One of the hospitalized patients had been diagnosed as having [[schizophrenia]] although the US team saw no evidence of mental disorder.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} Among the 12 discharged patients examined, the US delegation found that nine had no evidence of any current or past mental disorder; the remaining three had comparatively slight symptoms which would not usually warrant involuntary commitment in Western countries.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} According to medical record, all these patients had diagnoses of psychopathology or schizophrenia.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}}

When returned home after a visit of more than two weeks, the delegation wrote its report which was pretty damaging to the Soviet authorities.<ref name="van Voren 2009">{{cite book|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=On Dissidents and Madness: From the Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev to the "Soviet Union" of Vladimir Putin|year=2009|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam—New York|isbn=978-90-420-2585-1|pages=242|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tyDIKu8XsgcC&pg=PA242}}</ref>{{rp|125}} The delegation established not only that there had taken place systematic political abuse of psychiatry but also that the abuse had not come to an end, that victims of the abuse still remained in mental hospitals, and that the Soviet authorities and particularly the Soviet Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists still denied that psychiatry had been employed as a method of repression.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|125}}

== United States ==
*[[Drapetomania]] was a supposed [[mental illness]] described by [[United States|American]] physician [[Samuel A. Cartwright]] in 1851 that caused [[Slavery in the United States|black slaves]] to flee captivity.<ref name="White">{{cite book|last=White|first=Kevin|title=An introduction to the sociology of health and illness|year=2002|publisher=SAGE|isbn=0-7619-6400-2|pages=41, 42|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5bHxQBNWGHMC&pg=PA41}}</ref>{{rp|41}} In addition to identifying drapetomania, Cartwright prescribed a remedy. His feeling was that with "proper medical advice, strictly followed, this troublesome practice that many Negroes have of running away can be almost entirely prevented."<ref name=Cartwright>{{cite journal|last=Cartwright|first=Samuel A.|authorlink=Samuel A. Cartwright|title=Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race|journal=[[DeBow's Review]]|year=1851|volume=XI|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3106t.html|accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref> In the case of slaves "sulky and dissatisfied without cause" — a warning sign of imminent flight — Cartwright prescribed "[[flagellation|whipping]] the devil out of them" as a "preventative measure".<ref name="Caplan">{{cite book|last1=Caplan|first1=Arthur|last2=McCartney|first2=James|last3=Sisti|first3=Dominic|title=Health, disease, and illness: concepts in medicine|year=2004|publisher=Georgetown University Press|isbn=1-58901-014-0|pages=35|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NmHCGb3GvJoC&pg=PA35}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Slavery & the Law |author= Paul Finkelman|year=1997|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=0-7425-2119-2|url= http://books.google.com/?id=1YI0DvuukxkC&pg=PA305| page=305}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Slavery and Emancipation |author= Rick Halpern, Enrico Dal Lago|year=2002|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=0-631-21735-5 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=svaQthjrcf0C&pg=RA1-PA273&sig=BuyUaEXNumrkqdvdpvtSh0P4CyU| page=273}}</ref> As a remedy for this disease, doctors also made running a physical impossibility by prescribing the removal of both big toes.<ref name="White"/>{{rp|42}}

*In the United States, political dissenters have been involuntarily committed. For example, in 1927 a demonstrator named Aurora D'Angelo was sent to a mental health facility for psychiatric evaluation after she participated in a rally in support of [[Sacco and Vanzetti]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Temkin |last=Moshik|title=The Sacco-Vanzetti Affair|publisher=Yale University Press Publishers |isbn=978-0-300-12484-2 |year=2009 |page=316}}</ref>

*When [[Clennon Washington King, Jr.|Clennon W. King, Jr.]], a black [[pastor]] and [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|civil rights activist]] attempted to enroll at the [[Racial segregation in the United States|all-white]] [[University of Mississippi]] for summer [[graduate school|graduate courses]] in 1958, the Mississippi police arrested him on the grounds that "any nigger who tried to enter Ole Miss ''must'' be crazy."<ref>{{Cite book|first=William H.|last=Tucker|title=[http://books.google.com/books?id=C-jIEhfKPaYC The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund]|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=0-252-02762-0|year=2002 |page=119}}</ref> Keeping King's whereabouts secret for 48 hours, the Mississippi authorities kept him confined to a mental hospital for twelve days before a panel of doctors established the activist's sanity.<ref name = "Negro Pastor Pronounced Sane">[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1798&dat=19580620&id=LgIdAAAAIBAJ&sjid=4YoEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7178,1936782 "Negro Pastor Pronounced Sane; Demands Mississippi Apologize".] UPI. ''[[Sarasota Journal]]'' 20 June 1958: 3.</ref>

*In the 1964 election, [[Fact magazine|''Fact'' magazine]] polled [[American Psychiatric Association]] members on whether [[Barry Goldwater]] was fit to be president and published "The Unconscious of a Conservative: A Special Issue on the Mind of Barry Goldwater." This led to the banning of diagnosing public figures when you have not performed an examination or been authorized to release information by the patient. This became the [[Goldwater rule]].<ref name=tele>{{cite news |author=[[Richard A. Friedman]] |coauthors= |title=How a Telescopic Lens Muddles Psychiatric Insights |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/24/health/views/24mind.html?ref=science |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=May 23, 2011 |accessdate=2011-05-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author= |coauthors= |title=LBJ Fit to Serve |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=D24hAAAAIBAJ&sjid=F4cFAAAAIBAJ&pg=882,4721408&dq=ralph+ginzburg&hl=en |quote=Publisher Ralph Ginzburg, defendant in a libel suit for an article on a poll of psychiatrists on Barry Goldwater that he conducted in 1964 says ... |newspaper=[[Associated Press]] |date=May 23, 1968 |accessdate=2011-05-24 }}</ref>

*In the 1970s, [[Martha Beall Mitchell]], wife of U.S. Attorney General [[John N. Mitchell|John Mitchell]], was diagnosed with a paranoid mental disorder for claiming that the administration of President [[Richard M. Nixon]] was engaged in illegal activities. Many of her claims were later proved correct, and the term "[[Martha Mitchell effect]]" was coined to describe mental health misdiagnoses when accurate claims are dismissed as delusional.

*In 1972 [[Thomas Eagleton]] was forced to withdraw as a vice presidential candidate for being treated for depression.<ref>{{cite news |author=[[George McGovern]] |coauthors= |title=Trashing' Candidates |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1983/05/11/opinion/trashing-candidates.html |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=May 11, 1983 |accessdate=2013-10-18 }}</ref>

*In 2006, Canadian psychiatrist Colin A. Ross's book was published, titled ''The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists''.<ref name="Ross">{{cite book|last=Ross|first=Colin|title=The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists|year=2006|publisher=Manitou Communications|isbn=0-9765508-0-6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PzLuAAAACAAJ}}</ref> The book presents evidence based on 15,000 pages of documents received from the [[CIA]] via the [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] that there have been systematic, pervasive violations of human rights by American psychiatrists during the recent 65 years.<ref name="Ross"/>

*In 2010, the book ''[[The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease]]'' by [[psychiatrist]] Jonathan Metzl (who also has a Ph.D. in [[American studies]]) was published.<ref name="Metzl"/> The book covers the history of the 1960s [[Ionia State Hospital]] located in [[Ionia, Michigan]] and now converted to a prison and focuses on exposing the trend of this hospital to diagnose [[African American]]s with [[schizophrenia]] because of their [[civil rights]] ideas.<ref name="Metzl"/> The book suggests that in part the sudden influx of such diagnoses could traced to a change in wording in the [[DSM-II]], which compared to the previous edition added "hostility" and "aggression" as signs of the disorder.<ref name="Metzl"/>

*Iduna Borger, an attorney in Ohio, had a fraudulent psychiatric report written about her by Dr Emmett Cooper which stated she refused to accept consensual reality about homosexuals. Her license was suspended in 2002 and remains suspended. The Board of the Ohio Supreme Court will not overturn the finding of mental illness.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}

== Psychiatric reprisals ==
[[Whistleblower|Whistle-blowers]] who part ranks with a government agency or major corporation can expect to be depicted as unhinged; it's in the agency's best interests. For example, [[Russ Tice]] was punished with psychiatric evaluations that labeled him as "mentally unbalanced" after persisting in his investigations of potentially illegal spying activity at the NSA.<ref>[http://www.slate.com/id/2134398 The Professional Paranoid: Why NSA whistle-blower Russ Tice may be right]</ref> As another example, an NYPD veteran who alleged falsified crime statistics in his department was forcibly committed to a mental institution.<ref>[http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2010/10/cop-nypd-psych-ward-whistleblowing/ Cop hauled off to psych ward after alleging fake crime stats]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Antipsychiatry]]
* ''[[The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease]]''
* [[Global Initiative on Psychiatry]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite journal|last1=Adler|first1=Nanci|last2=Mueller|first2=Gerard|last3=Ayat|first3=Mohammed|title=Psychiatry under tyranny: a report on the political abuse of Romanian psychiatry during the Ceausescu years|journal=Current Psychology|volume=12|issue=1|pages=3–17|year=1993|pmid=11652327|doi=10.1007/BF02737088|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/427306l26803v4u3/}}
* {{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Comparing Soviet and Chinese Political Psychiatry|journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=131–135|pmid=11931361|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/131.pdf|accessdate=27 February 2011}}

{{Anti-psychiatry}}
{{Unnecessary health care}}

[[Category:Political abuses of psychiatry| ]]
[[Category:History of psychiatry]]
[[Category:Psychiatry controversies]]
[[Category:Psychiatric treatments]]
[[Category:Psychiatric hospitals]]
[[Category:Psychiatric institutions]]
[[Category:Total institutions]]
[[Category:Imprisonment and detention]]
[[Category:Political repression]]
[[Category:Political repression in China]]
[[Category:Political repression in Cuba]]
[[Category:Political repression in Germany]]
[[Category:Political repression in Romania]]
[[Category:Political repression in Russia]]
[[Category:Political repression in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Political repression in the United States]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Books about mental health]]

Politischer Missbrauch der Psychiatrie in China

2014-04-24T16:36:08Z

CanadianLinuxUser: /* Canada, Quebec */

'''Political abuse of psychiatry''' is the misuse of psychiatric diagnosis, detention and treatment for the purposes of obstructing the fundamental human rights of certain groups and individuals in a society.<ref name="van Voren 2010">{{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry—An Historical Overview|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|date=January 2010|volume=36|issue=1|pages=33–35|pmid=19892821|pmc=2800147|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp119}}</ref><ref name="Helmchen">{{cite book|last1=Helmchen|first1=Hanfried|last2=Sartorius|first2=Norman|authorlink2=Norman Sartorius|title=Ethics in Psychiatry: European Contributions|year=2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=90-481-8720-6|pages=491|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=70h31egRm40C&pg=PA491}}</ref>{{rp|491}} In other words, abuse of psychiatry including one for political purposes is deliberate action of getting citizens certified, who, because of their mental condition, need neither psychiatric restraint nor psychiatric treatment.<ref name="Глузман, 2010">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|last=Глузман|first=Семён|title=Этиология злоупотреблений в психиатрии: попытка мультидисциплинарного анализа|journal=Нейроnews: Психоневрология и нейропсихиатрия| date=January 2010 |volume=|issue=№ 1 (20)|pages=|url=http://neuronews.com.ua/page/etiologiya-zloupotreblenij-v-psihiatrii-popytka-multidisciplinarnogo-analiza}}</ref> Psychiatrists have been involved in human rights abuses in states across the world when the definitions of mental disease were expanded to include political disobedience.<ref name=Semple>{{cite book|last1=Semple|first1=David|last2=Smyth|first2=Roger|last3=Burns|first3=Jonathan|title=Oxford handbook of psychiatry|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-852783-7|pages=6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1MeRuoTs0loC&pg=PA6}}</ref>{{rp|6}} As scholars have long argued, governmental and medical institutions code menaces to authority as mental diseases during political disturbances.<ref name="Metzl">{{cite book|last=Metzl|first=Jonathan|title=The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease|year=2010|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=0-8070-8592-8|page=|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=t1Bg9QEiCAMC&pg=PA14}}</ref>{{rp|14}} Nowadays, in many countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions.<ref name="Noll">{{cite book|last=Noll|first=Richard|title=The encyclopedia of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=0-8160-6405-9|pages=3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jzoJxps189IC&pg=PA3}}</ref>{{rp|3}} Psychiatric confinement of sane people is a particularly pernicious form of repression.<ref name="Bonnie">{{cite journal|last=Bonnie|first=Richard|title=Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the Soviet Union and in China: Complexities and Controversies|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=136–144|pmid=11931362|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/136.pdf|accessdate=12 December 2010}}</ref>

Psychiatry possesses a built-in capacity for abuse that is greater than in other areas of medicine.<ref name="Medicine betrayed">{{cite book|title=Medicine betrayed: the participation of doctors in human rights abuses|year=1992|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=1-85649-104-8|pages=65|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bMTu_oIfVsIC&pg=PA65}}</ref>{{rp|65}} The diagnosis of mental disease allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} In addition, receiving a psychiatric diagnosis can in itself be regarded as oppressive.<ref name="Malterud">{{cite book|last1=Malterud|first1=Kirsti|last2=Hunskaar|first2=Steinar|title=Chronic myofascial pain: a patient-centered approach|year=2002|publisher=Radcliffe Publishing|isbn=1-85775-947-8|page=94|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6K41rxULV34C&pg=PA94}}</ref>{{rp|94}} In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|65}} The use of hospitals instead of jails prevents the victims from receiving legal aid before the courts, makes indefinite incarceration possible, discredits the individuals and their ideas.<ref name="Veenhoven">{{cite book|last1=Veenhoven|first1=Willem|last2=Ewing|first2=Winifred|last3=Samenlevingen|first3=Stichting|title=Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey|year=1975|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-247-1780-9|pages= 29|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RdazE7TGYjgC&pg=PA29}}</ref>{{rp|29}} In that manner, whenever open trials are undesirable, they are avoided.<ref name="Veenhoven"/>{{rp|29}}

Examples of political abuse of the power, entrusted in physicians and particularly psychiatrists, are abundant in history and seen during the Nazi era and the Soviet rule when political dissenters were labeled as “mentally ill” and subjected to inhumane “treatments.”<ref name=Shah>{{cite journal|last1=Shah|first1=Ruchita|last2=Basu|first2=Debasish|title=Coercion in psychiatric care: Global and Indian perspective|journal=[[Indian Journal of Psychiatry]]|date=July–September 2010|volume=52|issue=3|pages=203–206|doi=10.4103/0019-5545.70971|pmid=21180403|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2990818|accessdate=22 March 2012|pmc=2990818}}</ref> In the period from the 1960s up to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union, and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as [[Communist Romania|Romania]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Czechoslovakia]], and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|66}} The practice of incarceration of political dissidents in mental hospitals in Eastern Europe and the former USSR damaged the credibility of psychiatric practice in these states and entailed strong condemnation from the international community.<ref name="Declan">{{cite journal|last1=Declan|first1=Lyons|last2=Art|first2=O'Malley|title=The labelling of dissent — politics and psychiatry behind the Great Wall|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=2002|pages=443–444|doi=10.1192/pb.26.12.443|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/26/12/443.full|volume=26|issue=12}}</ref> Political abuse of psychiatry also takes place in the [[People's Republic of China]].<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> Psychiatric diagnoses such as the diagnosis of ‘[[sluggish schizophrenia]]’ in political dissidents in the USSR were used for political purposes.<ref name="Katona">{{cite book|last1=Katona|first1=Cornelius|last2=Robertson|first2=Mary|title=Psychiatry at a glance|year=2005|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=1-4051-2404-0|pages=77|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OSJRHpAtqPUC&pg=PA77}}</ref>{{rp|77}}

== Canada, Quebec ==
{{Unreferenced}}
[[Duplessis Orphans]] :
Several thousand orphaned children were falsely certified as mentally ill by the government of the province of Quebec, Canada, and confined to psychiatric institutions.

MKUltra : An illegal human research operation experimenting in the behavioral engineering of humans through the CIA's Scientific Intelligence Division
[[Project MKUltra#Canadian experiments|MKUltra experiments of Dr Donald Ewen Cameron]] The people working on the MKUltra project initially operated from the Royal Victoria hospital site. Today, some have been reported to operate from the Douglas Mental Institute.

Dr Donald Ewen Cameron's operation was running from what is today known as the Allen Memorial Institute (AMI), not to be confused with the non-governmental organization based in Montreal, AMI-Québec Agir contre la maladie mentale. The later organization is associated with the current ongoing gentrification of the Decarie expressway in Montreal. In the case of the gentrification of the Decarie expressway, buildings owned by Canadians of non-European descent were and are still being systematically covered with hate-inducing graffitis.

Although Quebec has typically blamed these cases on the era where its health care system was either under federal, private or religious jurisdiction, it is well-known that not much has changed since the Duplessis or Cameron eras.

Since Premier Parizeau's comment on "visible minorities", which is a hidden term for Canadians of "non-European" descent, cases of psychiatric abuse on black people and Asians have been reported to ethnic and community groups.

It can safely be said that political abuse in Canada is a consequence of settlers of non-European descent fighting with settlers of European descent over resources, land and political power.

Throughout Canada, cases of Native Americans being institutionalized for their land have been reported.

Police "rousting" in Montreal is also associated with political abuse of psychiatry. The running argument used by the Montreal police and the psychiatric establishment is to determine if a "subject" is a danger to himself or someone else.

It can be noted that all licensed psychiatrists in Quebec are of European descent.

Quebec has a government-owned health care system. All hospitals are owned and operated by the state and all health care practitioners have salaries paid by the government. This includes private practitioners who are in addition to charge an additional operational fee. Perhaps more interestingly, Montreal's public health care system is separated into two branches, the Mcgill University Health Center and the establishments affiliated with Université de Montréal. This segmentation coincides with Montreal's language divide, but also with the two only institutions in Montreal who can give medical degrees, a mandatory step to becoming a licensed doctor in Montreal. The same can be said of Montreal's public education system.

Quebec's education system is public as well. In the case where the political establishment is trying to expropriate a group of people or gentrify an area, it is easy for it to target the children of home and land owners from childhood onwards. Native Americans have persistently fought for their own education system due to these allegations. However, even today, these Native residential schools are known to have been responsible for abuses since the band councils are said to be run by "state-puppets".

Cases of medical malpractice in link with the language divide are rampant.

The racialization of Quebec since the early days of colonization is still the dominant pattern in Quebec society. Religious bigotry has been replaced by political bigotry.

The film Léolo by Canadian filmmaker Jean-Claude Lauzon describes a case where a young male is harassed by another male who is on "steroid and growth hormone". Since in Québec, growth hormone and steroids illegal unless prescribed by a doctor, it is safe to say that these cases of "rousting" and "harassment" are political in nature.

== Cuba ==
Although Cuba has been politically connected to the Soviet Union since the United States broke off relations with Cuba shortly after the dictator [[Fidel Castro]] came to power in 1959, few considerable allegations regarding the political abuse of psychiatry in this country emerged before the late 1980s.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|74}} [[Americas Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]] published reports alluding to cases of possible unwarranted hospitalization and ill-treatment of political prisoners.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} These reports concerned the Gustavo Machin hospital in [[Santiago de Cuba]] in the southeast of the country and the major mental hospital in [[Havana]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} In 1977, a report on alleged abuse of psychiatry in Cuba presenting cases of ill-treatment in mental hospitals going back to the 1970s came out in the United States.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} It presents grave allegations that prisoners end up in the forensic ward of mental hospitals in Santiago de Cuba and Havana where they undergo ill-treatment including [[electroconvulsive therapy]] without [[muscle relaxants]] or [[anaesthesia]].<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} The reported application of ECT in the forensic wards seems, at least in many of the cited cases, not to be an adequate clinical treatment for the diagnosed state of the prisoner — in some cases the prisoners seem not to have been diagnosed at all.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} Conditions in the forensic wards have been described in repulsive terms and apparently are in striking contrast to the other parts of the mental hospitals that are said to be well-kept and modern.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}}

In August 1981, the Marxist historian Ariel Hidalgo was apprehended and accused of ‘incitement against the social order, international solidarity and the Socialist State’ and sentenced to eight years’ imprisonment.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|75}} In September 1981, he was transported from State Security Headquarters to the Carbó-Serviá (forensic) ward of Havana Psychiatric Hospital where he stayed for several weeks.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|76}}

== India ==
It was reported in June, 2012, that the [[Indian Government]] has approached [[NIMHANS]], a well known metal health establishment in [[South India]], to assist in suppressing anti-nuclear protests regards to building of the [[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant]]. The government was in talks with NIMHANS representatives to chalk up a plan to dispatch psychiatrists to [[Kudankulam]], for counselling protesters opposed to the building of the plant. To fulfill this, [[NIMHANS]] developed a team of 6 members, all of them, from the Department of Social Psychiatry. The psychiatrists were sent to get a ''"peek a into the protesters' minds"'' and help them learn the importance of the plant according to one news source.<ref>http://content.ibnlive.in.com/article/19-May-2012south-india/centre-to-deal-antinuke-mindset-with-nimhans-259386-60.html</ref><ref>http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/ColumnsOthers/No-margin-for-error/Article1-865997.aspx</ref><ref>http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=238299</ref><ref>http://newindianexpress.com/nation/article546418.ece</ref><ref>http://newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/article546439.ece</ref>

In July, 2013, the same institution, [[NIMHANS]], was involved in a controversy where it was alleged that it provided assistance to the [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] relating to some interrogation techninques.

== Japan ==
Japanese mental institutions during the country's imperial era reported an abnormally large number of patient deaths, peaking in 1945 after the surrender of Japan to Allied forces.<ref name="Totsuka">{{cite journal|last=Totsuka|first=Etsuro|title=The history of Japanese psychiatry and the rights of mental patients|journal=The Psychiatrist|year=1990|volume=14|issue=4|pages=193–200|pmid=|url=http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/14/4/193.full.pdf|accessdate=19 March 2012}}</ref> The patients of these institutions were mistreated mainly because they were a hindrance to society. Under the oppressive Imperial Japanese government, citizens were expected to contribute in one way or another to the war effort, and the mentally ill were unable to do so, and as such were looked down upon and abused. The main cause of death for these patients was starvation, as caretakers did not supply the patients with adequate food, likely as a form of torture and a method of sedation. Because mentally ill patients were kept secluded from the outside world, the large number of deaths went unnoticed by the general public. After the end of Allied occupation, the [[Diet of Japan|National Diet of Japan]] passed the {{nihongo|Mental Hygiene Act|精神衛生法,|Seishin Eisei Hō}} in 1950, which improved the status of the mentally ill and prohibited the domestic containment of mental patients in medical institutions. However, the Mental Hygiene Act had unforeseen consequences. Along with many other reforms, the law prevented the mentally ill from being charged with any sort of crime in Japanese courts. Anyone who was found to be mentally unstable by a qualified psychiatrist was required to be hospitalized rather than incarcerated, regardless of the severity of any crime that person may have committed. The Ministry of Justice tried several times to amend the law, but was met with opposition from those who believed the legal system should not interfere with medical science.<ref name="Totsuka"/> After almost four decades, the {{nihongo|Mental Health Act|精神保健法,|Seishin Hoken Hō}} was finally passed in 1987. The new law corrected the flaws of the Mental Hygiene Act by allowing the Ministry of Health and Welfare to set regulations on the treatment of mental patients in both medical and legal settings. With the new law, the mentally ill have the right to voluntary hospitalization, the ability to be charged with a crime, and right to use the insanity defense in court, and the right to pursue legal action in the event of abuse or negligence on the part of medical professionals.

== Nazi Germany ==
{{main|Action T4}}
In [[Nazi Germany]] in 1940s, the abuse of psychiatry was the abuse of the 'duty to care' in enormous scale: 300,000 individuals were sterilized and 100,000 killed in Germany alone and many thousands further afield, mainly in [[eastern Europe]].<ref name="Birley">{{cite doi|10.1111/j.0902-4441.2000.007s020[dash]3.x}}</ref> For the first time in history, during the Nazi era, psychiatrists sought to systematically destroy their patients and were instrumental in establishing a system of identifying, notifying, transporting, and killing hundreds of thousands of "racially and cognitively compromised" persons and mentally ill in settings that ranged from centralized mental hospitals to jails and death camps. Psychiatrists played a central and prominent role in [[Sterilization (medicine)|sterilization]] and [[euthanasia]] constituting two categories of the [[crimes against humanity]].<ref name=Strous>{{cite journal|last=Strous|first=Rael|title=Psychiatry during the Nazi era: ethical lessons for the modern professional|journal=[[Annals of General Psychiatry]]|date=February 2007|volume=6|pages=8|doi=10.1186/1744-859X-6-8|pmid=17326822|url=http://www.annals-general-psychiatry.com/content/6/1/8|accessdate=21 March 2012|pmc=1828151|issue=1}}</ref> The taking of thousands of brains from euthanasia victims demonstrated the way medical research was connected to the psychiatric killings.<ref name="Weindling">{{cite book|last=Weindling|first=Paul Julian|title=Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials: From Medical War Crimes to Informed Consent|year=2006|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=0-230-50700-X|pages=6}}</ref> There were six psychiatric extermination centers: [[Bernburg Euthanasia Centre|Bernburg]], [[Brandenburg Euthanasia Centre|Brandenburg]], [[Grafeneck Euthanasia Centre|Grafeneck]], [[Hadamar Euthanasia Centre|Hadamar]], [[Hartheim Euthanasia Centre|Hartheim]], and [[Sonnenstein Euthanasia Centre|Sonnenstein]].<ref name=Breggin>{{cite journal|last=Breggin|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Breggin|title=Psychiatry's role in the holocaust|journal=International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine|pmid=23511221|doi=10.3233/JRS-1993-4204|year=1993|volume=4|issue=2|pages=133–148}}</ref><ref name=Torrey>{{cite journal|last1=Fuller Torrey|first1=Edwin|authorlink1=Edwin Fuller Torrey|last2=Yolken|first2=Robert|title=Psychiatric Genocide: Nazi Attempts to Eradicate Schizophrenia|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]|date=January 2010|volume=36|issue=1|pages=26–32|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp097|pmid=19759092|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2800142|accessdate=28 March 2012|pmc=2800142}}</ref> They played a crucial role in developments leading to the [[holocaust]].<ref name=Breggin/>

== Norway ==
There have been a few accusations about abuse of psychiatry in Norway. See [[Arnold Juklerød]].

== Romania ==
In Romania, there have been allegations of some particular cases of psychiatric abuse during over a decade.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} In addition to particular cases, there is evidence that mental hospitals were utilized as short-term detainment centers.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} For instance, before the 1982 [[Universiade|International University Sports ‘Olympiad’]], over 600 dissidents were detained and kept out of public view in mental hospitals.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|73}} Like in the Soviet Union, on the eve of Communist holidays, potential “troublemakers” were sent to mental hospitals by busloads and discharged when the holidays had passed.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/>

== Russia ==
{{main|Political abuse of psychiatry in Russia}}
Reports on particular cases continue to come from Russia where the worsening political climate appears to make an atmosphere in which local authorities feel able to again use psychiatry as a means of frightening.<ref name="van Voren 2010"/> In modern Russia, the fact that a person is a human rights defender again means that the person risks receiving a psychiatric diagnosis.<ref name="15 лет НПЖ">{{ru icon}} {{cite journal|title=15 лет Независимому психиатрическому журналу|journal=[[Nezavisimiy Psikhiatricheskiy Zhurnal]]|year=2005|issue=№ 4|url=http://www.npar.ru/journal/2005/4/15years.htm|accessdate=24 July 2011|issn=1028-8554}}</ref>

== Soviet Union ==
{{main|Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union}}
From the early 1970s, during [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s rule of the Soviet Union, reports started reaching the West that religious and political dissenters were being detained in maximum-security mental hospitals in the USSR without medical justification.<ref name="Bonnie"/> In 1977, the [[World Psychiatric Association]] condemned the USSR for this practice, and six years later, the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists seceded from the WPA rather than face almost definite expulsion.<ref name="Bonnie"/> During this period, while reports of continuous repression multiplied, Soviet psychiatric officials refused to allow international bodies to see the hospitals and patients in question and denied the charges of abuse.<ref name="Bonnie"/> In 1989, however, the stonewalling of Soviet psychiatry was overcome by [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]].<ref name="Bonnie"/> Over the objection of the psychiatric establishment, the Soviet government permitted a delegation of psychiatrists from the USA, representing the U.S. Government, to carry out extensive interviews of suspected victims of abuse.<ref name="Bonnie"/>

In February 1989, a delegation of US psychiatrists and other experts visited the Soviet Union on the invitation of the Soviet government.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation was able systematically to interview and assess present and past involuntarily admitted mental patients chosen by the visiting team, as well as to talk over procedures and methods of treatment with some of the patients, their friends, relatives and, sometimes, their treating psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} Whereas the delegation originally sought interviews with 48 persons, it eventually saw 15 hospitalized and 12 discharged patients.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} About half of the hospitalized patients were released in the two months between the submission of the initial list of names to the Soviets authorities and the departure from the Soviet Union of the US delegation.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} The delegation came to the conclusion that nine of the 15 hospitalized patients had disorders which would be classified in the United States as serious psychoses, diagnoses corresponding broadly with those used by the Soviet psychiatrists.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|69}} One of the hospitalized patients had been diagnosed as having [[schizophrenia]] although the US team saw no evidence of mental disorder.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} Among the 12 discharged patients examined, the US delegation found that nine had no evidence of any current or past mental disorder; the remaining three had comparatively slight symptoms which would not usually warrant involuntary commitment in Western countries.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}} According to medical record, all these patients had diagnoses of psychopathology or schizophrenia.<ref name="Medicine betrayed"/>{{rp|70}}

When returned home after a visit of more than two weeks, the delegation wrote its report which was pretty damaging to the Soviet authorities.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|125}} The delegation established not only that there had taken place systematic political abuse of psychiatry but also that the abuse had not come to an end, that victims of the abuse still remained in mental hospitals, and that the Soviet authorities and particularly the Soviet Society of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists still denied that psychiatry had been employed as a method of repression.<ref name="van Voren 2009"/>{{rp|125}}

== United States ==
*[[Drapetomania]] was a supposed [[mental illness]] described by [[United States|American]] physician [[Samuel A. Cartwright]] in 1851 that caused [[Slavery in the United States|black slaves]] to flee captivity.<ref name="White">{{cite book|last=White|first=Kevin|title=An introduction to the sociology of health and illness|year=2002|publisher=SAGE|isbn=0-7619-6400-2|pages=41, 42|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5bHxQBNWGHMC&pg=PA41}}</ref>{{rp|41}} In addition to identifying drapetomania, Cartwright prescribed a remedy. His feeling was that with "proper medical advice, strictly followed, this troublesome practice that many Negroes have of running away can be almost entirely prevented."<ref name=Cartwright>{{cite journal|last=Cartwright|first=Samuel A.|authorlink=Samuel A. Cartwright|title=Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race|journal=[[DeBow's Review]]|year=1851|volume=XI|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3106t.html|accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref> In the case of slaves "sulky and dissatisfied without cause" — a warning sign of imminent flight — Cartwright prescribed "[[flagellation|whipping]] the devil out of them" as a "preventative measure".<ref name="Caplan">{{cite book|last1=Caplan|first1=Arthur|last2=McCartney|first2=James|last3=Sisti|first3=Dominic|title=Health, disease, and illness: concepts in medicine|year=2004|publisher=Georgetown University Press|isbn=1-58901-014-0|pages=35|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NmHCGb3GvJoC&pg=PA35}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Slavery & the Law |author= Paul Finkelman|year=1997|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=0-7425-2119-2|url= http://books.google.com/?id=1YI0DvuukxkC&pg=PA305| page=305}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Slavery and Emancipation |author= Rick Halpern, Enrico Dal Lago|year=2002|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=0-631-21735-5 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=svaQthjrcf0C&pg=RA1-PA273&sig=BuyUaEXNumrkqdvdpvtSh0P4CyU| page=273}}</ref> As a remedy for this disease, doctors also made running a physical impossibility by prescribing the removal of both big toes.<ref name="White"/>{{rp|42}}

*In the United States, political dissenters have been involuntarily committed. For example, in 1927 a demonstrator named Aurora D'Angelo was sent to a mental health facility for psychiatric evaluation after she participated in a rally in support of [[Sacco and Vanzetti]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Temkin |last=Moshik|title=The Sacco-Vanzetti Affair|publisher=Yale University Press Publishers |isbn=978-0-300-12484-2 |year=2009 |page=316}}</ref>

*When [[Clennon Washington King, Jr.|Clennon W. King, Jr.]], a black [[pastor]] and [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|civil rights activist]] attempted to enroll at the [[Racial segregation in the United States|all-white]] [[University of Mississippi]] for summer [[graduate school|graduate courses]] in 1958, the Mississippi police arrested him on the grounds that "any nigger who tried to enter Ole Miss ''must'' be crazy."<ref>{{Cite book|first=William H.|last=Tucker|title=[http://books.google.com/books?id=C-jIEhfKPaYC The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund]|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=0-252-02762-0|year=2002 |page=119}}</ref> Keeping King's whereabouts secret for 48 hours, the Mississippi authorities kept him confined to a mental hospital for twelve days before a panel of doctors established the activist's sanity.<ref name = "Negro Pastor Pronounced Sane">[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1798&dat=19580620&id=LgIdAAAAIBAJ&sjid=4YoEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7178,1936782 "Negro Pastor Pronounced Sane; Demands Mississippi Apologize".] UPI. ''[[Sarasota Journal]]'' 20 June 1958: 3.</ref>

*In the 1964 election, [[Fact magazine|''Fact'' magazine]] polled [[American Psychiatric Association]] members on whether [[Barry Goldwater]] was fit to be president and published "The Unconscious of a Conservative: A Special Issue on the Mind of Barry Goldwater." This led to the banning of diagnosing public figures when you have not performed an examination or been authorized to release information by the patient. This became the [[Goldwater rule]].<ref name=tele>{{cite news |author=[[Richard A. Friedman]] |coauthors= |title=How a Telescopic Lens Muddles Psychiatric Insights |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/24/health/views/24mind.html?ref=science |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=May 23, 2011 |accessdate=2011-05-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author= |coauthors= |title=LBJ Fit to Serve |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=D24hAAAAIBAJ&sjid=F4cFAAAAIBAJ&pg=882,4721408&dq=ralph+ginzburg&hl=en |quote=Publisher Ralph Ginzburg, defendant in a libel suit for an article on a poll of psychiatrists on Barry Goldwater that he conducted in 1964 says ... |newspaper=[[Associated Press]] |date=May 23, 1968 |accessdate=2011-05-24 }}</ref>

*In the 1970s, [[Martha Beall Mitchell]], wife of U.S. Attorney General [[John N. Mitchell|John Mitchell]], was diagnosed with a paranoid mental disorder for claiming that the administration of President [[Richard M. Nixon]] was engaged in illegal activities. Many of her claims were later proved correct, and the term "[[Martha Mitchell effect]]" was coined to describe mental health misdiagnoses when accurate claims are dismissed as delusional.

*In 1972 [[Thomas Eagleton]] was forced to withdraw as a vice presidential candidate for being treated for depression.<ref>{{cite news |author=[[George McGovern]] |coauthors= |title=Trashing' Candidates |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1983/05/11/opinion/trashing-candidates.html |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=May 11, 1983 |accessdate=2013-10-18 }}</ref>

*In 2006, Canadian psychiatrist Colin A. Ross's book was published, titled ''The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists''.<ref name="Ross">{{cite book|last=Ross|first=Colin|title=The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists|year=2006|publisher=Manitou Communications|isbn=0-9765508-0-6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PzLuAAAACAAJ}}</ref> The book presents evidence based on 15,000 pages of documents received from the [[CIA]] via the [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] that there have been systematic, pervasive violations of human rights by American psychiatrists during the recent 65 years.<ref name="Ross"/>

*In 2010, the book ''[[The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease]]'' by [[psychiatrist]] Jonathan Metzl (who also has a Ph.D. in [[American studies]]) was published.<ref name="Metzl"/> The book covers the history of the 1960s [[Ionia State Hospital]] located in [[Ionia, Michigan]] and now converted to a prison and focuses on exposing the trend of this hospital to diagnose [[African American]]s with [[schizophrenia]] because of their [[civil rights]] ideas.<ref name="Metzl"/> The book suggests that in part the sudden influx of such diagnoses could traced to a change in wording in the [[DSM-II]], which compared to the previous edition added "hostility" and "aggression" as signs of the disorder.<ref name="Metzl"/>

*Iduna Borger, an attorney in Ohio, had a fraudulent psychiatric report written about her by Dr Emmett Cooper which stated she refused to accept consensual reality about homosexuals. Her license was suspended in 2002 and remains suspended. The Board of the Ohio Supreme Court will not overturn the finding of mental illness.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}

== Psychiatric reprisals ==
[[Whistleblower|Whistle-blowers]] who part ranks with a government agency or major corporation can expect to be depicted as unhinged; it's in the agency's best interests. For example, [[Russ Tice]] was punished with psychiatric evaluations that labeled him as "mentally unbalanced" after persisting in his investigations of potentially illegal spying activity at the NSA.<ref>[http://www.slate.com/id/2134398 The Professional Paranoid: Why NSA whistle-blower Russ Tice may be right]</ref> As another example, an NYPD veteran who alleged falsified crime statistics in his department was forcibly committed to a mental institution.<ref>[http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2010/10/cop-nypd-psych-ward-whistleblowing/ Cop hauled off to psych ward after alleging fake crime stats]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Antipsychiatry]]
* ''[[The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease]]''
* [[Global Initiative on Psychiatry]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite journal|last1=Adler|first1=Nanci|last2=Mueller|first2=Gerard|last3=Ayat|first3=Mohammed|title=Psychiatry under tyranny: a report on the political abuse of Romanian psychiatry during the Ceausescu years|journal=Current Psychology|volume=12|issue=1|pages=3–17|year=1993|pmid=11652327|doi=10.1007/BF02737088|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/427306l26803v4u3/}}
* {{cite journal|last=van Voren|first=Robert|title=Comparing Soviet and Chinese Political Psychiatry|journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=131–135|pmid=11931361|url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/30/1/131.pdf|accessdate=27 February 2011}}

{{Anti-psychiatry}}
{{Unnecessary health care}}

[[Category:Political abuses of psychiatry| ]]
[[Category:History of psychiatry]]
[[Category:Psychiatry controversies]]
[[Category:Psychiatric treatments]]
[[Category:Psychiatric hospitals]]
[[Category:Psychiatric institutions]]
[[Category:Total institutions]]
[[Category:Imprisonment and detention]]
[[Category:Political repression]]
[[Category:Political repression in China]]
[[Category:Political repression in Cuba]]
[[Category:Political repression in Germany]]
[[Category:Political repression in Romania]]
[[Category:Political repression in Russia]]
[[Category:Political repression in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Political repression in the United States]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Books about mental health]]

Fredonian Rebellion

2013-12-17T16:40:03Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 216.46.221.251 (talk) to last revision by NewEnglandYankee (HG)

[[File:Fredonian Rebellion Flag of 1826.svg|300px|thumb|right|Flag of the Fredonian Rebellion]]
{{Campaignbox Mexican-American wars}}

The '''Fredonian Rebellion''' (December 21, 1826 – January 23, 1827) was the first attempt by [[Anglo]] settlers in [[Texas]] to secede from [[Mexico]]. The settlers, led by [[Empresario]] [[Haden Edwards]], declared independence from [[Mexican Texas]] and created the '''Republic of Fredonia''' near [[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]]. The short-lived republic encompassed the land the Mexican government had granted to Edwards in 1825 and included areas that had been previously settled. Edwards's actions soon alienated these established residents, and the increasing hostilities between them and settlers recruited by Edwards led the Mexican government to revoke Edwards's contract.

In late December 1826, a group of Edwards's supporters took control of the region by arresting and removing from office several municipality officials affiliated without the established residents. supporters declared their independence from Mexico. Although the nearby [[Cherokee]] tribe initially signed a treaty to support the new republic, overtures from Mexican authorities and respected Empresario [[Stephen F. Austin]] convinced tribal leaders to repudiate the rebellion. On January 31, 1827, a force of over 100 Mexican soldiers and 250 [[militia]]men from Austin's colony marched into Nacogdoches to restore order. Many of the participants, including Edwards, fled to the United States. A local merchant was arrested and sentenced to death, but later paroled.

The rebellion led Mexican President [[Guadalupe Victoria]] to increase the military presence in the area. As a result, several hostile tribes in the area halted their raids on settlements and agreed to a peace treaty. The [[Comanche]] abided by this treaty for many years. Fearing that through the rebellion the United States hoped to gain control of Texas, the Mexican government severely curtailed immigration to Texas. This new immigration law was bitterly opposed by colonists and caused increasing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule. Some historians consider the Fredonian Rebellion to be the beginning of the [[Texas Revolution]]. In the words of one historian, the rebellion was "premature, but it sparked the powder for later success."<ref name=bates494>Bates (1956), p. 494.</ref>

==Background==
After winning independence in 1821, several of Spain's colonies in America joined together to create a new country, Mexico. The country divided itself into several states, and the area known as Mexican Texas became part of the border state [[Coahuila y Tejas]]. To assist in governing the large area, the state created several departments; all of Texas was included in the Department of Béxar. This department was further subdivided into municipalities, which were governed by [[alcalde]], similar to a modern-day [[mayor]].<ref name=ericson33>Ericson (2000), p. 33.</ref> A large portion of [[East Texas]], ranging from the [[Sabine River (Texas-Louisiana)|Sabine]] to the [[Trinity River (Texas)|Trinity]] Rivers and from the [[Gulf Coast]] to the [[Red River (Mississippi watershed)|Red River]], became part of the municipality of [[Nacogdoches, TX|Nacogdoches]].<ref name=ericson33/><ref name=ericson35>Ericson (2000), p. 35.</ref> Most residents of the municipality were Spanish-speaking families who had occupied their land for generations.<ref name=davis70>Davis (2006), p. 70.</ref> An increasing number were English-speaking residents who had immigrated illegally during the [[Mexican War of Independence]]. Many of the immigrants were adventurers who had arrived as part of various military [[filibuster (military)|filibustering]] groups which had attempted to create independent republics within Texas during Spanish rule.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref group=Note>The most prominent of the filibustering groups were the [[Long Expedition]] and the [[Gutiérrez-Magee Expedition]].</ref>

To better control the sparsely populated border region, in 1824 the Mexican federal government passed the [[General Colonization Law]] to allow legal immigration into Texas. Under the law, each state would set its own requirements for immigration. After some debate, on March 24, 1825, Coahuila y Tejas authorized a system granting land to empresario, who would recruit settlers for their particular colony.<ref name=ericson35/> During the state government's deliberations, many would-be empresarios congregated in Mexico to lobby for land grants. Among these was [[Haden Edwards]], an American land speculator known for his quick temper and aggressiveness.<ref name=ericson37>Ericson (2000), p. 37.</ref> Despite his abrasiveness, Edwards was granted a colonization contract on April 14<ref name=mcdonald>{{citation|last=McDonald|first=Archie P.|title=Fredonian Rebellion|journal=Handbook of Texas online|publisher=Texas Historical Association|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/FF/jcf1.html|accessdate=April 20, 2009}}</ref> allowing him to settle 800 families in East Texas. The contract contained standard language requiring Edwards to recognize all pre-existing Spanish and Mexican land titles in his grant area, to raise a militia to protect the settlers in the area, and to allow the state land commissioner to certify all deeds awarded.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=ericson37/>

Edwards's colony encompassed the land from the [[Navasota River]] to 20 [[League (unit)|leagues]] west of the Sabine River, and from 20 leagues north of the Gulf of Mexico to 15 leagues north of the town of Nacogdoches.<ref name=ericson37/> To the west and north of the colony were lands controlled by several [[Native Americans in the United States|native tribes]] which had recently been driven out of the United States. The southern boundary was a colony overseen by [[Stephen F. Austin]], the first empresario in Texas. East of Edwards's grant was the former [[Sabine Free State]], a neutral zone which had been essentially lawless for several decades.<ref name=ericson36>Ericson (2000), p. 36.</ref> The boundaries of the new colony and the municipality of Nacogdoches partially overlapped, leading to uncertainty over who had jurisdiction over which function.<ref name=ericson37/> The majority of the established settlers lived outside the eastern boundary of the Edwards colony.<ref name=ericson37/>

==Prelude==
Edwards arrived in Nacogdoches in August 1825.<ref name=ericson37/> Mistakenly believing that he had the authority to determine the validity of existing land claims,<ref name=ericson38>Ericson (2000), p. 38.</ref> Edwards, in September, demanded written proof of ownership, or their land would be forfeited and sold at auction.<ref name="ericson38" /><ref name=samora79/> His action was at least partially driven by prejudice; Edwards scorned those who were poorer or of a different race than himself. By removing less-prosperous settlers, he could to assign their lands to wealthy planters, like himself, from the southern United States.<ref name="ericson38"/>

Very few of the English-speaking residents had valid titles. Those who had not arrived as [[filibuster]]s had been duped by fraudulent land speculators.<ref name=samora79>Samora ''et al.'' (1993), p. 79.</ref> Most of the Spanish-speaking landowners lived on grants made to their families 70 or more years previously and were unable to produce any paperwork.<ref name=davis70/> Anticipating the potential conflict between the new empresario and the long-time residents of the area, the acting ''alcalde'' of the municipality, Luis Procela, and the municipality clerk, Jose Antonio Sepulveda, began validating old Spanish and Mexican land titles, a function legally assigned to the state land commissioner. In response, Edwards accused the men of forging deeds, further angering the residents.<ref name=ericson38and39>Ericson (2000), pp. 38–39.</ref>

By December 1825, Edwards had recruited 50 families to emigrate from the United States.<ref name=bates493/> As required under his contract, Edwards organized a local militia open to his colonists and established residents. When militia members elected Sepulveda as their captain, Edwards nullified the results and proclaimed himself head of the militia. Following this debacle, Edwards, acting outside his authority, called for elections for a new alcalde.<ref name=ericson39>Ericson (2000), p. 39.</ref> Two men were nominated for the position—Edwards's son-in-law, Chichester Chaplin, seen as the representative for the newly arrived immigrants,<ref name=mcdonald/> and Samuel Norris, an American who had married the daughter of a long-time resident and was sympathetic to the more established residents.<ref name=ericson39/> After Chaplin's victory, many settlers alleged vote-stacking in an appeal to [[José Antonio Saucedo|Juan Antonio Saucedo]], the political chief of the Department of Bexar. In March, Saucedo overturned the election results and proclaimed Norris the winner. Edwards refused to recognize Norris's authority.<ref name=davis70/>

Shortly after Saucedo's ruling, Edwards left to recruit more settlers from the United States, leaving his younger brother [[Benjamin W. Edwards|Benjamin]] in charge of the colony. Benjamin could not maintain stability in the colony, and the situation deteriorated rapidly. A vigilante group of earlier settlers harassed many newcomers, and Benjamin Edwards made several complaints to state authorities. Unhappy with Benjamin's tone and the increasing tension, Mexican authorities revoked the land grant in October and instructed the Edwards brothers to leave Mexico.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=ericson40>Ericson (2000), p. 40.</ref> Rumors that Haden Edwards had returned to the United States to raise an army and not just to recruit settlers likely influenced the government action.<ref name=everett43>Everett (1995), p. 43.</ref> Unwilling to abandon his $50,000 (${{formatnum:{{inflation|US|50000|1826|r=-3}}}} as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}) investment in the colony, Haden Edwards rejoined his brother in Nacogodoches in late October, continuing their business affairs despite the cancellation of his colonization contract.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref name=bates493>Bates (1956), p. 493.</ref><ref name=everett44>Everett (1995), p. 44.</ref>

==Conflict==
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0em; font-size: 85%; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="0"
| style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: top; font-size: large; color: gray;" | “
| It appears as tho. the people in your quarter have run mad or worse.
| style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: bottom; font-size: large; color: gray" | ”
|-
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" |{{spaced ndash}}excerpt from a letter [[Stephen F. Austin]] wrote to [[Haden Edwards]], after some of Edwards's men invaded Nacogdoches<ref name=davis71>Davis (2006), p. 71.</ref>
|}
In October, Norris ruled that Edwards had improperly taken land from an existing settler to give to a new immigrant. Norris evicted the immigrant, angering many of the colonists. Later that month, another new immigrant was arrested and ordered to leave the country after refusing to purchase a merchant license before trading with the Indian tribes.<ref name=jackson62>Jackson (2005), p. 62.</ref> On November 22, 1826, local militia colonel [[Martin Parmer]] and 39 other Edwards colonists entered Nacogdoches and arrested Norris, Sepulveda, and the commander of the small Mexican garrison, charging them with oppression and corruption.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=everett44/> Haden Edwards was also arrested for violating his expulsion order but was immediately paroled, possibly as a ploy to disguise his own involvement in the plot.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref name=everett44/> A [[kangaroo court]] found the other men guilty, removed them from their positions, and banned them from ever holding another public office. The court disbanded after appointing a temporary ''alcalde''.<ref name=ericson41>Ericson (2000), p. 41.</ref> These actions benefitted Parmer personally; several weeks before, after Parmer killed a man in a dispute, Norris had issued a warrant for Parmer's arrest. With Norris removed from office, the arrest warrant was voided.<ref name=jackson71>Jackson (2005), p. 71.</ref>

Throughout the fall, Benjamin Edwards had tried to gather support from the Edwards colonists for a potential armed revolt against Mexican authority. Largely unsuccessful, he approached the nearby [[Cherokee]] tribe for assistance.<ref name=everett44/> Several years previously, the tribe had applied for title to the lands they occupied in northern East Texas. They were promised but never given a deed from the Mexican authorities. Benjamin Edwards offered the tribe clear title to all of Texas north of Nacogdoches in exchange for armed support for his plans.<ref name=everett45>Everett (1995), p. 45.</ref>

On December 16, the Edwards brothers invaded Nacogdoches with only 30 settlers, seizing one building in town, the [[Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)|Old Stone Fort]].<ref name=samora80>Samora ''et al.'' (1993), p. 80.</ref> On December 21, they declared the former Edwards colony to be a new republic named Fredonia.<ref name=davis72/> Within hours of the announcement, the Fredonians signed a peace treaty with the Cherokee, represented by Chief [[Richard Fields (Cherokee)|Richard Fields]] and [[John Dunn Hunter]].<ref name=everett45/> Fields and Hunter claimed to represent an additional 23 other tribes and promised to provide 400 warriors.<ref name=jackson65>Jackson (2005), pp. 65, 67.</ref> In recognition of the agreement, above the Old Stone Fort flew a new flag containing two stripes–one red, one white–representing the two races.<ref name=weaver69>Weaver (1997), p. 69.</ref> Inscribed on the banner was the motto, "Independence, Liberty, and Justice".<ref name=davis72/> Haden Edwards also sent messengers to Louisiana to request aid from the United States military, which refused to intervene.<ref name=davis72/> Another emissary sent to invite Austin and his colonists to join the rebellion garnered the rebuke, "You are deluding yourselves and this delusion will ruin you."<ref name=davis71/>

[[File:Old Stone Fort in Nacogdoches, Texas.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The [[Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)|Old Stone Fort]] was seized during the Fredonian Rebellion.]]

Edwards's actions disturbed many of his colonists due to either their loyalty to their adopted country<ref name=davis72/> or fear of his alliance with the Cherokee.<ref name=bates493/> Mexican authorities were also concerned with the Cherokee alliance, and both [[Peter Ellis Bean]], the Mexican [[Indian agent]], and Saucedo, the political chief, began negotiations with Fields. They explained to the Cherokee that the tribe had not followed proper procedures to attain a land grant and promised that if they reapplied through official channels the Mexican government would honor their land request. These arguments and a planned Mexican military response convinced many Cherokee to repudiate the treaty with Edwards.<ref name=everett46>Everett (1995), p. 46.</ref>

On news of the November arrest of the ''alcalde'', the Mexican government began preparing to retaliate.<ref name="ericson41"/> On December 11, Lieutenant Colonel Mateo Ahumada, the military commander in Texas, marched from [[San Antonio de Béxar]] with 110 infantry,<ref name="ericson41" /> and initially stopped in Austin's colony to assess the loyalty of his settlers. On January 1, Austin announced to his colonists that "infatuated madmen at Nacogdoches have declared independence."<ref name=davis72>Davis (2006), p. 72.</ref> Much of his colony immediately volunteered to assist in quelling the rebellion.<ref name=davis72/> When the Mexican army left for Nacogdoches on January 22, they were joined by 250 militiamen from Austin's colony.<ref name="ericson41"/>

Impatient with the army response time, Norris led 80 men to retake the Old Stone Fort. Although Parmer had fewer than 20 supporters with him, his men routed Norris's force in less than ten minutes.<ref name=jackson75>Jackson (2005), p. 75.</ref> On January 31, Bean, accompanied by 70 militiamen from Austin's colony, rode into Nacogdoches.<ref name=jackson76>Jackson (2005), p. 76.</ref> By this time, Parmer and Edwards had learned that the Cherokee had abandoned any intention of waging war against Mexico.<ref name=everett46/> When not a single Cherokee warrior had appeared to reinforce the revolt, Edwards and his supporters fled.<ref name=everett46/> Bean pursued them to the Sabine River, but most, including both Edwards brothers, safely crossed into the United States.<ref name=jackson76/><ref name=ericson42>Ericson (2000), p. 42.</ref> Ahumade and his soldiers, accompanied by political chief Saucedo, entered Nacogdoches on February 8 to restore order.<ref name=jackson77>Jackson (2005), p. 77.</ref>

Although the Cherokee had not raised arms against Mexico, their treaty with the Fredonian revolutionaries caused Mexican authorities to question the tribe's loyalty. To demonstrate their loyalty to Mexico, the Cherokee council ordered both Fields and Hunter to be executed. Under tribal law, certain offenses such as aiding an enemy of the tribe were punishable by death. By sentencing Fields and Hunter to death for this reason, the Cherokee affirmed that Edwards and his cohorts were their enemies.<ref name=everett47>Everett (1995), p. 47.</ref> Both men fled, but were soon captured and executed. When the executions were reported to Mexican authorities on February 28, the [[Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas|commandant general of the Eastern Interior Provinces]], [[Anastasio Bustamante]], praised the Cherokee for their prompt action.<ref name="everett47" />

Bustamante ultimately offered a general amnesty for all who participated in the conflict except for Haden and Benjamin Edwards, Martin Parmer, and [[Adolphus Sterne]], a local merchant who had provided supplies to the rebel force. Like the Edwards brothers, Parmer escaped into Louisiana. Sterne remained and was sentenced to death for treason but was paroled on the condition that he swear allegiance to Mexico and never again take up arms against the Mexican government.<ref name=ericson43>Ericson (2000), p. 43.</ref>{{#tag:ref|Sterne technically upheld his oath to the Mexican government; during the [[Texas Revolution]], he did not personally fight against Mexico, but he did provide funds to raise two companies of soldiers for the [[Texian Army]].<ref name=ericson43/>|group="Note"}}

==Aftermath==
The rebellion changed the dynamic between settlers and local tribes. Although the Cherokee repudiated the rebellion, their initial support caused many settlers to distrust the tribe.<ref name=everett48>Everett (1995), p. 48.</ref> The rebellion, and subsequent Mexican army response, also changed the settlers' relationships with other tribes. In preceding years, the [[Towakoni]] and [[Waco tribe]]s, allied with various Comanche bands, had regularly raided Texas settlements. Fearing that these tribes, like the Cherokee, could ally with other groups against Mexican control, Bustamante began preparations to attack and weaken all hostile tribes in East Texas. On learning of the imminent invasion, in April 1827 the Towakoni and Waco [[Suing for peace|sued for peace]].<ref name=smith121>Smith (2000), p. 121.</ref> In June, the two tribes signed a peace treaty with Mexico, promising to halt all raids against Mexican settlers. The Towakoni then assisted their allies, the Penateka Comanche, in reaching a treaty with Mexico. When Bustamante's troops left Texas later that year, the Towakoni and Waco resumed their raiding. The Comanche tribe upheld their treaty for many years and often assisted Mexican soldiers in recovering livestock stolen by the other tribes.<ref name=smith122>Smith (2000), p. 122.</ref>

The failed rebellion also affected Mexican relations with the United States.<ref name=morton33>Morton (1947), p. 33.</ref> Even before the revolt, many Mexican officials had worried that the United States was plotting to gain control of Texas.<ref name=morton34>Morton (1947), p. 34.</ref> Once the rebellion came to light, officials suspected that Edwards had been an agent of the United States. To help protect the region, a new, larger, garrison was established in Nacogdoches, to be commanded by Colonel Jose de las Piedras.<ref name=morton33/> As a direct result of Edwards's actions, the Mexican government authorized an extensive expedition, conducted by General [[Manuel Mier y Teran]], to inspect the Texas settlements and recommend a future course of action. Mier y Teran's reports led to the [[Laws of April 6, 1830]], which severely restricted immigration into Texas.<ref name=morton34/> Within Texas, the laws were widely denounced by both recent immigrants and native-born Mexicans and led to further armed conflict between Mexican soldiers and Texas residents.<ref name=davis77and85>Davis (2006), pp. 77, 85.</ref>

Some historians regard the Fredonian Rebellion as the beginning of the Texas Revolution. Historian W.B. Bates remarked that the revolt was "premature, but it sparked the powder for later success".<ref name="bates494" /> The people of Nacogdoches played instrumental roles in other rebellions in Texas over the next few years; in 1832 they expelled Piedras and his troops from Nacogdoches, and many Nacogdoches residents participated in the Texas Revolution.<ref name="bates494"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Portal|Texas|Military history}}
*{{cite book|last=Bates|first=W.B.|title=A Sketch History of Nacogdoches|journal=Southwestern Historical Quarterly|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|url=http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth101162/m1/519/|accessdate=2013-11-20|volume=59|issue=4|date=April 1956}}
*{{cite book|last=Davis|first=William C.|authorlink=William C. Davis (historian)|title=Lone Star Rising|year=2006|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, TX|isbn=978-1-58544-532-5}} originally published 2004 by New York: Free Press
*{{cite book|last=Ericson|first=Joe E.|title=The Nacogdoches story: an informal history|publisher=Heritage Books|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7884-1657-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Everett|first=Dianna|title=The Texas Cherokees: A People between Two Fires, 1819–1840|series=Civilization of the American Indian Series, v. 203|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman, OK|year=1995|isbn=978-0-585-16884-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Jackson|first=Jack|year=2005|title=Indian Agent: Peter Ellis Bean in Mexican Texas|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, TX|isbn=978-1-58544-444-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Morton|first=Ohland|title=Life of General Don Manuel de Mier y Teran|journal=Southwestern Historical Quarterly|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|volume=47|issue=1|date=July 1943|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/shqonline/apager.php?vol=047&pag=035|accessdate=2009-01-29}}
*{{cite book|last=Samora|first=Julian|last2=Simon|first2=Patricia Vandel|last3=Candelaria|first3=Cordelia|last4=Pulido|first4=Alberto L.|title=A History of the Mexican-American People|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|year=1993|location=Notre Dame, IN|isbn=978-0-585-33332-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=F. Todd|title=The Wichita Indians: Traders of Texas and the Southern Plains, 1540–1845|series=Centennial Series of the Association of Former Students, Texas A&M University, No. 87|location=College Station, TX|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-585-37704-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Weaver|first=Jace|title=That the People Might Live: Native American Literatures and Native American Community|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=1997|isbn=978-0-19-512037-0}}

{{Mexican Texas}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1826]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1827]]
[[Category:Mexican Texas]]
[[Category:Texas border disputes]]
[[Category:Wars fought in Texas]]
[[Category:1826 in Texas]]
[[Category:1827 in Texas]]

Fredonian Rebellion

2013-12-13T14:17:34Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 97.79.209.50 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)

[[File:Fredonian Rebellion Flag of 1826.svg|300px|thumb|right|Flag of the Fredonian Rebellion]]
{{Campaignbox Mexican-American wars}}

The '''Fredonian Rebellion''' (December 21, 1826 – January 23, 1827) was the first attempt by [[Anglo]] settlers in [[Texas]] to secede from [[Mexico]]. The settlers, led by [[Empresario]] [[Haden Edwards]], declared independence from [[Mexican Texas]] and created the '''Republic of Fredonia''' near [[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]]. The short-lived republic encompassed the land the Mexican government had granted to Edwards in 1825 and included areas that had been previously settled. Edwards's actions soon alienated these established residents, and the increasing hostilities between them and settlers recruited by Edwards led the Mexican government to revoke Edwards's contract.

In late December 1826, a group of Edwards's supporters took control of the region by arresting and removing from office several municipality officials affiliated without the established residents. supporters declared their independence from Mexico. Although the nearby [[Cherokee]] tribe initially signed a treaty to support the new republic, overtures from Mexican authorities and respected Empresario [[Stephen F. Austin]] convinced tribal leaders to repudiate the rebellion. On January 31, 1827, a force of over 100 Mexican soldiers and 250 [[militia]]men from Austin's colony marched into Nacogdoches to restore order. Many of the participants, including Edwards, fled to the United States. A local merchant was arrested and sentenced to death, but later paroled.

The rebellion led Mexican President [[Guadalupe Victoria]] to increase the military presence in the area. As a result, several hostile tribes in the area halted their raids on settlements and agreed to a peace treaty. The [[Comanche]] abided by this treaty for many years. Fearing that through the rebellion the United States hoped to gain control of Texas, the Mexican government severely curtailed immigration to Texas. This new immigration law was bitterly opposed by colonists and caused increasing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule. Some historians consider the Fredonian Rebellion to be the beginning of the [[Texas Revolution]]. In the words of one historian, the rebellion was "premature, but it sparked the powder for later success."<ref name=bates494>Bates (1956), p. 494.</ref>

==Background==
After winning independence in 1821, several of Spain's colonies in America joined together to create a new country, Mexico. The country divided itself into several states, and the area known as Mexican Texas became part of the border state [[Coahuila y Tejas]]. To assist in governing the large area, the state created several departments; all of Texas was included in the Department of Béxar. This department was further subdivided into municipalities, which were governed by [[alcalde]], similar to a modern-day [[mayor]].<ref name=ericson33>Ericson (2000), p. 33.</ref> A large portion of [[East Texas]], ranging from the [[Sabine River (Texas-Louisiana)|Sabine]] to the [[Trinity River (Texas)|Trinity]] Rivers and from the [[Gulf Coast]] to the [[Red River (Mississippi watershed)|Red River]], became part of the municipality of [[Nacogdoches, TX|Nacogdoches]].<ref name=ericson33/><ref name=ericson35>Ericson (2000), p. 35.</ref> Most residents of the municipality were Spanish-speaking families who had occupied their land for generations.<ref name=davis70>Davis (2006), p. 70.</ref> An increasing number were English-speaking residents who had immigrated illegally during the [[Mexican War of Independence]]. Many of the immigrants were adventurers who had arrived as part of various military [[filibuster (military)|filibustering]] groups which had attempted to create independent republics within Texas during Spanish rule.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref group=Note>The most prominent of the filibustering groups were the [[Long Expedition]] and the [[Gutiérrez-Magee Expedition]].</ref>

To better control the sparsely populated border region, in 1824 the Mexican federal government passed the [[General Colonization Law]] to allow legal immigration into Texas. Under the law, each state would set its own requirements for immigration. After some debate, on March 24, 1825, Coahuila y Tejas authorized a system granting land to empresario, who would recruit settlers for their particular colony.<ref name=ericson35/> During the state government's deliberations, many would-be empresarios congregated in Mexico to lobby for land grants. Among these was [[Haden Edwards]], an American land speculator known for his quick temper and aggressiveness.<ref name=ericson37>Ericson (2000), p. 37.</ref> Despite his abrasiveness, Edwards was granted a colonization contract on April 14<ref name=mcdonald>{{citation|last=McDonald|first=Archie P.|title=Fredonian Rebellion|journal=Handbook of Texas online|publisher=Texas Historical Association|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/FF/jcf1.html|accessdate=April 20, 2009}}</ref> allowing him to settle 800 families in East Texas. The contract contained standard language requiring Edwards to recognize all pre-existing Spanish and Mexican land titles in his grant area, to raise a militia to protect the settlers in the area, and to allow the state land commissioner to certify all deeds awarded.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=ericson37/>

Edwards's colony encompassed the land from the [[Navasota River]] to 20 [[League (unit)|leagues]] west of the Sabine River, and from 20 leagues north of the Gulf of Mexico to 15 leagues north of the town of Nacogdoches.<ref name=ericson37/> To the west and north of the colony were lands controlled by several [[Native Americans in the United States|native tribes]] which had recently been driven out of the United States. The southern boundary was a colony overseen by [[Stephen F. Austin]], the first empresario in Texas. East of Edwards's grant was the former [[Sabine Free State]], a neutral zone which had been essentially lawless for several decades.<ref name=ericson36>Ericson (2000), p. 36.</ref> The boundaries of the new colony and the municipality of Nacogdoches partially overlapped, leading to uncertainty over who had jurisdiction over which function.<ref name=ericson37/> The majority of the established settlers lived outside the eastern boundary of the Edwards colony.<ref name=ericson37/>

==Prelude==
Edwards arrived in Nacogdoches in August 1825.<ref name=ericson37/> Mistakenly believing that he had the authority to determine the validity of existing land claims,<ref name=ericson38>Ericson (2000), p. 38.</ref> Edwards, in September, demanded written proof of ownership, or their land would be forfeited and sold at auction.<ref name="ericson38" /><ref name=samora79/> His action was at least partially driven by prejudice; Edwards scorned those who were poorer or of a different race than himself. By removing less-prosperous settlers, he could to assign their lands to wealthy planters, like himself, from the southern United States.<ref name="ericson38"/>

Very few of the English-speaking residents had valid titles. Those who had not arrived as [[filibuster]]s had been duped by fraudulent land speculators.<ref name=samora79>Samora ''et al.'' (1993), p. 79.</ref> Most of the Spanish-speaking landowners lived on grants made to their families 70 or more years previously and were unable to produce any paperwork.<ref name=davis70/> Anticipating the potential conflict between the new empresario and the long-time residents of the area, the acting ''alcalde'' of the municipality, Luis Procela, and the municipality clerk, Jose Antonio Sepulveda, began validating old Spanish and Mexican land titles, a function legally assigned to the state land commissioner. In response, Edwards accused the men of forging deeds, further angering the residents.<ref name=ericson38and39>Ericson (2000), pp. 38–39.</ref>

By December 1825, Edwards had recruited 50 families to emigrate from the United States.<ref name=bates493/> As required under his contract, Edwards organized a local militia open to his colonists and established residents. When militia members elected Sepulveda as their captain, Edwards nullified the results and proclaimed himself head of the militia. Following this debacle, Edwards, acting outside his authority, called for elections for a new alcalde.<ref name=ericson39>Ericson (2000), p. 39.</ref> Two men were nominated for the position—Edwards's son-in-law, Chichester Chaplin, seen as the representative for the newly arrived immigrants,<ref name=mcdonald/> and Samuel Norris, an American who had married the daughter of a long-time resident and was sympathetic to the more established residents.<ref name=ericson39/> After Chaplin's victory, many settlers alleged vote-stacking in an appeal to [[José Antonio Saucedo|Juan Antonio Saucedo]], the political chief of the Department of Bexar. In March, Saucedo overturned the election results and proclaimed Norris the winner. Edwards refused to recognize Norris's authority.<ref name=davis70/>

Shortly after Saucedo's ruling, Edwards left to recruit more settlers from the United States, leaving his younger brother [[Benjamin W. Edwards|Benjamin]] in charge of the colony. Benjamin could not maintain stability in the colony, and the situation deteriorated rapidly. A vigilante group of earlier settlers harassed many newcomers, and Benjamin Edwards made several complaints to state authorities. Unhappy with Benjamin's tone and the increasing tension, Mexican authorities revoked the land grant in October and instructed the Edwards brothers to leave Mexico.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=ericson40>Ericson (2000), p. 40.</ref> Rumors that Haden Edwards had returned to the United States to raise an army and not just to recruit settlers likely influenced the government action.<ref name=everett43>Everett (1995), p. 43.</ref> Unwilling to abandon his $50,000 (${{formatnum:{{inflation|US|50000|1826|r=-3}}}} as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}) investment in the colony, Haden Edwards rejoined his brother in Nacogodoches in late October, continuing their business affairs despite the cancellation of his colonization contract.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref name=bates493>Bates (1956), p. 493.</ref><ref name=everett44>Everett (1995), p. 44.</ref>

==Conflict==
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0em; font-size: 85%; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="0"
| style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: top; font-size: large; color: gray;" | “
| It appears as tho. the people in your quarter have run mad or worse.
| style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: bottom; font-size: large; color: gray" | ”
|-
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" |{{spaced ndash}}excerpt from a letter [[Stephen F. Austin]] wrote to [[Haden Edwards]], after some of Edwards's men invaded Nacogdoches<ref name=davis71>Davis (2006), p. 71.</ref>
|}
In October, Norris ruled that Edwards had improperly taken land from an existing settler to give to a new immigrant. Norris evicted the immigrant, angering many of the colonists. Later that month, another new immigrant was arrested and ordered to leave the country after refusing to purchase a merchant license before trading with the Indian tribes.<ref name=jackson62>Jackson (2005), p. 62.</ref> On November 22, 1826, local militia colonel [[Martin Parmer]] and 39 other Edwards colonists entered Nacogdoches and arrested Norris, Sepulveda, and the commander of the small Mexican garrison, charging them with oppression and corruption.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=everett44/> Haden Edwards was also arrested for violating his expulsion order but was immediately paroled, possibly as a ploy to disguise his own involvement in the plot.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref name=everett44/> A [[kangaroo court]] found the other men guilty, removed them from their positions, and banned them from ever holding another public office. The court disbanded after appointing a temporary ''alcalde''.<ref name=ericson41>Ericson (2000), p. 41.</ref> These actions benefitted Parmer personally; several weeks before, after Parmer killed a man in a dispute, Norris had issued a warrant for Parmer's arrest. With Norris removed from office, the arrest warrant was voided.<ref name=jackson71>Jackson (2005), p. 71.</ref>

Throughout the fall, Benjamin Edwards had tried to gather support from the Edwards colonists for a potential armed revolt against Mexican authority. Largely unsuccessful, he approached the nearby [[Cherokee]] tribe for assistance.<ref name=everett44/> Several years previously, the tribe had applied for title to the lands they occupied in northern East Texas. They were promised but never given a deed from the Mexican authorities. Benjamin Edwards offered the tribe clear title to all of Texas north of Nacogdoches in exchange for armed support for his plans.<ref name=everett45>Everett (1995), p. 45.</ref>

On December 16, the Edwards brothers invaded Nacogdoches with only 30 settlers, seizing one building in town, the [[Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)|Old Stone Fort]].<ref name=samora80>Samora ''et al.'' (1993), p. 80.</ref> On December 21, they declared the former Edwards colony to be a new republic named Fredonia.<ref name=davis72/> Within hours of the announcement, the Fredonians signed a peace treaty with the Cherokee, represented by Chief [[Richard Fields (Cherokee)|Richard Fields]] and [[John Dunn Hunter]].<ref name=everett45/> Fields and Hunter claimed to represent an additional 23 other tribes and promised to provide 400 warriors.<ref name=jackson65>Jackson (2005), pp. 65, 67.</ref> In recognition of the agreement, above the Old Stone Fort flew a new flag containing two stripes–one red, one white–representing the two races.<ref name=weaver69>Weaver (1997), p. 69.</ref> Inscribed on the banner was the motto, "Independence, Liberty, and Justice".<ref name=davis72/> Haden Edwards also sent messengers to Louisiana to request aid from the United States military, which refused to intervene.<ref name=davis72/> Another emissary sent to invite Austin and his colonists to join the rebellion garnered the rebuke, "You are deluding yourselves and this delusion will ruin you."<ref name=davis71/>

[[File:Old Stone Fort in Nacogdoches, Texas.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The [[Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)|Old Stone Fort]] was seized during the Fredonian Rebellion.]]

Edwards's actions disturbed many of his colonists due to either their loyalty to their adopted country<ref name=davis72/> or fear of his alliance with the Cherokee.<ref name=bates493/> Mexican authorities were also concerned with the Cherokee alliance, and both [[Peter Ellis Bean]], the Mexican [[Indian agent]], and Saucedo, the political chief, began negotiations with Fields. They explained to the Cherokee that the tribe had not followed proper procedures to attain a land grant and promised that if they reapplied through official channels the Mexican government would honor their land request. These arguments and a planned Mexican military response convinced many Cherokee to repudiate the treaty with Edwards.<ref name=everett46>Everett (1995), p. 46.</ref>

On news of the November arrest of the ''alcalde'', the Mexican government began preparing to retaliate.<ref name="ericson41"/> On December 11, Lieutenant Colonel Mateo Ahumada, the military commander in Texas, marched from [[San Antonio de Béxar]] with 110 infantry,<ref name="ericson41" /> and initially stopped in Austin's colony to assess the loyalty of his settlers. On January 1, Austin announced to his colonists that "infatuated madmen at Nacogdoches have declared independence."<ref name=davis72>Davis (2006), p. 72.</ref> Much of his colony immediately volunteered to assist in quelling the rebellion.<ref name=davis72/> When the Mexican army left for Nacogdoches on January 22, they were joined by 250 militiamen from Austin's colony.<ref name="ericson41"/>

Impatient with the army response time, Norris led 80 men to retake the Old Stone Fort. Although Parmer had fewer than 20 supporters with him, his men routed Norris's force in less than ten minutes.<ref name=jackson75>Jackson (2005), p. 75.</ref> On January 31, Bean, accompanied by 70 militiamen from Austin's colony, rode into Nacogdoches.<ref name=jackson76>Jackson (2005), p. 76.</ref> By this time, Parmer and Edwards had learned that the Cherokee had abandoned any intention of waging war against Mexico.<ref name=everett46/> When not a single Cherokee warrior had appeared to reinforce the revolt, Edwards and his supporters fled.<ref name=everett46/> Bean pursued them to the Sabine River, but most, including both Edwards brothers, safely crossed into the United States.<ref name=jackson76/><ref name=ericson42>Ericson (2000), p. 42.</ref> Ahumade and his soldiers, accompanied by political chief Saucedo, entered Nacogdoches on February 8 to restore order.<ref name=jackson77>Jackson (2005), p. 77.</ref>

Although the Cherokee had not raised arms against Mexico, their treaty with the Fredonian revolutionaries caused Mexican authorities to question the tribe's loyalty. To demonstrate their loyalty to Mexico, the Cherokee council ordered both Fields and Hunter to be executed. Under tribal law, certain offenses such as aiding an enemy of the tribe were punishable by death. By sentencing Fields and Hunter to death for this reason, the Cherokee affirmed that Edwards and his cohorts were their enemies.<ref name=everett47>Everett (1995), p. 47.</ref> Both men fled, but were soon captured and executed. When the executions were reported to Mexican authorities on February 28, the [[Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas|commandant general of the Eastern Interior Provinces]], [[Anastasio Bustamante]], praised the Cherokee for their prompt action.<ref name="everett47" />

Bustamante ultimately offered a general amnesty for all who participated in the conflict except for Haden and Benjamin Edwards, Martin Parmer, and [[Adolphus Sterne]], a local merchant who had provided supplies to the rebel force. Like the Edwards brothers, Parmer escaped into Louisiana. Sterne remained and was sentenced to death for treason but was paroled on the condition that he swear allegiance to Mexico and never again take up arms against the Mexican government.<ref name=ericson43>Ericson (2000), p. 43.</ref>{{#tag:ref|Sterne technically upheld his oath to the Mexican government; during the [[Texas Revolution]], he did not personally fight against Mexico, but he did provide funds to raise two companies of soldiers for the [[Texian Army]].<ref name=ericson43/>|group="Note"}}

==Aftermath==
The rebellion changed the dynamic between settlers and local tribes. Although the Cherokee repudiated the rebellion, their initial support caused many settlers to distrust the tribe.<ref name=everett48>Everett (1995), p. 48.</ref> The rebellion, and subsequent Mexican army response, also changed the settlers' relationships with other tribes. In preceding years, the [[Towakoni]] and [[Waco tribe]]s, allied with various Comanche bands, had regularly raided Texas settlements. Fearing that these tribes, like the Cherokee, could ally with other groups against Mexican control, Bustamante began preparations to attack and weaken all hostile tribes in East Texas. On learning of the imminent invasion, in April 1827 the Towakoni and Waco [[Suing for peace|sued for peace]].<ref name=smith121>Smith (2000), p. 121.</ref> In June, the two tribes signed a peace treaty with Mexico, promising to halt all raids against Mexican settlers. The Towakoni then assisted their allies, the Penateka Comanche, in reaching a treaty with Mexico. When Bustamante's troops left Texas later that year, the Towakoni and Waco resumed their raiding. The Comanche tribe upheld their treaty for many years and often assisted Mexican soldiers in recovering livestock stolen by the other tribes.<ref name=smith122>Smith (2000), p. 122.</ref>

The failed rebellion also affected Mexican relations with the United States.<ref name=morton33>Morton (1947), p. 33.</ref> Even before the revolt, many Mexican officials had worried that the United States was plotting to gain control of Texas.<ref name=morton34>Morton (1947), p. 34.</ref> Once the rebellion came to light, officials suspected that Edwards had been an agent of the United States. To help protect the region, a new, larger, garrison was established in Nacogdoches, to be commanded by Colonel Jose de las Piedras.<ref name=morton33/> As a direct result of Edwards's actions, the Mexican government authorized an extensive expedition, conducted by General [[Manuel Mier y Teran]], to inspect the Texas settlements and recommend a future course of action. Mier y Teran's reports led to the [[Laws of April 6, 1830]], which severely restricted immigration into Texas.<ref name=morton34/> Within Texas, the laws were widely denounced by both recent immigrants and native-born Mexicans and led to further armed conflict between Mexican soldiers and Texas residents.<ref name=davis77and85>Davis (2006), pp. 77, 85.</ref>

Some historians regard the Fredonian Rebellion as the beginning of the Texas Revolution. Historian W.B. Bates remarked that the revolt was "premature, but it sparked the powder for later success".<ref name="bates494" /> The people of Nacogdoches played instrumental roles in other rebellions in Texas over the next few years; in 1832 they expelled Piedras and his troops from Nacogdoches, and many Nacogdoches residents participated in the Texas Revolution.<ref name="bates494"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Portal|Texas|Military history}}
*{{citation|last=Bates|first=W.B.|title=A Sketch History of Nacogdoches|journal=Southwestern Historical Quarterly|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|url=http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth101162/m1/519/|accessdate=2013-11-20|volume=59|issue=4|date=April 1956}}
*{{citation|last=Davis|first=William C.|authorlink=William C. Davis (historian)|title=Lone Star Rising|year=2006|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, TX|isbn=978-1-58544-532-5}} originally published 2004 by New York: Free Press
*{{Citation|last=Ericson|first=Joe E.|title=The Nacogdoches story: an informal history|publisher=Heritage Books|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7884-1657-6}}
*{{citation|last=Everett|first=Dianna|title=The Texas Cherokees: A People between Two Fires, 1819–1840|series=Civilization of the American Indian Series, v. 203|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman, OK|year=1995|isbn=978-0-585-16884-5}}
*{{citation|last=Jackson|first=Jack|year=2005|title=Indian Agent: Peter Ellis Bean in Mexican Texas|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, TX|isbn=978-1-58544-444-1}}
*{{citation|last=Morton|first=Ohland|title=Life of General Don Manuel de Mier y Teran|journal=Southwestern Historical Quarterly|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|volume=47|issue=1|date=July 1943|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/shqonline/apager.php?vol=047&pag=035|accessdate=2009-01-29}}
*{{citation|last=Samora|first=Julian|last2=Simon|first2=Patricia Vandel|last3=Candelaria|first3=Cordelia|last4=Pulido|first4=Alberto L.|title=A History of the Mexican-American People|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|year=1993|location=Notre Dame, IN|isbn=978-0-585-33332-8}}
*{{citation|last=Smith|first=F. Todd|title=The Wichita Indians: Traders of Texas and the Southern Plains, 1540–1845|series=Centennial Series of the Association of Former Students, Texas A&M University, No. 87|location=College Station, TX|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-585-37704-9}}
*{{citation|last=Weaver|first=Jace|title=That the People Might Live: Native American Literatures and Native American Community|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=1997|isbn=978-0-19-512037-0}}

{{Mexican Texas}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1826]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1827]]
[[Category:Mexican Texas]]
[[Category:Texas border disputes]]
[[Category:Wars fought in Texas]]
[[Category:1826 in Texas]]
[[Category:1827 in Texas]]

Kolonialregierungen in den dreizehn Kolonien

2013-11-27T19:00:38Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 209.81.120.254 (talk) to last revision by 216.189.128.10 (HG)

The organization and structure of British colonial governments in America shared many attributes. While each of the [[Thirteen Colonies]] destined to become the United States had its own history and development, over time common features and patterns emerged in the structure and organization of the governments.
most of these features applied to most of the colonies.

==The Legislature==
Government in the colonies represented an extension of the English government. Courts enforced the [[common law]] of England. The ''Governor's Council'' or the ''Governor's Court'' was a body of senior advisors to the governor. The General Assembly was elected by the enfranchised voters; by 1750, most free men could vote. In New England, the towns had annual [[town meetings]] where all free men had a voice.<ref>Women, children, slaves and Indians did not vote.</ref> Diplomatic affairs were handled by London, as were some trading policies.<ref>Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</ref> The colonies handled their own affairs (and wars) with the Native Americans, but Britain handled foreign wars with France and Spain.<ref>Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</ref>

===The Council===

Governor council members were appointed, and served at the governor's pleasure. Often their terms lasted longer than the governor's, as the first act of most new governors was to re-appoint or continue the council members in their offices. When there was an absentee governor, or in a period between governors, the council acted as a government.<ref>Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</ref>

Members of the council included [[ex-officio member]]s who served by virtue of being named to would all be councilors. Others would be appointed by the governor to get an effective cross-section to represent various diverse interests in the colony. Council members were theoretically {{DEFAULTSORT:}}subject to approval by the British government, either the [[Secretary of State for the Southern Department]], or after 1768 the [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]].<ref>Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</ref> In practice, the distance and delay in communications meant that a veto over a member occurred only in rare cases.

The Council as a whole would sit as the supreme court for the colony. Like the British [[House of Lords]], the council's approval was required for new laws, which usually originated in the Assembly. The council could be viewed as continuous, unlike the Assembly, which would typically meet for a new session each year to deal with taxes, budgets, and new requirements. Like the Assembly, most Council positions were unpaid, and members pursued a number of professions. While lawyers were prominent throughout the colonies, merchants were important in the northern colonies, while planters were more involved in the south.

===The Assembly===
The Assemblies had a variety of titles, such as: House of Delegates, [[House of Burgesses]], or Assembly of Freemen. They had several features in common. Members were elected by the propertied citizens of the towns or counties annually, which usually meant for a single, brief session, although the council or governor could and sometimes did call for a special session.<ref>Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</ref> [[Suffrage]] was restricted to free white men only, usually with property ownership restrictions. Since land ownership was widespread, most white men could vote.

Taxes and government budgets originated in the Assembly. The budget was also connected with the raising and equipping of the militia. As the American Revolution grew nearer, this contributed to the conflict between the assembly and the governor.<ref>Cooke (1993) vol 1 part 4</ref>

==Conflict==
The perennial struggles between governors and the Assemblies are sometimes taken as symptoms of a rising democratic spirit. However, these assemblies represented only the privileged classes, and were protecting the colony against executive encroachments. Legally, a governor's authority was unassailable. In resisting that authority, assemblies resorted to justification by arguments from [[natural right]]s and general welfare, giving life to the notion that governments derived, or ought to derive, their authority from the [[consent of the governed]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Fletcher Melvin Green|title=Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776-1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=A5c0LKovqJUC&pg=PA21|year=1930|publisher=U. of North Carolina press|pages=21–22}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[American Revolution]]
* [[Colonial history of the United States]]
* [[Proprietary colony]]
* [[Proprietary Governor]]
* [[Proprietary House]]
* [[Executive Council of New Hampshire]]
* [[Massachusetts Governor's Council]]

==Further reading==
* Andrews, Charles M. ''Colonial Self-Government, 1652-1689'' (1904) [http://www.archive.org/stream/colonialselfgov00andrgoog/colonialselfgov00andrgoog_djvu.txt full text online]
* Andrews, Charles M. ''The Colonial Period of American History'' (4 vol. 1934-38), the standard overview to 1700
* Cooke, Jacob Ernest, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies'' (3 vol 1993), compares British, French, Spanish and Dutch colonies
* Dinkin, Robert J. ''Voting in Provincial America: A Study of Elections in the Thirteen Colonies, 1689-1776'' (1977)
* {{cite book|author=Green, Fletcher Melvin|title=Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776-1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=A5c0LKovqJUC&pg=PA21|year=1930|publisher=U. of North Carolina press|}}
*Hawke, David F.; ''The Colonial Experience''; 1966, ISBN 0-02-351830-8. textbook
* Middleton, Richard, and Anne Lombard. ''Colonial America: A History to 1763'' (4th ed. 2011) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1405190043/ excerpt and text search]
* Osgood, Herbert L. ''The American colonies in the seventeenth century,'' (3 vol 1904-07). [http://books.google.com/books?id=agcOAAAAIAAJ vol 3 online]
* Osgood, Herbert L. ''The American colonies in the eighteenth century'' (4 vol, 1924-25)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Colonial Government In The Thirteen Colonies}}
[[Category:Colonial government in America| ]]
[[Category:Governance of the British Empire]]

Focus (2015)

2013-11-20T18:46:02Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 81.68.99.91 (talk): addition of unsourced content (HG)

{{Infobox film
| name = Focus
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[Glenn Ficarra]] [[John Requa]]
| producer = [[Denise Di Novi]]
| screenplay = Glenn Ficarra John Requa
| starring = [[Will Smith]] [[Margot Robbie]]
| cinematography = Xavier Pérez Grobet
| editing = Jan Kovac
| studio = Zaftig Films
| distributor = [[Warner Bros.]]
| released =
| country = United States
| language = English
}}
'''''Focus''''' is an upcoming [[romantic comedy]]-[[drama]] film. [[Glenn Ficarra]] and [[John Requa]] are directing from a script they co-wrote. [[Denise Di Novi]] will be producing. [[Will Smith]] and [[Margot Robbie]] are the lead stars of the film.

==Plot==
Nicky Spurgeon, a professional con artist, takes a young, attractive woman under his wing. They get involved romantically but that becomes perilous in a business where they lie and cheat for a living. The complications of the encounter haunt them when they meet up again in the future. Complicating matters even more, Nicky finds himself at odds with another suitor for the girl's affections, as well as a run-in with a former flame...all before the heist of a lifetime.

==Cast==
*[[Will Smith]] as Nicky Spurgeon
*[[Margot Robbie]]
*[[Rodrigo Santoro]]
*[[BD Wong]] as Liyuan
*Steve Hammond as Cafe Host
*Han Soto
*[[Stephanie Honoré]] as Janice
*[[Dominic Fumusa]] as Jared
*Adrian Martinez as Farhad
*Darrell Foster as Head of Team Italy
*Teneisha Brown as Ms. Patterson

==Production==
Earlier iterations of the project were planning to feature the pairings of both [[Ryan Gosling]] and [[Emma Stone]] in the leading roles. After Ryan Gosling dropped out, the role was offered to [[Brad Pitt]] but he declined and [[Ben Affleck]], who dropped out citing "scheduling conflicts". [[Apollo Robins]] is serving as a consultant, conceiving and choreographing original sleight-of-hand maneuvers. Bringing his unique expertise to the film. The directing duo and production designer Beth Mickle made a scouting trip to [[Buenos Aires]] in June and a second trip with producers [[Denise Di Novi]] and Mark Scoon, in which they finally settled to shoot in the barrios of [[San Telmo]], [[Puerto Madero]], [[Barracas]], [[Recoleta]] and [[Palermo]], as well as [[Ezeiza International Airport|Ezeiza Airport]] and a few hotels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://filminginargentina.wordpress.com/2013/10/21/will-smith-comedy-focus/|title=Will Smith/Rodrigo Santoro Comedy "Focus" Will be Wrapping Up Filming in Argentina|publisher=Filming in Argentina: The blog of San Telmo Productions|date=October 21, 2013}}</ref>

==Filming==
The filming of ''Focus'' began on September 12 in [[New Orleans]], and moved over to [[Buenos Aires]] on November 17,<ref>{{cite news|title=Will Smith hangs out with Argenine model at the polo|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-2509215/Will-Smith-hangs-Argentine-model-polo.html|accessdate=18 November 2013|newspaper=Mail Online|date=18 November 2013}}</ref> for three weeks. Shooting is also expected to be filmed through [[New York City]], and [[Los Angeles]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Will Smith's 'Focus' begins local production|url=http://www.nola.com/movies/index.ssf/2013/09/will_smiths_focus_begins_local.html|accessdate=17 September 2013|newspaper=nola.com|date=16 September 2013}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|2381941}}

{{Glenn Ficarra and John Requa}}

[[Category:Upcoming films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:American crime films]]
[[Category:Films about con artists]]
[[Category:Films shot in New Orleans, Louisiana]]
[[Category:2010s comedy-drama films]]

{{2010s-comedy-drama-film-stub}}

Selfie

2013-11-14T13:44:10Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 50.200.248.154 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)

[[File:Ameily radke es vato!!.jpg|thumb|upright|A young woman takes a selfie from a high [[angle]].]]
A '''selfie''' is a type of [[self-portrait]] [[photograph]], typically taken with a hand-held [[digital camera]] or [[camera phone]]. Selfies are often associated with [[social networking]]. In the [[Korean wave|Korean entertainment industry]] the word ''selca'' (short for "self camera") is used to describe photos taken of oneself.<ref>{{cite web|title= What are selcas?|url=http://kpopselca.com/about|date=2013-11-01|accessdate=2013-11-01|publisher=[[Kpopselca]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= K-Drama Dictionary of Words to “Borrow”|url=http://www.soompi.com/2012/11/23/a-kdrama-dictionary-of-words-to-borrow/|date=2012-11-23|accessdate=2013-9-9|publisher=[[Soompi]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dramafever.com/news/song-hye-kyo-shares-a-beautiful-selca/|title=Song Hye Kyo Shares a Beautiful "Selca"|publisher=DramaFever|accessdate=2013-9-9|date=2013-4-4}}</ref> They are often casual, are typically taken either with a camera held at arm's length or in a mirror, and typically include either only the photographer, or the photographer and as many people as can be in focus. Selfies taken that involve multiple people are known as "group selfies". In August 2013 [[the Guardian]] produced a film series titled ''Thinkfluencer''<ref name="Thinkfluencer episode 1 - Selfies">Guardian - Thinkfluencer - Episode 1 http://theguardian.com/technology/video/2013/aug/29/thinkfluencer-episode-1-selfies-video</ref> exploring selfie exposure in the UK.

==History==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| header =
| header_align =
| header_background =
| footer =
| footer_align = left
| footer_background =
| width =
| image1 = Unidentified woman taking her own photograph using a mirror and a box camera, roughly 1900.jpg
| width1 = 180
| caption1 = Early Edwardian woman taking her picture in a mirror roughly 1900.
| image2 = Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna self photographic portrait.jpg
| width2 = 180
| caption2 = Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia taking one of the first teenage self-portraits using a mirror and a Kodak Brownie camera to send to a friend in 1914.
}}
{{Expand section|date=August 2013}}
Selfies have existed in a less persistent form roughly since the debut of the portable [[Kodak Brownie]] [[box camera]] in 1900. The method was usually by mirror and stabilizing the camera either on a nearby object or on a tripod while adjusting the focus via a viewfinder at the top of the box.<ref name="Beginners Guide To Understanding And Using A Brownie Box Camera">{{cite web|url=http://www.brownie-camera.com/articles/petelutz/article.shtml |title=Beginners Guide To Understanding And Using A Brownie Box Camera}}</ref> Russian [[Grand Duchess]] [[Anastasia Nikolaevna]] at the age of 13 was one of the first teenagers to take her own picture using a mirror to send to a friend in 1914. In the letter that accompanied the photograph, she wrote, "I took this picture of myself looking at the mirror. It was very hard as my hands were trembling."<ref name="Alexander Palace Time Machine">{{cite web|url=http://www.alexanderpalace.org/palace/adiaries.html |title=Diaries and Letters - Letters of Grand Duchess Anastasia}}</ref>
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
==Popularity==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| header =
| header_align =
| header_background =
| footer = Selfies with typical elements associated with "MySpace pics": a young woman in a poorly-lit bathroom, and a young man with a naked torso.<ref name="Loss"/>
| footer_align = left
| footer_background =
| width =

| width1 = 180
| caption1 =
| image2 = Its_me_2013-04-03_9-45.jpg
| width2 = 180
| caption2 =
}}

The term "selfie" was discussed by photographer Jim Krause in 2005,<ref>Jim Krause, ''Photo Idea Index'', 2005. [http://books.google.com/books?id=2VTo4hp9JdUC&pg=PA148 page 148].</ref> although photos in the selfie genre predate the widespread use of the term. In the early 2000s, before Facebook became the dominant online social network, self-taken photographs were particularly common on [[MySpace]]. However, writer Kate Losse recounts that between 2006 and 2009 (when Facebook became more popular than MySpace), the "MySpace pic" (typically "an amateurish, flash-blinded self-portrait, often taken in front of a bathroom mirror") became an indication of bad taste for users of the newer Facebook social network. Early Facebook portraits, in contrast, were usually well-focused and more formal, taken by others from distance. According to Losse, improvements in technology—especially the front-facing camera introduced in the [[iPhone 4]] (2010) and mobile photo apps such as Instagram—led to the resurgence of selfies in the early 2010s.<ref name="Loss">Kate Losse. [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/elements/2013/06/the-return-of-the-selfie.html The Return of the Selfie]. ''The New Yorker''. 2013-06-05</ref>

Initially popular with young people, selfies have become popular among adults as well.<ref name="Adewunmi">{{cite news|last=Adewunmi|first=Bim|title=The rise and rise of the 'selfie'|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2013/apr/02/rise-and-rise-of-the-selfie|accessdate=6 April 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2013-04-02}}</ref><ref name="McHugh">{{cite news|last=McHugh|first=Jillian|title='Selfies' just as much for the insecure as show-offs|url=http://www.bunburymail.com.au/story/1407035/selfies-just-as-much-for-the-insecure-as-show-offs/|accessdate=6 April 2013|newspaper=Bunbury Mail|date=2013-04-03}}</ref> In December 2012, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine noted that selfie was among its the "top 10 buzzwords" of 2012; although selfies had existed for years, it was in 2012 that the term "really hit the big time".<ref name="time">Steinmetz, Katy (4 December 2012). [http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/12/04/top-10-news-lists/slide/selfie/ Top 10 Buzzwords - 9 Selfie], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''</ref> According to a 2013 survey, two-thirds of Australian women age 18-35 take selfies—the most common purpose for which is posting on Facebook.<ref name="McHugh" /> A poll commissioned by smartphone and camera maker Samsung found that selfies make of 30% of the photos taken by people aged 18–24.<ref>Melanie Hall, "[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10123875/Family-albums-fade-as-the-young-put-only-themselves-in-picture.html Family albums fade as the young put only themselves in picture]" ''Telegraph'', 2013-06-13.</ref>

By 2013, the word "selfie" had become commonplace enough to be monitored for inclusion in the online version of the [[Oxford English Dictionary]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Coulthard|first=Charissa|title=Self-portraits and social media: The rise of the 'selfie'|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22511650|accessdate=6 April 2013|work=BBC News online|date=7 June 2013}}</ref>

==Sociology==
The appeal of selfies comes from how easy they are to create and share, and the control they give self-photographers over how they present themselves. Many selfies are intended to present a flattering image of the person, especially to friends whom the photographer expects to be supportive.<ref name="Adewunmi" /><ref name="McHugh" /> However, a 2013 study of Facebook users found that posting photos of oneself correlates with lower levels of social support from and intimacy with Facebook friends (except for those marked as Close Friends);<ref>Houghton, David and Joinson, Adam and Caldwell, Nigel and Marder, Ben (2013) [http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/1723/ ''Tagger's delight? Disclosure and liking in Facebook: the effects of sharing photographs amongst multiple known social circles'']. Discussion Paper. University of Birmingham, Birmingham.</ref> The lead author of the study suggests that "those who frequently post photographs on Facebook risk damaging real-life relationships."<ref>[http://www.hw.ac.uk/news-events/news/sharing-photographs-facebook-could-damage-13069.htm Sharing photographs on Facebook could damage relationships, new research shows]. News & events, Heriot-Watt University Edinburgh. 2013-08-09.</ref> The photo messaging application [[Snapchat]] is also largely used to send selfies. Some users of Snapchat choose to send intentionally-unattractive selfies to their friends for [[comedic]] purposes.

Posting intentionally unattractive selfies has also become common in the early 2010s—in part for their humor value, but in some cases also to explore issues of [[body image]] or as a reaction against the perceived narcissism or over-sexualization of typical selfies.<ref name="Hills">{{cite news|last=Hills|first=Rachel|title=Ugly Is the New Pretty: How Unattractive Selfies Took Over the Internet|url=http://nymag.com/thecut/2013/03/ugly-is-the-new-pretty-a-rise-in-gross-selfies.html|accessdate=6 April 2013|newspaper=New York Magazine|date=2013-03-29}}</ref>

===Gender roles, sexuality, and privacy===
Selfies are particularly popular among girls and young women. Sociologist [[Ben Agger]] describes the trend of selfies as "the [[male gaze]] gone [[viral phenomenon|viral]]", and sociologist and women's studies professor [[Gail Dines]] links it to the rise of [[porn culture]] and the idea that "there’s only one way to visibility, and that’s fuckability."<ref name="Murphy">{{cite news|last=Murphy|first=Meghan|title=Putting selfies under a feminist lens|url=http://www.straight.com/life/368086/putting-selfies-under-feminist-lens|accessdate=6 April 2013|newspaper=Georgia Straight|date=2013-04-03}}</ref> Writer [[Andrew Keen]] has pointed out that while selfies are often intended to give the photographer control over how their image is presented, posting images publicly or sharing them with others who do so may have the opposite effect—dramatically so in the case of [[revenge porn]], where ex-lovers post sexually explicit photographs or nude selfies ([[sexting]] photos) to exact revenge or humiliate their former lovers.<ref name="Murphy" /> [[Copyright]] law may be effective in forcing the removal of private selfies from public that were forwarded to another person.<ref name="hartzog">{{cite news|last=Hartzog|first=Woodrow|title=How to Fight Revenge Porn|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/05/how-to-fight-revenge-porn/275759/|newspaper=The Atlantic|date=10 May 2013}}</ref>

==In modern art==
In 2013 artist [[Patrick Specchio]] and the [[Museum of Modern Art]] presented an exhibit called ''Art in Translation: Selfie, The 20/20 Experience'', in which viewers use a provided digital camera to take photographs of themselves in a large mirror.<ref name="Colburn">{{cite news|last=Colburn|first=June|title=Innovative mirror art gallery from Gallatin alum to be displayed|url=http://nyunews.com/2013/04/01/mirror/|accessdate=6 April 2013|newspaper=Washington Square News|date=2013-04-01}}</ref>

==Variety and common elements==


{{Cleanup-gallery|date = August 2013}}
<gallery>
File:Tolaneala bikini.jpg | A selfie that includes the photographer's body in a bathing suit
File:Just a photo 2013-04-03 11-15.jpg | A low-angle selfie
File:Lead Photo For DonateImage0-09435469635476434.jpg | A selfie processed with [[Instagram]] or a similar photo filter tool
File:Selfie3.jpg | A Selfie pointing down
File:Vera Stuchelova autoportret.jpg| Well-focused and well-lit selfie taken with a [[DSLR]], by photographer [[Vera Stuchelová]]
File:ISS-32 American EVA b3 Aki Hoshide.jpg | A space selfie, by astronaut [[Akihiko Hoshide]]
File:Canon Digital La Nu.png | A mirror selfie with the photographer looking through a camera viewfinder
File:Facial piercings.jpg | A selfie with someone else in the photo
File:Self portrait July 2012.jpg | A selfie of a 60 year old man{{Citation needed|date=September 2013}}
File:Selfie2.jpg|One example of a selfie facing right
File:Selfie1.jpg|Another example of a selfie facing left
</gallery>

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
{{commons category|selfies}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://kpopselca.com/ Kpopselca | rate k-pop celebrity selca photos]
* [Http://theguardian.com/technology/video/2013/aug/29/thinkfluencer-episode-1-selfies-video Selfie film on the Guardian], August 2013

{{photography subject}}

[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[Category:Photography]]
[[Category:Self-portraits]]
[[Category:Words coined in the 2000s]]

Cola-Mentos-Fontäne

2013-11-13T16:34:02Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 208.108.119.56 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)

[[File:Diet Coke Mentos.jpg|thumb|right|A two-liter bottle of Diet Coke just after Mentos were dropped into it.]]
[[File:ShimadaK2007Sept09-MentosGeyser DSC 3294++.JPG|thumb|From left to right: Reaction of five drops of Mentos with [[Perrier]], classic [[Coca-Cola|Coke]], [[Sprite (soft drink)|Sprite]] and Diet Coke.]]

A '''Diet Coke and Mentos eruption''' (or '''Diet Coke and Mentos geyser''') is a reaction between a [[carbonated]] beverage and [[Mentos]] candies that causes the beverage to spray out of its container.

The numerous small pores on the candy's surface [[Catalysis|catalyze]] the release of [[carbon dioxide]] (CO2) gas from the soda, resulting in the rapid expulsion of copious quantities of [[foam]]. Although any carbonated beverage will produce a similar effect, the reaction was popularized using [[Diet Coke]] for seemingly producing the best results.

==Cause==
When the Mentos come into contact with the Diet Coke, a reaction causes the rapid formation of foam.

''[[MythBusters]]'' concluded that the [[potassium benzoate]], [[aspartame]], and CO2 gas contained in the Diet Coke, in combination with the [[gelatin]] and [[gum arabic]] ingredients of the Mentos, all contribute to the formation of the foam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tv.com/mythbusters/diet-coke-and-mentos/episode/822481/summary.html |title=Mythbusters: Diet Coke and Mentos |publisher=TV.com |date= |accessdate=2009-09-20}}</ref>

The structure of the Mentos is the most significant cause of the eruption due to [[nucleation]]. ''MythBusters'' reported that when fruit-flavored Mentos with a smooth waxy coating were tested in [[carbonated drink]] there was hardly a reaction, whereas mint-flavored Mentos (with no such coating) added to carbonated drink formed an energetic eruption, affirming the nucleation-site theory. According to ''MythBusters'', the surface of the mint Mentos is covered with many small holes that increase the [[surface area]] available for reaction (and thus the quantity of reagents exposed to each other at any given time), thereby allowing CO2 bubbles to form with the rapidity and quantity necessary for the "jet"- or "geyser"-like nature of the effusion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mythbusters: Diet Coke and Mentos MiniMyth|url=http://dsc.discovery.com/videos/mythbusters-diet-coke-and-mentos.html}}</ref>

This [[hypothesis]] gained further support when [[rock salt]] was used as a "jump start" to the reaction. A paper by Tonya Coffey, a physicist at [[Appalachian State University]] in Boone, North Carolina, confirmed that the rough surface of the Mentos candy helps speed the reaction. Coffey also found that the [[aspartame]] in diet soda lowers the [[surface tension]] and causes a bigger reaction, but that caffeine does not accelerate the reaction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14114-science-of-mentosdiet-coke-explosions-explained.html |title=Science of Mentos-Diet Coke explosions explained |publisher=Newscientist.com |date= |accessdate=2009-09-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1119/1.2888546 |title=Diet Coke and Mentos: What is really behind this physical reaction? | author=Coffey, Tonya Shea | journal=American Journal of Physics | year=2008 | month=June | volume=76 | issue=6 | pages=551–557}}
</ref>

==Event==
A [[Guinness World Record]] of 2,865 simultaneous geysers was set on October 17, 2010, in an event organized by [[Perfetti Van Melle]] at the [[SM Mall of Asia]] Complex, in [[Manila]], Philippines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/5000/most-mentos-and-soda-fountains |title=Most Mentos and soda fountains |publisher=Guinness World Records |date=2010-10-17 |accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Solubility]]

== References ==
<references />

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |first1= John E. |last1= Baur |first2= Melinda B. |last2= Baur |lastauthoramp= yes |title= The Ultrasonic Soda Fountain: A Dramatic Demonstration of Gas Solubility in Aqueous Solutions |journal= Journal of Chemical Education |volume= 83 |issue= 4 |month= April |year= 2006 |pages= 577–580 |doi= 10.1021/ed083p577}} {{registration required}}

== External links ==

*[http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistryhowtoguide/ht/mentos.htm About.com Chemistry page with instructions]

[[Category:Chemistry classroom experiments]]
[[Category:Internet memes]]
[[Category:YouTube videos]]
[[Category:Viral videos]]
[[Category:Coca-Cola in popular culture]]

Cola-Mentos-Fontäne

2013-11-13T16:30:21Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 208.108.119.56 (talk) to last revision by CanadianLinuxUser (HG)

Cola-Mentos-Fontäne

2013-11-13T16:28:20Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 208.108.119.56 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)

Benutzer:M.ottenbruch/Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

2013-11-13T14:02:58Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 50.192.236.9 (talk) to last revision by Midnightdreary (HG)

{{Infobox person
| name = Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe
| image = VirginiaPoe.jpg
| image_size = 180px
| caption = Virginia Poe, as painted after her death
| birth_date = {{birth date|1822|08|15}}
| birth_place = [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1847|01|30|1822|08|15}}
| death_place = [[Fordham, Bronx|Fordham]], [[Bronx]], [[New York City]]
| spouse = [[Edgar Allan Poe]]
}}

'''Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe''' ([[née]] '''Clemm'''; August 15, 1822 – January 30, 1847) was the wife of American writer [[Edgar Allan Poe]]. The couple were [[cousin|first cousins]] and married when Virginia Clemm was 13 and Poe was 27. Some biographers have suggested that the couple's relationship was more like that between brother and sister than like husband and wife in that they may have never [[Consummation|consummated]] their marriage. In January 1842 she contracted [[tuberculosis]], growing worse for five years until she died of the disease at the age of 24 in [[Edgar Allan Poe Cottage|the family's cottage]] outside [[New York City]].

Along with other family members, Virginia Clemm and Edgar Allan Poe lived together off and on for several years before their marriage. The couple often moved to accommodate Poe's employment, living intermittently in [[Baltimore]], [[Philadelphia]], and [[New York City|New York]]. A few years after their wedding, Poe was involved in a substantial scandal involving [[Frances Sargent Osgood]] and [[Elizabeth F. Ellet]]. Rumors about amorous improprieties on her husband's part affected Virginia Poe so much that on her deathbed she claimed that Ellet had murdered her. After her death, her body was eventually placed under the same memorial marker as her husband's in [[Westminster Hall and Burying Ground]] in Baltimore, [[Maryland]]. Only one image of Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe has been authenticated: a watercolor portrait painted several hours after her death.

The disease and eventual death of his wife had a substantial effect on Edgar Allan Poe, who became despondent and turned to alcohol to cope. Her struggles with illness and death are believed to have affected his poetry and prose, where dying young women appear as a frequent motif, as in "[[Annabel Lee]]", "[[The Raven]]", and "[[Ligeia]]".

==Biography==

===Early life===
[[Image:PoeFamilyTree.svg|thumb|400px|Poe family tree]]

Virginia Eliza Clemm was born in 1822<ref>Thomas, Dwight & David K. Jackson. ''The Poe Log: A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe, 1809–1849''. Boston: G. K. Hall & Co., 1987: 52. ISBN 0-7838-1401-1</ref> and named after an older sister who had died as an infant<ref name=Silverman82>Silverman, 82</ref> only ten days earlier.<ref>Quinn, 17</ref> Her father William Clemm, Jr. was a hardware merchant in Baltimore.<ref name=Silverman81>Silverman 81</ref> He had married Maria Poe, Virginia's mother, on July 12, 1817,<ref>Quinn, 726</ref> after the death of his first wife, Maria's first cousin Harriet.<ref>Meyers, 59</ref> Clemm had five children from his previous marriage and went on to have three more with Maria.<ref name=Silverman81/> After his death in 1826, he left very little to the family<ref name=Meyers60>Meyers, 60</ref> and relatives offered no financial support because they had opposed the marriage.<ref name=Silverman81/> Maria supported the family by sewing and taking in boarders, aided with an annual $240 pension granted to her mother Elizabeth Cairnes, who was paralyzed and bedridden.<ref name=Meyers60/> Elizabeth received this pension on behalf of her late husband, "General" David Poe, a former [[quartermaster]] in Maryland who had loaned money to the state.<ref>Quinn, 256</ref>

Edgar Poe first met his cousin Virginia in August 1829, four months after his discharge from the Army. She was seven at the time.<ref name=Sova52>Sova, 52</ref> In 1832, the family – made up of Elizabeth, Maria, Virginia, and Virginia's brother Henry<ref name=Sova52/> – was able to use Elizabeth's pension to rent a home at what was then [[Edgar Allan Poe House and Museum|3 North Amity Street]] in Baltimore.<ref>Haas, Irvin. ''Historic Homes of American Authors''. Washington, DC: The Preservation Press, 1991. ISBN 0-89133-180-8. p. 78</ref> Poe's older brother [[William Henry Leonard Poe]], who had been living with the family,<ref name=Sova52/> had recently died on August 1, 1831.<ref>Quinn, 187–188</ref> Poe joined the household in 1833<ref>Silverman, 96</ref> and was soon smitten by a neighbor named Mary Devereaux. The young Virginia served as a messenger between the two, at one point retrieving a lock of Devereaux's hair to give to Poe.<ref>Sova, 67</ref> Elizabeth Cairnes Poe died on July 7, 1835, effectively ending the family's income and making their financial situation even more difficult.<ref>Quinn, 218</ref> Henry died around this time, sometime before 1836, leaving Virginia as Maria Clemm's only surviving child.<ref name=Silverman323>Silverman, 323</ref>

In August 1835, Poe left the destitute family behind and moved to [[Richmond, Virginia]] to take a job at the ''[[Southern Literary Messenger]]''.<ref>Sova, 225</ref> While Poe was away from Baltimore, another cousin, Neilson Poe, the husband of Virginia's half-sister Josephine Clemm,<ref name=Quinn219/> heard that Edgar was considering marrying Virginia. Neilson offered to take her in and have her educated in an attempt to prevent the girl's marriage to Edgar at such a young age, though suggesting that the option could be reconsidered later.<ref>Silverman, 104</ref> Edgar called Neilson, the owner of a newspaper in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], his "bitterest enemy" and interpreted his cousin's actions as an attempt at breaking his connection with Virginia.<ref name=Meyers72>Meyers, 72</ref> On August 29, 1835,<ref name=Meyers72/> Edgar wrote an emotional letter to Maria, declaring that he was "blinded with tears while writing",<ref name=Quinn219>Quinn, 219</ref> and pleading that she allow Virginia to make her own decision.<ref>Silverman, 105</ref> Encouraged by his employment at the ''Southern Literary Messenger'', Poe offered to provide financially for Maria, Virginia and Henry if they moved to Richmond.<ref>Meyers, 74</ref>

===Marriage===
[[Image:PoeMarriage.JPG|thumb|right|Virginia and Edgar's [[marriage certificate]]]]

Marriage plans were confirmed and Poe returned to Baltimore to file for a [[marriage license]] on September 22, 1835. The couple might have been quietly married as well, though accounts are unclear.<ref name=Silverman107>Silverman, 107</ref> Their only public ceremony was in Richmond on May 16, 1836, when they were married by a Presbyterian minister named Rev. Amasa Converse.<ref name=Meyers85>Meyers, 85</ref> Poe was 27 and Virginia was 13, though her age was listed as 21.<ref name=Meyers85/> This marriage bond was filed in Richmond and included an [[affidavit]] from Thomas W. Cleland confirming the bride's alleged age.<ref>Quinn, 252</ref> The ceremony was held in the evening at the home of a Mrs. James Yarrington,<ref name=Quinn254>Quinn, 254</ref> the owner of the [[boarding house]] in which Poe, Virginia, and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm were staying.<ref>Quinn, 230</ref> Yarrington helped Maria Clemm bake the wedding cake and prepared a wedding meal.<ref>Sova, 263</ref> The couple then had a short [[honeymoon]] in [[Petersburg, Virginia]].<ref name=Quinn254/>

Debate has raged regarding how unusual this pairing was based on the couple's age and blood relationship. Noted Poe biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn argues it was not particularly unusual, nor was Poe's nicknaming his wife "Sissy" or "Sis".<ref>Hoffman, 26</ref> Another Poe biographer, [[Kenneth Silverman]], contends that though their first-cousin marriage was not unusual, her young age was.<ref name=Silverman107/> It has been suggested that Clemm and Poe had a relationship more like that between brother and sister than between husband and wife.<ref>Krutch, 52</ref> Some scholars, including [[Princess Marie Bonaparte|Marie Bonaparte]], have read many of Poe's works as autobiographical and have concluded that Virginia died a [[virginity|virgin]]<ref name=Hoffman27>Hoffman, 27</ref> because she and her husband never consummated their marriage.<ref>Richard, Claude and Jean-Marie Bonnet, "[http://www.eapoe.org/pstudies/PS1960/P1968108.HTM Raising the Wind; or, French Editions of the Works of Edgar Allan Poe]", ''Poe Newsletter'', vol. I, No. 1, April 1968, p. 12.</ref> This interpretation often assumes that Virginia is represented by the title character in the poem "[[Annabel Lee]]": a "maiden... by the name of Annabel Lee".<ref name=Hoffman27/> Poe biographer Joseph Wood Krutch suggests that Poe did not need women "in the way that normal men need them", but only as a source of inspiration and care,<ref>Krutch, 54</ref> and that Poe was never interested in women sexually.<ref>Krutch, 25</ref> Friends of Poe suggested that the couple did not share a bed for at least the first two years of their marriage but that, from the time she turned 16, they had a "normal" married life until the onset of her illness.<ref name=Sova53>Sova, 53</ref>

Virginia and Poe were by all accounts a happy and devoted couple. Poe's one-time employer [[George Rex Graham]] wrote of their relationship: "His love for his wife was a sort of rapturous worship of the spirit of beauty."<ref>Oberholtzer, 299</ref> Poe once wrote to a friend, "I see no one among the living as beautiful as my little wife."<ref>Phillips, 1184</ref> She, in turn, by many contemporary accounts, nearly idolized her husband.<ref>Hoffman, 318</ref> She often sat close to him while he wrote, kept his pens in order, and folded and addressed his manuscripts.<ref>Phillips, 1183</ref> She showed her love for Poe in an [[acrostic]] poem she composed when she was 23, dated February 14, 1846:

[[Image:VirginiaValentine.jpg|thumb|right|Virginia's handwritten [[Valentine's day|Valentine]] poem to her husband]]

<poem>
:Ever with thee I wish to roam —
:Dearest my life is thine.
:Give me a cottage for my home
:And a rich old cypress vine,
:Removed from the world with its sin and care
:And the tattling of many tongues.
:Love alone shall guide us when we are there —
:Love shall heal my weakened lungs;
:And Oh, the tranquil hours we'll spend,
:Never wishing that others may see!
:Perfect ease we'll enjoy, without thinking to lend
:Ourselves to the world and its glee —
:Ever peaceful and blissful we'll be.<ref>Quinn, 497</ref></poem>

===Osgood/Ellet scandal===
[[Image:FannyOsgood.jpg|right|thumb|[[Frances Sargent Osgood]]]]

The "tattling of many tongues" in Virginia's Valentine poem was a reference to actual incidents.<ref>Moss, 214</ref> In 1845, Poe had begun a flirtation with [[Frances Sargent Osgood]], a married 34-year-old poet.<ref>Silverman, 280</ref> Virginia was aware of the friendship and might even have encouraged it.<ref name=Meyers190>Meyers, 190</ref> She often invited Osgood to visit them at home, believing that the older woman had a "restraining" effect on Poe, who had made a promise to "give up the use of stimulants" and was never drunk in Osgood's presence.<ref>Silverman, 287</ref>

At the same time, another poet, [[Elizabeth F. Ellet]], became enamored of Poe and jealous of Osgood.<ref name=Meyers190/> Though, in a letter to [[Sarah Helen Whitman]], Poe called her love for him "loathsome" and wrote that he "could do nothing but repel [it] with scorn", he printed many of her poems to him in the ''[[Broadway Journal]]'' while he was its editor.<ref>Moss, 212</ref> Ellet was known for being meddlesome and vindictive<ref>Silverman, 288</ref> and, while visiting the Poe household in late January 1846, she saw one of Osgood's personal letters to Poe.<ref name=Meyers191>Meyers, 191</ref> According to Ellet, Virginia pointed out "fearful paragraphs" in Osgood's letter.<ref name=Moss213>Moss, 213</ref> Ellet contacted Osgood and suggested she should beware of her indiscretions and asked Poe to return her letters,<ref name=Meyers191/> motivated either by jealousy or by a desire to cause scandal.<ref name=Moss213/> Osgood then sent [[Margaret Fuller]] and [[Anne Lynch Botta]] to ask Poe on her behalf to return the letters. Angered by their interference, Poe called them "Busy-bodies" and said that Ellet had better "look after her ''own'' letters", suggesting indiscretion on her part.<ref name=Silverman290>Silverman, 290</ref> He then gathered up these letters from Ellet and left them at her house.<ref name=Meyers191/>

Though these letters had already been returned to her, Ellet asked her brother "to ''demand of me the letters''".<ref name=Silverman290/> Her brother, Colonel William Lummis, did not believe that Poe had already returned them and threatened to kill him. In order to defend himself, Poe requested a pistol from [[Thomas Dunn English]].<ref name=Meyers191/> English, Poe's friend and a minor writer who was also a trained doctor and lawyer, likewise did not believe that Poe had already returned the letters and even questioned their existence.<ref name=Silverman290/> The easiest way out of the predicament, he said, "was a retraction of unfounded charges".<ref>Moss, 220</ref> Angered at being called a liar, Poe pushed English into a fistfight. Poe later claimed he was triumphant in the fight, though English claimed otherwise, and Poe's face was badly cut by one of English's rings.<ref name=Meyers191/> In Poe's version, he said, "I gave E. a flogging which he will remember to the day of his death." Either way, the fight further sparked gossip over the Osgood affair.<ref>Silverman, 291</ref>

Osgood's husband stepped in and threatened to sue Ellet unless she formally apologized for her insinuations. She retracted her statements in a letter to Osgood saying, "The letter shown me by Mrs Poe ''must have been a forgery''" created by Poe himself.<ref>Moss, 215</ref> She put all the blame on Poe, suggesting the incident was because Poe was "intemperate and subject to acts of lunacy".<ref name=Silverman292>Silverman, 292</ref> Ellet spread the rumor of Poe's insanity, which was taken up by other enemies of Poe and reported in newspapers. The St. Louis ''Reveille'' reported: "A rumor is in circulation in New York, to the effect that Mr. Edgar A. Poe, the poet and author, has been deranged, and his friends are about to place him under the charge of [[Amariah Brigham|Dr. Brigham]] of the [[Utica Psychiatric Center|Insane Retreat]] at Utica."<ref>Meyers, 192</ref> The scandal eventually died down only when Osgood reunited with her husband.<ref name=Silverman292/> Virginia, however, had been very affected by the whole affair. She had received anonymous letters about her husband's alleged indiscretions as early as July 1845. It is presumed that Ellet was involved with these letters, and they so disturbed Virginia that she allegedly declared on her deathbed that "Mrs. E. had been her murderer."<ref>Moss, 213–214</ref>

===Illness===
By this time, Virginia had developed [[Tuberculosis|consumption]], first seen sometime in the middle of January 1842. While singing and playing the piano, Virginia began to bleed from the mouth, though Poe said she merely "ruptured a blood-vessel".<ref>Silverman, 179</ref> Her health declined and she became an invalid, which drove Poe into a deep depression, especially as she occasionally showed signs of improvement. In a letter to a friend, Poe described his resulting mental state: "Each time I felt all the agonies of her death—and at each accession of the disorder I loved her more dearly & clung to her life with more desperate pertinacity. But I am constitutionally sensitive—nervous in a very unusual degree. I became insane, with long intervals of horrible sanity."<ref>Meyers, 208</ref>

Virginia's condition might have been what prompted the Poe family to move, in the hopes of finding a healthier environment for her. They moved several times within [[Philadelphia]] in the early 1840s and their last home in that city is now preserved as the [[Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site]] in [[Spring Garden District, Pennsylvania|Spring Garden]].<ref name=Silverman183>Silverman, 183</ref> In this home, Virginia was well enough to tend the flower garden<ref>Quinn, 385</ref> and entertain visitors by playing the harp or the piano and singing.<ref>Oberholtzer, 287</ref> The family then moved to New York sometime in early April 1844, traveling by train and steamboat. Virginia waited on board the ship while her husband secured space at a boarding house on Greenwich Street.<ref>Silverman, 219–220</ref> By early 1846, family friend [[Elizabeth Oakes Smith]] said that Virginia admitted, "I know I shall die soon; I know I can't get well; but I want to be as happy as possible, and make Edgar happy."<ref>Phillips, 1098</ref> She promised her husband that after her death she would be his guardian angel.<ref>Silverman, 301</ref>

===Move to Fordham===
[[Image:Poe cottage - 1900.jpg|thumb|right|Virginia Poe endured the latter part of her illness at [[Edgar Allan Poe Cottage|this cottage]] in the [[Fordham, Bronx|Bronx]], [[New York]], shown here in 1900.]]
In May 1846, the family (Poe, Virginia, and her mother, Maria) moved to a small [[cottage]] in [[Fordham, Bronx|Fordham]], about fourteen miles outside the city,<ref>Meyers, 322</ref> a [[Edgar Allan Poe Cottage|home which is still standing today]]. In what is the only surviving letter from Poe to Virginia, dated June 12, 1846, he urged her to remain optimistic: "Keep up your heart in all hopelessness, and trust yet a little longer." Of his recent loss of the ''Broadway Journal'', the only magazine Poe ever owned, he said, "I should have lost my courage ''but for you''—my darling little wife you are my ''greatest'' and ''only'' stimulus now to battle with this uncongenial, unsatisfactory and ungrateful life."<ref name=Meyers203>Meyers, 203</ref> But by November of that year, Virginia's condition was hopeless.<ref name=Silverman323 /> Her symptoms included irregular appetite, flushed cheeks, unstable pulse, night sweats, high fever, sudden chills, shortness of breath, chest pains, coughing and spitting up blood.<ref name=Meyers203/>

[[Nathaniel Parker Willis]], a friend of Poe's and an influential editor, published an announcement on December 30, 1846, requesting help for the family, though his facts were not entirely correct:<ref name=Meyers202>Meyers, 202</ref>
{{quote|Illness of Edgar A. Poe. —We regret to learn that this gentleman and his wife are both dangerously ill with the consumption, and that the hand of misfortune lies heavily on their temporal affairs. We are sorry to mention the fact that they are so far reduced as to be barely able to obtain the necessaries of life. That is, indeed, a hard lot, and we do hope that the friends and admirers of Mr. Poe will come promptly to his assistance in his bitterest hour of need.<ref name=Silverman324/>}}
[[Image:VirginiaPoeBedroom.jpg|thumb|right|Her bedroom at Poe Cottage.]]
Willis, who had not corresponded with Poe for two years and had since lost his own wife, was one of his greatest supporters in this period. He sent Poe and his wife an inspirational Christmas book, ''The Marriage Ring; or How to Make a Home Happy''.<ref name=Silverman324>Silverman, 324</ref>

The announcement was similar to one made for Poe's mother, [[Eliza Poe]], during her last stages of tuberculosis.<ref name=Meyers202/> Other newspapers picked up on the story: "Great God!", said one, "is it possible, that the literary people of the Union, will let poor Poe perish by starvation and lean faced beggary in New York? For so we are led to believe, from frequent notices in the papers, stating that Poe and his wife are both down upon a bed of misery, death, and disease, with not a ducat in the world."<ref name=Silverman324/> The ''[[Saturday Evening Post]]'' asserted that Virginia was in a hopeless condition and that Poe was bereft: "It is said that Edgar A. Poe is lying dangerously with brain fever, and that his wife is in the last stages of consumption—they are without money and without friends."<ref name="Meyers203"/> Even editor [[Hiram Fuller (journalist)|Hiram Fuller]], whom Poe had previously sued for [[defamation|libel]], attempted in the ''New York Mirror'' to garner support for Poe and his wife: "We, whom he has quarrelled with, will take the lead", he wrote.<ref name=Silverman324/>

Virginia was described as having dark hair and violet eyes, with skin so pale it was called "pure white",<ref>Krutch, 55–56</ref> causing a "bad complexion that spoiled her looks".<ref name=Silverman82/> One visitor to the Poe family noted that "the rose-tint upon her cheek was too bright", possibly a symptom of her illness.<ref>Silverman, 182</ref> Another visitor in Fordham wrote, "Mrs. Poe looked very young; she had large black eyes, and a pearly whiteness of complexion, which was a perfect pallor. Her pale face, her brilliant eyes, and her raven hair gave her an unearthly look."<ref>Meyers, 204</ref> That unearthly look was mentioned by others who suggested it made her look not quite human.<ref name=Krutch56>Krutch, 56</ref> [[William Gowans]], who once lodged with the family, described Virginia as a woman of "matchless beauty and loveliness, her eye could match that of any [[houri]], and her face defy the genius of a [[Antonio Canova|Canova]] to imitate".<ref>Meyers, 92–93</ref> She might have been a little plump.<ref name=Krutch56/> Many contemporary accounts as well as modern biographers remark on her childlike appearance even in the last years of her life.<ref name=Sova52/><ref name=Krutch56/><ref name=Meyers206/>

[[Image:VirginiaPoeMonument.jpg|thumb|left|Memorial marker to Virginia Clemm, Maria Clemm, and Edgar Allan Poe in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]]]

While dying, Virginia asked her mother: "Darling... will you console and take care of my poor Eddy—you will ''never never'' leave him?"<ref>Silverman, 420</ref> Her mother stayed with Poe until his own death in 1849. As Virginia was dying, the family received many visitors, including an old friend named Mary Starr. At one point Virginia put Starr's hand in Poe's and asked her to "be a friend to Eddy, and don't forsake him".<ref name=Silverman326/> Virginia was tended to by 25-year old Marie Louise Shew. Shew, who served as a nurse, knew medical care from her father and her husband, both doctors.<ref>Sova, 218</ref> She provided Virginia with a [[comforter]] as her only other cover was Poe's old military [[cloak]], as well as bottles of wine, which the invalid drank "smiling, even when difficult to get it down".<ref name=Silverman326>Silverman, 326</ref> Virginia also showed Poe a letter from Louisa Patterson, second wife of Poe's foster-father John Allan, which she had kept for years<ref>Quinn, 527</ref> and which suggested that Patterson had purposely caused the break between Allan and Poe.<ref name=Silverman326/>

===Death===
On January 29, 1847, Poe wrote to Marie Louise Shew: "My poor Virginia still lives, although failing fast and now suffering much pain."<ref name=Meyers206>Meyers, 206</ref>
Virginia died the following day, January 30,<ref>Krutch, 169</ref> after five years of illness. Shew helped in organizing her funeral, even purchasing the coffin.<ref name=Silverman327>Silverman, 327</ref> Death notices appeared in several newspapers. On February 1, The New York ''Daily Tribune'' and the ''Herald'' carried the simple obituary: "On Saturday, the 30th ult., of pulmonary consumption, in the 25th year of her age, VIRGINIA ELIZA, wife of EDGAR A. POE."<ref name=Silverman326/> The funeral was February 2, 1847.<ref name=Meyers206/> Attendees included Nathaniel Parker Willis, [[Ann S. Stephens]], and publisher [[George Pope Morris]]. Poe refused to look at his dead wife's face, saying he preferred to remember her living.<ref name="Phillips1203"/> Though now buried at [[Westminster Hall and Burying Ground]], Virginia was originally buried in a [[burial vault|vault]] owned by the Valentine family, from whom the Poes rented their Fordham cottage.<ref name=Silverman327/>

Only one image of Virginia is known to exist, for which the painter had to take her corpse as model.<ref name=Sova52/> A few hours after her death, Poe realized he had no image of Virginia and so commissioned a portrait in [[watercolor painting|watercolor]].<ref name=Meyers206/> She is shown wearing "beautiful linen" that Shew said she had dressed her in;<ref name=Phillips1203>Phillips, 1203</ref> Shew might have been the portrait's artist, though this is uncertain.<ref name=Silverman327/> The image depicts her with a slight double chin and with hazel eyes.<ref name=Meyers206/> The image was passed down to the family of Virginia's half-sister Josephine, wife of Neilson Poe.<ref name=Phillips1203/>

In 1875, the same year in which her husband's body was reburied, the cemetery in which she lay was destroyed and her remains were almost forgotten. An early Poe biographer, William Gill, gathered the bones and stored them in a box he hid under his bed.<ref>Meyers, 263</ref> Gill's story was reported in the ''[[Boston Herald]]'' twenty-seven years after the event: he says that he had visited the Fordham cemetery in 1883 at exactly the moment that the [[sexton (office)|sexton]] Dennis Valentine held Virginia's bones in his shovel, ready to throw them away as unclaimed. Poe himself had died in 1849, and so Gill took Virginia's remains and, after corresponding with Neilson Poe and John Prentiss Poe in Baltimore, arranged to bring the box down to be laid on Poe's left side in a small bronze casket.<ref name=Miller>Miller, John C. "[http://www.eapoe.org/pstudies/ps1970/p1974204.htm The Exhumations and Reburials of Edgar and Virginia Poe and Mrs. Clemm]", from ''Poe Studies'', vol. VII, no. 2, December 1974, p. 47</ref> Virginia's remains were finally buried with her husband's on January 19, 1885<ref>Phillips, 1205</ref>—the seventy-sixth anniversary of her husband's birth and nearly ten years after his current monument was erected. The same man who served as sexton during Poe's original burial and his exhumations and reburials was also present at the rites which brought his body to rest with Virginia and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm.<ref name=Miller/>

==Effect and influence on Poe==
Virginia's death had a significant effect on Poe. After her death, Poe was deeply saddened for several months. A friend said of him, "the loss of his wife was a sad blow to him. He did not seem to care, after she was gone, whether he lived an hour, a day, a week or a year; she was his all."<ref>Meyers, 207</ref> A year after her death, he wrote to a friend that he had experienced the greatest evil a man can suffer when, he said, "a wife, whom I loved as no man ever loved before", had fallen ill.<ref name=Sova53/> While Virginia was still struggling to recover, Poe turned to alcohol after abstaining for quite some time. How often and how much he drank is a controversial issue, debated in Poe's lifetime and also by modern biographers.<ref name=Silverman183/> Poe referred to his emotional response to his wife's sickness as his own illness, and that he found the cure to it "in the ''death'' of my wife. This I can & do endure as becomes a man—it was the horrible never-ending oscillation between hope & despair which I could ''not'' longer have endured without the total loss of reason".<ref>Moss, 233</ref>

Poe regularly visited Virginia's grave. As his friend Charles Chauncey Burr wrote, "Many times, after the death of his beloved wife, was he found at the dead hour of a winter night, sitting beside her tomb almost frozen in the snow".<ref>Phillips, 1206</ref> Shortly after Virginia's death, Poe courted several other women, including Nancy Richmond of [[Lowell, Massachusetts]], [[Sarah Helen Whitman]] of [[Providence, Rhode Island]], and childhood sweetheart [[Sarah Elmira Royster]] in Richmond. Even so, Frances Sargent Osgood, whom Poe also attempted to woo, believed "that [Virginia] was the only woman whom he ever loved".<ref>Krutch, 57</ref>

===References in literature===
Many of [[Bibliography of Edgar Allan Poe|Poe's works]] are interpreted autobiographically, with much of his work believed to reflect Virginia's long struggle with tuberculosis and her eventual death. The most discussed example is "[[Annabel Lee]]". This poem, which depicts a dead young bride and her mourning lover, is often assumed to have been inspired by Virginia, though other women in Poe's life are potential candidates including Frances Sargent Osgood<ref>Meyers, 244</ref> and Sarah Helen Whitman.<ref>Sova, 12</ref> A similar poem, "[[Ulalume]]", is also believed to be a memorial tribute to Virginia,<ref>Meyers, 211</ref> as is "[[Lenore]]", whose title character is described as "the most lovely dead that ever died so young!"<ref>Silverman, 202</ref> After Poe's death, [[George Gilfillan]] of the London-based ''Critic'' said Poe was responsible for his wife's death, "hurrying her to a premature grave, that he might write 'Annabel Lee' and '[[The Raven]]'".<ref>Campbell, Killis. "The Poe-Griswold Controversy", ''The Mind of Poe and Other Studies''. New York: Russell & Russell, Inc., 1962: 79.</ref> The aforementioned critic was either unconcerned with, or unaware of, the fact that ''The Raven'' was written and published two years before Virginia's death.

Virginia is also seen in Poe's prose. The [[short story]] "[[Eleonora (short story)|Eleonora]]" (1842)—which features a narrator preparing to marry his cousin, with whom he lives alongside her mother—may also refer to Virginia's illness. When Poe wrote it, his wife had just begun to show signs of her illness.<ref>Sova, 78</ref> It was shortly thereafter that the couple moved to New York City by boat and Poe published "[[The Oblong Box (short story)|The Oblong Box]]" (1844). This story, which shows a man mourning his young wife while transporting her corpse by boat, seems to suggest Poe's feelings about Virginia's impending death. As the ship sinks, the husband would rather die than be separated from his wife's corpse.<ref>Silverman, 228–229</ref> The short story "[[Ligeia]]", whose title character suffers a slow and lingering death, may also be inspired by Virginia.<ref>Hoffman, 255–256</ref> After his wife's death, Poe edited his first published story, "[[Metzengerstein]]", to remove the narrator's line, "I would wish all I love to perish of that gentle disease", a reference to tuberculosis.<ref name=Meyers206/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|4}}

==References==
*Hoffman, Daniel. ''Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-8071-2321-8.
*Krutch, Joseph Wood. ''Edgar Allan Poe: A Study in Genius''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926.
*Moss, Sidney P. ''Poe's Literary Battles: The Critic in the Context of His Literary Milieu''. Southern Illinois University Press, 1969.
*Meyers, Jeffrey. ''Edgar Allan Poe: His Life and Legacy''. Cooper Square Press, 1992. ISBN 0-684-19370-1.
*Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. ''The Literary History of Philadelphia''. Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs & Co., 1906. ISBN 1-932109-45-5.
*Phillips, Mary E. ''Edgar Allan Poe: The Man''. Chicago: The John C. Winston Company, 1926.
*Quinn, Arthur Hobson. ''Edgar Allan Poe: A Critical Biography''. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8018-5730-9
*Silverman, Kenneth. ''Edgar A. Poe: Mournful and Never-ending Remembrance''. New York: Harper Perennial, 1991. ISBN 0-06-092331-8.

==External links==
{{commons}}
*[http://www.eapoe.org/geninfo/poegnlgy.htm Poe Family Tree] at the Edgar Allan Poe Society online
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=33076902 Virginia Poe at Findagrave]

{{featured article}}


{{Persondata
|NAME=Poe, Virginia Eliza Clemm
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Clemm, Virginia Eliza
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Wife of Edgar Allan Poe
|DATE OF BIRTH=August 22, 1822
|PLACE OF BIRTH=Baltimore, Maryland
|DATE OF DEATH=January 30, 1847
|PLACE OF DEATH=The Bronx, New York
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Poe, Virginia}}
[[Category:1822 births]]
[[Category:1847 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century American people]]
[[Category:Burials at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground]]
[[Category:Deaths from tuberculosis]]
[[Category:Edgar Allan Poe]]
[[Category:Infectious disease deaths in New York]]

{{Link FA|es}}
{{Link GA|fr}}
{{Link GA|pl}}

Queensferry Crossing

2013-11-13T13:00:20Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 109.246.96.216 (talk) to last revision by Ulric1313 (HG)

{{Infobox bridge
|image = Forth Replacement Crossing Artist's impression.jpg
|bridge_name = Queensferry Crossing
|caption = Artist's impression of the Queensferry Crossing (left) alongside the [[Forth Road Bridge]] (centre) and the [[Forth Bridge]] (right)
|alt =
|official_name =
|locale = [[Edinburgh]] and [[Fife]], Scotland
|carries =
|crosses = [[Firth of Forth]]
|maint =
|open =
|below =
|traffic =
|design = [[Cable-stayed bridge]]
|mainspan = {{convert|650|m|0}}
|length = {{convert|2700|m|0}}
|width = [[Dual carriageway|Dual two-lane carriageway]] with [[hard shoulder]]s<ref name=newbridge>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/road/projects/forth-replacement-crossing/about-the-scheme/bridge |title=The new bridge |publisher=Transport Scotland |accessdate=14 May 2012}}</ref>
|coordinates = {{Coord|56.0046|N|3.4124|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=inline,title}}
| builder = Forth Crossing Bridge Constructors (FCBC)
| fabricator =
| begin = September 2011
| complete = 2016 (projected)
| cost =
|extra ={{Location map | United Kingdom Edinburgh
|label = Queensferry Crossing
|label_size =
|alt =
|position = right
|background =
|lat = 56.0046
|long = -3.4124
|mark =
|marksize =
|border = none
|float =
|width = 250
|caption = Location of the proposed bridge in relation to [[Edinburgh]]
}}
}}

The '''Queensferry Crossing''' (formerly the '''Forth Replacement Crossing''') is a road bridge under construction in Scotland. It is being built alongside the existing [[Forth Road Bridge]] across the [[Firth of Forth]], and will connect Scotland's capital city [[Edinburgh]], at [[South Queensferry]], to [[Fife]], at [[North Queensferry]].

Proposals for a second Forth crossing were first put forward in the 1990s, but it was not until the discovery of structural issues with the Forth Road Bridge in 2005 that plans were moved forward. The decision to proceed with a replacement bridge was taken at the end of 2007, although the following year it was announced that the existing bridge would be retained as a public transport link. The Forth Crossing Act received Royal Assent in January 2011, and construction began in September 2011.

The Queensferry Crossing will be a [[cable-stayed bridge]], with an overall length of {{convert|2.7|km}}. Around {{convert|4|km}} of new connecting roads will be built, including new and upgraded junctions at Ferrytoll in Fife, South Queensferry, and Junction 1a on the [[M9 motorway (Scotland)|M9]]. It will be the third bridge across the Forth at Queensferry, alongside the Forth Road Bridge completed in 1964, and the [[Forth Bridge]] completed in 1890. The bridge is due to be complete by 2016. Following a public vote, it was formally named on 26th June 2013.

==Background to the project==
The Forth Road Bridge was opened in 1964, replacing a centuries-old ferry crossing. Proposals for an additional road crossing at Queensferry were drawn up in the early 1990s, as part of the "Setting Forth" consultation document prepared by the [[Scottish Office]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=381862 |title=Setting Forth: a consultation document on the Firth of Forths transport links |publisher=Transportation Research Board |work=TRID |accessdate=3 May 2012}}</ref> The plans met stiff opposition from environmentalists and from Edinburgh City Council on the grounds of the increased traffic. Following the Labour victory in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 general election]], the proposals were shelved.<ref name=scotsman2004>{{cite web |url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/163-300m-price-tag-put-on-bridge-to-beat-gridlock-1-1394832 |title=£300m price tag put on bridge to beat gridlock |publisher=scotsman.com |date=6 June 2004}}</ref>

[[Image:Forth Road Bridge cable inspection.jpg|thumb|left|An inspection of the integrity of the cables underway on the Forth Road Bridge]]
The existing bridge had a planned [[design life]] of 120 years,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forthroadbridge.org/about-us/about-us-faqs |title=FAQs |publisher=Forth Estuary Transport Authority |accessdate=3 May 2012}}</ref> but by the early years of the 21st century the planned theoretical capacity for the bridge was being routinely exceeded. It was designed for up to 11 million vehicles per year, but this had risen steadily to 23 million vehicles in 2006.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scotsman.com/business/transport/firms-told-time-running-out-on-forth-road-bridge-1-1143506 |title=Firms told time running out on Forth Road Bridge |date=7 October 2006 |work=The Scotsman}}</ref> Between 2003 and 2005, an inspection programme found that the main suspension cables had suffered an estimated 8–10% loss of strength as a result of corrosion. Future projections highlighted the likelihood of an accelerating loss of strength, with traffic restrictions to limit loading required in 2014 in the worst-case scenario.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forthroadbridge.org/sites/default/files/documents/firstinsp.pdf |title=Forth Road Bridge – First internal inspection, strength evaluation, acoustic monitoring and dehumidification of the main cables |author=Barry R Colford & Charles P E Cocksedge |year=2006}}</ref>

The strategic transport importance of the road bridge – and the threat of closure by 2019 if major structural work was not successful – led to fears of serious economic consequences, especially as work on a new crossing was estimated to take up to 11 years.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/time_running_out_for_new_bridge_1_689752 |title=Time running out for new bridge – News |publisher=scotsman.com |date=2006-01-26}}</ref> In 2003 [[Minister for Housing and Transport|transport minister]] [[Nicol Stephen]] commissioned a new study, which priced a second Forth Road Bridge at £300 million.<ref name=scotsman2004/> The [[Forth Estuary Transport Authority]] voiced support for a new bridge in 2005,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/4498527.stm |publisher=BBC News |title=Vote favours 'new Forth Bridge' |date=29 April 2005}}</ref> and in 2006 the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], [[Alistair Darling]], spoke in favour of the idea.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/4650128.stm |title=Minister defiant on bridge issues |date=26 January 2006 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref>

==Planning==
In 2007, the Forth Replacement Crossing Study was commissioned by [[Transport Scotland]] to examine various options for new bridges or tunnels across the Forth. The report recommended adoption of a [[cable-stayed bridge]], located to the west of the Forth Road Bridge, as the preferred solution. The study concluded that this option was significantly cheaper than a tunnel, would take less time to construct, and would represent better value for money, though it was noted that a tunnel would have fewer environmental impacts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/files/documents/reports/FRCS-Report5-Non-Technical-Summary26-06-07.pdf |title=Forth Replacement Crossing Study Report 5 : Final Report Non Technical Summary |author=Jacobs |publisher=Transport Scotland |date=June 2007 |pages=16–17}}</ref> In December 2007 [[Cabinet Secretary for Finance, Employment and Sustainable Growth|finance secretary]] [[John Swinney]] announced that a new cable-stayed bridge would be constructed, with an estimated cost of between £3.25 billion and £4.22 billion. He claimed it would be "the largest construction project in a generation in Scotland".<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/forth_to_get_new_iconic_bridge_1_704543 |title=Forth to get new iconic bridge – News |publisher=scotsman.com |date=2007-12-19 |accessdate=2012-01-15}}</ref>

There was opposition to the project on environmental, traffic and cost grounds. The ForthRight Alliance, an umbrella group including [[Friends of the Earth]], the [[Scottish Green Party]], the [[RSPB]], sustainable transport groups and other local organisations, opposed the scheme as being "both unwelcome and unnecessary".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forthrightalliance.org/ |publisher=ForthRight Alliance |title=The ForthRight Alliance |accessdate=3 May 2012}}</ref> Another group, Forth Tunnel Action Group, campaigned for a tunnel as the solution with lowest costs and fewest long-term environmental impacts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.howeweb.talktalk.net/tag/objects.htm |title=Our Objectives |publisher=Forth Tunnel Action Group |accessdate=3 May 2012}}</ref>

It was initially suggested that the new bridge would be funded via the [[Scottish Futures Trust]], an alternative to [[public-private partnership]] funding for major public-sector schemes. However, the [[Scottish Government]] announced in December 2008 that public funding would be used.<ref name=cutprice>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/7774761.stm |title=Cut-price Forth crossing outlined |publisher=BBC News |date=10 December 2008}}</ref> As part of the Scottish Government's Strategic Transport Projects Review, the new Forth crossing was priced at between £1.72 billion and £2.34 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/7775936.stm |title=Transport blueprint at-a-glance |publisher=BBC News |date=10 December 2008}}</ref> Under the revised scheme, the existing bridge will be retained for public transport, cyclists and pedestrians, and the new bridge will be operational by 2016.<ref name=cutprice/>

A joint venture between consultancies [[Arup Group Limited|Arup]] and [[Jacobs Engineering Group|Jacobs]] was appointed as project manager, and in February 2008 environmental and technical studies were begun, continuing through 2009. Public consultations were held, and some changes to the scheme were made in response to the comments received.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/news/Public-Forth-Replacement-Bridge-Project |title=Public helps shape Forth Replacement Bridge Project |date=23 June 2009 |publisher=Trasnport Scotland}}</ref> An [[Environmental_impact_assessment#EU|environmental statement]] was published in November 2009,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/strategy-and-research/publications-and-consultations/j11223-000.htm |title=Forth Replacement Crossing: Environmental Statement |date=17 November 2009 |publisher=Transport Scotland}}</ref> coinciding with the introduction of the Forth Crossing Bill into the [[Scottish Parliament]] by John Swinney. A majority of [[Member of the Scottish Parliament|MSP]]s voted in favour of the new legislation on 16 December 2010,<ref name="bbc_approved">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-11994671 |title=BBC News – New Forth bridge plans approved by MSPs |publisher=bbc.co.uk |date=2010-12-15 |accessdate=2012-01-15}}</ref> and the Forth Crossing Act received [[Royal Assent]] in January 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/news/Forth-Replacement-Crossing-granted-Royal-Assent |title=Royal Assent granted for Forth Replacement Crossing |publisher=Transport Scotland |date=21 January 2011}}</ref>

===Bidding process===
In 2009, [[Transport Scotland]] solicited for tenders to construct the proposed bridge.<ref name="ts_contract_bidding">{{cite web|url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/road/projects/forth-replacement-crossing/procurement/principal-contract |title=Principal contract |publisher=Transport Scotland |date= |accessdate=2012-01-15}}</ref> Although Transport Scotland received 39 expressions of interest, concerns over the risks associated with the fixed-price contract resulted in only two consortia of large construction companies bidding.<ref name="scotsman_two_bidders">{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/scottish-news/edinburgh-east-fife/just_two_bidders_to_build_new_forth_bridge_1_776928 |title=Just two bidders to build new Forth bridge |work=Scotsman.com |date=29 September 2009}}</ref> Due to the bidders' concerns that the bidding process itself would prove to be an expensive proposition, the Scottish Government allocated £10 million to defray the bidders' costs during the full bidding process, should the project be abandoned.<ref name="scotsman_two_bidders"/>

The two consortia were Forthspan, which included [[Morgan Sindall]], [[BAM Nuttall]] and [[Balfour Beatty]]; and Forth Crossing Bridge Constructors (FCBC), which consists of [[Grupo ACS|Dragados]], [[Hochtief]], [[American Bridge Company|American Bridge]], and [[Galliford Try|Morrison Construction]].<ref name=invited>{{cite web|url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/news/construction-industry-invited-FRC |title=Construction industry invited to bid for Forth Replacement Crossing contract |publisher=Transport Scotland |date=30 November 2009}}</ref> Bids for the main contract, priced at between £900m and £1.2bn, and including design and construction of the bridge and approach roads,<ref name=invited/> were submitted in January 2011.<ref name="ts_contract_bidding"/> In March 2011 the Scottish Government announced FCBC as preferred bidder, with a bid of £790 million.<ref name="bbc_contract_awarded">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-12806415 |title=Consortium to build new Forth bridge |publisher=BBC News |date=21 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forthroadbridge.org/news/preferred-bidder-announced-forth-replacement-crossing |title=Preferred bidder announced for Forth Replacement Crossing |publisher=Forth Estuary Transport Authority |date=21 March 2011}}</ref>

In addition to the main contract, two smaller contracts form part of the scheme. The contract to implement the Intelligent Transport System (ITS) traffic management system in Fife was awarded to John Graham (Dromore) Ltd, with a tender of £12.9 million, while the upgrade of M9 Junction 1a was awarded to a joint venture between John Sisk and Roadbridge, with a tender of £25.6 million. As with the main contract, the tenders received were below the original estimated budgets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/news/Another-major-contract-award-for-Forth-Replacement-Crossing-scheme |title=Another major contract award for Forth Replacement Crossing scheme |date=10 June 2011 |publisher=Transport Scotland}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/news/More-savings-more-jobs-announced-on-Forth-Replacement-Crossing |title=More savings, more jobs announced on Forth Replacement Crossing |date=30 June 2011 |publisher=Transport Scotland}}</ref>

==Construction==
Preparatory works for the new bridge began in September 2011 with works beginning at the southern end of the M90 to build the northern approach roads. Construction works are scheduled to take around five and a half years, and the bridge is due to open by the end of 2016. In 2012 the contractors announced that the bridge could be completed up to a year earlier, depending on the weather.<ref name=early>{{cite web |url=http://www.scotsman.com/the-scotsman/transport/forth-bridge-may-be-finished-a-year-early-if-scottish-weather-allows-1-2179430 |title=Forth Bridge may be finished a year early (if Scottish weather allows) |work=The Scotsman |date=17 March 2012}}</ref> 149 segments of bridge deck, each of which is {{convert|12|m}} long and {{convert|40|m}} wide, were to be constructed in China and Spain, then delivered by sea in October 2013<ref name=early/> The approach steel bridge sections are being manufactured by Cleveland Bridge UK in Darlington.{{cn|date=March 2013}}

==The bridge==
[[File:Forth Replacement Crossing map.png|thumb|The Queensferry Crossing (left) in relation to the Forth Road Bridge (centre) and the Forth Bridge (right)]]
[[File:Beamer Rock - geograph.org.uk - 1320903.jpg|thumb|The Beamer Rock, prior to removal of the lighthouse to make way for the bridge]]
The new bridge will be a [[cable-stayed]] structure, with three towers each {{convert|207|m}} high.<ref name=early/> Including approaches, the overall length of the bridge will be {{convert|2.7|km}}. The bridge will carry two lanes of traffic in each direction, plus [[hard shoulder]]s, with the road designed to [[motorway]] standard. The new bridge will carry cars and heavy goods vehicles, while public transport, cyclists and pedestrians will use the existing bridge. Wind shielding will be built into the design, to enable use of the bridge in high winds, which regularly leads to restrictions on the existing bridge.<ref name=newbridge/>

The bridge will be the third crossing of the Forth at Queensferry, alongside the Forth Road Bridge, completed in 1964, and the [[Forth Bridge]], a railway bridge completed in 1890. It will be sited west of the road bridge, with the northern landfall at St Margaret's Hope, between [[Rosyth Dockyard]] and [[North Queensferry]], and the southern landfall just west of [[Port Edgar]] in [[South Queensferry]]. The central tower will be constructed on the Beamer Rock, a small islet in the Forth. The project was known as the Forth Replacement Crossing, and a name for the new bridge was selected in a public vote in 2013 after a panel of independent advisors provided a shortlist of possible names.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/news/New-Forth-Crossing-naming-process-announced |title=Transport Minister Announces Naming Process for New Forth Crossing |publisher=Transport Scotland |date=6 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/news/Forth-Replacement-Crossing-naming |title=Public to be involved in naming of new bridge |publisher=Transport Scotland |date=22 March 2011}}</ref> A short list of five names were selected, these were Caledonia Bridge, Firth of Forth Crossing, Queensferry Crossing, Saltire Crossing and St Margaret's Crossing. A public vote was held up until 7 June 2013 and the Queensferry Crossing name received the most votes, with 12,039 (of 37,000) votes in a public poll.<ref>{{cite web|title=Name the bridge|url=http://www.namethebridge.co.uk/|publisher=Transport Scotland|accessdate=29 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=New Forth bridge: Queensferry Crossing wins naming contest|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-23047293|newspaper=BBC News|date=26 June 2013}}</ref>

==Connecting roads==
A number of new and upgraded roads will connect the bridge into the existing road network with around {{convert|4|km}} of new roads to be constructed. These new roads will join the M9 and M90 motorways together for the first time, with the Queensferry Crossing being built to motorway standard in order to carry the M90 across the Forth. The current M90 motorway terminates at Admiralty Junction, around {{convert|3|km}} north of the current Forth Road Bridge, with the road continuing as dual carriageway across the existing bridge and joining the M9 via the M9 Spur. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/road/projects/forth-replacement-crossing/about-the-scheme/connecting-road-network |title=Connecting road network |publisher=Transport Scotland |accessdate=14 May 2012}}</ref><ref name='TranScot1'> {{cite web | url = http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/road/projects/forth-replacement-crossing/about-the-scheme/its | title = Intelligent Transport Systems - Transport Scotland | accessdate = 2013-07-09 | author = [[Transport Scotland]] | publisher = [[Scottish Government]]}}</ref>

===Admiralty Junction===

Admiralty Junction, the present Junction 1 of the M90 motorway will be unaltered, with the exception of a bus lane to be added on the southbound carriageway. The junction will be renumbered to Junction 1C of the M90 when the Queensferry Crossing opens.<ref name='TranScot1' />

===Ferrytoll Junction===

Ferrytoll Junction will be redesigned to give access to the new crossing and to maintain public transport access to the Forth Road Bridge. The design of the new junction requires the realignment of the B981 road to North Queensferry.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/road/projects/forth-replacement-crossing/about-the-proposals/connecting-road-network/n-q |title=Ferrytoll Junction |publisher=Transport Scotland |accessdate=14 May 2012}}</ref> Ferrytoll Junction will be numbered Junction 1B of the M90 following completion of the Queensferry Crossing.<ref name='TranScot1' />

===South Queensferry Junction===
The [[M90 motorway|M90]] will be extended west from the current bridge access at Ferry Muir, wrapping around [[South Queensferry]] to the southern landfall of the new crossing. A grade-separated junction will be built on the A904 just west of Echline, at the south-west edge of the town. The existing access from the Forth Road bridge to the A90 will remain open to public transport.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/road/projects/forth-replacement-crossing/about-the-proposals/connecting-road-network/s-q |title=South Queensferry Junction |publisher=Transport Scotland |accessdate=14 May 2012}}</ref> South Queensferry Junction will become Junction 1A of the M90 when the Queensferry Crossing opens.<ref name='TranScot1' />

===M9 Junction 1a===
Junction 1a provides access from the [[M9 motorway (Scotland)|M9 motorway]] to the Forth Road Bridge via the M9 Spur. Originally, only east-facing connections were provided to the M9, forcing traffic heading west from the bridge onto the A904 through the village of [[Newton, West Lothian|Newton]]. The upgrade of the junction included new west-facing slip roads, enabling direct access onto the M9 from the Forth Road Bridge and the new crossing, as well as widening of the existing connections to assist the flow of traffic at peak times.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/road/projects/forth-replacement-crossing/about-the-proposals/connecting-road-network/m9-j1a |title=M9 Junction 1a |publisher=Transport Scotland |accessdate=14 May 2012}}</ref> The improvements were completed in February 2013 at a cost of £25.6m.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/news/FRC-junction-early-and-under-budget |title=FRC junction opens early and under budget |publisher=Transport Scotland |accessdate=24 July 2013}}</ref> The M9 Spur will become the M90 upon completion of the Queensferry Crossing, the junction connecting the A90 coming from the Forth Bridge with the A90 towards Edinburgh and the M9 Spur will be named the Scotstoun Junction and will be numbered as Junction 1 of the M90.<ref name='TranScot1' />

===Intelligent Transport System===
An "Intelligent Transport System" (ITS) will be installed between Halbeath on the M90, and the M9, covering the whole scheme. The ITS is a traffic management system, enabling variable speed restrictions and lane closures to be displayed on overhead gantries.<ref name='TranScot1' />

==Archaeological finds==
During routine archaeological excavations in advance of work on the new Queensferry Crossing remnants of a [[mesolithic era]] dwelling was found on the south bank of the Forth. The dwelling, based around an oval pit approximately {{convert|7|m}} in length, has been dated to around 8240 BC, making it the earliest known dwelling in Scotland.<ref>{{cite news
|newspaper = [[The Scotsman]] |date = 18 November 2012 |url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/environment/archaeologists-unearth-stone-age-dwelling-on-the-banks-the-of-new-forth-crossing-1-2643154 |title = Archaeologists unearth Stone Age dwelling on the banks the of new Forth crossing |first1 = Emma |last1 = Cowing}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=33em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/road/projects/forth-replacement-crossing Forth Replacement Crossing], Transport Scotland
*[http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/SPICeResources/Research%20briefings%20and%20fact%20sheets/SB_10-17.pdf Financial Scrutiny Unit Briefing: The Forth Replacement Crossing First Principles], Scottish Parliament Information Centre (SPICe) Briefing
*[http://www.twitter.com/newforthbridge New Forth Bridge construction blog], New Forth Bridge construction blog

[[Category:Road bridges in Scotland]]
[[Category:Motorway bridges in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Proposed bridges in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Cable-stayed bridges in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Bridges in Fife]]
[[Category:Bridges in Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Proposed buildings and structures in Scotland]]
[[Category:Firth of Forth]]

Jim Jefferies (Komiker)

2013-11-13T12:46:06Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 124.149.177.157 (talk) to last revision by 50.123.13.252 (HG)

{{For|the Scottish football manager|Jim Jefferies}}
{{Use Australian English|date=February 2012}}
{{BLP sources|date=April 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2011}}

{{Infobox comedian
| name = Jim Jefferies
| image = Jim Jeffries.jpg
| caption = Performing at the 2012 Global Atheist Convention
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1977|2|14}} {{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
| birth_place = [[Sydney, New South Wales]], Australia
| nationality = Australian
| occupation= Stand-up comedian, actor, writer, comedian
| genre = Anecdotal comedy, [[black comedy]], [[blue comedy]], [[observational comedy]]
| subject = [[Alcoholism]], [[culture]], [[recreational drug use]], [[religion]], [[sex]]
| influences = [[George Carlin]], [[Roy Chubby Brown]], [[Richard Pryor]], [[Jerry Sadowitz]], [[John Cleese]]
| notable_work = ''[[Never Mind the Buzzcocks]]'', ''[[Carpool (web series)|Carpool]]'', ''[[Montreal Comedy Festival]]''
| website = http://www.jimjefferies.com/
}}
'''Geoff Nugent''' (born 14 February 1977),<ref>[http://www.kcconfidential.com/full_content.php?article_id=23649&full=yes&pbr=1 Glazer: Funny Guy Jim Jefferies Brings Down the House While Buying A House] kcconfidential.com</ref> known professionally as '''Jim Jefferies''', is an Australian [[stand-up comedy|stand-up comedian]], actor and writer.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20090607120017/http://www.jimjefferies.com/main.php?id=bio Jim Jefferies bio]. jimjefferies.com</ref>

==Career==
He first achieved international popularity after he was attacked onstage while performing at the [[Manchester]] [[Comedy Store]].<ref>[http://www.chortle.co.uk/news/2007/04/16/5226/comic_attacked_on_stage Comic attacked on stage : News 2007 : Chortle : The UK Comedy Guide]. Chortle (2007-04-16). Retrieved on 2012-04-05.</ref> At one time, Jefferies even incorporated the incident (and its video recording) into his act. This can be seen on his 2008 UK home video release, ''Contraband''. He is now well known in the USA after his popular debut stand-up special on [[HBO]].<ref>[http://www.hbo.com/comedy/jim-jefferies-i-swear-to-god/index.html Jim Jefferies: I Swear to God: Home]. HBO. Retrieved on 2012-04-05.</ref>

Jefferies has performed at numerous festivals, including the [[Edinburgh Fringe]], Montreal Comedy Festival ([[Just for Laughs]]), South African Comedy Festival [[Cape Town]], [[Reading and Leeds Festivals]] and the [[Glastonbury Festival]]. He has appeared on [[BBC Television]] shows, such as ''[[Never Mind the Buzzcocks]]'', ''[[Have I Got News for You]]'', ''[[The Heaven and Earth Show]]'', and ''[[8 out of 10 Cats]]''. Jefferies has also performed spots on ''The World Stands Up'', ''Comedy Blue'' and ''Edinburgh and Beyond'' for the [[Comedy Central]].

He has also been featured on various programmes, including [[BBC Radio 5 Live]]'s Saturday morning sports show, ''[[Fighting Talk]]''.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/fivelive/programmes/fightingtalk.shtml BBC Radio 5 live – Fighting Talk]. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved on 2012-04-05.</ref>

Jefferies was on a podcast ''Jim and Eddie Talkin' Shit'' twice a week, with his fellow comedian and friend [[Eddie Ifft]]. It is recorded from Ifft's home in Los Angeles. In December 2012, Jefferies left the podcast, citing his work schedule because of filming his new television series, ''[[Legit (2013 TV series)|Legit]]''.<ref>[http://www.jimandeddietalkshit.com Jim Jefferies & Eddie Ifft Talk Shit Podcast]. Jimandeddietalkshit.com. Retrieved on 2012-04-05.</ref>

Jefferies' new comedy series ''[[Legit (2013 TV series)|Legit]]'' premiered on 17 January 2013 on [[FX (TV channel)|FX]], and thirteen episodes are scheduled to air.<ref>[http://www.deadline.com/2012/06/fx-picks-up-jim-jefferies-comedy-legit-to-series-with-13-episode-order/]</ref> The series has received attention for its portrayal of people with mental and physical handicaps.<ref>{{cite web|last=Couch|first=Aaron|title=How FX's 'Legit' Became the Darling of the Disabled Community|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/fxs-legit-jim-jefferies-embraced-430325|work=The Hollywood Reporter|accessdate=28 April 2013}}</ref>

==Stand up comedy DVDs==
* ''Contraband'' – (5000 limited editions) Released: 10 November 2008 (UK Home Video)
* ''I Swear to God'' – Broadcast: 16 May 2009; Released: 13 October 2009 (US Home Video)
* ''Alcoholocaust'' – Released: 8 November 2010 ([[Comedy Central]] UK DVD)
* ''Fully Functional'' - Release: October 2012

==Personal life==

After eight years living in [[Kentish Town]], Jefferies now lives in Los Angeles.<ref>[http://www.livesv.com/categories/index/2/0/city/video/location/San%20Jose/page/1].</ref> He is an [[atheist]], and often discusses it in his shows<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yYR7cfpnUGo Jim Jefferies – Atheists are Right, Religious People are Wrong]. YouTube. Retrieved on 2012-04-05.
</ref> Jefferies is currently in a relationship with actress [[Kate Luyben]].<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XmIuM-9ht4w Legit - Jim Jefferies & girlfriend Kate Luyben]. YouTube. Retrieved on 2013-05-15.
</ref> Their son, Hank Jefferies, was born on 6 November 2012, with Jefferies releasing a photograph on his Facebook page.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.jimjefferies.com/ Official site]
* {{twitter|jimjefferies}}
* {{IMDb name|1812944|Jim Jeffries}}

{{Fighting Talk}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=103523743}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Jefferies, Jim
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Comedian
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1977-2-14
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Sydney, New South Wales]], Australia
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jefferies, Jim}}
[[Category:Australian male comedians]]
[[Category:Australian stand-up comedians]]
[[Category:Australian writers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Australian male television actors]]
[[Category:Australian atheists]]
[[Category:1977 births]]
[[Category:People from Sydney]]
[[Category:Australian expatriates in the United States]]

Jim Jefferies (Komiker)

2013-11-13T12:46:06Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 124.149.177.157 (talk) to last revision by 50.123.13.252 (HG)

Operation Paget

2013-11-11T15:41:57Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 74.81.133.34 (talk) to last revision by Philip Cross (HG)

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2010}}
'''Operation Paget''' was the [[Metropolitan Police]] inquiry, led by [[John Stevens, Baron Stevens of Kirkwhelpington|Lord Stevens of Kirkwhelpington]], which investigated the [[Death of Diana, Princess of Wales conspiracy theories|various conspiracy theories]] surrounding the [[Death of Diana, Princess of Wales|deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales]] and [[Dodi Fayed]] on 31 August 1997. Its first report with the findings of the criminal investigation was published on 14 December 2006. The inquiry was wound up following the conclusion of the British inquest into the deaths on 7 April 2008 in which a jury delivered its verdict of an "unlawful killing" by chauffeur [[Henri Paul]] and the pursuing paparazzi.<ref>{{Cite news | title=Diana jury blames paparazzi and Henri Paul for her 'unlawful killing' | url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1584160/Diana-jury-blames-paparazzi-and-Henri-Paul-for-her-unlawful-killing.html | accessdate=12 October 2013 | work=Daily Telegraph | date=7 April 2008}}</ref>

==Background==
{{Main|Death of Diana, Princess of Wales}}

The criminal investigation in the United Kingdom was initiated on 6 January 2004 when the [[Coroner of the Queen's Household]], [[Michael Burgess (coroner)|Michael Burgess]], asked the [[Metropolitan Police Commissioner]], then Sir John Stevens, to conduct enquiries into allegations of a [[cover-up]] and conspiracy: that [[MI6]], under the orders of the [[British Royal Family|Royal Family]], deliberately caused the fatal car crash in Paris that killed Diana and Dodi.<ref name=reu7apr>{{cite news|title=Chronology - Diana's death and its aftermath|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/2008/04/07/idINIndia-32902220080407|accessdate=1 June 2013|newspaper=Reuters|date=7 April 2008}}</ref> (See [[Death of Diana, Princess of Wales conspiracy theories]].)

The investigation was legally necessary; once the [[inquest (England and Wales)|inquest]] into the deaths got under way in the United Kingdom, it became apparent to the Coroner that allegations were being made that a crime had taken place on UK soil: namely, conspiracy to murder. Coroners are legally obliged to refer to the police any information or evidence that comes before them concerning a suspected or actual crime. The basis of the investigation was public statements made mainly by Dodi Fayed's father, [[Mohammed Al-Fayed]]. The investigation initially was confined to the general premise of the alleged conspiracy, but was eventually broadened to cover every associated allegation made through the media, in legal submissions, and in formal correspondence since the crash. The level of detail of the investigation is reflected in the report's length at 832 pages which took a team of fourteen experienced police officers nearly three years to compile. Accident Investigation experts from TRL assisted the police enquiry. Because of public interest in Diana, the Metropolitan Police decided to publish the report on the internet, although it had been drafted as an internal police document.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6179275.stm BBC News: Diana death a 'tragic accident']</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6179489.stm BBC News: At-a-glance: Lord Stevens' report]</ref> The criminal investigation had a final cost of 3.69 million pounds (US$7.27 million).

==Summary of Criminal Investigation Report==
The criminal investigation report's chapter titles are:

:Introduction
:Chapter One- Relationship / Engagement / [[Pregnancy]] (Alleged motives for the conspiracy)
:Chapter Two- Perceived Threats to [[Diana, Princess of Wales]]
:Chapter Three- Actions of the [[Paparazzi]] in Paris
:Chapter Four- [[Henri Paul]] - [[Hôtel Ritz Paris]] [[Security Officer]] and driver of the Mercedes
:Chapter Five- [[CCTV]] / (traffic cameras) in Paris
:Chapter Six- Mercedes Car
:Chapter Seven- Blocking Vehicles / Unidentified Vehicles / Bright Flashes (The Journey to the Alma Underpass)
:Chapter Eight- Post-Crash Medical Treatment of Diana
:Chapter Nine- The [[Embalming]] of the Body of the Princess of Wales at the [[Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital]]
:Chapter Ten- Actions of the French Authorities
:Chapter Eleven- Actions of the [[Foreign & Commonwealth Office]] / British Embassy, Paris
:Chapter Twelve- British Authorities Actions with regard to 'Suspicious Deaths'
:Chapter Thirteen- [[Bodyguard]]s of [[Mohamed Al Fayed]] ([[Trevor Rees-Jones (bodyguard)|Trevor Rees-Jones]], Kieran Wingfield and Reuben Murrell)
:Chapter Fourteen- ‘James’ Andanson – French Photo-journalist and owner of a White [[Fiat Uno]]
:Chapter Fifteen- [[Central Intelligence Agency]] /[[National Security Agency]], USA
:Chapter Sixteen- The Secret Intelligence Service ([[MI6]]) and the Security Service ([[MI5]])

==Conclusion of Criminal Investigation Report==
Each chapter of the report concluded that all allegations made since the crash of conspiracy were without foundation and all the evidence obtained point to the deaths of Diana and Fayed as being the result of a tragic accident. The script for the 2007 television [[docudrama]] ''[[Diana: Last Days of a Princess]]'' borrowed heavily from testimony in the Paget report.

==Later developments==
On 3 April 2007, the Deputy [[Coroner of the Queen's Household]], [[Elizabeth Butler-Sloss, Baroness Butler-Sloss|Baroness Butler-Sloss]], decided to grant access to the evidence collected by the criminal investigation to lawyers for Mohammed Al-Fayed to assist them in putting together their case in support of the conspiracy allegation for the [[Inquest (England and Wales)|inquest]] to begin in October 2007.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6522593.stm BBC News: Diana police files 'to be shown']</ref> On 15 May 2007, it was revealed by Baroness Butler-Sloss that the underlying material collected by the criminal investigation team runs to more than 11,000 pages when printed out and also consists of more than 1,400 photographs, several DVDs, large-sized plans and other data. The material has substantially been disclosed to the interested persons and legal teams.<ref>[http://www.scottbaker-inquests.gov.uk/directions_decs/statement_150507.htm Inquests into the deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales and Mr Dodi Al Fayed: Opening statement for a Pre-Inquest Hearing], 15 May 2007</ref>

==Coroner's Inquest==
The coroner's inquest opened on 2 October 2007, headed by [[Scott Baker (judge)|Lord Justice Scott Baker]]. The opening statement was largely made up of evidence and findings in the criminal investigation report. On 7 April 2008, the jury came to the verdict that Diana and Fayed were unlawfully killed as a result of "gross negligence" of Mercedes driver [[Henri Paul]] and the paparazzi.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7328754.stm BBC: Princess Diana unlawfully killed]</ref> Contributing factors cited included "the impairment of the judgment of the driver of the Mercedes [Henri Paul] through alcohol" and that none of those who died were wearing seatbelts.<ref>[http://www.scottbaker-inquests.gov.uk/hearing_transcripts/verdict.htm Coroner's Inquest, Hearing transcripts: Verdict of the jury]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|33em}}

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6179429.stm The Stevens Report - Overview]
* [http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/news/nol/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/14_12_06_diana_report.pdf Operation Paget Report]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6179275.stm BBC News on criminal investigation report publication: includes video of press briefing by Lord Stevens in which he reads out Overview]
*[http://www.scottbaker-inquests.gov.uk/index.htm Coroner's Inquests into the Deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales and Mr Dodi Al Fayed]

{{Diana, Princess of Wales}}

[[Category:Metropolitan Police]]
[[Category:Civil procedure]]
[[Category:Death]]
[[Category:English law]]
[[Category:2000s in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Diana, Princess of Wales]]
[[Category:Police operations in the United Kingdom|Paget]]

Cola-Mentos-Fontäne

2013-11-08T19:39:46Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 207.224.177.4 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)

Linux-libre

2013-03-26T09:46:34Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 187.51.57.213 (talk) to last version by Persian knight shiraz

{{Distinguish|Linux|Linux kernel}}
{{Other uses|Linux (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox OS
| name = Linux-libre
| title = Linux-libre
| logo = [[File:Freedo.svg|50px|Freedo, official mascot of Linux-libre]]
| screenshot = [[File:Linux-Libre 3.0.66-1 Boot.png|250px]]
| caption = Linux-libre kernel 3.0.66-1 booting
| collapsible =
| author =
| developer = [[Free Software Foundation Latin America]]
| released = {{Start date|2008|02|20}}<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://lists.autistici.org/message/20080221.002845.467ba592.en.html
|title = [blag-devel] linux-libre
|author = blag-announce
|authorlink =
|date = February 20, 2008
|accessdate = March 5, 2013
}}</ref>
| discontinued =
| latest release version = Kernel: 3.8.4<ref name="latest_release">{{cite web
|url = directory.fsf.org/wiki/GNU_Linux-libre
|title = GNU Linux-libre
|author = GNU Linux-Libre - Free Software Directory
|authorlink = http://directory.fsf.org/wiki/GNU_Linux-libre
|date = February 19, 2013
|accessdate = February 26, 2013
}}</ref>
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2013|03|20}}
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date = 
| frequently updated = 
| family = [[Unix-like]]
| programmed in = [[C (programming language)|C]] and [[Assembly language]]
| platform = [[x86]], [[x86-64]], [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| kernel type = [[Monolithic kernel|Monolithic]]
| status = Active
| genre = [[Kernel (computing)|Kernel]]
| license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] 2
| website = {{URL|http://fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/index.en.html}}
}}
'''Linux-libre''' is an operating system [[kernel (computing)|kernel]] and a [[List of GNU packages|GNU package]] <ref>[http://directory.fsf.org/wiki/GNU_Linux-libre] directory.fsf.org</ref> that is maintained from modified versions of the [[Linux kernel]]. The aim of the project is to remove any software that does not include its [[source code]], has its source code [[Obfuscated code|obfuscated]] or released under [[Proprietary software|proprietary licenses]] from the Linux kernel. The parts that have no source code are called [[binary blob]]s and are generally proprietary [[firmware]] which, while generally redistributable, generally do not give the user the freedom to modify or study them. It is a prominent example of [[free software]].

== History ==
Linux started including binary blobs in 1996.<ref>[http://www.fsfla.org/svnwiki/anuncio/2010-03-Linux-2.6.33-libre.en Take your freedom back, with Linux-2.6.33-libre] FSFLA, 2010.</ref> The work to clear out the binary blobs began in 2006 with [[gNewSense]]'s find-firmware and gen-kernel. This work was taken further by BLAG in 2007 with deblob and Linux-libre was born.<ref>Alexandre Oliva: [http://fsfla.org/~lxoliva/fsfla/Linux-libre.en.pdf Linux-libre and the prisoners’ dilemma] FSFLA, 2009.</ref><ref name="blag">jebba: [http://forums.blagblagblag.org/viewtopic.php?t=4665 BLAG :: View topic - Linux Libre] BLAG forums, 2008.</ref> Linux-libre was first released by the [[Free Software Foundation Latin America]] (FSFLA), then endorsed by the [[Free Software Foundation]]<ref>{{cite web|url= http://directory.fsf.org/wiki/Linux_%28BLOB_free_version%29|title= Linux (BLOB free version)|accessdate = December 6, 2011|author= Free Software Foundation|authorlink= Free Software Foundation|work= Free Software Directory|quote= [...] in the interest of freedom, we are providing a link to a version of the kernel in which this proprietary code has been removed so that it is entirely free software}}</ref> as a valuable component for the [[List of Linux distributions endorsed by the Free Software Foundation|totally free Linux distributions]]. It became a GNU package on March 2012.<ref name="gnu">{{cite mailing list |last= Oliva |first=Alexandre |authorlink=Alexandre Oliva |title=GNU Linux-libre 3.3-gnu is now available |publisher=info-gnu |date=2012-03-19 |url=http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/info-gnu/2012-03/msg00013.html |accessdate=2012-08-07}}</ref> [[Alexandre Oliva]] is the project maintainer.

== Method of proprietary firmware removal ==
The removal process is achieved by using a [[Scripting language|script]] called ''deblob-main''.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/index.en.html#how
|title = How it is done
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|enlaceautor = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|work = Linux-libre, Free as in Freedo
|cita = The removal of non-Free bits from the Linux kernel is accomplished with the script deblob-main
}}</ref> This script is inspired by the one used for [[gNewSense]]. Jeff Moe made subsequent modifications to meet certain requirements for its use with the [[BLAG Linux and GNU]] distribution. There is another script called ''deblob-check'',<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://fsfla.org/svn/fsfla/software/linux-libre/scripts/
|title = fsfla - Revision 8200: /software/linux-libre/scripts
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|work = Free Software Foundation Latin America
}}</ref> which is used to check if a kernel source file, a [[Patch (computing)|patch]] or a compressed sources file still contains software which is suspected of being proprietary.

== Effects of removing proprietary firmware ==
Aside from the primary intended effect of running a system with only [[free software]], the practical consequences of removing device firmware that a user is not allowed to study or modify has both positive and negative effects.

Advantages include the removal of device firmware which cannot be audited for bugs and security problems, or fixed by the Linux kernel maintainers themselves even if they know of them. It is possible for the entire system to be compromised by a malicious firmware, and without the ability to perform a security audit on manufacturer-provided firmware, even an innocent bug could undermine the safety of the running system.<ref>{{cite conference|conference=hack.lu|url=http://esec-lab.sogeti.com/dotclear/public/publications/10-hack.lu-nicreverse_slides.pdf|title=Reversing the Broacom NetExtreme's Firmware|date=2010-11-21|accessdate=2012-04-18|first=Guillaume|last=Delugré|format=PDF|publisher=Sogeti}}</ref>

The downside of removing proprietary firmware from the kernel is that it will cause loss of functionality of certain hardware that does not have a free software replacement available. This affects certain [[sound card|sound]], [[video card|video]], [[TV tuner card|TV tuner]], and [[Network interface controller|network]] cards, as well as some other devices. When possible, free software replacement firmware is provided as a substitute.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libreplanet.org/wiki/LinuxLibre:Devices_that_require_non-free_firmware |title=LinuxLibre:Devices that require non-free firmware |publisher=LibrePlanet |date=2011-02-05 |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref>

== Availability ==
The source code and [[Compiler|precompiled]] packages of the deblobbed Linux kernel are available directly from the distributions which use the Linux-Libre scripts. Freed-ora is a subproject which prepares and maintains [[RPM Package Manager|RPM]] packages based on the [[Fedora (operating system)|Fedora]] kernel.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/freed-ora
|title = Linux-libre's Freed-ora project
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|authorlink = Free Software Foundation Latin America
|quote = Freed-ora is a sub-project that prepares and maintains 100% Free RPMs that track Fedora's non-Free kernels
}}</ref> There are also precompiled packages for [[Debian]]<ref>{{cite mailing list
|url = http://lists.debian.org/debian-devel-announce/2009/04/msg00010.html
|title = Linux-libre for Debian Lenny
|date = April 23, 2009
|accessdate = May 12, 2009
|mailinglist = [Debian Mailing Lists] Announcements for developers
|last = Millan
|first = Robert
|quote = This is to announce that Debian packages of Linux-libre [...] are now available for Lenny users who want to use them [...]
}}</ref> and derived distributions such as [[Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://aligunduz.org/gNewSense/
|title = Uncle Gnufs' World Famous Home Baked Free Kernel Shoppe
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|last = Gündüz
|first = Ali
|work = aligunduz.org
}}</ref>

== Distributions ==
[[File:Parabola12.png|thumb|[[Parabola GNU/Linux]] uses Linux-libre as its default kernel.]]
[[File:Trisquel_6.0_LTS_screenshot.png|thumb|[[Trisquel]] implements 100% free kernels based on Linux-libre since version 2.1.]]

Distributions in which Linux-libre is the default kernel used:

* [[BLAG Linux and GNU]]<ref name="blag"/>
* ConnochaetOS<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.connochaetos.org/wiki/
|title = ConnochaetOS
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|quote = ConnochaetOS [...] feature: a current Linux-Libre “LTS” kernel [...]
}}</ref>
* [[Dragora GNU/Linux]]<ref>[http://www.dragora.org/en/overview.html Dragora overview] dragora.org</ref>
* [[gNewSense]]
* [[Kongoni (operating system)|Kongoni]]
* [[Parabola GNU/Linux]]
* RMS GNU/Linux-libre<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://rmsgnulinux.com.ar/
|title = RMS GNU/Linux-libre
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = RMS GNU/Linux-libre
|year = 2011
}}</ref>
* Tlamaki GNU/Linux
* [[Trisquel]]
* Venenux GNU/Linux<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://venenux.org/repos/venenux/pool/principal/l/linux-source-2.6.28.7-venenux-libre/
|title = Index of /repos/venenux/pool/principal/l/linux-source-2.6.28.7-venenux-libre
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|date = August 24, 2009
|work = VENENUX GNU/LINUX
}}</ref>

Distributions in which Linux is the default kernel used and which propose Linux-libre as alternate kernel:

* Amagi
* [[Arch Linux]]<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://aur.archlinux.org/packages.php?ID=51364
|title = linux-libre 3.1-2
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|author = Arch Linux
|authorlink = Arch Linux
|date = August 9, 2011
|work = AUR
}}</ref>
* [[Canaima (operating system)|Canaima]]<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://forja.softwarelibre.gob.ve/projects/linux-libre/
|title = Linux-Libre: Resumen del proyecto
|accessdate = December 6, 2001
|last = Fossi
|first = Damián
|date = August 24, 2009
|work = Forja
|language = [[Spanish language|Castilian]]
|trans_title = Linux-Libre: Proyect abstract
|cita = Linux Libre consiste en publicar y mantener versiones libres del Kernel para Canaima GNU/Linux
}}</ref>
* [[Gentoo Linux]]<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://bugs.gentoo.org/show_bug.cgi?id=266157
|title = Bug 266157
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|last = O'Kelly
|first = Tim
|date = April 14, 2009
|work = Gentoo's Bugzilla
|publisher = Gentoo Linux
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url = http://en.gentoo-wiki.com/wiki/Licenses#Common_Setups
|title = Licenses: Common Setups
|accessdate = August 8, 2012
|date = August 6, 2012
|work = Gentoo Wiki
|publisher = Gentoo Linux
}}</ref>
* NeonatoX GNU/linux-libre

The following distributions have announced plans to use Linux-libre as its kernel:
* [[dyne:bolic]]<ref name="dyne:bolic freeeee">{{cite mailing list
|url = http://lists.linuxaudio.org/pipermail/linux-audio-tuning/2008-September/000059.html
|title = <nowiki>[</nowiki>LAT<nowiki>]</nowiki> hello, dyne:bolic -rt and freeeee
|date = September 10, 2008
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|mailinglist = [Fundación Software Libre América Latina] Linux-audio-tuning
|author = jaromil
}}</ref>
* [[Musix GNU/Linux]]<ref>{{cite web
|url = ftp://musix.ourproject.org/pub/musix/deb/kernel/2.6.26-libre-rt
|title = ftp://musix.ourproject.org/pub/musix/deb/kernel/2.6.26-libre-rt
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|work = Índice de ftp://musix.ourproject.org/
|language = Castilian
|trans_title = Index of ftp://musix.ourproject.org/
}}</ref>

== Real-time version ==
The kernel of the [[dyne:bolic]] distribution has been compiled to work in [[Real-time computing|real-time]], giving it better performance for multimedia editing and other tasks which require hard latency guarantees.<ref name="dyne:bolic freeeee" /> In addition, a realtime kernel is available in [[Trisquel]] and [[Parabola GNU/Linux|Parabola]]<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://repo.parabolagnulinux.org/kernels/os/i686/
|title = http://repo.parabolagnulinux.org/kernels/os/i686/
|accessdate = December 6, 2011
|work = Index of http://repo.parabolagnulinux.org/kernels/os/i686/
}}</ref> as an optional download.

== See also ==
*{{Portal-inline|Free software}}
*{{portal-inline|Linux}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Free Software Foundation Latin America}}
* {{official website|http://fsfla.org/svnwiki/selibre/linux-libre/index.en.html}}
* [http://directory.fsf.org/wiki/Linux_%28BLOB_free_version%29 Linux (BLOB free version)] at FSF.org
* [http://www.fscorsica.org/index-en.html Free Software Corsica official .deb builder for the Free Software Latino America since 2010]

{{Linux}}

[[Category:GNU Project software]]
[[Category:Operating system kernels]]

Tom Derrick

2012-03-20T19:34:42Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Tag Team vandalism

{{pp-move|expiry=2012-03-21T00:00:00Z|small=yes}}
{{Infobox military person
| image = [[File:T C Derrick 141308.JPG|220px|alt=A head and shoulders portrait of a man in military uniform.]]
| caption = Tom Derrick
| birth_date = {{birth-date|20 March 1914}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1945|5|24|1914|3|20|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Medindie, South Australia]], Australia
| death_place = [[Tarakan Island]], Borneo
| placeofburial = [[Labuan War Cemetery]]
| nickname = "Diver"
| allegiance = {{flag|Australia}}
| branch = [[Australian Army]]
| serviceyears = 1940–1945
| rank = [[Lieutenant]]
| unit = [[2/48th Battalion (Australia)|2/48th Australian Infantry Battalion]]
| commands =
| battles =
* [[World War II|Second World War]]
** [[North African Campaign]]
** [[Siege of Tobruk]]
** [[First Battle of El Alamein]]
** [[Second Battle of El Alamein]]
** [[South West Pacific theatre of World War II|South West Pacific Theatre]]
** [[New Guinea campaign]]
** [[Salamaua-Lae campaign]]
** [[Borneo Campaign (1945)|Borneo Campaign]]
** [[Battle of Tarakan (1945)|Battle of Tarakan]]
| awards =
{{plainlist |
* [[Victoria Cross]]
* [[Distinguished Conduct Medal]]
}}
| laterwork =
}}

'''Thomas Currie''' "'''Diver'''" '''Derrick''' [[Victoria Cross|VC]], [[Distinguished Conduct Medal|DCM]] (20 March 1914 – 24 May 1945) was an [[List of Australian Victoria Cross recipients|Australian recipient]] of the [[Victoria Cross]], the highest decoration for gallantry "in the face of the enemy" awarded to members of the [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] armed forces. In November 1943, during the [[Second World War]], Derrick was awarded the Victoria Cross for his assault on a heavily defended Japanese position at [[Sattelberg]], [[New Guinea]]. During the engagement, he scaled a cliff face while under heavy fire and silenced seven machine gun posts, before leading his platoon in a charge that destroyed a further three.

Born in the [[Adelaide]] suburb of [[Medindie, South Australia]], Derrick left school at the age of fourteen and found work in a bakery. As the [[Great Depression]] grew worse he lost his job and moved to [[Berri, South Australia|Berri]], working on a fruit farm before marrying in 1939. In July 1941, Derrick enlisted in the [[Second Australian Imperial Force]], joining the 2/48th Battalion. He was posted to the Middle East, where he took part in the [[Siege of Tobruk]], was recommended for the [[Military Medal]] and promoted to corporal. Later, at [[First Battle of El Alamein|El Alamein]], Derrick was awarded the [[Distinguished Conduct Medal]] for knocking out three German machine gun posts, destroying two tanks, and capturing one hundred prisoners.

Derrick returned to Australia with his battalion in February 1943, before transferring to the [[South West Pacific Theatre]] where he fought in the battle to capture [[Lae]]. He returned to Australia the following February, was posted to an officer cadet training unit, and commissioned lieutenant in November 1944. In April 1945, his battalion was sent to the Pacific island of [[Morotai]], an assembly point for the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] invasion of the Philippines. During the fighting on [[Tarakan Island|Tarakan]] in May, he was engaged in action on the heavily defended hill ''Freda'' when he was hit by five bullets from a Japanese machine gun. Derrick died from his wounds on 24 May 1945.

== Early life ==
Derrick was born in the [[Adelaide]] suburb of [[Medindie, South Australia]], on 20 March 1914 to David Derrick, a labourer from [[Ireland]], and his Australian wife, Ada (née Whitcombe). The Derricks were poor, and Tom often walked barefoot to attend [[Sturt Street, Adelaide|Sturt Street]] Public School and later [[Le Fevre Peninsula]] School.<ref name="ADB">{{Australian Dictionary of Biography|last=Gammage|first=Bill|year=1993|id=A130694b|title=Derrick, Thomas Currie (Tom) (1914–1945)|accessdate=27 July 2008}}</ref> In 1928, aged fourteen, Derrick left school and found work in a bakery. By this time, he had developed a keen interest in sports, particularly [[cricket]], [[Australian Rules Football]], [[boxing]] and [[human swimming|swimming]]; his diving in the [[Port River]] earned him the nickname of "Diver".{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=134–135}}

With the advent of the [[Great Depression]], Derrick scraped a living from odd jobs—such as fixing bicycles and selling newspapers—to supplement his job as a baker. When in 1931, the Depression worsened, Derrick lost his bakery job and, with friends, headed by bicycle for the regional town of [[Berri, South Australia|Berri]]—approximately {{convert|225|km|mi}} away—in search of work.<ref name="AWM">{{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/people/8249.asp|title=Lieutenant Thomas Currie 'Diver' Derrick, VC, DCM|accessdate=27 July 2008|work=Who’s who in Australian Military History|publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> Jobs in Berri were hard to come by and Derrick and two friends spent the next few months living in a tent on the banks of the [[Murray River]]. When the annual [[Royal Adelaide Show]] opened that year, Derrick went to the boxing pavilion to accept a challenge of staying upright for three rounds with the ex-lightweight champion of Australia. Although he was knocked down in the second round, he immediately got back to his feet and won the bet; albeit at the cost of a black eye, bruised ribs, and a few bloody noses.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=134–135}}

Eventually, towards the end of 1931, Derrick found work picking fruit at a vineyard in [[Winkie, South Australia|Winkie]], a short distance outside Berri. He later moved onto a fulltime job at a nearby fruit farm, remaining there for the next nine years.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} On 24 June 1939, Derrick married Clarance Violet "Beryl" Leslie—his "one true love" whom he had met at a dance in Adelaide seven years earlier{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=134–135}}—at St Laurence's Catholic Church, [[North Adelaide]].<ref name="ADB" />

== Second World War ==
Derrick did not join up when war broke out in September 1939 but, like many Australians, enlisted after the [[Battle of France|fall of France]] in June 1940.{{sfn|Horner|2002|p=66}} He joined the [[Second Australian Imperial Force]] on 5 July 1940,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2roll.gov.au/script/veteran.asp?ServiceID=A&VeteranID=671466 |title=Derrick, Thomas Currie |accessdate=27 July 2008 |work=World War II Nominal Roll |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |year=2002}}</ref> and was posted to the [[2/48th Battalion (Australia)|2/48th Battalion]], [[26th Brigade (Australia)|26th Brigade]], as a [[Private (rank)|private]]. Derrick first joined his unit at the [[Wayville Showgrounds]], before basic training at [[Woodside, South Australia|Woodside]].{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=136}}<ref name="2/48">{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/units/unit_11288.asp|title=2/48th Battalion |accessdate=27 July 2008|work= Australian military units |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> Derrick thrived on military life, but found discipline difficult to accept.{{sfn|Horner|2002|p=66}}

In October, the 2/48th Battalion paraded through the streets of Adelaide to [[Mitcham railway station, Adelaide|Mitcham railway station]] prior to its embarkation for the [[Middle East]]. The battalion's voyage overseas was postponed until 17 November, when the unit boarded the SS ''Stratheden''.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=136}} The ship made a stop at Perth, where Derrick was confined onboard for going absent without leave to sightsee. He was soon in more trouble, and was charged and fined for punching another soldier who taunted him over this incident.{{sfn|Horner|2002|p=66}}

=== North Africa ===
On arrival in [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]], the 2/48th Battalion encamped at [[El Kantara]] and began training in desert warfare. For relaxation, the battalion set up athletic events, and Derrick became well known for often winning cross-country races—and for organising a [[Bookmaker|book]] on the outcomes.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=136}} In March 1941, the unit went by train and truck to [[Alexandria, Egypt]], then along the North African coast to [[Cyrenaica]], in [[Libya]], to join the [[9th Division (Australia)|9th Australian Division]].<ref name="2/48" />{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=137}}

[[File:Tom Derrick VC 016247.jpg|thumb|alt=An informal portrait of a man in military uniform holding a rifle.|upright|left|200px|Sergeant T. C. Derrick, November 1943]]

After the 2/48th Battalion completed its training with the 9th Division at Cyrenaica,<ref name="2/48" /> they were moved further along the coast to Gazala. Then, just as they began to dig in, the battalion was abruptly withdrawn to [[Tobruk]] in response to the German [[Afrika Korps]]' advance.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=137}} They entered Tobruk on 9 April 1941, and spent the following eight months [[Siege of Tobruk|besieged]] by [[Axis powers|Axis]] forces.<ref name="2/48" /> While there, Derrick acquired an Italian [[Breda Meccanica Bresciana#Breda machine guns|Breda machine gun]] and regularly led fighting patrols against both German and Italian troops.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=137}} Although Derrick's bravery was noted during the siege, he wrote in his diary about his constant fear of dying.{{sfn|Johnston|1996|p=19}}

On the night of 30 April, the Axis forces assaulted Tobruk's outer defences and managed to capture substantial ground. In response, the 2/48th Battalion was ordered to counter-attack the following evening. During the ensuing engagement, Derrick fought as a section member in the far left flank of the attack. After suffering heavy casualties in what Derrick described as "a bobby dazzler of a fire fight", the battalion was forced to withdraw. Praised for his leadership and bravery during the assault,{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=137–138}} Derrick was immediately promoted to [[corporal]],<ref name="AWM" />{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=137–138}} and recommended for the [[Military Medal]]. The award, however, was never made.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=137–138}}

In late May, Derrick discovered a German posing as a British tank officer and reported him to [[Company (military unit)|company]] headquarters; the man was immediately arrested as a spy.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=138–139}} Following a period of heavy fighting in June, the 2/48th Battalion was placed in reserve for a few days the following month. Promoted to [[platoon sergeant]] in September, Derrick—along with the rest of his battalion—was withdrawn from Tobruk and returned to Palestine aboard [[HMS Kingston (F64)|HMS ''Kingston'']] on 22 October. Disembarking at [[Tel Aviv]], they were given three days' leave in the city, before returning for training.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=138–139}}

Following a period of rest and light garrison duties in [[Syria]], the 2/48th Battalion was rushed to [[El Alamein]], Egypt, to reinforce the British [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|Eighth Army]].<ref name="2/48" /> During the [[First Battle of El Alamein]] on 10 July 1942,{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} Derrick took part in the 26th Australian Brigade's attack on Tel el Eisa.<ref name="2/48" /> In the initial assault, Derrick, against a barrage of German grenades, led an attack against three machine gun posts and succeeded in destroying the positions before capturing over one hundred [[Prisoner of war|prisoners]].<ref name="ADB" />{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} During the Axis counter-attack that evening, the Australian line was overrun by tanks. As the German infantry following the tanks advanced, Derrick's company led a charge against the men.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=138–139}} During the engagement, Derrick managed to destroy two German tanks using [[sticky bomb]]s.<ref name="ADB" />{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} Commended for his "outstanding leadership and courage", Derrick was awarded the [[Distinguished Conduct Medal]] for his part in the fighting at Tel el Eisa.<ref name="DCM">{{cite web|url= http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/awm192/00305/003050480.pdf|title=Recommendation for Thomas Currie Derrick to be awarded a Distinguished Conduct Medal|accessdate=27 July 2008 |format=PDF |work=Index to Recommendations: Second World War |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The award was announced in a supplement to the ''[[London Gazette]]'' on 18 February 1943.<ref name="LGDCM">{{LondonGazette |issue=35908 |date=18 February 1943 |startpage=864 |supp=yes |accessdate=27 July 2008}} (DCM)</ref>

{{quote box
| width = 20em
| align = right
| quote = We could see Diver standing in the carrier, Tommy gun in hand, the top half of his body exposed. It was like a chap riding a horse into a hail of fire. You could hear the bullets splattering off the metal sides of the carrier. I thought, "God, he'll never come out of that."
| source = Private Joe Ratta{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=142–143}}
}}

Promoted to [[sergeant]] on 28 July,{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} Derrick led a six-man reconnaissance on 3 October, successfully pinpointing several German machine gun positions and strongholds; this information was to be vital for the upcoming [[Second Battle of El Alamein]].{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=141}} The El Alamein offensive was launched on 23 October, with the 9th Australian Division taking part.<ref name="2/48" /> At one point during the engagement, Derrick jumped up onto an [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] gun carrier heading towards the Germans. Armed with a [[Thompson submachine gun]] and under intense heavy fire, Derrick attacked and knocked out three machine gun posts while standing in the carrier. He then had the driver reverse up to each post so he could ensure each position was silenced. By the following morning, Derrick's platoon occupied all three posts. The members of the 2/48th Battalion who witnessed Derrick's action were sure he would be awarded the Victoria Cross, though no recommendation was made.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=142–143}}

For part of 31 October, Derrick assumed command of his company after all of the unit's officers had been killed or wounded in fierce fighting.{{sfn|Maughan|1966|pp=714–715}} On 21 November 1942, Derrick was briefly admitted to the 2/3rd Australian Field Ambulance with slight shrapnel wounds to his right hand and buttock.<ref name="ServRec">{{cite web |url=http://naa12.naa.gov.au/scripts/imagine.asp?B=6407287&I=1&SE=1 |title=Derrick, Thomas Currie SX7964 |accessdate=11 January 2009 |work=Record Search |publisher=National Archives of Australia}}</ref> Twelve days later, the 2/48th Battalion left El Alamein and returned to Gaza in Palestine,<ref name="2/48" /> where, later that month, Derrick attended a corps patrolling course.<ref name="ServRec" /> In January 1943, the 2/48th Battalion sailed home to Australia, aboard the [[SS Nieuw Amsterdam|S.S. ''Nieuw Amsterdam'']], along with the rest of the 9th Division.<ref name="2/48" />{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=144–145}}

=== South West Pacific ===
Disembarking at [[Port Melbourne]] in late February 1943,<ref name="2/48" />{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=144–145}} Derrick was granted a period of leave and travelled by train to Adelaide where he spent time with Beryl. He rejoined his battalion—now encamped in the outskirts of Adelaide—before they went by train to the [[Atherton Tableland]] for training in jungle warfare. Brought up to full strength by the end of April, the 2/48th Battalion completed its training following landing-craft exercises near [[Cairns, Queensland|Cairns]].{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=144–145}} On 23 July, Derrick was attached to the 21st Brigade Headquarters but admitted to hospital for old injuries to his right eye later the same day.<ref name="ServRec" /> After hospital, Derrick returned briefly to Brigade before rejoining the 2/48th Battalion on 27 August.<ref name="ServRec" />

For much of August, the 2/48th Battalion had been in training for the Allied attack on [[Lae]], in [[Papua New Guinea]].<ref name="ADB" />{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=144–145}} The unit's objective was to land on a strip of land designated as "Red Beach", and then fight their way approximately {{convert|30|km|mi}} west towards Lae. Following a bombardment by American [[Destroyer (ship)|destroyers]], Derrick's wave [[Landing at Lae|landed on the beach]] with minimal casualties on 4 September. Ten days later, the 2/48th Battalion's C Company—led by Derrick's platoon—captured [[Malahang, Papua New Guinea|Malahang]] airstrip, before Lae fell to the Allies on 16 September.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=144–145}} Derrick was scornful of the Japanese defence of Lae, and wrote in his diary that "our greatest problem was trying to catch up" with the retreating Japanese force.{{sfn|Johnston|2000|p=108}}

==== Victoria Cross ====
Following Lae, the 9th Division was tasked to seize [[Finschhafen]], clear the [[Huon Peninsula]] and gain control of the [[Vitiaz Strait]]. By 2 October, one of the division's brigades had gained a foothold on Finschhafen, but soon encountered fierce Japanese resistance. In response to a Japanese counter-attack, the 26th Brigade was transferred to reinforce the Australian position on 20 October and, when the division switched to the offensive in November, the brigade was ordered to capture [[Battle of Sattelberg|Sattelberg]].{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} Sattelberg was a densely wooded hill rising {{convert|1000|m|yd}} and dominating the Finschhafen region;{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}} it was in an assault on this position that Derrick was to earn the Victoria Cross.<ref name="VC_Recommendation">{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/awm192/00305/003050479.pdf |title=Recommendation for Thomas Currie Derrick to be awarded a Victoria Cross |accessdate=15 January 2009 |format=PDF |work=Index to Recommendations: Second World War |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}
</ref>

{{quote box
| width = 20em
| align = left
| quote = First look at the ground made the task a suicide one. Jap bunkers on top could fire down on us and drop grenades down, a very sticky position indeed. Decided to give it a go using 4 and 5 sections. The move off required great courage and nerve and not a single man hesitated.
| source = Sergeant Tom Derrick{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}}
}}

The Australian attack on Sattelberg began in mid-November, with the Japanese slowly giving ground and withdrawing back up the precipitous slopes. Each side suffered heavy casualties, and on 20 November, Derrick—who had been acting as [[company sergeant major]] for the previous month—was given command of B Company's 11 platoon after the unit had "lost all but one of their leaders".{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}} By 22 November, the 2/23rd and 2/48th Battalions had reached the southern slopes of Sattelberg, holding a position approximately {{convert|600|m|yd}} from the summit. A landslide had blocked the only road, so the final assault was made by infantry alone, without supporting tanks.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}

On 24 November, the 2/48th Battalion's B Company was ordered to outflank a strong Japanese position sited on a cliff face, prior to attacking a feature {{convert|140|m|yd}} from the Sattelberg township. The nature of the terrain meant that the only possible route was up a slope covered with [[Imperata cylindrica|kunai grass]] directly beneath the cliffs. Over a period of two hours, the Australians made several attempts to clamber up the slopes to reach their objective, but each time they were repulsed by intense machine gun fire and grenade attacks. As dusk fell, it appeared impossible to reach the objective or even hold the ground already gained, and the company was ordered to withdraw.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}{{sfn|Arthur|2005|pp=440–441}} In response, Derrick replied to his company commander: "Bugger the CO. Just give me twenty more minutes and we'll have this place. Tell him I'm pinned down and can't get out."{{sfn|Reid|2000|pp=28–29}}

[[File:Derrick VC flag 016246.JPG|thumb|alt=A kneeling man in military uniform raising a flag up a flag pole.|upright|200px|Sergeant Tom Derrick hoists the [[Australian Red Ensign]] at Sattelberg, New Guinea]]

Moving forward with his platoon, Derrick attacked a Japanese post that had been holding up the advance. He destroyed the position with grenades and ordered his second section around to the right flank. The section soon came under heavy machine gun and grenade fire from six Japanese posts.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}{{sfn|Arthur|2005|pp=440–441}} Clambering up the cliff face under heavy fire, Derrick held on with one hand while lobbing grenades into the weapon pits with the other, like "a man ...  shooting for [a] goal at basketball".{{sfn|Reid|2000|pp=28–29}} Climbing further up the cliff and in full view of the Japanese, Derrick continued to attack the posts with grenades before following up with accurate rifle fire. Within twenty minutes, he had reached the peak and cleared seven posts,{{sfn|Reid|2000|pp=28–29}} while the demoralised Japanese defenders fled from their positions to the buildings of Sattelberg.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}}{{sfn|Arthur|2005|pp=440–441}}

Derrick then returned to his platoon, where he gathered his first and third sections in preparation for an assault on the three remaining machine gun posts in the area. Attacking the posts, Derrick personally rushed forward on four separate occasions and threw his grenades at a range of about {{convert|7|m|yd}}, before all three were silenced.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}{{sfn|Arthur|2005|pp=440–441}} Derrick's platoon held their position that night,{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}} before the 2/48th Battalion moved in to take Sattelberg unopposed the following morning.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} The battalion commander insisted that Derrick personally hoist the Australian flag over the town;{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}} it was raised at 10:00 on 25 November 1943.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}

The final assault on Sattelberg became known within the 2/48th Battalion as 'Derrick's Show'.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=33}} Although he was already a celebrity within the 9th Division, the action brought him to wide public attention.<ref name="Burness" /> On 23 March 1944, the announcement and accompanying citation for Derrick's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the ''London Gazette''. It read:<ref name="LGVC">{{LondonGazette |issue=36436 |date=23 March 1944 |startpage=1361 |supp=yes |accessdate=27 July 2008}} (VC)</ref>

{{quote |
''Government House, Canberra. 23rd March 1944.''

The KING has been graciously pleased to approve the award of the VICTORIA CROSS to:-

Sergeant Thomas Currie Derrick, D.C.M., Australian Military Forces.

For most conspicuous courage, outstanding leadership and devotion to duty during the final assault on Sattelberg in November, 1943.

Undoubtedly Sergeant Derrick's fine leadership and refusal to admit defeat, in the face of a seemingly impossible situation, resulted in the capture of Sattelberg. His outstanding gallantry, thoroughness and devotion to duty were an inspiration not only to his platoon and company but to the whole Battalion.
}}

==== Later war service ====
The 2/48th Battalion remained at Sattelberg until late December 1943, when it returned to the coast in order to regroup.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=147}} On Christmas Eve, Derrick noted in his diary that the next day would be his "4th Xmas overseas" and "I don't care where I spend the next one I only hope I'm still on deck [alive]".{{sfn|Johnston|1996|p=19}} On 7 February 1944, the battalion sailed from Finschhafen for Australia, disembarking at [[Brisbane]].<ref name="ServRec" /> Granted home leave, Derrick made his way to South Australia for a short period with Beryl.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=147}} In April, he was admitted to hospital suffering from [[malaria]] before returning to his battalion the following month. During this time, he was charged with being absent without leave and subsequently forfeited a day's pay.<ref name="ServRec" />

[[File:Reg Saunders with Tom Derrick 1944.jpg|thumb|alt=Two smiling men in military uniform shaking hands.|left|225px|[[Reg Saunders]] and Tom Derrick congratulate each other on receiving their commissions]]

On 20 August 1944, Derrick was posted to an officer cadet training unit in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]].<ref name="ServRec" /> He requested that he be allowed to rejoin the 2/48th Battalion at the end of the course;{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=147}} contrary to normal Army policy that prevented officers commissioned from the ranks from returning to their previous units. An exemption was granted to Derrick only after much lobbying.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=34}}{{sfn|Long|1963|p=77}} While at this unit, Derrick shared a tent with [[Reg Saunders]], who later became the Army's first [[Indigenous Australian]] officer.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}}

[[Officer (armed forces)|Commissioned]] as a [[first lieutenant|lieutenant]] on 26 November 1944, Derrick was granted twenty-four days leave.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}<ref name="ServRec" /> Returning to the 2/48th Battalion as a reinforcement officer, his appointment as a [[platoon]] commander in his old company was met by "great jubilation".<ref name="Burness" /> During this period, the battalion had been posted to [[Ravenshoe, Queensland|Ravenshoe]] on the [[Atherton Tablelands]] for "an extensive training period", before being transported from Cairns to [[Morotai]] during April 1945.<ref name="2/48" /><ref name="ServRec" /> It was around this time that Derrick converted from his [[Church of England]] religious denomination and [[Salvation Army|Salvationist]] beliefs to [[Catholicism]]—his wife's religion—though he was not overtly religious.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=148}}{{sfn|Horner|2002|p=69}}

On 1 May 1945, Derrick took part in the [[Battle of Tarakan (1945)|landing at Tarakan]]; an island off the coast of [[Borneo]].{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=71}} Under the cover of a naval and aerial bombardment,{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=148–149}} he led his men ashore in the initial waves of the landing, where they were initially posted at the boundary of the 2/48th Battalion and 2/24th Battalion's area of responsibility.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=71}} The Japanese force on the island mounted a determined resistance, and Derrick was later quoted in the [[Herald Sun|''Sunday Sun'']] as saying he had "never struck anything so tough as the Japanese on Tarakan".{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=137}}

[[File:Derrick grave (AWM 108261).jpg|thumb|alt=A group of men in military uniform gathered around a grave.|225px|Men of the 2/48th Battalion gathered around Derrick's grave during his funeral.]]

Slowly pushing inland,{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=148–149}} the 2/48th Battalion's main task from 19 May was to capture a heavily defended hill code-named ''Freda''.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=141}} Derrick's platoon unsuccessfully probed Japanese positions on that day and the next, at a loss of two men killed with others wounded. He later recorded in his diary that these setbacks were a "bad show".{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=142}} On 21 May, Derrick and Lieutenant Colonel Bob Ainslie, the 2/48th Battalion's commander, debated the optimum size of the unit which should be used to capture the ''Freda'' position. Derrick successfully argued that a [[Company (military unit)|company]] was best, given the restrictions posed by the terrain. He was in high spirits that night, possibly in an attempt to lift his platoon's morale.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=143}} On 22 May, Derrick's was one of two platoons that attacked a well-defended knoll and captured the position. Derrick played a key role in this action, and coordinated both platoons during the final assault that afternoon.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|pp=143–144}}

After capturing the knoll, the two platoons—reinforced by two sections of the [[2/4th Cavalry Commando Squadron (Australia)|2/4th Commando Squadron]]—dug in to await an expected Japanese counter-attack. At about 03:30 on 23 May, a Japanese light machine gun fired into the Australian position.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=144}} Derrick sat upright to see if his men were all right, and was hit by five bullets from the gun's second burst; striking him from his left hip to the right of his chest.<ref name="ADB" /> His runner, "Curly" Colby, dragged him behind cover, but Derrick could not be immediately evacuated as Japanese troops attacked at about 04:00. Derrick was in great pain, and told Colby that he had "had it".{{sfn|Stanley|1997|pp=144–145}} Despite his wounds, he continued to issue orders for several hours. When day broke, it was discovered that Derrick's platoon were directly overlooked by a Japanese bunker—though this would not have been visible during the assault late the previous evening.{{sfn|Long|1963|p=438}}

When stretcher bearers reached the position at dawn, Derrick insisted that the other wounded be attended to first. Derrick was carried off ''Freda'' later that morning, where he was met by the 26th Brigade's commander, Brigadier [[David Whitehead]].{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=145}} The two men briefly conversed before Derrick excused himself, fearing that he had not much time left and wishing to see the padre. Stepping back, Whitehead saluted and sent for Father Arch Bryson.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=148–149}} At the hospital, surgeons found that bullets had torn away much of Derrick's liver; he died on 24 May 1945 during a second operation on his wounds.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}} He was buried in the 2/48th Battalion's cemetery on Tarakan that afternoon,{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}} and later re-interred at the [[Labuan War Cemetery]], plot 24, row A, grave 9.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/search/casualty_details.aspx?casualty=2677104 |title=Derrick, Thomas Currie |accessdate=28 July 2008 |publisher=[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
[[File:J150W-WWII.jpg|150px|thumb|alt=A bronze plaque containing the words listed down the metal: "For Valour: 1939–1945. World War II. T C Derrick VC, DCM. G Gosse GC. W H Kibby VC. L C Matthews GC, MC."|left|[[Jubilee 150 Walkway]] plaque commemorating South Australian Second World War VC and GC recipients]]

Tom Derrick was widely mourned. His widow, Beryl, became prostrate with grief on hearing of his death; many members of the Army were affected,{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}} with one soldier lamenting it felt as if "the whole war stopped".{{sfn|Reid|2000|pp=28–29}} By the time Derrick's death was officially announced on 30 May, most Australians on Tarakan had heard the news and rumours had spread claiming that he had been speared or shot at short range by a sub-machine gun.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}}

The Japanese force on Tarakan learned of Derrick's death and tried to exploit it for [[propaganda]] purposes. They printed a leaflet which began "We lament over the death of Lieutenant General Terick CinC of Allied Force in Tarakan" and later included the question "what do you think of the death in action of your Commander in Chief ...?"{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}} This leaflet reached few Australian soldiers, and had little impact on them. "[[Tokyo Rose]]" also broadcast taunts over "Terick's" death.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=148}}

[[File:Tom Derrick medals.jpg|thumb|alt=A group of eight military medals.|225px|Derrick's medals on display at the Australian War Memorial<ref>Left-to-right, Derrick's medals are: [[Victoria Cross]]; [[Distinguished Conduct Medal]]; [[1939–1945 Star]]; [[Africa Star]]; [[Pacific Star]]; [[Defence Medal (United Kingdom)|Defence Medal]]; [[War Medal 1939–1945]]; [[Australia Service Medal 1939–45]]. References: {{LondonGazette |issue=36436 |date=23 March 1944 |startpage=1361 |supp=yes |accessdate=27 July 2008}}; {{LondonGazette |issue=35908 |date=18 February 1943 |startpage=864 |supp=yes |accessdate=27 July 2008}}; {{cite web |url=http://naa12.naa.gov.au/scripts/imagine.asp?B=6407287&I=1&SE=1 |title=Derrick, Thomas Currie SX7964 |accessdate=11 January 2009 |work=Record Search |publisher=National Archives of Australia|page=17}}</ref>]]

Derrick's reputation continued to grow after his death, and many Australian soldiers recalled any association, however slight, they had with him.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}} To many Australians, he embodied the '[[ANZAC spirit]]',<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vonthoff |first=Tony |year=2005 |title=Military Heroism: An Australian Perspective |journal=Australian Defence Force Journal |publisher=Australian Defence College |location=Canberra |issue=169 |pages=p. 33 |url=http://www.defence.gov.au/publications/dfj/adfj169.pdf#page=33}}</ref> and he remains perhaps the best-known Australian soldier of the Second World War.<ref name="Burness">{{cite journal |last=Burness |first=Peter |year=2005 |title= 'Diver' Derrick |journal=Wartime |publisher=Australian War Memorial |location=Canberra |issue=31 |pages=p. 16 |issn=13282727}}</ref> Historian Michael McKernan later remarked that, for his war service, Derrick had arguably deserved "a VC and two bars ... at El Alamein, at Sattelberg and now at Tarakan".{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=148–149}} In a 2004 television interview, then [[Chief of the Defence Force (Australia)|Chief of the Australian Defence Force]], General [[Peter Cosgrove]], was asked "Who was the best soldier of all time?" After a short pause, he replied: "Diver Derrick". This sentiment was endorsed by General [[Frank Hassett|Sir Francis Hassett]]. Hassett—who, as a lieutenant colonel, had served at Finschhafen with [[II Corps (Australia)|II Corps]] headquarters—stated:{{sfn|Essex-Clark|2005|p=147}}

{{imagequote2
| From what I learnt; not only was Derrick a magnificent soldier, but also a splendid leader who, immediately he saw a tactical problem, fixed it with either personal bravery or leadership imbued with determination and common sense.|General Sir Francis Hassett|''Hassett: Australian Leader''
}}
[[File:TomDiverDerrickBridgeJuly08.jpg|thumb|alt=Long distance photograph of a motorway bridge over a body of water.|left|upright|Tom 'Diver Derrick Bridge, [[Port Adelaide]]]]

Derrick is also remembered for his personal qualities. He was sensitive and reflective. Despite a limited education, he was a "forceful and logical debater, with a thirst for knowledge".{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=148}} Derrick kept a diary, composed poetry, collected butterflies and frequently wrote to his wife, while on active service .{{sfn|Horner|2002|p=69}} Historian [[Peter Stanley]] has compared Derrick's leadership abilities with those of [[Edward Dunlop|Edward 'Weary' Dunlop]], [[Ralph Honner]] and [[Roden Cutler]].{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=148}}

On 7 May 1947, Beryl Derrick attended an investiture ceremony at the [[Government House, Adelaide]], where she was presented with her late husband's Victoria Cross and Distinguished Conduct Medal by the [[Governors of South Australia|Governor of South Australia]], Lieutenant General [[Charles Norrie, 1st Baron Norrie|Sir Charles Norrie]].<ref name="DCM" /><ref name="VC_Recommendation" /> Derrick's Victoria Cross and other medals are now displayed at the [[Australian War Memorial]], [[Canberra]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/virtualtour/valour.asp |title=List of Victoria Crosses at the Memorial |accessdate=27 July 2008 |work=Hall of Valour |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> along with a portrait by [[Ivor Hele|Sir Ivor Hele]].<ref name="ADB" /> A street in the neighbouring suburb of [[Campbell, Australian Capital Territory|Campbell]] and a rest stop in the [[Remembrance Driveway (Australia)|Remembrance Driveway]] between Sydney and Canberra were also named in his honour.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.actpla.act.gov.au/tools_resources/maps_land_survey/place_names/place_search |title=Street search for: "Derrick Street" |publisher=ACT Planning & Land Authority |accessdate=14 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.remembrancedriveway.org.au/driveway-map/default.asp?SECTION=SydneyCanberra |title=Driveway Map |publisher=Remembrance Driveway Committee Inc |accessdate=17 January 2009}}</ref> In 1995, a public park was named the Derrick Memorial Reserve on Carlisle St, [[Glanville, South Australia|Glanville]] in his honour, and his VC citation is displayed on a plaque there.{{sfn|Cooper-Smart|Courtney|2003|pp=299–303}} In June 2008, a newly built bridge over the [[Port River]] on the [[Port River Expressway]] was named the [[Tom 'Diver' Derrick Bridge]] following a public campaign.<ref>{{cite news |title=Name backdown for new Port bridge |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/05/2265672.htm |publisher=ABC News |date=5 June 2008 |accessdate=25 June 2008}}</ref>
{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{refs|30em}}

== References ==
* {{cite book|last=Arthur|first=Max|authorlink=Max Arthur|title=Symbol of Courage: The Men Behind the Medal|year=2005|publisher=Pan Books|location=Chatham, Kent, United Kingdom|isbn=978-0-330-49133-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=Port Adelaide: Tales from a "Commodious Harbour"|last1=Cooper-Smart|first1=John|last2=Courtney|first2=Christine|publisher=Friends of the South Australian Maritime Museum|isbn=978-0-646-42058-5|year=2003|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Essex-Clark|first=John|title=Hassett: Australian Leader|year=2005|publisher=Australian Military History Publications|location=Loftus, New South Wales, Australia|isbn=978-1-876439-65-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnston|first=Mark|title=At the Front Line. Experiences of Australian Soldiers in World War II|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Melbourne, Victoria, Australia|year=1996|isbn=978-0-521-56037-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnston|first=Mark|title=Fighting the Enemy: Australian Soldiers and Their Adversaries in World War II|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Melbourne, Victoria, Australia|year=2000|isbn=978-0-521-78222-7|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Long|first=Gavin|authorlink=Gavin Long|title=The Final Campaigns |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=23|series=[[Australia in the War of 1939–1945]]|year=1963|publisher=Australian War Memorial|location=Canberra, Australia|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Horner|first=David|authorlink=David Horner|title=The Second World War (1): The Pacific|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Botley|year=2002|isbn=978-1-84176-229-6|url=http://books.google.com/?id=AWMA70IwpM4C&dq=Beryl+Derrick|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Macklin|first=Robert|authorlink=Robert Macklin|title=Bravest: How some of Australia's war heroes won their medals|year=2008|publisher=Allen & Unwin|location=Crows Nest, New South Wales, Australia|isbn=978-1-74114-882-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= Maughan|first=Barton|title=Tobruk and El Alamein |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=19|series=Australia in the War of 1939–1945|year=1966|publisher=Australian War Memorial|location=Canberra, Australia|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Reid|first=Richard|title=For Valour: Australians and the Victoria Cross|year=2000|publisher=Work and Turner Pty Ltd|location=Australia|isbn=978-0-642-36802-7|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Stanley|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Stanley|title=Tarakan. An Australian Tragedy|year=1997|publisher=Allen & Unwin|location=Sydney, New South Wales, Australia|isbn=978-1-86448-278-2|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Staunton|first=Anthony|title=Victoria Cross: Australia's Finest and the Battles they Fought|year=2005|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|location=Prahran, Victoria, Australia|isbn=978-1-74066-288-8|ref=harv}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category|Tom Derrick}}

* {{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/fiftyaustralians/14.asp|title=Diver Derrick|accessdate=10 November 2008|work=Fifty Australians|publisher=Australian War Memorial}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.diggerhistory.info/pages-vc/derrick-vc.htm|title=Derrick VC|accessdate=10 November 2008|work=VC Recipients|publisher=Diggerhistory.info}}

{{Featured article}}

{{Authority control|LCCN=n/82/152669}}


{{Persondata
| NAME = Derrick, Thomas Currie
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Derrick, Tom
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Australian [[Victoria Cross]] recipient
| DATE OF BIRTH = 20 March 1914
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Medindie, South Australia]], [[Australia]]
| DATE OF DEATH = 23 May 1945
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Tarakan Island]], [[Borneo]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Derrick, Thomas Currie}}
[[Category:1914 births]]
[[Category:1945 deaths]]
[[Category:Australian Army officers]]
[[Category:Australian military personnel killed in World War II]]
[[Category:Australian World War II recipients of the Victoria Cross]]
[[Category:Jubilee 150 Walkway]]
[[Category:People from Adelaide]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Conduct Medal]]

[[fr:Tom Derrick]]

Tom Derrick

2012-03-20T19:33:43Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 204.113.44.164 (talk) to last version by 204.113.44.166

{{pp-move|expiry=2012-03-21T00:00:00Z|small=yes}}
{{Infobox military person
| image = [[File:T C Derrick 141308.JPG|220px|alt=A head and shoulders portrait of a man in military uniform.]]
| caption = Easten Kennedy
| birth_date = {{birth-date|20 March 1914}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1945|5|24|1914|3|20|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Medindie, South Australia]], Australia
| death_place = [[Tarakan Island]], Borneo
| placeofburial = [[Labuan War Cemetery]]
| nickname = "Himself"
| allegiance = {{flag|Australia}}
| branch = [[Australian Army]]
| serviceyears = 1940–1945
| rank = [[Lieutenant]]
| unit = [[2/48th Battalion (Australia)|2/48th Australian Infantry Battalion]]
| commands =
| battles =
* [[World War II|Second World War]]
** [[North African Campaign]]
** [[Siege of Tobruk]]
** [[First Battle of El Alamein]]
** [[Second Battle of El Alamein]]
** [[South West Pacific theatre of World War II|South West Pacific Theatre]]
** [[New Guinea campaign]]
** [[Salamaua-Lae campaign]]
** [[Borneo Campaign (1945)|Borneo Campaign]]
** [[Battle of Tarakan (1945)|Battle of Tarakan]]
| awards =
{{plainlist |
* [[Victoria Cross]]
* [[Distinguished Conduct Medal]]
}}
| laterwork =
}}

'''Thomas Currie''' "'''Diver'''" '''Derrick''' [[Victoria Cross|VC]], [[Distinguished Conduct Medal|DCM]] (20 March 1914 – 24 May 1945) was an [[List of Australian Victoria Cross recipients|Australian recipient]] of the [[Victoria Cross]], the highest decoration for gallantry "in the face of the enemy" awarded to members of the [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] armed forces. In November 1943, during the [[Second World War]], Derrick was awarded the Victoria Cross for his assault on a heavily defended Japanese position at [[Sattelberg]], [[New Guinea]]. During the engagement, he scaled a cliff face while under heavy fire and silenced seven machine gun posts, before leading his platoon in a charge that destroyed a further three.

Born in the [[Adelaide]] suburb of [[Medindie, South Australia]], Derrick left school at the age of fourteen and found work in a bakery. As the [[Great Depression]] grew worse he lost his job and moved to [[Berri, South Australia|Berri]], working on a fruit farm before marrying in 1939. In July 1941, Derrick enlisted in the [[Second Australian Imperial Force]], joining the 2/48th Battalion. He was posted to the Middle East, where he took part in the [[Siege of Tobruk]], was recommended for the [[Military Medal]] and promoted to corporal. Later, at [[First Battle of El Alamein|El Alamein]], Derrick was awarded the [[Distinguished Conduct Medal]] for knocking out three German machine gun posts, destroying two tanks, and capturing one hundred prisoners.

Derrick returned to Australia with his battalion in February 1943, before transferring to the [[South West Pacific Theatre]] where he fought in the battle to capture [[Lae]]. He returned to Australia the following February, was posted to an officer cadet training unit, and commissioned lieutenant in November 1944. In April 1945, his battalion was sent to the Pacific island of [[Morotai]], an assembly point for the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] invasion of the Philippines. During the fighting on [[Tarakan Island|Tarakan]] in May, he was engaged in action on the heavily defended hill ''Freda'' when he was hit by five bullets from a Japanese machine gun. Derrick died from his wounds on 24 May 1945.

== Early life ==
Derrick was born in the [[Adelaide]] suburb of [[Medindie, South Australia]], on 20 March 1914 to David Derrick, a labourer from [[Ireland]], and his Australian wife, Ada (née Whitcombe). The Derricks were poor, and Tom often walked barefoot to attend [[Sturt Street, Adelaide|Sturt Street]] Public School and later [[Le Fevre Peninsula]] School.<ref name="ADB">{{Australian Dictionary of Biography|last=Gammage|first=Bill|year=1993|id=A130694b|title=Derrick, Thomas Currie (Tom) (1914–1945)|accessdate=27 July 2008}}</ref> In 1928, aged fourteen, Derrick left school and found work in a bakery. By this time, he had developed a keen interest in sports, particularly [[cricket]], [[Australian Rules Football]], [[boxing]] and [[human swimming|swimming]]; his diving in the [[Port River]] earned him the nickname of "Diver".{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=134–135}}

With the advent of the [[Great Depression]], Derrick scraped a living from odd jobs—such as fixing bicycles and selling newspapers—to supplement his job as a baker. When in 1931, the Depression worsened, Derrick lost his bakery job and, with friends, headed by bicycle for the regional town of [[Berri, South Australia|Berri]]—approximately {{convert|225|km|mi}} away—in search of work.<ref name="AWM">{{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/people/8249.asp|title=Lieutenant Thomas Currie 'Diver' Derrick, VC, DCM|accessdate=27 July 2008|work=Who’s who in Australian Military History|publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> Jobs in Berri were hard to come by and Derrick and two friends spent the next few months living in a tent on the banks of the [[Murray River]]. When the annual [[Royal Adelaide Show]] opened that year, Derrick went to the boxing pavilion to accept a challenge of staying upright for three rounds with the ex-lightweight champion of Australia. Although he was knocked down in the second round, he immediately got back to his feet and won the bet; albeit at the cost of a black eye, bruised ribs, and a few bloody noses.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=134–135}}

Eventually, towards the end of 1931, Derrick found work picking fruit at a vineyard in [[Winkie, South Australia|Winkie]], a short distance outside Berri. He later moved onto a fulltime job at a nearby fruit farm, remaining there for the next nine years.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} On 24 June 1939, Derrick married Clarance Violet "Beryl" Leslie—his "one true love" whom he had met at a dance in Adelaide seven years earlier{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=134–135}}—at St Laurence's Catholic Church, [[North Adelaide]].<ref name="ADB" />

== Second World War ==
Derrick did not join up when war broke out in September 1939 but, like many Australians, enlisted after the [[Battle of France|fall of France]] in June 1940.{{sfn|Horner|2002|p=66}} He joined the [[Second Australian Imperial Force]] on 5 July 1940,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww2roll.gov.au/script/veteran.asp?ServiceID=A&VeteranID=671466 |title=Derrick, Thomas Currie |accessdate=27 July 2008 |work=World War II Nominal Roll |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |year=2002}}</ref> and was posted to the [[2/48th Battalion (Australia)|2/48th Battalion]], [[26th Brigade (Australia)|26th Brigade]], as a [[Private (rank)|private]]. Derrick first joined his unit at the [[Wayville Showgrounds]], before basic training at [[Woodside, South Australia|Woodside]].{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=136}}<ref name="2/48">{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/units/unit_11288.asp|title=2/48th Battalion |accessdate=27 July 2008|work= Australian military units |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> Derrick thrived on military life, but found discipline difficult to accept.{{sfn|Horner|2002|p=66}}

In October, the 2/48th Battalion paraded through the streets of Adelaide to [[Mitcham railway station, Adelaide|Mitcham railway station]] prior to its embarkation for the [[Middle East]]. The battalion's voyage overseas was postponed until 17 November, when the unit boarded the SS ''Stratheden''.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=136}} The ship made a stop at Perth, where Derrick was confined onboard for going absent without leave to sightsee. He was soon in more trouble, and was charged and fined for punching another soldier who taunted him over this incident.{{sfn|Horner|2002|p=66}}

=== North Africa ===
On arrival in [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]], the 2/48th Battalion encamped at [[El Kantara]] and began training in desert warfare. For relaxation, the battalion set up athletic events, and Derrick became well known for often winning cross-country races—and for organising a [[Bookmaker|book]] on the outcomes.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=136}} In March 1941, the unit went by train and truck to [[Alexandria, Egypt]], then along the North African coast to [[Cyrenaica]], in [[Libya]], to join the [[9th Division (Australia)|9th Australian Division]].<ref name="2/48" />{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=137}}

[[File:Tom Derrick VC 016247.jpg|thumb|alt=An informal portrait of a man in military uniform holding a rifle.|upright|left|200px|Sergeant T. C. Derrick, November 1943]]

After the 2/48th Battalion completed its training with the 9th Division at Cyrenaica,<ref name="2/48" /> they were moved further along the coast to Gazala. Then, just as they began to dig in, the battalion was abruptly withdrawn to [[Tobruk]] in response to the German [[Afrika Korps]]' advance.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=137}} They entered Tobruk on 9 April 1941, and spent the following eight months [[Siege of Tobruk|besieged]] by [[Axis powers|Axis]] forces.<ref name="2/48" /> While there, Derrick acquired an Italian [[Breda Meccanica Bresciana#Breda machine guns|Breda machine gun]] and regularly led fighting patrols against both German and Italian troops.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=137}} Although Derrick's bravery was noted during the siege, he wrote in his diary about his constant fear of dying.{{sfn|Johnston|1996|p=19}}

On the night of 30 April, the Axis forces assaulted Tobruk's outer defences and managed to capture substantial ground. In response, the 2/48th Battalion was ordered to counter-attack the following evening. During the ensuing engagement, Derrick fought as a section member in the far left flank of the attack. After suffering heavy casualties in what Derrick described as "a bobby dazzler of a fire fight", the battalion was forced to withdraw. Praised for his leadership and bravery during the assault,{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=137–138}} Derrick was immediately promoted to [[corporal]],<ref name="AWM" />{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=137–138}} and recommended for the [[Military Medal]]. The award, however, was never made.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=137–138}}

In late May, Derrick discovered a German posing as a British tank officer and reported him to [[Company (military unit)|company]] headquarters; the man was immediately arrested as a spy.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=138–139}} Following a period of heavy fighting in June, the 2/48th Battalion was placed in reserve for a few days the following month. Promoted to [[platoon sergeant]] in September, Derrick—along with the rest of his battalion—was withdrawn from Tobruk and returned to Palestine aboard [[HMS Kingston (F64)|HMS ''Kingston'']] on 22 October. Disembarking at [[Tel Aviv]], they were given three days' leave in the city, before returning for training.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=138–139}}

Following a period of rest and light garrison duties in [[Syria]], the 2/48th Battalion was rushed to [[El Alamein]], Egypt, to reinforce the British [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|Eighth Army]].<ref name="2/48" /> During the [[First Battle of El Alamein]] on 10 July 1942,{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} Derrick took part in the 26th Australian Brigade's attack on Tel el Eisa.<ref name="2/48" /> In the initial assault, Derrick, against a barrage of German grenades, led an attack against three machine gun posts and succeeded in destroying the positions before capturing over one hundred [[Prisoner of war|prisoners]].<ref name="ADB" />{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} During the Axis counter-attack that evening, the Australian line was overrun by tanks. As the German infantry following the tanks advanced, Derrick's company led a charge against the men.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=138–139}} During the engagement, Derrick managed to destroy two German tanks using [[sticky bomb]]s.<ref name="ADB" />{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} Commended for his "outstanding leadership and courage", Derrick was awarded the [[Distinguished Conduct Medal]] for his part in the fighting at Tel el Eisa.<ref name="DCM">{{cite web|url= http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/awm192/00305/003050480.pdf|title=Recommendation for Thomas Currie Derrick to be awarded a Distinguished Conduct Medal|accessdate=27 July 2008 |format=PDF |work=Index to Recommendations: Second World War |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The award was announced in a supplement to the ''[[London Gazette]]'' on 18 February 1943.<ref name="LGDCM">{{LondonGazette |issue=35908 |date=18 February 1943 |startpage=864 |supp=yes |accessdate=27 July 2008}} (DCM)</ref>

{{quote box
| width = 20em
| align = right
| quote = We could see Diver standing in the carrier, Tommy gun in hand, the top half of his body exposed. It was like a chap riding a horse into a hail of fire. You could hear the bullets splattering off the metal sides of the carrier. I thought, "God, he'll never come out of that."
| source = Private Joe Ratta{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=142–143}}
}}

Promoted to [[sergeant]] on 28 July,{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} Derrick led a six-man reconnaissance on 3 October, successfully pinpointing several German machine gun positions and strongholds; this information was to be vital for the upcoming [[Second Battle of El Alamein]].{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=141}} The El Alamein offensive was launched on 23 October, with the 9th Australian Division taking part.<ref name="2/48" /> At one point during the engagement, Derrick jumped up onto an [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] gun carrier heading towards the Germans. Armed with a [[Thompson submachine gun]] and under intense heavy fire, Derrick attacked and knocked out three machine gun posts while standing in the carrier. He then had the driver reverse up to each post so he could ensure each position was silenced. By the following morning, Derrick's platoon occupied all three posts. The members of the 2/48th Battalion who witnessed Derrick's action were sure he would be awarded the Victoria Cross, though no recommendation was made.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=142–143}}

For part of 31 October, Derrick assumed command of his company after all of the unit's officers had been killed or wounded in fierce fighting.{{sfn|Maughan|1966|pp=714–715}} On 21 November 1942, Derrick was briefly admitted to the 2/3rd Australian Field Ambulance with slight shrapnel wounds to his right hand and buttock.<ref name="ServRec">{{cite web |url=http://naa12.naa.gov.au/scripts/imagine.asp?B=6407287&I=1&SE=1 |title=Derrick, Thomas Currie SX7964 |accessdate=11 January 2009 |work=Record Search |publisher=National Archives of Australia}}</ref> Twelve days later, the 2/48th Battalion left El Alamein and returned to Gaza in Palestine,<ref name="2/48" /> where, later that month, Derrick attended a corps patrolling course.<ref name="ServRec" /> In January 1943, the 2/48th Battalion sailed home to Australia, aboard the [[SS Nieuw Amsterdam|S.S. ''Nieuw Amsterdam'']], along with the rest of the 9th Division.<ref name="2/48" />{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=144–145}}

=== South West Pacific ===
Disembarking at [[Port Melbourne]] in late February 1943,<ref name="2/48" />{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=144–145}} Derrick was granted a period of leave and travelled by train to Adelaide where he spent time with Beryl. He rejoined his battalion—now encamped in the outskirts of Adelaide—before they went by train to the [[Atherton Tableland]] for training in jungle warfare. Brought up to full strength by the end of April, the 2/48th Battalion completed its training following landing-craft exercises near [[Cairns, Queensland|Cairns]].{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=144–145}} On 23 July, Derrick was attached to the 21st Brigade Headquarters but admitted to hospital for old injuries to his right eye later the same day.<ref name="ServRec" /> After hospital, Derrick returned briefly to Brigade before rejoining the 2/48th Battalion on 27 August.<ref name="ServRec" />

For much of August, the 2/48th Battalion had been in training for the Allied attack on [[Lae]], in [[Papua New Guinea]].<ref name="ADB" />{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=144–145}} The unit's objective was to land on a strip of land designated as "Red Beach", and then fight their way approximately {{convert|30|km|mi}} west towards Lae. Following a bombardment by American [[Destroyer (ship)|destroyers]], Derrick's wave [[Landing at Lae|landed on the beach]] with minimal casualties on 4 September. Ten days later, the 2/48th Battalion's C Company—led by Derrick's platoon—captured [[Malahang, Papua New Guinea|Malahang]] airstrip, before Lae fell to the Allies on 16 September.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=144–145}} Derrick was scornful of the Japanese defence of Lae, and wrote in his diary that "our greatest problem was trying to catch up" with the retreating Japanese force.{{sfn|Johnston|2000|p=108}}

==== Victoria Cross ====
Following Lae, the 9th Division was tasked to seize [[Finschhafen]], clear the [[Huon Peninsula]] and gain control of the [[Vitiaz Strait]]. By 2 October, one of the division's brigades had gained a foothold on Finschhafen, but soon encountered fierce Japanese resistance. In response to a Japanese counter-attack, the 26th Brigade was transferred to reinforce the Australian position on 20 October and, when the division switched to the offensive in November, the brigade was ordered to capture [[Battle of Sattelberg|Sattelberg]].{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} Sattelberg was a densely wooded hill rising {{convert|1000|m|yd}} and dominating the Finschhafen region;{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}} it was in an assault on this position that Derrick was to earn the Victoria Cross.<ref name="VC_Recommendation">{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/awm192/00305/003050479.pdf |title=Recommendation for Thomas Currie Derrick to be awarded a Victoria Cross |accessdate=15 January 2009 |format=PDF |work=Index to Recommendations: Second World War |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}
</ref>

{{quote box
| width = 20em
| align = left
| quote = First look at the ground made the task a suicide one. Jap bunkers on top could fire down on us and drop grenades down, a very sticky position indeed. Decided to give it a go using 4 and 5 sections. The move off required great courage and nerve and not a single man hesitated.
| source = Sergeant Tom Derrick{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}}
}}

The Australian attack on Sattelberg began in mid-November, with the Japanese slowly giving ground and withdrawing back up the precipitous slopes. Each side suffered heavy casualties, and on 20 November, Derrick—who had been acting as [[company sergeant major]] for the previous month—was given command of B Company's 11 platoon after the unit had "lost all but one of their leaders".{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}} By 22 November, the 2/23rd and 2/48th Battalions had reached the southern slopes of Sattelberg, holding a position approximately {{convert|600|m|yd}} from the summit. A landslide had blocked the only road, so the final assault was made by infantry alone, without supporting tanks.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}

On 24 November, the 2/48th Battalion's B Company was ordered to outflank a strong Japanese position sited on a cliff face, prior to attacking a feature {{convert|140|m|yd}} from the Sattelberg township. The nature of the terrain meant that the only possible route was up a slope covered with [[Imperata cylindrica|kunai grass]] directly beneath the cliffs. Over a period of two hours, the Australians made several attempts to clamber up the slopes to reach their objective, but each time they were repulsed by intense machine gun fire and grenade attacks. As dusk fell, it appeared impossible to reach the objective or even hold the ground already gained, and the company was ordered to withdraw.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}{{sfn|Arthur|2005|pp=440–441}} In response, Derrick replied to his company commander: "Bugger the CO. Just give me twenty more minutes and we'll have this place. Tell him I'm pinned down and can't get out."{{sfn|Reid|2000|pp=28–29}}

[[File:Derrick VC flag 016246.JPG|thumb|alt=A kneeling man in military uniform raising a flag up a flag pole.|upright|200px|Sergeant Tom Derrick hoists the [[Australian Red Ensign]] at Sattelberg, New Guinea]]

Moving forward with his platoon, Derrick attacked a Japanese post that had been holding up the advance. He destroyed the position with grenades and ordered his second section around to the right flank. The section soon came under heavy machine gun and grenade fire from six Japanese posts.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}{{sfn|Arthur|2005|pp=440–441}} Clambering up the cliff face under heavy fire, Derrick held on with one hand while lobbing grenades into the weapon pits with the other, like "a man ...  shooting for [a] goal at basketball".{{sfn|Reid|2000|pp=28–29}} Climbing further up the cliff and in full view of the Japanese, Derrick continued to attack the posts with grenades before following up with accurate rifle fire. Within twenty minutes, he had reached the peak and cleared seven posts,{{sfn|Reid|2000|pp=28–29}} while the demoralised Japanese defenders fled from their positions to the buildings of Sattelberg.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}}{{sfn|Arthur|2005|pp=440–441}}

Derrick then returned to his platoon, where he gathered his first and third sections in preparation for an assault on the three remaining machine gun posts in the area. Attacking the posts, Derrick personally rushed forward on four separate occasions and threw his grenades at a range of about {{convert|7|m|yd}}, before all three were silenced.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}{{sfn|Arthur|2005|pp=440–441}} Derrick's platoon held their position that night,{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}} before the 2/48th Battalion moved in to take Sattelberg unopposed the following morning.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}} The battalion commander insisted that Derrick personally hoist the Australian flag over the town;{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=146–147}} it was raised at 10:00 on 25 November 1943.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}

The final assault on Sattelberg became known within the 2/48th Battalion as 'Derrick's Show'.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=33}} Although he was already a celebrity within the 9th Division, the action brought him to wide public attention.<ref name="Burness" /> On 23 March 1944, the announcement and accompanying citation for Derrick's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the ''London Gazette''. It read:<ref name="LGVC">{{LondonGazette |issue=36436 |date=23 March 1944 |startpage=1361 |supp=yes |accessdate=27 July 2008}} (VC)</ref>

{{quote |
''Government House, Canberra. 23rd March 1944.''

The KING has been graciously pleased to approve the award of the VICTORIA CROSS to:-

Sergeant Thomas Currie Derrick, D.C.M., Australian Military Forces.

For most conspicuous courage, outstanding leadership and devotion to duty during the final assault on Sattelberg in November, 1943.

Undoubtedly Sergeant Derrick's fine leadership and refusal to admit defeat, in the face of a seemingly impossible situation, resulted in the capture of Sattelberg. His outstanding gallantry, thoroughness and devotion to duty were an inspiration not only to his platoon and company but to the whole Battalion.
}}

==== Later war service ====
The 2/48th Battalion remained at Sattelberg until late December 1943, when it returned to the coast in order to regroup.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=147}} On Christmas Eve, Derrick noted in his diary that the next day would be his "4th Xmas overseas" and "I don't care where I spend the next one I only hope I'm still on deck [alive]".{{sfn|Johnston|1996|p=19}} On 7 February 1944, the battalion sailed from Finschhafen for Australia, disembarking at [[Brisbane]].<ref name="ServRec" /> Granted home leave, Derrick made his way to South Australia for a short period with Beryl.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=147}} In April, he was admitted to hospital suffering from [[malaria]] before returning to his battalion the following month. During this time, he was charged with being absent without leave and subsequently forfeited a day's pay.<ref name="ServRec" />

[[File:Reg Saunders with Tom Derrick 1944.jpg|thumb|alt=Two smiling men in military uniform shaking hands.|left|225px|[[Reg Saunders]] and Tom Derrick congratulate each other on receiving their commissions]]

On 20 August 1944, Derrick was posted to an officer cadet training unit in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]].<ref name="ServRec" /> He requested that he be allowed to rejoin the 2/48th Battalion at the end of the course;{{sfn|Macklin|2008|p=147}} contrary to normal Army policy that prevented officers commissioned from the ranks from returning to their previous units. An exemption was granted to Derrick only after much lobbying.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=34}}{{sfn|Long|1963|p=77}} While at this unit, Derrick shared a tent with [[Reg Saunders]], who later became the Army's first [[Indigenous Australian]] officer.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}}

[[Officer (armed forces)|Commissioned]] as a [[first lieutenant|lieutenant]] on 26 November 1944, Derrick was granted twenty-four days leave.{{sfn|Staunton|2005|p=259}}<ref name="ServRec" /> Returning to the 2/48th Battalion as a reinforcement officer, his appointment as a [[platoon]] commander in his old company was met by "great jubilation".<ref name="Burness" /> During this period, the battalion had been posted to [[Ravenshoe, Queensland|Ravenshoe]] on the [[Atherton Tablelands]] for "an extensive training period", before being transported from Cairns to [[Morotai]] during April 1945.<ref name="2/48" /><ref name="ServRec" /> It was around this time that Derrick converted from his [[Church of England]] religious denomination and [[Salvation Army|Salvationist]] beliefs to [[Catholicism]]—his wife's religion—though he was not overtly religious.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=148}}{{sfn|Horner|2002|p=69}}

On 1 May 1945, Derrick took part in the [[Battle of Tarakan (1945)|landing at Tarakan]]; an island off the coast of [[Borneo]].{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=71}} Under the cover of a naval and aerial bombardment,{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=148–149}} he led his men ashore in the initial waves of the landing, where they were initially posted at the boundary of the 2/48th Battalion and 2/24th Battalion's area of responsibility.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=71}} The Japanese force on the island mounted a determined resistance, and Derrick was later quoted in the [[Herald Sun|''Sunday Sun'']] as saying he had "never struck anything so tough as the Japanese on Tarakan".{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=137}}

[[File:Derrick grave (AWM 108261).jpg|thumb|alt=A group of men in military uniform gathered around a grave.|225px|Men of the 2/48th Battalion gathered around Derrick's grave during his funeral.]]

Slowly pushing inland,{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=148–149}} the 2/48th Battalion's main task from 19 May was to capture a heavily defended hill code-named ''Freda''.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=141}} Derrick's platoon unsuccessfully probed Japanese positions on that day and the next, at a loss of two men killed with others wounded. He later recorded in his diary that these setbacks were a "bad show".{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=142}} On 21 May, Derrick and Lieutenant Colonel Bob Ainslie, the 2/48th Battalion's commander, debated the optimum size of the unit which should be used to capture the ''Freda'' position. Derrick successfully argued that a [[Company (military unit)|company]] was best, given the restrictions posed by the terrain. He was in high spirits that night, possibly in an attempt to lift his platoon's morale.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=143}} On 22 May, Derrick's was one of two platoons that attacked a well-defended knoll and captured the position. Derrick played a key role in this action, and coordinated both platoons during the final assault that afternoon.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|pp=143–144}}

After capturing the knoll, the two platoons—reinforced by two sections of the [[2/4th Cavalry Commando Squadron (Australia)|2/4th Commando Squadron]]—dug in to await an expected Japanese counter-attack. At about 03:30 on 23 May, a Japanese light machine gun fired into the Australian position.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=144}} Derrick sat upright to see if his men were all right, and was hit by five bullets from the gun's second burst; striking him from his left hip to the right of his chest.<ref name="ADB" /> His runner, "Curly" Colby, dragged him behind cover, but Derrick could not be immediately evacuated as Japanese troops attacked at about 04:00. Derrick was in great pain, and told Colby that he had "had it".{{sfn|Stanley|1997|pp=144–145}} Despite his wounds, he continued to issue orders for several hours. When day broke, it was discovered that Derrick's platoon were directly overlooked by a Japanese bunker—though this would not have been visible during the assault late the previous evening.{{sfn|Long|1963|p=438}}

When stretcher bearers reached the position at dawn, Derrick insisted that the other wounded be attended to first. Derrick was carried off ''Freda'' later that morning, where he was met by the 26th Brigade's commander, Brigadier [[David Whitehead]].{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=145}} The two men briefly conversed before Derrick excused himself, fearing that he had not much time left and wishing to see the padre. Stepping back, Whitehead saluted and sent for Father Arch Bryson.{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=148–149}} At the hospital, surgeons found that bullets had torn away much of Derrick's liver; he died on 24 May 1945 during a second operation on his wounds.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}} He was buried in the 2/48th Battalion's cemetery on Tarakan that afternoon,{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}} and later re-interred at the [[Labuan War Cemetery]], plot 24, row A, grave 9.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/search/casualty_details.aspx?casualty=2677104 |title=Derrick, Thomas Currie |accessdate=28 July 2008 |publisher=[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
[[File:J150W-WWII.jpg|150px|thumb|alt=A bronze plaque containing the words listed down the metal: "For Valour: 1939–1945. World War II. T C Derrick VC, DCM. G Gosse GC. W H Kibby VC. L C Matthews GC, MC."|left|[[Jubilee 150 Walkway]] plaque commemorating South Australian Second World War VC and GC recipients]]

Tom Derrick was widely mourned. His widow, Beryl, became prostrate with grief on hearing of his death; many members of the Army were affected,{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}} with one soldier lamenting it felt as if "the whole war stopped".{{sfn|Reid|2000|pp=28–29}} By the time Derrick's death was officially announced on 30 May, most Australians on Tarakan had heard the news and rumours had spread claiming that he had been speared or shot at short range by a sub-machine gun.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}}

The Japanese force on Tarakan learned of Derrick's death and tried to exploit it for [[propaganda]] purposes. They printed a leaflet which began "We lament over the death of Lieutenant General Terick CinC of Allied Force in Tarakan" and later included the question "what do you think of the death in action of your Commander in Chief ...?"{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}} This leaflet reached few Australian soldiers, and had little impact on them. "[[Tokyo Rose]]" also broadcast taunts over "Terick's" death.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=148}}

[[File:Tom Derrick medals.jpg|thumb|alt=A group of eight military medals.|225px|Derrick's medals on display at the Australian War Memorial<ref>Left-to-right, Derrick's medals are: [[Victoria Cross]]; [[Distinguished Conduct Medal]]; [[1939–1945 Star]]; [[Africa Star]]; [[Pacific Star]]; [[Defence Medal (United Kingdom)|Defence Medal]]; [[War Medal 1939–1945]]; [[Australia Service Medal 1939–45]]. References: {{LondonGazette |issue=36436 |date=23 March 1944 |startpage=1361 |supp=yes |accessdate=27 July 2008}}; {{LondonGazette |issue=35908 |date=18 February 1943 |startpage=864 |supp=yes |accessdate=27 July 2008}}; {{cite web |url=http://naa12.naa.gov.au/scripts/imagine.asp?B=6407287&I=1&SE=1 |title=Derrick, Thomas Currie SX7964 |accessdate=11 January 2009 |work=Record Search |publisher=National Archives of Australia|page=17}}</ref>]]

Derrick's reputation continued to grow after his death, and many Australian soldiers recalled any association, however slight, they had with him.{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=147}} To many Australians, he embodied the '[[ANZAC spirit]]',<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vonthoff |first=Tony |year=2005 |title=Military Heroism: An Australian Perspective |journal=Australian Defence Force Journal |publisher=Australian Defence College |location=Canberra |issue=169 |pages=p. 33 |url=http://www.defence.gov.au/publications/dfj/adfj169.pdf#page=33}}</ref> and he remains perhaps the best-known Australian soldier of the Second World War.<ref name="Burness">{{cite journal |last=Burness |first=Peter |year=2005 |title= 'Diver' Derrick |journal=Wartime |publisher=Australian War Memorial |location=Canberra |issue=31 |pages=p. 16 |issn=13282727}}</ref> Historian Michael McKernan later remarked that, for his war service, Derrick had arguably deserved "a VC and two bars ... at El Alamein, at Sattelberg and now at Tarakan".{{sfn|Macklin|2008|pp=148–149}} In a 2004 television interview, then [[Chief of the Defence Force (Australia)|Chief of the Australian Defence Force]], General [[Peter Cosgrove]], was asked "Who was the best soldier of all time?" After a short pause, he replied: "Diver Derrick". This sentiment was endorsed by General [[Frank Hassett|Sir Francis Hassett]]. Hassett—who, as a lieutenant colonel, had served at Finschhafen with [[II Corps (Australia)|II Corps]] headquarters—stated:{{sfn|Essex-Clark|2005|p=147}}

{{imagequote2
| From what I learnt; not only was Derrick a magnificent soldier, but also a splendid leader who, immediately he saw a tactical problem, fixed it with either personal bravery or leadership imbued with determination and common sense.|General Sir Francis Hassett|''Hassett: Australian Leader''
}}
[[File:TomDiverDerrickBridgeJuly08.jpg|thumb|alt=Long distance photograph of a motorway bridge over a body of water.|left|upright|Tom 'Diver Derrick Bridge, [[Port Adelaide]]]]

Derrick is also remembered for his personal qualities. He was sensitive and reflective. Despite a limited education, he was a "forceful and logical debater, with a thirst for knowledge".{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=148}} Derrick kept a diary, composed poetry, collected butterflies and frequently wrote to his wife, while on active service .{{sfn|Horner|2002|p=69}} Historian [[Peter Stanley]] has compared Derrick's leadership abilities with those of [[Edward Dunlop|Edward 'Weary' Dunlop]], [[Ralph Honner]] and [[Roden Cutler]].{{sfn|Stanley|1997|p=148}}

On 7 May 1947, Beryl Derrick attended an investiture ceremony at the [[Government House, Adelaide]], where she was presented with her late husband's Victoria Cross and Distinguished Conduct Medal by the [[Governors of South Australia|Governor of South Australia]], Lieutenant General [[Charles Norrie, 1st Baron Norrie|Sir Charles Norrie]].<ref name="DCM" /><ref name="VC_Recommendation" /> Derrick's Victoria Cross and other medals are now displayed at the [[Australian War Memorial]], [[Canberra]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/virtualtour/valour.asp |title=List of Victoria Crosses at the Memorial |accessdate=27 July 2008 |work=Hall of Valour |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> along with a portrait by [[Ivor Hele|Sir Ivor Hele]].<ref name="ADB" /> A street in the neighbouring suburb of [[Campbell, Australian Capital Territory|Campbell]] and a rest stop in the [[Remembrance Driveway (Australia)|Remembrance Driveway]] between Sydney and Canberra were also named in his honour.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.actpla.act.gov.au/tools_resources/maps_land_survey/place_names/place_search |title=Street search for: "Derrick Street" |publisher=ACT Planning & Land Authority |accessdate=14 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.remembrancedriveway.org.au/driveway-map/default.asp?SECTION=SydneyCanberra |title=Driveway Map |publisher=Remembrance Driveway Committee Inc |accessdate=17 January 2009}}</ref> In 1995, a public park was named the Derrick Memorial Reserve on Carlisle St, [[Glanville, South Australia|Glanville]] in his honour, and his VC citation is displayed on a plaque there.{{sfn|Cooper-Smart|Courtney|2003|pp=299–303}} In June 2008, a newly built bridge over the [[Port River]] on the [[Port River Expressway]] was named the [[Tom 'Diver' Derrick Bridge]] following a public campaign.<ref>{{cite news |title=Name backdown for new Port bridge |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/05/2265672.htm |publisher=ABC News |date=5 June 2008 |accessdate=25 June 2008}}</ref>
{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{refs|30em}}

== References ==
* {{cite book|last=Arthur|first=Max|authorlink=Max Arthur|title=Symbol of Courage: The Men Behind the Medal|year=2005|publisher=Pan Books|location=Chatham, Kent, United Kingdom|isbn=978-0-330-49133-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=Port Adelaide: Tales from a "Commodious Harbour"|last1=Cooper-Smart|first1=John|last2=Courtney|first2=Christine|publisher=Friends of the South Australian Maritime Museum|isbn=978-0-646-42058-5|year=2003|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Essex-Clark|first=John|title=Hassett: Australian Leader|year=2005|publisher=Australian Military History Publications|location=Loftus, New South Wales, Australia|isbn=978-1-876439-65-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnston|first=Mark|title=At the Front Line. Experiences of Australian Soldiers in World War II|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Melbourne, Victoria, Australia|year=1996|isbn=978-0-521-56037-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnston|first=Mark|title=Fighting the Enemy: Australian Soldiers and Their Adversaries in World War II|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Melbourne, Victoria, Australia|year=2000|isbn=978-0-521-78222-7|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Long|first=Gavin|authorlink=Gavin Long|title=The Final Campaigns |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=23|series=[[Australia in the War of 1939–1945]]|year=1963|publisher=Australian War Memorial|location=Canberra, Australia|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Horner|first=David|authorlink=David Horner|title=The Second World War (1): The Pacific|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Botley|year=2002|isbn=978-1-84176-229-6|url=http://books.google.com/?id=AWMA70IwpM4C&dq=Beryl+Derrick|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Macklin|first=Robert|authorlink=Robert Macklin|title=Bravest: How some of Australia's war heroes won their medals|year=2008|publisher=Allen & Unwin|location=Crows Nest, New South Wales, Australia|isbn=978-1-74114-882-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last= Maughan|first=Barton|title=Tobruk and El Alamein |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=19|series=Australia in the War of 1939–1945|year=1966|publisher=Australian War Memorial|location=Canberra, Australia|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Reid|first=Richard|title=For Valour: Australians and the Victoria Cross|year=2000|publisher=Work and Turner Pty Ltd|location=Australia|isbn=978-0-642-36802-7|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Stanley|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Stanley|title=Tarakan. An Australian Tragedy|year=1997|publisher=Allen & Unwin|location=Sydney, New South Wales, Australia|isbn=978-1-86448-278-2|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Staunton|first=Anthony|title=Victoria Cross: Australia's Finest and the Battles they Fought|year=2005|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|location=Prahran, Victoria, Australia|isbn=978-1-74066-288-8|ref=harv}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category|Tom Derrick}}

* {{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/fiftyaustralians/14.asp|title=Diver Derrick|accessdate=10 November 2008|work=Fifty Australians|publisher=Australian War Memorial}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.diggerhistory.info/pages-vc/derrick-vc.htm|title=Derrick VC|accessdate=10 November 2008|work=VC Recipients|publisher=Diggerhistory.info}}

{{Featured article}}

{{Authority control|LCCN=n/82/152669}}


{{Persondata
| NAME = Derrick, Thomas Currie
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Derrick, Tom
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Australian [[Victoria Cross]] recipient
| DATE OF BIRTH = 20 March 1914
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Medindie, South Australia]], [[Australia]]
| DATE OF DEATH = 23 May 1945
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Tarakan Island]], [[Borneo]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Derrick, Thomas Currie}}
[[Category:1914 births]]
[[Category:1945 deaths]]
[[Category:Australian Army officers]]
[[Category:Australian military personnel killed in World War II]]
[[Category:Australian World War II recipients of the Victoria Cross]]
[[Category:Jubilee 150 Walkway]]
[[Category:People from Adelaide]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Conduct Medal]]

[[fr:Tom Derrick]]

William Frederick Horry

2012-03-08T16:41:54Z

CanadianLinuxUser:

[[File:Wfh lincoln castle grave.jpg|thumb|The grave of William Frederick Horry, the first person to be hanged by Victorian hangman [[William Marwood]] at Lincoln Castle, 1 April 1872.]]

'''William Frederick Horry''', also known as '''Fred Horry''' (December, 1843 in [[Boston, England]] - 1 April 1872 in [[Lincoln, England]])<ref name=autogenerated1>http://www.stokeuncovered.co.uk/empty/</ref> was the first person to be hanged by [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[Executioner|hangman]] [[William Marwood]],<ref>[http://www.richard.clark32.btinternet.co.uk/hangmen.html The English hangmen 1850 - 1964]</ref> and the first to fall using the [[hanging|long drop]] method.<ref>[http://www.horncastlediscovered.com/william-marwood.htm William Marwood - Hangman - Horncastle Discovered]</ref> He was hanged at [[Lincoln Castle]], [[Lincoln, Lincolnshire|Lincoln]], England on 1 April 1872, aged 28,<ref>[http://uk.geocities.com/becky62655@btinternet.com/1868.html http://uk.geocities.com/becky62655@btinternet.com/1868.html]{{dead link|date=October 2010|bot=AnomieBOT}}</ref> for the murder of his wife, Jane Horry. Related to Grace Horry. <ref name=autogenerated1 />

==Biography and crime==

Horry was born in December 1843, in Boston, Lincolnshire, England. He married Jane in 1866 and they took over the George Hotel together in [[Burslem]], Staffordshire, England. By September 1871, the two were estranged due to Horry's [[alcoholism]] and accusations of Jane's [[infidelity]] with customers. Jane went to live with Horry's father in Boston with their children whilst William stayed at the hotel.

William made attempts to visit his family but due to his abusive behaviour, he was barred from further visits. Unable to maintain the business on his own, he sold the hotel and moved to [[Nottingham, England|Nottingham]]. In 1872, William pleaded with his wife a final time to return with him with their children. After being unsuccessful, he travelled to Nottingham, purchased a [[shotgun]] before returning again to Boston to murder his wife.

==Trial and execution==

At his trial on 31 March 1872, he pleaded [[Insanity defense|insanity]] but the prosecution successfully argued that the crime was premeditated. He was sentenced to death by hanging the following day.

William refused all appeals and was executed by William Marwood on 1 April. William Marwood had never hanged anyone before but persuaded the authorities in Lincoln to allow him to try a new "long drop" method. The long drop method is designed to snap the condemned persons neck instantly, causing unconsciousness and eventually [[asphyxia]]tion, it was considered a more humane method than the existing short drop method that had been used for centuries. The execution went without any complications and Marwood went on to hang 176 people.

A memorial to William Frederick Horry exists in [[Burslem, England|Burslem]], [[Staffordshire]] consisting of a granite [[obelisk]]. William is buried in a simple grave in the Lucy Tower of [[Lincoln Castle]]. The grave (featuring only the initials of the condemned and the date of death) is well preserved and is still visible, along with many other criminals' graves.

The name Horry is still common in the Lincolnshire area, but William's particular line has apparently died out following the [[First World War]].<ref>Boston Standard: Letters to the editor</ref>

==Media coverage==

Execution broadsides were often sold amongst the crowd that usually gathered for hangings and often gave gory details of the crime the condemned was accused of.

{{Quotebox|You feeling Christians pay attention,
And for one moment list to me.
While unto you I'm going to mention,
A sad and dreadful tragedy,
At Boston, in the county of Lincoln,
As no doubt you must have heard,
Of the sad case I now mention,
Which in January has occurred.
O list to the Boston crime with sorrow,
And your pity I now crave,
For the sake of poor Jane Horry,
Who now lies in her lonely grave.
A young man, William Frederick Horry,
With jealous feeling in his breast,
His darling wife he cruelly murdered,
O let us hope she is now at rest.
He went to his father's house on Mondy
And at three o'clock in the afternoon,
With a revolver he shot his wife dead,
As she was entering the dining room.}}

==See also==
* [[Official Table of Drops]] - The long drop method evolved into this standardised method which was used for British hangings until 1964. It is still used in many countries around the world.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Horry, William Frederick
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1843
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1 April 1872
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Horry, William Frederick}}
[[Category:1843 births]]
[[Category:1872 deaths]]
[[Category:People executed for murder]]
[[Category:People executed by hanging]]
[[Category:19th-century executions by the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:People from Boston, Lincolnshire]]
[[Category:Executed English people]]
[[Category:People executed by England and Wales]]

Benutzer:Nicthurne/Talentmanager

2012-03-07T19:22:20Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by Nodtie (talk) to last version by CanadianLinuxUser

{{refimprove|date=September 2009}}
A '''talent manager''', also known as an '''artist manager''' or '''band manager''', is an individual or company who guides the professional career of [[entertainer|artists]] in the [[entertainment industry]]. The responsibility of the talent manager is to oversee the day-to-day [[business]] affairs of an artist; advise and counsel talent concerning professional matters, long-term plans and personal decisions which may affect their career.<ref>[http://www.musicbizadvice.com/qa_how_much_does_the_average_concert_promoter_make_per_year_and_how_hard_is_the_course_of_study.htm MusicBizAdvice Q&A] January 2008</ref>

The roles and responsibilities of a talent manager vary slightly from industry to industry, as do the [[Commission (remuneration)|commissions]] to which the manager is entitled. For example, a music manager's duties differ from those managers who advise [[actor]]s, [[writer]]s, or [[film director|director]]s. A manager can also help artists find an agent, or help them decide when to leave their current agent and identify who to select as a new agent.<ref>Garrison, Larry. ''Breaking Into Acting for Dummies'', Wiley Publishing Inc., 2002, p. 34.</ref> [[Talent agent]]s have the authority to make deals for their clients while managers usually can only informally establish connections with producers and studios but do not have the ability to negotiate contracts.

==Music managers==
A music manager (or band manager) may handle career areas for [[Musical ensemble|bands]] and [[singers]] and [[DJ]]s.

A music manager may be hired by a musician or band, or the manager may discover the band, and the relationship is usually contractually bound with mutual assurances, warranties, performances guarantees, and so forth. The manager's main job is to help with determining decisions related to career moves, bookings, promotion, business deals, recording contracts, etc. The role of music managers can be extensive and may include similar duties to that of a press agent, promoter, booking agent, [[business manager]] (who are usually [[certified public accountants]]), [[Tour promoter|tour managers]], and sometimes even a [[personal assistant]]. Manager's contracts, however, cannot license those responsibilities unto the manager in the same way a state license would empower the agent to do so. Therefore, conflicting areas of interest may arise unless those are clarified in the contract. That said, a manager should be able to read and understand and explain a [[contract]] and study up on the long-term implications of contractual agreements that they, the bands, and the people they do business with, enter into.

Before the manager enters into a with the band, their relationship may be regarded as competing for interest; after a good contract is signed, their interests, obligations and incentives are aligned, and the interest in success is shared.

Responsibilities of a music manager are often divided among many who manage various aspects of a musical career. With an unsigned act, music managers may assume multiple roles: graphic designer, [[publicist]], promoter, and handling money and finances.<ref>[http://www.getsigned.com/trench01.html When Does My Band Need A Manager?] Getsigned.com July 16, 2003</ref> As an artist's career develops, responsibilities may grow, and because of their percentage agreement with the band, the manager's income may grow as well. A music manager becomes important to managing the many different pieces that make up a career in music. The manager can assist singers, [[songwriter]]s, and instrumentalists in molding a career, finding [[Record producer|music producers]], and developing relationships with [[Record company|record companies]], publishers, agents, and the music-loving public. They should carefully consider when certain contributions have been made which would also entitle them to cowriting credits, Executive Producer credit, or Producer credit should they become involved in songwriting, financing works, or actually producing demos and recordings, and should carefully know these jobs and these fees should be considered either as separate from the contract, in addition to the contract, or as free to the musician as clarified in emails and the contract. The duties of an active music manager may include supporting the band's development of a reputation for the musician(s) and building a fan base, which may include mastering and launching a demo CD, developing and releasing press kits, planning promotional activities, creating social network identities for bands, and booking shows. A music manager may be present during recording sessions and should support the artist during the creative process while not interfering between the artist and the producer, but also musicians may also find valuable feedback in 3rd pair of ears and this should be carefully considered as well. They may gain access to a recording studio, photographers, and promotions. He or she will see that CD labels, posters, and promotional materials appropriately represent the band or artist, and that press kits are released in a timely manner to appropriate media. Launching a CD with complementary venues and dates is also a music manager's responsibility.

Early on in an artist's career, the different facets of management and [[marketing]] fall upon either the band itself or, if they have one, their manager. Because the band or artist is relatively unknown initially, promotion, booking, and touring are minimal. A new music manager begins by establishing a clear understanding of what the artist(s) want. This can be accomplished through either a written or verbal [[contract]]. A music manager's first task is to solidify all artist development aspects and then concentrate on product development.

==Compensation==
Striking a tentative compensation agreement that can be renegotiated after three or four months is recommended, and the rate of pay is generally based on [[commission (remuneration)|commission]]s of 15 percent or more of performance and commercial incomes [4]. This amount depends on the level of development the band or artist is at and the experience, networks and resources of the manager. (The less developed the artist and more experienced the manager, the higher the commission.) The artist or band should never agree to circumstances that cannot be terminated or negotiated within a short period of time.<ref>[http://www.mediapositiveradio.com/general/dir/band_manager Band Manager Info at Media Positive Radio]</ref>

==Photography==
Managers usually secure the services of a professional [[photographer]] while the artist is recording. Different 8x10 pictures of the artist can be used for websites, [[compact disc|CD]] labels/jackets, posters, and the [[press kit]]. Cost for high quality shoots vary from $500 for a basic shoot to thousands for several looks. Photographers are not expected to cover material cost. It is important that the manager obtains an agreement upfront confirming license to use the images which will cover the uses necessary, in addition to high resolution digital images on CD. Managers are also advised to have photographs taken before CD designs or artwork goes into production. Managers are also responsible for hiring additional staff when necessary.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
[http://www.beyondoneentertainment.com www.beyondoneentertainment.com] Beyond One Entertainment official website

http://showbizltd.com/_sbl_pages/music_talent.php

{{DEFAULTSORT:Talent Manager}}
[[Category:Entertainment occupations]]
[[Category:Occupations in music]]

[[es:Mánager]]
[[fr:Agent artistique]]
[[no:Manager]]
[[ru:Музыкальный менеджер]]

Benutzer:Nicthurne/Talentmanager

2012-03-07T19:19:54Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by Jimmy7632 (talk) to last version by CanadianLinuxUser

Benutzer:Nicthurne/Talentmanager

2012-03-07T19:17:05Z

CanadianLinuxUser:

Benutzer:Nicthurne/Talentmanager

2012-03-07T19:08:51Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 72.83.77.66 (talk) to last version by CanadianLinuxUser

Benutzer:Nicthurne/Talentmanager

2012-03-07T19:02:22Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 72.83.77.66 (talk) to last version by Richhoncho

Mississippi-Bürgerrechtsaktivisten-Morde

2012-02-23T19:54:25Z

CanadianLinuxUser:

[[File:GoodmanSchwernerChaneyMemorial.JPG|thumb|Memorial to the victims of the Mississippi civil rights workers murders - [[Andrew Goodman]], [[James Earl Chaney]], and [[Michael H. Schwerner]] - Mt. Nebo Missionary Baptist Church, [[Philadelphia, Mississippi]]]]
The '''Mississippi civil rights workers murders''' involved the [[lynching]] of three anti-racism and social justice activists near Philadelphia in [[Neshoba County, Mississippi]] on June 21, 1964, during the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]].

The murders of [[James Chaney]], a 21-year-old [[African American|black]] man from nearby [[Meridian, Mississippi|Meridian]], [[Mississippi]]; [[Andrew Goodman]], a 20-year-old [[White people|white]] [[Jew]]ish [[anthropology]] student from New York; and [[Michael Schwerner]], a 24-year-old white Jewish [[Congress of Racial Equality|CORE]] organizer and former [[social worker]] also from New York, demonstrated the dangers faced by civil rights workers in the South, especially during what became known as "[[Freedom Summer]]", dedicated to voter education and registration. Blacks in Mississippi, as throughout the former Confederacy, lived under [[racial segregation]] and [[Jim Crow]] laws, and had been essentially [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disfranchised]] in Mississippi since the passage of the state constitution of 1890.

==Background==
Blacks led an increasing series of [[civil rights]] activities in the South since World War II. Sit-ins, non-violent demonstrations, and [[Freedom Rides]] were among the actions that had been taken by the [[Congress of Racial Equality]] (CORE), [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP), [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] (SCLC), [[Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee]](SNCC), and other organizations. White volunteers also helped with organizing and supported actions, many of them from northern states.

In 1964, the [[Council of Federated Organizations]] (COFO) a coalition of SNCC, CORE, NAACP, and SCLC in Mississippi planned a summer of voter education and registrations in that state, which had essentially disfranchised black and Native American voters since passage of a new constitution in 1890. They organized volunteers and local activists to work on these issues. [[Michael Schwerner]] and his wife Rita were in [[Meridian, Mississippi|Meridian]] as CORE organizers. He and [[James Earl Chaney]], a local young man, had returned from training in Ohio with [[Andrew Goodman]], a 20-year-old volunteer from New York. Officials of the state of Mississippi and local groups such as the [[Ku Klux Klan]] resented these efforts to change their society of white supremacy, and activists worked at high risk.

Since May 2, 1964, two young black men, Henry Hezekiah Dee, a civil rights activist, and his friend Charles Eddie Moore had been missing from [[Roxie, Mississippi|Roxie]]. Their beaten bodies were found months later, bound to an engine block and railroad rails in a river in [[Warren County, Mississippi|Warren County]]. Most suspected the Klan.<ref name="Ladd">[http://www.jacksonfreepress.com/index.php/site/comments/dredging_up_the_past_why_mississippians_must_tell_our_own_stories/ Donna Ladd, "Dredging Up the Past: Why Mississippians Must Tell Our Own Stories"], ''Jackson Free Press, 29 May 2007, accessed 15 October 2011</ref> (In 2007, [[James Ford Seale]] was tried and convicted of the kidnapping of the two men. They were beaten by several Klansmen and drowned in the river.)

==The lynching==
Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner were lynched shortly after midnight on June 21, 1964, after they had investigated the burning of a church that had agreed to support a [[Freedom School]]. James Chaney was a local [[Freedom Movement]] activist in Meridian, Mississippi; Michael Schwerner was a [[Congress of Racial Equality|CORE]] organizer there from [[New York City|New York]]; and Andrew Goodman, also from New York, was a [[Freedom Summer]] volunteer. The three men had just finished week-long training on the campus of Western College for Women (now part of [[Miami University]]), in [[Oxford, Ohio]], regarding strategies on how to register blacks in the South to vote.<ref name="Miami">{{cite web|title=Freedom Summer|url=http://www.miami.muohio.edu/tangible-traditions/freedom-summer.html|publisher=Miami University|accessdate=October 1, 2011}}</ref>

Local Klansmen were resentful of the activities of Schwerner and other workers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Historic moment reminder of civil rights work|url=http://meridianstar.com/inaug/x681147670/Historic-moment-reminder-of-civil-rights-work|work=[[The Meridian Star]]|first=Fredie|last=Carmichael|date=January 18, 2009|accessdate=September 30, 2011}}</ref> Schwerner, called "Goatee" by the Klansmen, had been based in Meridian since January 1964. His activities included setting up a black community center in the town, organizing a black boycott of a white-owned variety store that refused to hire a black shop assistant, and educating African Americans to register to vote, as they had to deal with discriminatory rules and officials.<ref>{{cite web|title=Slain civil rights workers found|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/slain-civil-rights-workers-found|publisher=History.com|accessdate=October 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Linder|first=Douglas O|title=Michael Schwerner|url=http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/price&bowers/Schwerner.htm|accessdate=October 1, 2011}}</ref> [[Sam Bowers]], the Imperial Wizard of the KKK splinter group [[White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan]], had issued an order to kill the civil rights worker.<ref name=Linder-PriceBowers>{{cite web|title=The Mississippi Burning Trial|url=http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/price&bowers/Account.html|first=Douglas O|last=Linder|authorlink=Doug Linder|accessdate=September 19, 2011}}</ref>

The morning after they returned to Meridian, the three men headed to [[Philadelphia, Mississippi]], 50 miles away in Neshoba County, in order to inspect the ruins of Mount Zion United Methodist Church. The church, a meeting place for civil rights groups, had been burned just five days earlier. Neshoba County was known as a dangerous area for civil rights workers. The County Sheriff [[Lawrence Rainey]] and Deputy Sheriff [[Cecil Price]] were found to be members of the [[White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan]], as were many other residents.<ref name=Linder-PriceBowers />

Aware that their station wagon's license number had been given to members of the [[White Citizens' Council]] and the [[Ku Klux Klan]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Dredging Up the Past: Why Mississippians Must Tell Our Own Stories|url=http://www.jacksonfreepress.com/index.php/site/comments/dredging_up_the_past_why_mississippians_must_tell_our_own_stories/|date=May 29, 2007|first=Donna|last=Ladd|accessdate=September 30, 2011|newspaper=Jackson Free Press}}</ref> before leaving Meridian they informed other [[Council of Federated Organizations]] (COFO) workers of their plans and set check-in times, part of standard security procedures. Late that afternoon, Price, the county deputy, stopped the blue Ford carrying the trio. He arrested Chaney for allegedly driving 35 miles per hour over the speed limit. He also booked Goodman and Schwerner "for investigation" when he took them back to the county jail.

Schwerner, Goodman, and Chaney were each denied telephone calls during their time at the jail.<ref name=Linder-PriceBowers /> COFO workers made attempts to find the three men, but when they called the Neshoba County jail, the secretary followed instructions to deny that the workers were being held there.<ref name=Linder-PriceBowers /> During the hours they were held incommunicado in jail, Price notified his Klan associate [[Edgar Ray Killen]], who assembled fellow Klan members and planned how to kill the three workers.<ref name=Linder-PriceBowers />

After the Klan ambush was set up on the road back to Meridian, Chaney was fined $20, and the three men were ordered to leave the county. Price followed them to the edge of town, where he pulled them over, sounding his police siren. He held them until the Klan murder squad arrived. The KKK took the three men to an isolated spot where they shot Schwerner and Goodman, and beat Chaney before shooting him to death. The Klan drove the CORE car into [[Bogue Chitto National Wildlife Refuge|Bogue Chitto swamp]] and set it on fire. They buried the bodies in an earthen dam, using a bulldozer to cover them.<ref>[http://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim64b.htm#1964csg "Lynching of Chaney, Schwerner & Goodman"]. Civil Rights Movement Veterans</ref>

On June 4, 2000, the journalist [[Jerry Mitchell]], who had been reporting on the case, published data from the autopsy report. It had been withheld from the 1967 trial as the county pathologist had contended that the injuries to Chaney's body had happened during excavation of the grave, which the FBI denied. The report stated Chaney's left arm was broken in one place, his right arm was broken in two places, there was "a marked disruption" of the left elbow joint, and he may also have suffered trauma to the groin area.<ref>{{cite news|title=Experts: Autopsy reveals beating|url=http://orig.clarionledger.com/news/0006/04/04miburn.html|first=Jerry|last=Mitchell|accessdate=September 30, 2011|newspaper=The Clarion Ledger|location=Jackson, MS|date=June 4, 2000}}</ref> A pathologist who examined the bodies at the families' request following their autopsies noted Chaney had suffered "an extreme beating with either a blunt instrument or a chain."<ref>{{cite web|title=Post Mortem Examination Report of the Body of James Chaney|url=http://dev1.shanti.virginia.edu/livedtheology/node/2075|publisher=University of Virginia}}</ref> As the autopsy photographs and x-rays have been destroyed, the injuries could not be confirmed by additional study.

==Reaction==
The national uproar caused by the disappearance of the civil rights workers led [[Lyndon B. Johnson|President Lyndon Johnson]] to force [[J. Edgar Hoover]] and the [[FBI]] to investigate the case. Hoover's antipathy to civil rights groups caused him to resist until Johnson used indirect threats of political reprisals. One hundred and fifty FBI agents<ref name=ADTJCChrono>{{cite web|title=Neshoba Murders Case—A Chronology|url=http://www.crmvet.org/info/csg.htm|publisher=Arkansas Delta Truth and Justice Center|accessdate=September 11, 2011}}</ref> including Major Case Inspector [[Joseph Sullivan (FBI)|Joseph Sullivan]]<ref name=Linder-PriceBowers /> were sent to Neshoba county to investigate. During the investigation, searchers including Navy divers and the FBI discovered the bodies of at least seven other Mississippi blacks, whose disappearances over the past several years had not attracted attention outside of their local communities.

The disappearance of the three activists captured national attention; it took 44 days for investigators to discover where they had been buried. Johnson and civil rights activists used the outrage over their deaths in their efforts to bring about the passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], signed July 2, and the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]].

Mississippi officials resented the outside attention. The Neshoba County Sheriff Lawrence Rainey said, "They're just hiding and trying to cause a lot of bad publicity for this part of the state." The Mississippi governor [[Paul B. Johnson, Jr.|Paul Johnson]] dismissed concern by stating that "they could be in Cuba".<ref>{{cite news|title=Civil Rights: Grim Discovery in Mississippi|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,897227-1,00.html|accessdate=September 30, 2011|newspaper=Time|date=June 22, 2005}}</ref>

==Investigation==
For a while, the trail went cold. When the FBI offered a $25,000 reward for news of the workers' whereabouts, a break came in the case. After paying at least one participant in the crime for details, the FBI found the men's bodies on August 4. They were buried in an earthen dam on Olen Burrage's Old Jolly Farm, six miles southwest of [[Philadelphia, Mississippi]]. Schwerner and Goodman had each been shot once in the heart; Chaney, a black man, had been beaten and shot three times.

Known as "Mr. X", the identity of the informant was a closely held secret by the government for 40 years. In the process of studying the case, journalist [[Jerry Mitchell (investigative reporter)|Jerry Mitchell]] and teacher Barry Bradford uncovered his identity: Maynard King, a highway patrolman who had been tipped off by Klansman Pete Jordan.<ref>Mitchell, Jerry (December 2, 2007). [http://www.clarionledger.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20071203/NEWS/712030343/1001 "Documents Identify Whistle-blower"], ''[[The Clarion-Ledger]]'' (Jackson, MS).</ref>

===Mafia assistance===
In 2007, Linda Schiro testified in an unrelated court case that her late boyfriend, [[Gregory Scarpa Sr.]], a ''capo'' in the [[Colombo crime family]], had been recruited by the FBI to help find the civil rights workers' bodies. She said that she had been with Scarpa in Mississippi at the time and had witnessed his being given a gun, and later a cash payment, by FBI agents. She testified he told her he had threatened a [[Ku Klux Klan|Klansman]] by placing a gun in his mouth, forcing him to reveal the location of the bodies. Similar stories of mafia involvement in the case had been circulating for years, and had been previously published in the New York ''[[Daily News (New York)|Daily News]]'', but had never before been introduced in court.<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=February 20, 2010|title=At Trial of Ex-F.B.I. Supervisor, How to Love a Mobster|work=The New York Times|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/30/nyregion/30agent.html|date=October 30, 2007 | first=Michael | last=Brick}}</ref><ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21534657/ "Witness: FBI used mob muscle to crack ’64 case"], ''[[MSNBC.com]]'', October 29, 2007, Retrieved February 20, 2010</ref>

==Trial==
{{Further|''[[United States v. Price|U.S. v. Cecil Price et al.]]''}}
Because Mississippi officials refused to prosecute the killers for murder, a state crime, the US Justice Department, led by prosecutor [[John Doar]], charged 18 individuals under the [[Force Acts|1870 US Force Act]] with conspiring to deprive the three of their civil rights (by murder). They indicted Sheriff Rainey, Deputy Sheriff Price and 16 other men.

Those found guilty on October 20, 1967, were Cecil Price, Klan [[Imperial Wizard]] [[Samuel Bowers]], [[Alton Wayne Roberts]], [[Jimmy Snowden]], [[Billey Wayne Posey]], [[Horace Barnett]], and [[Jimmy Arledge]]. Sentences ranged from 3 to 10 years. After exhausting their appeals, the seven began serving their sentences in March 1970. None served more than six years. Sheriff Rainey was among those acquitted. Two of the defendants, E.G. Barnett, a candidate for sheriff, and [[Edgar Ray Killen]], a local minister, had been strongly implicated in the murders by witnesses, but the jury came to a deadlock on their charges and the Federal prosecutor decided not to retry them.<ref name=ADTJCChrono /> On May 7, 2000, the jury revealed that in the case of Killen, they deadlocked after a lone juror stated she "could never convict a preacher".

== Aftermath ==
[[Image:Sage Chapel stained glass, Cornell University Ithaca NY USA.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Stained glass window honoring the three men in [[Sage Chapel]], [[Cornell University]].]]
For much of the next four decades, no legal action was taken on the murders.

The journalist Jerry Mitchell, an award-winning investigative reporter for the [[Jackson, Mississippi|Jackson]] ''[[Clarion-Ledger]]'', wrote extensively about the case for six years. Mitchell had earned fame for helping secure convictions in several other high-profile Civil Rights Era murder cases, including the murders of [[Medgar Evers]] and [[Vernon Dahmer]], and the [[16th Street Baptist Church bombing|Birmingham Church Bombing]].

In the case of the civil rights workers, Mitchell developed new evidence, found new witnesses, and pressured the state to take action. Barry Bradford, a high school teacher at [[Adlai E. Stevenson High School (Lincolnshire, Illinois)|Adlai E. Stevenson High School]] in Lincolnshire, Illinois, and three of his students, Allison Nichols, Sarah Siegel, and Brittany Saltiel, joined Mitchell's efforts. Bradford later achieved recognition for helping clear the name of the civil rights martyr [[Clyde Kennard]].

Together the student-teacher team produced a documentary for the National History Day contest. It presented important new evidence and compelling reasons to reopen the case. The team also obtained an interview with [[Edgar Ray Killen]], which helped convince the state to investigate. Partially by using evidence developed by Bradford and the students, Mitchell was able to determine the identity of "Mr. X", the mystery informer who had helped the FBI discover the bodies and end the conspiracy of the Klan in 1964.

Mitchell's investigation and the high school students' work in creating Congressional pressure, national media attention and a taped conversation with Killen prompted action.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miburn.org|title=How Mississippi Burning Was Reopened|publisher=MississippiBurning.org|accessdate=September 21, 2011|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080924115741/http://www6.district125.k12.il.us/~bbradfor/miburn.html|archivedate=September 24, 2008}}</ref> In 2004, on the 40th anniversary of the murders, a multi-ethnic group of citizens in [[Philadelphia, Mississippi]], issued a call for justice. More than 1,500 people, including civil rights leaders and Mississippi Governor [[Haley Barbour]], joined them to voice their desire to revisit the case.<ref>[[David S. Broder|Broder, David S.]] (January 16, 2005), [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A10929-2005Jan14.html "Mississippi Healing"], ''The Washington Post''</ref><ref>[http://www.neshobaDemocrat.com/main.asp?SectionID=20&SubSectionID=330&ArticleID=8254&TM=3095.949 "Statement Asking for Justice in the June 21, 1964, Murders of James Chaney, Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner"].,''The Neshoba Democrat''. June 24, 2004. Retrieved July 7, 2011.</ref>

===2005 trial, verdict and appeal===
On January 6, 2005, a Neshoba County grand jury indicted [[Edgar Ray Killen]] on three counts of murder. When Mississippi Attorney General prosecuted the case, it was the first time the state took action against the perpetrators. Rita Bender, Michael Schwerner's widow, testified in the trial. Afterward she said to the press,
<blockquote>"You're treating this trial as the most important trial of the civil rights movement because two of these three men were white," she said. "That means we all have a discussion about racism in this country that has to continue. And if this trial is a way for you to all acknowledge that, for us to all acknowledge that and to have that discussion openly, then this trial has meaning."<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/17/national/17civil.html?pagewanted=all SHAILA DEWAN, "Widow Recalls Ghosts of '64 at Rights Trial"], ''New York Times'', 17 June 2005, accessed 15 October 2011</ref></blockquote>

On June 21, 2005, a jury convicted Killen on three counts of [[manslaughter]]; he was described as the man who planned and directed the killing of the civil rights workers.<ref>Dewan, Shaila (June 22, 2005), [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F0091EF83A5F0C718EDDAF0894DD404482 "Ex-Klansman Guilty of Manslaughter in 1964 Deaths"], ''The New York Times''</ref> Killen, then 80 years old, was sentenced to three consecutive terms of 20 years in prison. He appealed, claiming that no jury of his peers would have convicted him at the time on the evidence presented. The [[Mississippi Supreme Court]] confirmed the verdict in 2007.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/13/us/13brfs-killen.html|title=Mississippi: Convictions Upheld|work=The New York Times|agency=Associated Press|date=April 13, 2007}}</ref>

==Legacy==
*Outrage at the murders aided passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and 1965 Voting Rights Act.
*Numerous memorials have been erected to the three civil rights activists.
*1989, on the 25th anniversary of the murders, Congress passed a non-binding resolution honoring the three men; Senator [[Trent Lott]] and the rest of the Mississippi delegation refused to vote for it.<ref name="Ladd"/>
*Along with the trial and conviction of Edgar Killen in 2005, journalists and investigators in Mississippi continue to work to solve other murders associated with the civil rights years, as in the 2007 trial and conviction of [[James Ford Seale]] for the 1964 kidnapping and deaths of Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore.<ref name="Ladd"/>

==Cultural references==
===In film===
Several films dramatized the events of that summer. In 1974, a CBS made-for-television movie aired, ''[[Attack on Terror: The FBI vs. the Ku Klux Klan]]'', co-starring [[Wayne Rogers]] and [[Ned Beatty]]. This was followed in 1988 by ''[[Mississippi Burning]]'', with [[Willem Dafoe]] and [[Gene Hackman]]; and in 1990 by ''[[Murder in Mississippi]]'', starring [[Tom Hulce]], [[Blair Underwood]] and [[Josh Charles]]. The sympathetic portrayal of FBI agents in the first two movies angered civil rights activists, who believed the Bureau received too much credit for solving the case and too little condemnation for their previous lack of action in regards to civil rights abuses.{{citation needed|date=October 2011}}

A 2008 documentary entitled ''[[Neshoba (film)|Neshoba]]'' details the murders, the investigation, and the 2005 trial of Edgar Ray Killen. The documentary features statements by many surviving relatives of the victims, other residents of Neshoba county, and other people connected to the civil rights movement. The film also contains footage from the 2005 trial.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.variety.com/review/VE1117938925.html?categoryid=31&cs=1|accessdate=September 30, 2011|newspaper=Variety|date=November 4, 2008|first=Dennis|last=Harvey|title=Neshoba}}</ref>

===In other media===
*Phil Ochs wrote his song, "Here's to the State of Mississippi," about these events.
*[[Tom Paxton]] included the tribute song, "Goodman, Schwerner and Chaney", on his 1965 album, ''Ain't That News''.
*[[Simon & Garfunkel]]'s song, "He Was My Brother," was dedicated to Andrew Goodman, who was their friend and a classmate of Simon's at Queens College.
*In ''[[Song of Susannah]]'' by [[Stephen King]], [[Susannah Dean]] reminisces about her time in Mississippi as a civil rights activist. She thinks about making love to James Chaney and singing the song "[[Man of Constant Sorrow]]".
*The murders were depicted by [[Norman Rockwell]] in an illustration titled ''Southern Justice (Murder in Mississippi)'' published in ''[[Look (American magazine)|Look]]'' in June 1965 as part of a series on civil rights.<ref>{{cite web|title=Murder in Mississippi (Southern Justice), 1965|url=http://arthistory.about.com/od/from_exhibitions/ig/american_chronicles/aonr_dia_09_20.htm|first=Shelley|last=Esaak|publisher=About.com|accessdate=July 7, 2011}}</ref>
*In the first episode of Season 4 of ''[[Mad Men]]'', [[Don Draper]] dates a girl who mentions knowing Andrew Goodman, which is the first indication of what year Season 4 takes place.
*[[Richard Farina]]'s song, "Michael, Andrew and James", was included in his first Vanguard album, "Celebrations For a Grey Day", released in 1965.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Portal|Mississippi}}
* ''Three Lives for Mississippi'', by William Bradford Huie. University Press of Mississippi, 1965. ISBN 978-1578062478
* ''Mississippi Burning'', by Joel Norst. New American Library, 1988. ISBN 978-0-451-16049-2
* ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FvjGIGHWMFEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Mississippi+Burning&sig=ACfU3U1Ln3dFf5SLFr8I-AczE9shRmA_aw#PPA8,M1 The "Mississippi Burning" Civil Rights Murder Conspiracy Trial: A Headline Court Case]'', by Harvey Fireside. Enslow Publishers. 2002. ISBN 978-0-7660-1762-7
* ''The Mississippi Burning Trial: A Primary Source Account'', by Bill Scheppler. The Rosen Publishing Group. 2003. ISBN 978-0-8239-3972-5
* ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LJD4mjtUgOQC&lpg=PP1&dq=witness%20in%20philadelphia&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false Witness in Philadelphia]'', by Florence Mars. Louisiana State University Press. 1977. ISBN 978-0-8071-0265-7

==External links==
* [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/price&bowers/price&bowers.htm "The Mississippi Burning Trial"] by [[Douglas O. Linder]], [[University of Missouri–Kansas City]]
* [http://www.democracynow.org/2010/8/13/after_over_four_decades_justice_still "After Over Four Decades, Justice Still Eludes Family"] – video report by ''[[Democracy Now!]]''
* [http://vault.fbi.gov/Mississippi%20Burning%20%28MIBURN%29%20Case FBI file on the case]

{{African-American Civil Rights Movement|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mississippi Civil Rights Workers Murders}}
[[Category:1964 in Mississippi]]
[[Category:1964 murders in the United States]]
[[Category:African American history in Mississippi]]
[[Category:History of African-American civil rights]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism in Mississippi]]
[[Category:Ku Klux Klan crimes]]
[[Category:Political violence in the United States]]
[[Category:Racially motivated violence in the United States]]

[[he:רצח פעילי זכויות האזרח במיסיסיפי (1964)]]

Liste der Hurrikane in Südamerika

2012-02-23T15:05:52Z

CanadianLinuxUser:

[[Image:South American hurricane tracks.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Track map of all North Atlantic tropical cyclones affecting South America from 1850 to 2005]]<onlyinclude>
A '''South American cyclone''' is a [[tropical cyclone]] that affects the continent of South America or its countries. The continent is rarely affected by tropical cyclones, though most storms to hit the area are formed in the North [[Atlantic Ocean]].</onlyinclude> Typically, strong upper level winds and its proximity to the equator prevents North Atlantic impacts.<ref name="asktom">{{cite web|year=2004|title=Ask Tom Why|publisher=WGN9 Chicago|accessdate=2006-07-20|url=http://wgntv.trb.com/news/weather/weblog/wgnweather/archives/000098.html |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060427143006/http://wgntv.trb.com/news/weather/weblog/wgnweather/archives/000098.html  |archivedate = 2006-04-27}}</ref> No tropical cyclone has ever affected the Pacific side of South America, while conditions are typically too hostile for many storms to hit the area from the South Atlantic Ocean. Based on climatology, northern [[Venezuela]] and [[Colombia]] have a 1 to 5% chance of a hurricane strike in any given year, while all locations south of 10° N have less than a 1% chance of a direct hit.<ref name="sciencepolicy">{{cite web|author=Pielke, Rubiera, Landsea, Fernández, and Klein|year=2003|title=Hurricane Vulnerability in Latin America & The Caribbean|publisher=National Hazards Review|accessdate=2006-07-20|url=http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/admin/publication_files/resource-1769-2003.21.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> A total of 38 tropical cyclones have affected the continent since 1588.

==Storms in the South Atlantic==
{{main|South Atlantic tropical cyclone}}
The [[South Atlantic Ocean]] is generally inhospitable to the formation of a tropical storm. Although rare, a growing number of subtropical cyclones have developed in the South Atlantic Ocean near [[Brazil]], such as the unofficially-named [[Cyclone Catarina]] of 2004 that made landfall as a Category 2. Since 2011, certain storms have official names, such as [[Subtropical Storm Arani]]. At least one storm has formed near the West Coast of Africa.

==List of tropical cyclones==
===Pre-1900===
<onlyinclude>
*November 4–6, 1588 - [[Cartagena de Indias]] in [[Colombia]] is affected by a hurricane.<ref name="caribcanes">{{cite web|author=Ricardo Garcia-Herrera, Luis Gimeno, Pedro Ribera and Emiliano Hernandez|title=New records of Atlantic hurricanes from Spanish documentary sources|accessdate=2006-07-20|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/tropical/data.htm}}</ref>
*September, 1672 - A hurricane affects [[Caracas]], [[Venezuela]].<ref name="caribcanes"/>
*October 22, 1683 - The island of [[Curaçao]] off Venezuela is impacted by a hurricane.<ref name="caribcanes"/>
*September, 1773 - A hurricane moves across Venezuela<ref name="aoml">{{cite web|author=Michael Chenoweth|year=2006|title=A Reassessment of Historical Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Activity, 1700-1855|accessdate=2006-07-20|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/Chenoweth/chenoweth06.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> and later Colombia.<ref name="caribcanes"/>
*December 13–22, 1822 - A hurricane traverses the southeastern [[Caribbean Sea]] and makes landfall on Venezuela.<ref name="aoml"/>
*October 13, 1847 - Venezuela is affected by a hurricane.<ref name="aoml"/></onlyinclude>
*September 23, 1877 - A 105 mph (170 km/h) [[Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale|Category 2]] hurricane makes landfall on northern Venezuela, causing winds of up to 80 mph in [[Curaçao]].<ref name="1877hurdat">{{cite web|author=NOAA|year=2005|title=1877 Atlantic hurricane season|accessdate=2006-07-20|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/1877.htm}}</ref>
*September 17, 1886 - A Category 2 hurricane parallels the north coast of Venezuela, causing winds of up to 40 mph (65 km/h) in Curaçao.<ref name="1886hurdat">{{cite web|author=NOAA|year=2005|title=1886 Atlantic hurricane season|accessdate=2006-07-20|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/1886.htm}}</ref>
*December 10, 1887 - A tropical storm passes just north of the [[Guajira Department]] of Colombia.<ref name="1887hurdat">{{cite web|author=NOAA|year=2005|title=1887 Atlantic hurricane season|accessdate=2006-07-20|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/1887.htm}}</ref>
*October 8, 1892 - A Category 2 hurricane hits Northern Venezuela and Colombia,<ref name="1892hurdat">{{cite web|author=NOAA|year=2005|title=1892 Atlantic hurricane season|accessdate=2006-07-20|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/1892.htm}}</ref> causing rough seas in Curaçao.<ref name="1892mwr">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=1892|title=1892 Monthly Weather Review|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1892.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>

===1900s===
[[Image:Tropical Storm Bret (1993).jpg|right|thumb|210px|[[Tropical Storm Bret (1993)]] near Venezuelan landfall]]
*September 5, 1911 - [[Curaçao]] experiences a westward moving tropical storm which passes near the northern coasts of [[Venezuela]] and [[Colombia]].<ref name="1911hurdat">{{cite web|author=NOAA|year=2005|title=1911 Atlantic hurricane season|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/1911.htm}}</ref>
*November 2–5, 1932 - A Category 2 hurricane parallels the north coast of Venezuela and Colombia 75 miles (120 km) offshore, causing some damage. Later, it passes to the northeast of [[Providencia Island]], destroying 36 houses and ruining crops.<ref name="1932mwr">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=1932|title=1932 Monthly Weather Review|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1932.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>
*June 27, 1933 - A minimal hurricane moves through northeastern Venezuela. The hurricane destroys several houses, businesses, and fishing boats. Powerful winds cut telephonic and telegraphic communications for several days. The hurricane killed several people, and caused over $200,000 in damage (1933 USD, $3.3 million 2008 USD).<ref name="1933mwr">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=1933|title=1933 Monthly Weather Review|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1933.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>
*October 8, 1954 - [[Hurricane Hazel]] parallels the north coasts of Venezuela and Colombia around 100 miles (160 km) offshore as a Category 3 hurricane, though effects, if any, are unknown.<ref name="1954mwr">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=1954|title=1954 Monthly Weather Review|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1954.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>
*September 25, 1955 - [[Hurricane Janet]] parallels the north coasts of Venezuela and Colombia around 100 miles (160 km) offshore as a Category 4 hurricane, though effects, if any, are unknown.<ref name="1955mwr">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=1955|title=1955 Monthly Weather Review|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1955.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>
*July 20, 1961 - [[Hurricane Anna (1961)|Hurricane Anna]] passes 75 miles (120 km) north of the coast of Venezuela, though effects, if any, are unknown.<ref name="1961mwr">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=1961|title=1961 Monthly Weather Review|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1961.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>
*October 28, 1961 - [[Hurricane Hattie]] moves over [[San Andrés (island)|San Andrés island]] with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h), causing 1 death, 15 injuries, and $300,000 in damage (1961 USD, $2.1 million 2008 USD).<ref name="1961mwr"/>
*October 1, 1963 - [[Hurricane Flora]] strikes [[Tobago]] and remains just offshore of Venezuela as it moves through the Caribbean Sea as a Category 3 hurricane. Damage in Venezuela, if any, is unknown.<ref name="1963mwr">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=1963|title=1963 Monthly Weather Review|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1963.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>
*September 7, 1971 - A tropical depression intensifies into [[Hurricane Edith (1971)|Tropical Storm Edith]] near the north coast of Venezuela. The southern portion of the depression's circulation moves over the northeastern portion of the country.<ref name="tcr1">{{cite web|author=John Hope|year=1971|title=Hurricane Edith Preliminary Report Page 1|publisher=National Hurricane Center|accessdate=2006-11-01|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1971-prelim/edith/prelim01.gif}}</ref> Effects are unknown.
*September 16, 1971 - A tropical depression that later becomes [[Hurricane Irene–Olivia|Hurricane Irene]] crosses the island of Curaçao. Effects are unknown.<ref name="1971mwr">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=1971|title=1971 Monthly Weather Review|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1971.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>
*August 14, 1974 - [[Tropical Storm Alma (1974)|Tropical Storm Alma]] makes landfall on northeastern Venezuela and later dissipates over the mountainous country. Intense rain bands cause a passenger plane to crash on [[Isla Margarita]], resulting in 47 indirect deaths. Damage is unknown.<ref name="Almatcr">{{cite web|author=National Hurricane Center|year=1974|title=Tropical Storm Alma Tropical Cyclone Report|accessdate=2006-11-18|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1974-prelim/alma/prelim01.gif}}</ref>
*August 12, 1978 - [[Hurricane Cora|Tropical Depression Cora]] dissipates near the island of Curaçao, causing no known impact.<ref name="1978mwr">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=1978|title=1978 Monthly Weather Review|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1978.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>
*September 13, 1978 - A tropical depression that later becomes [[Hurricane Greta-Olivia|Hurricane Greta]] forms near the northeastern coast of Venezuela, causing no known damage.<ref name="1978mwr"/>
*September 10–12, 1988 - Outflow bands from [[Hurricane Gilbert]] produce flash flooding in northern Venezuela. The flooding killed five people.<ref name="1988mwr">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=1988|title=1988 Monthly Weather Review|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1988.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>
*October 16–18, 1988 - [[Hurricane Joan-Miriam|Tropical Storm Joan]] strikes northern Venezuela and Colombia. The storm produces flash flooding which kills 11 in Venezuela. In Colombia, rainfall from Joan kills 25, and leaves 27,000 homeless.<ref name="joantcr">{{cite web|author=Dr. Harold P. Gerrish|year=1988|title=Hurricane Joan Tropical Cyclone Report Page 3|publisher=National Hurricane Center|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1988-prelim/joan/prelim03.gif}}</ref>
*August 14, 1990 - Minimal [[1990 Atlantic hurricane season#Tropical Storm Fran|Tropical Storm Fran]] dissipates over northeastern Venezuela, with no known impact.<ref name="frantcr">{{cite web|author=National Hurricane Center|year=1990|title=Tropical Storm Fran Tropical Cyclone Report|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1990-prelim/fran/prelim01.gif}}</ref>
*August 7–9, 1993 - [[Tropical Storm Bret (1993)|Tropical Storm Bret]] moves across northern Venezuela and Colombia. In Venezuela, the storm drops at least 13.35 inches (339 mm) in [[Guanare]]. The rainfall causes mudslides, particularly near the city of Caracas, that cover many low-income housing units. Of the 173 deaths caused by Bret in Venezuela, most occur in the low-income areas near Caracas.<ref name="1993mwr">{{cite web|author=National Weather Service|year=1993|title=1993 Monthly Weather Review|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1993.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> Lack of preparation, including weather forecasters prematurely stating the worst of the storm is over, is part of the problem.<ref name="bretnews">{{cite web|author=John Wade|year=1993|title=Catastrophe in Caracas|publisher=The Herald|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1993/bret/news/mh0809p2.gif}}</ref> In all, 10,000 are left homeless, and damaged totals $25 million (1993 USD, $37 million 2008 USD). In Colombia, Bret causes one death and one injury.<ref name="1993mwr"/>
*July 24–27, 1996 - [[Hurricane Cesar-Douglas|Hurricane Cesar]] moves westward across the southern [[Caribbean Sea]] and crosses over extreme northern Colombia and the [[Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina|San Andrés archipelago]]. Cesar kills 11 people in Colombia due to flooding and mudslides.<ref name="cesardam">{{cite web|author=Associated Press|year=1996|title=Hurricane Douglas leaves at least 35 dead as it crosses from Caribbean to Pacific|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/w/RWB.NSF/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/225921ce1d150f66c1256377003249a6?OpenDocument}}</ref>
*November 13–16, 1999 - Strong waves from [[Hurricane Lenny]] effect the [[Guajira Peninsula]] of Colombia, flooding 1,200 homes and businesses along the northern coastline. In addition, winds and rains from the hurricane causes severe crop damage in the country.<ref name="lennycol">{{cite web|author=Agence France-Presse|year=1999|title=One death blamed on Hurricane Lenny; still threatens Caribbean|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/w/RWB.NSF/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/363875f0d9b2ff82c125683c0041097a?OpenDocument}}</ref> The hurricane kills two in Colombia.<ref name="lennytcr">{{cite web|author=John L. Guiney|year=1999|title=Hurricane Lenny Tropical Cyclone Report|publisher=National Hurricane Center|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1999lenny.html}}</ref>

===2000s===
[[Image:Cyclone Catarina 2004.jpg|right|thumb|210px|[[Cyclone Catarina]] near its landfall in Brazil]]
*September 25, 2000 - [[Hurricane Joyce (2000)|Hurricane Joyce]] dissipates just north of eastern [[Venezuela]], causing no known damage.<ref name="joycetcr">{{cite web|author=Miles B. Lawrence|year=2000|title=Hurricane Joyce Tropical Cyclone Report|publisher=National Hurricane Center|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1999lenny.html}}</ref>
*September 14, 2002 - [[Hurricane Isidore]] crosses over northeastern Venezuela as a tropical depression. Effects, if any, are unknown.<ref name="isitcr">{{cite web|author=Lixion A. Avila|year=2002|title=Hurricane Isidore Tropical Cyclone Report|publisher=National Hurricane Center|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/2002isidore.shtml}}</ref>
*December 4, 2003 - [[Tropical Storm Odette (2003)|Tropical Storm Odette]] produces heavy rainfall of up to 8 inches (200 mm) in [[Colombia]].<ref name="wmo2003">{{cite web|author=World Meteorological Organization|year=2004|title=Final Report of the 2003 Atlantic Hurricane Season|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.wmo.ch/web/www/TCP/Reports/HC26-English.pdf|format=PDF}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
*January 20, 2004 - A [[South Atlantic tropical cyclone#Tropical Cyclone of January 2004|possible tropical storm or depression]] in the South Atlantic Ocean hits eastern [[Brazil]], dropping heavy rainfall in the area.<ref name="jan2004">{{cite web|author=Gary Padgett|year=2004|title=January 2004 Tropical cyclone summary|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/2004/summ0401.txt |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060616151919/http://australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/2004/summ0401.txt  |archivedate = 2006-06-16}}</ref>
*March 28, 2004 - A cyclone, unofficially named [[Cyclone Catarina]], strikes southeastern Brazil with maximum recorded winds of 90 mph (145 km/h).<ref name="2004sum">{{cite web|author=D. H. Levinson|year=2004|title=State of the Climate in 2004|publisher=American Meteorological Society|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://ams.allenpress.com/pdfserv/10.1175%2FBAMS-86-6-Levinson}}</ref> The hurricane damaged more than 30,000 homes and left 1,900 people homeless. The storm also damaged 1,373 businesses and destroyed 50, including a hospital. The storm killed 3, injured 38,<ref name="usatoday">{{cite news|author=Associated Press|title=First South Atlantic hurricane hits Brazil|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.usatoday.com/weather/news/2004-03-28-brazil-storm_x.htm | work=USA Today | date=2004-03-30}}</ref> and caused up to $330 million in damage (2004 USD).<ref name="2004sum"/>
*September 7–9, 2004 - [[Hurricane Ivan]] parallels the north coast of Venezuela as a Category 4 hurricane. Ivan's strong winds forced the closure of several airports. The hurricane also produced heavy rainfall and strong waves.<ref name="afpivan">{{cite web|author=Agence France-Presse|year=2004|title=Hurricane Ivan kills at least 14 in Caribbean|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/SZIE-64NKFE?OpenDocument&rc=2&cc=ven}}</ref> Ivan killed three in the country,<ref name="ivantcr">{{cite web|author=Stacy R. Stewart|year=2004|title=Hurricane Ivan Tropical Cyclone Report|publisher=National Hurricane Center|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/2004ivan.shtml?}}</ref> though overall damage was minor.<ref name="irfc">{{cite web|author=International Federation of the Red Cross|year=2004|title=Caribbean:Hurricane Ivan|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/04/2104.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>
*July 14, 2005 - [[Hurricane Emily (2005)|Hurricane Emily]] passes just north of Venezuela as a strengthening hurricane, causing heavy rains and flooding in the northeastern portion of the country. 64 families were forced to leave their homes when rivers in eastern [[Monagas]] state overflowed their banks, but waters quickly receded. Ships were forced to remain at port while the hurricane passed to the country's north, though restrictions quickly lifted.<ref name="emily">{{cite news|author=News from Russia|year=2005|title=Emily passed Venezuela|accessdate=2006-07-21|url=http://newsfromrussia.com/world/2005/07/15/60604.html}}</ref>
*October 29, 2005 - [[Hurricane Beta (2005)|Hurricane Beta]] hits the Colombian island of [[Providencia]], and tears the roofs off of thousands of homes. High winds also shut down all airports and communications.<ref name="beta">{{cite web|author=[[Adventist News Network]]|year=2005|title=Colombia: Adventists Aid Hurricane Beta Relief Effort on Tiny Island|accessdate=2010-09-26|url=http://news.adventist.org/data/2010/10/1132692838/index.html.en}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
*September 2, 2007 - Strong winds and waves from [[Hurricane Felix (2007)|Hurricane Felix]] leave one person missing in the coastal city of [[Puerto Cabello]].<ref name="afp93">{{cite web|author=Agence French-Presse|year=2007|title= Maximum strength Hurricane Felix aims for Central America|accessdate=2007-09-03|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jqK-v2ow8GjpYjB3tHUvxe5-pNbw}}</ref>
*January 28, 2009 - A cold-core mid to upper-level trough in phase with a low-level warm-core low formed a system over Uruguay and Rio Grande do Sul state in Brazil and moved eastward into the South Atlantic. The system was eventually classified as a subtropical cyclone, making it the only subtropical cyclone on record to effect South America, and the second subtropical system ever recorded in the South Atlantic, with the first being a subtropical cyclone in 1974. Winds exceeded 54 kts on the coast of Uruguay and extreme southern Rio Grande do Sul, and the system produced 300 mm of rainfall or more in 24 hours in some locations of Rocha (Uruguay) and southern Rio Grande do Sul. Fourteen deaths and thousands of evacuees are attributed to the storm with an emergency declared in four cities.
*March 10, 2010 - Unofficially named (by private and public weather centers from Southern Brazil) [[Tropical Storm Anita (2010)|Tropical Storm Anita (90Q)]] affected the coast of southern Brazil. The cyclone develops out of a subtropical cyclone and is one of the rare tropical cyclones developed in South Atlantic Ocean waters.
*Tropical Storm Tomas brings heavy rains to Curacao and South America.

==Listed by month==
39 tropical cyclones have affected South America in most months of the year.

{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
<center>
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Month
! Number of recorded storms affecting South America
|-
| January || 2
|-
| February || 0
|-
| March || 1
|-
| April || 0
|-
| May || 0
|-
| June || 1
|-
| July || 3
|-
| August || 4
|-
| September || 14
|-
| October || 8
|-
| November || 3
|-
| December || 3
|}
</center>

{{Col-2}}
<timeline>
DateFormat=yyyy
ImageSize= width:350 height:auto barincrement:35
Period = from:0 till:15
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
PlotArea = right:10 left:5 bottom:50 top:5

Colors=
id:cat5red value:rgb(1,0.3765,0.3765)
id:minorline value:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.9)
id:line value:rgb(0.5,0.5,0.5)

PlotData=
width:15 textcolor:black shift:(5,-5) anchor:from fontsize:M

bar:Jan from:0 till:2 color:cat5red text:"January"
bar:Feb from:0 till:0 color:cat5red text:"February"
bar:Mar from:0 till:1 color:cat5red text:"March"
bar:Apr from:0 till:0 color:cat5red text:"April"
bar:May from:0 till:0 color:cat5red text:"May"
bar:Jun from:0 till:1 color:cat5red text:"June"
bar:Jul from:0 till:3 color:cat5red text:"July"
bar:Aug from:0 till:4 color:cat5red text:"August"
bar:Sep from:0 till:14 color:cat5red text:"September"
bar:Oct from:0 till:8 color:cat5red text:"October"
bar:Nov from:0 till:3 color:cat5red text:"November"
bar:Dec from:0 till:3 color:cat5red text:"December"

ScaleMajor = gridcolor:line unit:year increment:3 start:0
ScaleMinor = gridcolor:minorline unit:year increment:1 start:0

TextData =
fontsize:M
textcolor:black
pos:(50,25) # tabs:(100-left)
text:"Number of storms affecting South America"

</timeline>
</center>
{{Col-end}}

==Deadliest storms==
Data from South American tropical cyclones is sparse and incomplete, though most tropical cyclones that struck the continent caused multiple deaths. Bret, Joan, Cesar, Gilbert, Catarina, and Ivan all caused their deaths through rainfall or flash flooding.

<center>
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Name
! Year
! Number of deaths
|-
| [[South Atlantic tropical cyclone#Subtropical Storm of January 2009|Subtropical Cyclone of January 2009]] || 2009 || 14
|-
| [[Tropical Storm Bret (1993)|Bret]] || 1993 || 174
|-
| [[Hurricane Joan–Miriam|Joan]] || 1988 || 36
|-
| [[Hurricane Cesar–Douglas|Cesar]] || 1996 || 11
|-
| [[Hurricane Gilbert|Gilbert]] || 1988 || 5
|-
| [[Cyclone Catarina|''Catarina'']] || 2004 || 3
|-
| [[Hurricane Ivan|Ivan]] || 2004 || 3
|-
| [[Hurricane Lenny|Lenny]] || 1999 || 2
|-
| [[Hurricane Hattie|Hattie]] || 1961 || 1
|-
| Unnamed || 1933 || "Several"
|-
| [[Tropical Storm Alma (1974)|Alma]] || 1974 || 0 (47 indirect)
|}
</center>

==Tropical cyclone warnings and watches==
[[Image:SC Breakpoints.JPG|right|thumb|300px|Tropical Cyclone Breakpoints in South America]]
In the event an [[North Atlantic tropical cyclone|Atlantic hurricane]] threatens the northern coast of South America, the [[National Hurricane Center]] defines nine locations as [[tropical cyclone warnings and watches|tropical cyclone warning breakpoints]]. The westernmost is the border between [[Panama]] and [[Colombia]], and the easternmost is [[Georgetown, Guyana]], located at 6.82° N. In the eastern [[Pacific Ocean]], tropical cyclone warning breakpoints extend eastward to the border of Panama and Colombia at 7.23° N.<ref name="breakpoint">{{cite web|author=National Hurricane Center|year=2006|title=Hurricane and Tropical Storm Watch/Warning Breakpoints|accessdate=2006-11-18|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/breakpoints_list.shtml?}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> No Atlantic hurricane has existed south of 6.82° N,<ref name="hurdat">{{cite web|author=Hurricane Research Division|year=2006|title=Hurdat Data for Tropical Cyclones 1851-2005|publisher=[[NOAA]]|accessdate=2006-11-18|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/tracks1851to2005_atl.txt |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060705190625/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/tracks1851to2005_atl.txt  |archivedate = 2006-07-05}}</ref> and no [[Pacific hurricane]] has existed east of 80° W,<ref name="epachurdat">{{cite web|author=Hurricane Research Division|year=2006|title=Hurricane Data for Pacific Hurricanes 1949-2005|publisher=NOAA|accessdate=2006-11-18|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/tracks1949to2005_epa.txt |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060614182321/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/tracks1949to2005_epa.txt  |archivedate = 2006-06-14}}</ref> though in the event a tropical cyclone threatens a region of South America without warnings, additional warning sites can be selected. In addition to warnings on the mainland of South America, the National Hurricane Center defines the entire island of San Andres as a tropical cyclone warning breakpoint.<ref name="breakpoint"/>

Intense [[Hurricane Flora]] in 1963 prompted officials to declare gale warnings for two islands off the north coast of Venezuela.<ref name="flora6">{{cite web|author=Hoose|year=1963|title=Hurricane Flora Advisory 4|publisher=San Juan Weather Bureau|accessdate=2006-11-18|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1963/flora/prenhc/prelim06.gif}}</ref> In 1974, the passage of Tropical Storm Alma warranted the issuance of Gale Warnings for the [[Paria Peninsula|Paria]] and [[Paraguaná Peninsula]]s.<ref name="Almatcr"/> [[Hurricane Joan]] in 1988, [[Tropical Storm Bret (1993)|Tropical Storm Bret]] in 1993, [[Hurricane Cesar-Douglas|Hurricane Cesar]] in 1996, and [[Hurricane Felix (2007)|Hurricane Felix]] in 2007 resulted in tropical storm and hurricane watches and warnings for several locations in South America.<ref name=joan_tcr>{{Cite web|author=NHC|accessdate=2006-11-18|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1988-prelim/joan/prelim08.gif|year=1988|title=Hurricane Joan Tropical Cyclone Report Page 8}}</ref><ref name="bret10">{{cite web|author=NHC|accessdate=2006-11-18|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1993/bret/prenhc/prelim10.gif|title=Tropical Storm Bret Tropical Cyclone Report Page 10|year=1993}}</ref><ref name="cesartcr">{{Cite web|author=Avila|year=1996|title=Hurricane Cesar Tropical Cyclone Report|accessdate=2006-11-18|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1996cesar.html|publisher=NHC}}</ref><ref name="felixpa1">{{cite web|author=Blake & Avila|year=2007|title=Tropical Depression Six Public Advisory One|publisher=NHC|accessdate=2007-09-03|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2007/al06/al062007.public.001.shtml?}}</ref> The threat of [[Hurricane Ivan]] prompted a hurricane watch and a tropical storm warning for the northern coast of Venezuela.<ref name=ivan_tcr>{{cite web|author=Stewart|year=2004|title=Hurricane Ivan Tropical Cyclone Report|publisher=NHC|accessdate=2006-11-18|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/2004ivan.shtml?}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Tropical cyclones}}
* [[List of Atlantic hurricane seasons]]
* [[List of Atlantic hurricanes]]
* [[Tropical cyclone]]
* [[Effects of Hurricane Ivan in the Lesser Antilles and South America]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Featured list}}

[[Category:Atlantic hurricanes| ]]
[[Category:Lists of tropical cyclones by area|South America]]
[[Category:Cyclones in South America| ]]
[[Category:South America-related lists|Tropical cyclones]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of South America Tropical Cyclones}}

Operation Yellow Ribbon

2011-11-11T17:51:52Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 72.77.135.164 (talk) to last version by Cydebot

[[File:Gander_International_Airport_(satellite_view).jpg|thumb| 300px|[[Gander International Airport]] in Newfoundland, Canada played host to 38 airliners, totalling 6,122 passengers and 473 crew, as part of Operation Yellow Ribbon.]]

{{Citations missing|date=September 2009}}
'''Operation Yellow Ribbon''' was commenced by [[Transport Canada]] to handle the diversion of civilian airline flights in response to the [[September 11 attacks]] in 2001. [[Canada]]’s goal was to ensure that potentially destructive air traffic be removed from U.S. airspace as quickly as possible, and away from potential U.S. targets, and instead place these aircraft on the ground in Canada, mostly at military and civilian airports in the Canadian [[Province (Canada)|provinces]] of [[Nova Scotia]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] and [[British Columbia]] (and also several in [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]]) where their destructive potential could be better contained and neutralized. As none of the aircraft proved to be a threat, Canada and Canadians subsequently undertook to play host to the many people aboard the aircraft during the ensuing delay in reaching their destinations.

Canada commenced the operation after the U.S. [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (FAA) [[ground stop|grounded]] all aircraft across the [[United States]]. The FAA then worked with Transport Canada to reroute incoming international flights to airports in Canada.<ref>{{cite news|title=Canada rolls down security shutters|last=Chase|first=Steven|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|date=September 12, 2001|page=A7}}</ref>

During the operation, departing flights, with the exception of police, military, and [[humanitarian aid|humanitarian]] flights were cancelled, marking the first time that Canada shut down its [[airspace]]. As a result of Operation Yellow Ribbon, 255 aircraft were diverted to 17 different airports across the country.

==Deployment of emergency measures==
Immediately after the attacks on the World Trade Center, both [[Transport Canada]] and [[Nav Canada]], the Canadian air navigation agency, activated their emergency measures.

===Transport Canada===
Transport Canada activated its Situation Centre (SitCen) in [[Ottawa]] at 09:21 ET (13:21 [[UTC]]). The SitCen is Transport Canada's emergency operations centre (EOC), originally constructed to deal with [[earthquake]]s along the West Coast and had been used several times prior to September 11, 2001, including during the [[North American ice storm of 1998|ice storms in Ontario and Quebec]] and after [[Swissair Flight 111]] crashed in [[Peggys Cove]], Nova Scotia. As personnel staffed the SitCen, key organizations such as [[Nav Canada]], the [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]], the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP), [[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]] (CSIS), [[Citizenship and Immigration Canada]] (CIC), and [[Canada Customs and Revenue Agency]] (CCRA) were also involved in SitCen operations.

One of the tasks of the SitCen was to maintain contact with other members of the Canadian aviation community, such as the Air Transport Association of Canada and local airport authorities. Their counterparts in the FAA (United States) and other international civil aviation authorities were also kept apprised.

===Nav Canada===
[[Nav Canada]] set up two command centres, the Strategic Command Centre (SCC) and the Tactical Command Centre (TCC).

The SCC, located at the head office in Ottawa and headed by Andy Vasarins, vice-president, operations, oversaw the entire crisis and ensured that information and resources were effectively shared amongst the TCC and other parties.

The TCC was originally a training institute in [[Cornwall, Ontario]], and headed by Kathy Fox, assistant vice-president, air traffic services. Its role in the crisis was to disseminate information amongst airports and [[air traffic control|control towers]]. To facilitate this, general managers from across Canada were present. After the immediate crisis passed, the TCC was relocated to the head office and its operations were merged with the SCC.

==The operation==
The operation officially began at 09:45 ET (13:45 UTC), when the FAA closed down U.S. airspace as a result of the attacks.

===Actions taken by Transport Canada===
After learning that the FAA had closed down U.S. airspace, [[Minister of Transport (Canada)|Transport Minister]] [[David Collenette]] gave orders that Canadian airports be open only for outgoing police, military, and humanitarian flights, and incoming U.S. bound international flights. This was the first time Canada had shut down its airspace.<ref>{{cite news|title=Flight cancellations a Canadian first|newspaper=The Vancouver Sun|date=September 12, 2001|page=A18}}</ref>

About 500 flights were en route to the United States at the time of the attacks. Transport Canada instructed NAV CANADA to give permission for flights that were at least halfway towards their destination to land at the nearest Canadian airport,<ref>{{cite news|title=All flights from Canada halted|last=Gorham|first=Andrew|last2=McArthur|first2=Douglas|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|date=September 12, 2001|page=A14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Cdn airports, offices close; hospitals prepare for wounded from U.S. attacks|last=Baillie|first=Andrea|agency=Canadian Press|date=September 12, 2001}}</ref> depending on their point of origin and remaining fuel.<ref name="WashPost"/> Planes were entering Canadian airspace at a rate of one to two planes per minute.

During the operation, SitCen staff focused on two issues, first where to land the aircraft and how to screen, deplane, and clear tens of thousands of passengers through immigration and customs. CIC and CCRA brought in extra staff from other posts to clear the passengers.

The first airport to receive diverted flights was [[CFB Goose Bay]], which received seven aircraft; fourteen other airports from coast to coast would also receive the diverted flights. As the operation progressed, SitCen staff maintained contact with the affected airports, Collenette, and his deputy, Margaret Bloodworth.

===Atlantic flights===
The operation was a challenge for airports in [[Atlantic Canada]]. Transport Canada asked NAV CANADA to instruct flights coming from Europe to avoid [[Ottawa Macdonald-Cartier International Airport|Macdonald-Cartier International Airport]] in Ottawa, [[Lester B. Pearson International Airport]] in Toronto and [[Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport|Dorval International Airport]] in Montreal as a security measure, since they are among the major—and therefore busiest—airports in Central Canada and Ottawa is the national capital. The majority of incoming flights from Europe were received by Atlantic airports, though some diverted flights did land at Dorval and Pearson.

[[Gander International Airport]], which was the first North American airport on the trans-Atlantic route, took in 39 wide-body aircraft, mostly heading for U.S. destinations. The total number of passengers and crew accommodated at Gander was about 6,600. The total population of [[Gander, Newfoundland and Labrador|Gander]] is fewer than 10,000 people, so the effort in accommodating all of these unexpected guests was monumental. In an interview with [[CNN]]'s [[Aaron Brown]] the following day, [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Jean Chrétien]] said that there were more people at the airport than in the town.

[[Halifax Stanfield International Airport|Halifax International Airport]] handled 40 flights in a similar manner.<ref name="Halifax">{{cite web|url=http://www.hiaa.ca/default.asp?id=190&pagesize=1&sfield=content.id&search=1285&mn=70.1.262.291.656|work=Halifax/Stanfield International Airport Newsroom|title=Airport Acknowledges Tenth Anniversary of September 11th|date=September 9, 2011|accessdate=September 10, 2011}}</ref> [[St. John's International Airport]], [[Greater Moncton International Airport]], [[CFB Goose Bay]] and [[Stephenville International Airport|Stephenville Airport]] handled the remainder of the trans-Atlantic flights.

===Pacific flights===
Most flights coming from Asia to destinations on the United States west coast and points beyond had no other choice but to land at [[Vancouver International Airport]], as it was the only major Canadian airport on the West Coast capable of handling the large airplanes used for trans-Pacific flights.<ref>{{cite news|title=Scores of U.S.-Bound Planes Are Diverted to Canadian Airports|newspaper=The New York Times|date=September 12, 2001|page=A22|author=Reuters}}</ref> Thirty-four flights, carrying 8,500 passengers ended their journeys in Vancouver.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bailey|first=Ian|first2=Francine|last2=Dube|title=Canadians offer homes to stranded: 400 international jets diverted across country|newspaper=The National Post|date=September 12, 2001|page=A7}}</ref>

===Military involvement===
There were also several incidents in which the military escorted jets into Canadian airspace. [[North American Aerospace Defense Command|NORAD]] used Canadian and U.S air force fighters to intercept and escort civilian passenger flights to [[Erik Nielsen Whitehorse International Airport|Whitehorse International Airport]].<ref name="HijackFears"/>

One of the intercepted flights was a [[Korean Air Lines Flight 85|Korean Air Boeing 747]] destined for [[Anchorage, Alaska]], with continued service to [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|JFK]] that was believed to have been hijacked. Concerns about the plane being crashed into [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] led several buildings in the city to be evacuated. Several buildings were also evacuated in [[Whitehorse, Yukon|Whitehorse]] as a precaution.<ref>{{cite news|title=Norad suspected plane was hijacked|last=Tobin|first=Chuck|newspaper=The Whitehorse Star|date=September 12, 2001|page=2}}</ref> The flight ended up running low on fuel, and according to a public affairs official at the airport, there was also a communication problem with the air crew.<ref>{{cite news|title=Korean passenger jet diverted to Whitehorse treated as hijacking: RCMP|agency=Canadian Press|date=September 11, 2001}}</ref> When it landed at the airport, witnesses reported that the RCMP ordered the crew out of the plane at gunpoint.<ref name="HijackFears"/> The entire incident was a misunderstanding caused by a malfunctioning transponder.

[[Global Television Network|Global]] and ''[[The National Post]]'' reported that a similar incident occurred at Vancouver International Airport.<ref name="Global"/><ref name="HijackFears">{{cite news|last=Higgins|first=Michael|first2=Julie|last2=Smyth|title=
Military escorts jets to airports in Whitehorse, Vancouver after hijacking fears|newspaper=The National Post|date=September 12, 2001|page=A9}}</ref> Two U.S. [[F-15 Eagle|F-15]]s escorted an [[Air China]] 747 bound from [[Beijing Capital International Airport|Beijing]] to [[San Francisco International Airport|San Francisco]] onto the airport's north runway. Officials at the airport reported that it was purely a communication problem.<ref name="Global"/><ref name="NAV CANADA"/><ref name="HijackFears"/>

===Reaction===
Prior to landing, most pilots did not inform passengers of the situation or the attacks in order to avoid fear and panic. On some planes, even pilots were unaware of what had happened. [[Global Television Network|Global TV]] quoted one pilot telling reporters: "When we were in the air, we really didn't know what was going on. All we heard was security measures and we were diverted. That was all we knew..."<ref name="Global">{{cite video|title=Global National|medium=television|publisher=Global TV|date=2001-09-11}}</ref>

Only after landing did pilots tell passengers what had happened, sometimes addressing passengers directly in the cabin. On some planes, passengers videotaped the moment when the pilots broke the news. Some passengers talked about what the pilots said before landing. DeNeen Brown of ''[[The Washington Post]]'' quoted Daria Zalewska, whose flight from [[Frankfurt International Airport|Frankfurt]] to [[Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport|Dallas]] was diverted to Pearson as having said that three hours before landing, the pilot announced that the plane was heading through turbulence. "Then he said we were experiencing strong head winds and we had to land in Canada to refuel. When we landed, he said, 'Okay, there's been a terrorist attack.'"<ref name="WashPost">{{cite news|last=Brown|first=DeNeen|title=International Flights Diverted to Canada|work=The Washington Post|date=September 12, 2001|page=E6}}</ref>

Passengers had to wait for hours to disembark because Transport Canada was on high security alert. The RCMP deployed extra personnel to airports so that they could perform a security sweep of each aircraft, lined up on closed runways at most airports. They also increased their presence in the airport terminals.<ref name="Global"/><ref name="TheNational"/>

At some airports, stranded passengers watched television coverage while others talked to the airport chaplains, as at Pearson.<ref name="TheNational">{{cite video|title=The National|medium=television|publisher=CBC|date=2001-09-11}}</ref><ref name="CBC">{{cite web|url=http://archives.cbc.ca/war_conflict/terrorism/clips/1616|title=September 11, 2001|publisher=CBC Archives|date=September 11, 2001|accessdate=2009-07-26}}{{Dead link|date=June 2010}}</ref> Airports had crisis support teams to help them. Some of the passengers were surprised and unhappy to be in Canada. The [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] quoted one woman at [[Calgary International Airport]] telling reporters: "We were going to San Francisco, but unfortunately, we've come to Calgary, instead." Others said that they were fortunate to be safe but still concerned that they would be stuck in Canada. Zalewska said: "We should be so thankful we didn't perish. I'm so happy to be here alive because none of the people who died today had any warning."<ref name="WashPost"/>

The CBC also reported that the operation got thanks from Washington. U.S. Transportation Secretary [[Norman Mineta]] said at a [[White House]] news briefing that "we owe our Canadian neighbours a debt of gratitude for helping us as we redirected...flights and their passengers to airports in Canada."<ref name="TheNational"/><ref name="CBC"/>

==Aftermath==
===Totals===
The actual number of diverted aircraft and passengers varies from each source. Transport Canada said over 33,000 passengers on 224 flights arrived in Canada, whereas Nav Canada said 239 flights. According to Chrétien, the number of flights was anywhere between 225 and 250 and the number of passengers between 30,000 and 45,000.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Data according to Nav Canada<ref name="NAV CANADA">{{cite web |year=2009 |url = http://www.navcanada.ca/NavCanada.asp?Language=en&Content=ContentDefinitionFiles\Newsroom\Backgrounders\911crisis.xml|title = NAV CANADA and the 9/11 Crisis|publisher = [[NAV CANADA]]| accessdate = 2009-03-19 | last= |quote=}}</ref>
|-
!Airport
!Airport Code
!# of Planes
|-
|[[Halifax Robert L. Stanfield International Airport|Halifax International Airport]]
|YHZ
|47
|-
|[[Gander International Airport]]
|YQX
|38
|-
|[[Vancouver International Airport]]
|YVR
|34
|-
|[[St. John's International Airport]]
|YYT
|21
|-
|[[Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport|Winnipeg International Airport]]
|YWG
|15
|-
|[[Toronto Pearson International Airport]]
|YYZ
|14
|-
|[[Calgary International Airport]]
|YYC
|13
|-
|[[Greater Moncton International Airport]]
|YQM
|10
|-
|[[Montreal-Mirabel International Airport]]
|YMX
|10
|-
|[[Stephenville International Airport]]
|YJT
|8
|-
|[[Canadian Forces Base Goose Bay]]
|YYR
|7
|-
|[[Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport|Montréal-Dorval International Airport]]
|YUL
|7
|-
|[[Edmonton International Airport]]
|YEG
|6
|-
|[[John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport]]
|YHM
|4
|-
|[[Erik Nielsen Whitehorse International Airport]]
|YXY
|3
|-
|[[Deer Lake Airport (Newfoundland)|Deer Lake Airport]]
|YDF
|1
|-
|[[Yellowknife Airport]]
|YZF
|1
|-
|
|'''Total'''
|239
|}

Halifax International Airport received the highest number of flights while Vancouver International Airport received the highest number of passengers.<ref name="Halifax"/>

Transport Canada and airports involved in the operation also reported a dramatic increase in traffic at their websites for updated and current information concerning news releases, FAQs, and diverted flight information. Transport Canada reported that on September 12, 2001, the day after the attacks, there were more than 47,000 visits to their web site alone. Halifax International Airport reported that just in the month of September, there were 2.1 million visits to their web site, and in October, half a million. Both numbers are far above the average 40,000 to 50,000 visits a month.<ref name="Halifax"/>

===Consequences for Canada===
[[File:Lufthansa - Airbus A340 (D-AIFC) at Cairo International Airport (April 2009).jpeg|thumb|right|200px|[[Lufthansa]] christened an [[Airbus A340]], registered D-AIFC, Gander/Halifax to honor the two cities that received its stranded flights during Operation Yellow Ribbon.<ref name="Lufthansa">{{cite web|url=http://www.lufthansa.com/online/portal/lh/ca/nonav/local?nodeid=2005408&l=en&cid=1000204|title=Canadian Facts|publisher=Lufthansa|date=|accessdate=2010-02-08}}</ref>]]
Operation Yellow Ribbon had many consequences for Canadians. After the initial task of diverting the flights was over, thousands of stranded passengers and flight crews had to be housed and fed until the crisis was over. During the diversion of flights, some airports, including Vancouver International, were inundated with hundreds of telephone calls from members of the public and the corporate community offering their support. In Ottawa, SitCen staff were also inundated with calls from airports, air carriers, the media, and the general public. On average, SitCen staff received an estimated 5,000 calls a day.

When asked in a CNN interview if he was able to get food to the passengers, the prime minister said that he was able to, and that "many of them have been accommodated in hotels and schools and gymnasiums and so on. And the Canadian authorities and provincial authorities are working... (to make their visitors) in those places as comfortable as possible."

Public efforts to help those affected by Operation Yellow Ribbon led to positive remarks on the subject by people such as Chrétien and his wife, [[Aline Chrétien|Aline]]; the [[United States ambassador to Canada]], [[Paul Cellucci]]; Collenette; [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[Adrienne Clarkson]] and her husband, [[John Ralston Saul]]; and in the provinces, [[premier (Canada)|premier]]s, and [[Lieutenant-Governor (Canada)|lieutenant governor]]s. Airports involved in the effort received messages of thanks from passengers, airlines, residents who took in the passengers, and staff at [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|U.S. immigration]] and [[U.S. Customs Service|U.S. customs]]. [[Edmonton International Airport]] also received a child passenger's drawing of the diverted flights on the ground there, published on page 12 of their 2001 annual report.<ref name="Edmonton">{{cite web|url=http://corporate.flyeia.com/media/7775/49.pdf|title=Edmonton Airports Annual Report 2001|work=Flyeia.com|publisher=Edmonton Airports Authority}}</ref> Some airports also published messages of thanks on their web sites and/or annual reports, like Halifax and Edmonton.<ref name="Edmonton"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hiaa.ca/default.asp?id=190&pagesize=1&sfield=content.id&search=233&mn=70.1.77|title=September 11, 2001 Chronology of Events|work=Halifax International Airport Authority|publisher=hiaa.ca|accessdate=September 22, 2011}}</ref> Many stories of the hospitality given to stranded passengers have come out as a result of the operation.

Some airports were cited for how they handled the crisis. The British Columbia Aviation Council presented its 2001 Airport Management Award to Vancouver International Airport, citing its professional and compassionate handling of the situation, while the Canadian Public Relations Society (Nova Scotia) presented Halifax International an Amethyst Award in the Crisis Communications category to honour the authority's crisis communication response to the situation.

On September 11, 2002, about 2,500 people gathered at Gander International Airport for Canada's memorial service to mark the [[First anniversary of the September 11, 2001 attacks|first anniversary of the attacks]], over which Chrétien, Collennette, and Cellucci and other provincial and local officials presided.<ref name="FirstAnniversary">{{cite news|title='Plane people' recall kindness of strangers; Gander opened heart to stranded passengers|last=MacCharles|first=Tonda|newspaper=Toronto Star|date=September 12, 2002|page=A1}}</ref> Chrétien addressed them: "9/11 will live long in memory as a day of terror and grief. But thanks to the countless acts of kindness and compassion done for those stranded visitors here in Gander and right across Canada it will live forever in memory as a day of comfort and of healing"<ref>{{cite news|title=A salute to Good Samaritans|last=Martin|first=Don|newspaper=The Ottawa Citizen|date=September 12, 2002|page=A4}}</ref> and closed his speech by commending Operation Yellow Ribbon, "You did yourselves proud, ladies and gentlemen, and you did Canada proud."<ref name="FirstAnniversary"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

===Television===
*{{cite video|title=Attack on the USA|medium=television|publisher=CBC News|date=2001-09-11}}
*{{cite video|title=Global National: America Under Attack|medium=television|publisher=Global TV|date=2001-09-11}}

===Newspapers===
*{{cite news|last=Higgins|first=Michael|first2=Julie|last2=Smyth|title=Military Escorts Jets to Airports After Hijacking Fears|work=The National Post|date=September 12, 2001}}

==External links==
*[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0109/12/lt.12.html CNN Interview with Prime Minister Jean Chrétien the day after the attacks]
*[http://www.navcanada.ca/NavCanada.asp?Language=EN&Content=contentdefinitionfiles\newsroom\backgrounders\911crisis.xml NAV CANADA's role in the operation]
*[http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/mediaroom/infosheets-fourdays-6424.htm 11-09-2001 Four Days in September]

{{Airports in Canada}}
{{Sept11}}

[[Category:Aftermath of the September 11 attacks]]
[[Category:Aviation in Canada]]
[[Category:2001 in Canada]]
[[Category:Canada–United States relations]]

[[eu:Xingola Horia Operazioa]]
[[fr:Opération Ruban jaune]]
[[it:Operazione Nastro Giallo]]
[[pt:Operação Yellow Ribbon]]
[[fi:Operaatio Keltainen nauha]]

Sona Mohapatra

2011-07-04T12:20:17Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 182.156.40.99 (talk) to last version by Cydebot

{{Infobox musical artist
|Name = Sona Mohapatra
| Img = Sona Mohapatra FilmiTadka.jpg
| Img_capt = Sona Mohapatra at LAKME FASHION WEEK 2011
| Img_size =
|Background = solo_singer
|Instrument = [[Vocals]]
|Occupation = [[Singer]], [[songwriter]]
|Spouse = Ram Sampath
}}

'''Sona Mohapatra''' is an [[India]]n singer and lyricist.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.indianexpress.com/news/on-a-different-note/608132/ | title = On a different note | date = 19 April 2010 | accessdate = 19 July 2010 | publisher = [[The Indian Express|The Indian Express Group]]}}</ref> Well known in her native India,<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.hindustantimes.com/Monthly-live-web-certs/Article1-562469.aspx | title = Monthly live web-certs | last = Colaco | first = Jana | date = 24 June 2010 | accessdate = 19 July 2010 | work = [[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref> she has performed in concerts across the world and has been featured in albums, singles, concert [[webcast]]s, [[music video]]s, [[Bollywood]] films and advertisements.<ref name=Bold>{{cite news | url = http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/bold-designs/377870/ | title = Bold designs | last = Ojha | first = Abhilasha | date = 28 November 2009 | accessdate = 19 July 2010}}</ref><ref name=First>{{cite web | url = http://www.desihits.com/news/view/first-look-at-sonas-video-diljale-20090824 | title = First Look at Sona's Video 'Diljale' | last = Rashid | first = Zayna | publisher = [[DesiHits]] | date = 24 August 2009 | accessdate = 19 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.californiachronicle.com/articles/yb/146556609 | title = Now, upload your music on the Web and perform live | last = Shah | first = Gouri | work = California Chronicle | date = 23 June 2010 | accessdate = 19 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/news-interviews/Simbu-is-a-talented-singer-Kumaran-/articleshow/6095238.cms| work = [[Times of India]] | title = Simbu is a talented singer: Kumaran | date = 27 June 2010 | accessdate = 19 July 2010}}</ref> In addition to her own material, Mohapatra has recorded remixes of songs by [[David Bowie]], with "[[Let's Dance (David Bowie song)|Let's Dance]]", and [[INXS]], with "[[Afterglow (INXS song)|Afterglow]]", with the latter proving particularly successful.<ref name=American>{{cite web | url = http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/american-twang/350924/ |title = American Twang | last = Jassi | first = Pallavi | date = 20 August 2008 | accessdate = 19 July 2010 | publisher = The Indian Express Group}}</ref>

==Releases==
In 2007, Mohapatra released her debut album, ''Sona'', on [[Sony Records]], which sought to explore the diverse styles of [[rock music|rock]], [[rhythm and blues]], [[Flamenco]], [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]], [[Baul]] and [[Romani music]].<ref name=First/><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.indiantelevision.com/radio_music/y2k6/sep/15sep/sona.htm | title = Sony BMG launches a new album ‘Sona’ | date = 13 September 2006 | accessdate = 19 July 2010 | author = Radio & Music Reporter | publisher = [[IndianTelevision.com]]}}</ref> In 2009, she released the single "[[Dil Jale|Diljale]]".<ref name=First/>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.sonatheartist.com Sona´s Homepage]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Mohapatra, Sona
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mohapatra, Sona}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian female singers]]
[[Category:Indian singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:People from Orissa]]

Horacio Gutiérrez

2011-06-27T18:56:00Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 199.245.163.1 (talk) to last version by Ukexpat

'''Horacio Gutiérrez''' (born in 1948, [[Havana]]) is a virtuoso pianist originally from Cuba. He moved with his family to the United States in 1961, at the age of 13, and studied in Los Angeles with [[Sergey Tarnowsky]] (1882-1976), [[Vladimir Horowitz]]'s first teacher in Kiev, and later at the [[Juilliard School of Music]] under [[Adele Marcus]] (1906-1995), a pupil of Russian pianist [[Josef Lhevinne]]. He later worked extensively with American pianist [[William Masselos]] (1920-1992), a pupil of [[Carl Friedberg]] (1872-1955), who himself had studied with [[Clara Schumann]] and [[Brahms]].

He was first seen on American television in 1966, on one of the famous ''[[Young People's Concerts]]'' with [[Leonard Bernstein]], playing an excerpt from ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]'', by [[Modeste Moussorgsky]]. <ref>http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=lbcoll&fileName=lbypc/0382/0382.db&recNum=29&itemLink=D?lbcoll:3:./temp/~ammem_IglR::</ref>

==Personal life==
A U.S. citizen since 1967, he lives and works in the U.S., and is married to pianist Patricia Asher, another Masselos student. Gutiérrez suffers from bursitis and a chronic back injury.<ref>{{cite news|last=MacMillan|first=Kyle|title=Last-minute pianist was key to fine CSO performance Read more: Last-minute pianist was key to fine CSO performance|url=http://www.denverpost.com/music/ci_16671148|accessdate=21 November 2010|newspaper=The Denver Post|date=21 November 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|quote=Because of a back injury, the pianist Horacio Gutierrez has canceled his appearances with the Mostly Mozart Festival Orchestra tonight and tomorrow at 8 P.M. at Avery Fisher Hall.|title=Horacio Gutierrez Cancels|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/10/arts/horacio-gutierrez-cancels.html|accessdate=21 November 2010|newspaper=New York Times|date=10 August 1993}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Gutierrez Recital Canceled|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/17/arts/gutierrez-recital-canceled.html|accessdate=21 November 2010|newspaper=New York Times|date=17 April 1990|quote=The pianist Horacio Gutierrez has canceled his Carnegie Hall recital tomorrow because of bursitis.}}</ref>

==Performance and awards==
He won the Silver Medal in the 1970 Tchaikovsky competition and was soon presented in all major concert venues by [[Sol Hurok]]'s management, creating a sensation internationally. He has played with all major orchestras and conductors, including [[Lorin Maazel|Maazel]], [[Andrew Davis (conductor)|Andrew Davis]], [[Josef Krips]], [[Rostropovich]], [[David Zinman]], [[Gerard Schwarz]], [[Andrew Litton]], [[Kurt Masur]], [[James Levine]], [[Gennady Rozhdestvensky]], [[Christoph Eschenbach]], [[Zubin Mehta|Mehta]], [[Eugene Ormandy]], [[Valery Gergiev]], [[Seiji Ozawa|Ozawa]], [[Andre Previn|Previn]], [[Erich Leinsdorf|Leinsdorf]], [[Yuri Ahronovich]], [[Klaus Tennstedt|Tennstedt]], [[Vladimir Ashkenazy|Ashkenazy]], [[Daniel Barenboim|Barenboim]] and many others. He has recorded for [[EMI]], [[Telarc]] and [[Chandos Records]].

He taught at New York's [[Manhattan School of Music]] from 2004 to 2009.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*http://www.seldycramerartists.com/www/BioGutierrez.html
*http://www.msmnyc.edu/catalog/facbio.asp?fid=1031042084

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Gutierrez, Horacio
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1948
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gutierrez, Horacio}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:Manhattan School of Music faculty]]
[[Category:University of Houston faculty]]

{{US-pianist-stub}}

[[bg:Орасио Гутиерес]]
[[ja:オラシオ・グティエレス]]
[[ru:Гутьеррес, Орасио]]

Jim Jefferies (Komiker)

2011-05-26T16:22:32Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 86.46.155.100 (talk) to last version by 90.201.251.111

{{BLP sources|date=April 2011}}{{For|the Scottish football manager|Jim Jefferies}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2011}}
{{Infobox comedian
| image =
| name = Jim Jeffries
| birth_name = Geoffery James Nugent
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1977|2|14}}
| birth_place = Sydney
| nationality = Australian
| occupation = Stand-up comedian, writer, actor,
| influences = [[Richard Pryor]], [[Eddie Murphy]],
| notable_work = ''[[Have I Got News For You]]'', ''[[8 out of 10 Cats]]'', "[[Fighting Talk]]"
| website = http://www.jimjefferies.com/
}}

Geoffery James Nugent, aka '''Jim Jeffries''' (born 14 February 1977) is an Australian [[stand-up comedian]] (credited as '''Jim Jefferies''' in the United States because of a [[Screen Actors Guild|SAG]] member with a conflicting name).<ref>http://www.jimjefferies.com/main.php?id=bio</ref>

==Early life==
Born in Sydney, Australia, Jeffries attended school there at [[St Ives High School]].

While living in [[Manchester]], England, Jeffries, his roommate and his girlfiend were victims of a violent burglary. Two intruders broke into their house in [[Whalley Range]] while they were home. Jeffries was hit over the head with a [[machete]] and his girlfriend was tied up while the intruders robbed the house. They stole Jeffries car, but were soon apprehended by the police because they were caught speeding. The burglars got a 12 year sentence for [[grievous bodily harm]], [[aggravated assault]], attempted rape, [[Grand theft auto]] and possession of a Class-A substance.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fr_auJ8w0rA</ref>

==Career==
Jeffries' first achieved international popularity after he was attacked on stage while performing at the [[Manchester]] [[Comedy Store]].<ref>http://www.chortle.co.uk/news/2007/04/16/5226/comic_attacked_on_stage</ref> At one time, Jeffries even incorporated the incident (and its video recording) into his act. This can be seen on his 2008 UK home video release, ''Contraband''. He is now a recognisable name in the USA after his solo debut one hour special on HBO.<ref>http://www.hbo.com/comedy/jim-jefferies-i-swear-to-god/index.html</ref>

Jeffries has performed at numerous festivals, including the [[Edinburgh Fringe]], Montreal Comedy Festival ([[Just for Laughs]]), South African Comedy Festival [[Cape Town]], [[Reading and Leeds Festivals]] and the [[Glastonbury Festival]]. He has appeared on [[BBC television]] shows such as ''[[Never Mind the Buzzcocks]]'', ''[[Have I Got News For You]]'', ''[[The Heaven and Earth Show]]'' and [[8 out of 10 Cats]]. He has also performed spots on ''[[The World Stands Up]]'', ''[[Comedy Blue]]'' and ''[[Edinburgh and Beyond]]'' for the [[Paramount Comedy Channel]].
He has also been featured on various programmes, including [[BBC Radio 5 Live]]'s Saturday morning sports show, ''[[Fighting Talk]]'',<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/fivelive/programmes/fightingtalk.shtml</ref> and is a regular guest on the ''[[The Opie and Anthony Show]]''.<ref>http://www.news-herald.com/articles/2010/02/12/life/nh2035173.txt</ref>
After eight years living in [[North London]], Jeffries has recently relocated to [[Los Angeles]], USA. {{Citation needed|da</ref> te=December 2009|date=August 2010}}

Jim has now started recording a podcast with his fellow comedian and friend [[Eddie Ifft]]. It is recorded from their home in LA and stars themselves along with their friend and hobo scrounger Jason Auer. In a tweet on 28th April 2011, Jim stated that the podcast would be released twice a week

==Selected works==
*''Contraband'' – (5000 limited editions) Released: 10 November 2008 (UK Home Video)
*''Down and Dirty with Jim Norton'' – Broadcast: 3 October 2008; Released: 7 April 2009 (US Home Video)
*''I Swear to God'' – Broadcast: 16 May 2009; Released: 13 October 2009 (US Home Video)
*''Alcoholocaust'' – Released 8 November 2010 (Comedy Central UK DVD)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.jimjefferies.com/ Official site]
*{{MySpace|jimjeffries|Jim Jeffries}}
*[http://www.brettvincent.com Brett Vincent – Management company]
*[http://www.chortle.co.uk/comics/j/400/jim_jeffries Chortle section]
*{{IMDb name|1812944|Jim Jeffries}}
*[http://www.edinburgh-festivals.com/reviews.cfm?id=1205962006&genre=Comedy edinburgh-festivals.com] Review for ''The Second Coming''
*[http://www.paramountcomedy.com/comedy/interviews/article_18.aspx?id=69 Paramount interview]
*[http://www.edcomfest.com/shows/Jim_Jeffries_Hammered Jim Jeffries at Edinburgh Comedy Festival]
*[http://www.e4.com/edinburgh/podcast.html E4 laughs at Edinburgh]
*[http://www.3ammagazine.com/3am/you%e2%80%99ve-got-to-be-obscene-to-be-heard/ Appreciation of Jim Jefferies]

{{Fighting Talk}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Jeffries, Jim
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 14 February 1977
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Sydney, Australia
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jeffries, Jim}}
[[Category:Australian stand-up comedians]]
[[Category:Australian comedians]]
[[Category:Australian television actors]]
[[Category:Australian television personalities]]
[[Category:Australian atheists]]
[[Category:1977 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Sydney]]

[[is:Jim Jefferies]]
[[pt:Jim Jeffries]]

Arnold Palmer (Getränk)

2011-05-20T18:51:03Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 170.158.238.87 (talk) to last version by My76Strat

[[File:YN3ArnoldPalmer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Arnold Palmer]], for whom the drink is named.]]

An '''Arnold Palmer''' is a beverage consisting of half [[iced tea]] and half [[lemonade]] named for [[golfer]] [[Arnold Palmer]].<ref>{{cite book|title=This Golfing Life|pages=181–182|author=Bamberger, Michael|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JcKTKeBO8J0C&pg=PA181&#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The NFL Gameday Cookbook|author=Lampe, Ray & Beisch, Leigh|page=230}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Cooking the Cowboy Way|author=Spears, Grady et al|page=177|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=F_e02lAmY74C&pg=PA177&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> It is often called a half and half.<ref>{{cite web | title=Arnold Palmer Tee FAQ | url=http://www.arnoldpalmertee.com/faqs.asp}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Raichlen on ribs|author=Raichlen, Steven|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=15zAp_RCt6EC&pg=PA273&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=273}}</ref>

Innovative Flavors from [[Orlando, Florida]] now licenses the drink to beverage companies such as the [[Arizona Beverage Company]].

A [[John Daly (drink)|John Daly]] is an alcoholic mixed drink based on the Arnold Palmer.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tart Restaurant menu|url=http://tartrestaurant.com/index.php?section=product&subsection=product_details&product_id=319}}</ref>

Lemonade iced tea is also sold under other names, such as [[Country Time]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Time Lemonade Iced Tea|url=http://brands.kraftfoods.com/countrytime/ct_ingredients_IcedT_6.html}}</ref> and [[Sweet Leaf Tea Company|Sweet Leaf]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sweetleaftea.com/#/flavors/half+%2526+half+lemonade+tea|title=Sweet Leaf Half & Half}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Arnold Palmer (Drink)}}
[[Category:Non-alcoholic mixed drinks]]
[[Category:Cuisine of the Western United States]]

{{soft-drink-stub}}
{{mixed-drink-stub}}

Cock Lane Ghost

2011-04-01T17:26:58Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 86.146.168.231 (talk) to last version by Parrot of Doom

{{Use British English|date=April 2011}}{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}
[[File:Cock lane ghost.png|250px|thumb|alt=A monochrome illustration of a narrow street, viewed from a corner, or intersection. A large three-storey building is visible on the right of the image. The ground floor has three windows, the first and second floors have two windows each. The roof appears to contain a row of windows, for a loft space. The word "KING" is written between the first and second floors, and a sign, "Gas meter maker" hangs above the ground floor windows.|A 19th-century illustration of Cock Lane. The haunting took place in the three-storey building on the right.]]
The '''Cock Lane ghost''' attracted mass public attention in 18th-century England. In 1762 an apartment in [[Cock Lane]], a short road adjacent to London's [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]] market and a few minutes' walk from [[St Paul's Cathedral]], was the site of a reported haunting centred around three people: William Kent, a [[usury|usurer]] from Norfolk, Richard Parsons, a parish clerk, and Parsons' daughter Elizabeth.

Following the death during childbirth of Kent's wife, Elizabeth Lynes, he became romantically involved with her sister, Fanny. [[Canon law]] prevented the couple from marrying, but they nevertheless moved to London and lodged at the property in Cock Lane, then owned by Parsons. Several accounts of strange knocking sounds and ghostly apparitions were reported, although for the most part they stopped after the couple moved out, but following Fanny's death from [[smallpox]], and Kent's successful legal action against Parsons over an outstanding debt, they began again. Parsons claimed that Fanny's ghost haunted his property, and later his daughter. Regular séances were held to determine "Scratching Fanny's" motives, and Cock Lane was often made impassable by the throngs of interested bystanders.

The ghost appeared to claim that Fanny had been poisoned with [[arsenic]] and Kent was publicly suspected of being her murderer, but a commission whose members included [[Samuel Johnson]] concluded that the supposed haunting was a fraud. Further investigations proved the scam was perpetrated by Elizabeth Parsons, under duress from her father. Those responsible were prosecuted and found guilty; Richard Parsons was [[pillory|pilloried]] and sentenced to two years in prison.

The Cock Lane ghost became a focus of controversy between the [[Methodist]] and [[Anglican church]]es and is referenced frequently in contemporary literature. [[Charles Dickens]] is one of several Victorian authors whose work alluded to the story and the pictorial [[satirist]] [[William Hogarth]] referenced the ghost in two of his prints.

==Background==
In about 1756–57 William Kent, a [[usurer]] from [[Norfolk]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Benedict|2002|p=171}}</ref> married Elizabeth Lynes, the daughter of a [[grocer]] from [[Lyneham, Wiltshire|Lyneham]]. They moved to [[Stoke Ferry]] where Kent kept an [[Public_house#Inns|inn]], and later the local [[post office]]. They were apparently very much in love, but their marriage was short-lived as within a month of the move Elizabeth died during childbirth. Her sister Frances—commonly known as Fanny—had during Elizabeth's pregnancy moved in with the couple, and she remained to take care of the infant and its father. The boy did not survive long and rather than leave, Fanny stayed on to take care of William and the house. The two soon began a relationship, but [[canon law]] appeared to rule out marriage; when Kent travelled to London to seek advice he was told that as Elizabeth had borne him a living son, a union with Fanny was impossible. In January 1759 therefore, he gave up the post office, left Fanny and moved to London, intending to "purchase a place in some public office" in the hope that "business would erase that passion he had unfortunately indulged". Fanny meanwhile stayed with one of her brothers at Lyneham.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=6–7}}</ref>

Despite her family's disapproval of their relationship, Fanny began to write passionate letters to Kent, "filled with repeated entreaties to spend the rest of their lives together". He eventually allowed her to join him at lodgings in [[East Greenwich]] near London. The two decided to live together as man and wife, making wills in each other's favour and hoping to remain discreet. In this, however, they did not reckon on Fanny's relations. The couple moved to lodgings near the [[Mansion House, London|Mansion House]], but their landlord there may have learnt of their relationship from Fanny's family, expressing his contempt by refusing to repay a sum of money Kent loaned him (about £20).{{#tag:ref|Based on the [[Retail Prices Index (United Kingdom)|RPI]], about £27,400 as of 2010.<ref>{{Citation | last = Officer | first = Lawrence H. | title = Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1264 to Present | url = http://www.measuringworth.com/ppoweruk/ | publisher = measuringworth.com | accessdate = 13 January 2010}}</ref>|group="nb"}} In response, Kent had him arrested.

==Fanny==
While attending early morning prayers at the church of [[St Sepulchre-without-Newgate]] William Kent and Fanny met Richard Parsons, the officiating [[clerk (choral)|clerk]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=4–10}}</ref> Although he was generally considered respectable, Parsons was known locally as a drunk and was struggling to provide for his family. He listened to the couple's plight and was sympathetic, offering them the use of lodgings in his home at what (in 1965) was 20 Cock Lane, to the north of St Sepulchre's. Located along a narrow, winding thoroughfare similar to most of central London's streets, the three-storey house was in a respectable but declining area, and comprised a single room on each floor, connected by a winding staircase.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=4–6}}</ref> Shortly after Mr and Mrs Kent (as they called themselves) moved in, Kent loaned Parsons 12 [[guinea (British coin)|guineas]], to be repaid at a rate of a guinea per month.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=10}}</ref>

It was while Kent was away at a wedding in the country that the first reports of strange noises began. Parsons had a wife and two daughters; the elder, Elizabeth, was described as a "little artful girl about eleven years of age".<ref name="ElizabethODNB">{{Citation | last1 = Seccombe | first1 = Thomas | last2 = Shore | first2 = Rev Heather | title = Parsons, Elizabeth (1749–1807) | format = {{ODNBsub}} | work = Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2004 | url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/21456 | accessdate = 21 December 2009 | doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/21456}}</ref> Kent asked Elizabeth to stay with Fanny, who was then several months into a pregnancy, and to share her bed while he was away. The two reported hearing scratching and rapping noises. These were attributed by Mrs Parsons to a neighbouring [[Shoemaking|cobbler]], although when the noises re-occured on a Sunday, Fanny asked if the cobbler was working that day; Mrs Parsons told her he was not. James Franzen, landlord of the nearby Wheat Sheaf [[public house]], was another witness. After visiting the house he reported seeing a ghostly white figure ascend the stairs, and terrified, left to go home. Parsons visited him there that same night, and claimed also to have seen a ghost.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chambers|2006|pp=39–40}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=14–15}}</ref>

As Fanny was only weeks away from giving birth Kent made arrangements to move to a property at Bartlet's Court in [[Clerkenwell]], but by January 1760 it was not ready and so they moved instead to an "inconvenient" apartment nearby, intending only a temporary stay.<ref name="Chambers 2006 28">{{Harvnb|Chambers|2006|p=28}}</ref><ref name="Grant 1965 12 13">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=12–13}}</ref> However, on 25 January Fanny fell ill. The attending doctor diagnosed the early stages of an eruptive fever and agreed with Kent that their lodgings were inadequate for someone at so critical a stage of pregnancy. Fanny was therefore moved, by coach, to Bartlet's Court. The next day her doctor returned and met with her apothecary. Both agreed that Fanny's symptoms were indicative of [[smallpox]]. On hearing this, Fanny sent for an attorney, to ensure the will she had had made was in good order, and that Kent would inherit her estate. An acquaintance of Kent's, the Reverend Stephen Aldrich of [[St John Clerkenwell]], reassured her that she would be forgiven for her sins. She died on 2 February.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=13–16}}</ref>

As sole executor of Fanny's will, Kent ordered a coffin, but fearful of being prosecuted should the nature of their relationship become known, asked that it remain nameless. On registering the burial he was, however, forced to give a name, and he gave her his own. Fanny's family was notified and her sister Ann Lynes, who lived nearby at [[Pall Mall, London|Pall Mall]], attended the funeral at St John's. When Ann learned of the terms of Fanny's will, which left her brothers and sisters half a crown each and Kent the rest, she tried but failed to block it in [[Doctors' Commons]]. The bulk of Kent's inheritance was Fanny's £150 share of her dead brother Thomas's estate. This also included some land owned by Thomas, sold by the executor of his estate, John Lynes, and Kent received Fanny's share of that too (almost £95). Her family resented this. Legal problems with Lynes's sale meant that each of Thomas's beneficiaries had to pay £45 in compensation to the purchaser, but Kent refused, claiming that he had already spent the money in settling Fanny's debts. In response to this, in October 1761 John Lynes began proceedings against Kent in the [[Court of Chancery]].{{#tag:ref|The result of these proceedings is not mentioned.|group="nb"}} Meanwhile Kent became a [[stockbroker]], and in 1761 married again.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=16–19}}</ref>

==Haunting==
[[File:Cock lane room.png|left|thumb|alt=A monochrome illustration of a ramshackle room. Windows allow light to stream in, from the right of the image. Plaster is missing from the ceiling. A large fireplace dominates the far wall, and is surrounded by various cupboards and containers. The floor appears to be formed from planks of wood.|A 19th-century illustration of the room where the haunting took place]]
Echoing the actions of Kent's previous landlord, Parsons had not repaid Kent's loan—of which about three guineas was outstanding—and Kent therefore instructed his attorney to sue him.<ref name="Chambers 2006 28"/><ref name="Grant 1965 12 13"/> He managed to recover the debt by January 1762, just as the mysterious noises at Cock Lane began again.<ref name="ElizabethODNB"/> Catherine Friend had lodged there shortly after the couple left but moved out when she found the noises, which had returned intermittently and which were becoming more frequent, could not be stopped. They apparently emanated from Elizabeth Parsons, who also suffered fits, and the house was regularly disturbed by unexplained noises, likened at the time to the sound of a cat scratching a chair.<ref name="ElizabethODNB"/> Reportedly determined to discover their source, Richard Parsons had a carpenter remove the [[Panelling|wainscotting]] around Elizabeth's bed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lang|1894|p=165}}</ref> He approached the Methodist John Moore, assistant preacher at St Sepulchre's since 1754 and rector of [[St Bartholomew-the-Great]] in [[Smithfield, London|West Smithfield]] since June 1761. The presence of one ghost, presumed to belong to Fanny's sister, Elizabeth, had already been noted while Fanny lay dying, and the two concluded that the spirit now haunting Parsons' house must be that of Fanny Lynes herself. The notion that a person's spirit might return from the dead to warn those still alive was a commonly held belief, and the presence of two apparently restless spirits was therefore an obvious sign to both men that each ghost had an important message to disclose.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=20–21}}</ref>

Parsons and Moore devised a method of communication; one knock for yes, two knocks for no. Using this system, the ghost appeared to claim that Fanny had been murdered. It was conjectured that the mysterious figure in white which so terrified James Franzen, presumed to be the ghost of Elizabeth, had appeared there to warn her sister of her impending death. As the first ghost had seemingly vanished, this charge against Kent—that he murdered Elizabeth—was never acted on, but through repeated questioning of Fanny's ghost it was divined that she had died not from the effects of smallpox, but rather from [[arsenic]] poisoning. The deadly toxin had apparently been administered by Kent about two hours before Fanny died and now, it was supposed, her spirit wanted justice. Moore had heard from Parsons how Kent had pursued the debt he was owed, and he had also heard from Ann Lynes, who had complained that as Fanny's coffin lid was screwed down she had not been able to see her sister's corpse. Moore thought that Fanny's body might not show any visible signs of smallpox and that if she had been poisoned, the lack of scarring would have been something Kent would rather keep hidden. As a Methodist he was inclined to trust the ghost, but for added support he enlisted the aid of Reverend Thomas Broughton, a fellow Methodist. Broughton visited Cock Lane on 5 January and left convinced the ghost was real. The story spread through London, ''[[The Public Ledger]]'' began to publish detailed accounts of the phenomenon, and Kent fell under public suspicion as a murderer.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=23–25}}</ref><ref name="Benedictp172">{{Harvnb|Benedict|2002|p=172}}</ref>{{-}}

==Séances==
After reading the veiled accusations made against him in the ''Public Ledger'', Kent determined to clear his name, and accompanied by a witness went to see John Moore. The Methodist showed Kent the list of questions he and Parsons had drawn up for the ghost to answer. One concerned William and Fanny's marital status, prompting Kent to admit that they never married. Moore told him he did not think he was a murderer, rather, he believed the spirit's presence indicated that "there was something behind darker than all the rest, and that if he would go to Parson's house, he might be a witness to the same and convinced of its reality". On 12 January therefore, Kent enlisted the aid of the two physicians who attended Fanny in her last days, and with Reverend Broughton, went to Cock Lane. On the house's upper floor Elizabeth Parsons was publicly undressed, and with her younger sister was put to bed. The audience sat around the bed, positioned in the centre of the room. They were warned that the ghost was sensitive to disbelief, and told that they should accord it due respect. When the séance began, a relative of Parsons, Mary Frazer,<ref name="ElizabethODNB"/> ran around the room shouting "Fanny, Fanny, why don't you come? Do come, pray Fanny, come; dear Fanny, come!" Nothing happened, and Moore told the group the ghost would not come as they were making too much noise. He asked them to leave the room, telling them he would try to contact the ghost by stamping his foot. About ten minutes later they were told the ghost had returned, and that they should re-enter the room.<ref name="Grantpp2629">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=26–29}}</ref> Moore then started to run through his and Parsons' list of questions:

:"Are you the wife of Mr. Kent?" —Two knocks
:"Did you die naturally?" —Two knocks
:"By poison?" —One knock
:"Did any person other than Mr. Kent administer it?" —Two knocks

[[File:English credulity or the invisible ghost 1762.jpg|thumb|250px|alt=A small audience of people surround a bed, in which two children lie. A ghostly figure hovers above the children, a hammer in one hand. One man looks under the bed, with a candle. Speech bubbles are visible from each member of the audience. To the right of the image, several women are engaged in prayer.|''English Credulity or the Invisible Ghost'' (1762). The ghost appears above the two children in the bed. Also visible are [[John Fielding]] (left) and a companion. The portraits on the wall are of [[The Bottle Conjuror]] and [[Elizabeth Canning]]. The artist is unknown, but may have been [[Oliver Goldsmith]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hawkins|1883|p=45}}</ref>]]
After more questions, a member of the audience exclaimed "Kent, ask this Ghost if you shall be hanged". He did so, and the question was answered by a single knock. Kent exclaimed "Thou art a lying spirit, thou are not the ghost of my Fanny. She would never have said any such thing."<ref name="Grantpp2629"/>

Public interest in the story grew when it was discovered that the ghost appeared to follow Elizabeth Parsons. She was removed to the house of a Mr Bray, where on 14 January, in the presence of two unidentified nobles, more knocking sounds were heard.<ref name="Grantpp2629"/> A few days later she was returned to Cock Lane, where on 18 January another séance was held. In attendance were Kent, the apothecary, and local parish priest and incumbent of [[St John Clerkenwell]], Reverend Stephen Aldrich.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chambers|2006|pp=80–87}}</ref> On that occasion, when a clergyman used a candle to look under the bed, the ghost "refused" to answer, Frazer claiming "she [the ghost] loving not light". After a few minutes of silence the questioning continued, but when Moore asked if the ghost would appear in court against Kent, Frazer refused to ask the question.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=30–32}}</ref>

When they lived at Cock Lane William and Fanny had employed a maid, Esther "Carrots" Carlisle (Carrots on account of her red hair). She had since moved to a new job and knew nothing of the haunting, but seeking evidence of Fanny's poisoning, Moore went to question her. Carrots told him that Fanny had been unable to speak in the days before she died, so Moore invited her to a séance, held on 19 January. Once there, she was asked to confirm that Fanny had been poisoned, but Carrots remained adamant that Fanny had said nothing to her, telling the party that William and Fanny had been "very loving, and lived very happy together." Kent arrived later that night, this time with James Franzen and the Reverends [[William Dodd (clergyman)|William Dodd]] and Thomas Broughton. Frazer began with her usual introduction before Moore sent her out, apparently irritated by her behaviour. He then asked the party of about 20 to leave the room, calling them back a few minutes later.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=32–34}}</ref> This time, the séance centred on Carrots, who addressed the ghost directly:

:"Are you my mistress?" —One knock, followed by scratches
:"Are you angry with me, Madam?" —One knock
:"Then I am sure, Madam, you may be ashamed of yourself for I never hurt you in my life."

At this, the séance was ended. Frazer and Franzen remained alone in the room, the latter reportedly too terrified to move. Frazer asked if he would like to pray and was angered when he apparently could not. The séance resumed and Franzen later returned to his home, where he and his wife were reportedly tormented by the ghost's knocking in their bedchamber.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=34–36}}</ref>

==Investigation==
On 20 January another séance was held, this time at the home of a Mr Bruin, on the corner of nearby Hosier Lane. Among those attending was a man "extremely desirous of detecting the fraud, and discovering the truth of this mysterious affair", who later sent his account of the night to the ''London Chronicle''. He arrived with a small party which included Reverend James Penn of [[St Anne and St Agnes|St Ann's]] in [[Aldersgate]]. Inside the house, a member of the group positioned himself against the bed, but was asked by one of the ghost's sympathisers to move. He refused, and following a brief argument the ghost's supporters left. The gentleman then asked if Parsons would allow his daughter to be moved to a room at his house, but was refused. For the remainder of the night the ghost made no sound, while Elizabeth Parsons, now extremely agitated, displayed signs of convulsions. When questioned she confirmed that she had seen the ghost, but that she was not frightened by it. At that point several of the party left, but at about 7 am the next morning the knocking once more recommenced. Following the usual questions about the cause of Fanny's death and who was responsible, the interrogation turned to her body, which lay in the vaults of St John's.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=38–41}}</ref>

[[File:Edward, Duke of York (Pompeo Batoni).jpg|left|thumb|upright|alt=A three-quarter portrait of a young man. His hair is light grey/blonde. He wears pale leggings, a pale waistcoat decorated with gold lace, a large blue sash, and a blue and gold lace blazer. His right arm rests on a chair, his left hand points to a painting behind him.|[[Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany]], attended a séance on 30 January 1762.]]
Parsons agreed to move his daughter to Reverend Aldrich's house for further testing on 22 January, but when that morning Penn and a man of "veracity and fortune" called on Parsons and asked for Elizabeth, the clerk told them she was not there and refused to reveal her whereabouts. Parsons had spoken with friends and was apparently worried that Kent had been busy with his own investigations.{{#tag:ref|Evidence of these investigations exists in a letter which appeared in a newspaper in February 1762, signed by a "J. A. L.", which gave a detailed report on how Fanny had arrived in London, and which claimed that Kent had drawn up Fanny's will in his favour. It made no specific accusations, but as its author observed, Kent's actions had had "the desired effect". Kent later claimed to know the identity of its author, who, Grant (1965) surmises, was a member of the Lynes family. Grant also writes that the letter was printed to maintain pressure on Kent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=43}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Instead, he allowed Elizabeth to be moved that night to [[St Bartholomew's Hospital]], where another séance was held. Nothing was reported until about 6 am, when three scratches were heard, apparently while the girl was asleep. The approximately 20-strong audience complained that the affair was a deception. Once Elizabeth woke she began to cry, and once reassured that she was safe admitted that she was afraid for her father, "who must needs be ruined and undone, if their matter should be supposed to be an imposture." She also admitted that although she had appeared to be asleep, she was in fact fully aware of the conversation going on around her.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=41–44}}</ref>

{{Quote box |quoted=true |bgcolor=#FFFFF0 |salign=center |width=33% |align=right |quote=Whereas several advertisements have appeared in the papers reflecting upon my character, who am father of the child which now engrosses the talk of the town; I do hereby declare publicly, that I have always been willing and am now ready to deliver up my child for trial into the hands of any number of candid and reasonable men, requiring only ''such security'' for a fair and gentle treatment of my child, as no father of children or man of candour would refuse. |source=Richard Parsons, the ''Public Ledger'', 26 January 1762<ref name="Grantp54"/>}}
Initially only the ''Public Ledger'' reported on the case, but once it became known that noblemen had taken an interest and visited the ghost at Mr Bray's house on 14 January, the story began to appear in other newspapers. The ''[[St. James's Chronicle]]'' and the ''[[London Chronicle]]'' printed reports from 16–19 January (the latter the more sceptical of the two), and ''Lloyd's Evening Post'' from 18–20 January. The story spread across London and by the middle of January the crowds gathered outside the property were such that Cock Lane was rendered impassable. Parsons charged visitors an entrance fee to "talk" with the ghost, which, it was reported, did not disappoint.<ref>{{Harvnb|MacKay|1852|p=232}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Westwood|Simpson|2005|pp=463–464}}</ref><ref name="Benedictp172"/> After receiving several requests to intercede, [[Sir Samuel Fludyer, 1st Baronet|Samuel Fludyer]], [[Lord Mayor of London]], was on 23 January approached by Alderman Gosling, John Moore and Parsons. They told him of their experiences but Fludyer was reminded of the then recent case of fraudster [[Elizabeth Canning]] and refused to have Kent or Parsons arrested (on charges of murder and conspiracy respectively). Instead, against a backdrop of hysteria caused in part by the newspapers' relentless reporting of the case, he ordered that Elizabeth be tested at Reverend Aldrich's house. Meanwhile, Elizabeth was again the subject of study, in two séances held 23–24 January.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=44–45, 51–52}}</ref> Parsons accepted the Lord Mayor's decision, but asked that "some persons connected with the girl might be permitted to be there, to divert her in the day-time". This was refused, as were two similar requests, Aldrich and Penn insisting that they would accept only "any person or persons, of strict character and reputation, who are housekeepers". Aldrich and Penn's account of their negotiations with Parsons clearly perturbed the clerk, as he defended his actions in the ''[[The Public Ledger|Public Ledger]]''. This prompted Aldrich and Penn to issue a pointed retort in ''Lloyd's Evening Post'': "We are greatly puzzled to find Mr. Parsons asserting that he hath been ''always'' willing to ''deliver up'' the child, when he refused a gentleman on Wednesday evening the 20th inst. [...] What is to be understood, by requiring security"?<ref name="Grantp54">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=54}}</ref>

Elizabeth was taken on 26 January to the house of Jane Armstrong, sleeping there in a hammock. The continued noises strengthened the resolve of the ghost's supporters, while the press's ceaseless reporting of the case continued. [[Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford]], announced that with the [[Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany|Duke of York]], Lady Northumberland, [[Lady Mary Coke]] and [[Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Marquess of Hertford|Lord Hertford]], he was to visit Cock Lane on 30 January. After struggling through the throngs of interested visitors though, he was ultimately disappointed; the ''[[Public Advertiser]]'' observed that "the noise is now generally deferred till seven in the morning, it being necessary to vary the time, that the imposition may be the better carried on".<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=55–56}}</ref>

==Exposure==
With [[Lord Dartmouth]] Aldrich began to draw together the people who would be involved in his investigation. They chose the matron of a local [[Lying-in Hospital|lying-in hospital]] as principal [[lady-in-waiting]], the critic and controversialist Bishop [[John Douglas (bishop)|John Douglas]], and Dr George Macaulay. A Captain Wilkinson was also included on the committee; he had attended one séance armed with a pistol and stick; the former to shoot the source of the knocking, and the latter to make his escape (the ghost had remained silent on that occasion). James Penn and John Moore were also on the committee, but its most prominent member was Dr [[Samuel Johnson]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=56–57}}</ref> who documented the séance, held on 1 February 1762:

[[File:Samuel Johnson by Joshua Reynolds.jpg|right|thumb|upright|alt=A half-length portrait of an elderly, and overweight, gentleman. He wears a brown waistcoat and blazer, with gold buttons, a white collar, and a grey wig. His left hand hovers close to his abdomen. The background is a dark, solid blue/black.|A committee whose members included Dr [[Samuel Johnson]] concluded that the supposed haunting was a hoax.]]
{{Quote | On the night of the 1st of February many gentlemen eminent for their rank and character were, by the invitation of the Reverend Mr. Aldrich, of Clerkenwell, assembled at his house, for the examination of the noises supposed to be made by a departed spirit, for the detection of some enormous crime. About ten at night the gentlemen met in the chamber in which the girl, supposed to be disturbed by a spirit, had, with proper caution, been put to bed by several ladies. They sat rather more than an hour, and hearing nothing, went down stairs, when they interrogated the father of the girl, who denied, in the strongest terms, any knowledge or belief of fraud. The supposed spirit had before publickly promised, by an affirmative knock, that it would attend one of the gentlemen into the vault under the Church of St. John, Clerkenwell, where the body is deposited, and give a token of her presence there, by a knock upon her coffin; it was therefore determined to make this trial of the existence or veracity of the supposed spirit. While they were enquiring and deliberating, they were summoned into the girl's chamber by some ladies who were near her bed, and who had heard knocks and scratches. When the gentlemen entered, the girl declared that she felt the spirit like a mouse upon her back, and was required to hold her hands out of bed. From that time, though the spirit was very solemnly required to manifest its existence by appearance, by impression on the hand or body of any present, by scratches, knocks, or any other agency, no evidence of any preter-natural power was exhibited. The spirit was then very seriously advertised that the person to whom the promise was made of striking the coffin, was then about to visit the vault, and that the performance of the promise was then claimed. The company at one o'clock went into the church, and the gentleman to whom the promise was made, went with another into the vault. The spirit was solemnly required to perform its promise, but nothing more than silence ensued: the person supposed to be accused by the spirit, then went down with several others, but no effect was perceived. Upon their return they examined the girl, but could draw no confession from her. Between two and three she desired and was permitted to go home with her father. It is, therefore, the opinion of the whole assembly, that the child has some art of making or counterfeiting a particular noise, and that there is no agency of any higher cause.| Samuel Johnson (1762)<ref>{{Harvnb|Boswell|Malone|1791|pp=220–221}}</ref>}}

Disappointed that the ghost had failed to reveal itself, Moore now told Kent he believed it was an imposter, and that he would help reveal it. Kent asked him to admit the truth and write an affidavit of what he knew, so as to end the affair and restore Kent's reputation, but Moore refused, telling him that he still believed that the spirit's presence was a reminder of his sin.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=73}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Kent did, however, manage to issue an affidavit, signed by Fanny's doctor and her apothecary on 8 February.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=77}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Moore's view of the couple's relationship was shared by many, including Mrs Parsons, who believed that the supposed ghost of Elizabeth Kent had disapproved of her sister's new relationship.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chambers|2006|pp=39–42}}</ref>

[[File:Cock lane ghost wooden board.jpg|right|thumb|upright|alt=An illustration of an oblong and vaguely human-shaped piece of wood, viewed from the top, and an plan view diagram of the haunted room.|The piece of wood used by Elizabeth Parsons, and a map of the haunted room, as illustrated in 1762]]
Another séance on 3 February saw the knocking continue unabated, but by then Parsons was in an extremely difficult—and serious—situation. Keen to prove the ghost was not an imposture he allowed his daughter to be examined at a house on [[Strand, London|The Strand]] from 7–10 February, and at another house in [[Covent Garden]] from 14 February. There she was tested in a variety of ways which included being swung up in a [[hammock]], her hands and feet extended. As expected, the noises commenced, but stopped once Elizabeth was made to place her hands outside the bed. For two nights the ghost was silent. Elizabeth was told that if no more noises were heard by Sunday 21 February, she and her father would be committed to [[Newgate Prison]]. Her maids then saw her conceal on her person a small piece of wood about 6 by 4 inches (150 by 100 mm), and informed the investigators. More scratches were heard but the observers concluded that Elizabeth was responsible for the noises, and that she had been forced by her father to make them. Elizabeth was allowed home shortly after.<ref name="Grantpp7376">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=73–76}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lang|1894|p=169}}</ref>

On or about 25 February, a pamphlet sympathetic to Kent's case was published, called ''The Mystery Revealed'', and most likely written by [[Oliver Goldsmith]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Goldsmith|Cunningham|1854|p=364}}</ref> Meanwhile, Kent was still trying to clear his name, and on 25 February he went to the vault of St John's, accompanied by Aldrich, the undertaker, the clerk and the parish [[Sexton (office)|sexton]]. The group was there to prove beyond any doubt that a recent newspaper report, which claimed that the supposed removal of Fanny's body from the vault accounted for the ghost's failure to knock on her coffin, was false. The undertaker removed the lid to expose Fanny's corpse, "and a very awful shocking sight it was".<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=76–77}}</ref> For Moore this was too much and he published his retraction:

{{Quote | In justice to the person, whose reputation has been attacked in a most gross manner, by the pretended Ghost in Cock-lane; to check the credulity of the weak; to defeat the attempts of the malicious, and to prevent further imposition, on account of this absurd phenomenon, I do hereby certify, that though, from the several attendances on this occasion, I have not been able to point out, how, and in what manner, those knockings and scratchings, of the supposed Ghost, were ''contrived, performed'', and ''continued''; yet, that I am convinced, that those knockings and scratchings were the effects of some artful, wicked contrivance; and that I was, in a more especial manner, convinced of its being such, on the first of this month, when I attended with several persons of rank and character, who assembled at the Rev. Mr. Aldrich's, Clerkenwell, in order to examine into this iniquitous imposition upon the Public. Since which time I have not seen the child, nor heard the noises; and think myself in duty bound to add, that the injured person (when present to hear himself accused by the pretended Ghost) has not, by his behaviour, given the least ground of suspicion, but has preserved that becoming steadfastness, which nothing, I am persuaded, but innocence could inspire.|John Moore (1762)<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=77–78}}</ref>}}

It was not enough to keep him from being charged by the authorities with conspiracy, along with Richard Parsons and his wife, Mary Frazer, and Richard James, a tradesman.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=80}}</ref>

==Trial==
[[File:Mansfield Old.jpg|right|upright|thumb|alt=A full-length portrait of an elderly man, seated. He wears long flowing red and white robes, a long grey wig, and holds a rolled document in his left hand. His right hand rests on a table littered with documents. Behind him, the corner of a room, with ornate plaster architrave, is visible.|The case was tried by [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales|Lord Chief Justice]] [[William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield]].]]
The trial of all five was held at the [[Guildhall, London|Guild Hall]] in London on 10 July 1762. Presiding over the case was [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales|Lord Chief Justice]] [[William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield]]. Proceedings began at 10 am, "brought by William Kent against the above defendants for a conspiracy to take away his life by charging him with the murder of Frances Lynes by giving her poison whereof she died". The courtroom was crowded with spectators, who watched as Kent gave evidence against those in the dock. He told the court about his relationship with Fanny and of her resurrection as "Scratching Fanny" (so-called because of the scratching noises made by the "ghost").<ref name="ElizabethODNB"/> James Franzen was next on the stand, his story corroborated by Fanny's servant, Esther "Carrots" Carlisle, who testified later that day. Dr Cooper, who had served Fanny as she lay dying, told the court that he had always believed the strange noises in Cock Lane to be a trick, and his account of Fanny's illness was supported by her apothecary, James Jones. Several other prosecution witnesses described how the hoax had been revealed, and Richard James was accused by the prosecution's last witness of being responsible for some of the more offensive material published in the ''Public Ledger''.<ref name="Grantpp110112">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=110–112}}</ref>

The defence's witnesses included some of those who had cared for Elizabeth Parsons, and who presumably still believed that the ghost was real. Other witnesses included the carpenter responsible for removing the wainscotting from Parsons' apartment and Catherine Friend, who to escape the knocking noises had left the property. One witness's testimony caused the court to burst into laughter, at which she replied "I assure you gentlemen, it is no laughing matter, whatever you may think of it." Reverend Thomas Broughton was also called, as was Reverend Ross, one of those who had questioned the ghost. Lord Mansfield asked him "Whether he thought he had puzzled the Ghost, or the Ghost had puzzled him?" John Moore was offered support by several esteemed gentlemen and presented Mansfield with a letter from the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Thomas Secker]], who sought to intercede on his behalf. Mansfield placed the letter in his pocket, unopened, and told the court "it was impossible it could relate to the cause in question." Richard James and Richard Parsons also received support from various witnesses, some of whom although acknowledging Parsons' drink problem, told the court they could not believe he was guilty.<ref name="Grantpp110112"/>

The trial ended at about 9:30 pm. The judge spent about 90 minutes summing up the case, but it took the jury only 15 minutes to reach a verdict of guilty for all five defendants. The following Monday, two others responsible for defaming Kent were found guilty and later fined £50 each. The conspirators were brought back on 22 November but sentencing was delayed in the hope that they could agree on the level of damages payable to Kent. Having failed to do so they returned on 27 January 1763 and were committed to the [[King's Bench Prison]] until 11 February, by which time John Moore and Richard James had agreed to pay Kent £588; they were subsequently admonished by [[John Eardley Wilmot|Justice Wilmot]] and released. The following day, the rest were sentenced:<ref name="Grantpp113114">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=113–114}}</ref>

{{Quote|The Court chusing that Mr. Kent, who had been so much injured on the occasion, should receive some reparation by punishment of the offenders, deferred giving judgment for seven or eight months, ''in hopes that the parties might make it up in the meantime.'' Accordingly, the clergyman, and tradesman agreed to pay Mr. Kent a round sum—some say between £500 and £600 to purchase their pardon, and were, therefore, dismissed with a severe reprimand. The father was ordered to be set in the [[pillory]] three times in one month—once at the end of Cock–Lane; Elizabeth his wife to be imprisoned one year; and Mary Frazer six months in [[Bridewell]], with hard labour. The father appearing to be out of his mind at the time he was first to standing in the pillory, the execution of that part of his sentence was deferred to another day, when, as well as the other day of his standing there, the populace took so much compassion on him, that instead of using him ill, they made a handsome subscription for him.|Annual Register, vol cxlii. and Gentleman's Magazine, 1762, p. 43 and p. 339<ref name="Walpolep148">{{Harvnb|Walpole|Le Marchant|1845|p=148}}</ref>}}

Parsons, all the while protesting his innocence, was also sentenced to two years imprisonment. He stood in the pillory on 16 March, 30 March and finally on 8 April. In contrast to other criminals the crowd treated him kindly, making collections of money for him.<ref name="Grantpp113114"/>

==Legacy==
[[File:William Hogarth - Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism.png|thumb|alt=A chapel full of people, many of whom hold small ghostly idols. A woman lies on the floor, rabbits leaping from under her skirts. A preacher stands in the pulpit, preaching to his congregation. On the right of the image, a large thermometer is capped by an idol of a ghost.|In [[William Hogarth]]'s ''Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism'', the Cock Lane ghost is shown at the top of the thermometer, knocking to the girl in the bed. A Methodist preacher is seen to slip an [[icon]] of the ghost into the [[bodice]] of a young woman.<ref name="Codypp143144">{{Harvnb|Cody|2005|pp=143–144}}</ref>]]
The Cock Lane ghost was a focus for a contemporary religious controversy between the [[Methodists]], and the orthodox [[Anglicans]]. Belief in a spiritual afterlife was a requirement for most religions, particularly Christianity, and in every instance where a spirit had supposedly manifested itself in the real world, the event was cherished as an affirmation of such beliefs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=60}}</ref> In his youth, [[John Wesley]] had been strongly influenced by a supposed haunting at his family home and these experiences were carried through to the religion he founded, which was regularly criticised for its position on witchcraft and magic. Methodism, although far from a united religion, became almost synonymous with a belief in the supernatural.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|1999|pp=12–14}}</ref> Some of its followers therefore gave more credence to the reality of the Cock Lane ghost than did the Anglican establishment, which considered such things to be relics of the country's [[Catholic]] past. This was a view that was epitomised in the conflict between the Methodist John Moore and the Anglican Stephen Aldrich.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chambers|2006|pp=47–54, 87}}</ref> In his 1845 memoirs, [[Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford|Horace Walpole]], who had attended one of the séances, accused the Methodists of actively working to establish the existence of ghosts. He described the constant presence of Methodist clergymen near Elizabeth Parsons and implied that the church would recompense her father for his troubles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Walpole|Le Marchant|1845|pp=146–147}}</ref>

Samuel Johnson was committed to his Christian faith and shared the views of author [[Joseph Glanvill]], who, in his 1681 work ''[[Saducismus Triumphatus]]'', wrote of his concern over the advances made against religion and a belief in witchcraft, by atheism and scepticism. For Johnson the idea that an afterlife might not exist was an appalling thought, but although he thought that spirits could protect and counsel those still living, he kept himself distant from the more credulous Methodists, and recognised that his religion required proof of an afterlife.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=60–63}}</ref> Ever a sceptic, in his discussions with his biographer [[James Boswell]], he said:

{{Quote|Sir, I make a distinction between what a man may experience by the mere strength of his imagination, and what imagination cannot possibly produce. Thus, suppose I should think I saw a form, and heard a voice cry, "Johnson, you are a very wicked fellow, and unless you repent you will certainly be punished;" my own unworthiness is so deeply impressed upon my mind, that I might imagine I thus saw and heard, and therefore I should not believe that an external communication had been made to me. But if a form should appear, and a voice tell me that a particular man had died at a particular place, and a particular hour, a fact which I had no apprehension of, nor any means of knowing, and this fact, with all its circumstances, should afterwards be unquestionably proved, I should, in that case, be persuaded that I had supernatural intelligence imparted to me.<ref>{{Harvnb|Boswell|1791|p=219}}</ref>}}

Johnson's role in revealing the nature of the hoax was not enough to keep the satirist [[Charles Churchill (satirist)|Charles Churchill]] from mocking his apparent credulity in his 1762 work ''The Ghost''.<ref>{{Citation | last = Sambrook | first = James | title = Churchill, Charles (1732–1764) | format = {{ODNBsub}} | work = Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2006 | edition = online | url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5397 | accessdate = 21 December 2009 | doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/5397}}</ref> He resented Johnson's lack of enthusiasm for his writing and with the character of 'Pomposo', written as one of the more credulous of the ghost's investigators, used the satire to highlight a "superstitious streak" in his subject. Johnson paid this scant attention, but was said to have been more upset when Churchill again mocked him for his delay in releasing ''[[The Plays of William Shakespeare (1765)|Shakespeare]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bate|1977|pp=352–353}}</ref> Publishers were at first wary of attacking those involved in the supposed haunting, but Churchill's satire was one of a number of publications which, following the exposure of Parsons' deception, heaped scorn on the affair. The newspapers searched for evidence of past impostures and referenced older publications such as [[Reginald Scot]]'s ''[[Discoverie of Witchcraft]]'' (1584).<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=81–82}}</ref> The ghost was referenced in an anonymous work entitled ''Anti-Canidia: or, Superstition Detected and Exposed'' (1762), which sought to ridicule the credulity of those involved in the Cock Lane case. The author described his work as a "sally of indignation at the contemptible ''wonder'' in Cock-lane".<ref>{{Citation | last = Anon | title = Anti-Canidia: or, Superstition Detected and Exposed | year = 1762 | location = London | publisher = Printed for R. And J. Dodsley in Pall-mall; and sold by J. Hinman in Pater-noster-Row}}</ref> Works such as ''The Orators'' (1762) by [[Samuel Foote]], were soon available.<ref name="Addington">{{Harvnb|Addington Bruce|1908|pp=81–101}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Benedict|2002|p=173}}</ref> Farcical poems such as ''Cock-lane Humbug'' were released, theatres staged plays such as ''The Drummer'', and ''The Haunted House''.<ref name="Clerypp1416">{{Harvnb|Clery|1999|pp=14–16}}</ref>

[[File:William Hogarth - The Times, plate 2.png|thumb|250px|alt=A monochrome illustration of an outdoor scene. In the background, a building is under construction. A tall church, and other ornate structures, are also visible. To the left, a judge, seated high above everybody else, watches over the scene before him. Below him, riflemen shoot at a dove of peace flying through the air. In the middle of the image, two gardeners tend to a display of shrubbery. One pumps water from a large ornate fountain, the other struggles with a wheelbarrow. To the right, two figures, a man and a ghost, are stood in a pillory. Behind them, in the shade, a wigged man tends to his followers.|Hogarth's ''The Times, Plate 2''. [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[Thomas Secker]] can be seen in the shade, behind the pilloried figures of both the Cock Lane ghost and [[John Wilkes]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dobson|2000|p=300}}</ref>]]
[[Oliver Goldsmith]], who had in February 1762 published ''The Mystery Revealed'', may also have been responsible for the satirical illustration, ''English Credulity or the Invisible Ghost'' (1762). It shows a séance as envisioned by the artist, with the ghost hovering above the heads of the two children in the bed. To the right of the bed a woman deep in prayer exclaims "O! that they would lay it in the Red Sea!" Another cries "I shall never have any rest again". The English magistrate and social reformer [[John Fielding]], who was blind, is pictured entering from the left saying "I should be glad to see this spirit", while his companion says "Your W——r's had better get your Warrant back'd by his L—rds—p", referring to a Middlesex magistrate's warrant which required an endorsement from the Lord Mayor, Samuel Fludyer. A man in tall boots, whip in hand, says: "Ay Tom I'll lay 6 to 1 it runs more nights than the Coronation"{{#tag:ref|''The Coronation'' was a theatrical play based on the coronation of [[George III]].<ref name="Hawkinsp46"/>|group="nb"}} and his companion remarks "How they swallow the hum". A clergymen says "I saw the light on the Clock" while another asks "Now thou Infidel does thou not believe?", prompting his neighbour to reply "Yes if it had happen'd sooner 't would have serv'd me for a new Charater in the Lyar the Story would tell better than the Cat & Kittens".{{#tag:ref|''The Lyar'' was a comedy in three acts produced by the dramatist [[Samuel Foote]].<ref name="Hawkinsp46">{{Harvnb|Hawkins|1883|p=46}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Another clergyman exclaims "If a Gold Watch knock 3 times", and a Parson asks him "Brother don't disturb it". On the wall, an image of [[The Bottle Conjuror]] is alongside an image of [[Elizabeth Canning]], whose fraud had so worried Samuel Fludyer that he had refused to arrest either Parsons or Kent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hawkins|1883|pp=45–46}}</ref>

Playwright [[David Garrick]] dedicated the enormously successful ''The Farmer's Return'' to the satirical artist [[William Hogarth]]. The story concerns a farmer who regales his family with an account of his talk with Miss Fanny, the comedy being derived from the reversal of traditional roles: the sceptical farmer poking fun at the credulous city-folk.<ref name="Clerypp1416"/><ref name="Paulsonp366">{{Harvnb|Paulson|1993|p=366}}</ref> Hogarth made his own observations of the Cock Lane ghost, with obvious references in ''Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism'' (1762). This illustration makes a point of attacking Methodist ministers, one of whom is seen to slip a phallic "ghost" into a young woman's bodice.<ref name="Codypp143144"/> He again attacked the Methodists in ''The Times, Plate 2'' (1762–1763), placing an image of [[Thomas Secker]] (who had tried to intervene on behalf of the Methodists) behind the Cock Lane ghost, and putting the ghost in the same pillory as the radical politician [[John Wilkes]], which implied a connection between the [[demagoguery]] surrounding the Methodists and [[Pittites#Pittites|Pittites]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Paulson|1993|pp=392–393}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Walpole|Le Marchant|1845|p=150}}</ref> The print enraged [[Bishop]] [[William Warburton]], who although a vocal critic of Methodism, wrote:

{{Quote|I have seen ''Hogarth's'' print of the ''Ghost''. It is a horrid composition of lewd Obscenity & blasphemous prophaneness for which I detest the artist & have lost all esteem for the man. The best is, that the worst parts of it have a good chance of not being understood by the people.<ref name="Paulsonp366"/>}}

The 19th-century author [[Charles Dickens]]—whose childhood nursemaid Mary Weller may have affected him with a fascination for ghosts—made reference to the Cock Lane ghost in several of his books.{{#tag:ref|Slater (1983) theorises that Weller may not have provided Dickens with the ghostly stories that affected his childhood.<ref>{{Harvnb|Slater|1983|p=383}}</ref>|group="nb"}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Amerongen|1972|p=218}}</ref> One of ''[[Nicholas Nickleby]]''<nowiki>'s</nowiki> main characters and a source of much of the novel's comic relief, Mrs. Nickleby, claims that her great-grandfather "went to school with the Cock-lane Ghost" and that "I know the master of his school was a Dissenter, and that would in a great measure account for the Cock-lane Ghost's behaving in such an improper manner to the clergyman when he grew up."<ref>{{Harvnb|Dickens|1838–39|p=655}}</ref> Dickens also very briefly mentions the Cock Lane ghost in ''[[A Tale of Two Cities]]''<ref>{{Harvnb|Dickens|1859|p=1}}</ref> and ''[[Dombey and Son]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dickens|1867|p=64}}</ref>

==References==
;Footnotes
{{reflist|group="nb"}}

;Notes
{{reflist|colwidth=25em}}

;Bibliography
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation | last = Addington Bruce | first = H. | title = Historic Ghosts and Ghost Hunters | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28699/28699-h/28699-h.htm | publisher = The Plimpton Press Norwood Mass. | location = USA | year = 1908}}
* {{Citation | last = Amerongen | first = J. B. | title = Actor in Dickens | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PPjc2wTPNaQC | publisher = Ayer Publishing | edition = illustrated | year = 1972 | origyear = 1926 | isbn = 0-405-08204-5 | location = New York}}
* {{citation|last=Bate|first=Walter Jackson|authorlink=Walter Jackson Bate|title=Samuel Johnson|year=1977|publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich|location=New York|isbn=0-15-179260-7}}.
* {{Citation | last = Benedict | first = Barbara M. | title = Curiosity: A Cultural History of Early Modern Inquiry | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JY5WgEAZ-6kC | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-226-04264-2}}
* {{Citation | last1 = Boswell | first1 = James | last2 = Malone | first2 = Edmond | title = The life of Samuel Johnson | url = http://books.google.com/?id=HeINAAAAQAAJ | edition = Second | publisher = Printed by Henry Baldwin, for Charles Dilly, in the Poultry | year = 1791}}
* {{Citation | last = Chambers | first = Paul | title = The Cock Lane Ghost: Murder, Sex and Haunting in Dr Johnson's London | year = 2006 | publisher = Sutton | location = Stroud | isbn = 0-7509-3869-2}}
* {{Citation | last = Clery | first = E. J. | title = The Rise of Supernatural Fiction, 1762–1800 | work = Volume 12 of Cambridge studies in Romanticism | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=2b8stRwMQPIC | edition = illustrated | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1999 | isbn = 0-521-66458-6}}
* {{Citation | last = Cody | first = Lisa Forman | title = Birthing the nation: sex, science, and the conception of eighteenth-century Britons | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pm-rAexjKXgC | edition = Illustrated, reprint | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-19-926864-9}}
* {{Citation | last = Davies | first = Owen | title = Witchcraft, magic and culture, 1736–1951 | edition = illustrated | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ImX_21SScc8C | publisher = Manchester University Press | year = 1999 | location = Manchester | isbn = 0-7190-5656-X}}
* {{Citation | last = Dickens | first = Charles | authorlink = Charles Dickens | title = [[Nicholas Nickleby]] | publisher = University Library Association | location = Philadelphia | year = 1838–39}}
* {{Citation | last = Dickens | first = Charles | title = [[A Tale of Two Cities]] | publisher = [[Chapman & Hall]] | year = 1859}}
* {{Citation | last = Dickens | first = Charles | title = [[Dombey and Son]] | publisher = University Press, Welsh, Bigalow & Co. | location = Cambridge | year = 1867}}
* {{Citation | last = Dobson | first = Austin | title = William Hogarth | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m_ZmJmt2KKoC | publisher = Adamant Media Corporation | location = Boston | year = 2000 | isbn = 1-4021-8472-7}}
* {{Citation | last = Grant | first = Douglas | title = The Cock Lane Ghost | year = 1965 | publisher = Macmillan | location = London}}
* {{Citation | last1 = Goldsmith | first1 = Oliver | last2 = Cunningham | first2 = Peter | editor = Peter Cunningham | title = The works of Oliver Goldsmith | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tPkQAAAAMAAJ | publisher = J. Murray | location = London | year = 1854 }}
* {{Citation | last = Hawkins | first = Edward | editor = Frederic George Stephens | work = Catalogue of prints and drawings in the British Museum | title = Division I. Political and personal satires | volume = IV | url = http://www.archive.org/details/catalogueofprint04brituoft | publisher = British Museum trustees | location = London | year = 1883}}
* {{Citation | last = Lang | first = Andrew | authorlink = Andrew Lang | title = Cock Lane and Common-Sense | url = http://www.archive.org/details/cocklanecommonse00langrich | year = 1894 | publisher = Longmans, Green and Co | location = London | isbn = 1-4264-6377-4}}
* {{Citation | last = MacKay | first = Charles | title = Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NmEOAAAAQAAJ | publisher = Publisher Office of the National Illustrated Library | location = London | year = 1852}}
* {{Citation | last = Paulson | first = Ronald | title = Hogarth: Art and Politics 1750–1764 | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2c7L7UvYYgoC | edition = Illustrated | publisher = James Clarke & Co. | location = Cambridge | year = 1993 | isbn = 0-7188-2875-5}}
* {{Citation | last = Slater | first = Michael | title = Dickens and women | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GyuH6-eZZaQC | edition = illustrated | publisher = Stanford University Press | year = 1983 | isbn = 0-8047-1180-1 | location = London}}
* {{Citation | last1 = Walpole | first1 = Horace | authorlink = Horace Walpole | last2 = Le Marchant | first2 = Denis | title = Memoirs of the reign of King George the Third | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z0EJAAAAIAAJ | editor = Denis Le Marchant | publisher = Lea & Blanchard | location = London | year = 1845}}
* {{Citation | last1 = Westwood | first1 = Jennifer | last2 = Simpson | first2 = Jacqueline | title = The Lore of the Land: A Guide to England's Legends from Spring-Heeled Jack to the Witches of Warboys | publisher = Penguin | location = London | year = 2005 | isbn = }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{Citation | last = Churchill | first = Charles | authorlink = Charles Churchill (satirist) | title = The Ghost | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8UXOAAAAMAAJ | publisher = Printed for the author and sold by William Flexney | year = 1762 | location = London}}

==External links==
*[http://www.sarahbakewell.com/Other%20Writing.html#scratchingfanny A 'Fortean Times' article about the Cock Lane Ghost]
{{featured article}}

[[Category:Ghosts]]
[[Category:Hoaxes in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of the City of London]]
[[Category:Crime in London]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[fr:Fantôme de Cock Lane]]
[[ja:コック・レーンの幽霊]]

Cock Lane Ghost

2011-04-01T14:50:34Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 152.26.26.58 (talk) to last version by SandyGeorgia

[[File:Cock lane ghost.png|250px|thumb|alt=A monochrome illustration of a narrow street, viewed from a corner, or intersection. A large three-storey building is visible on the right of the image. The ground floor has three windows, the first and second floors have two windows each. The roof appears to contain a row of windows, for a loft space. The word "KING" is written between the first and second floors, and a sign, "Gas meter maker" hangs above the ground floor windows.|A 19th-century illustration of Cock Lane. The haunting took place in the three-storey building on the right.]]
The '''Cock Lane ghost''' attracted mass public attention in 18th-century England. In 1762 an apartment in [[Cock Lane]], a short road adjacent to London's [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]] market and a few minutes' walk from [[St Paul's Cathedral]], was the site of a reported haunting centred around three people: William Kent, a [[usury|usurer]] from Norfolk, Richard Parsons, a parish clerk, and Parsons' daughter Elizabeth.

Following the death during childbirth of Kent's wife, Elizabeth Lynes, he became romantically involved with her sister, Fanny. [[Canon law]] prevented the couple from marrying, but they nevertheless moved to London and lodged at the property in Cock Lane, then owned by Parsons. Several accounts of strange knocking sounds and ghostly apparitions were reported, although for the most part they stopped after the couple moved out, but following Fanny's death from [[smallpox]], and Kent's successful legal action against Parsons over an outstanding debt, they began again. Parsons claimed that Fanny's ghost haunted his property, and later his daughter. Regular séances were held to determine "Scratching Fanny's" motives, and Cock Lane was often made impassable by the throngs of interested bystanders.

The ghost appeared to claim that Fanny had been poisoned with [[arsenic]] and Kent was publicly suspected of being her murderer, but a commission whose members included [[Samuel Johnson]] concluded that the supposed haunting was a fraud. Further investigations proved the scam was perpetrated by Elizabeth Parsons, under duress from her father. Those responsible were prosecuted and found guilty; Richard Parsons was [[pillory|pilloried]] and sentenced to two years in prison.

The Cock Lane ghost became a focus of controversy between the [[Methodist]] and [[Anglican church]]es and is referenced frequently in contemporary literature. [[Charles Dickens]] is one of several Victorian authors whose work alluded to the story and the pictorial [[satirist]] [[William Hogarth]] referenced the ghost in two of his prints.

==Background==
In about 1756–57 William Kent, a [[usurer]] from [[Norfolk]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Benedict|2002|p=171}}</ref> married Elizabeth Lynes, the daughter of a [[grocer]] from [[Lyneham, Wiltshire|Lyneham]]. They moved to [[Stoke Ferry]] where Kent kept an [[Public_house#Inns|inn]], and later the local [[post office]]. They were apparently very much in love, but their marriage was short-lived as within a month of the move Elizabeth died during childbirth. Her sister Frances—commonly known as Fanny—had during Elizabeth's pregnancy moved in with the couple, and she remained to take care of the infant and its father. The boy did not survive long and rather than leave, Fanny stayed on to take care of William and the house. The two soon began a relationship, but [[canon law]] appeared to rule out marriage; when Kent travelled to London to seek advice he was told that as Elizabeth had borne him a living son, a union with Fanny was impossible. In January 1759 therefore, he gave up the post office, left Fanny and moved to London, intending to "purchase a place in some public office" in the hope that "business would erase that passion he had unfortunately indulged". Fanny meanwhile stayed with one of her brothers at Lyneham.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=6–7}}</ref>

Despite her family's disapproval of their relationship, Fanny began to write passionate letters to Kent, "filled with repeated entreaties to spend the rest of their lives together". He eventually allowed her to join him at lodgings in [[East Greenwich]] near London. The two decided to live together as man and wife, making wills in each other's favour and hoping to remain discreet. In this, however, they did not reckon on Fanny's relations. The couple moved to lodgings near the [[Mansion House, London|Mansion House]], but their landlord there may have learnt of their relationship from Fanny's family, expressing his contempt by refusing to repay a sum of money Kent loaned him (about £20).{{#tag:ref|Based on the [[Retail Prices Index (United Kingdom)|RPI]], about £27,400 as of 2010.<ref>{{Citation | last = Officer | first = Lawrence H. | title = Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1264 to Present | url = http://www.measuringworth.com/ppoweruk/ | publisher = measuringworth.com | accessdate = 13 January 2010}}</ref>|group="nb"}} In response, Kent had him arrested.

==Fanny==
While attending early morning prayers at the church of [[St Sepulchre-without-Newgate]] William Kent and Fanny met Richard Parsons, the officiating [[clerk (choral)|clerk]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=4–10}}</ref> Although he was generally considered respectable, Parsons was known locally as a drunk and was struggling to provide for his family. He listened to the couple's plight and was sympathetic, offering them the use of lodgings in his home at what (in 1965) was 20 Cock Lane, to the north of St Sepulchre's. Located along a narrow, winding thoroughfare similar to most of central London's streets, the three-storey house was in a respectable but declining area, and comprised a single room on each floor, connected by a winding staircase.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=4–6}}</ref> Shortly after Mr and Mrs Kent (as they called themselves) moved in, Kent loaned Parsons 12 [[guinea (British coin)|guineas]], to be repaid at a rate of a guinea per month.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=10}}</ref>

It was while Kent was away at a wedding in the country that the first reports of strange noises began. Parsons had a wife and two daughters; the eldest, Elizabeth, was described as a "little artful girl about eleven years of age".<ref name="ElizabethODNB">{{Citation | last1 = Seccombe | first1 = Thomas | last2 = Shore | first2 = Rev Heather | title = Parsons, Elizabeth (1749–1807) | format = {{ODNBsub}} | work = Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2004 | url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/21456 | accessdate = 21 December 2009 | doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/21456}}</ref> Kent asked Elizabeth to stay with Fanny, who was then several months into a pregnancy, and to share her bed while he was away. The two reported hearing scratching and rapping noises. These were attributed by Mrs Parsons to a neighbouring [[Shoemaking|cobbler]], although when the noises re-occured on a Sunday, Fanny asked if the cobbler was working that day; Mrs Parsons told her he was not. James Franzen, landlord of the nearby Wheat Sheaf [[public house]], was another witness. After visiting the house he reported seeing a ghostly white figure ascend the stairs, and terrified, left to go home. Parsons visited him there that same night, and claimed also to have seen a ghost.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chambers|2006|pp=39–40}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=14–15}}</ref>

As Fanny was only weeks away from giving birth Kent made arrangements to move to a property at Bartlet's Court in [[Clerkenwell]], but by January 1760 it was not ready and so they moved instead to an "inconvenient" apartment nearby, intending only a temporary stay.<ref name="Chambers 2006 28">{{Harvnb|Chambers|2006|p=28}}</ref><ref name="Grant 1965 12 13">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=12–13}}</ref> However, on 25 January Fanny fell ill. The attending doctor diagnosed the early stages of an eruptive fever and agreed with Kent that their lodgings were inadequate for someone at so critical a stage of pregnancy. Fanny was therefore moved, by coach, to Bartlet's Court. The next day her doctor returned and met with her apothecary. Both agreed that Fanny's symptoms were indicative of [[smallpox]]. On hearing this, Fanny sent for an attorney, to ensure the will she had had made was in good order, and that Kent would inherit her estate. An acquaintance of Kent's, the Reverend Stephen Aldrich of [[St John Clerkenwell]], reassured her that she would be forgiven for her sins. She died on 2 February.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=13–16}}</ref>

As sole executor of Fanny's will, Kent ordered a coffin, but fearful of being prosecuted should the nature of their relationship become known, asked that it remain nameless. On registering the burial he was, however, forced to give a name, and he gave her his own. Fanny's family was notified and her sister Ann Lynes, who lived nearby at [[Pall Mall, London|Pall Mall]], attended the funeral at St John's. When Ann learned of the terms of Fanny's will, which left her brothers and sisters half a crown each and Kent the rest, she tried but failed to block it in [[Doctors' Commons]]. The bulk of Kent's inheritance was Fanny's £150 share of her dead brother Thomas's estate. This also included some land owned by Thomas, sold by the executor of his estate, John Lynes, and Kent received Fanny's share of that too (almost £95). Her family resented this. Legal problems with Lynes's sale meant that each of Thomas's beneficiaries had to pay £45 in compensation to the purchaser, but Kent refused, claiming that he had already spent the money in settling Fanny's debts. In response to this, in October 1761 John Lynes began proceedings against Kent in the [[Court of Chancery]].{{#tag:ref|The result of these proceedings is not mentioned.|group="nb"}} Meanwhile Kent became a [[stockbroker]], and in 1761 married again.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=16–19}}</ref>

==Haunting==
[[File:Cock lane room.png|left|thumb|alt=A monochrome illustration of a ramshackle room. Windows allow light to stream in, from the right of the image. Plaster is missing from the ceiling. A large fireplace dominates the far wall, and is surrounded by various cupboards and containers. The floor appears to be formed from planks of wood.|A 19th-century illustration of the room where the haunting took place]]
Echoing the actions of Kent's previous landlord, Parsons had not repaid Kent's loan—of which about three guineas was outstanding—and Kent therefore instructed his attorney to sue him.<ref name="Chambers 2006 28"/><ref name="Grant 1965 12 13"/> He managed to recover the debt by January 1762, just as the mysterious noises at Cock Lane began again.<ref name="ElizabethODNB"/> Catherine Friend had lodged there shortly after the couple left but moved out when she found the noises, which had returned intermittently and which were becoming more frequent, could not be stopped. They apparently emanated from Elizabeth Parsons, who also suffered fits, and the house was regularly disturbed by unexplained noises, likened at the time to the sound of a cat scratching a chair.<ref name="ElizabethODNB"/> Reportedly determined to discover their source, Richard Parsons had a carpenter remove the [[Panelling|wainscotting]] around Elizabeth's bed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lang|1894|p=165}}</ref> He approached the Methodist John Moore, assistant preacher at St Sepulchre's since 1754 and rector of [[St Bartholomew-the-Great]] in [[Smithfield, London|West Smithfield]] since June 1761. The presence of one ghost, presumed to belong to Fanny's sister, Elizabeth, had already been noted while Fanny lay dying, and the two concluded that the spirit now haunting Parsons' house must be that of Fanny Lynes herself. The notion that a person's spirit might return from the dead to warn those still alive was a commonly held belief, and the presence of two apparently restless spirits was therefore an obvious sign to both men that each ghost had important news to disclose.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=20–21}}</ref>

Parsons and Moore devised a method of communication; one knock for yes, two knocks for no. Using this system, the ghost appeared to claim that Fanny had been murdered. It was conjectured that the mysterious figure in white which so terrified James Franzen, presumed to be the ghost of Elizabeth, had appeared there to warn her sister of her impending death. As the first ghost had seemingly vanished, this charge against Kent—that he murdered Elizabeth—was never acted on, but through repeated questioning of Fanny's ghost it was divined that she had died not from the effects of smallpox, but rather from [[arsenic]] poisoning. The deadly toxin had apparently been administered by Kent about two hours before Fanny died and now, it was supposed, her spirit wanted justice. Moore had heard from Parsons how Kent had pursued the debt he was owed, and he had also heard from Ann Lynes, who had complained that as Fanny's coffin lid was screwed down she had not been able to see her sister's corpse. Moore thought that Fanny's body might not show any visible signs of smallpox and that if she had been poisoned, the lack of scarring would have been something Kent would rather keep hidden. As a Methodist he was inclined to trust the ghost, but for added support he enlisted the aid of Reverend Thomas Broughton, a fellow Methodist. Broughton visited Cock Lane on 5 January and left convinced the ghost was real. The story spread through London, ''[[The Public Ledger]]'' began to publish detailed accounts of the phenomenon, and Kent fell under public suspicion as a murderer.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=23–25}}</ref><ref name="Benedictp172">{{Harvnb|Benedict|2002|p=172}}</ref>{{-}}

==Séances==
After reading the veiled accusations made against him in the ''Public Ledger'', Kent determined to clear his name, and accompanied by a witness went to see John Moore. The Methodist showed Kent the list of questions he and Parsons had drawn up for the ghost to answer. One concerned William and Fanny's marital status, prompting Kent to admit that they never married. Moore told him he did not think he was a murderer, rather, he believed the spirit's presence indicated that "there was something behind darker than all the rest, and that if he would go to Parson's house, he might be a witness to the same and convinced of its reality". On 12 January therefore, Kent enlisted the aid of the two physicians who attended Fanny in her last days, and with Reverend Broughton, went to Cock Lane. On the house's upper floor Elizabeth Parsons was publicly undressed, and with her younger sister was put to bed. The audience sat around the bed, positioned in the centre of the room. They were warned that the ghost was sensitive to disbelief, and told that they should accord it due respect. When the séance began, a relative of Parsons, Mary Frazer,<ref name="ElizabethODNB"/> ran around the room shouting "Fanny, Fanny, why don't you come? Do come, pray Fanny, come; dear Fanny, come!" Nothing happened, and Moore told the group the ghost would not come as they were making too much noise. He asked them to leave the room, telling them he would try to contact the ghost by stamping his foot. About ten minutes later they were told the ghost had returned, and that they should re-enter the room.<ref name="Grantpp2629">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=26–29}}</ref> Moore then started to run through his and Parsons' list of questions:

:"Are you the wife of Mr. Kent?" —Two knocks
:"Did you die naturally?" —Two knocks
:"By poison?" —One knock
:"Did any person other than Mr. Kent administer it?" —Two knocks

[[File:English credulity or the invisible ghost 1762.jpg|thumb|250px|alt=A small audience of people surround a bed, in which two children lie. A ghostly figure hovers above the children, a hammer in one hand. One man looks under the bed, with a candle. Speech bubbles are visible from each member of the audience. To the right of the image, several women are engaged in prayer.|''English Credulity or the Invisible Ghost'' (1762). The ghost appears above the two children in the bed. Also visible are [[John Fielding]] (left) and a companion. The portraits on the wall are of [[The Bottle Conjuror]] and [[Elizabeth Canning]]. The artist is unknown, but may have been [[Oliver Goldsmith]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hawkins|1883|p=45}}</ref>]]
After more questions, a member of the audience exclaimed "Kent, ask this Ghost if you shall be hanged". He did so, and the question was answered by a single knock. Kent exclaimed "Thou art a lying spirit, thou are not the ghost of my Fanny. She would never have said any such thing."<ref name="Grantpp2629"/>

Public interest in the story grew when it was discovered that the ghost appeared to follow Elizabeth Parsons. She was removed to the house of a Mr Bray, where on 14 January, in the presence of two unidentified nobles, more knocking sounds were heard.<ref name="Grantpp2629"/> A few days later she was returned to Cock Lane, where on 18 January another séance was held. In attendance were Kent, the apothecary, and local parish priest and incumbent of [[St John Clerkenwell]], Reverend Stephen Aldrich.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chambers|2006|pp=80–87}}</ref> On that occasion, when a clergyman used a candle to look under the bed, the ghost "refused" to answer, Frazer claiming "she [the ghost] loving not light". After a few minutes of silence the questioning continued, but when Moore asked if the ghost would appear in court against Kent, Frazer refused to ask the question.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=30–32}}</ref>

When they lived at Cock Lane William and Fanny had employed a maid, Esther "Carrots" Carlisle (Carrots on account of her red hair). She had since moved to a new job and knew nothing of the haunting, but seeking evidence of Fanny's poisoning, Moore went to question her. Carrots told him that Fanny had been unable to speak in the days before she died, so Moore invited her to a séance, held on 19 January. Once there, she was asked to confirm that Fanny had been poisoned, but Carrots remained adamant that Fanny had said nothing to her, telling the party that William and Fanny had been "very loving, and lived very happy together." Kent arrived later that night, this time with James Franzen and the Reverends [[William Dodd (clergyman)|William Dodd]] and Thomas Broughton. Frazer began with her usual introduction before Moore sent her out, apparently irritated by her behaviour. He then asked the party of about 20 to leave the room, calling them back a few minutes later.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=32–34}}</ref> This time, the séance centred on Carrots, who addressed the ghost directly:

:"Are you my mistress?" —One knock, followed by scratches
:"Are you angry with me, Madam?" —One knock
:"Then I am sure, Madam, you may be ashamed of yourself for I never hurt you in my life."

At this, the séance was ended. Frazer and Franzen remained alone in the room, the latter reportedly too terrified to move. Frazer asked if he would like to pray and was angered when he apparently could not. The séance resumed and Franzen later returned to his home, where he and his wife were reportedly tormented by the ghost's knocking in their bedchamber.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=34–36}}</ref>

==Investigation==
On 20 January another séance was held, this time at the home of a Mr Bruin, on the corner of nearby Hosier Lane. Among those attending was a man "extremely desirous of detecting the fraud, and discovering the truth of this mysterious affair", who later sent his account of the night to the ''London Chronicle''. He arrived with a small party which included Reverend James Penn of [[St Anne and St Agnes|St Ann's]] in [[Aldersgate]]. Inside the house, a member of the group positioned himself against the bed, but was asked by one of the ghost's sympathisers to move. He refused, and following a brief argument the ghost's supporters left. The gentleman then asked if Parsons would allow his daughter to be moved to a room at his house, but was refused. For the remainder of the night the ghost made no sound, while Elizabeth Parsons, now extremely agitated, displayed signs of convulsions. When questioned she confirmed that she had seen the ghost, but that she was not frightened by it. At that point several of the party left, but at about 7 am the next morning the knocking once more recommenced. Following the usual questions about the cause of Fanny's death and who was responsible, the interrogation turned to her body, which lay in the vaults of St John's.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=38–41}}</ref>

[[File:Edward, Duke of York (Pompeo Batoni).jpg|left|thumb|upright|alt=A three-quarter portrait of a young man. His hair is light grey/blonde. He wears pale leggings, a pale waistcoat decorated with gold lace, a large blue sash, and a blue and gold lace blazer. His right arm rests on a chair, his left hand points to a painting behind him.|[[Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany]], attended a séance on 30 January 1762.]]
Parsons agreed to move his daughter to Reverend Aldrich's house for further testing on 22 January, but when that morning Penn and a man of "veracity and fortune" called on Parsons and asked for Elizabeth, the clerk told them she was not there and refused to reveal her whereabouts. Parsons had spoken with friends and was apparently worried that Kent had been busy with his own investigations.{{#tag:ref|Evidence of these investigations exists in a letter which appeared in a newspaper in February 1762, signed by a "J. A. L.", which gave a detailed report on how Fanny had arrived in London, and which claimed that Kent had drawn up Fanny's will in his favour. It made no specific accusations, but as its author observed, Kent's actions had had "the desired effect". Kent later claimed to know the identity of its author, who, Grant (1965) surmises, was a member of the Lynes family. Grant also writes that the letter was printed to maintain pressure on Kent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=43}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Instead, he allowed Elizabeth to be moved that night to [[St Bartholomew's Hospital]], where another séance was held. Nothing was reported until about 6 am, when three scratches were heard, apparently while the girl was asleep. The approximately 20-strong audience complained that the affair was a deception. Once Elizabeth woke she began to cry, and once reassured that she was safe admitted that she was afraid for her father, "who must needs be ruined and undone, if their matter should be supposed to be an imposture." She also admitted that although she had appeared to be asleep, she was in fact fully aware of the conversation going on around her.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=41–44}}</ref>

{{Quote box |quoted=true |bgcolor=#FFFFF0 |salign=center |width=33% |align=right |quote=Whereas several advertisements have appeared in the papers reflecting upon my character, who am father of the child which now engrosses the talk of the town; I do hereby declare publicly, that I have always been willing and am now ready to deliver up my child for trial into the hands of any number of candid and reasonable men, requiring only ''such security'' for a fair and gentle treatment of my child, as no father of children or man of candour would refuse. |source=Richard Parsons, the ''Public Ledger'', 26 January 1762<ref name="Grantp54"/>}}
Initially only the ''Public Ledger'' reported on the case, but once it became known that noblemen had taken an interest and visited the ghost at Mr Bray's house on 14 January, the story began to appear in other newspapers. The ''[[St. James's Chronicle]]'' and the ''[[London Chronicle]]'' printed reports from 16–19 January (the latter the more sceptical of the two), and ''Lloyd's Evening Post'' from 18–20 January. The story spread across London and by the middle of January the crowds gathered outside the property were such that Cock Lane was rendered impassable. Parsons charged visitors an entrance fee to "talk" with the ghost, which, it was reported, did not disappoint.<ref>{{Harvnb|MacKay|1852|p=232}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Westwood|Simpson|2005|pp=463–464}}</ref><ref name="Benedictp172"/> After receiving several requests to intercede, [[Sir Samuel Fludyer, 1st Baronet|Samuel Fludyer]], [[Lord Mayor of London]], was on 23 January approached by Alderman Gosling, John Moore and Parsons. They told him of their experiences but Fludyer was reminded of the then recent case of fraudster [[Elizabeth Canning]] and refused to have Kent or Parsons arrested (on charges of murder and conspiracy respectively). Instead, against a backdrop of hysteria caused in part by the newspapers' relentless reporting of the case, he ordered that Elizabeth be tested at Reverend Aldrich's house. Meanwhile, Elizabeth was again the subject of study, in two séances held 23–24 January.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=44–45, 51–52}}</ref> Parsons accepted the Lord Mayor's decision, but asked that "some persons connected with the girl might be permitted to be there, to divert her in the day-time". This was refused, as were two similar requests, Aldrich and Penn insisting that they would accept only "any person or persons, of strict character and reputation, who are housekeepers". Aldrich and Penn's account of their negotiations with Parsons clearly perturbed the clerk, as he defended his actions in the ''[[The Public Ledger|Public Ledger]]''. This prompted Aldrich and Penn to issue a pointed retort in ''Lloyd's Evening Post'': "We are greatly puzzled to find Mr. Parsons asserting that he hath been ''always'' willing to ''deliver up'' the child, when he refused a gentleman on Wednesday evening the 20th inst. [...] What is to be understood, by requiring security"?<ref name="Grantp54">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=54}}</ref>

Elizabeth was taken on 26 January to the house of Jane Armstrong, sleeping there in a hammock. The continued noises strengthened the resolve of the ghost's supporters, while the press's ceaseless reporting of the case continued. [[Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford]], announced that with the [[Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany|Duke of York]], Lady Northumberland, [[Lady Mary Coke]] and [[Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Marquess of Hertford|Lord Hertford]], he was to visit Cock Lane on 30 January. After struggling through the throngs of interested visitors though, he was ultimately disappointed; the ''[[Public Advertiser]]'' observed that "the noise is now generally deferred till seven in the morning, it being necessary to vary the time, that the imposition may be the better carried on".<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=55–56}}</ref>

==Exposure==
With [[Lord Dartmouth]] Aldrich began to draw together the people who would be involved in his investigation. They chose the matron of a local [[Lying-in Hospital|lying-in hospital]] as principal [[lady-in-waiting]], the critic and controversialist Bishop [[John Douglas (bishop)|John Douglas]], and Dr George Macaulay. A Captain Wilkinson was also included on the committee; he had attended one séance armed with a pistol and stick; the former to shoot the source of the knocking, and the latter to make his escape (the ghost had remained silent on that occasion). James Penn and John Moore were also on the committee, but its most prominent member was Dr [[Samuel Johnson]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=56–57}}</ref> who documented the séance, held on 1 February 1762:

[[File:Samuel Johnson by Joshua Reynolds.jpg|right|thumb|upright|alt=A half-length portrait of an elderly, and overweight, gentleman. He wears a brown waistcoat and blazer, with gold buttons, a white collar, and a grey wig. His left hand hovers close to his abdomen. The background is a dark, solid blue/black.|A committee whose members included Dr [[Samuel Johnson]] concluded that the supposed haunting was a hoax.]]
{{Quote | On the night of the 1st of February many gentlemen eminent for their rank and character were, by the invitation of the Reverend Mr. Aldrich, of Clerkenwell, assembled at his house, for the examination of the noises supposed to be made by a departed spirit, for the detection of some enormous crime. About ten at night the gentlemen met in the chamber in which the girl, supposed to be disturbed by a spirit, had, with proper caution, been put to bed by several ladies. They sat rather more than an hour, and hearing nothing, went down stairs, when they interrogated the father of the girl, who denied, in the strongest terms, any knowledge or belief of fraud. The supposed spirit had before publickly promised, by an affirmative knock, that it would attend one of the gentlemen into the vault under the Church of St. John, Clerkenwell, where the body is deposited, and give a token of her presence there, by a knock upon her coffin; it was therefore determined to make this trial of the existence or veracity of the supposed spirit. While they were enquiring and deliberating, they were summoned into the girl's chamber by some ladies who were near her bed, and who had heard knocks and scratches. When the gentlemen entered, the girl declared that she felt the spirit like a mouse upon her back, and was required to hold her hands out of bed. From that time, though the spirit was very solemnly required to manifest its existence by appearance, by impression on the hand or body of any present, by scratches, knocks, or any other agency, no evidence of any preter-natural power was exhibited. The spirit was then very seriously advertised that the person to whom the promise was made of striking the coffin, was then about to visit the vault, and that the performance of the promise was then claimed. The company at one o'clock went into the church, and the gentleman to whom the promise was made, went with another into the vault. The spirit was solemnly required to perform its promise, but nothing more than silence ensued: the person supposed to be accused by the spirit, then went down with several others, but no effect was perceived. Upon their return they examined the girl, but could draw no confession from her. Between two and three she desired and was permitted to go home with her father. It is, therefore, the opinion of the whole assembly, that the child has some art of making or counterfeiting a particular noise, and that there is no agency of any higher cause.| Samuel Johnson (1762)<ref>{{Harvnb|Boswell|Malone|1791|pp=220–221}}</ref>}}

Disappointed that the ghost had failed to reveal itself, Moore now told Kent he believed it was an imposter, and that he would help reveal it. Kent asked him to admit the truth and write an affidavit of what he knew, so as to end the affair and restore Kent's reputation, but Moore refused, telling him that he still believed that the spirit's presence was a reminder of his sin.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=73}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Kent did, however, manage to issue an affidavit, signed by Fanny's doctor and her apothecary on 8 February.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=77}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Moore's view of the couple's relationship was shared by many, including Mrs Parsons, who believed that the supposed ghost of Elizabeth Kent had disapproved of her sister's new relationship.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chambers|2006|pp=39–42}}</ref>

[[File:Cock lane ghost wooden board.jpg|right|thumb|upright|alt=An illustration of an oblong and vaguely human-shaped piece of wood, viewed from the top, and an plan view diagram of the haunted room.|The piece of wood used by Elizabeth Parsons, and a map of the haunted room, as illustrated in 1762]]
Another séance on 3 February saw the knocking continue unabated, but by then Parsons was in an extremely difficult—and serious—situation. Keen to prove the ghost was not an imposture he allowed his daughter to be examined at a house on [[Strand, London|The Strand]] from 7–10 February, and at another house in [[Covent Garden]] from 14 February. There she was tested in a variety of ways which included being swung up in a [[hammock]], her hands and feet extended. As expected, the noises commenced, but stopped once Elizabeth was made to place her hands outside the bed. For two nights the ghost was silent. Elizabeth was told that if no more noises were heard by Sunday 21 February, she and her father would be committed to [[Newgate Prison]]. Her maids then saw her conceal on her person a small piece of wood about 6 by 4 inches (150 by 100 mm), and informed the investigators. More scratches were heard but the observers concluded that Elizabeth was responsible for the noises, and that she had been forced by her father to make them. Elizabeth was allowed home shortly after.<ref name="Grantpp7376">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=73–76}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lang|1894|p=169}}</ref>

On or about 25 February, a pamphlet sympathetic to Kent's case was published, called ''The Mystery Revealed'', and most likely written by [[Oliver Goldsmith]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Goldsmith|Cunningham|1854|p=364}}</ref> Meanwhile, Kent was still trying to clear his name, and on 25 February he went to the vault of St John's, accompanied by Aldrich, the undertaker, the clerk and the parish [[Sexton (office)|sexton]]. The group was there to prove beyond any doubt that a recent newspaper report, which claimed that the supposed removal of Fanny's body from the vault accounted for the ghost's failure to knock on her coffin, was false. The undertaker removed the lid to expose Fanny's corpse, "and a very awful shocking sight it was".<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=76–77}}</ref> For Moore this was too much and he published his retraction:

{{Quote | In justice to the person, whose reputation has been attacked in a most gross manner, by the pretended Ghost in Cock-lane; to check the credulity of the weak; to defeat the attempts of the malicious, and to prevent further imposition, on account of this absurd phenomenon, I do hereby certify, that though, from the several attendances on this occasion, I have not been able to point out, how, and in what manner, those knockings and scratchings, of the supposed Ghost, were ''contrived, performed'', and ''continued''; yet, that I am convinced, that those knockings and scratchings were the effects of some artful, wicked contrivance; and that I was, in a more especial manner, convinced of its being such, on the first of this month, when I attended with several persons of rank and character, who assembled at the Rev. Mr. Aldrich's, Clerkenwell, in order to examine into this iniquitous imposition upon the Public. Since which time I have not seen the child, nor heard the noises; and think myself in duty bound to add, that the injured person (when present to hear himself accused by the pretended Ghost) has not, by his behaviour, given the least ground of suspicion, but has preserved that becoming steadfastness, which nothing, I am persuaded, but innocence could inspire.|John Moore (1762)<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=77–78}}</ref>}}

It was not enough to keep him from being charged by the authorities with conspiracy, along with Richard Parsons and his wife, Mary Frazer, and Richard James, a tradesman.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=80}}</ref>

==Trial==
[[File:Mansfield Old.jpg|right|upright|thumb|alt=A full-length portrait of an elderly man, seated. He wears long flowing red and white robes, a long grey wig, and holds a rolled document in his left hand. His right hand rests on a table littered with documents. Behind him, the corner of a room, with ornate plaster architrave, is visible.|The case was tried by [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales|Lord Chief Justice]] [[William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield]].]]
The trial of all five was held at the [[Guildhall, London|Guild Hall]] in London on 10 July 1762. Presiding over the case was [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales|Lord Chief Justice]] [[William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield]]. Proceedings began at 10 am, "brought by William Kent against the above defendants for a conspiracy to take away his life by charging him with the murder of Frances Lynes by giving her poison whereof she died". The courtroom was crowded with spectators, who watched as Kent gave evidence against those in the dock. He told the court about his relationship with Fanny and of her resurrection as "Scratching Fanny" (so-called because of the scratching noises made by the "ghost").<ref name="ElizabethODNB"/> James Franzen was next on the stand, his story corroborated by Fanny's servant, Esther "Carrots" Carlisle, who testified later that day. Dr Cooper, who had served Fanny as she lay dying, told the court that he had always believed the strange noises in Cock Lane to be a trick, and his account of Fanny's illness was supported by her apothecary, James Jones. Several other prosecution witnesses described how the hoax had been revealed, and Richard James was accused by the prosecution's last witness of being responsible for some of the more offensive material published in the ''Public Ledger''.<ref name="Grantpp110112">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=110–112}}</ref>

The defence's witnesses included some of those who had cared for Elizabeth Parsons, and who presumably still believed that the ghost was real. Other witnesses included the carpenter responsible for removing the wainscotting from Parsons' apartment and Catherine Friend, who to escape the knocking noises had left the property. One witness's testimony caused the court to burst into laughter, at which she replied "I assure you gentlemen, it is no laughing matter, whatever you may think of it." Reverend Thomas Broughton was also called, as was Reverend Ross, one of those who had questioned the ghost. Lord Mansfield asked him "Whether he thought he had puzzled the Ghost, or the Ghost had puzzled him?" John Moore was offered support by several esteemed gentlemen and presented Mansfield with a letter from the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Thomas Secker]], who sought to intercede on his behalf. Mansfield placed the letter in his pocket, unopened, and told the court "it was impossible it could relate to the cause in question." Richard James and Richard Parsons also received support from various witnesses, some of whom although acknowledging Parsons' drink problem, told the court they could not believe he was guilty.<ref name="Grantpp110112"/>

The trial ended at about 9:30 pm. The judge spent about 90 minutes summing up the case, but it took the jury only 15 minutes to reach a verdict of guilty for all five defendants. The following Monday, two others responsible for defaming Kent were found guilty and later fined £50 each. The conspirators were brought back on 22 November but sentencing was delayed in the hope that they could agree on the level of damages payable to Kent. Having failed to do so they returned on 27 January 1763 and were committed to the [[King's Bench Prison]] until 11 February, by which time John Moore and Richard James had agreed to pay Kent £588; they were subsequently admonished by [[John Eardley Wilmot|Justice Wilmot]] and released. The following day, the rest were sentenced:<ref name="Grantpp113114">{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=113–114}}</ref>

{{Quote|The Court chusing that Mr. Kent, who had been so much injured on the occasion, should receive some reparation by punishment of the offenders, deferred giving judgment for seven or eight months, ''in hopes that the parties might make it up in the meantime.'' Accordingly, the clergyman, and tradesman agreed to pay Mr. Kent a round sum—some say between £500 and £600 to purchase their pardon, and were, therefore, dismissed with a severe reprimand. The father was ordered to be set in the [[pillory]] three times in one month—once at the end of Cock–Lane; Elizabeth his wife to be imprisoned one year; and Mary Frazer six months in [[Bridewell]], with hard labour. The father appearing to be out of his mind at the time he was first to standing in the pillory, the execution of that part of his sentence was deferred to another day, when, as well as the other day of his standing there, the populace took so much compassion on him, that instead of using him ill, they made a handsome subscription for him.|Annual Register, vol cxlii. and Gentleman's Magazine, 1762, p. 43 and p. 339<ref name="Walpolep148">{{Harvnb|Walpole|Le Marchant|1845|p=148}}</ref>}}

Parsons, all the while protesting his innocence, was also sentenced to two years imprisonment. He stood in the pillory on 16 March, 30 March and finally on 8 April. In contrast to other criminals the crowd treated him kindly, making collections of money for him.<ref name="Grantpp113114"/>

==Legacy==
[[File:William Hogarth - Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism.png|thumb|alt=A chapel full of people, many of whom hold small ghostly idols. A woman lies on the floor, rabbits leaping from under her skirts. A preacher stands in the pulpit, preaching to his congregation. On the right of the image, a large thermometer is capped by an idol of a ghost.|In [[William Hogarth]]'s ''Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism'', the Cock Lane ghost is shown at the top of the thermometer, knocking to the girl in the bed. A Methodist preacher is seen to slip an [[icon]] of the ghost into the [[bodice]] of a young woman.<ref name="Codypp143144">{{Harvnb|Cody|2005|pp=143–144}}</ref>]]
The Cock Lane ghost was a focus for a contemporary religious controversy between the [[Methodists]], and the orthodox [[Anglicans]]. Belief in a spiritual afterlife was a requirement for most religions, particularly Christianity, and in every instance where a spirit had supposedly manifested itself in the real world, the event was cherished as an affirmation of such beliefs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|p=60}}</ref> In his youth, [[John Wesley]] had been strongly influenced by a supposed haunting at his family home and these experiences were carried through to the religion he founded, which was regularly criticised for its position on witchcraft and magic. Methodism, although far from a united religion, became almost synonymous with a belief in the supernatural.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|1999|pp=12–14}}</ref> Some of its followers therefore gave more credence to the reality of the Cock Lane ghost than did the Anglican establishment, which considered such things to be relics of the country's [[Catholic]] past. This was a view that was epitomised in the conflict between the Methodist John Moore and the Anglican Stephen Aldrich.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chambers|2006|pp=47–54, 87}}</ref> In his 1845 memoirs, [[Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford|Horace Walpole]], who had attended one of the séances, accused the Methodists of actively working to establish the existence of ghosts. He described the constant presence of Methodist clergymen near Elizabeth Parsons and implied that the church would recompense her father for his troubles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Walpole|Le Marchant|1845|pp=146–147}}</ref>

Samuel Johnson was committed to his Christian faith and shared the views of author [[Joseph Glanvill]], who, in his 1681 work ''[[Saducismus Triumphatus]]'', wrote of his concern over the advances made against religion and a belief in witchcraft, by atheism and scepticism. For Johnson the idea that an afterlife might not exist was an appalling thought, but although he thought that spirits could protect and counsel those still living, he kept himself distant from the more credulous Methodists, and recognised that his religion required proof of an afterlife.<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=60–63}}</ref> Ever a sceptic, in his discussions with his biographer [[James Boswell]], he said:

{{Quote|Sir, I make a distinction between what a man may experience by the mere strength of his imagination, and what imagination cannot possibly produce. Thus, suppose I should think I saw a form, and heard a voice cry, "Johnson, you are a very wicked fellow, and unless you repent you will certainly be punished;" my own unworthiness is so deeply impressed upon my mind, that I might imagine I thus saw and heard, and therefore I should not believe that an external communication had been made to me. But if a form should appear, and a voice tell me that a particular man had died at a particular place, and a particular hour, a fact which I had no apprehension of, nor any means of knowing, and this fact, with all its circumstances, should afterwards be unquestionably proved, I should, in that case, be persuaded that I had supernatural intelligence imparted to me.<ref>{{Harvnb|Boswell|1791|p=219}}</ref>}}

Johnson's role in revealing the nature of the hoax was not enough to keep the satirist [[Charles Churchill (satirist)|Charles Churchill]] from mocking his apparent credulity in his 1762 work ''The Ghost''.<ref>{{Citation | last = Sambrook | first = James | title = Churchill, Charles (1732–1764) | format = {{ODNBsub}} | work = Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2006 | edition = online | url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5397 | accessdate = 21 December 2009 | doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/5397}}</ref> He resented Johnson's lack of enthusiasm for his writing and with the character of 'Pomposo', written as one of the more credulous of the ghost's investigators, used the satire to highlight a "superstitious streak" in his subject. Johnson paid this scant attention, but was said to have been more upset when Churchill again mocked him for his delay in releasing ''[[The Plays of William Shakespeare (1765)|Shakespeare]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bate|1977|pp=352–353}}</ref> Publishers were at first wary of attacking those involved in the supposed haunting, but Churchill's satire was one of a number of publications which, following the exposure of Parsons' deception, heaped scorn on the affair. The newspapers searched for evidence of past impostures and referenced older publications such as [[Reginald Scot]]'s ''[[Discoverie of Witchcraft]]'' (1584).<ref>{{Harvnb|Grant|1965|pp=81–82}}</ref> The ghost was referenced in an anonymous work entitled ''Anti-Canidia: or, Superstition Detected and Exposed'' (1762), which sought to ridicule the credulity of those involved in the Cock Lane case. The author described his work as a "sally of indignation at the contemptible ''wonder'' in Cock-lane".<ref>{{Citation | last = Anon | title = Anti-Canidia: or, Superstition Detected and Exposed | year = 1762 | location = London | publisher = Printed for R. And J. Dodsley in Pall-mall; and sold by J. Hinman in Pater-noster-Row}}</ref> Works such as ''The Orators'' (1762) by [[Samuel Foote]], were soon available.<ref name="Addington">{{Harvnb|Addington Bruce|1908|pp=81–101}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Benedict|2002|p=173}}</ref> Farcical poems such as ''Cock-lane Humbug'' were released, theatres staged plays such as ''The Drummer'', and ''The Haunted House''.<ref name="Clerypp1416">{{Harvnb|Clery|1999|pp=14–16}}</ref>

[[File:William Hogarth - The Times, plate 2.png|thumb|250px|alt=A monochrome illustration of an outdoor scene. In the background, a building is under construction. A tall church, and other ornate structures, are also visible. To the left, a judge, seated high above everybody else, watches over the scene before him. Below him, riflemen shoot at a dove of peace flying through the air. In the middle of the image, two gardeners tend to a display of shrubbery. One pumps water from a large ornate fountain, the other struggles with a wheelbarrow. To the right, two figures, a man and a ghost, are stood in a pillory. Behind them, in the shade, a wigged man tends to his followers.|Hogarth's ''The Times, Plate 2''. [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[Thomas Secker]] can be seen in the shade, behind the pilloried figures of both the Cock Lane ghost and [[John Wilkes]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dobson|2000|p=300}}</ref>]]
[[Oliver Goldsmith]], who had in February 1762 published ''The Mystery Revealed'', may also have been responsible for the satirical illustration, ''English Credulity or the Invisible Ghost'' (1762). It shows a séance as envisioned by the artist, with the ghost hovering above the heads of the two children in the bed. To the right of the bed a woman deep in prayer exclaims "O! that they would lay it in the Red Sea!" Another cries "I shall never have any rest again". The English magistrate and social reformer [[John Fielding]], who was blind, is pictured entering from the left saying "I should be glad to see this spirit", while his companion says "Your W——r's had better get your Warrant back'd by his L—rds—p", referring to a Middlesex magistrate's warrant which required an endorsement from the Lord Mayor, Samuel Fludyer. A man in tall boots, whip in hand, says: "Ay Tom I'll lay 6 to 1 it runs more nights than the Coronation"{{#tag:ref|''The Coronation'' was a theatrical play based on the coronation of [[George III]].<ref name="Hawkinsp46"/>|group="nb"}} and his companion remarks "How they swallow the hum". A clergymen says "I saw the light on the Clock" while another asks "Now thou Infidel does thou not believe?", prompting his neighbour to reply "Yes if it had happen'd sooner 't would have serv'd me for a new Charater in the Lyar the Story would tell better than the Cat & Kittens".{{#tag:ref|''The Lyar'' was a comedy in three acts produced by the dramatist [[Samuel Foote]].<ref name="Hawkinsp46">{{Harvnb|Hawkins|1883|p=46}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Another clergyman exclaims "If a Gold Watch knock 3 times", and a Parson asks him "Brother don't disturb it". On the wall, an image of [[The Bottle Conjuror]] is alongside an image of [[Elizabeth Canning]], whose fraud had so worried Samuel Fludyer that he had refused to arrest either Parsons or Kent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hawkins|1883|pp=45–46}}</ref>

Playwright [[David Garrick]] dedicated the enormously successful ''The Farmer's Return'' to the satirical artist [[William Hogarth]]. The story concerns a farmer who regales his family with an account of his talk with Miss Fanny, the comedy being derived from the reversal of traditional roles: the sceptical farmer poking fun at the credulous city-folk.<ref name="Clerypp1416"/><ref name="Paulsonp366">{{Harvnb|Paulson|1993|p=366}}</ref> Hogarth made his own observations of the Cock Lane ghost, with obvious references in ''Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism'' (1762). This illustration makes a point of attacking Methodist ministers, one of whom is seen to slip a phallic "ghost" into a young woman's bodice.<ref name="Codypp143144"/> He again attacked the Methodists in ''The Times, Plate 2'' (1762–1763), placing an image of [[Thomas Secker]] (who had tried to intervene on behalf of the Methodists) behind the Cock Lane ghost, and putting the ghost in the same pillory as the radical politician [[John Wilkes]], which implied a connection between the [[demagoguery]] surrounding the Methodists and [[Pittites#Pittites|Pittites]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Paulson|1993|pp=392–393}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Walpole|Le Marchant|1845|p=150}}</ref> The print enraged [[Bishop]] [[William Warburton]], who although a vocal critic of Methodism, wrote:

{{Quote|I have seen ''Hogarth's'' print of the ''Ghost''. It is a horrid composition of lewd Obscenity & blasphemous prophaneness for which I detest the artist & have lost all esteem for the man. The best is, that the worst parts of it have a good chance of not being understood by the people.<ref name="Paulsonp366"/>}}

The 19th-century author [[Charles Dickens]]—whose childhood nursemaid Mary Weller may have affected him with a fascination for ghosts—made reference to the Cock Lane ghost in several of his books.{{#tag:ref|Slater (1983) theorises that Weller may not have provided Dickens with the ghostly stories that affected his childhood.<ref>{{Harvnb|Slater|1983|p=383}}</ref>|group="nb"}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Amerongen|1972|p=218}}</ref> One of ''[[Nicholas Nickleby]]''<nowiki>'s</nowiki> main characters and a source of much of the novel's comic relief, Mrs. Nickleby, claims that her great-grandfather "went to school with the Cock-lane Ghost" and that "I know the master of his school was a Dissenter, and that would in a great measure account for the Cock-lane Ghost's behaving in such an improper manner to the clergyman when he grew up."<ref>{{Harvnb|Dickens|1838–39|p=655}}</ref> Dickens also very briefly mentions the Cock Lane ghost in ''[[A Tale of Two Cities]]''<ref>{{Harvnb|Dickens|1859|p=1}}</ref> and ''[[Dombey and Son]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dickens|1867|p=64}}</ref>

==References==
;Footnotes
{{reflist|group="nb"}}

;Notes
{{reflist|colwidth=25em}}

;Bibliography
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation | last = Addington Bruce | first = H. | title = Historic Ghosts and Ghost Hunters | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28699/28699-h/28699-h.htm | publisher = The Plimpton Press Norwood Mass. | location = USA | year = 1908}}
* {{Citation | last = Amerongen | first = J. B. | title = Actor in Dickens | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PPjc2wTPNaQC | publisher = Ayer Publishing | edition = illustrated | year = 1972 | origyear = 1926 | isbn = 0-405-08204-5 | location = New York}}
* {{citation|last=Bate|first=Walter Jackson|authorlink=Walter Jackson Bate|title=Samuel Johnson|year=1977|publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich|location=New York|isbn=0-15-179260-7}}.
* {{Citation | last = Benedict | first = Barbara M. | title = Curiosity: A Cultural History of Early Modern Inquiry | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JY5WgEAZ-6kC | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-226-04264-2}}
* {{Citation | last1 = Boswell | first1 = James | last2 = Malone | first2 = Edmond | title = The life of Samuel Johnson | url = http://books.google.com/?id=HeINAAAAQAAJ | edition = Second | publisher = Printed by Henry Baldwin, for Charles Dilly, in the Poultry | year = 1791}}
* {{Citation | last = Chambers | first = Paul | title = The Cock Lane Ghost: Murder, Sex and Haunting in Dr Johnson's London | year = 2006 | publisher = Sutton | location = Stroud | isbn = 0-7509-3869-2}}
* {{Citation | last = Clery | first = E. J. | title = The Rise of Supernatural Fiction, 1762–1800 | work = Volume 12 of Cambridge studies in Romanticism | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=2b8stRwMQPIC | edition = illustrated | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1999 | isbn = 0-521-66458-6}}
* {{Citation | last = Cody | first = Lisa Forman | title = Birthing the nation: sex, science, and the conception of eighteenth-century Britons | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pm-rAexjKXgC | edition = Illustrated, reprint | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-19-926864-9}}
* {{Citation | last = Davies | first = Owen | title = Witchcraft, magic and culture, 1736–1951 | edition = illustrated | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ImX_21SScc8C | publisher = Manchester University Press | year = 1999 | location = Manchester | isbn = 0-7190-5656-X}}
* {{Citation | last = Dickens | first = Charles | authorlink = Charles Dickens | title = [[Nicholas Nickleby]] | publisher = University Library Association | location = Philadelphia | year = 1838–39}}
* {{Citation | last = Dickens | first = Charles | title = [[A Tale of Two Cities]] | publisher = [[Chapman & Hall]] | year = 1859}}
* {{Citation | last = Dickens | first = Charles | title = [[Dombey and Son]] | publisher = University Press, Welsh, Bigalow & Co. | location = Cambridge | year = 1867}}
* {{Citation | last = Dobson | first = Austin | title = William Hogarth | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m_ZmJmt2KKoC | publisher = Adamant Media Corporation | location = Boston | year = 2000 | isbn = 1-4021-8472-7}}
* {{Citation | last = Grant | first = Douglas | title = The Cock Lane Ghost | year = 1965 | publisher = Macmillan | location = London}}
* {{Citation | last1 = Goldsmith | first1 = Oliver | last2 = Cunningham | first2 = Peter | editor = Peter Cunningham | title = The works of Oliver Goldsmith | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tPkQAAAAMAAJ | publisher = J. Murray | location = London | year = 1854 }}
* {{Citation | last = Hawkins | first = Edward | editor = Frederic George Stephens | work = Catalogue of prints and drawings in the British Museum | title = Division I. Political and personal satires | volume = IV | url = http://www.archive.org/details/catalogueofprint04brituoft | publisher = British Museum trustees | location = London | year = 1883}}
* {{Citation | last = Lang | first = Andrew | authorlink = Andrew Lang | title = Cock Lane and Common-Sense | url = http://www.archive.org/details/cocklanecommonse00langrich | year = 1894 | publisher = Longmans, Green and Co | location = London | isbn = 1-4264-6377-4}}
* {{Citation | last = MacKay | first = Charles | title = Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NmEOAAAAQAAJ | publisher = Publisher Office of the National Illustrated Library | location = London | year = 1852}}
* {{Citation | last = Paulson | first = Ronald | title = Hogarth: Art and Politics 1750–1764 | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2c7L7UvYYgoC | edition = Illustrated | publisher = James Clarke & Co. | location = Cambridge | year = 1993 | isbn = 0-7188-2875-5}}
* {{Citation | last = Slater | first = Michael | title = Dickens and women | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GyuH6-eZZaQC | edition = illustrated | publisher = Stanford University Press | year = 1983 | isbn = 0-8047-1180-1 | location = London}}
* {{Citation | last1 = Walpole | first1 = Horace | authorlink = Horace Walpole | last2 = Le Marchant | first2 = Denis | title = Memoirs of the reign of King George the Third | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z0EJAAAAIAAJ | editor = Denis Le Marchant | publisher = Lea & Blanchard | location = London | year = 1845}}
* {{Citation | last1 = Westwood | first1 = Jennifer | last2 = Simpson | first2 = Jacqueline | title = The Lore of the Land: A Guide to England's Legends from Spring-Heeled Jack to the Witches of Warboys | publisher = Penguin | location = London | year = 2005 | isbn = }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{Citation | last = Churchill | first = Charles | authorlink = Charles Churchill (satirist) | title = The Ghost | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8UXOAAAAMAAJ | publisher = Printed for the author and sold by William Flexney | year = 1762 | location = London}}

==External links==
*[http://www.sarahbakewell.com/Other%20Writing.html#scratchingfanny A 'Fortean Times' article about the Cock Lane Ghost]
{{featured article}}

[[Category:Ghosts]]
[[Category:Hoaxes in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of the City of London]]
[[Category:Crime in London]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[fr:Fantôme de Cock Lane]]
[[ja:コック・レーンの幽霊]]

Ohio State Buckeyes (Footballteam)

2011-03-29T18:02:30Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 207.63.63.204 (talk) to last version by Sullivan9211

{{Infobox NCAA football school
| CurrentSeason = 2011 Ohio State Buckeyes football
| TeamName = Ohio State Buckeyes
| Image = Ohio State Buckeyes logo.svg|150px
| ImageSize = 150px
| Helmet =
| ImageSize2 = 150px
| HeadCoachDisplay = Jim Tressel
| HeadCoachLink = Jim Tressel
| HeadCoachYear = 10th
| HCWins = 106
| HCLosses = 22
| HCTies =
| OtherStaff =
| Stadium = Ohio Stadium
| StadiumBuilt = 1922
| StadCapacity = 102,329
| StadSurface = FieldTurf
| Location = Columbus, Ohio
| ConferenceDisplay= Big Ten
| ConferenceLink = Big Ten Conference
| ConfDivision = Leaders
| FirstYear = 1890
| AthlDirectorDisp = Gene Smith
| AthlDirectorLink = Gene Smith (athletic director)
| Radio = Ohio State Football Radio Network
| Announcers = [[Paul Keels]] (Play By Play) [[Jim Lachey]] (Color) [[Marty Bannister]] (Sideline)
| WebsiteName = OhioStateBuckeyes.com
| WebsiteURL = http://ohiostatebuckeyes.com/
| ATWins = 831
| ATLosses = 309
| ATTies = 53
| ATPercentage = .716
| BowlWins = 20
| BowlLosses = 22
| BowlTies =
| NatlTitles = 7 (1942, 1954, 1957, 1961, 1968, 1970, 2002)
| ConfTitles = 37 (2 [[Ohio Athletic Conference|OAC]], 35 [[Big Ten Conference|Big Ten]])
| Heismans = 7
| AllAmericans = {{American college football All-Americans|Ohio St.}}
| uniform = Image:BigTen-Uniform-OSU.png
| Color1 = Scarlet
| Color1Hex = FF2000
| Color2 = Gray
| Color2Hex = AAAAAA
| FightSong =[[Carmen Ohio]] (Alma Mater) [[Across the Field]] and [[Buckeye Battle Cry]]
| MascotDisplay = Brutus Buckeye
| MascotLink = Brutus Buckeye
| MarchingBand = [[The Ohio State University Marching Band]]
| PagFreeLabel = Outfitter
| PagFreeValue = [[Nike, Inc.]]
| PagFreeLabel = Rivals
| PagFreeValue = [[Michigan Wolverines football|Michigan Wolverines]] [[Penn State Nittany Lions football|Penn State Nittany Lions]] [[Illinois Fighting Illini football|Illinois Fighting Illini]]
}}

The '''[[Ohio State Buckeyes]] football''' team is an intercollegiate [[Varsity team|varsity sports]] team of [[The Ohio State University]]. The team is a member of the [[Big Ten Conference]] of the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]], playing at the [[Division I (NCAA)|Division I]] Football Bowl Subdivision, formerly Division I-A, level. The team nickname is derived from the [[Floral emblem|state tree]] of [[Ohio]]. The Buckeyes have played their home games in [[Ohio Stadium]], more commonly called "The Horseshoe," since 1922.

In their 121-year history, the Buckeyes have been [[NCAA Division I FBS national football championship|national champions]] seven times but consensus national champions six times.<ref>[[http://web1.ncaa.org/web_files/stats/football_records/DI/2010/2010FBS.pdf]]</ref> On September 6, 2008, the Buckeyes defeated the [[Ohio Bobcats football|Ohio Bobcats]], 26–14, for their 800th win, becoming the fifth FBS team to reach the mark.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/misc/div_ia_wins.php | title= Division I-A All-Time Wins | accessdate= 2008-05-31}}</ref> [[Jim Tressel]] has been the Buckeyes head coach since 2001.

==Championships==
===National championships===
The following is a list of Ohio State's recognized national championships:
{| border= "0" width="90%"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" border="1" cellspacing="0" width="90%"
!bgcolor=#990000 |Year
!bgcolor=#990000 |Coach
!bgcolor=#990000 |Selector
!bgcolor=#990000 |Record
!bgcolor=#990000 |Big Ten Record
!bgcolor=#990000 |Bowl
|-align="center"
| [[1942 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1942]] || [[Paul Brown]] || [[AP Poll|AP]] || 9–1 || 6–1 || –
|-align="center"
| [[1954 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1954]] || [[Woody Hayes]] || AP || 10–0 || 7–0 || Won [[1955 Rose Bowl|Rose Bowl]]
|-align="center"
| [[1957 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1957]] || Woody Hayes || [[Football Writers Association of America|FWAA]], [[United Press International|UPI]] || 9–1 || 7–0 || Won [[1958 Rose Bowl|Rose Bowl]]
|-align="center"
| [[1961 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1961]] || Woody Hayes || FWAA || 8–0–1|| 6–0 || –
|-align="center"
| [[1968 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1968]] || Woody Hayes || AP, FWAA, [[National Football Foundation|NFF]], UPI || 10–0 || 7–0 || Won [[1969 Rose Bowl|Rose Bowl]]
|-align="center"
| [[1970 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1970]] ||Woody Hayes || NFF || 9–1 || 7–0 || Lost [[1971 Rose Bowl|Rose Bowl]]
|-align="center"
| [[2002 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|2002]] || [[Jim Tressel]] || [[Bowl Championship Series|BCS]], AP, USA Today/ESPN || 14–0 || 8–0 ||Won [[2003 Fiesta Bowl|Fiesta Bowl]]
|-align="center"
| colspan=3 bgcolor=#990000| '''National Championships'''
| colspan=3 bgcolor=#990000| '''7'''
|}
|}
Ohio State also has also been awarded titles unrecognized by both the NCAA and the University in: 1933, 1944, 1969, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1998

===Undefeated seasons===
{| border="0" width="90%"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" border="1" cellspacing="0" width="80%"
!bgcolor=#990000 |Year
!bgcolor=#990000 |Record
!bgcolor=#990000 |Big Ten Record
!bgcolor=#990000 |Coach
|- align="center"
| [[1899 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1899]] || 9–0–1 || – || [[John B. Eckstorm]]
|- align="center"
| [[1916 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1916]] || 7–0 || 4–0 || [[John Wilce]]
|- align="center"
| [[1917 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1917]] || 8–0–1 || 4–0 || John Wilce
|- align="center"
| [[1944 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1944]] || 9–0 || 6–0 || [[Carroll Widdoes]]
|- align="center"
| [[1954 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1954]] || 10–0 || 7–0 || [[Woody Hayes]]
|- align="center"
| [[1961 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1961]] || 8–0–1 || 6–0 || Woody Hayes
|- align="center"
| [[1968 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1968]] || 10–0 || 7–0 || Woody Hayes
|- align="center"
| [[1973 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1973]] ||10–0–1 || 7–0 || Woody Hayes
|- align="center"
| [[2002 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|2002]] || 14–0 || 8–0 || [[Jim Tressel]]
|- align="center"
| colspan=3 bgcolor=#990000| '''Undefeated Seasons'''
| colspan=3 bgcolor=#990000| '''9'''
|}
|}

===Conference championships===
Ohio State joined the Big Ten in 1913; before that they were a member of the [[Ohio Athletic Conference]] and won two OAC titles. Ohio State has won a championship in the Big Ten 35 times, second most in the conference and third most conference titles of any school in any conference.

{| border="0" width="90%" valign="top" cellpadding="1" border="1" cellspacing="0" width="80%"
!bgcolor=#990000 | Year
!bgcolor=#990000 |Conference
!bgcolor=#990000 |Coach
!bgcolor=#990000 |Record
!bgcolor=#990000 |Conference Record
|- align="center"
| 1906 || [[Ohio Athletic Conference|OAC]] || [[Albert E. Herrnstein]] || 8–1 || 4–0
|- align="center"
| 1912 || OAC || [[John R. Richards|John Richards]] || 6–3 || 4–0
|- align="center"
| 1916 || [[Big Ten Conference|Big Ten]] || [[John Wilce]] || 7–0 || 4–0
|- align="center"
| [[1917 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1917]] || Big Ten || John Wilce || 8–0–1 || 4–0
|- align="center"
| [[1920 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1920]] || Big Ten ||John Wilce || 7–1 || 5–0
|- align="center"
| [[1935 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1935]] || Big Ten || [[Francis Schmidt]] || 7–1 || 5–0
|- align="center"
| [[1939 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1939]] || Big Ten || Francis Schmidt || 6–2 || 5–1
|- align="center"
| [[1942 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1942]] || Big Ten || [[Paul Brown]] || 9–1 || 5–1
|- align="center"
| [[1944 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1944]] || Big Ten || [[Carroll Widdoes]] ||9–0 || 6–0
|- align="center"
| [[1949 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1949]] || Big Ten || [[Wes Fesler]] || 7–1–2 || 4–1
|- align="center"
| [[1954 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1954]] || Big Ten || [[Woody Hayes]] || 10–0 || 7–0
|- align="center"
| [[1955 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1955]] || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 7–2 || 6–0
|- align="center"
| [[1957 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1957]] || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 9–1 || 7–0
|- align="center"
| [[1961 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1961]] || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 8–0–1 || 6–0
|- align="center"
| [[1968 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1968]] || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 10–0 || 7–0
|- align="center"
| [[1969 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1969]] || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 8–1 || 6–1
|- align="center"
| [[1970 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1970]] || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 9–1 || 7–0
|- align="center"
| [[1972 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1972]] || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 9–2 || 7–1
|- align="center"
| [[1973 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1973]] || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 10–0–1 || 7–0
|- align="center"
| [[1974 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1974]] || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 10–2 || 7–1
|- align="center"
| [[1975 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1975]] || Big Ten ||Woody Hayes || 11–1 || 8–0
|- align="center"
| [[1976 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1976]] || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 9–2–1 || 7–1
|- align="center"
| [[1977 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1977]] || Big Ten || Woody Hayes || 9–3 || 6–2
|- align="center"
| [[1979 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1979]] || Big Ten || [[Earle Bruce]] || 11–1 || 8–0
|- align="center"
| [[1981 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1981]] || Big Ten || Earle Bruce || 9–3 || 6–2
|- align="center"
| [[1984 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1984]] || Big Ten || Earle Bruce || 9–3 || 7–2
|- align="center"
| [[1986 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1986]] || Big Ten || Earle Bruce || 10–3 || 7–1
|- align="center"
| [[1993 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1993]] || Big Ten || [[John Cooper (American football)|John Cooper]] || 10–1–1 || 6–1–1
|- align="center"
| [[1996 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1996]] || Big Ten || John Cooper || 11–1 || 7–1
|- align="center"
| [[1998 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1998]] || Big Ten ||John Cooper || 11–1 || 7–1
|- align="center"
| [[2002 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|2002]] || Big Ten || [[Jim Tressel]] || 14–0 || 8–0
|- align="center"
| [[2005 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|2005]] || Big Ten || Jim Tressel || 10–2 || 7–1
|- align="center"
| [[2006 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|2006]] || Big Ten || Jim Tressel || 12–1 || 8–0
|- align="center"
| [[2007 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|2007]] || Big Ten || Jim Tressel || 11–2 || 7–1
|- align="center"
| [[2008 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|2008]] || Big Ten || Jim Tressel || 10–3 || 7–1
|- align="center"
| [[2009 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|2009]] || Big Ten || Jim Tressel || 11–2 || 7–1
|- align="center"
| [[2010 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|2010]] || Big Ten || Jim Tressel || 12–1 || 7–1
|- align="center"
| colspan=3 bgcolor=#990000| '''Conference Champions'''
| colspan=3 bgcolor=#990000| '''37'''
|}

==History==
{{main|History of Ohio State Buckeyes football}}
{{see also|List of Ohio State Buckeyes football seasons}}

===1890–1933: beginnings===
In the spring of 1890 George Cole, an undergraduate, persuaded [[Alexander S. Lilley]] to coach a football team at the Ohio State University. The Buckeyes first game, played on May 3, 1890, at [[Delaware, Ohio]], against [[Ohio Wesleyan University]], was a victory.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jack Park|title=The Official Ohio State Football Encyclopedia|publisher=Sports Publishing LLC|isbn= 1-58261-006-1|year=2002|page=10}}</ref>

OSU's first home game took place at 2:30 p.m. on November 1, 1890. The Ohio State University played the [[The College of Wooster|University of Wooster]] on this site, which was then called Recreation Park. Just east of historic German Village, the park occupied the north side of Schiller (now Whittier) between Ebner and Jaeger in what is now Schumacher Place. The weather was perfect, and the crowd cheered loudly. Nonetheless, OSU lost to Wooster, 64–0. Wooster, physically fit for the game, showed OSU that training is critical to winning. Thus, the tradition of training continues.

[[File:1916 Ohio Field.jpg|350px|thumb|[[Chic Harley]] runs around the end in the 1916 Big Ten Championship game between Northwestern & Ohio St.]]Over the next eight years, under a number of coaches, the team played to a cumulative record of 31 wins, 39 losses, and 2 ties. The first game against the [[University of Michigan]], in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]], was a 34-0 loss in 1897, a year that saw the low point in Buckeye football history with a 1–7–1 record. Jack Ryder was Ohio State's first paid coach, earning $150 per season, and lost his first game, against [[Oberlin College]] and [[John Heisman]], on October 15, 1892.<ref>Walsh, Christopher (2009). ''Ohio State Football Football Huddleup'', Triumph Books (Random House, Inc.), ISBN 978-1-60078-186-5, p. 69.</ref>

In 1899 the university hired John Eckstorm to bring professional coaching skills to the program and immediately went undefeated.<ref name="Spring08">[http://ohiostatebuckeyes.com/fls/17300/pdf/fb/guide/08_Spring_p100to129.pdf?SPSID=87751&SPID=10408&DB_OEM_ID=17300 Ohio State Spring Football 2008 - Part 2], OSU Athletics, Spring 2008.</ref> In 1901, however, [[Center (American football)|center]] John Segrist was fatally injured in a game and the continuation of football at Ohio State was in serious question. Although the school's athletic board let the team decide its future, Eckstorm resigned.<ref>Park, p.28</ref> In 1912 football underwent a number of developments that included joining the [[Big Ten Conference|Western Conference]], making football as part of a new Department of Athletics, and hiring [[Lynn St. John|Lynn W. St. John]] to be [[athletic director]].

[[Chic Harley]] attended East High in Columbus and was one of the greatest players to attend an Ohio high school. He passed, ran, received, punted, kicked and played defense. Harley came to Ohio State in 1916 and Columbus fans instantly fell in love with the Chic. Harley and the Buckeyes won the very first Big Ten championship in school history in 1916 when the Buckeyes finished 7–0. He would repeat in 1917 finshing 8–0–1, giving the Buckeyes a second outright title. In 1918, he left to be a pilot in the air force for [[World War I]]. With Harley's return in 1919, the Buckeyes would only lose one game—to Illinois. Chic Harley left OSU with a career record of 22–1–1. At the time, OSU played at the small [[Ohio Field]] and Harley brought such record crowds it became necessary to open [[Ohio Stadium]] in 1922. The stadium was built entirely on fan donations and several stadium drives around the city where Harley would often appear. In 1951, when the [[College Football Hall of Fame]] opened, Harley was inducted as an inaugural member.

Ohio State's very first rival was [[Kenyon College]], a small liberal arts college in [[Gambier, Ohio|Gambier]], roughly 50 miles to the northeast. The Buckeyes first played them in their first season in 1890 on Nov. 27, Kenyon won the first two meetings; however, Ohio State won 15 in a row and the rivalry diminished. Kenyon made it their season goal to defeat OSU. After the Bucks joined the Big Ten they stopped playing Kenyon. The all time record stands at 18-6, OSU.

===1934–1950: the rise of a powerhouse===
In hiring [[Francis Schmidt]] in March 1934 to coach its football team, Ohio State moved its program to a "big-time" level of competition. Schmidt was a well-established coach and an acknowledged offensive innovator. His offensive schemes were a "wide-open" style called "razzle-dazzle" and led him to be the first Buckeye football coach granted a multi-year contract. Schmidt's first four seasons saw victories over archrival Michigan, all by shut-out. The 1935 squad went 7-1, its sole loss was to [[University of Notre Dame|Notre Dame]], 18-13, in the first contest between the programs. However Schmidt's remaining seasons were less successful, except in 1939 when the Buckeyes won the Big Ten championship, and his popularity faded for a number of reasons.<ref>Park, p.166.</ref> On December 17, 1940, he resigned.

Ohio State hired the coach of [[Massillon Washington High School]] football team, [[Paul Brown]], to succeed Schmidt. Brown's Tigers had just won their sixth straight state championship. Brown immediately changed Ohio State's style of offense, planned and organized his program in great detail, and delegated to his assistant coaches using highly structured practices. In 1942, Ohio State lost 22 veteran players to military service as the United States joined [[World War II]], and with a team of mostly sophomores went on to lose only once in winning its first national championship. Brown accepted a commission in the [[United States Navy]] in 1944 and directed his assistant Carroll Widdoes to head the team in his absence. The 1944 team fielded 31 [[First year|freshmen]] but went undefeated and untied, including a victory over Paul Brown's Great Lakes Navy team. Ohio State finished second in the national rankings behind [[United States Military Academy#Other sports|Army]] and [[Les Horvath]] became the first Buckeye to be awarded the [[Heisman Trophy]]. Also prominent on the 1942–44 teams was the first Buckeye [[African American]] star, [[Bill Willis]].

Brown chose not to return to Ohio State after the war, going into professional football instead. Widdoes, despite having the highest two-year winning percentage of any Buckeye coach, asked to return to an assistant's position. Offensive coordinator [[Paul Bixler]] and Widdoes switched positions, and Bixler endured a mediocre 4–3–2 season. Bixler resigned and talk of Ohio State being a "graveyard of coaches" became commonplace, a reputation that lingered for decades.<ref name="SIbix">{{cite news | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/ncaa/specials/preview/2006/teams/ten/ohiost.html| title = 2006 Team previews- Ohio State| work = | publisher = SI.com| accessdate = 20 August 2006}}</ref>

[[Wes Fesler]] became head coach in 1947 but finished last in the Big Ten for the only time in team history. Ohio State improved greatly in 1948, winning 6 and losing 3, then in 1949 enjoyed a successful season due to the play of sophomore [[Vic Janowicz]]. Ohio State received the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]] invitation, where they came from behind to defeat [[California Golden Bears|California]]. In 1950 Fesler, rumored to be resigning because of pressures associated with the position and abuse of his family by anonymous critics, returned to coach the Buckeyes, who won six games in a row to move into the top ranking in the AP poll. However the season fell apart as the Buckeyes lost to Michigan during a [[blizzard]], a game that came to be known as the "[[Snow Bowl (1950)|Snow Bowl]]". Two weeks later, citing concerns about his health and family, Fesler resigned.

===1951–1978: the Woody Hayes era===
[[Woody Hayes|Wayne Woodrow Hayes]] beat out Paul Brown,<ref>Park, p.275</ref> among others, to be named head coach on February 18, 1951. He instituted a demanding practice regimen and was both aggressive and vocal in enforcing it, alienating many players accustomed to Fesler's laid-back style. The 1951 Buckeyes won 4, lost 3, and tied 2, leaving many to question the ability of the new coach. In 1952 the team improved to 6-3, and recorded their first victory over Michigan in eight years, but after a 1953 loss to Michigan, critics called for the replacement of Hayes.

In 1954 the Buckeyes were picked to finish no higher than 10th in the Big Ten. Hayes, however, had the talents of [[Howard "Hopalong" Cassady]], and a historic goal-line stand against Michigan propelled Ohio State to a perfect season. Hayes led the powerhouse Buckeyes to a shared national championship (his first and the team's second). In 1955 the team again won the Big Ten, set an attendance record, and won in Ann Arbor for the first time in 18 years, while Hopalong Cassady was securing the Heisman Trophy. Ohio State passed only three times against Michigan (the sole reception was the only completion in the final three games of the year), leading to characterization of Hayes' style of offensive play as "three yards and a cloud of dust".

In a 1955 article in ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'', Hayes admitted making small personal loans to financially needy players.<ref name="sishaplen">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.buckeye50.com/Drive_Drive_Down_the_field_15_to_11.html| title = #11—Iowa at Ohio State—November 11, 1957| work = | publisher = The Buckeye 50 Yard Line| accessdate = 2 October 2006 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061127011223/http://www.buckeye50.com/Drive_Drive_Down_the_field_15_to_11.html  |archivedate = 27 November 2006}}</ref> The article resulted in a furor over possible violations of [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] rules, and the faculty council, followed by the Big Ten and NCAA, conducted lengthy investigations. Big Ten Commissioner Kenneth "Tug" Wilson found Hayes and the program guilty of violations and placed it on a year's probation in 1956. In 1957 Ohio State won all of its remaining games after an opening loss to claim the Big Ten championship, win the Rose Bowl over [[University of Oregon|Oregon]], and share a national championship title with [[Auburn University|Auburn]], for which Hayes was named [[Paul "Bear" Bryant Award|Coach of the Year]].

In 1961 the team went undefeated to be named national champions by the [[Football Writers Association of America|FWAA]] but a growing conflict between academics and athletics over Ohio State's reputation as a "football school" resulted in a faculty council vote to decline an invitation to the Rose Bowl, resulting in much public protest and debate.<ref>Park, pp. 340 and 342.</ref> Over the next 6 seasons Ohio State finished no higher than 2nd, and had a losing season in 1966, and public speculation that Hayes would be replaced as coach grew to its highest point since 1953.

In 1968 Ohio State defeated the number one-ranked [[Purdue Boilermakers]] and continued to an undefeated season including a 50-14 rout of Michigan and a Rose Bowl victory over the [[USC Trojans]] that resulted in the national championship. The Class of 1970 became known as the "super sophomores" in 1968, and might have gone on to three consecutive national championships except for what may have been the bitterest loss in Buckeye history. The winning streak reached 22 games as Ohio State traveled to Michigan. The Buckeyes were 17-point favorites but directed by first-year coach [[Bo Schembechler]], Michigan shocked the Buckeyes in a 24-12 upset.

The 1969 loss to Michigan initiated what came to be known as "The Ten Year War," in which the rivalry, which pitted some of OSU’s and UM’s strongest teams ever, rose to the uppermost level of all sports and the competition between Schembechler and Hayes became legendary.<ref name="maisel">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://proxy.espn.go.com/ncf/columns/story?columnist=maisel_ivan&id=1667333| title = UM-OSU more than just a game| format = | work = | publisher = ESPN| accessdate = 13 October 2006}}</ref> Four times between 1970 and 1975, Ohio State and Michigan were both ranked in the top five of the AP Poll before their matchup. Hayes had the upper hand during the first part of the war, in which Ohio State won the conference championship and went to the Rose Bowl four straight years, while Michigan won the final three.

[[Archie Griffin]] came to Ohio State in 1972, set a new Buckeye single-game rushing record and led the team in rushing for the season. The following season Hayes installed an [[I formation]] attack with Griffin at tailback and the Buckeyes went undefeated with a powerful offense and equally impenetrable defense, the only blemish on their record a 10-10 tie with Michigan. The falloff in success of Hayes' last three years was not great, but it resulted in growing criticism of Hayes and his methods, particularly his on-field fits of temper and abuse of officials.

His downfall was sudden and shocking: at the 1978 [[Gator Bowl]], Hayes punched [[Clemson Tigers|Clemson]] [[nose guard]] Charlie Bauman and abused the referee in frustration after Bauman's 4th quarter interception sealed a Buckeye loss. Hayes was assessed two 15-yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalties, ejected, and fired after the game.

===1979–2000: the Bruce and Cooper years===
Hayes was replaced by a former protegé, [[Earle Bruce]], who inherited a strong team led by sophomore quarterback [[Art Schlichter]] and returned to the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]] with an opportunity once again to be national champions. The Buckeyes lost both by a single point, but Bruce was named [[Paul "Bear" Bryant Award|Coach of the Year]]. His success was hailed by those in the media who saw it as a rebuke of Hayes and the start of a "new era".<ref name="earle">{{cite news | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,946372-1,00.html| title = Making 'Em Forget Woody| work = | publisher = Time Magazine| accessdate = 11 December 2006 | date=November 12, 1979}}</ref>

1980, however, saw the start of a trend that eventually brought criticism to Bruce, when Ohio State finished with a 9–3 record. This was the first of six consecutive years at 9-3. While each of these seasons, and a 10–3 season that followed them, culminated in a bowl game, Ohio State did not appear to be any closer to a national championship than during the end of the Hayes era.

In 1986 Bruce received a 3-year contract, the first for the modern program, but the team opened with two losses for the first time in over 90 years. The Buckeyes then won nine in a row before losing to Michigan in a close game. After the season Bruce was offered the position of head coach at the [[University of Arizona]] but was persuaded to stay at his [[alma mater]] by Athletic Director Rick Bay. Hopes for a standout season in 1987 suffered a serious setback when All-American wide receiver [[Cris Carter]] was dropped from the team for signing with an agent. Heading into the Michigan game at the end of the season Ohio State was in the midst of a three game conference losing streak.

On the Monday of Michigan week, after a weekend of rumors and speculation, Ohio State President [[Edward Harrington Jennings|Edward Jennings]] fired Bruce but tried to keep the dismissal secret until after the end of the season. Jennings aggravated the situation by refusing to provide a reason for the dismissal,<ref>Park, pp. 537-538</ref> but the Buckeyes enjoyed an emotional come-from-behind victory over Michigan after the entire team wore [[headband]]s bearing the word "EARLE."

[[John Cooper (American football)|John Cooper]] was hired as head coach with a winning record at both [[University of Tulsa|Tulsa]] and [[Arizona State University]] that stood out among his credentials, as did a victory over Michigan in the 1987 Rose Bowl. Cooper's thirteen years as the Buckeyes' head coach are largely remembered for a litany of negative statistics associated with him: a notorious 2–10–1 record against Michigan, a 3–8 record in bowl games, a five year losing streak to Illinois, and blowing a 15 point 3rd quarter lead and losing 28-24 against the unranked Michigan State Spartans in '98 after the Buckeyes had been ranked number 1 since the preseason. However, his tenure also included many positives: back-to-back victories over Notre Dame, two second-ranked finishes in the polls, and three Big Ten championships (albeit shared). Cooper also recruited fifteen players who were first-round draft picks in the [[National Football League]].<ref name="coopbio">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://ohiostatebuckeyes.cstv.com/sports/m-footbl/mtt/cooper_john01.html| title = John Cooper Profile| work = | publisher = TOSU Football Official Site| accessdate = 19 December 2006}}</ref>

In January 2001, Ohio State University dismissed Cooper for a "deteriorating climate." A loss in the 2000 [[Outback Bowl]] was a factor in his subsequent firing, as was negative publicity regarding player behavior before and during the game. Other contributing factors included his record against Michigan (which was actually considered by most people to be the biggest reason for his firing), his perceived inability to win "big games", the lack of a national championship, the perception of him as an outsider by many alumni, the poor bowl game record, and finally a perceived lack of discipline on the team.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B06E5DB103BF930A35752C0A9679C8B63 |title=COLLEGE FOOTBALL; Cooper Fired at Ohio State |accessdate=2008-05-04 | work=The New York Times | date=January 3, 2001}}</ref>

===2001–present: the Tressel era===
Ohio State quickly sought a replacement for Cooper and after a nationwide search hired Jim Tressel. With four NCAA [[Division I (NCAA)#Football Championship Subdivision|Division I-AA]] National Championships at [[Youngstown State University|Youngstown State]], Tressel, formerly an assistant coach for Earle Bruce, was an Ohioan who was considered to be appreciative of Buckeye football traditions. Although there were some doubts as to whether or not Tressel could repeat his earlier success at the Division 1A level, most fans and alumni met the coaching change with enthusiasm. On the day of his hiring, Jim Tressel, speaking to fans and students at a Buckeye basketball game, made a prophetic implication that he would lead the Buckeyes to beat Michigan in Ann Arbor the following November.<ref name="310days">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.michigandaily.com/news/2001/07/23/Sports/Tressel.Eyes.Finally.Bucking.The.Wolverines-1408404.shtml | title = Tressel Eyes Finally Bucking the Wolverines| work = | publisher = The Michigan Daily| accessdate = 11 December 2006}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

[[Image:2006 09 09 Ohio State vs Texas.jpg|thumb|200px|<center>Troy Smith in 2006]]Tressel's first season was difficult as the Buckeyes finished 7-5 (all but one loss was by a touchdown or less), but he made good on his promise, beating Michigan in Ann Arbor. While its fans were optimistic about the chance for success of the 2002 team, most observers were surprised by Ohio State's [[2002 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|National Championship]].<ref name="surprised">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.covers.com/articles/articles.aspx?theArt=99132&tid=30| title = BCS National Title Game Bowl preview| format = | work = | publisher = Covers.com| accessdate = 13 January 2007}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| author=Paul Keels
| chapter= Chapter 1 Expectations
| title=Paul Keels Tales from the Buckeyes' Championship Season
| editor=
| publisher=Sports Publishing LLC
| isbn= 1-58261-539-X
| year=2003| page=6}}</ref> Ohio State used strong defense, ball-control play-calling, and field position tactics to win numerous close games, a style of play characterized as "Tresselball",<ref name="tresselball">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://proxy.espn.go.com/ncf/columns/story?columnist=maisel_ivan&id=1662661| title = Tresselball just keeps winning| format = | work = | publisher = ESPN| accessdate = 19 December 2006}}</ref> and disparaged by detractors as "the Luckeyes".<ref name="luckeyes">{{cite news | last = Ridenour| first = Marla| authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-8169824_ITM| title = Ohio State must shake Luckeyes image| format = | work = | publisher = Akron Beacon-Journal| accessdate = 19 December 2006 | date=August 27, 2003}}</ref> The 2006 and 2007 regular seasons ended with just one combined loss and improbable back-to-back championship game appearances. On January 1, 2010, the Buckeyes defeated the Oregon Ducks in The Rose Bowl Game by a score of 26-17. This ended a 3 game BCS losing streak for Ohio State, having lost 2 National Championships and one Tostitos Fiesta Bowl. Terelle Pryor was named MVP of the contest with 2 touchdown passes for a career-high 266 passing yards. In addition, he had more total yards than the entire Oregon Ducks team.

It was announced on Wednesday, November 4, 2009 that Ohio State would be wearing a Nike-sponsored "throwback" uniform on November 21, 2009 in Ann Arbor, Michigan against the Michigan Wolverines.

The uniforms were a modern take on the 1954 Buckeye uniforms and according to Ohio State athletic director, Gene Smith, were to be worn just once, as a tribute to the 1954 National Champion Buckeyes. Again in 2010, the Buckeyes will be wearing throwback uniforms against the Wolverines, this time in honor of the 1942 National Champions, many of whom fought in [[World War II]] shortly after the end of the season.

No immediate changes to the current uniform are expected according to Smith.

In December 2010 it was announced that five student-athletes on The Ohio State University football team will be suspended from the first five games of the 2011 season for NCAA violations. The punishments stem from an incident in which at least some of the Buckeye players received tattoos for their autographs, according to news reports. Other violations committed by the players included the selling of several items given to them by the University, such as championship rings.<ref name=history>[http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2010/12/23/5-ohio-state-football-players-suspended/?hpt=T1]</ref>

On January 4, 2011, Ohio State completed its season with a 31-26 win over Arkansas in the Sugar Bowl to finish with a 12-1 mark. The Sugar Bowl win marked Ohio State's first bowl victory over a Southeastern Conference opponent in ten attempts.<ref name=SEC>[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2011/writers/andy_staples/01/05/sugar.bowl.ohiostate.arkansas/index.html]</ref>

On March 8, 2011 Jim Tressel was charged by The Ohio State University for 2 games, and $250,000 for not coming forth and telling the university and the NCAA about 5 of his players receiving improper benefits from a tattoo shop in downtown Columbus. Among those 5 players one of them was star quarterback Terrelle Pryor. The 5 players are suspended for the first 5 games of the 2011 season.

==Home venues==
*[[Recreation Park (Columbus)]] (1890–1897)
*[[Ohio Field]] (1898–1921)
*[[Ohio Stadium]] (1922–present)

==Coaches==
{{See also|List of Ohio State Buckeyes head football coaches}}
The Buckeyes have had 22 coaches in their 121-year history. [[Jim Tressel]] is the current coach. [[Woody Hayes]] is the coach who has won the most national championships at 5.

===Current coaching staff===
*[[Jim Tressel]] – Head Coach, 10th year
*[[Jim Bollman]] – Offensive Coordinator
*[[Jim Heacock]] – Defensive Coordinator
*Luke Fickell – Co-Def Coord/LB Coach
*Paul Haynes – Safeties Coach
*Stan Drayton – Ast. Head Coach and Wide Receivers Coach
*Taver Johnson – Cornerbacks Coach
*John Peterson – Tight Ends Coach
*Nick Siciliano – Quarterbacks Coach
*Dick "Doc" Tressel – Running Backs Coach (brother of Jim)

==Buckeye football traditions==
Ohio State football is rich in traditions, and Coach Tressel has since his hiring made upholding tradition a cornerstone of his program.<ref>Park, p.1</ref> The following are football traditions in chronological order of longevity:
*'''Senior tackle'''
Begun in 1913 by head coach [[John Wilce]], seniors on the team are recognized at the last practice of the season, either before the Michigan game or before departing Columbus to play in a [[bowl game]], and hit the [[Glossary of American football#B|blocking sled]] a final time.<ref name="gameday">{{cite book| author=Todd Lamb, editor| title=Ohio State Football Gameday| publisher=The Ohio State Athletics Communications Office| year=2002|pages=42–43}}</ref>
*'''[[Illibuck]]'''
The winner of the Ohio State-[[Illinois Fighting Illini|Illinois]] game has been awarded the [[Illibuck]] trophy since 1925.<ref name="gameday"/> Until 1927 the teams played for a live turtle, now it is a wooden turtle.
*'''Gold pants'''
A [[gold]] miniature [[Charm bracelet|charm]] depicting a pair of football pants is given to all players and coaches following a victory over the Michigan Wolverines. The tradition began as the result of a comment to reporters by newly hired head coach [[Francis Schmidt]] on March 2, 1934: "How about Michigan? They put their pants on one leg at a time, the same as we do!" The first gold pants, which were a creation of Simon Lazarus (president of the [[Lazarus (department store)|Lazarus]] chain of department stores) and Herbert Levy,<ref>Snook, "Charlie Ream 1934-1937", p.3</ref> were awarded that year for a 34-0 defeat of the Wolverines.<ref>Park, p.141</ref>
*'''Captain's Breakfast'''
1934 also saw the first gathering of former team [[Captain (sports)|captains]] for breakfast on the Sunday following the [[Homecoming]] game. The event began when local businessman Walter Jeffrey invited twenty former captains to the [[Scioto Country Club]] to honor them, and continues to welcome new captains and award them [[mug]]s bearing their names and season.<ref name="gameday"/><ref>Park, p.145</ref>
*'''Buckeye Grove'''
Begun in 1934, each player who wins "first-team [[All-America]]" honors is recognized by the planting of a buckeye tree and installation of a plaque in Buckeye Grove, now located near the southwestern corner of Ohio Stadium next to Morrill Tower. Trees are planted in ceremonies held prior to the Spring Game. All 126 Buckeye All-Americans dating back to 1914 have been so honored.
*'''Michigan Week'''
Since 1935 the annual game against Michigan has been the final meeting of the regular season for both teams. The week prior to "The Game", known as Michigan Week, is characterized by scheduled school spirit and public service events, such as rallies, [[Touch football (American)|touch football]] games, and [[Blood donation|blood drives]];<ref name="offlscumwk">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://ohiounion.osu.edu/bmw/| title = Beat Michigan Week| format = | work = | publisher = The Ohio State University Union| accessdate = 26 July 2006}}</ref> and by massive displays of school colors and banners in much of Ohio. In an unofficial culmination to Michigan Week, since 1990 on the Thursday night before "The Game" students have participated in the "Mirror Lake jump", an unofficial gathering at Mirror Lake, a pond between Pomerene Hall and [[Ohio State University#Campus|The Oval]], in which masses of students jump into the water.<ref name="mirlakjmp">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.bright.net/~beeryde/ref/osuhistory/mirrorlake2.htm| title = How the Mirror Lake Jump Came to Be| work = | publisher = The Lantern 17 Nov 2005| accessdate = 26 July 2006}}</ref>
*'''[[Block O]]'''[[Image:BlockO.JPG|thumb|150px|Block O in a game in the south stands]]
Since 1938 the registered student organization Block O has been the "Official Cheering Section" of the Buckeyes. ''"Known for spreading spirit, starting cheers and performing card stunts, Block 'O' was founded...by Clancy Isaac ''."<ref name="osufbtrad">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://ohiostatebuckeyes.cstv.com/trads/osu-m-footbl-trad.html| title = Football Traditions| work = | publisher = TOSU Football Official Site| accessdate = 27 July 2006}}</ref> They occupy Section 39A in the South [[grandstand]] of [[Ohio Stadium]], next to the band.<ref name="blocko">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://blocko.org.ohio-state.edu/| title = Block "O"| format = | work = | publisher = The Ohio State University| accessdate = 26 July 2006}}</ref><ref name="tressblocko">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.coachtressel.com/tradition/block_O.asp| title = Tradition-Block O| format = | work = | publisher = Coach Tressel.com| accessdate = 26 July 2006 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060627193207/http://www.coachtressel.com/tradition/block_O.asp  |archivedate = 27 June 2006}}</ref>
*'''Victory Bell'''
The Victory Bell is rung after every Ohio State victory by members of [[Alpha Phi Omega]], a tradition that began after the Bucks beat [[California Golden Bears|California]] October 2, 1954. Reputedly the ringing can be heard five miles away "on a calm day." Located 150 feet high in the southeast tower of Ohio Stadium, the bell was a gift of the classes of 1943, 1944 and 1945, and weighs 2,420 pounds.<ref name="gameday"/>
*'''[[Brutus Buckeye]]'''
Beginning in 1965, Brutus Buckeye has appeared at all Ohio State football games as the live [[mascot]] of the Buckeyes. In 2007 he was inducted into the Mascot Hall of Fame and is now one of the most recognized mascots in the United States.
*'''''Hang on Sloopy'''''
First played at the [[Illinois Fighting Illini football|Illinois]] game of October 9, 1965, the [[Rock music|rock]] song ''[[Hang on Sloopy]]'' is now played by the marching band before the start of the fourth quarter, with fans performing an O-H-I-O chant in the intervals between the [[refrain]]s. The song is also played to encourage the team's defensive players when opponents are moving the ball on offense late in a game. This is also played before the fourth quarter at [[Cleveland Browns]] and [[Cincinnati Bengals]] games.<ref name="gameday"/>
*'''Buckeye leaves'''
Since 1967, the helmets of Ohio State players have been adorned with white decals approximately the size of a [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarter]] depicting a [[Aesculus glabra|buckeye leaf]], awarded for making significant plays and for consistency of performance.<ref name="gameday"/> In the 1970s, the decals were approximately the size of a [[Dollar coin (United States)|Silver Dollar]] until the 1979 Season. Most believe that this practice began in 1968 when The Buckeyes switched to their present [[Silver]] Helmet design since the decals have become identified with that helmet.
*'''Mirror Lake'''
Before the Ohio State/Michigan game at the end of the season, OSU students typically jump into [[Mirror Lake (Ohio)|Mirror Lake]], located on campus, the Thursday night before the game. The tradition is thought to bring good luck to the football team the following gameday.<ref>[http://media.www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2005/11/17/Campus/How-The.Mirror.Lake.Jump.Came.To.Be-1108362.shtml The Lantern article on the Mirror Lake jump.]</ref>
*'''Tunnel of Pride'''
The Tunnel of Pride began with the 1994 Michigan game when all former players who were in attendance formed a tunnel through which the team ran to take the field, and Ohio State beat its rival that day, 22–6. [[Rex Kern]], quarterback of the [[Rose Bowl (game)|1968 National Championship]] team, and then Director of Athletics [[Andy Geiger]] together used the concept as a means of connecting current Buckeyes with those who played before them. The Tunnel of Pride was next formed for the 1995 [[Notre Dame Fighting Irish football|Notre Dame]] game, which the Buckeyes also won. In each home game against Michigan since, the tradition has been repeated.<ref name="gameday"/><ref name="tunpride">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.coachtressel.com/tradition/tunnel_of_pride.asp| title = Tunnel of Pride| format = | work = | publisher = Coach Tressel.com| accessdate = 26 July 2006 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060623001409/http://www.coachtressel.com/tradition/tunnel_of_pride.asp  |archivedate = 23 June 2006}}</ref>
*'''''Carmen Ohio'''''
Instituted by Coach Tressel in 2001, at the conclusion of all home games the coaches, players and cheerleaders gather in the south [[end zone]] next to the marching band to sing the university's alma mater, ''[[Carmen Ohio]]''.<ref name="carmenotrad">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.coachtressel.com/tradition/carmen_ohio.asp| title = Tradition-Carmen Ohio| format = | work = | publisher = Coach Tressel.com| accessdate = 26 July 2006 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060623001053/http://www.coachtressel.com/tradition/carmen_ohio.asp  |archivedate = 23 June 2006}}</ref>
*'''The Hive and pre-game circle'''
Tressel brought to the Buckeye football program two pre-game traditions he developed at Youngstown State. Prior to its warmup routine before every football game, the team exits the locker room as a unit in a controlled manner, linked arm-in-arm in a group known as "The Hive". After warmups the team returns to the locker room, and when it next appears, runs onto the field and forms a circle of players around the strength coach, then they go through their warmup routine.<ref name="hive">{{cite web | last = Porentas| first = John| coauthors = | year = | url = http://the-ozone.net/football/2007/MSU/hiveandcircle.htm| title = Roots of Tressel Traditions May be Lost, but the Traditions Carry on at OSU | work = | publisher = The O-Zone | accessdate = 17 October 2007}}</ref>

===Marching band===
[[File:Script Ohio.jpg|thumb|200px|<center>Famous Script Ohio]]
{{main|The Ohio State University Marching Band}}
The Marching Band, often referred to as "The Best Damn Band In The Land" or by the acronym '''TBDBITL'''<ref>[http://www.tbdbitl.com/ TBDBITL Alumni Club], accessed January 22, 2008.</ref> is the most visible and possibly best-known tradition of Ohio State football.<ref>{{cite book| author=Leeann Parker, editor| title=Ohio State Football Gameday| publisher=The Ohio State Athletics Communications Office| year=2001|page=45}}</ref> Home games are preceded by three much-anticipated traditions, and a fourth, "dotting the 'i'" of [[The Ohio State University Marching Band#Script Ohio|Script Ohio]], enjoys a reputation all its own:<ref name="gameday"/>
*[[The Ohio State University Marching Band#Skull Session|Skull Session]]
*[[The Ohio State University Marching Band#Ramp Entrance|Ramp entrance]]
*[[The Ohio State University Marching Band#The Back Bend|The Back Bend]]
*[[The Ohio State University Marching Band#Script Ohio|Script Ohio]]

==Rivalries==
{{main|Michigan – Ohio State rivalry|Illibuck|Ohio State – Penn State rivalry}}
[[Image:Michigan Stadium opening 3c27311.png|thumb|300px|<center>An early Ohio State-Michigan game in [[Michigan Stadium]]]]
While its rivalry with the University of Michigan is its most renowned and intense, Ohio State has two other series marked by their longevity, both [[Big Ten Conference]] rivals, those of [[Indiana Hoosiers football|Indiana]] and [[Illinois Fighting Illini|Illinois]]. The series versus Indiana began as a non-conference matchup, with Indiana going undefeated at 4-0-1. In conference, however, the Buckeyes (despite losing the opening conference game) are 65-8-4 through the 2006 season, the most wins against any opponent. Illinois also began with non-conference games (0-1-1) but became the longest continuous series in 2002 when the schools played in their 89th consecutive year. (That record was tied by Michigan in 2007.) Through 2009 Ohio State's record against the Illini is 62-30-4. In 2007, Ohio State was given their only defeat of the regular season by the Illini.

When Penn State was added to the conference football play in 1993, every member was given two designated rivals, teams to be played every year, with the other conference teams rotated out of the schedule at regular intervals. For geographic convenience, the Big Ten named Penn State as Ohio State's new designated rival in addition to Michigan, and Illinois was set to be paired with in-state rival [[Northwestern Wildcats football|Northwestern]] and neighboring Indiana, and in doing so undermined Ohio State's historical rivalry with Illinois.

==All-time records==
===All-time bowl games===
{|
|-
| valign="top" |
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center; font-size:100%"
!| Date played !! colspan="2" | Winning team !! colspan="2" | Losing team !! Bowl
|-
| January 1, 1921 || [[California Golden Bears football|California]] || 28 || '''[[1921 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''0''' || [[1921 Rose Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1950 || '''[[1949 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''17''' || [[California Golden Bears football|California]] || 14 || [[1950 Rose Bowl]]
|- align="center"
| January 1, 1955 || '''[[1954 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''20''' || [[USC Trojans football|USC]] || 7 || [[1955 Rose Bowl]]
|- align="center"
| January 1, 1958 || '''[[1957 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''10''' || [[Oregon Ducks football|Oregon]] || 7 || [[1958 Rose Bowl]]
|- align="center"
| January 1, 1969 || '''[[1968 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''27''' || [[USC Trojan football|USC]] || 16 || [[1969 Rose Bowl]]
|- align="center"
| January 1, 1971 || [[Stanford Cardinal football|Stanford]] || 27 || '''[[1970 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''17''' || [[1971 Rose Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1973 || [[USC Trojans football|USC]] || 42 || '''[[1972 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''17''' || [[1973 Rose Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1974 || '''[[1973 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''42''' || [[USC Trojans football|USC]] || 21 || [[1974 Rose Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1975 || [[USC Trojans football|USC]] || 18 || '''[[1974 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''17''' || [[1975 Rose Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1976 || [[UCLA Bruins football|UCLA]] || 23 || '''[[1975 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''10''' || [[1976 Rose Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1977 || '''[[1976 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''27''' || [[Colorado Buffaloes football|Colorado]] || 10 || [[1977 Orange Bowl]]
|-
| January 2, 1978 || [[Alabama Crimson Tide football|Alabama]] || 35 || '''[[1977 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''6''' || 1978 Sugar Bowl
|-
| December 29, 1978 || [[Clemson Tigers football|Clemson]] || 17 || '''[[1978 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''15''' || [[1978 Gator Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1980 || [[USC Trojans football|USC]] || 17 || '''[[1979 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''16''' || [[1980 Rose Bowl]]
|-
| December 20, 1980 || [[Penn State Nittany Lions football|Penn State]] || 31 || '''[[1980 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''19''' || 1980 Fiesta Bowl
|-
| December 30, 1981 || '''[[1981 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''31''' || [[Navy Midshipmen football|Navy]] || 28 || 1981 Liberty Bowl
|-
| December 17, 1982 || '''[[1982 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''47''' || [[BYU Cougars football|BYU]] || 17 || [[1982 Holiday Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1984 || '''[[1983 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]] || '''28''' || [[Pittsburgh Panthers football|Pittsburgh]] || 23 || [[1984 Fiesta Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1985 || [[USC Trojans football|USC]] || 20 || '''[[1984 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''17''' || [[1985 Rose Bowl]]
|-
| December 28, 1985 || '''[[1985 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''10''' || [[BYU Cougars football|BYU]] || 7 || 1985 Citrus Bowl
|-
| January 1, 1987 || '''[[1986 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''28''' || [[Texas A&M Aggies football|Texas A&M]] || 12 || 1987 Cotton Bowl Classic
|-
| January 1, 1990 || [[Auburn Tigers football team|Auburn]] || 31 || '''[[1989 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''14''' || [[1990 Hall of Fame Bowl]]
|-
| December 27, 1990 || [[Air Force Falcons football|Air Force]] || 23 || '''[[1990 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || 11 || 1990 Liberty Bowl
|-
| January 1, 1992 || [[Syracuse Orange football|Syracuse]] || 24 || '''[[1991 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''17''' || [[1992 Hall of Fame Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1993 || [[Georgia Bulldogs football|Georgia]] || 21 || '''[[1992 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''14''' || 1993 Citrus Bowl
|-
| December 30, 1993 || '''[[1993 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''28''' || [[BYU Cougars football|BYU]] || 21 || [[1993 Holiday Bowl]]
|-
| January 2, 1995 || [[Alabama Crimson Tide football|Alabama]] || 24 || '''[[1994 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''17''' || [[1995 Florida Citrus Bowl]]
|-
| January 2, 1996 || [[Tennessee Volunteers football|Tennessee]] || 20 || '''[[1994 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''14''' || [[1996 Florida Citrus Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1997 || '''[[1996 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''20''' || [[Arizona State Sun Devils football|Arizona State]] || 17 || [[1997 Rose Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1998 || [[Florida State Seminoles football|Florida State]] || 31 || '''[[1997 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''14''' || [[1998 Sugar Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 1999 || '''[[1998 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''24''' || [[Texas A&M Aggies football|Texas A&M]] || 14 || [[1999 Sugar Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 2001 || [[South Carolina Gamecocks football|South Carolina]] || 24 || '''[[2000 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''7''' || [[2001 Outback Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 2002 || [[South Carolina Gamecocks football|South Carolina]] || 31 || '''[[2001 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''28''' || [[2002 Outback Bowl]]
|- align="center"
| January 3, 2003 || '''[[2002 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''31''' || [[Miami Hurricanes football|Miami (FL)]] || 24 || [[2003 Fiesta Bowl]]
|-
| January 2, 2004 || '''[[2003 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''35''' || [[Kansas State Wildcats football|Kansas State]] || 28 || [[2004 Fiesta Bowl]]
|-
| December 29, 2004 || '''[[2004 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''33''' || [[Oklahoma State Cowboys football|Oklahoma State]] || 7 || [[2004 Alamo Bowl]]
|-
| January 2, 2006 || '''[[2005 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''34''' || [[2005 Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team|Notre Dame]] || 20 || [[2006 Fiesta Bowl]]
|-
| January 8, 2007 || [[2006 Florida Gators football team|Florida]] || 41 || '''[[2006 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]] || '''14''' || [[2007 BCS National Championship Game|2007 BCS NCG]]
|-
| January 7, 2008 || [[2007 LSU Tigers football team|LSU]] || 38 || '''[[2007 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''24''' || [[2008 BCS National Championship Game|2008 BCS NCG]]
|-
| January 5, 2009 || [[2008 Texas Longhorns football team|Texas]] || 24 || '''[[2008 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''21''' || [[2009 Fiesta Bowl]]
|-
| January 1, 2010 || '''[[2009 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|Ohio State]]''' || '''26''' || [[2009 Oregon Ducks football team|Oregon]] || 17 || [[2010 Rose Bowl]]
|-
| January 4, 2011 || [[2010 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|'''Ohio State''']] ||'''31'''|| [[2010 Arkansas Razorbacks football team|Arkansas]] ||26|| [[2011 Sugar Bowl]]
|}
|}
{{Ohio State bowl games}}

===All-time Big Ten records===
*This chart includes both the overall record Ohio State has with the all-time Big Ten members, as well as the matchups that counted in the Big Ten standings. The Big Ten began league play in 1896, and Ohio State joined in 1913. Michigan rejoined the league in 1917 after leaving in 1906. Chicago withdrew after 1939, and then Michigan State (1953), Penn State (1993), and Nebraska (2011) joined afterwards.
(As of November 26, 2010)

{| border="0" width="110%"
| valign="left" |
{| cellpadding="1" border="1" cellspacing="0" width="90%"
!bgcolor=#990000|Team
!bgcolor=#990000|Big Ten Wins
!bgcolor=#990000|Big Ten Losses
!bgcolor=#990000|Big Ten Ties
!bgcolor=#990000|Pct.
!bgcolor=#990000|Overall Wins
!bgcolor=#990000|Overall Losses
!bgcolor=#990000|Overall Ties
!bgcolor=#990000|Pct.
!bgcolor=#990000|Streak
!bgcolor=#990000|First Meeting
!bgcolor=#990000|Last Meeting
|- align="center"
| [[Chicago Maroons football|Chicago Maroons]] || 10 || 2 || 2 || {{Winning percentage|10|2|2}} || 10 || 2 || 2 || {{Winning percentage|10|2|2}} || Won 8 || 1920 || 1939
|- align="center"
| [[Illinois Fighting Illini football|Illinois Fighting Illini]] || 63 || 29 || 3 || {{Winning percentage|63|29|3}} || 63 || 30 || 4 || {{Winning percentage|63|30|4}} || Won 3 || 1902 || 2010
|- align="center"
| [[Indiana Hoosiers football|Indiana Hoosiers]] || 67 || 8 || 4 || {{Winning percentage|67|8|4}} || 67 || 12 || 5 || {{Winning percentage|67|12|5}} || Won 16 || 1901 || 2010
|- align="center"
| [[Iowa Hawkeyes football|Iowa Hawkeyes]] || 46 || 14 || 3 || {{Winning percentage|46|14|3}} || 46 || 14 || 3 || {{Winning percentage|46|14|3}} || Won 4 || 1922 || 2010
|- align="center"
| [[Michigan Wolverines football|Michigan Wolverines]] || 44 || 45 || 4 || {{Winning percentage|44|45|4}} || 44 || 57 || 6 || {{Winning percentage|44|57|6}} || Won 7 || 1897 || 2010
|- align="center"
| [[Michigan State Spartans football|Michigan State Spartans]] || 27 || 10 || 0 || {{Winning percentage|27|10|0}} || 27 || 12 || 0 || {{Winning percentage|27|12|0}} || Won 7 || 1912 || 2008
|- align="center"
| [[Minnesota Golden Gophers football|Minnesota Golden Gophers]] || 43 || 7 || 0 || {{Winning percentage|43|7|0}} || 43 || 7 || 0 || {{Winning percentage|43|7|0}} || Won 7 || 1921 || 2010
|- align="center"
| [[Nebraska Cornhuskers football| Nebraska Cornhuskers]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || {{Winning percentage|0|0|0}} || 2 || 0 || 0 || {{Winning percentage|2|0|0}} || Won 2 || 1955 || 1956
|- align="center"
| [[Northwestern Wildcats football|Northwestern Wildcats]] || 59 || 14 || 1 || {{Winning percentage|59|14|1}} || 59 || 14 || 1 || {{Winning percentage|59|14|1}} || Won 4 || 1913 || 2008
|- align="center"
| [[Penn State Nittany Lions football|Penn State Nittany Lions]] || 12 || 6 || 0 || {{Winning percentage|12|6|0}} || 14 || 12 || 0 || {{Winning percentage|14|12|0}} || Won 2 || 1912 || 2010
|- align="center"
| [[Purdue Boilermakers football|Purdue Boilermakers]] || 38 || 13 || 2 || {{Winning percentage|38|13|2}} || 38 || 13 || 2 || {{Winning percentage|38|13|2}} || Won 1 || 1919 || 2010
|- align="center"
| [[Wisconsin Badgers football|Wisconsin Badgers]] || 53 || 18 || 5 || {{Winning percentage|58|18|5}} || 53 || 18 || 5 || {{Winning percentage|58|18|5}} || Lost 1 || 1913 || 2010
|- align="center"
| colspan=1 bgcolor=#990000|
| colspan=1 bgcolor=#990000| '''462'''
| colspan=1 bgcolor=#990000| '''166'''
| colspan=1 bgcolor=#990000| '''24'''
| colspan=1 bgcolor=#990000| '''{{Winning percentage|462|166|24}}'''
| colspan=1 bgcolor=#990000| '''466'''
| colspan=1 bgcolor=#990000| '''191'''
| colspan=1 bgcolor=#990000| '''28'''
| colspan=1 bgcolor=#990000| '''{{Winning percentage|466|191|28}}'''
| colspan=3 bgcolor=#990000| 
|}
|}
All Data from College Football Data Warehouse <ref>http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/div_ia/bigten/ohio_state/opponents_records.php?teamid=1516</ref>

==Individual awards and achievements==
Through the 2006 season Ohio State players have by a significant margin won more trophies than any other NCAA Division 1A program. Ohio State players have won 34 of the listed major awards, with the next closest being 26 (Oklahoma). Ohio State is the only university to have received each of the awards at least once. Of the five awards created prior to 1980 (Heisman, Lombardi, Maxwell, Outland, and Walter Camp), Ohio State has received the most with 25 (Notre Dame follows with 23).

===Heisman Trophy winners===
Ohio State players have won the [[Heisman Trophy]] seven times, which ties Notre Dame (7) for the most awards for any school. [[Archie Griffin]] is the only two-time recipient in the history of the award.
{| border="0" width="90%"
| valign="left" |
{| cellpadding="1" border="1" cellspacing="0" width="75%"
!bgcolor=#990000 |Season
!bgcolor=#990000 |Name
!bgcolor=#990000 |Pos.
!bgcolor=#990000 |Class
!bgcolor=#990000 |Points
|- align="center"
| [[1944 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1944]] || [[Les Horvath]] || Quarterback/ Running Back || Senior || 412
|- align="center"
| [[1950 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1950]] || [[Vic Janowicz]] || Running Back || Junior || 633
|- align="center"
| [[1955 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1955]] || [[Howard "Hopalong" Cassady|Howard Cassady]] || Running Back || Senior || 2219
|- align="center"
| [[1974 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1974]] || [[Archie Griffin]] || Running Back || Junior || 1920
|- align="center"
| [[1975 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1975]] || [[Archie Griffin]] || Running Back || Senior || 1800
|- align="center"
| [[1995 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|1995]] || [[Eddie George]] || Running Back || Senior || 1460
|- align="center"
| [[2006 Ohio State Buckeyes football team|2006]] || [[Troy Smith]] || Quarterback || Senior || 2540
|- align="center"
| colspan=2 bgcolor=#990000| '''Heisman Trophy Winners'''
| colspan=4 bgcolor=#990000| '''7'''
|}
|}

===Lombardi Award===
Ohio State players have won the [[Lombardi Award]] six times. '''Orlando Pace''' is the only two-time recipient in the history of the award.
* 1970: [[Jim Stillwagon]]
* 1973: [[John Hicks]]
* 1987: [[Chris Spielman]]
* 1995: [[Orlando Pace]]
* 1996: Orlando Pace
* 2005: [[A. J. Hawk]]

===Maxwell Award===
Four Ohio State players have won the [[Maxwell Award]]:
* 1955: Howard Cassady
* 1961: [[Bob Ferguson (American football)|Bob Ferguson]]
* 1975: Archie Griffin
* 1995: Eddie George

===Outland Trophy===
Four Ohio State players have won the [[Outland Trophy]]:
* 1956: [[Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]]
* 1970: [[Jim Stillwagon]]
* 1973: [[John Hicks]]
* 1996: Orlando Pace

===Walter Camp Award===
Three Ohio State players have won the [[Walter Camp Award]]:
* 1974: Archie Griffin
* 1995: Eddie George
* 2006: Troy Smith

===Other awards===
* Eddie George received the '''[[Doak Walker Award]]''' in 1995
* [[Terry Glenn]] received the '''[[Fred Biletnikoff Award]]''' in 1995
* [[Andy Katzenmoyer]] received the '''[[Dick Butkus Award]]''' in 1997
* [[Antoine Winfield]] received the '''[[Jim Thorpe Award]]''' in 1998
* [[LeCharles Bentley]] received the '''[[Dave Rimington Trophy]]''' in 2001
* [[B. J. Sander]] received the '''[[Ray Guy Award]]''' in 2003
* [[Mike Nugent]] received the '''[[Lou Groza Award]]''' in 2004
* James Laurinaitis received the '''[[Bronko Nagurski Trophy]]''' in 2006
* Troy Smith received the '''[[Davey O'Brien Award]]''' in 2006
* James Laurinaitis received the '''[[Dick Butkus Award]]''' in 2007
* [[Malcolm Jenkins]] received the '''[[Jim Thorpe Award]]''' in 2008
* [[James Laurinaitis]] received the '''[[Lott Trophy]] ''' in 2008

===All-American and All-Conference honors===
Through 2006 129 Buckeyes have been named first team All-Americans since 1914. Of those, {{American college football All-Americans|Ohio St.|ref=Y}} have been consensus picks. 234 have been named to the All-Big Ten team, and 15 have won the [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football]], the Big Ten's [[Most Valuable Player]] award, including Troy Smith for 2006. The [[Athletic director|Athletic Directors]] of the Big Ten Conference voted Eddie George '''Big Ten-[[Jesse Owens]]''' '''Athlete of the Year''' for 1996.

On November 22, 2006, ten Buckeyes were named to either the Coaches or Conference media All-Big Ten First Team selections for the 2006 season, and seven were named to both. [[Troy Smith]] was named Big Ten Offensive Player of the Year. Four other Buckeyes received Second Team honors.

===List of All-Americans===
All records per OSU Athletics.<ref>[http://www.ohiostatebuckeyes.com/fls/17300//pdf/fb/m-footbl-all-american.pdf?SPSID=87751&SPID=10408&DB_OEM_ID=17300 Ohio State First-Team All-Americans], OSU Athletics, Spring 2008.</ref>

====1910s====
*1914: Boyd Cherry (E)
*1916: [[Chic Harley]] (B), Robert Karch (T)
*1917: Charles Bolen (E), Harold Courtney (E), Chic Harley (B), Kelley VanDyne (C)
*1918: Clarence MacDonald (E)
*1919: Chic Harley (B), [[Gaylord Stinchcomb]] (B)

====1920s====
*1920: Iolas Huffman (G), Gaylord Stinchcomb (B)
*1921: Iolas Huffman (G), Cyril Myers (E)
*1923: Harry Workman (QB)
*1924: [[Cookie Cunningham|Harold Cunningham]] (E)
*1925: Edwin Hess (G)
*1926: Edwin Hess (G), [[Marty Karow]] (HB), [[Leo Raskowski]] (T)
*1927: Leo Raskowski (T)
*1928: [[Wes Fesler]] (E)
*1929: Wes Fesler (E)

====1930s====
*1930: Wes Fesler (E), Lew Hinchman (HB)
*1931: Carl Cramer (QB), Lew Hinchman (HB)
*1932: Joseph Gailus (G), [[Sid Gillman]] (E), Lew Hinchman (HB), Ted Rosequist (T)
*1933: Joseph Gailus (G)
*1934: Regis Monahan (G), Merle Wendt (E)
*1935: [[Gomer Jones]] (C), Merle Wendt (E)
*1936: Charles Hamrick (T), Inwood Smith (G), Merle Wendt (E)
*1937: Carl Kaplanoff (T), Jim McDonald (QB), Ralph Wolf (C), [[Gust Zarnas]] (G)
*1939: Vic Marino (G), Esco Sarkkinen (E), [[Don Scott (American football)|Don Scott]] (HB)

====1940s====
*1940: Don Scott (HB)
*1942: [[Bob Shaw (American football)|Robert Shaw]] (E), [[Charles Csuri]] (T), [[Lin Houston]] (G), Paul Sarringhaus (HB), Gene Fekete (E)
*1943: [[Bill Willis]] (T)
*1944: Jack Dugger (E), Bill Willis (T), William Hackett (G), [[Les Horvath]] (QB/HB)
*1945: [[Warren Amling]] (G), [[Ollie Cline]] (FB), Russell Thomas (T)
*1946: Warren Amling (G), Cecil Souders (E)

====1950s====
*1950: Robert Momsen (T), Robert McMullogh (C), [[Vic Janowicz]] (HB)
*1952: Mike Takacs (G)
*1954: Dean Dugger (E), [[Howard "Hopalong" Cassady|Howard Cassady]] (HB), Jim Reichenbach (G)
*1955: [[#Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]] (G), Howard Cassady (HB)
*1956: Jim Parker (G)
*1957: [[Aurealius Thomas]] (G)
*1958: [[Jim Houston]] (E), [[Jim Marshall (American football)|Jim Marshall]] (T), [[Bob White (American football)|Bob White]] (E)
*1959: Jim Houston (E)

====1960s====
*1960: [[Bob Ferguson (American football)|Bob Ferguson]] (FB)
*1961: Bob Ferguson (FB)
*1964: Jim Davidson (T), Ike Kelley (LB), Arnie Chonko (DB)
*1965: [[Doug Van Horn]] (G), Ike Kelley (LB)
*1966: Ray Pryor (C)
*1968: [[Dave Foley (American football)|Dave Foley]] (OT), [[Rufus Mayes]] (OT)
*1969: [[Jim Stillwagon]] (G), [[Rex Kern]] (QB), [[Jim Otis]] (FB), [[Ted Provost]] (CB), [[Jack Tatum]] (CB)

====1970s====
*1970: Jan White (TE), Jim Stillwagon (MG), [[John Brockington]] (FB), Jack Tatum (CB), [[Mike Sensibaugh]] (S), Tim Anderson (CB)
*1971: [[Tom DeLeone]] (C)
*1972: [[John Hicks (American football)|John Hicks]] (OT), [[Randy Gradishar]] (LB)
*1973: John Hicks (OT), Randy Gradishar (LB), Van DeCree (DE), [[Archie Griffin]] (TB)
*1974: Van Ness DeCree (DE), Kurt Schumacher (OT), Steve Meyer (C), Pete Cusick (DT), Archie Griffin (TB), [[Neal Colzie]] (CB), [[Tom Skladany]] (P)
*1975: Ted Smith (OG), Archie Griffin (TB), [[Tim Fox]] (S), Tom Skladany (P)
*1976: [[Bob Brudzinski]] (DE), [[Chris Ward (American football)|Chris Ward]] (OT), [[Giovanni Strassini]] (TE), Tom Skladany (P)
*1977: Chris Ward (OT), Aaron Brown (NG), [[Tom Cousineau]] (LB), Ray Griffin (S)
*1978: Tom Cousineau (LB)
*1979: Ken Fritz (OG), [[Art Schlichter]] (QB)

====1980s====
*1982: Marcus Marek (LB)
*1984: [[Jim Lachey]] (OG), [[Keith Byars]] (TB)
*1985: [[Pepper Johnson]] (LB)
*1986: [[Cris Carter]] (SE), [[Chris Spielman]] (LB)
*1987: Chris Spielman (LB), [[Tom Tupa]] (P)
*1988: [[Jeff Uhlenhake]] (C)

====1990s====
*1991: [[Steve Tovar]] (LB)
*1992: Steve Tovar (LB)
*1993: [[Korey Stringer]] (OT), [[Dan Wilkinson]] (DT)
*1994: Korey Stringer (OT)
*1995: [[Eddie George]] (TB), [[Terry Glenn]] (FL), [[Orlando Pace]] (OT), [[Mike Vrabel]] (DE)
*1996: Orlando Pace (OT), [[Shawn Springs]] (CB), Mike Vrabel (DE)
*1997: [[Andy Katzenmoyer]] (LB), [[Rob Murphy (football player)|Rob Murphy]] (OG), [[Antoine Winfield]] (CB)
*1998: [[David Boston]] (SE), [[Damon Moore]] (SS), Rob Murphy (OG), Antoine Winfield (CB)
*1999: [[Na'il Diggs]] (LB)

====2000s====
*2000: [[Mike Doss]] (SS)
*2001: [[LeCharles Bentley]] (C), Mike Doss (SS)
*2002: Mike Doss (SS), [[Andy Groom]] (P), [[Mike Nugent]] (PK), [[Matt Wilhelm]] (LB)
*2003: [[Will Allen (safety)|Will Allen]] (DB)
*2004: Mike Nugent (PK), [[A. J. Hawk]] (LB)
*2005: A. J. Hawk (LB)
*2006: [[Troy Smith]] (QB), [[James Laurinaitis]] (LB), [[Quinn Pitcock]] (DL)
*2007: James Laurinaitis (LB), [[Chris Wells (American football)|Chris Wells]] (RB)
*2008: James Laurinaitis (LB), Malcolm Jenkins (CB)

===Team season MVPs===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
1930: [[Wes Fesler]] - (E) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1931: Robert Haubrich - (OT) 
1932: Lew Hinchman - (HB) 
1933: Mickey Vuchinich - (FB) 
1934: [[Gomer Jones]] - (C) 
1935: Gomer Jones - (C) 
1936: Ralph Wolf - (C) 
1937: Ralph Wolf - (C) 
1938: Jim Langhurst - (FB) 
1939: [[Steve Andrako]] - (C) 
1940: Andrew Vice - (C) 
1941: [[Jack Graf]] - (FB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1942: [[Charles Csuri|Chuck Csuri]] - (OT) 
1943: [[Gordon Appleby]] - (C) 
1944: [[Les Horvath]] - (QB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1945: [[Ollie Cline]] - (FB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1946: [[Cecil Souders]] - (E) 
1947: Dave Templeton - (G) 
1948: Joe Whisler - (FB) 
1949: Jack Lininger - (C) 
1950: [[Vic Janowicz]] - (HB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1951: [[Vic Janowicz]] - (HB) 
1952: [[Fred Bruney]] - (HB) 
1953: George Jacoby - (T) 
1954: [[Howard Cassady]] - (HB) 
1955: Howard Cassady - (HB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1956: [[Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]] - (G) 
1957: [[Bill Jobko]] - (G) 
1958: [[Jim Houston]] - (E) 
1959: Jim Houston - (E) 
1960: [[Tom Matte]] - (QB) 
1961: [[Bob Ferguson (American football)|Bob Ferguson]] - (FB) 
1962: [[Billy Armstrong]] - (C) 
1963: [[Matt Snell]] - (FB) 
1964: Ed Orazen - (DL) 
1965: [[Doug Van Horn]] - (OG) 
1966: Ray Pryor - (C) 
1967: Dirk Worden - (LB) 
1968: Mark Stier - (LB) 
1969: [[Jim Otis]] - (FB) 
{{col-2}}
1970: [[Jim Stillwagon]] - (DL) 
1971: [[Tom DeLeone]]- (C) 
1972: George Hasenohrl - (DL) 
1973: [[Archie Griffin]] - (RB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1974: Archie Griffin - (RB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1975: [[Cornelius Greene]] - (QB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1976: [[Bob Brudzinski]] - (DE) 
1977: Dave Adkins - (LB) 
1978: [[Tom Cousineau]] - (LB) 
1979: [[Jim Laughlin]] - (LB) 
1980: [[Calvin Murray (American football)|Calvin Murray]] - (TB) 
1981: [[Art Schlichter]] - (QB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1982: [[Tim Spencer (American football)|Tim Spencer]] - (RB) 
1983: [[John Frank]] - (TE) 
1984: [[Keith Byars]] - (RB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1985: [[Jim Karsatos]] - (QB) 
1986: [[Cris Carter]] - (WR) 
1987: [[Chris Spielman]] - (LB) 
1988: [[Jeff Uhlenhake]] - (C) 
1989: [[Derek Isaman]] - (LB) 
1990: [[Jeff Graham]] - (WR) 
1991: [[Carlos Snow]] - (TB) 
1992: [[Kirk Herbstreit]] - (QB) 
1993: [[Raymont Harris]] - (TB) 
1994: [[Korey Stringer]] - (OT) 
1995: [[Eddie George]] - (TB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1996: [[Orlando Pace]] - (OT) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1997: [[Antoine Winfield]] - (DB) 
1998: [[Joe Germaine]] - (QB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
1999: [[Ahmed Plummer]] - (DB) 
2000: [[Derek Combs]] - (TB) 
2001: [[Jonathan Wells (American football)|Jonathan Wells]] - (TB) 
2002: [[Craig Krenzel]] - (QB) / [[Chris Gamble]] - (WR/DB) 
2003: [[Michael Jenkins (American football)|Michael Jenkins]] - (WR) 
2004: [[Mike Nugent]] - (PK) 
2005: [[A. J. Hawk]] - (LB) 
2006: [[Troy Smith]] - (QB) - [[Chicago Tribune Silver Football|Big Ten MVP]] 
2007: [[Chris Wells (American football)|Chris Wells]] - (TB) 
2008: [[Chris Wells (American football)|Chris Wells]] - (TB) 
2009: [[Kurt Coleman]] - (SS) 
2010: [[Dane Sanzenbacher]] - (WR) 
{{col-end}}

===All-Century Team===
{{see also|Ohio State Football All-Century Team}}

===Ohio State's All-Time Team===
Chosen in 2001 by Athlon Sports. [http://www.athlonsports.com/college-football/4227/ohio-state-all-time-team]
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''Offense''' 
'''WR''' [[Paul Warfield]] 1961-63 
'''WR''' [[Cris Carter]] 1984-86 
'''WR''' [[Terry Glenn]] 1993-95 
'''WR''' [[David Boston]] 1996-98 
'''TE''' [[John Frank]] 1980-83 
'''OL''' [[Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]] 1954-56 
'''OL''' [[Korey Stringer]] 1992-94 
'''OL''' [[Gomer Jones]] 1934-35 
'''OL''' [[John Hicks (American football)|John Hicks]] 1970, 72-73 
'''OL''' Orlando Pace 1994-96 
'''QB''' [[Troy Smith]]2002-06 
'''RB''' Howard "Hopalong" Cassady 1952-55 
'''RB''' Archie Griffin 1972-75 
'''RB''' Eddie George 1992-95 
'''K''' [[Mike Nugent]] 
{{col-2}}
'''Defense''' 
'''DL''' [[Will Smith]] 
'''DL''' Bill Willis 1942-44 
'''DL''' [[Jim Stillwagon]] 1968-70 
'''DL''' [[Dan Wilkinson]] 1992-93 
'''DL''' [[Mike Vrabel]] 1993-96 
'''LB''' [[Tom Cousineau]] 1975-78 
'''LB''' [[Chris Spielman]] 1984-87 
'''LB''' [[Andy Katzenmoyer]] 1996-98 
'''LB''' James Laurinaitis 2005-08 
'''LB''' [[AJ Hawk]]2002-05 
'''DB''' Vic Janowicz 1949-51 
'''DB''' [[Jack Tatum]] 1968-70 
'''DB''' [[Mike Sensibaugh]] 1968-70 
'''DB''' [[Malcolm Jenkins]]2005-08 
'''DB''' [[Antoine Winfield]] 1995-98 
'''P''' [[Tom Tupa]] 1984-87 
{{col-end}}

===NCAA Coach of the Year===
Three Ohio State head coaches have received the '''[[Paul "Bear" Bryant Award]]''' as NCAA Coach of the Year a total of five times:
* [[Woody Hayes]] 1957, 1968, 1975
* [[Earle Bruce]] 1979
* [[Jim Tressel]] 2002
In addition, two coaches were voted "National Coach of the Year" before the inception of the Bryant Award. [[Carroll Widdoes]], acting head coach after [[Paul Brown]] had entered the [[United States Navy]], was voted the honor in 1944. Brown himself was voted the honor in 1942 for winning the [[NCAA Division I-A national football championship|National Championship]] but declined in favor of [[Georgia Institute of Technology]]'s [[William Alexander (coach)|Bill Alexander]].

===Academic awards and achievements===
====Rhodes Scholarship====
On December 6, 1985, Mike Lanese was awarded a [[Rhodes Scholarship]] to the [[University of Oxford]].

====College Sports Information Directors of America Academic All-Americans====

'''Academic All-American Hall of Fame''' 
Class of 1992 [[Randy Gradishar]]

'''Academic All-American Player of the Year''' 
2003: [[Craig Krenzel]] (Quarterback)

'''Academic All-Americans'''
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
1952: John Borton (Quarterback) 
1954: Dick Hilnski (Tackle) 
1958: [[Bob White (American football)|Bob White]] (Fullback) 
1961: Tom Perdue (End) 
1965: Bill Ridder (Middle Guard) 
1966: [[Dave Foley (American football)|Dave Foley]] (Offensive Tackle) 
1967: Dave Foley (Offensive Tackle) 
1968: Dave Foley (Offensive Tackle) 
1969: Bill Urbanik (Defensive Tackle) 
1971: Rick Simon (Offensive Tackle) 
1973: [[Randy Gradishar]] (Linebacker) 
1974: [[Brian Baschnagel]] (Running Back) 
1975: Brian Baschnagel (Running Back) 
1976: [[Pete Johnson (American football)|Pete Johnson]] (Fullback) 
1977: [[Jeff Logan]] (Running Back) 
1980: Marcus Marek (Linebacker) 
1982: Joe Smith (Offensive Tackle) 
1982: [[John Frank]] (Tight End) 
1983: John Frank (Tight End) 
1983: Dave Crecelius (Defensive Tackle)
{{col-2}}
1984: Dave Crecelius (Defensive Tackle) 
1984: Mike Lanese (Wide Receiver) 
1984: Anthony Tiuliani (Defensive Tackle) 
1985: Mike Lanese (Wide Receiver) 
1987: [[Joe Staysniak]] (Offensive Tackle) 
1989: Joe Staysniak (Offensive Tackle) 
1990: Greg Smith (Defensive Line) 
1992: Len Hartman (Offensive Guard) 
1992: Greg Smith (Defensive Line) 
1995: Greg Bellisari (Linebacker) 
1996: Greg Bellisari (Linebacker) 
1998: Jerry Rudzinski (Linebacker) 
1999: [[Ahmed Plummer]] (Cornerback) 
2002: [[Craig Krenzel]] (Quarterback) 
2003: Craig Krenzel (Quarterback) 
2006: [[Anthony Gonzalez]] (Wide Receiver) 
2006: Stan White, Jr (Fullback) 
2007: [[Brian Robiskie]] (Wide Receiver) 
2008: Brian Robiskie (Wide Receiver)
{{col-end}}

====National Football Foundation and College Hall of Fame====

'''[[Draddy Trophy|Vincent dePaul Draddy Trophy]]''' ("Academic Heisman")
*1995 [[Bobby Hoying]]
*2003 [[Craig Krenzel]]

'''National Scholar-Athlete Awards'''

Ohio State's eighteen NFF Scholar-Athlete Awards rank second only to [[University of Nebraska system|Nebraska]]'s twenty among all college football programs.
*1965 [[Willard Sander]]
*1968 David Foley
*1970 [[Rex Kern]]
*1973 [[Randy Gradishar]]
*1975 [[Brian Baschnagel]]
*1979 [[Jim Laughlin]]
*1982 Joe Smith
*1983 [[John Frank]]
*1984 [[Dave Crecelius]]
*1985 [[Mike Lanese]]
*1989 [[Joe Staysniak]]
*1990 [[Greg Frey]]
*1992 Greg Smith
*1994 [[Joey Galloway]]
*1995 [[Bobby Hoying]]
*1996 [[Greg Bellisari]]
*1999 [[Ahmed Plummer]]

'''College Football Hall of Fame'''

Beginning with Chic Harley and Howard Jones in the 1951 inaugural class, Ohio State has had 29 former players and coaches inducted into the [[College Football Hall of Fame]]

*1951 [[Chic Harley]]
*1951 [[Howard Jones (American football coach)|Howard Jones]]
*1954 [[Wes Fesler]]
*1954 [[John Wilce]]
*1969 [[Les Horvath]]
*1971 [[Bill Willis]]
*1971 [[Francis Schmidt]]
*1973 [[Gaylord Stinchcomb]]
*1974 [[Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]]
*1975 [[Gust Zarnas]]
*1976 [[Vic Janowicz]]
*1977 [[Jim Daniell]]
*1978 [[Gomer Jones]]
*1979 [[Hopalong Cassady]]
*1983 [[Woody Hayes]]
*1984 [[Warren Amling]]
*1986 [[Archie Griffin]]
*1989 [[Aurealius Thomas]]
*1991 [[Jim Stillwagon]]
*1996 [[Bob Ferguson (American football)|Bob Ferguson]]
*1998 [[Randy Gradishar]]
*2001 [[John Hicks]]
*2002 [[Earle Bruce]]
*2004 [[Jack Tatum]]
*2005 [[Jim Houston]]
*2007 [[Rex Kern]]
*2008 [[John Cooper (American football)|John Cooper]]
*2009 [[Chris Spielman]]

==Individual school records==
{{see also|Ohio State Buckeyes football yearly statistical leaders}}

===Rushing records===
* Most rushing attempts, career: 924, [[Archie Griffin]] (1972–75)
* Most rushing attempts, season: 336, [[Keith Byars]] (1984)
* Most rushing attempts, game: 44, [[Champ Henson]] (November 18, 1972 at [[Northwestern Wildcats football|Northwestern]])
* Most rushing yards, career: 5,589, [[Archie Griffin]] (1972–75)
* Most rushing yards, season: 1,927, [[Eddie George]] (1995)
* Most rushing yards, game: 314, [[Eddie George]] (November 11, 1995 vs. [[Illinois Fighting Illini football|Illinois]])
* Most rushing yards against Michigan, game: 222, [[Chris Wells (American football)|Chris Wells]] (November 17, 2007)
* Most rushing touchdowns, career: 56, [[Pete Johnson (American football)|Pete Johnson]] (1973–76)
* Most rushing touchdowns, season: 25, Pete Johnson (1975)
* Most rushing touchdowns, game: 5, Pete Johnson (September 27, 1975 vs. [[North Carolina Tar Heels football|North Carolina]]) and Keith Byars (October 13, 1984 vs. Illinois)
* Longest run from scrimmage: 89 yards, Gene Fekete (November 7, 1942 vs. [[Pittsburgh Panthers football|Pittsburgh]]) and Dan "Boom" Herron (November 27, 2010 vs. Michigan)
* Most games with at least 100 rushing yards, career: 34, [[Archie Griffin]] (1972–75)
* Most games with at least 100 rushing yards, season: 12, [[Eddie George]] (1995)
* Most games with at least 200 rushing yards, career: 5 [[Eddie George]] (1992–95)
* Most games with at least 200 rushing yards, season: 3, [[Eddie George]] (1995)

===Passing records===
* Most passing attempts, career: 934, [[Art Schlichter]] (1978–81)
* Most passing attempts, season: 384, [[Joe Germaine]] (1998)
* Most passing attempts, game: 52, Art Schlichter (October 3, 1981 vs. [[Florida State Seminoles football|Florida State]])
* Most passing completions, career: 498, [[Bobby Hoying]] (1992–95)
* Most passing completions, season: 230, [[Joe Germaine]] (1998)
* Most passing completions, game: 31, Art Schlichter (October 3, 1981 vs. Florida State) and Joe Germaine (October 31, 1998 at [[Indiana Hoosiers football|Indiana]])
* Most passing yards, career: 7,547, Art Schlichter (1978–81)
* Most passing yards, season: 3,330, [[Joe Germaine]] (1998)
* Most passing yards, game: 458, Art Schlichter (October 3, 1981 vs. Florida State)
* Most passing touchdowns, career: 57, [[Bobby Hoying]] (1992–95) and [[Terrelle Pryor]] (2008–2010)
* Most passing touchdowns, season: 30, [[Troy Smith]] (2006)
* Most passing touchdowns, game: 5, John Borton (October 18, 1952 vs. [[Washington State Cougars football|Washington State]]) and twice by [[Bobby Hoying]] (October 22, 1994 vs. [[Purdue Boilermakers football|Purdue]] and September 23, 1995 at [[Pittsburgh Panthers football|Pittsburgh]])
*Longest pass completion: 86 yards, Art Schlichter to Calvin Murray (September 22, 1979 vs. Washington State)
* Most games with at least 200 passing yards, career: 16, [[Bobby Hoying]] (1992–95)
* Most games with at least 200 passing yards, season: 11, [[Bobby Hoying]] (1995) and Joe Germaine (1998)
* Most games with at least 300 passing yards, career: 8, [[Joe Germaine]] (1996–98)
* Most games with at least 300 passing yards, season: 7, [[Joe Germaine]] (1998)

===Receiving records===
* Most receptions, career: 191, [[David Boston]] (1996–98)
* Most receptions, season: 85, David Boston (1998)
* Most receptions, game: 14, David Boston (October 11, 1997 at [[Penn State Nittany Lions football|Penn State]])
* Most receiving yards, career: 2,898, [[Michael Jenkins (American football)|Michael Jenkins]] (2000–03)
* Most receiving yards, season: 1,435, David Boston (1998)
* Most receiving yards, game: 253, [[Terry Glenn]] (September 23, 1995 at [[Pittsburgh Panthers football|Pittsburgh]])
* Most touchdown receptions, career: 34, David Boston (1996–98)
* Most touchdown receptions, season: 17, Terry Glenn (1995)
* Most touchdown receptions, game: 4, Bob Grimes (October 18, 1952 vs. [[Washington State Cougars football|Washington State]]) and Terry Glenn (September 23, 1995 at Pittsburgh) and Dane Sanzenbacher (September 25, 2010 vs. [[Eastern Michigan Eagles football|Eastern Michigan]])
* Longest pass reception: 86 yards, Calvin Murray from Art Schlichter (September 22, 1979 vs. Washington State)
* Most games with at least 100 receiving yards, career: 14, David Boston (1996–98)
* Most games with at least 100 receiving yards, season: 9, David Boston (1998)
* Yards per Reception: 26.4, [[Jim Houston]] (1957–59)

===Kickoff return records===
* Most kickoff returns, career: 72, Maurice Hall (2001–04)
* Most kickoff returns, season: 31, [[Ken-Yon Rambo]] (1999)
* Most kickoff returns, game: 7, [[Vince Workman]] (November 7, 1987 at [[Wisconsin Badgers football|Wisconsin]])
* Most kickoff return yards, career: 1,642, Maurice Hall (2001–04)
* Most kickoff return yards, season: 653, Ken-Yon Rambo (1999)
* Most kickoff return yards, game: 213, [[Carlos Snow]] (September 17, 1988 at [[Pittsburgh Panthers football|Pittsburgh]])
* Most kickoff return touchdowns, career: 2, Dane Sanzenbacher (1943–47) and Lenny Willis (1974)
* Longest kickoff return: 103 yards, Dane Sanzenbacher (October 9, 1943 at Great Lakes)

===Punt return records===
* Most punt returns, career: 98, [[David Boston]] (1996–98)
* Most punt returns, season: 47, David Boston (1997) ''(also a [[Big Ten Conference]] record)''
* Most punt returns, game: 9, Tom Campana (October 16, 1971 at [[Indiana Hoosiers football|Indiana]])
* Most punt return yards, career: 959, David Boston (1996–98)
* Most punt return yards, season: 679, [[Neal Colzie]] (1973) ''(also a [[Big Ten Conference]] record)''
* Most punt return yards, game: 170, Neal Colzie (November 10, 1973 vs. [[Michigan State Spartans football|Michigan State]])
* Most punt return touchdowns, career: 6, [[Ted Ginn, Jr.]] (2004–06) ''(also a [[Big Ten Conference]] record)''
* Longest punt return: 90 yards, Brian Hartline (October 13, 2007 vs. [[Kent State Golden Flashes|Kent State]])

==Buckeyes in High School==

Since 2001, Ohio State has had 35 future players play in the [[U.S. Army All-American Bowl]]

*2001 [[Angelo Chattams]]
*2001 [[Ryan Cook]]{{dn}}
*2001 [[Dustin Fox]]
*2001 [[Adam Olds]]
*2002 [[Nick Mangold]]
*2002 [[Stan White, Jr.]]
*2003 [[Sian Cotton]]
*2003 [[Louis Irizarry]]
*2003 [[Donte Whitner]]
*2004 [[Nader Abdallah]]
*2004 [[Marcus Freeman (linebacker)|Marcus Freeman]]
*2004 [[Ted Ginn, Jr.]]
*2004 [[Kyle Mitchum]]
*2005 [[Alex Boone]]
*2005 [[Maurice Wells]]
*2006 [[Robert Rose (American football)|Robert Rose]]
*2006 [[Connor Smith]]
*2006 [[Beanie Wells|Chris "Beanie" Wells]]
*2007 [[Eugene Clifford]]
*2008 [[Terrelle Pryor]]
*2008 [[Mike Adams (offensive lineman)|Mike Adams]]
*2008 [[Michael Brewster]]
*2008 [[Ben Buchanan]]
*2008 [[DeVier Posey]]
*2008 [[Etienne Sabino]]
*2008 [[J.B. Shugarts]]
*2008 [[Jake Stoneburner]]
*2008 [[Lamaar Thomas]]
*2009 [[Dorian Bell]]
*2009 [[Corey Brown (defensive back)|Corey Brown]]
*2009 [[Justin Green (cornerback)|Justin Green]]
*2009 [[John Simon (defensive lineman)|John Simon]]
*2009 [[Jamie Wood (defensive back)|Jamie Wood]]
*2010 [[Christian Bryant]]
*2010 [[Andrew Norwell]]

Since 1982, 28 future players have been named 1st Team [[USA Today All-USA high school football team]]

*1982 [[Eric Kumerow]]
*1983 [[Alex Higdon]]
*1983 [[Tom Tupa]]
*1983 [[Chris Spielman]]
*1988 [[Alonzo Spellman]]
*1989 [[Robert Smith (American football)|Robert Smith]]
*1991 [[Korey Stringer]]
*1993 [[Eric Gohlstin]]
*1993 [[Orlando Pace]]
*1995 [[Mike Burden]]
*1995 [[Andy Katzenmoyer]]
*1996 [[Tam Hopkins]]
*1996 [[Ken-Yon Rambo]]
*1997 [[Ryan Pickett]]
*1998 [[Bryce Bishop]]
*1999 [[Marco Cooper]]
*2001 [[Maurice Clarett]]
*2001 [[Mike D'Andrea]]
*2003 [[Ted Ginn, Jr.]] - Defensive Player of the Year
*2003 [[Kyle Mitchum]]
*2004 [[Alex Boone]]
*2005 [[Beanie Wells|Chris "Beanie" Wells]]
*2006 [[Eugene Clifford]]
*2007 [[Terrelle Pryor]] - Offensive Player of the Year
*2007 [[Michael Brewster]]
*2007 [[Michael Adams (offensive lineman)|Michael Adams]]
*2007 [[Ben Buchanan]]
*2008 [[Jamel Turner]]

==Buckeyes in the NFL==
{| class="infobox bordered" style="width: 25em; text-align: left; font-size: 100%;"
|+ style="font-size: larger;" |
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#AAAAAA" align=center|Buckeyes in the NFL
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#AAAAAA" align=center|NFL Draft selections
|-
! Total selected:
| align=center|329
|-
! First picks in draft:
| align=center|3
|-
! 1st Round:
| align=center|68
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#AAAAAA" align=center| NFL achievements
|-
! Total Players:
| align=center|308
|-
! In the [[Super Bowl]]:
| align=center|54
|-
! [[Pro Football Hall of Fame|Hall of Famers]]:
| align=center|7
|-
|}
39 former Ohio State players are currently active on rosters of [[National Football League]] teams: [[Will Allen (safety)|Will Allen]], [[Kirk Barton]], [[Alex Boone]], [[Bobby Carpenter (American football)|Bobby Carpenter]], [[Nate Clements]], [[Na'il Diggs]], [[Marcus Freeman (linebacker)|Marcus Freeman]], [[Chris Gamble]], [[Vernon Gholston]], [[Ted Ginn, Jr.]], [[Anthony Gonzalez]], [[Larry Grant (American football)|Larry Grant]], [[Brian Hartline]], [[Ben Hartsock]], [[A. J. Hawk]], [[Santonio Holmes]], [[Kevin Houser]], [[Malcolm Jenkins]], [[Michael Jenkins (American football)|Michael Jenkins]], [[James Laurinaitis]], [[Nick Mangold]], [[Donnie Nickey]], [[Mike Nugent]], [[Orlando Pace]], [[Kenny Peterson]], [[Ryan Pickett]], [[Jay Richardson]], [[Brian Robiskie]], [[Rob Sims]], [[Antonio Smith (cornerback)|Antonio Smith]], [[Will Smith (American football)|Will Smith]], [[Troy Smith]], [[Shawn Springs]], [[Mike Vrabel]], [[Donald Washington]], [[Chris Wells (American football)|Chris Wells]], [[Donte Whitner]], [[Matt Wilhelm]], [[Antoine Winfield]], and [[Ashton Youboty]].

Former notable NFL players who played at Ohio State include: [[Lou Groza]], [[Dante Lavelli]], [[Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]], [[Bill Willis]], [[Cris Carter]], [[Paul Warfield]], [[Jim Marshall (American football)|Jim Marshall]], [[Jim Houston]], [[Jack Tatum]], [[Randy Gradishar]], [[Dick Schafrath]], [[Jim Lachey]], [[Tom Tupa]], [[Chris Spielman]], [[Robert Smith (football player)|Robert Smith]], [[Korey Stringer]], [[Raymont Harris]], and [[Eddie George]]. Groza, Lavelli, Parker, Warfield, and Willis have been inducted into the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]].

In the [[2004 NFL Draft]], 14 Buckeyes were drafted, a record number for any school in a single draft.

===Players selected in NFL Drafts===
With two first-round selections in 2007, the Buckeyes have the second most first-round selections all-time in the history of the [[NFL Draft]], one less than USC (67).<ref name="2007nfl">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://ohiostatebuckeyes.cstv.com/sports/m-footbl/spec-rel/043007aaa.html| title = Eight Buckeyes in NFL Draft| work = | publisher = TOSU Football Official Site| accessdate = 1 May 2007}}</ref> The Buckeyes had another first round selection in 2008, and two more in 2009.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ 2006 NFL Draft selections
|-
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Round'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Pick #'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Team'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Player'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Position'''
|-align="center"
|-
| 1 || align=center|5 || [[Green Bay Packers]] ||[[A. J. Hawk]] || Linebacker
|-
| 1 || align=center|8 || [[Buffalo Bills]] ||[[Donte Whitner]] || Safety
|-
| 1 || align=center|18 || [[Dallas Cowboys]] ||[[Bobby Carpenter (American football)|Bobby Carpenter]] || Linebacker
|-
| 1 || align=center|25 || [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] ||[[Santonio Holmes]] || Wide Receiver
|-
| 1 || align=center|29 || [[New York Jets]] || [[Nick Mangold]] || Center
|-
| 3 || align=center|70 || [[Buffalo Bills]] || [[Ashton Youboty]] || Cornerback
|-
| 3 || align=center|76 || [[New York Jets]] || [[Anthony Schlegel]] || Linebacker
|-
| 4 || align=center|121 || [[Carolina Panthers]] || [[Nate Salley]] || Safety
|-
| 4 || align=center|128 || [[Seattle Seahawks]] || [[Rob Sims]] || Guard
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ 2007 NFL Draft selections
|-
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Round'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Pick #'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Team'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Player'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Position'''
|-align="center"
|-
| 1 || align=center|9 || [[Miami Dolphins]] ||[[Ted Ginn, Jr.]] || Wide Receiver
|-
| 1 || align=center|32 || [[Indianapolis Colts]] ||[[Anthony Gonzalez]] || Wide Receiver
|-
| 3 || align=center|18 || [[Indianapolis Colts]] ||[[Quinn Pitcock]] || Defensive End
|-
| 4 || align=center|107 || [[New Orleans Saints]] ||[[Antonio Pittman]] || Running Back
|-
| 5 || align=center|138 || [[Oakland Raiders]] || [[Jay Richardson]] || Defensive Tackle
|-
| 5 || align=center|169 || [[Indianapolis Colts]] || [[Roy Hall]] || Wide Receiver
|-
| 5 || align=center|174 || [[Baltimore Ravens]] || [[Troy Smith]] || Quarterback
|-
| 6 || align=center|198 || [[Atlanta Falcons]] || [[Doug Datish]] || Center
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ 2008 NFL Draft selections
|-
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Round'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Pick #'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Team'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Player'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Position'''
|-align="center"
|-
| 1 || align=center|6 || [[New York Jets]] ||[[Vernon Gholston]] || Defensive Line
|-
| 7 || align=center|214 || [[San Francisco 49ers]] ||[[Larry Grant (American football)|Larry Grant]] || Linebacker
|-
| 7 || align=center|247 || [[Chicago Bears]] ||[[Kirk Barton]] || Offensive Tackle
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ 2009 NFL Draft selections
|-
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Round'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Pick #'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Team'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Player'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Position'''
|-align="center"
|-
| 1 || align=center|14 || [[New Orleans Saints]] ||[[Malcolm Jenkins]] || Cornerback
|-
| 1 || align=center|31 || [[Arizona Cardinals]] ||[[Chris Wells (American football)|Chris Wells]] || Running back
|-
| 2 || align=center|35 || [[St. Louis Rams]] ||[[James Laurinaitis]] || Linebacker
|-
| 2 || align=center|36 || [[Cleveland Browns]] ||[[Brian Robiskie]] || Wide receiver
|-
| 4 || align=center|102 || [[Kansas City Chiefs]] ||[[Donald Washington]] || Defensive Back
|-
| 4 || align=center|108 || [[Miami Dolphins]] ||[[Brian Hartline]] || Wide receiver
|-
| 5 || align=center|154 || [[Chicago Bears]] ||[[Marcus Freeman (linebacker)|Marcus Freeman]] || Linebacker
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ 2010 NFL Draft selections
|-
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Round'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Pick #'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Team'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Player'''
|bgcolor="#AAAAAA" |'''Position'''
|-align="center"
|-
| 4 || align=center|18 || [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] ||[[Thaddeus Gibson]] || Defensive End
|-
| 7 || align=center|35 || [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] ||[[Doug Worthington]] || Defensive Tackle
|-
| 7 || align=center|37 || [[Philadelphia Eagles]] ||[[Kurt Coleman]] || Strong Safety
|-
| 7 || align=center|45 || [[Miami Dolphins]] ||[[Austin Spitler]] || Linebacker
|-
|}

===Pro Football Hall of Fame===

Beginning with Paul Brown in 1967, Ohio State has had 8 former players or coaches enshrined into the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]].

*1967 [[Paul Brown]]
*1973 [[Jim Parker (American football)|Jim Parker]]
*1974 [[Lou Groza]]
*1975 [[Dante Lavelli]]
*1977 [[Bill Willis]]
*1983 [[Sid Gillman]]
*1983 [[Paul Warfield]]
*2010 [[Dick LeBeau]]

==2010 depth chart==
{| class="toccolours" style="text-align: left;"
|-
| colspan="9" style="background-color: #FF2000; color: lightgray; text-align: center; ;border:2px solid #AAAAAA" | '''2010 Ohio State Buckeyes roster'''
|-
| style="font-size: 95%;" valign="top" |

'''Quarterbacks'''
*2 Terrelle Pryor – ''Junior''
*13 Ken Guiton – ''Freshman''
*14 Joe Bauserman – ''Junior''
*17 Justin Siems – ''Freshman''

'''Running Backs'''
*1 Dan Herron – ''Junior''
*3 Brandon Saine – ''Senior''
*4 Jaamal Berry – ''Freshman''
*7 Jordon Hall – ''Sophomore''
*34 Carlos Hyde – ''Freshman''
*35 Bo DeLande – ''Junior''
*37 James Georgiades – ''Sophomore''
*44 Zach Boren – ''Sophomore''
*49 Adam Homan – ''Sophomore''

'''Wide Receivers'''
*10 Corey Brown – ''Freshman''
*5 Taurian Washington – ''Senior''
*8 DeVier Posey – ''Junior''
*12 Dane Sanzenbacher – ''Senior''
*15 James Jackson – ''Sophomore''
*17 Grant Schwartz – ''Senior''
*18 T.Y. Williams - ''Freshman''
*80 Chris Fields – ''Freshman''
*81 Ricky Crawford – ''Senior''
*83 Joe Cech – ''Sophomore''
*85 Tony Harlamert – ''Freshman''
*87 Chris Roark – ''Sophomore''
*89 Garrett Hummel – ''Senior''

'''Tight Ends'''
*11 Jake Stoneburner – ''Sophomore''
*81 Nic DiLillo – ''Sophomore''
*88 Reid Fragel – ''Sophomore''
|width="25"| 
|valign="top" style="font-size: 95%;"|

'''Offensive Line'''
*50 Michael Brewster – ''Junior''
*55 Andy Miller – ''Senior''
*57 Chris Malone – ''Senior''
*59 Sam Longo – ''Freshman''
*65 Justin Boren – ''Senior''
*68 Evan Blankenship – ''Junior''
*70 Bryan Browning – ''Senior''
*71 Corey Linsley – ''Freshman''
*72 Scott Sika – ''Senior''
*74 Jack Mewhort – ''Freshman''
*75 Mike Adams – ''Junior''
*76 J.B. Shugarts – ''Junior''
*77 Connor Smith – ''Senior''
*79 Marcus Hall – ''Sophomore''

'''Defensive Line'''
*43 Nathan Williams – ''Junior''
*53 Garrett Goebel – ''Sophomore''
*54 John Simon – ''Sophomore''
*55 Jonathan Newsome – ''Sophomore''
*56 Dalton Britt – ''Sophomore''
*62 Jon Lorenz – ''Sophomore''
*67 Cavin Green – ''Freshman''
*72 Dexter Larimore – ''Senior''
*91 Melvin Fellows – ''Freshman''
*91 Stewart Smith – ''Sophomore''
*92 Todd Denlinger – ''Senior''
*92 William McCary – ''Sophomore''
*93 Adam Bellamy – ''Freshman''
*95 Don Matheney – ''Senior''
*97 Cameron Heyward – ''Senior''
*98 Solomon Thomas – ''Junior''
|width="25"| 
|valign="top" style="font-size: 95%;"|

'''Linebackers'''
*6 Etienne Sabino – ''Junior''
*11 Dorian Bell – ''Freshman''
*26 Tyler Moeller – ''Senior''
*32 Storm Klein – ''Sophomore''
*35 James Hastings – ''Freshman''
*36 Brian Rolle – ''Senior''
*39 Jordan Whiting – ''Freshman''
*41 Tony Jackson – ''Junior''
*42 Andrew Sweat – ''Junior''
*48 Dan Bain – ''Junior''
*51 Ross Homan – ''Senior''
*73 Josh Kerr – ''Senior''

'''Defensive Backs'''
*1 Devon Torrence – ''Senior''
*3 Corey Brown – ''Freshman''
*5 Chimdi Chekwa – ''Senior''
*7 Jermale Hines – ''Senior''
*14 C.J. Barnett – ''Sophomore''
26 Tyler Moeller – ''Senior''
*16 Zach Domicone – ''Sophomore''
*18 Travis Howard – ''Sophomore''
*19 Orhian Johnson – ''Sophomore''
*23 Jamie Wood – ''Freshman''
*25 Vincent Petrella – ''Sophomore''
*28 Dominic Clarke – ''Sophomore''
*29 Chris Maxwell – ''Sophomore''
*29 Taylor Rice – ''Sophomore''
*30 Donnie Evege – ''Junior''
*34 Nate Ebner – ''Sophomore''

'''Safeties'''
*8 Aaron Grant – ''Senior''
*15 Nate Oliver – ''Junior''
|width="25"| 
|valign="top" style="font-size: 95%;"|

'''Punters'''
*17 Ben Buchanan – ''Sophomore''
*39 Derek Erwin – ''Sophomore''

'''Kickers'''
*12 Devin Barclay – ''Senior''
*24 Drew Basil - ''Freshman''

'''Long Snappers'''
*56 George Makridis – ''Freshman''
*60 Garrett Dornbrook – ''Sophomore''
*96 Jake McQuaide – ''Senior''
|}
[http://www.nmnathletics.com/fls/17300/pdf/fb/09-depthchart.pdf?SPSID=87743&SPID=10408&DB_OEM_ID=17300 OSU Depth Chart]

==Radio and TV==

The Ohio State football radio network comprises about 70 stations statewide (with a couple of stations in nearby border states). The flagship stations are [[WBNS (AM)|WBNS AM 1460]] and [[WBNS (FM)|WBNS FM 97.1]] in Columbus. In Ohio's major cities, the games are heard on [[WKNR|WKNR AM 850]] ([[Cleveland]]), [[WOXY (FM)|WOXY FM 97.7]] ([[Cincinnati]]), and [[WLQR (AM)|WLQR AM 1470]]/[[WLQR-FM|WLQR FM 106.5]] ([[Toledo, OH|Toledo]]).

The announcers are [[Paul Keels]] on play by play, former Buckeye LT [[Jim Lachey]] as color analyst, sideline reporter Marty Bannister, and Skip Mossic as producer/halftime host.

[[WBNS-TV]] channel 10 in Columbus ([[CBS]]) is the TV home of the Buckeyes, as it airs the official coach's show ''Game Time with Jim Tressel'' (which is simulcast statewide on [[FS Ohio]]).

[[ONN]] is the official cable home of the team, airing programs such as ''Buckeye Blitz'' and Jim Tressel's live postgame press conferences.

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book
| author=Jack Park
| chapter=
| title=The Official Ohio State Football Encyclopedia
| editor=
| publisher=Sports Publishing LLC
| isbn= 1-58261-006-1
| year=2002| pages=}}
*{{cite book
| author=Jim Tressel
| chapter=
| title=What It Means To Be A Buckeye
| editor=Jeff Snook
| publisher=Triumph Books
| isbn= 1-57243-602-6
| year=2003| pages=}}
*{{cite book
| author=Greenberg, S.; Ratermann, D.
| chapter=
| title=I Remember Woody
| editor=
| publisher=Triumph Books
| isbn= 1-57243-674-3
| year=2004| pages=}}
*{{cite book
| author=Robert Vare
| chapter=
| title=Buckeye: A Study of Coach Woody Hayes and the Ohio State Football Machine
| editor=
| publisher=Harper's Magazine Press
| isbn= 0-06-129150-1
| year=1974| pages=}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ohiostatebuckeyes.com/SportSelect.dbml?DB_OEM_ID=17300&KEY=&SPID=10408&SPSID=87743 Ohio State Football - Official site]
* [http://www.lostlettermen.com/team/?sport=football&conference=Big+10&school=Ohio+State Ohio State All-Time Letterwinners Database]

{{Ohio State University}}
{{BuckeyesFootballTeams}}
{{Navbox
|navbar = plain
|title = National Championship Navigation Boxes
|liststyle = font-size:100%;
|list1 =
{{1942 Buckeyes}}
{{1954 Ohio State football}}
{{1957 Ohio State football}}
{{1961 Ohio State football}}
{{1968 Ohio State football}}
{{1970 Ohio State football}}
{{2002 Ohio State football}}
}}
{{Ohio Sports}}
{{Big Ten football}}
{{CurrentB10FBCoaches}}
{{Big Ten Football Venues}}
{{Big Ten Marching Bands}}

{{coord|40.001389|-83.019722|type:landmark_region:US-OH|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ohio State Buckeyes Football}}
[[Category:Ohio State Buckeyes football|*]]
[[Category:Sports clubs established in 1890]]

The X Factor (Vereinigte Staaten)

2011-03-28T18:40:27Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted to revision 421187583 by Seank100. (TW)

{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2011}}
{{pp-semi-protected|reason=Too much speculation/unsourced additions|expiry=April 10, 2011|small=yes}}
{{Infobox television
| show_name = The X Factor
| image = [[File:XFactorUSlogo.png|150px]]
| caption = ''X Factor'' logo
| show_name_2 =
| genre = Reality
| format = Reality TV series
| creator = [[Simon Cowell]]
| developer =
| writer =
| director =
| creative_director =
| judges = Simon Cowell [[L.A. Reid]] Two others to be announced
| voices =
| narrated =
| theme_music_composer =
| opentheme =
| endtheme =
| composer =
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes =
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer = Simon Cowell Cecile Frot-Coutaz<ref name="pepsi1" /> Richard Holloway<ref name="pepsi1" /> Andrew Llinares<ref name="pepsi1" />
| producer =
| editor =
| location = United States
| cinematography =
| camera =
| runtime =
| company = [[Syco TV]] [[FremantleMedia North America]]
| distributor =
| channel = [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]
| picture_format = [[16:9]]
| audio_format =
| first_run =
| first_aired = {{start date|2011|9|}}
| last_aired =
| status = In production
| related = [[The X Factor (UK)|''The X Factor'' (UK)]]
| website = http://www.fox.com/xfactor/
| production_website =
}}

'''''The X Factor''''' is a [[reality television]] singing competition created by [[Simon Cowell]] and produced by [[Syco|Syco TV]],<ref name="syco2010">{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/showbiz/news/a197592/sony-confirms-cowell-green-venture.html|title=Sony confirms Cowell, Green venture|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|first=Alex|last=Wilkes|date=January 19, 2010|accessdate=January 21, 2010}}</ref> which is scheduled to premiere in September 2011<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/showbiz/news/a197970/ntas-cowell-vid.html|title=EXCLUSIVE: Cowell confirms start date for US 'X Factor'|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|first=Neil|last=Wilkes|coauthor=French, Dan|date=January 20, 2010|accessdate=January 20, 2010}}</ref> on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]. As part of the [[The X Factor (TV series)|''The X Factor'' franchise]], the program's format differs from its rivals, such as ''[[American Idol]]'', in numerous ways. The competition is open to both solo artists and groups, has no upper age limit, and the judges act as mentors to the final contestants. Each judge is assigned a category—girls under 25, boys under 25, individuals over 25, and groups—that they place the finalists in after the audition process.<ref name="pepsi1" /> Through the live shows, the judges act as mentors to the contestants helping decide song choices and styling, while judging contestants from other categories.

==History==
In April 2009, reports surfaced that Cowell was attempting to launch ''The X Factor'' in [[United States|America]] after his contract ends with ''[[American Idol]]'' with the [[American Idol (season 9)|ninth season]].<ref name="American1">{{cite web |author= Hurrel, Will |title= Cowell Hints at US X Factor |url= http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/multi-platform/news/cowell-hints-at-us-x-factor/2020988.article |publisher= |date=April 22, 2009 |accessdate=October 8, 2009}}</ref> Under the current contract, Cowell is forbidden from launching ''The X Factor'' as a rival show to ''Idol''.<ref name="American1" /> In September of that year [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]], the broadcaster of ''American Idol'', signed the deal to launch the American version.

On January 11, 2010, [[News Corporation]] (through [[Fox News]] in the US and ''[[The Times]]'' in the UK) reported that Cowell will leave ''American Idol'' after [[American Idol (season 9)|season 9]] so he can bring ''The X Factor'' to the United States in September 2011.
Cowell told the ''[[Television Critics Association]]'' that he was leaving ''American Idol'' so that in 2011 he can judge and act as executive producer of the US version of ''X Factor''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://tv.uk.msn.com/photos/photos.aspx?cp-documentid=151320909|title=Cowell quits American Idol|publisher=[[Microsoft]]|work=[[MSN]]|last=Cooper|first=Lorna|date=January 11, 2010}} Retrieved January 11, 2010.</ref>
Additionally, Cowell signed a long-term business deal with [[Sony Music Entertainment]] who already support [[Syco#Syco Music|Syco Music]] artists in the UK and will now be involved with the artists on the U.S. version of the show as well as becoming involved in the production of the show.<ref name="syco2010"/>

==Format and prize==
The show is primarily concerned with identifying singing talent, though appearance, personality, stage presence and dance routines are also an important element of many performances. Each judge is assigned a category—girls under 25, boys under 25, individuals over 25, and groups—that they place the finalists in after the audition process.<ref name="pepsi1" /> Through the live shows, the judges act as mentors to the contestants helping decide song choices and styling. The judges also judge the other contestants from the other categories.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} The winner of the competition is awarded a recording contract, stated to be worth $5 million, with [[Syco#Syco Music|Syco Music]] in association with [[Sony Music Entertainment]].<ref name="Feb711a" /><ref name="Feb711b" /> Cowell said that the recording contract was the "largest guaranteed prize in television history." In comparison to the UK version of the show, the cost of recording and marketing the winning artist will be paid for separately from the $5 million initial contract payment, paid in five annual installments of $1 million.<ref name="Feb711a" />

===Auditions===
The show is open to solo artists and vocal groups aged 12 and above, with no upper age limit.<ref name="Feb711a">{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory?id=12858831|title='The X Factor' Winner to Get $5 Million Contract|date=February 7, 2011|work=[[The Associated Press]]|publisher=[[ABC News]]|accessdate=February 7, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Feb711b">{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/07/us-thexfactor-idUSTRE7163SX20110207|title=U.S. X Factor to offer large record deal for winner|last=Kearney|first=Christine|coauthors=Patricia Reaney|date=February 7, 2011|work=[[Reuters]]|accessdate=February 7, 2011}}</ref> Auditions for the first season of the show will begin in a variety of cities across the United States, with Los Angeles, Miami, Newark/New York, Seattle, Chicago, and Dallas.<ref>http://thexfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/02/24/the-x-factor-unveils-dates-and-venues-for-the-5-million-auditions</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Audition city<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thexfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/03/07/open-x-factor-auditions-la-miami-newark-seattle-chicago-dallas/|title=Open X FACTOR Auditions: LA, Miami, Newark, Seattle, Chicago & Dallas|date=March 7, 2011|publisher=[[Fox Broadcasting Company]]|accessdate=March 9, 2011}}</ref>
! scope="col" | Date
! scope="col" | Audition venue
|-
! scope="row"| [[Los Angeles]], [[California]]
| March 27, 2011
| [[LA Sports Arena]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Miami, Florida]]
| April 7, 2011
| [[Bank United Center]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Newark, New Jersey]]
| April 14, 2011
| [[Prudential Center]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Seattle, Washington]]
| April 20, 2011
| [[Key Arena]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Chicago, Illinois]]
| April 27, 2011
| [[Sears Centre]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Dallas, Texas]]
| May 26, 2011
| [[Dallas Convention Center]]
|}
It was reported that ''The X Factor'' had broken the auditions record in [[Los Angeles]], on March 27. <ref>http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/ustv/s141/the-x-factor-us/news/a311337/x-factor-usa-breaks-audition-records-in-la.html</ref>

==Judges and presenters==
===Judges===
At the time of announcing the U.S. version, Cowell was the only confirmed judge for the show.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/americanidol/news/a195683/simon-cowell-quits-american-idol.html|title=Simon Cowell quits American Idol|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|last=Wilkes|first=Neil|date=January 11, 2010|accessdate=January 12, 2010}}</ref> Although soon after, speculation had already began as to who might be joining him on the panel. His former ''[[American Idol]]'' colleague Paula Abdul, was quickly linked to the role, as was the British ''X Factor'' judge [[Cheryl Cole]].
When asked about the possibility of working with Abdul,he said, "I've been talking to Paula for a long time, it was always my intention in one way or another to carry on working with her." In January 2010, Cowell spoke to ''[[The New York Post]]'' about his new show. In the interview he did not confirm any of the new judges but said that Cole would be a good addition to the show, "I think she would be great over here - Cheryl's a star." However, he did confirm that he was taking the choices of who to join him on the show very seriously. "It's pointless hiring judges who don't know anything about the music business. I'll probably go and find someone who did what I did for a living. I was an A&R guy for 20 years."<ref name=nypostjan15>{{cite news|url=http://www.nypost.com/p/pagesix/what_cowell_gave_up_for_2MAHTVyZXbE9q2KUmbj2UP|title=What Simon Cowell gave up for 'X Factor'|publisher=NYP Holdings, Inc.|work=[[New York Post]]|date=January 15, 2010|accessdate=January 15, 2010}}</ref>
At the end of January 2010, ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' reported that Cowell wanted American singer-songwriter [[Lady Gaga]] to have a non-judging role on the show.<ref>{{cite web|author=Thursday, January 28, 2010, 08:43 GMT |url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/xfactor/news/a199850/cowell-wants-gaga-for-us-x-factor.html |title=TV - News - Cowell 'wants GaGa' for US 'X Factor' |publisher=Digital Spy |date=January 28, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref>
Cowell's close friend [[Sinitta]], confirmed lots of people had expressed interest in the show including [[Mariah Carey]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metro.co.uk/showbiz/825820-x-factor-judges-rumours-whos-replacing-who |title=X Factor judges rumours: Who's replacing who? |publisher=Metro.co.uk |date=May 12, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref> and even herself if the opportunity arises.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=naYmIWPRpmY]</ref>

From September 2010 the media reported that producers and Cowell were impressed by [[Katy Perry]] and [[Nicole Scherzinger]], after both had appeared as guest judges during the audition stages of the competition of the [[The X Factor (UK series 7)|seventh series]] of ''The X Factor (UK)''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metro.co.uk/showbiz/841221-cheryl-cole-set-for-us-x-factor-in-2011 |title=Cheryl Cole set for US X Factor with Simon Cowell in 2011 |publisher=Metro.co.uk |date=September 14, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref> Scherzinger became a strong candidate after she was invited back to ''The X Factor (UK)'' when she was also asked to fill in at bootcamp.<ref>{{cite news|author=Posted: 2:00 am, September 17, 2010 |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/pagesix/pussycat_joining_factor_kzI5NXKyPAjkVQFxrT1FcO |title=Nicole Scherzinger and Cheryl Cole to join Simon Cowell's "X-Factor" judging panel |publisher=NYPOST.com |date= September 17, 2010|accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref>
On January 12, 2011, The Metro reported that Peter Rice, Fox's chairman, confirmed that there will be four judges, two females, two males, one of them being Simon.
Since then, in an interview with [[Ryan Seacrest]], [[Katy Perry]] ruled herself out of the running.<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuIBfhVYYt0 Ryan Seacrest Interviews Katy Perry]. ''[[On Air with Ryan Seacrest]]''. Retrieved January 20, 2011</ref>

In March 2011, Cowell confirmed that Scherzinger, Abdul, Carey and [[George Michael]] were among the people shortlisted for the judging roles, while Perry and [[Elton John]] were confirmed to not be in the running.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/simon-cowell-confirms-paula-abdul-163888|title=Simon Cowell Confirms Paula Abdul Is on ‘X-Factor’ Judges Shortlist|last=Cina|first=Mark|date=March 3, 2011|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|publisher=[[Prometheus Global Media]]|accessdate=March 3, 2011|location=[[Los Angeles]]}}</ref> In an interview with ''XXL,'' Cowell also linked [[Nicki Minaj]] to the judges shortlist.<ref>http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1660668/simon-cowell-nicki-minaj-x-factor.jhtml</ref> On March 18, 2011 the first of the three remaining judges was officially announced by [[Fox]], and confirmed to be the [[Grammy Award]]-winning [[Record industry|record executive]], [[songwriter]], and [[record producer]] [[L.A. Reid|Antonio "L.A." Reid]]. <ref name="lareid1">{{cite web |url=http://http://insidetv.ew.com/2011/03/18/la-reid-x-factor/ |title=Official: L.A. Reid signed as 'X Factor' judge |publisher=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|date=Mar 18, 2011 |accessdate=Mar 18, 2011}}</ref><ref name="lareid2">{{cite news|url=http://www.facebook.com/#!/notes/the-x-factor-usa/breaking-news-grammy-winning-music-mogul-antonio-la-reid-to-join-simon-cowell-as/133583453380296|title=Breaking News: Grammy-winning music mogul Antonio “L.A” Reid to join Simon Cowell as a judge on The X Factor!|date=March 18, 2011|work=The X Factor|publisher=Facebook|accessdate=March 18 2011}}</ref> On March 21, 2011 Cowell confirmed that Carey would not be on the show due to her pregnancy.<ref>{{Collins, Scott. "Simon Cowell crosses Mariah Carey off list of judges for Fox's 'The X Factor'." Show Tracker. Los Angeles Times, 21 Mar 2011. Web. 22 Mar 2011. <http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/showtracker/2011/03/simon-cowell-crosses-mariah-carey-off-list-of-judges-for-foxs-the-x-factor.html>.}}</ref> In an interview with [[MSN]]'s ''Wonderwall'', Cowell said he did not think that Scherzinger would be offered a judging role on the show but that there would "definitely" be a role for her on the show.<ref>http://wonderwall.msn.com/tv/simon-cowell-on-idol-i-would-have-gone-earlier-1611114.story</ref>
According to executive producer Rob Wade, they hopefully should have confirmed the panel by April 2011. ref>http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/ustv/s141/the-x-factor-us/news/a311338/x-factor-usa-producer-talks-judges-hosts.html</ref>

===Presenters===
On March 10, it was revealed that ''[[The X Factor (UK)|British X Factor]]'' host [[Dermot O'Leary]] is not to become the American host.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/ustv/s141/the-x-factor-us/news/a308110/oleary-out-of-us-x-factor-running.html|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|work=[[News of the World]]|last=Rollo|first=Sarah|date=March 10, 2011|accessdate=March 10, 2011}}</ref> When asked if Cowell would prefer a female or male host, Cowell replied "maybe both". He has since indicated that the show may have two presentors.<ref>http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Entertainment/20110325/simon-cowell-could-hire-two-hosts-for-us-x-factor-110325/</ref> Welsh presentor, [[Steve Jones]] said he had had meetings with Cowell and producers about possibly co-presenting the show. In an interview with ''STV,'' Jones mentioned internet reports that [[Nicole Scherzinger]] had been offered the female presentors job instead of a juding position. He said "She's a great lady and she'll do a fantastic job," as well as admitting he would love the job.<ref>http://entertainment.stv.tv/tv/238708-steve-jones-insists-he-is-still-up-for-us-x-factor-job/</ref>

==Media sponsorship==
On January 7, 2011, FOX, Syco Television, and FremantleMedia North American announced that [[Pepsi]] will be the official sponsor of ''The X Factor''.<ref name="pepsi1">{{cite web|url=http://xfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/01/07/pepsi-is-announced-as-the-official-sponsor-of-the-x-factor/|title=PEPSI is Announced as the Official Sponsor of The X Factor!|date=January 7, 2011|work=[[Fox Broadcasting Company]]|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref><ref name="pepsi2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/04/business/media/04adco.html?_r=2|title=Pepsi to Sponsor 'American Idol' Rival|last=Stelter|first=Brian|date=January 4, 2011|work=The New York Times|page=3|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref> The sponsorship includes an extensive multi-platform on and off-air marketing partnership.<ref name="pepsi1" />

===Advertisements===

In November 2010, FOX began airing short commercials for the program which displayed the text "Coming to America Fall 2011".<ref name="pepsi2" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://insidetv.ew.com/2010/11/24/the-x-factor-fox-promo-simon-cowell/|title='The X Factor' exclusive: First look at Fox's promo!|last=Slezak|first=Michael|date=November 24, 2010|work=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' described the commercials as the network trying to set up "The X Factor" as a television event.<ref name="pepsi2" /> [[CTV Television Network|CTV]] will broadcast the show in Canada.<ref>http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Entertainment/20110208/nicole-scherzinger-x-factor-judge-110208/</ref>

== See also ==
* [[American Idol]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.fox.com/xfactor/ ''The X Factor'' Official WebSite] (owned by [[Fox Interactive Media]])
*{{Facebook|TheXFactorUSA|''The X Factor''}}
*{{Twitter|TheXFactorUSA}}
*{{Youtube|u=TheXFactorUSA|title=''The X Factor''}}
*{{Myspace|TheXFactorUSA}}

{{The X Factor series}}
{{Syco}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:X Factor (U.S.)}}
[[Category:American television series based on British television series]]
[[Category:Upcoming television series]]
[[Category:The X Factor|US]]

[[fi:The X Factor (Yhdysvallat)]]

The X Factor (Vereinigte Staaten)

2011-03-28T18:39:49Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by Seank100 (talk) to last version by CanadianLinuxUser

{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2011}}
{{pp-semi-protected|reason=Too much speculation/unsourced additions|expiry=April 10, 2011|small=yes}}
{{Infobox television
| show_name = The X Factor
| image = [[File:XFactorUSlogo.png|150px]]
| caption = ''X Factor'' logo
| show_name_2 =
| genre = Reality
| format = Reality TV series
| creator = [[Simon Cowell]]
| developer =
| writer =
| director =
| creative_director =
| judges = Simon Cowell [[L.A. Reid]] Two others to be announced
| voices =
| narrated =
| theme_music_composer =
| opentheme =
| endtheme =
| composer =
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes =
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer = Simon Cowell Cecile Frot-Coutaz<ref name="pepsi1" /> Richard Holloway<ref name="pepsi1" /> Andrew Llinares<ref name="pepsi1" />
| producer =
| editor =
| location = United States
| cinematography =
| camera =
| runtime =
| company = [[Syco TV]] [[FremantleMedia North America]]
| distributor =
| channel = [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]
| picture_format = [[16:9]]
| audio_format =
| first_run =
| first_aired = {{start date|2011|9|}}
| last_aired =
| status = In production
| related = [[The X Factor (UK)|''The X Factor'' (UK)]]
| website = http://www.fox.com/xfactor/
| production_website =
}}

'''''The X Factor''''' is a [[reality television]] singing competition created by [[Simon Cowell]] and produced by [[Syco|Syco TV]],<ref name="syco2010">{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/showbiz/news/a197592/sony-confirms-cowell-green-venture.html|title=Sony confirms Cowell, Green venture|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|first=Alex|last=Wilkes|date=January 19, 2010|accessdate=January 21, 2010}}</ref> which is scheduled to premiere in September 2011<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/showbiz/news/a197970/ntas-cowell-vid.html|title=EXCLUSIVE: Cowell confirms start date for US 'X Factor'|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|first=Neil|last=Wilkes|coauthor=French, Dan|date=January 20, 2010|accessdate=January 20, 2010}}</ref> on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]. As part of the [[The X Factor (TV series)|''The X Factor'' franchise]], the program's format differs from its rivals, such as ''[[American Idol]]'', in numerous ways. The competition is open to both solo artists and groups, has no upper age limit, and the judges act as mentors to the final contestants. Each judge is assigned a category—girls under 25, boys under 25, individuals over 25, and groups—that they place the finalists in after the audition process.<ref name="pepsi1" /> Through the live shows, the judges act as mentors to the contestants helping decide song choices and styling, while judging contestants from other categories.

==History==
In April 2009, reports surfaced that Cowell was attempting to launch ''The X Factor'' in [[United States|America]] after his contract ends with ''[[American Idol]]'' with the [[American Idol (season 9)|ninth season]].<ref name="American1">{{cite web |author= Hurrel, Will |title= Cowell Hints at US X Factor |url= http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/multi-platform/news/cowell-hints-at-us-x-factor/2020988.article |publisher= |date=April 22, 2009 |accessdate=October 8, 2009}}</ref> Under the current contract, Cowell is forbidden from launching ''The X Factor'' as a rival show to ''Idol''.<ref name="American1" /> In September of that year [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]], the broadcaster of ''American Idol'', signed the deal to launch the American version.

On January 11, 2010, [[News Corporation]] (through [[Fox News]] in the US and ''[[The Times]]'' in the UK) reported that Cowell will leave ''American Idol'' after [[American Idol (season 9)|season 9]] so he can bring ''The X Factor'' to the United States in September 2011.
Cowell told the ''[[Television Critics Association]]'' that he was leaving ''American Idol'' so that in 2011 he can judge and act as executive producer of the US version of ''X Factor''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://tv.uk.msn.com/photos/photos.aspx?cp-documentid=151320909|title=Cowell quits American Idol|publisher=[[Microsoft]]|work=[[MSN]]|last=Cooper|first=Lorna|date=January 11, 2010}} Retrieved January 11, 2010.</ref>
Additionally, Cowell signed a long-term business deal with [[Sony Music Entertainment]] who already support [[Syco#Syco Music|Syco Music]] artists in the UK and will now be involved with the artists on the U.S. version of the show as well as becoming involved in the production of the show.<ref name="syco2010"/>

==Format and prize==
The show is primarily concerned with identifying singing talent, though appearance, personality, stage presence and dance routines are also an important element of many performances. Each judge is assigned a category—girls under 25, boys under 25, individuals over 25, and groups—that they place the finalists in after the audition process.<ref name="pepsi1" /> Through the live shows, the judges act as mentors to the contestants helping decide song choices and styling. The judges also judge the other contestants from the other categories.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} The winner of the competition is awarded a recording contract, stated to be worth $5 million, with [[Syco#Syco Music|Syco Music]] in association with [[Sony Music Entertainment]].<ref name="Feb711a" /><ref name="Feb711b" /> Cowell said that the recording contract was the "largest guaranteed prize in television history." In comparison to the UK version of the show, the cost of recording and marketing the winning artist will be paid for separately from the $5 million initial contract payment, paid in five annual installments of $1 million.<ref name="Feb711a" />

===Auditions===
The show is open to solo artists and vocal groups aged 12 and above, with no upper age limit.<ref name="Feb711a">{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory?id=12858831|title='The X Factor' Winner to Get $5 Million Contract|date=February 7, 2011|work=[[The Associated Press]]|publisher=[[ABC News]]|accessdate=February 7, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Feb711b">{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/07/us-thexfactor-idUSTRE7163SX20110207|title=U.S. X Factor to offer large record deal for winner|last=Kearney|first=Christine|coauthors=Patricia Reaney|date=February 7, 2011|work=[[Reuters]]|accessdate=February 7, 2011}}</ref> Auditions for the first season of the show will begin in a variety of cities across the United States, with Los Angeles, Miami, Newark/New York, Seattle, Chicago, and Dallas.<ref>http://thexfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/02/24/the-x-factor-unveils-dates-and-venues-for-the-5-million-auditions</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Audition city<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thexfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/03/07/open-x-factor-auditions-la-miami-newark-seattle-chicago-dallas/|title=Open X FACTOR Auditions: LA, Miami, Newark, Seattle, Chicago & Dallas|date=March 7, 2011|publisher=[[Fox Broadcasting Company]]|accessdate=March 9, 2011}}</ref>
! scope="col" | Date
! scope="col" | Audition venue
|-
! scope="row"| [[Los Angeles]], [[California]]
| March 27, 2011
| [[LA Sports Arena]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Miami, Florida]]
| April 7, 2011
| [[Bank United Center]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Newark, New Jersey]]
| April 14, 2011
| [[Prudential Center]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Seattle, Washington]]
| April 20, 2011
| [[Key Arena]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Chicago, Illinois]]
| April 27, 2011
| [[Sears Centre]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Dallas, Texas]]
| May 26, 2011
| [[Dallas Convention Center]]
|}
It was reported that ''The X Factor'' had broken the auditions record in [[Los Angeles]], on March 27. <ref>http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/ustv/s141/the-x-factor-us/news/a311337/x-factor-usa-breaks-audition-records-in-la.html</ref>

==Judges and presenters==
===Judges===
At the time of announcing the U.S. version, Cowell was the only confirmed judge for the show.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/americanidol/news/a195683/simon-cowell-quits-american-idol.html|title=Simon Cowell quits American Idol|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|last=Wilkes|first=Neil|date=January 11, 2010|accessdate=January 12, 2010}}</ref> Although soon after, speculation had already began as to who might be joining him on the panel. His former ''[[American Idol]]'' colleague Paula Abdul, was quickly linked to the role, as was the British ''X Factor'' judge [[Cheryl Cole]].
When asked about the possibility of working with Abdul,he said, "I've been talking to Paula for a long time, it was always my intention in one way or another to carry on working with her." In January 2010, Cowell spoke to ''[[The New York Post]]'' about his new show. In the interview he did not confirm any of the new judges but said that Cole would be a good addition to the show, "I think she would be great over here - Cheryl's a star." However, he did confirm that he was taking the choices of who to join him on the show very seriously. "It's pointless hiring judges who don't know anything about the music business. I'll probably go and find someone who did what I did for a living. I was an A&R guy for 20 years."<ref name=nypostjan15>{{cite news|url=http://www.nypost.com/p/pagesix/what_cowell_gave_up_for_2MAHTVyZXbE9q2KUmbj2UP|title=What Simon Cowell gave up for 'X Factor'|publisher=NYP Holdings, Inc.|work=[[New York Post]]|date=January 15, 2010|accessdate=January 15, 2010}}</ref>
At the end of January 2010, ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' reported that Cowell wanted American singer-songwriter [[Lady Gaga]] to have a non-judging role on the show.<ref>{{cite web|author=Thursday, January 28, 2010, 08:43 GMT |url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/xfactor/news/a199850/cowell-wants-gaga-for-us-x-factor.html |title=TV - News - Cowell 'wants GaGa' for US 'X Factor' |publisher=Digital Spy |date=January 28, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref>
Cowell's close friend [[Sinitta]], confirmed lots of people had expressed interest in the show including [[Mariah Carey]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metro.co.uk/showbiz/825820-x-factor-judges-rumours-whos-replacing-who |title=X Factor judges rumours: Who's replacing who? |publisher=Metro.co.uk |date=May 12, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref> and even herself if the opportunity arises.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=naYmIWPRpmY]</ref>

From September 2010 the media reported that producers and Cowell were impressed by [[Katy Perry]] and [[Nicole Scherzinger]], after both had appeared as guest judges during the audition stages of the competition of the [[The X Factor (UK series 7)|seventh series]] of ''The X Factor (UK)''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metro.co.uk/showbiz/841221-cheryl-cole-set-for-us-x-factor-in-2011 |title=Cheryl Cole set for US X Factor with Simon Cowell in 2011 |publisher=Metro.co.uk |date=September 14, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref> Scherzinger became a strong candidate after she was invited back to ''The X Factor (UK)'' when she was also asked to fill in at bootcamp.<ref>{{cite news|author=Posted: 2:00 am, September 17, 2010 |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/pagesix/pussycat_joining_factor_kzI5NXKyPAjkVQFxrT1FcO |title=Nicole Scherzinger and Cheryl Cole to join Simon Cowell's "X-Factor" judging panel |publisher=NYPOST.com |date= September 17, 2010|accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref>
On January 12, 2011, The Metro reported that Peter Rice, Fox's chairman, confirmed that there will be four judges, two females, two males, one of them being Simon.
Since then, in an interview with [[Ryan Seacrest]], [[Katy Perry]] ruled herself out of the running.<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuIBfhVYYt0 Ryan Seacrest Interviews Katy Perry]. ''[[On Air with Ryan Seacrest]]''. Retrieved January 20, 2011</ref>

In March 2011, Cowell confirmed that Scherzinger, Abdul, Carey and [[George Michael]] were among the people shortlisted for the judging roles, while Perry and [[Elton John]] were confirmed to not be in the running.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/simon-cowell-confirms-paula-abdul-163888|title=Simon Cowell Confirms Paula Abdul Is on ‘X-Factor’ Judges Shortlist|last=Cina|first=Mark|date=March 3, 2011|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|publisher=[[Prometheus Global Media]]|accessdate=March 3, 2011|location=[[Los Angeles]]}}</ref> In an interview with ''XXL,'' Cowell also linked [[Nicki Minaj]] to the judges shortlist.<ref>http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1660668/simon-cowell-nicki-minaj-x-factor.jhtml</ref> On March 18, 2011 the first of the three remaining judges was officially announced by [[Fox]], and confirmed to be the [[Grammy Award]]-winning [[Record industry|record executive]], [[songwriter]], and [[record producer]] [[L.A. Reid|Antonio "L.A." Reid]]. <ref name="lareid1">{{cite web |url=http://http://insidetv.ew.com/2011/03/18/la-reid-x-factor/ |title=Official: L.A. Reid signed as 'X Factor' judge |publisher=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|date=Mar 18, 2011 |accessdate=Mar 18, 2011}}</ref><ref name="lareid2">{{cite news|url=http://www.facebook.com/#!/notes/the-x-factor-usa/breaking-news-grammy-winning-music-mogul-antonio-la-reid-to-join-simon-cowell-as/133583453380296|title=Breaking News: Grammy-winning music mogul Antonio “L.A” Reid to join Simon Cowell as a judge on The X Factor!|date=March 18, 2011|work=The X Factor|publisher=Facebook|accessdate=March 18 2011}}</ref> On March 21, 2011 Cowell confirmed that Carey would not be on the show due to her pregnancy.<ref>{{Collins, Scott. "Simon Cowell crosses Mariah Carey off list of judges for Fox's 'The X Factor'." Show Tracker. Los Angeles Times, 21 Mar 2011. Web. 22 Mar 2011. <http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/showtracker/2011/03/simon-cowell-crosses-mariah-carey-off-list-of-judges-for-foxs-the-x-factor.html>.}}</ref> In an interview with [[MSN]]'s ''Wonderwall'', Cowell said he did not think that Scherzinger would be offered a judging role on the show but that there would "definitely" be a role for her on the show.<ref>http://wonderwall.msn.com/tv/simon-cowell-on-idol-i-would-have-gone-earlier-1611114.story</ref>

===Presenters===
On March 10, it was revealed that ''[[The X Factor (UK)|British X Factor]]'' host [[Dermot O'Leary]] is not to become the American host.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/ustv/s141/the-x-factor-us/news/a308110/oleary-out-of-us-x-factor-running.html|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|work=[[News of the World]]|last=Rollo|first=Sarah|date=March 10, 2011|accessdate=March 10, 2011}}</ref> When asked if Cowell would prefer a female or male host, Cowell replied "maybe both". He has since indicated that the show may have two presentors.<ref>http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Entertainment/20110325/simon-cowell-could-hire-two-hosts-for-us-x-factor-110325/</ref> Welsh presentor, [[Steve Jones]] said he had had meetings with Cowell and producers about possibly co-presenting the show. In an interview with ''STV,'' Jones mentioned internet reports that [[Nicole Scherzinger]] had been offered the female presentors job instead of a juding position. He said "She's a great lady and she'll do a fantastic job," as well as admitting he would love the job.<ref>http://entertainment.stv.tv/tv/238708-steve-jones-insists-he-is-still-up-for-us-x-factor-job/</ref>

==Media sponsorship==
On January 7, 2011, FOX, Syco Television, and FremantleMedia North American announced that [[Pepsi]] will be the official sponsor of ''The X Factor''.<ref name="pepsi1">{{cite web|url=http://xfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/01/07/pepsi-is-announced-as-the-official-sponsor-of-the-x-factor/|title=PEPSI is Announced as the Official Sponsor of The X Factor!|date=January 7, 2011|work=[[Fox Broadcasting Company]]|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref><ref name="pepsi2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/04/business/media/04adco.html?_r=2|title=Pepsi to Sponsor 'American Idol' Rival|last=Stelter|first=Brian|date=January 4, 2011|work=The New York Times|page=3|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref> The sponsorship includes an extensive multi-platform on and off-air marketing partnership.<ref name="pepsi1" />

===Advertisements===

In November 2010, FOX began airing short commercials for the program which displayed the text "Coming to America Fall 2011".<ref name="pepsi2" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://insidetv.ew.com/2010/11/24/the-x-factor-fox-promo-simon-cowell/|title='The X Factor' exclusive: First look at Fox's promo!|last=Slezak|first=Michael|date=November 24, 2010|work=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' described the commercials as the network trying to set up "The X Factor" as a television event.<ref name="pepsi2" /> [[CTV Television Network|CTV]] will broadcast the show in Canada.<ref>http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Entertainment/20110208/nicole-scherzinger-x-factor-judge-110208/</ref>

== See also ==
* [[American Idol]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.fox.com/xfactor/ ''The X Factor'' Official WebSite] (owned by [[Fox Interactive Media]])
*{{Facebook|TheXFactorUSA|''The X Factor''}}
*{{Twitter|TheXFactorUSA}}
*{{Youtube|u=TheXFactorUSA|title=''The X Factor''}}
*{{Myspace|TheXFactorUSA}}

{{The X Factor series}}
{{Syco}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:X Factor (U.S.)}}
[[Category:American television series based on British television series]]
[[Category:Upcoming television series]]
[[Category:The X Factor|US]]

[[fi:The X Factor (Yhdysvallat)]]

The X Factor (Vereinigte Staaten)

2011-03-28T18:37:00Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by Seank100 (talk) to last version by CanadianLinuxUser

{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2011}}
{{pp-semi-protected|reason=Too much speculation/unsourced additions|expiry=April 10, 2011|small=yes}}
{{Infobox television
| show_name = The X Factor
| image = [[File:XFactorUSlogo.png|150px]]
| caption = ''X Factor'' logo
| show_name_2 =
| genre = Reality
| format = Reality TV series
| creator = [[Simon Cowell]]
| developer =
| writer =
| director =
| creative_director =
| judges = Simon Cowell [[L.A. Reid]] Two others to be announced
| voices =
| narrated =
| theme_music_composer =
| opentheme =
| endtheme =
| composer =
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes =
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer = Simon Cowell Cecile Frot-Coutaz<ref name="pepsi1" /> Richard Holloway<ref name="pepsi1" /> Andrew Llinares<ref name="pepsi1" />
| producer =
| editor =
| location = United States
| cinematography =
| camera =
| runtime =
| company = [[Syco TV]] [[FremantleMedia North America]]
| distributor =
| channel = [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]
| picture_format = [[16:9]]
| audio_format =
| first_run =
| first_aired = {{start date|2011|9|}}
| last_aired =
| status = In production
| related = [[The X Factor (UK)|''The X Factor'' (UK)]]
| website = http://www.fox.com/xfactor/
| production_website =
}}

'''''The X Factor''''' is a [[reality television]] singing competition created by [[Simon Cowell]] and produced by [[Syco|Syco TV]],<ref name="syco2010">{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/showbiz/news/a197592/sony-confirms-cowell-green-venture.html|title=Sony confirms Cowell, Green venture|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|first=Alex|last=Wilkes|date=January 19, 2010|accessdate=January 21, 2010}}</ref> which is scheduled to premiere in September 2011<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/showbiz/news/a197970/ntas-cowell-vid.html|title=EXCLUSIVE: Cowell confirms start date for US 'X Factor'|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|first=Neil|last=Wilkes|coauthor=French, Dan|date=January 20, 2010|accessdate=January 20, 2010}}</ref> on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]. As part of the [[The X Factor (TV series)|''The X Factor'' franchise]], the program's format differs from its rivals, such as ''[[American Idol]]'', in numerous ways. The competition is open to both solo artists and groups, has no upper age limit, and the judges act as mentors to the final contestants. Each judge is assigned a category—girls under 25, boys under 25, individuals over 25, and groups—that they place the finalists in after the audition process.<ref name="pepsi1" /> Through the live shows, the judges act as mentors to the contestants helping decide song choices and styling, while judging contestants from other categories.

==History==
In April 2009, reports surfaced that Cowell was attempting to launch ''The X Factor'' in [[United States|America]] after his contract ends with ''[[American Idol]]'' with the [[American Idol (season 9)|ninth season]].<ref name="American1">{{cite web |author= Hurrel, Will |title= Cowell Hints at US X Factor |url= http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/multi-platform/news/cowell-hints-at-us-x-factor/2020988.article |publisher= |date=April 22, 2009 |accessdate=October 8, 2009}}</ref> Under the current contract, Cowell is forbidden from launching ''The X Factor'' as a rival show to ''Idol''.<ref name="American1" /> In September of that year [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]], the broadcaster of ''American Idol'', signed the deal to launch the American version.

On January 11, 2010, [[News Corporation]] (through [[Fox News]] in the US and ''[[The Times]]'' in the UK) reported that Cowell will leave ''American Idol'' after [[American Idol (season 9)|season 9]] so he can bring ''The X Factor'' to the United States in September 2011.
Cowell told the ''[[Television Critics Association]]'' that he was leaving ''American Idol'' so that in 2011 he can judge and act as executive producer of the US version of ''X Factor''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://tv.uk.msn.com/photos/photos.aspx?cp-documentid=151320909|title=Cowell quits American Idol|publisher=[[Microsoft]]|work=[[MSN]]|last=Cooper|first=Lorna|date=January 11, 2010}} Retrieved January 11, 2010.</ref>
Additionally, Cowell signed a long-term business deal with [[Sony Music Entertainment]] who already support [[Syco#Syco Music|Syco Music]] artists in the UK and will now be involved with the artists on the U.S. version of the show as well as becoming involved in the production of the show.<ref name="syco2010"/>

==Format and prize==
The show is primarily concerned with identifying singing talent, though appearance, personality, stage presence and dance routines are also an important element of many performances. Each judge is assigned a category—girls under 25, boys under 25, individuals over 25, and groups—that they place the finalists in after the audition process.<ref name="pepsi1" /> Through the live shows, the judges act as mentors to the contestants helping decide song choices and styling. The judges also judge the other contestants from the other categories.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} The winner of the competition is awarded a recording contract, stated to be worth $5 million, with [[Syco#Syco Music|Syco Music]] in association with [[Sony Music Entertainment]].<ref name="Feb711a" /><ref name="Feb711b" /> Cowell said that the recording contract was the "largest guaranteed prize in television history." In comparison to the UK version of the show, the cost of recording and marketing the winning artist will be paid for separately from the $5 million initial contract payment, paid in five annual installments of $1 million.<ref name="Feb711a" />

===Auditions===
The show is open to solo artists and vocal groups aged 12 and above, with no upper age limit.<ref name="Feb711a">{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory?id=12858831|title='The X Factor' Winner to Get $5 Million Contract|date=February 7, 2011|work=[[The Associated Press]]|publisher=[[ABC News]]|accessdate=February 7, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Feb711b">{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/07/us-thexfactor-idUSTRE7163SX20110207|title=U.S. X Factor to offer large record deal for winner|last=Kearney|first=Christine|coauthors=Patricia Reaney|date=February 7, 2011|work=[[Reuters]]|accessdate=February 7, 2011}}</ref> Auditions for the first season of the show will begin in a variety of cities across the United States, with Los Angeles, Miami, Newark/New York, Seattle, Chicago, and Dallas.<ref>http://thexfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/02/24/the-x-factor-unveils-dates-and-venues-for-the-5-million-auditions</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Audition city<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thexfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/03/07/open-x-factor-auditions-la-miami-newark-seattle-chicago-dallas/|title=Open X FACTOR Auditions: LA, Miami, Newark, Seattle, Chicago & Dallas|date=March 7, 2011|publisher=[[Fox Broadcasting Company]]|accessdate=March 9, 2011}}</ref>
! scope="col" | Date
! scope="col" | Audition venue
|-
! scope="row"| [[Los Angeles]], [[California]]
| March 27, 2011
| [[LA Sports Arena]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Miami, Florida]]
| April 7, 2011
| [[Bank United Center]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Newark, New Jersey]]
| April 14, 2011
| [[Prudential Center]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Seattle, Washington]]
| April 20, 2011
| [[Key Arena]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Chicago, Illinois]]
| April 27, 2011
| [[Sears Centre]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Dallas, Texas]]
| May 26, 2011
| [[Dallas Convention Center]]
|}
It was reported that ''The X Factor'' had broken the auditions record in [[Los Angeles]], on March 27. <ref>http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/ustv/s141/the-x-factor-us/news/a311337/x-factor-usa-breaks-audition-records-in-la.html</ref>

==Judges and presenters==
===Judges===
At the time of announcing the U.S. version, Cowell was the only confirmed judge for the show.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/americanidol/news/a195683/simon-cowell-quits-american-idol.html|title=Simon Cowell quits American Idol|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|last=Wilkes|first=Neil|date=January 11, 2010|accessdate=January 12, 2010}}</ref> Although soon after, speculation had already began as to who might be joining him on the panel. His former ''[[American Idol]]'' colleague Paula Abdul, was quickly linked to the role, as was the British ''X Factor'' judge [[Cheryl Cole]].
When asked about the possibility of working with Abdul,he said, "I've been talking to Paula for a long time, it was always my intention in one way or another to carry on working with her." In January 2010, Cowell spoke to ''[[The New York Post]]'' about his new show. In the interview he did not confirm any of the new judges but said that Cole would be a good addition to the show, "I think she would be great over here - Cheryl's a star." However, he did confirm that he was taking the choices of who to join him on the show very seriously. "It's pointless hiring judges who don't know anything about the music business. I'll probably go and find someone who did what I did for a living. I was an A&R guy for 20 years."<ref name=nypostjan15>{{cite news|url=http://www.nypost.com/p/pagesix/what_cowell_gave_up_for_2MAHTVyZXbE9q2KUmbj2UP|title=What Simon Cowell gave up for 'X Factor'|publisher=NYP Holdings, Inc.|work=[[New York Post]]|date=January 15, 2010|accessdate=January 15, 2010}}</ref>
At the end of January 2010, ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' reported that Cowell wanted American singer-songwriter [[Lady Gaga]] to have a non-judging role on the show.<ref>{{cite web|author=Thursday, January 28, 2010, 08:43 GMT |url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/xfactor/news/a199850/cowell-wants-gaga-for-us-x-factor.html |title=TV - News - Cowell 'wants GaGa' for US 'X Factor' |publisher=Digital Spy |date=January 28, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref>
Cowell's close friend [[Sinitta]], confirmed lots of people had expressed interest in the show including [[Mariah Carey]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metro.co.uk/showbiz/825820-x-factor-judges-rumours-whos-replacing-who |title=X Factor judges rumours: Who's replacing who? |publisher=Metro.co.uk |date=May 12, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref> and even herself if the opportunity arises.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=naYmIWPRpmY]</ref>

From September 2010 the media reported that producers and Cowell were impressed by [[Katy Perry]] and [[Nicole Scherzinger]], after both had appeared as guest judges during the audition stages of the competition of the [[The X Factor (UK series 7)|seventh series]] of ''The X Factor (UK)''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metro.co.uk/showbiz/841221-cheryl-cole-set-for-us-x-factor-in-2011 |title=Cheryl Cole set for US X Factor with Simon Cowell in 2011 |publisher=Metro.co.uk |date=September 14, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref> Scherzinger became a strong candidate after she was invited back to ''The X Factor (UK)'' when she was also asked to fill in at bootcamp.<ref>{{cite news|author=Posted: 2:00 am, September 17, 2010 |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/pagesix/pussycat_joining_factor_kzI5NXKyPAjkVQFxrT1FcO |title=Nicole Scherzinger and Cheryl Cole to join Simon Cowell's "X-Factor" judging panel |publisher=NYPOST.com |date= September 17, 2010|accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref>
On January 12, 2011, The Metro reported that Peter Rice, Fox's chairman, confirmed that there will be four judges, two females, two males, one of them being Simon.
Since then, in an interview with [[Ryan Seacrest]], [[Katy Perry]] ruled herself out of the running.<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuIBfhVYYt0 Ryan Seacrest Interviews Katy Perry]. ''[[On Air with Ryan Seacrest]]''. Retrieved January 20, 2011</ref>

In March 2011, Cowell confirmed that Scherzinger, Abdul, Carey and [[George Michael]] were among the people shortlisted for the judging roles, while Perry and [[Elton John]] were confirmed to not be in the running.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/simon-cowell-confirms-paula-abdul-163888|title=Simon Cowell Confirms Paula Abdul Is on ‘X-Factor’ Judges Shortlist|last=Cina|first=Mark|date=March 3, 2011|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|publisher=[[Prometheus Global Media]]|accessdate=March 3, 2011|location=[[Los Angeles]]}}</ref> In an interview with ''XXL,'' Cowell also linked [[Nicki Minaj]] to the judges shortlist.<ref>http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1660668/simon-cowell-nicki-minaj-x-factor.jhtml</ref> On March 18, 2011 the first of the three remaining judges was officially announced by [[Fox]], and confirmed to be the [[Grammy Award]]-winning [[Record industry|record executive]], [[songwriter]], and [[record producer]] [[L.A. Reid|Antonio "L.A." Reid]]. <ref name="lareid1">{{cite web |url=http://http://insidetv.ew.com/2011/03/18/la-reid-x-factor/ |title=Official: L.A. Reid signed as 'X Factor' judge |publisher=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|date=Mar 18, 2011 |accessdate=Mar 18, 2011}}</ref><ref name="lareid2">{{cite news|url=http://www.facebook.com/#!/notes/the-x-factor-usa/breaking-news-grammy-winning-music-mogul-antonio-la-reid-to-join-simon-cowell-as/133583453380296|title=Breaking News: Grammy-winning music mogul Antonio “L.A” Reid to join Simon Cowell as a judge on The X Factor!|date=March 18, 2011|work=The X Factor|publisher=Facebook|accessdate=March 18 2011}}</ref> On March 21, 2011 Cowell confirmed that Carey would not be on the show due to her pregnancy.<ref>{{Collins, Scott. "Simon Cowell crosses Mariah Carey off list of judges for Fox's 'The X Factor'." Show Tracker. Los Angeles Times, 21 Mar 2011. Web. 22 Mar 2011. <http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/showtracker/2011/03/simon-cowell-crosses-mariah-carey-off-list-of-judges-for-foxs-the-x-factor.html>.}}</ref> In an interview with [[MSN]]'s ''Wonderwall'', Cowell said he did not think that Scherzinger would be offered a judging role on the show but that there would "definitely" be a role for her on the show.<ref>http://wonderwall.msn.com/tv/simon-cowell-on-idol-i-would-have-gone-earlier-1611114.story</ref>

===Presenters===
On March 10, it was revealed that ''[[The X Factor (UK)|British X Factor]]'' host [[Dermot O'Leary]] is not to become the American host.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/ustv/s141/the-x-factor-us/news/a308110/oleary-out-of-us-x-factor-running.html|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|work=[[News of the World]]|last=Rollo|first=Sarah|date=March 10, 2011|accessdate=March 10, 2011}}</ref> When asked if Cowell would prefer a female or male host, Cowell replied "maybe both". He has since indicated that the show may have two presentors.<ref>http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Entertainment/20110325/simon-cowell-could-hire-two-hosts-for-us-x-factor-110325/</ref> Welsh presentor, [[Steve Jones]] said he had had meetings with Cowell and producers about possibly co-presenting the show. In an interview with ''STV,'' Jones mentioned internet reports that [[Nicole Scherzinger]] had been offered the female presentors job instead of a juding position. He said "She's a great lady and she'll do a fantastic job," as well as admitting he would love the job.<ref>http://entertainment.stv.tv/tv/238708-steve-jones-insists-he-is-still-up-for-us-x-factor-job/</ref>

==Media sponsorship==
On January 7, 2011, FOX, Syco Television, and FremantleMedia North American announced that [[Pepsi]] will be the official sponsor of ''The X Factor''.<ref name="pepsi1">{{cite web|url=http://xfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/01/07/pepsi-is-announced-as-the-official-sponsor-of-the-x-factor/|title=PEPSI is Announced as the Official Sponsor of The X Factor!|date=January 7, 2011|work=[[Fox Broadcasting Company]]|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref><ref name="pepsi2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/04/business/media/04adco.html?_r=2|title=Pepsi to Sponsor 'American Idol' Rival|last=Stelter|first=Brian|date=January 4, 2011|work=The New York Times|page=3|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref> The sponsorship includes an extensive multi-platform on and off-air marketing partnership.<ref name="pepsi1" />

===Advertisements===

In November 2010, FOX began airing short commercials for the program which displayed the text "Coming to America Fall 2011".<ref name="pepsi2" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://insidetv.ew.com/2010/11/24/the-x-factor-fox-promo-simon-cowell/|title='The X Factor' exclusive: First look at Fox's promo!|last=Slezak|first=Michael|date=November 24, 2010|work=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' described the commercials as the network trying to set up "The X Factor" as a television event.<ref name="pepsi2" /> [[CTV Television Network|CTV]] will broadcast the show in Canada.<ref>http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Entertainment/20110208/nicole-scherzinger-x-factor-judge-110208/</ref>

== See also ==
* [[American Idol]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.fox.com/xfactor/ ''The X Factor'' Official WebSite] (owned by [[Fox Interactive Media]])
*{{Facebook|TheXFactorUSA|''The X Factor''}}
*{{Twitter|TheXFactorUSA}}
*{{Youtube|u=TheXFactorUSA|title=''The X Factor''}}
*{{Myspace|TheXFactorUSA}}

{{The X Factor series}}
{{Syco}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:X Factor (U.S.)}}
[[Category:American television series based on British television series]]
[[Category:Upcoming television series]]
[[Category:The X Factor|US]]

[[fi:The X Factor (Yhdysvallat)]]

The X Factor (Vereinigte Staaten)

2011-03-28T18:08:34Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by Seank100 (talk) to last version by Lil-unique1

{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2011}}
{{pp-semi-protected|reason=Too much speculation/unsourced additions|expiry=April 10, 2011|small=yes}}
{{Infobox television
| show_name = The X Factor
| image = [[File:XFactorUSlogo.png|150px]]
| caption = ''X Factor'' logo
| show_name_2 =
| genre = Reality
| format = Reality TV series
| creator = [[Simon Cowell]]
| developer =
| writer =
| director =
| creative_director =
| judges = Simon Cowell [[L.A. Reid]] Two others to be announced
| voices =
| narrated =
| theme_music_composer =
| opentheme =
| endtheme =
| composer =
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes =
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer = Simon Cowell Cecile Frot-Coutaz<ref name="pepsi1" /> Richard Holloway<ref name="pepsi1" /> Andrew Llinares<ref name="pepsi1" />
| producer =
| editor =
| location = United States
| cinematography =
| camera =
| runtime =
| company = [[Syco TV]] [[FremantleMedia North America]]
| distributor =
| channel = [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]
| picture_format = [[16:9]]
| audio_format =
| first_run =
| first_aired = {{start date|2011|9|}}
| last_aired =
| status = In production
| related = [[The X Factor (UK)|''The X Factor'' (UK)]]
| website = http://www.fox.com/xfactor/
| production_website =
}}

'''''The X Factor''''' is a [[reality television]] singing competition created by [[Simon Cowell]] and produced by [[Syco|Syco TV]],<ref name="syco2010">{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/showbiz/news/a197592/sony-confirms-cowell-green-venture.html|title=Sony confirms Cowell, Green venture|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|first=Alex|last=Wilkes|date=January 19, 2010|accessdate=January 21, 2010}}</ref> which is scheduled to premiere in September 2011<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/showbiz/news/a197970/ntas-cowell-vid.html|title=EXCLUSIVE: Cowell confirms start date for US 'X Factor'|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|first=Neil|last=Wilkes|coauthor=French, Dan|date=January 20, 2010|accessdate=January 20, 2010}}</ref> on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]. As part of the [[The X Factor (TV series)|''The X Factor'' franchise]], the program's format differs from its rivals, such as ''[[American Idol]]'', in numerous ways. The competition is open to both solo artists and groups, has no upper age limit, and the judges act as mentors to the final contestants. Each judge is assigned a category—girls under 25, boys under 25, individuals over 25, and groups—that they place the finalists in after the audition process.<ref name="pepsi1" /> Through the live shows, the judges act as mentors to the contestants helping decide song choices and styling, while judging contestants from other categories.

==History==
In April 2009, reports surfaced that Cowell was attempting to launch ''The X Factor'' in [[United States|America]] after his contract ends with ''[[American Idol]]'' with the [[American Idol (season 9)|ninth season]].<ref name="American1">{{cite web |author= Hurrel, Will |title= Cowell Hints at US X Factor |url= http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/multi-platform/news/cowell-hints-at-us-x-factor/2020988.article |publisher= |date=April 22, 2009 |accessdate=October 8, 2009}}</ref> Under the current contract, Cowell is forbidden from launching ''The X Factor'' as a rival show to ''Idol''.<ref name="American1" /> In September of that year [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]], the broadcaster of ''American Idol'', signed the deal to launch the American version.

On January 11, 2010, [[News Corporation]] (through [[Fox News]] in the US and ''[[The Times]]'' in the UK) reported that Cowell will leave ''American Idol'' after [[American Idol (season 9)|season 9]] so he can bring ''The X Factor'' to the United States in September 2011.
Cowell told the ''[[Television Critics Association]]'' that he was leaving ''American Idol'' so that in 2011 he can judge and act as executive producer of the US version of ''X Factor''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://tv.uk.msn.com/photos/photos.aspx?cp-documentid=151320909|title=Cowell quits American Idol|publisher=[[Microsoft]]|work=[[MSN]]|last=Cooper|first=Lorna|date=January 11, 2010}} Retrieved January 11, 2010.</ref>
Additionally, Cowell signed a long-term business deal with [[Sony Music Entertainment]] who already support [[Syco#Syco Music|Syco Music]] artists in the UK and will now be involved with the artists on the U.S. version of the show as well as becoming involved in the production of the show.<ref name="syco2010"/>

==Format and prize==
The show is primarily concerned with identifying singing talent, though appearance, personality, stage presence and dance routines are also an important element of many performances. Each judge is assigned a category—girls under 25, boys under 25, individuals over 25, and groups—that they place the finalists in after the audition process.<ref name="pepsi1" /> Through the live shows, the judges act as mentors to the contestants helping decide song choices and styling. The judges also judge the other contestants from the other categories.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} The winner of the competition is awarded a recording contract, stated to be worth $5 million, with [[Syco#Syco Music|Syco Music]] in association with [[Sony Music Entertainment]].<ref name="Feb711a" /><ref name="Feb711b" /> Cowell said that the recording contract was the "largest guaranteed prize in television history." In comparison to the UK version of the show, the cost of recording and marketing the winning artist will be paid for separately from the $5 million initial contract payment, paid in five annual installments of $1 million.<ref name="Feb711a" />

===Auditions===
The show is open to solo artists and vocal groups aged 12 and above, with no upper age limit.<ref name="Feb711a">{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory?id=12858831|title='The X Factor' Winner to Get $5 Million Contract|date=February 7, 2011|work=[[The Associated Press]]|publisher=[[ABC News]]|accessdate=February 7, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Feb711b">{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/07/us-thexfactor-idUSTRE7163SX20110207|title=U.S. X Factor to offer large record deal for winner|last=Kearney|first=Christine|coauthors=Patricia Reaney|date=February 7, 2011|work=[[Reuters]]|accessdate=February 7, 2011}}</ref> Auditions for the first season of the show will begin in a variety of cities across the United States, with Los Angeles, Miami, Newark/New York, Seattle, Chicago, and Dallas.<ref>http://thexfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/02/24/the-x-factor-unveils-dates-and-venues-for-the-5-million-auditions</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Audition city<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thexfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/03/07/open-x-factor-auditions-la-miami-newark-seattle-chicago-dallas/|title=Open X FACTOR Auditions: LA, Miami, Newark, Seattle, Chicago & Dallas|date=March 7, 2011|publisher=[[Fox Broadcasting Company]]|accessdate=March 9, 2011}}</ref>
! scope="col" | Date
! scope="col" | Audition venue
|-
! scope="row"| [[Los Angeles]], [[California]]
| March 27, 2011
| [[LA Sports Arena]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Miami, Florida]]
| April 7, 2011
| [[Bank United Center]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Newark, New Jersey]]
| April 14, 2011
| [[Prudential Center]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Seattle, Washington]]
| April 20, 2011
| [[Key Arena]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Chicago, Illinois]]
| April 27, 2011
| [[Sears Centre]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Dallas, Texas]]
| May 26, 2011
| [[Dallas Convention Center]]
|}
It was reported that ''The X Factor'' had broken the auditions record in [[Los Angeles]], on March 27. <ref>http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/ustv/s141/the-x-factor-us/news/a311337/x-factor-usa-breaks-audition-records-in-la.html</ref>

==Judges and presenters==
===Judges===
At the time of announcing the U.S. version, Cowell was the only confirmed judge for the show.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/americanidol/news/a195683/simon-cowell-quits-american-idol.html|title=Simon Cowell quits American Idol|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|last=Wilkes|first=Neil|date=January 11, 2010|accessdate=January 12, 2010}}</ref> Although soon after, speculation had already began as to who might be joining him on the panel. His former ''[[American Idol]]'' colleague Paula Abdul, was quickly linked to the role, as was the British ''X Factor'' judge [[Cheryl Cole]].
When asked about the possibility of working with Abdul,he said, "I've been talking to Paula for a long time, it was always my intention in one way or another to carry on working with her." In January 2010, Cowell spoke to ''[[The New York Post]]'' about his new show. In the interview he did not confirm any of the new judges but said that Cole would be a good addition to the show, "I think she would be great over here - Cheryl's a star." However, he did confirm that he was taking the choices of who to join him on the show very seriously. "It's pointless hiring judges who don't know anything about the music business. I'll probably go and find someone who did what I did for a living. I was an A&R guy for 20 years."<ref name=nypostjan15>{{cite news|url=http://www.nypost.com/p/pagesix/what_cowell_gave_up_for_2MAHTVyZXbE9q2KUmbj2UP|title=What Simon Cowell gave up for 'X Factor'|publisher=NYP Holdings, Inc.|work=[[New York Post]]|date=January 15, 2010|accessdate=January 15, 2010}}</ref>
At the end of January 2010, ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' reported that Cowell wanted American singer-songwriter [[Lady Gaga]] to have a non-judging role on the show.<ref>{{cite web|author=Thursday, January 28, 2010, 08:43 GMT |url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/xfactor/news/a199850/cowell-wants-gaga-for-us-x-factor.html |title=TV - News - Cowell 'wants GaGa' for US 'X Factor' |publisher=Digital Spy |date=January 28, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref>
Cowell's close friend [[Sinitta]], confirmed lots of people had expressed interest in the show including [[Mariah Carey]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metro.co.uk/showbiz/825820-x-factor-judges-rumours-whos-replacing-who |title=X Factor judges rumours: Who's replacing who? |publisher=Metro.co.uk |date=May 12, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref> and even herself if the opportunity arises.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=naYmIWPRpmY]</ref>

From September 2010 the media reported that producers and Cowell were impressed by [[Katy Perry]] and [[Nicole Scherzinger]], after both had appeared as guest judges during the audition stages of the competition of the [[The X Factor (UK series 7)|seventh series]] of ''The X Factor (UK)''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metro.co.uk/showbiz/841221-cheryl-cole-set-for-us-x-factor-in-2011 |title=Cheryl Cole set for US X Factor with Simon Cowell in 2011 |publisher=Metro.co.uk |date=September 14, 2010 |accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref> Scherzinger became a strong candidate after she was invited back to ''The X Factor (UK)'' when she was also asked to fill in at bootcamp.<ref>{{cite news|author=Posted: 2:00 am, September 17, 2010 |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/pagesix/pussycat_joining_factor_kzI5NXKyPAjkVQFxrT1FcO |title=Nicole Scherzinger and Cheryl Cole to join Simon Cowell's "X-Factor" judging panel |publisher=NYPOST.com |date= September 17, 2010|accessdate=September 18, 2010}}</ref>
On January 12, 2011, The Metro reported that Peter Rice, Fox's chairman, confirmed that there will be four judges, two females, two males, one of them being Simon.
Since then, in an interview with [[Ryan Seacrest]], [[Katy Perry]] ruled herself out of the running.<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuIBfhVYYt0 Ryan Seacrest Interviews Katy Perry]. ''[[On Air with Ryan Seacrest]]''. Retrieved January 20, 2011</ref>

In March 2011, Cowell confirmed that Scherzinger, Abdul, Carey and [[George Michael]] were among the people shortlisted for the judging roles, while Perry and [[Elton John]] were confirmed to not be in the running.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/simon-cowell-confirms-paula-abdul-163888|title=Simon Cowell Confirms Paula Abdul Is on ‘X-Factor’ Judges Shortlist|last=Cina|first=Mark|date=March 3, 2011|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|publisher=[[Prometheus Global Media]]|accessdate=March 3, 2011|location=[[Los Angeles]]}}</ref> In an interview with ''XXL,'' Cowell also linked [[Nicki Minaj]] to the judges shortlist.<ref>http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1660668/simon-cowell-nicki-minaj-x-factor.jhtml</ref> On March 18, 2011 the first of the three remaining judges was officially announced by [[Fox]], and confirmed to be the [[Grammy Award]]-winning [[Record industry|record executive]], [[songwriter]], and [[record producer]] [[L.A. Reid|Antonio "L.A." Reid]]. <ref name="lareid1">{{cite web |url=http://http://insidetv.ew.com/2011/03/18/la-reid-x-factor/ |title=Official: L.A. Reid signed as 'X Factor' judge |publisher=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|date=Mar 18, 2011 |accessdate=Mar 18, 2011}}</ref><ref name="lareid2">{{cite news|url=http://www.facebook.com/#!/notes/the-x-factor-usa/breaking-news-grammy-winning-music-mogul-antonio-la-reid-to-join-simon-cowell-as/133583453380296|title=Breaking News: Grammy-winning music mogul Antonio “L.A” Reid to join Simon Cowell as a judge on The X Factor!|date=March 18, 2011|work=The X Factor|publisher=Facebook|accessdate=March 18 2011}}</ref> On March 21, 2011 Cowell confirmed that Carey would not be on the show due to her pregnancy.<ref>{{Collins, Scott. "Simon Cowell crosses Mariah Carey off list of judges for Fox's 'The X Factor'." Show Tracker. Los Angeles Times, 21 Mar 2011. Web. 22 Mar 2011. <http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/showtracker/2011/03/simon-cowell-crosses-mariah-carey-off-list-of-judges-for-foxs-the-x-factor.html>.}}</ref> In an interview with [[MSN]]'s ''Wonderwall'', Cowell said he did not think that Scherzinger would be offered a judging role on the show but that there would "definitely" be a role for her on the show.<ref>http://wonderwall.msn.com/tv/simon-cowell-on-idol-i-would-have-gone-earlier-1611114.story</ref>

===Presenters===
On March 10, it was revealed that ''[[The X Factor (UK)|British X Factor]]'' host [[Dermot O'Leary]] is not to become the American host.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/ustv/s141/the-x-factor-us/news/a308110/oleary-out-of-us-x-factor-running.html|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]|work=[[News of the World]]|last=Rollo|first=Sarah|date=March 10, 2011|accessdate=March 10, 2011}}</ref> When asked if Cowell would prefer a female or male host, Cowell replied "maybe both". He has since indicated that the show may have two presentors.<ref>http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Entertainment/20110325/simon-cowell-could-hire-two-hosts-for-us-x-factor-110325/</ref> Welsh presentor, [[Steve Jones]] said he had had meetings with Cowell and producers about possibly co-presenting the show. In an interview with ''STV,'' Jones mentioned internet reports that [[Nicole Scherzinger]] had been offered the female presentors job instead of a juding position. He said "She's a great lady and she'll do a fantastic job," as well as admitting he would love the job.<ref>http://entertainment.stv.tv/tv/238708-steve-jones-insists-he-is-still-up-for-us-x-factor-job/</ref>

==Media sponsorship==
On January 7, 2011, FOX, Syco Television, and FremantleMedia North American announced that [[Pepsi]] will be the official sponsor of ''The X Factor''.<ref name="pepsi1">{{cite web|url=http://xfactor.blogs.fox.com/2011/01/07/pepsi-is-announced-as-the-official-sponsor-of-the-x-factor/|title=PEPSI is Announced as the Official Sponsor of The X Factor!|date=January 7, 2011|work=[[Fox Broadcasting Company]]|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref><ref name="pepsi2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/04/business/media/04adco.html?_r=2|title=Pepsi to Sponsor 'American Idol' Rival|last=Stelter|first=Brian|date=January 4, 2011|work=The New York Times|page=3|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref> The sponsorship includes an extensive multi-platform on and off-air marketing partnership.<ref name="pepsi1" />

===Advertisements===

In November 2010, FOX began airing short commercials for the program which displayed the text "Coming to America Fall 2011".<ref name="pepsi2" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://insidetv.ew.com/2010/11/24/the-x-factor-fox-promo-simon-cowell/|title='The X Factor' exclusive: First look at Fox's promo!|last=Slezak|first=Michael|date=November 24, 2010|work=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|accessdate=January 24, 2011}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' described the commercials as the network trying to set up "The X Factor" as a television event.<ref name="pepsi2" /> [[CTV Television Network|CTV]] will broadcast the show in Canada.<ref>http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Entertainment/20110208/nicole-scherzinger-x-factor-judge-110208/</ref>

== See also ==
* [[American Idol]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.fox.com/xfactor/ ''The X Factor'' Official WebSite] (owned by [[Fox Interactive Media]])
*{{Facebook|TheXFactorUSA|''The X Factor''}}
*{{Twitter|TheXFactorUSA}}
*{{Youtube|u=TheXFactorUSA|title=''The X Factor''}}
*{{Myspace|TheXFactorUSA}}

{{The X Factor series}}
{{Syco}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:X Factor (U.S.)}}
[[Category:American television series based on British television series]]
[[Category:Upcoming television series]]
[[Category:The X Factor|US]]

[[fi:The X Factor (Yhdysvallat)]]

A Change Is Gonna Come

2011-03-24T18:52:58Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 163.153.219.225 (talk) to last version by Giovannii84

{{Infobox song 
| Name =A Change Is Gonna Come
| Cover =ACIGCcover.jpg
| Border =
| Caption =
| Type =album track, B-side to "[[Shake (Sam Cooke song)|Shake]]"
| Artist =[[Sam Cooke]]
| alt Artist =
| Album =[[Ain't That Good News (album)|Ain't That Good News]]
| Published =1963 ([[ABKCO]])
| Released =December 22, 1964 (single)
| track_no =7
| Recorded = December 21, 1963 RCA Studios ([[Los Angeles, California]])
|Genre=[[Soul music|Soul]] , [[R&B]]
| Length =3:12
| Writer =Sam Cooke
| Label =[[RCA Victor]]
| Producer =[[Hugo Peretti]] [[Luigi Creatore]]
| Misc =
{{Audiosample
| Upper caption = Music sample
| Name = A Change Is Gonna Come
| Audio file= A Change Is Gonna Come sample.ogg
}}
}}
{{Infobox song 
| Name = A Change Is Gonna Come
| Cover =
| Artist = [[Otis Redding]]
| Album = [[Otis Blue]]
| Released = 1965
| Format = [[Single (music)|7" single]]
| Recorded = Stax Studios, [[Memphis, Tennessee]]: 1965
|Genre= [[Soul music|Soul]]
| Length = 4:17
| Label = [[Stax Records|Volt]]/[[Atco Records|Atco]]
| Producer = [[Steve Cropper]]
| Last single = "[[My Girl (The Temptations song)|My Girl]]" (1965)
| This single = "A Change Is Gonna Come" (1965)
| Next single = "[[(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction]]" (1966)
| Tracks =#"[[Ole Man Trouble]]"
#"[[Respect (song)|Respect]]"
#"A Change Is Gonna Come"
#"[[Down in the Valley (Solomon Burke song)|Down in the Valley]]"
#"[[I've Been Loving You Too Long]]"
#"[[Shake (Sam Cooke song)|Shake]]"
#"[[My Girl (The Temptations song)|My Girl]]"
#"[[Wonderful World (Sam Cooke song)|Wonderful World]]"
#"[[Rock Me Baby (song)|Rock Me Baby]]"
#"[[(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction|Satisfaction]]"
#"[[You Don't Miss Your Water]]"
| Misc =
| Audio sample? =
}}

"'''A Change Is Gonna Come'''" is a 1964 single by [[rhythm and blues|R&B]] singer-songwriter [[Sam Cooke]], written and first recorded in 1963 and released under the [[RCA Victor]] label shortly after his death in late 1964. Though only a modest hit for Cooke in comparison with his previous singles, the song came to exemplify [[1960s|the sixties']] [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|Civil Rights Movement]]. The song has gained in popularity and critical acclaim in the decades since its release, and is #12 on [[Rolling Stone]]'s [[The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time|500 Greatest Songs of All Time]].

==Conception==
===Origins===
Upon hearing [[Bob Dylan]]'s "[[Blowin' in the Wind]]" in 1963, Cooke was greatly moved that such a poignant song about racism in [[United States|America]] could come from someone who was not black<ref>[http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/6595857/a_change_is_gonna_come A Change Is Gonna Come], [http://www.rollingstone.com/news/coverstory/500songs The RS 500 Greatest Songs of All Time], [http://www.rollingstone.com Rolling Stone magazine], Dec 09, 2004, Retrieved 2009-05-09</ref>. While on tour in May 1963, and after speaking with sit-in demonstrators in [[Durham, North Carolina]] following a concert, Cooke returned to his tour bus and wrote the first draft of what would become "A Change Is Gonna Come". The song also reflected much of Cooke's own inner turmoil. Known for his polished image and light-hearted songs such as "[[You Send Me]]" and "[[Twistin' the Night Away]]", he had long felt the need to address the situation of discrimination and racism in America, especially the [[Southern United States|southern states]]. However, his image and fears of losing his largely white fan base prevented him from doing so.

The song, very much a departure for Cooke, reflected two major incidents in his life. The first was the death of Cooke's 18-month-old son, Vincent, who died of an accidental drowning in June of that year. The second major incident came on October 8, 1963, when Cooke and his band tried to register at a "whites only" motel in [[Shreveport, Louisiana]] and were summarily arrested for disturbing the peace. Both incidents are represented in the weary tone and lyrics of the piece, especially the final verse: ''There have been times that I thought I couldn't last for long/but now I think I'm able to carry on/It's been a long time coming, but I know a change is gonna come.''

===Recording===
After remaining confined to Cooke's notebooks for months of touring, "A Change Is Gonna Come" was finally recorded on December 21, 1963. Recording took place at the RCA Studios in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] during sessions for Cooke's 1964 album, ''Ain't That Good News''.

According to author Peter Guralnick's biography of Cooke, "Dream Boogie", Cooke gave arranger [[Rene Hall]] free rein on the song's musical arrangement. Hall came up with a dramatic orchestral backing highlighted by a mournful French horn. For his vocal, Cooke reached back to his gospel roots to sing the song with an intensity and passion never heard before on his pop recordings.

==Reception==
===Release===
{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2010}}
The song made its first appearance on ''Ain't That Good News,'' the last album to be released within Cooke's lifetime. The LP did well, peaking at number 34 on the [[Billboard 200|Billboard Pop Albums]] chart, making it more successful than Cooke's previous LP, 1963's ''Night Beat''.

However, Cooke and his new manager [[Allen Klein]] thought the song deserved greater exposure. According to Guralnick's book, Klein persuaded Cooke to sing "A Change Is Gonna Come" on his February 7, 1964 appearance on [[The Tonight Show]]. Cooke sang the song; unfortunately, any impact it made was dimmed by [[The Beatles]]' history-making appearance on [[The Ed Sullivan Show]] just two days later. In a further misfortune, NBC did not save the tape of Cooke's performance, which has never turned up in private collections either. [[RCA Records]] had bypassed "Change" for Cooke's early 1964 single, instead releasing the tracks "Good Times" and "(Ain't That) Good News". But the company agreed to put the song out as a single late in the year, as the B-side to Cooke's latest potential hit, "Shake." At one of his last recording sessions, Cooke approved an edit to the song that would shorten it by about 30 seconds, increasing its chance for airplay on American radio stations.

Finally given proper attention, "A Change Is Gonna Come" became a sensation among the black community, and was used as an anthem for the ongoing civil rights protests. On R&B radio, the song peaked at number 9 on the [[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs|Billboard Black Singles]] chart, and topped many local playlists, most notably in Chicago. The song had more limited success on [[top 40]] radio. By February 1965, the song had peaked at number 31 on the [[Billboard Hot 100|Billboard Pop Singles]] chart and fallen off. Cooke, however, did not live to see the song's commercial success. On December 11, 1964, he was killed at the Hacienda Motel in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] under what some consider [[Sam_Cooke#Death|mysterious circumstances]].

===Legacy===
Though only a moderate success sales-wise, "A Change Is Gonna Come" became an anthem for the American Civil Rights Movement, and is widely considered Cooke's best composition. Over the years, the song has garnered significant praise and, in 2005, was voted number 12 by representatives of the music industry and press in ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine's [[Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time|500 Greatest Songs of All Time]], and voted number 3 in the webzine [[Pitchfork Media]]'s [http://pitchforkmedia.com/article/feature/37901/The_200_Greatest_Songs_of_the_1960s The 200 Greatest Songs of the 60s.] The song is also among three hundred songs deemed the most important ever recorded by [[National Public Radio]] (NPR) and was recently selected by the [[Library of Congress]] as one of twenty-five selected recordings to the [[National Recording Registry]] as of March 2007. The song is currently ranked as the 95th greatest song of all time, as well as the seventh best song of [[1965 in music|1965]], by Acclaimed Music.<ref name="Acclaimed Music">{{cite web|url=http://www.acclaimedmusic.net|title=Acclaimed Music Top 3000 songs|date=27 May 2009}}</ref>

Despite its acclaim, legal troubles have haunted the single since its release. A dispute between Cooke's music publisher, [[ABKCO]], and record company, [[RCA Records]], made the recording unavailable for much of the four decades since its release. Though the song was featured prominently in the 1992 film ''[[Malcolm X (film)|Malcolm X]]'', it could not be included in the film's soundtrack. By 2003, however, the disputes had been settled in time for the song to be included on the remastered version of ''Ain't That Good News'', as well as the Cooke anthology ''Portrait of a Legend''.

"A Change Is Gonna Come" was a precursor to many later socially-conscious singles, including [[Marvin Gaye]]'s lauded "[[What's Going On (song)|What's Going On]]". Al Green, a self-professed fan of Cooke, covered the song for the concert celebrating the 1996 opening of the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in [[Cleveland, Ohio]]. Green's live rendition was included in the soundtrack to the 2001 [[Michael Mann (film director)|Michael Mann]] film ''[[Ali (film)|Ali]]''. [[James Taylor]] recorded a version specially for an [[A Change Is Gonna Come (The West Wing)|episode of the same title]] of the television drama ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]''. [[The Allman Brothers Band]] captured their performance of the song on their 2003 DVD ''Live at the [[Beacon Theatre]]''.

Other notable artists who have covered the song include [[Allison Moorer]], [[Jeffrey Gaines]], [[Matt Doyle]], [[Cory Wells]], [[Bob Dylan]], [[Aretha Franklin]] from "[[I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You]]" (1967), [[The 5th Dimension]] (in a 1970 medley with [[The Rascals]]' "[[People Got to Be Free]]"), [[The Band]], [[Wayne Brady]], [[Billy Bragg]], [[Evelyn Champagne King]], [[Solomon Burke]], [[Sananda Maitreya|Terence Trent D'Arby]], [[Gavin DeGraw]], the [[Fugees]], the [[Cold War Kids]], [[The Gits]], [[Deitrick Haddon]], [[Patti Labelle]], [[Solo (group)|Solo]], [[Prince Buster]], [[Morten Harket]], [[The Neville Brothers]], [[jacksoul]], [[Ben Sollee]], Johnny P, [[Billy Preston]], [[Otis Redding]], [[Baby Huey (singer)]], [[Michael Thompson (guitarist)|Michael Thompson]] featuring [[Bobby Womack]], [[Leela James]], [[Tina Turner]], [[The Righteous Brothers]] ([[Bobby Hatfield]] solo), [[The Gits]], [[Brandy Norwood|Brandy]], and [[The Supremes]], [[The Manhattans]], [[Gerald Alston]], [[Arcade Fire]] has used the song in support of [[Barack Obama]]'s nomination for [[President of the United States]]. In recent years, the song has served as a [[Sampling (music)|sample]] for [[Rapping|rappers]] [[Ghostface Killah]] (1996), [[Ja Rule]] (2003), [[Papoose (rapper)|Papoose]] (2006), [[Lil Wayne]] (2007) "Long Time Coming (remix)" [[Charles Hamilton]], [[Asher Roth]], and [[B.o.B]] (2009), and [[Nas]]'s [[It Was Written]] album also features a similar opening as the song. On their album [[The Reunion (album)|The Reunion]] hip-hop artists [[Capone-N-Noreaga]] used an excerpt from the song on the opening track which shares the same title as the Cooke original. British soul singer [[Beverley Knight]] says the song is her all time favourite and has performed it live many a time; most notably on 'Later with [[Jools Holland]]'. On May 6, 2008, during the seventh season of ''[[American Idol]]'', the song was sung by contestant [[Syesha Mercado]] as the remaining top 4. After winning the [[United States presidential election, 2008|2008 United States presidential election]], [[Barack Obama]] referred to the song, stating to his supporters in [[Chicago]], "It's been a long time coming, but tonight, change has come to America." A duet of the song by [[Bettye LaVette]] and [[Jon Bon Jovi]] was included in [[We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial]]. In Washington DC, in the days leading up to the Inauguration of Barack Obama, this song could be heard played constantly in the city centre.

In 2004, [[Patti LaBelle]] performed the song on the annual [[Nobel Peace Prize Concert]].

Julian Casablancas, lead singer of popular rock band The Strokes, has cited "A Change is Gonna Come" as his favorite song of all time.

In 2009, [[Aaron Neville]], along with the Mt. Zion Mass Choir, released a version of the song “A Change Is Gonna Come” on the compilation album [[Oh Happy Day: An All-Star Music Celebration|Oh Happy Day]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/musicNews/idUSTRE52Q6WQ20090327|title=Jon Bon Jovi, Queen Latifah go gospel for "Day"|date=March 27, 2009|publisher=Reuters}}</ref>

[[American Idol]] creator/producer [[Simon Fuller]] selected the song for contestant [[Adam Lambert]] to sing in the [[American Idol (season 8)|season 8]] finale in May, 2009. It was also covered by [[American Idol (season 9)|season 9]] semifinalist [[Lilly Scott]] in March 2010.

In 2010, one of the finalists on the British [[The X Factor (UK)|The X Factor]], Rebecca Ferguson, sang the song for her audition, impressing judges [[Simon Cowell]], [[Louis Walsh]] and guest judge [[Nicole Scherzinger]]

The song was performed in the 2011 Miss America Pageant by Miss Kentucky, Djuan Trent. During the performance, it was stated that her grandparents wrote the song. However, this claim was not substantiated, and Cooke is widely known to be the primary author of the song.

==Chart history (Sam Cooke version)==
{| class="wikitable"
!Chart (1965)
!Peak position
|-
|''Billboard'' [[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs|R&B Singles Chart]]
|align="center"| 9
|-
| [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]]
|align="center"| 31
|}

{{Infobox single 
| Name = A Change Is Gonna Come
| Cover = Seal A Change Is Gonna Come Single Cover.JPG
| Artist = [[Seal (musician)|Seal]]
| Album = [[Soul (Seal album)|Soul]]
| B-side =
| Released = 10 November 2008
| Format =
| Recorded = 2008
| Genre= [[Soul music|Soul]]
| Length =
| Label = [[Warner Music Group|Warner]]
| Producer =
| Certification =
| Last single = "[[The Right Life]]" (2008)
| This single = "'''A Change Is Gonna Come'''" (2008)
| Next single = "[[It's a Man's Man's Man's World]]" (2008)
| Misc =
}}

==Seal version==
Singer [[Seal (singer)|Seal]] also covered this song for his album ''Soul''. He performed it during a guest appearance as himself on an episode of [[Eli Stone]] that aired in the USA on December 9, 2008. It has been released as the leading single for the album. It was a moderate success, peaking on the ''Billboard'' [[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs]] at #73.

===Charts (Seal version)===
{|class="wikitable"
!Chart (2008)
!Peak position
|-
|Belgium Walonia Singles Chart
|align="center"|31
|-
|Dutch Singles Chart
|align="center"|38
|-
|Swiss Singles Chart
|align="center"|73
|-
|UK Singles Chart
|align="center"|152
|-
|U.S. ''Billboard'' [[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs]]
|align="center"|73
|-
|U.S. ''Billboard'' Smooth Jazz Songs
|align="center"|29
|-
|}

==Personnel==
{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2010}}
* Written by Sam Cooke.
* Produced by [[Hugo Peretti]] and [[Luigi Creatore]].
* Instrumentation by [[Rene Hall]] (arrangement and conductor of orchestra), Larry Hilton, and [[Earl Palmer]] (drums).
* Engineering by [[David Hassinger]]

==See also==
* [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)]]
* [[Blowin' in the Wind]]
* [[The Times They Are a-Changin']]

==References==
* ''Portrait of a Legend 1951-1964''. Abkco Records, 2003. Los Angeles, California.
* {{cite book | author=Werner, Craig | title=A Change Is Gonna Come: Music, Race, and the Soul of America | publisher=Plume | year=1999 | isbn=0-452-28065-6}}
* {{cite book | author=Wolff, Daniel J., S.R. Crain, Clifton White, and G. David Tenenbaum | title=You Send Me: The Life and Times of Sam Cooke | publisher=William Morrow & Co | year=1995 | isbn=0-688-12403-8}}
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=17267529 Sam Cooke's Swan Song of Protest] NPR special on the selection of the song to the [[National Recording Registry]]
* [http://www.songsofsamcooke.com/songs/a_change_is_gonna_come Songs of Sam Cooke] Song profile at the Songs of Sam Cooke, with lyrics

{{Sam Cooke}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Change Is Gonna Come, A}}
[[Category:1963 songs]]
[[Category:1964 singles]]
[[Category:Sam Cooke songs]]
[[Category:Otis Redding songs]]
[[Category:1970 singles]]
[[Category:The 5th Dimension songs]]
[[Category:James Taylor songs]]
[[Category:Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients]]
[[Category:United States National Recording Registry recordings]]
[[Category:Songs against racism and xenophobia]]
[[Category:Songs written by Sam Cooke]]
[[Category:Soul ballads]]
[[Category:Posthumous songs]]

[[es:A Change Is Gonna Come (canción)]]
[[it:A Change Is Gonna Come]]
[[no:A Change Is Gonna Come]]
[[fi:A Change Is Gonna Come]]

Acle

2011-02-08T16:15:14Z

CanadianLinuxUser:

{{Infobox UK place |
| country = England
|official_name= Acle
|population = 2732
| area_total_km2 = 9.46
|shire_district= [[Broadland]]
| region = East of England
| shire_county = [[Norfolk]]
|constituency_westminster= [[Mid Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)|Mid Norfolk]]
|post_town= NORWICH
| postcode_district = NR13
| postcode_area= NR
|dial_code= 01493
|civil_parish= Acle
|os_grid_reference= TG4010
|latitude= 52.638
|longitude= 1.555
}}
'''Acle''' is a small [[market town]] on the [[River Bure]] on [[The Norfolk Broads]] in [[Norfolk]]. It is located halfway between [[Norwich]] and [[Great Yarmouth]] and has the only bridge across the [[River Bure]] between [[Wroxham]] and [[Great Yarmouth]].<ref name=osolei40>Ordnance Survey (2005). ''OS Explorer Map OL40 - The Broads''. ISBN 0-319-23769-9.</ref>
[[Image:Acle fire station - geograph.org.uk - 1395072.jpg|thumb|left|Acle fire station. Credit: Kevin Hale]]

There is a high school in the village called [[Acle High School]]

The civil parish has an area of 9.46 square kilometres (3.7 sq. miles) and in 2001 had a population of 2732 in 1214 households. For the purposes of local government, the parish falls within the area of the [[Non-metropolitan district|district]] of [[Broadland]].<ref>Office for National Statistics & Norfolk County Council, 2001. "[http://www.norfolk.gov.uk/consumption/groups/public/documents/general_resources/ncc017867.xls Census population and household counts for unparished urban areas and all parishes]". Retrieved December 2, 2005.</ref>

The name "Acle" means "in the lea of the oaks", that is, a clearing in an [[oak]] forest. In [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]] times, hundreds of oaks were felled here for timber to construct [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]'s war ships.

==History==
In [[Roman Britain|Roman]] times, Acle was a port at the head of a large [[estuary]] named ''Gariensis''. Acle is mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]], and in 1253 it was granted a [[market]]. The livestock and local farmers' market persisted into the 1970s, as did a nearby auction site; the latter is now a new housing estate and the former is part-occupied by a branch of [[Budgens]], with the other part remaining a "market", although essentially for tourist purposes: no livestock is now bought or sold there. In 1382, Acle received the right for a "[[turbary]]", that is, the right to dig [[peat]]. Acle still has a boatyard and Boat Dyke, and pleasant walks along the Bure to [[Upton, Norfolk|Upton]] and beyond are possible.

[[Acle railway station]], which was built in 1883, lies on the [[Wherry Line]] from Norwich to Great Yarmouth. In 1892 a foundry was constructed that specialised in building [[windpump]]s for land drainage, including the very last windpump built for the Broads, at Ash Tree Farm. The three-mile (5 km) £7.1m dual-carriageway [[A47 road|A47]] bypass opened in March 1989; local campaigners are still pressing for the dualling of the Acle Straight, the portion of the A47 running from Acle to [[Great Yarmouth]], which has a relatively high accident rate and is held by many locals to be a dangerous road. Since the turn of the century, a walkway running from the station to the Boat Dyke has been constructed by local volunteers; this walk (known as Damgate) offers an opportunity to view indigenous flora, some of which are rare. Also on the Damgate walk, there has been repeated sightings of a [[kingfisher]], which is said to fly under the abandoned railway bridge at around mid afternoon. Of which is not very likely to see clearly as they are fast and quiet creatures, they are most likey blue blurs. But they do sit upon posts for a while.

==Parish church of St Edmund==
[[Image:Acle-g4.jpg|thumb|left|Acle St Edmund]]

The church of '''[[St Edmund]]''' is one of 124 existing [[round-tower church]]es in [[Norfolk]]. The round stage of the tower is the oldest part of the church, thought to be [[Anglo-Saxon architecture|Saxon]] in origin and of a date between 850 and 950 AD. The [[octagon]]al stage was added in the 13th century, probably when the roof was raised. The [[battlement]]s are from 1472. The tower houses six bells, five of which were cast in [[Norwich]] and date back to 1623. The tower is reinforced with a metal frame to enable the bells to be rung safely.

Entry to the church is by a [[porch]] on the north side, built in 1495. The dressed [[flint]]s are in contrast with most of the walls which appear to be made of [[rubble]].

The main body of the church, the [[nave]], is thought on the evidence of the measurements and wall thickness to be [[Normans|Norman]] in origin. This is not immediately obvious as no Norman doorways or aches remain. In 1927, when [[ivy]] was being strapped from the outside walls, one of the [[buttress]]es collapsed revealing a find of Norman-worked stones, which were later reassembled for safekeeping in the rood stair space.

Probably all the [[Norman architecture|Norman]] doors and archways were demolished when the floor level was raised in the 13th century (perhaps to prevent flooding). It is reasonable to assume therefore that at least the foundations of the nave are Norman.

The main [[nave]] windows are 14th century, and one near the [[pulpit]] is [[Tudor style architecture|Tudor]].

Probably the walls were painted at one time – a very small fragment of a dragon or a serpent-like creature still exists on the wall of the old rood staircase.

The stone [[font]] in the [[nave]] is dated 1410.

A 15th century wooden screen separates the nave from the chancel. It was not made for Acle church, and may have been brought from [[St Benet's Abbey]] or the priory at Weybridge.

The 14th century [[chancel]] probably replaced an [[apse]]; the windows are of 14th century design apart from the east window which holds Victorian stained glass.<ref>The Parish Church of St Edmund, Acle, Norfolk - A Brief Guide for Visitors</ref>

==See also==
*[[Nowhere, Norfolk|Nowhere]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.acle-village.info/ Acle Village Website]
*[http://www.origins.org.uk/genuki/NFK/places/a/acle/ Information from Genuki Norfolk] on Acle.
*[http://www.roundtowerchurches.de/Karte/C6/Acle_St_Edmund/acle_st_edmund.html Website with photos of Acle St Edmund], a [[round-tower church]]
*[http://www.norfolkmills.co.uk/windmills.html Acle windmills] from the Norfolkmills website

{{Norfolk}}
{{Civil Parishes of Broadland}}

[[Category:Broadland]]
[[Category:Market towns in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Towns in Norfolk]]
[[Category:Civil parishes in Norfolk]]

[[it:Acle]]
[[nl:Acle]]
[[pl:Acle]]
[[vo:Acle]]

Emma Pierson

2011-01-27T20:55:28Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted edits by 86.141.67.81 (talk) to last version by Escape Orbit

{{refimproveBLP|date=January 2011}}
{{Infobox actor
| name = Emma Pierson
| image =
| imagesize =200px
| caption = Emma Pierson
| birthname = Emma Jane Pierson
| birthdate = {{birth date and age|1981|4|30|df=yes}}
| birthplace = [[Plymouth]], [[Devon]]
| othername =
| occupation = [[Actor|Television actress]], [[Actor|Film actress]]
| yearsactive = 1999-present
}}

'''Emma Jane Pierson''', better known as Emma Pierson, (born 30 April 1981) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[actress]]. She is best known for her role as Anna Thornton-Wilton in the [[BBC]] television drama ''[[Hotel Babylon]]''.

Pierson has appeared in many television programmes, including ''[[Days Like These]]'', ''[[Beast (TV series)|Beast]]'', ''I Saw You'', ''[[Charles II: The Power and The Passion|Charles II]]'', ''[[The Worst Week of My Life]]'', ''[[Bloodlines (TV drama)|Bloodlines]]'', ''[[Coupling (UK TV series)|Coupling]]'' and ''[[Time Gentlemen Please]]''. Her more recent projects include the film ''Lives of the Saints''.

==Biography==

The daughter of a nurse and a [[Royal Navy]] submariner, Pierson was born Emma Jane Pierson on 30 April 1981 in [[Plymouth]], [[Devon]]. Her father, Charles, was stationed at [[Faslane Naval Base]] on the [[River Clyde|Clyde]] where Emma spent the first four years of her life.

When she was in her teens, Pierson lived with her parents and three siblings in [[North Bradley]], near [[Trowbridge]], [[Wiltshire]], and began taking acting lessons while attending St. Laurence School in nearby [[Bradford on Avon]].

After leaving school in 1997, Pierson performed in amateur productions with the North Bradley players, appearing in Chekov plays, such as ''[[Uncle Vanya]]''.

Pierson gained the role of Becky Radcliffe in the BBC children's drama series ''[[Grange Hill]]'' while studying [[law]] at the [[City of Bath College]].

==Work and profile==

After leaving ''Grange Hill'', Pierson took on the role of Jackie Burgett in ''[[Days Like These]]'', a British show set in Luton and adapted from the US comedy ''[[That '70s Show]]''. However, ''Days Like These'' proved unsuccessful and the series was cancelled after only ten of its thirteen episodes were aired.

Pierson has continued to appear in comedy series, including various episodes of the [[Channel 4]] sketch show ''Armstrong and Miller'', ''Beast'' with [[Alexander Armstrong (comedian)|Alexander Armstrong]] and ''[[The Worst Week of My Life]]'' with [[Ben Miller]].
In 2002, following the departure from the series of [[Julia Sawalha]], Pierson played new character student barmaid Connie in the second series of sitcom ''[[Time Gentlemen Please]]'', written by [[Al Murray]] and [[Richard Herring]], and appeared in an episode of the sitcom ''[[Coupling (UK TV series)|Coupling]]''.

Pierson’s career has also included roles in comedy dramas such as ''Bedtime'' and ''Legend of the Tamworth Two''. Also Emma in 2010 is starring in the Radio 4 comedy series "House on Fire".

Pierson has also appeared many dramas, including ''Stranded'', the Hallmark channel's version of ''[[Swiss Family Robinson]]'', BBC political drama ''[[The Project]]'', ''Charles II'' and an as yet unreleased low budget British movie, ''The Engagement'', from the director of ''[[Sirens]]'', [[John Duigan]].

In 2005, Pierson played the role of policewoman Justine Hopkin in the two-part ITV drama, ''[[Bloodlines]]''. She has since acted in many more dramas, such as ''Riot at the Rite'', a period drama about Russian dancer [[Nijinsky]], and ''[[Hotel Babylon]]'', a BBC series based on the [[Hotel Babylon (novel)|book of the same name]] by [[Imogen Edwards-Jones]] and portraying life behind the scenes in a London hotel.

British indie movie ''The Lives of the Saints'', which was co-directed by Chris Cottam and photographer Rankin and in which Emma played a character called Tina, was released in 2006. This was Pierson’s first major movie role, after brief roles in ''Virtual Sexuality'' and ''Guest House Paradiso'' early in her career.

==Personal life==
Pierson has two siblings, James and Sara, and lives in [[Islington]], [[London]], with her long-term boyfriend, Damian Village, and [[ragdoll cat]], Marvin.

Pierson's hobbies include [[rock climbing]], [[scuba diving]], and [[photography]]. She also enjoys travelling to other countries and taught English as a foreign language in [[Sri Lanka]] during the winter of 2003/2004.

Pierson comes from a family of adventurers. Her father, Charles, was a [[lieutenant-commander]] on [[submarines]] in the [[Royal Navy]], Her [[student]] sister regularly visits an [[orphanage]] in [[Nepal]], and her younger brother, James, does [[free running]], which involves jumping between buildings, and, she says, "has broken almost every bone in his body".

==Filmography==
===Film===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Film !! Role
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Barbie in A Mermaid Tale]]'' || Kayla
|-
| 2006 || ''[[The Lives of the Saints]]'' || Tina
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Riot at the Rite]]'' || Romola
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Bloodlines]]'' || Justine Hopkin
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Angell's Hell]]'' || Flo
|-
| 2004 || ''[[The Legend of the Tamworth Two]]'' || Jenny West
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Uncle Douglas]]'' || Sarah Tomkinson
|-
| 2002 || ''[[The Project (2002 television programme)|The Project]]''   aka: ''Les Années Tony Blair'' || Juliette
|-
| 2002 || ''[[I Saw You]]'' || Zoë
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Stranded]]'' || Sarah Robinson
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Dumping Elaine]]'' || Waitress
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Guest House Paradiso]]'' || Saucy Wood Nymph
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Virtual Sexuality]]'' || Fiona
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Show !! Episode(s) !! Role
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Money_(novel)#2010_BBC_television_adaptation|Money'']] || (Both Episodes) || Selina Street
|-
| 2008 || ''[[Little Dorrit (TV serial)|Little Dorrit]]'' || (Various) || Fanny Dorrit
|-
| 2007 || ''[[Who Gets the Dog? (ITV drama)|Who Gets the Dog]]'' || (One Episode Only) || Tara
|-
| 2007 || ''[[Talk to Me (TV series)|Talk To Me]]'' || (Various) || Ally
|-
| 2006-9 <ref>Skymag Jan 2009</ref> || ''[[Hotel Babylon]]'' || (Regular Cast) || Anna Thornton-Wilton
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Morning Glory (TV series)|Morning Glory]]'' || "1.10" || Herself
|-
| 2005 || ''[[The Brief]]'' || "Forever on the Mind" || Kelly Byrne
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Twisted Tales (TV show)|Twisted Tales]]'' || "The Irredeemable Brain of Dr. Heinrich Hunsecker" || Jane
|-
| 2004 || ''[[The Last Chancers]]'' || (Regular Cast) || Kirby
|-
| 2004 || ''[[The Worst Week of My Life]]'' || (Regular Cast) || Sophie Cook
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Charles II: The Power and The Passion]]'' || (One Episode Only) || [[Nell Gwynn]]
|-
| 2003 || ''[[My Hero (TV series)|My Hero]]'' || "Big" || Dr. Chelsea
|-
| 2003 || ''[[A Touch of Frost (TV series)|A Touch of Frost]]'' || "Held in Trust" || Alice Thompson
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Time Gentlemen Please]]'' || Season 2 || Connie
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Coupling (UK TV series)|Coupling]]'' || "[[List of Coupling episodes#Series 3|The Girl with One Heart]]" || Jennifer
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Bedtime (TV series)|Bedtime]]'' || Season 1 || Sapphire
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Absolutely Fabulous]]'' || "Small Opening" || Kasha
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Armstrong and Miller (television)|Armstrong and Miller]]''   aka: ''The Armstrong and Miller Show'' || (Various) || ?
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Beast (TV series)|Beast]]'' || (Regular Cast) || Jade
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Grange Hill]]'' || ? || Becky Radcliffe
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Days Like These]]'' || ? || Jackie Burget
|}

===Music videos===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Artist !! Track !! Role
|-
| 2003 || [[Thea Gilmore]] || "Juliet" || Girl In A Cage
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{imdb name|name=Emma Pierson|id=0682753}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Pierson, Emma
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=British Actress
|DATE OF BIRTH=30 April 1981
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Plymouth]], [[Devon]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pierson, Emma}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:British film actors]]
[[Category:British television actors]]

[[nl:Emma Pierson]]

David Wood (Missionar)

2011-01-25T11:29:11Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted to revision 409919258 by 78.144.254.5; No Christian Science Monitor here.... . (TW)

{{Article for deletion/dated|page=David Wood (Christian apologist)|timestamp=20110122122530|year=2011|month=January|day=22|substed=yes|help=off}}


{{Refimprove|date=January 2011}}
{{neutrality|date=January 2011}}
{{otherpersons|David Wood}}
{{Infobox person
| name = David Wood
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| other_names =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality =
| citizenship =
| education =
| residence =
| occupation =
| employer =
| known_for =
| title =
| religion = [[Christian denomination|Christian]]
| denomination= [[Non-denominational Christianity]]
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| website = http://www.acts17.net/
}}

'''David Wood''' is a Christian [[apologism|apologist]] activist, preacher and professional speaker on comparative religions.<ref>[http://www.islamophobiatoday.com/2010/11/03/kiera-feldman-the-anti-muslim-machine/ The Anti-Muslim Machine]an evangelical pastor named David Wood is passionate about proselytizing to Muslims, Wood’s expertise is Christian apologetics, the practice of arguing unbelievers into faith.</ref><ref>http://www.muslim-responses.com/david_wood_</ref> Wood is an [[evangelical]] [[missionary]] who generally engages in debates against [[muslims]] or [[atheists]], and also lectures on philosophy.<ref>[http://www.thedebateinitiative.com/#/past-events-2/4534173303 The American Evangelical Christian/Muslim Debate Series]</ref><ref>[http://www.answering-christianity.com/nt_commands_killing_jews.htm Conversation between Shadid Lewis and David Wood]</ref> Wood has a Ph.D. in Philosophy and Biology, and is also a member of the Society of Christian Philosophers; and is currently working on his PhD in the philosophy of religion at [[Fordham University]] in [[New York]].<ref>History of Dawah Al-Tareekh, (2009) Volume 2, Adam Irshan Abd'Qani</ref><ref>http://www.amazon.com/Muhammad-Christian-Muslim-Perspectives-Ataie/dp/B000UEASTE</ref><ref>[http://www.arabdetroit.com/news.php?id=869 Arab Detroit News]David Wood, an evangelical from New York [[Detroit Free Press]] Re-print</ref>

Wood converted to Christianity after investigating the historical evidence of Jesus' resurrection, and deals with the problem of evil. He has been in more than two dozen public debates with muslims and atheists. He now lives in [[The Bronx]] with his wife Marie and their sons Lucian, Blaise and Reid.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SuRNZJ6M11MC&pg=PA272&dq=david+wood+acts17&hl=en&ei=wCk7TeenCMHPhAff0ZS2Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false Evidence for God: 50 Arguments for Faith from the Bible, History, Philosophy]By William A. Dembski, Michael R. Licona</ref>

==Career==
David Wood is a former atheist who now challenges<ref>[http://thegreatdebateseries.com/ An Open Debate Challenge to Shabir Ally, Jamal Badawi, and Zakir Naik]</ref> and debates atheists such as John W. Loftus, and several muslims; usually in a public hall or in front of a university audience.<ref>[http://www.call-to-monotheism.com/rebuttal_to_david_wood_s_article__muhammad_in_the_bible___an_analysis_of_the_muslim_appeal_to_biblical_prophecy_ Rebuttal to David Wood]</ref><ref name="Big list">[http://commonsenseatheism.com/?p=171 Big list of Christian Vs. Muslim debates] ''This article contains links to several David Wood video debates''</ref><ref>[http://articles.dailypress.com/2008-03-15/features/0803140096_1_islamic-center-debate-christian-apologetics Debates Look At Islam, Christianity] [[Daily Press (Virginia)]] newspaper</ref> David Wood was arrested outside [[Dearborn, Michigan]] after preaching at an arab festival and being charged with a misdemeanor of disturbing the peace, but was later acquitted.<ref>[http://www.arabamericannews.com/news/index.php?mod=article&cat=Community&article=3270 Dearborn attorney holds rally] [[The Arab American News]]</ref><ref>[http://www.mininggazette.com/page/content.detail/id/118925/Jury-acquits--4-arrested--for-behavior-at-Arab-fest.html?isap=1&nav=5014 Jury acquits 4 arrested for behavior at Arab fest]Associated Press re-print</ref><ref>[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2010/september/1.17.html Dispute in Dearborn]Christianity Today magazine</ref><ref>[http://www.jihadwatch.org/2010/06/is-this-america-christian-activists-arrested-in-dearborn.html Is this America? Christian activists arrested in Dearborn just for showing up at Arab Festival]</ref><ref>[http://www.greeleygazette.com/press/?p=3872 Wood is cuffed]retrieved 22 January 2011</ref><ref>[http://www.pressandguide.com/articles/2010/09/28/news/doc4ca214ab4b71a726291932.txt Wood not guilty of incitement]By Sean Delaney, Press & Guide Newspapers</ref><ref>[http://www.bpnews.net/bpnews.asp?id=30835 Wood in Michigan]Baptist Press, Christian News</ref><ref>[http://www.wnd.com/?pageId=169353 Four Christians were arrested]World Net Daily</ref> Wood has witten polemics against atheists such as [[Richard Carrier]] which he titled "Good 'n' Senseless Without God: A Critical Review of Richard Carrier's New Book, Sense & Goodness Without God".<ref>[http://www.richardcarrier.info/contrawood.html On the Deceptions of David Wood]</ref> Wood was invited on the [[ABN (TV station)]] on several shows, in inter-religious discussions against atheism and Islam, where among other things he regularly appears on the Aramaic Broadcasting Network.<ref>http://thereligionofconquest.com/2010/11/27/must-see-islamic-tv-ministry-promoting-abn-the-aramaic-broadcasting-network-at-abnsat-com/</ref> He has also written journals against the atheist activist [[Dan Barker]] whilst serving as a partner in the Acts 17 Apologetics Ministry.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lYYS7Bv_HJoC&pg=PR7&dq=david+wood+acts17&hl=en&ei=wCk7TeenCMHPhAff0ZS2Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=david%20wood&f=false Defending the Resurrection]By Ed James Patrick Holding</ref> David Wood was also a stern opponent of the proposed ground zero mosque, stating that the mosque is not an attempt to honour the victims families, but rather a symbol of Islamic victory; stating that the ''[[Cordoba House]]'' was named so as a statement of Islamic cross-continental conquest in memory of the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]].<ref>[http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/s_691292.html Mosque plans near Ground Zero]By Pittsburgh Tribine-Review</ref> Wood disagreed with pastor Terry Jones attempts in the [[2010 Qur'an-burning controversy|Quran burning]], and paralelled it to the [[Uthman_ibn_Affan#Qur'an|Uthman Qur'an]] burning.<ref>[http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/72415 Original Quran-Burning Took Place in the Mid-Seventh Century] CNS News [[Cybercast News Service]]</ref>

==Debates and lectures==
*David Wood vs. Ali Ataie: Who Was Muhammad?<ref name="Big list"/>
*Jalal Abualrub vs. Wood: Was Muhammad a Prophet?
*Seymour vs. Wood: Was Muhammad a true Prophet?
*Adnan Rashid vs. David Wood: The Satanic Verses
*Bassan Zawadi vs. Wood: Is Islam True?
*Farhan Qureshi vs. David Wood: Can We Trust the Qur'an?
*Osama Abdallah vs. David Wood: Was Muhammad a True Prophet?
*David Wood vs. Sami Zaatari: Is Christianity a Religion of Peace?
*Sami Zaatari vs. David Wood: Is Islam a Religion of Peace?
*Ehteshaam Gulam vs. David Wood: Was Christ really crucified?

==See also==
*[[Christian apologetics]]

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

==External links==
*[http://www.acts17.net/ Official David Wood website]
*[http://www.youtube.com/user/Acts17Apologetics David Wood ''YouTube'' page]
*[http://www.answering-islam.org/Authors/Wood/index.htm Articles by David Wood]
* [http://www.youtube.com/user/yahya2006 contains David Wood debate uploads]

[[Category:American theologians]]
[[Category:Christian apologists]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Thomas Agro

2011-01-12T15:18:35Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted 1 edit by CanadianLinuxUser (talk). (TW)

{{Infobox criminal
| subject_name =Thomas Agro
| image_name =
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| birth_date =1931
| birth_place =[[New York City]]
| death_date =1987
| death_place =[[New York City]]
| cause =Unknown natural causes
| alias =Tommy A, T.A., Tipp, and Thomas Ambrosiano
}}

'''Thomas Agro''' (1931 – 1987), also known as "Tommy A", "T.A.", "Tipp", and "Thomas Ambrosiano", was a New York gangster with the [[Gambino crime family]] who ran lucrative bookmaking and gambling operations in [[Florida]].

==Background==
Agro was the brother-in-law of Paul Stanisci Jr. Agro was a smiling pudgy little man always immaculately dressed and manicured. He wore a jet black toupee that was supposedly so sleek that it reflected flashing disco lights. According to the FBI, Agro had a prescription for [[Lithium pharmacology|lithium]]. Additionally, he took medications for heart problems that stemmed from high blood pressure and for a lung ailment.

Standing 5'5, Agro was a classic bully who enjoyed beating up people. Since he was sickly as well as small, Agro always needed several henchmen to hold down his victims so he could safely torture them. Agro was known to carry a pair of sharpened scissors on him at all times. Agro would approach his victims quite slowly, carrying a knife. This gave his pinioned victims ample time to urinate in their pants. Agro's attacks were more spontaneous than planned though.

==Mobster==
In 1975 or 1976, Agro became a ''[[made man]]'', or full member, of the Gambino family. Agro was sponsored for membership by [[Joe N. Gallo]], the family consigliere. He worked under [[Joseph Armone]], one of Castellano's most trusted associates. While Agro was never promoted above street-level soldier, he enjoyed a privileged relationship with family boss [[Paul Castellano]]. During this period, Agro was sent to prison for bookmaking. By 1976 Agro was dividing his time between New York and [[Palm Beach County, Florida]].

==Relations with Joseph Ianuzzi==
It was in Florida that Agro selected mobster [[Joseph Iannuzzi]] to act as his representative. Iannuzzi enjoyed the attention and respect he received when Agro was in Florida. The two mobsters frequented all the top nightspots and track betting. It was while at the [[greyhound racing]] tracks that Agro coined Iannuzzi's nickname "Joe Dogs". Iannuzzi was given free rein to operate on behalf of Agro and the Gambino crime family. Iannuzzi operated bookmaking and loansharking while engaging in the occasional robbery and burglary. When Agro's sponsor, Joe N. Gallo, visited Florida, Iannuzzi would look after him.

In 1980, the Agro/Iannuzzi relationship began to fizzle. Agro had previously lent Ianuzzi a sizeable amount of money to be used to facilitate a loanshark book. Ianuzzi was supposed to pay Agro several percentage basis points (commonly referred to as ''points'') a week. Ianuzzi would then lend offer loans to fellow criminals and gamblers at several additional points. The difference, called the 'spread', would be Iannuzzi's profit. Ianuzzi would hold several weeks or months worth of interest (or ''vig'', in mafia vernacular), delivering it to Agro whenever he visited New York. At other times, Agro would visit Iannuzzi in Florida to collect the interest. Agro had plans to invest the illegal interest into legitimate businesses. However, Ianuzzi soon fell several months behind in delivering the money of Agro. Later in 1980, while visiting New York, Ianuzzi deliberately snubbed Agro.

On January 19, 1981, the enraged Agro found Ianuzzi at the Don Ritz Pizzeria on [[Singer Island, Florida]] and severely beat him with a [[baseball bat]]. After surviving this attack, Ianuzzi decided to start working as an informant for the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI). Since Ianuzzi had been assaulted with a bat, the FBI agents appropriately dubbed the case Operation [[Home Run]]. Ianuzzi now paid Agro the delinquent money (with funds supplied by the FBI) and Agro welcomed him back to the family. Ianuzzi now wore a hidden listening device whenever he met with Agro and other Florida mobsters operating. In one tape, Agro told Iannuzzi that he had survived the January attack only because the pizzeria owner's wife entered the room. On one occasion, Agro confessed to the murders of Lucchese associates [[Anthony DeSimone]] and [[Thomas DeSimone]]. However, Ianuzzi was not recording at that moment, so Agro was never convicted of these murders.

==Later years==
In 1984, Agro was prosecuted at the Home Run trials in Florida for loan sharking, extortion, and attempted murder. After being sentenced to fifteen years in a federal [[penitentiary]], Agro fled to [[Quebec]], where he was joined by LuAnn. The couple later moved to the [[Nuns' Island]] section of [[Montreal]], where he deserted LuAnn for another woman, Ann Okcha. Later in 1984, the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP) arrested Agro. He was soon repatriated to the United States and sent to prison. In 1986, Agro was released from prison due to an inoperable [[brain tumor]].

On February 11, 1987, Agro pleaded guilty to federal racketeering charges in a court session held in his hospital room at [[Mount Sinai Hospital]] in New York. <ref>http://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/12/nyregion/ex-fbi-agent-rebuts-testimony-for-gotti.html?scp=1&sq=Thomas%20Agro&st=cse</ref>Agro died later in 1987.

==In popular culture==
* In the 1990 film ''[[Goodfellas]]'', the character "Vinnie", played by [[Charles Scorsese]], the father of director [[Martin Scorsese]], is based on Agro. Agro's character, Vinnie is seen cooking onions while in prison, and unlike his real-life counterpart, is not the triggerman at the murder of Tommy DeVito ([[Joe Pesci]]) (based on [[Thomas DeSimone]]).

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*O'Brien, Joseph F. and Kurins, Andris, ''Boss of Bosses: The Fall of The Godfather: The FBI and Paul Castellano'', Pocket Books (1993)ISBN 0671715410
*Ianuzzi, Joseph, ''Joe Dogs: The Life and Crimes of a Mobster'' Simon & Schuster (June 1993) ISBN 0671797522

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Agro, Thomas
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Agro, Thomas}}
[[Category:1931 births]]
[[Category:1987 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from brain cancer]]
[[Category:Gambino crime family]]
[[Category:American mobsters of Italian descent]]
[[Category:People from Manhattan]]
[[Category:People from Palm Beach, Florida]]

[[ro:Thomas Agro]]

Thomas Agro

2011-01-12T15:17:24Z

CanadianLinuxUser: Reverted 1 edit by 12.152.72.210 (talk). (TW)

{{Infobox criminal
| subject_name =Thomas Agro
| image_name =
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| birth_date =1931
| birth_place =[[New York City]]
| death_date =1987
| death_place =[[New York City]]
| cause =Unknown natural causes
| alias =Tommy A, T.A., Tipp, and Thomas Ambrosiano
}}

'''Thomas Agro''' (1931 – 1987), also known as "Tommy A", "T.A.", "Tipp", and "Thomas Ambrosiano", was a New York gangster with the [[Gambino crime family]] who ran lucrative bookmaking and gambling operations in [[Florida]].

==Background==
Born on the [[Upper East Side]] of [[Manhattan]] to immigrants from [[Sicily]], Agro was originally married to LuAnn Yaden, a [[Puerto-Rican]]-[[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] woman. After divorcing Yaden, Agro married a [[French people|French]]-[[Lao people|Laotian]] woman who handled the liquor accounts for two nightclubs. Agro was the brother-in-law of Paul Stanisci Jr. Agro was a smiling pudgy little man always immaculately dressed and manicured. He wore a jet black toupee that was supposedly so sleek that it reflected flashing disco lights, creating bizarre effects of sparks coming out of his head {{Fact|date=May 2007}}. According to the FBI, Agro had a prescription for [[Lithium pharmacology|lithium]]. Additionally, he took medications for heart problems that stemmed from high blood pressure and for a lung ailment.

Standing 5'5, Agro was a classic bully who enjoyed beating up people. Since he was sickly as well as small, Agro always needed several henchmen to hold down his victims so he could safely torture them. Agro was known to carry a pair of sharpened scissors on him at all times. Agro would approach his victims quite slowly, carrying a knife. This gave his pinioned victims ample time to urinate in their pants. Agro's attacks were more spontaneous than planned though.

==Mobster==
In 1975 or 1976, Agro became a ''[[made man]]'', or full member, of the Gambino family. Agro was sponsored for membership by [[Joe N. Gallo]], the family consigliere. He worked under [[Joseph Armone]], one of Castellano's most trusted associates. While Agro was never promoted above street-level soldier, he enjoyed a privileged relationship with family boss [[Paul Castellano]]. During this period, Agro was sent to prison for bookmaking. By 1976 Agro was dividing his time between New York and [[Palm Beach County, Florida]].

==Relations with Joseph Ianuzzi==
It was in Florida that Agro selected mobster [[Joseph Iannuzzi]] to act as his representative. Iannuzzi enjoyed the attention and respect he received when Agro was in Florida. The two mobsters frequented all the top nightspots and track betting. It was while at the [[greyhound racing]] tracks that Agro coined Iannuzzi's nickname "Joe Dogs". Iannuzzi was given free rein to operate on behalf of Agro and the Gambino crime family. Iannuzzi operated bookmaking and loansharking while engaging in the occasional robbery and burglary. When Agro's sponsor, Joe N. Gallo, visited Florida, Iannuzzi would look after him.

In 1980, the Agro/Iannuzzi relationship began to fizzle. Agro had previously lent Ianuzzi a sizeable amount of money to be used to facilitate a loanshark book. Ianuzzi was supposed to pay Agro several percentage basis points (commonly referred to as ''points'') a week. Ianuzzi would then lend offer loans to fellow criminals and gamblers at several additional points. The difference, called the 'spread', would be Iannuzzi's profit. Ianuzzi would hold several weeks or months worth of interest (or ''vig'', in mafia vernacular), delivering it to Agro whenever he visited New York. At other times, Agro would visit Iannuzzi in Florida to collect the interest. Agro had plans to invest the illegal interest into legitimate businesses. However, Ianuzzi soon fell several months behind in delivering the money of Agro. Later in 1980, while visiting New York, Ianuzzi deliberately snubbed Agro.

On January 19, 1981, the enraged Agro found Ianuzzi at the Don Ritz Pizzeria on [[Singer Island, Florida]] and severely beat him with a [[baseball bat]]. After surviving this attack, Ianuzzi decided to start working as an informant for the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI). Since Ianuzzi had been assaulted with a bat, the FBI agents appropriately dubbed the case Operation [[Home Run]]. Ianuzzi now paid Agro the delinquent money (with funds supplied by the FBI) and Agro welcomed him back to the family. Ianuzzi now wore a hidden listening device whenever he met with Agro and other Florida mobsters operating. In one tape, Agro told Iannuzzi that he had survived the January attack only because the pizzeria owner's wife entered the room. On one occasion, Agro confessed to the murders of Lucchese associates [[Anthony DeSimone]] and [[Thomas DeSimone]]. However, Ianuzzi was not recording at that moment, so Agro was never convicted of these murders.

==Later years==
In 1984, Agro was prosecuted at the Home Run trials in Florida for loan sharking, extortion, and attempted murder. After being sentenced to fifteen years in a federal [[penitentiary]], Agro fled to [[Quebec]], where he was joined by LuAnn. The couple later moved to the [[Nuns' Island]] section of [[Montreal]], where he deserted LuAnn for another woman, Ann Okcha. Later in 1984, the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP) arrested Agro. He was soon repatriated to the United States and sent to prison. In 1986, Agro was released from prison due to an inoperable [[brain tumor]].

On February 11, 1987, Agro pleaded guilty to federal racketeering charges in a court session held in his hospital room at [[Mount Sinai Hospital]] in New York. <ref>http://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/12/nyregion/ex-fbi-agent-rebuts-testimony-for-gotti.html?scp=1&sq=Thomas%20Agro&st=cse</ref>Agro died later in 1987.

==In popular culture==
* In the 1990 film ''[[Goodfellas]]'', the character "Vinnie", played by [[Charles Scorsese]], the father of director [[Martin Scorsese]], is based on Agro. Agro's character, Vinnie is seen cooking onions while in prison, and unlike his real-life counterpart, is not the triggerman at the murder of Tommy DeVito ([[Joe Pesci]]) (based on [[Thomas DeSimone]]).

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*O'Brien, Joseph F. and Kurins, Andris, ''Boss of Bosses: The Fall of The Godfather: The FBI and Paul Castellano'', Pocket Books (1993)ISBN 0671715410
*Ianuzzi, Joseph, ''Joe Dogs: The Life and Crimes of a Mobster'' Simon & Schuster (June 1993) ISBN 0671797522

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Agro, Thomas
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Agro, Thomas}}
[[Category:1931 births]]
[[Category:1987 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from brain cancer]]
[[Category:Gambino crime family]]
[[Category:American mobsters of Italian descent]]
[[Category:People from Manhattan]]
[[Category:People from Palm Beach, Florida]]

[[ro:Thomas Agro]]