Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Kothaufen-Emoji

2018-02-19T08:41:34Z

Cahk: Reverted 1 edit by Mido elsesy (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG. (TW)

{{multiple image
| width = 60
| image1 = Emoji u1f4a9.svg
| alt1 =
| image2 = Twemoji_1f4a9.svg
| alt2 =
| footer = '''Left:''' The Pile of poo
emoji as it appears in [[Noto fonts|Noto]] '''Right:''' the emoji as it appears on [[Twitter]] and [[Snapchat]]
}}

{{emoji|1F4A9
}}, also known as '''Pile of Poo''', '''Smiling Poop emoji''', or '''Smiling Pile of Poo''' (on [[iOS]] devices) is an [[emoji]] resembling a coiled pile of [[feces]] usually adorned with a "friendly smile".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://emojipedia.org/pile-of-poo/|title=💩 Pile of Poo Emoji|language=English|accessdate=29 March 2017}}</ref> It is used to convey dissatisfaction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stellar.ie/klaxon/8-emojis-you-might-not-know-the-real-meaning-of/787|title=8 Emojis You Might Not Know The Real Meaning Of | Stellar|last=McDermott|first=Kirstie|date=8 March 2015|language=English|accessdate=29 March 2017}}</ref>

The emoji is in the [[Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs]] Unicode block: {{unichar|1F4A9|PILE OF POO|html=}}.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/1f4a9/index.htm |title= Unicode Character 'PILE OF POO' (U+1F4A9) |work= FileFormat.info |access-date = March 29, 2017}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Pile-of-poo 1f4a9.png|thumb|Microsoft's version of this emoji.]]
In 1998 or 1999, Japanese mobile operators [[NTT DoCoMo]], [[au (mobile phone company)|au]], and [[SoftBank Mobile]] each defined their own variants of emoji using proprietary standards, the first of which was created by NTT DoCoMo employee Shigetaka Kurita.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2014/11/emojis-rapid-evolution.html|title=Smile, You're Speaking Emoji|last=Sternbergh|first=Adam|date=16 November 2014|language=English|accessdate=29 March 2017}}</ref>

In 2007, [[Google]], looking to expand its presence in Japan and Asia as a whole, partnered with au to develop emoji for [[Gmail]], a project codenamed "Mojo". Gmail's design for the pile of poo emoji lacked a face and was circled above by animated flies. When deciding which emoji to include, Takeshi Kishimoto, Google's Japanese product manager, went directly to the manager of Gmail and convinced him that the pile of poo emoji was the "most useful" emoji. This was corroborated by a statistical analysis undertaken by Google to determine which emoji were the most popular among Japanese users. According to Google software engineer Darren Tong the pile of poo emoji was "way up there" in terms of popularity. Design for the emoji was left to [[Google Doodle]] artists Ryan Germick and Susie Sahim who sought to put a "Google spin" on the existing emojis. They drew inspiration from the existing emoji designs as well as the character [[List of Dr. Slump characters#Poop-Boy|Poop-Boy]] from the ''[[Dr. Slump]]'' manga by [[Akira Toriyama]]. They limited themselves to a size of 15×15 pixels and colors used only in Google's logo.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/3037803/the-oral-history-of-the-poop-emoji-or-how-google-brought-poop-to-america|title=The Oral History Of The Poop Emoji (Or, How Google Brought Poop To America) | Fast Company|last=Schwartzberg|first=Lauren|date=18 November 2014|language=English|accessdate=29 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dazeddigital.com/artsandculture/article/24687/1/what-does-the-stinky-poop-emoji-really-mean|title=What does the stinky poop emoji really mean? | Dazed|last=Healy|first=Claire|date=12 May 2015|language=English|accessdate=29 March 2017}}</ref>

In 2017 a "frowning pile of poo" emoji was shortlisted for inclusion in a future Unicode release.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blog.emojipedia.org/kangaroo-softball-frowning-poo-emojis-possible-for-2018/|title=Kangaroo, Softball, Frowning Poo Emojis Possible For 2018|date=2017-08-03|work=Emojipedia|access-date=2017-08-18}}</ref>

==Popularity==
[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News']] Samantha Selinger-Morris states in her 2016 article that the smiling poop emoji is "one of the most popular emojis in existence" due to its "ineffable charm" and "ability to transcend language barriers and political differences." As such, it has been featured on [[mylar]] birthday balloons and cupcakes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-12-10/the-popularity-of-the-poo-emoji/8102762|title=Why are we so passionate about the smiling poop emoji? - ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)|last=Selinger-Morris|first=Samantha|date=9 December 2016|language=English|accessdate=29 March 2017}}</ref> In 2016, a [[termite]] mound in [[Western Australia]] was transformed into a smiling poop emoji by a couple with supplies from [[Kmart Australia | Kmart]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mashable.com/2016/07/05/poo-emoji-termite-mound/#jBXxBhSGymqb|title=Poop emoji made from a termite mound is the roadside art we need|last=Lieu|first=Johnny|date=5 July 2016|language=English|accessdate=29 March 2017}}</ref>

==Adaptations==
The icon is a character in 2017's ''[[The Emoji Movie]]'', voiced by [[Patrick Stewart]].<ref name="CBMakeABetterPerson">{{cite news|last1=Amidi|first1=Amid|title=‘Emojimovie: Express Yourself’ Promises To Make You A Better Person|url=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/feature-film/emojimovie-express-promises-make-better-person-143757.html|work=Cartoon Brew|accessdate=November 20, 2016|date=October 10, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/patrick-stewart-voice-poop-emoji-emoji-movie-965588|title=Patrick Stewart to Voice Poop Emoji in 'Emoji Movie'|last=Giardina|first=Carolyn|date=January 18, 2017|work=[[Hollywood Report.|The Hollywood Reporter]]|access-date=January 25, 2017|via=}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Face with Tears of Joy]]
*''[[Kin no unko]]''

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://emojipedia.org/pile-of-poo/ Pile of Poo] at [[Emojipedia]]

{{Emoji navbox}}
[[Category:Symbols introduced in the 2010s]]
[[Category:Emoji]]
[[Category:Feces]]

Black Castle (County Wicklow)

2017-12-01T09:38:48Z

Cahk: Reverted 1 edit by Imgoingtocrashaplane (talk) to last revision by Cahk. (TW)

{{about|the city in Ireland|other uses}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}
{{Infobox settlement
|settlement_type = Town
|name = Wicklow
|native_name = {{Pad top italic|Cill Mhantáin}}
|image_skyline = Wicklow Town - geograph.org.uk - 692370 (cropped).jpg
|image_caption = Farmland and view of Wicklow Town
|image_shield = Wicklow-town-crest.png
|pushpin_map = Ireland
|pushpin_label_position = left
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in Ireland
|coordinates = {{coord|52.9779|-6.033|dim:100000_region:IE|display=inline,title}}
|blank_name_sec1 = Irish Grid Reference
|blank_info_sec1 = {{iem4ibx|T312940}}
|unit_pref = Metric
|elevation_m = 69
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = Ireland
|subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces of Ireland|Province]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Leinster]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[Counties of Ireland|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[County Wicklow]]
|population_urban = 6761
|population_rural = 3595
|population_as_of = 2011
|website = {{URL|www.wicklow.ie}}
}}
'''Wicklow''' ({{Irish place name|Cill Mhantáin|church of the toothless one}})<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G8H99H1jYPAC&pg=PA111 |title=Moon Handbooks: Ireland |first=Camille |last=DeAngelis |publisher=Avalon Travel Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=1-59880-048-5 |page=111 |accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref><ref>Seán Connors. ''Mapping Ireland: from kingdoms to counties'', Mercier Press, 2001, {{ISBN|1-85635-355-9}}, p45</ref> is the [[county town]] of [[County Wicklow]] and the capital of the [[Mid-East Region, Ireland|Mid-East Region]] in [[Ireland]]. Located south of [[Dublin]] on the east coast of the island, it has a population of 10,356 according to the 2011 census.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://census.cso.ie/sapmap2011/Results.aspx?Geog_Type=LT&Geog_Code=15010 |title=Wicklow Legal Town Results |publisher=[[Central Statistics Office (Ireland)|Central Statistics Office]] |year=2011 |accessdate=5 August 2012}}</ref> The town is to the east of the [[N11 road (Ireland)|N11]] [[Roads in Ireland#National Primary Routes|route]] between Dublin and [[Wexford]]. Wicklow is also linked to the [[Rail transport in Ireland|rail network]], with Dublin commuter services now extending to the town. Additional services connect with [[Arklow]], Wexford and [[Rosslare Europort]], a main ferry port. There is also a commercial port, mainly importing timber and textiles. The [[River Vartry]] is the main river which flows through the town.

==Geography==
[[File:Wicklow_town_looking_north_from_southern_end_%28Aug_2014%29.jpg|thumb|Looking north over Wicklow Golf Club (foreground, with rocky outcrops visible on right), across [[Wicklow Bay]] towards the [[Great Sugar Loaf]] (centre) and [[Bray Head]] (right) in the distance. Wicklow town is hidden below the golf club house.]] Wicklow town forms a rough semicircle around Wicklow harbour. To the immediate north lies 'The Murrough', a popular grassy walking area beside the sea, and the eastern coastal strip. The Murrough is a place of growing commercial use, so much so that a road by-passing the town directly to the commercial part of the area commenced construction in 2008 and was completed in summer of 2010. The eastern coastal strip includes Wicklow bay, a crescent shaped stone beach approximately 10 km in length.

Ballyguile Hill is to the southwest of the town. Much of the housing developments of the 1970s and 1980s occurred in this area, despite the considerable gradient from the town centre.

The land rises into rolling hills to the west, going on to meet the [[Wicklow Mountains]] in the centre of the county. The dominant feature to the south is the rocky headlands of [[Bride's Head]] and [[Wicklow Head]], the easternmost mainland point of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. On a very clear day it is possible to see the [[Snowdonia]] mountain range in [[Wales]].

===Climate===
Similar to much of the rest of northwestern Europe, Wicklow experiences a [[maritime climate]] (''Cfb'') with cool summers, mild winters, and a lack of temperature extremes. The average maximum January temperature is 9.2 °C (48.6 °F), while the average maximum August temperature is 21.2 °C (70.2 °F). On average, the sunniest month is May. The wettest month is October with 118.9 mm (4.6 in) of rain and the driest month is April with 60.7 mm (2.4 in). With the exceptions of October and November, rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year with rainfall falling within a relatively narrow band of between 60 (2.4 in) and 86 mm (3.4 in) for any one month. However, a considerable spike occurs in October and November each of which records almost double the typical rainfall of April.

Wicklow is sheltered locally by Ballyguile hill and, more distantly by the Wicklow mountains. This sheltered location makes it one of the driest and warmest places in Ireland. It receives only about 60% the rainfall of the west coast. In addition because Wicklow is protected by the mountains from southwesterly and westerly winds, it enjoys higher average temperatures than much of Ireland. Its average high in August of 21.2 °C (70.2 °F) is a full 1 °C higher than the highest average month in Dublin, only 50 km (30miles) to the north.

While its location is favorable for protection against the prevailing westerly and southwesterly winds that are common to much of Ireland, Wicklow is particularly exposed to easterly winds. As these winds come from the northern European landmass Wicklow can, along with much of the east coast of Ireland, experience relatively sharp temperature drops in winter for short periods.
{{Weather box
|location = [[Ashford, County Wicklow]], (5 km north of Wicklow)
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan high C = 9.2
|Feb high C = 9.6
|Mar high C = 11.2
|Apr high C = 12.9
|May high C = 15.6
|Jun high C = 18.2
|Jul high C = 19.5
|Aug high C = 21.2
|Sep high C = 18.1
|Oct high C = 14.8
|Nov high C = 11.7
|Dec high C = 9.2
|year high C = 14.2
|Jan low C = 2.9
|Feb low C = 2.8
|Mar low C = 3.4
|Apr low C = 4.7
|May low C = 6.9
|Jun low C = 9.4
|Jul low C = 11.2
|Aug low C = 11.3
|Sep low C = 10
|Oct low C = 7.4
|Nov low C = 4.8
|Dec low C = 3.1
|year low C = 6.5
|Jan rain mm = 86
|Feb rain mm = 61.8
|Mar rain mm = 63.6
|Apr rain mm = 60.7
|May rain mm = 65.8
|Jun rain mm = 72.1
|Jul rain mm = 67
|Aug rain mm = 69.8
|Sep rain mm = 72.1
|Oct rain mm = 118.9
|Nov rain mm = 110.9
|Dec rain mm = 85.6
|year rain mm = 935
|Jan precipitation days = 14
|Feb precipitation days = 10
|Mar precipitation days = 9
|Apr precipitation days = 10
|May precipitation days = 10
|Jun precipitation days = 10
|Jul precipitation days = 10
|Aug precipitation days = 10
|Sep precipitation days = 9
|Oct precipitation days = 13
|Nov precipitation days = 13
|Dec precipitation days = 11
|year precipitation days =
|unit precipitation days=1 mm
|Jan sun = 68.0
|Feb sun = 83.2
|Mar sun = 136.8
|Apr sun = 180.4
|May sun = 204.0
|Jun sun = 189.4
|Jul sun = 163.2
|Aug sun = 158.5
|Sep sun = 135.9
|Oct sun = 103.3
|Nov sun = 83.8
|Dec sun = 65.9
|year sun =
|source 1 = Met Éireann
|source 2 = Ashford Weather Station,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.wicklowweather.com/|title=Wicklow Weather|publisher=Ashford Weather Station}}</ref>|date=December 2012}}

==Economy==
[[File:IMGWicklowHarbour 4256w.jpg|thumb|Wicklow Harbour]]
[[File:Wicklow harbour - geograph.org.uk - 171367.jpg|thumb|A ship in Wicklow Harbour]]
Since 1995, the town has undergone significant change and expansion reflecting the simultaneous growth in the [[Celtic Tiger|Irish economy]]. Considerable residential development has taken place to the west of the town along Marlton Road (R751). More recently, housing developments have been concentrated to the northwest of the town towards the neighbouring village of [[Rathnew]]. The completion of the [[Ashford, County Wicklow|Ashford]]/Rathnew bypass in 2004 has meant that Wicklow is now linked to the capital, Dublin, lying 42 km to the north, by dual carriageway and motorway. These factors have led to a steady growth in population of Wicklow and its surrounding townlands while its importance as a [[commuter town]] to Dublin increases.

==Toponymy==
Earlier spellings of the town's name include ''Wykinglo'' in 1173, ''Wygingelow'' in 1185, ''Wykinglo'' in 1192, ''Wykinglowe'' in 1355.<ref>Liam Price, ''The Place-Names of the Barony of Newcastle'', p. 171.</ref><ref>Donall Mac Giolla Easpaig, ''L'influence scandinave sur la toponymie irlandaise'' in ''L'héritage maritime des Vikings en Europe en l'ouest'', Colloque international de la Hague, Presses universitaire de Caen 2002. p. 467 et 468. Translation Jacques Tranier.</ref>

The Swedish toponymist Magne Oftedal<ref>''Scandinavian Place-Names in Ireland'' in ''Proceedings of the Seventh Viking Congress'' (Dublin 1973), B. Alquist and D. Greene Editions, Dublin, Royal Irish Academy 1976. p. 130.</ref> criticises the usual explanation that the name comes from [[Old Norse]] ''Vikingr'' (meaning "Viking") and Old Norse ''ló'' (meaning "meadow"), that is to say "the Vikings' meadow" or "Viking's meadow". He notices that ''-lo'' was never used outside Norway (cf. [[Oslo]]) and Scandinavia. Furthermore, this word is almost never combined with a male name or a general word meaning "a category of person". Moreover, "Viking" never appears in toponymic records. For him, the first element can be explained as ''Uikar-'' or ''Uik-'' "bay" in Old Norse and the intermediate N of the old forms is a mistake by the clerks.

However, all recorded forms show this N. That is the reason why [[Liam Price]]<ref>Price p. 172.</ref> says it is probably a Norwegian place-name and A. Sommerfelt<ref>''The English forms of the Names of the Main Provinces of Ireland'', in ''Lochlann''. ''A Review of Celtic Studies''. IA. Sommerfelt Editions, Trad. ang. of Oslo University Press 1958. p. 224.</ref> gives it as a former ''Vikinga-ló'' and understands it as "the Vikings' meadow". Nevertheless, the Irish [[patronimic]]s Ó hUiginn and Mac Uiginn (anglicised O'Higgins and Maguigan) could bring a key for the meaning "Meadow of a man called Viking".<ref>Mac Giolla Easpaig p. 468</ref>

''Wykinglo'' was the usual name used by the Viking sailors and the traders who travelled around the Anglo-Scandinavian world. The [[Normans]] and [[Anglo-Normans]] who conquered Ireland preferred the non-[[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]] placename.

The origin of the [[Irish language|Irish]] name ''Cill Mhantáin'' bears no relation to the name ''Wicklow''. It has an interesting folklore of its own. [[Saint Patrick]] and some followers are said to have tried to land on Travailahawk beach, to the south of the harbour. Hostile locals attacked them, causing one of Patrick's party to lose his front teeth. Manntach (toothless one), as he became known, was undeterred and returned to the town, eventually founding a church.<ref>''[https://books.google.com.au/books?id=9KpnAAAAMAAJ The Annals of Clonmacnoise, being annals of Ireland from the earliest period to A.D. 1408]''. Mageoghagan, Conell & Murphy, Dennis, 1896, p. 66.</ref> Hence ''Cill Mhantáin'', meaning "church of the toothless one". Although its [[anglicisation|anglicised]] spelling ''Kilmantan''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logainm.ie/?text=wicklow&placeID=55959 |title=Wicklow: Archival records |publisher=Placenames Database of Ireland [[Logainm.ie]] |accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> was used for a time, it gradually fell out of use.

==History==
[[File:Main Street Wicklow.jpg|thumb|left|Main Street]]
During excavations to build the Wicklow road bypass in 2010, a Bronze Age cooking pit (Fulach Fiadh) and hut site was uncovered in the Ballynerrn Lower area of the town. A radio carbon-dating exercise on the site puts the timeline of the discovery at 900 BC.<ref name="Footsteps">{{cite book
| title = Footsteps Through Wicklow's Past
| author = John Finlay
| year = 2013}}</ref>
The first [[Celts]] arrived in Ireland around 600 BC. According to the Greek cartographer and historian, [[Ptolemy]], the area around Wicklow was settled by a Celtic tribe called the [[Cauci]]/Canci. This tribe is believed to have originated in the region containing today's Belgium/German border. The area around Wicklow was referred to as Menapia in Ptolemy's map which itself dates back to 130 AD.<ref name="Footsteps"/>

[[Vikings]] landed in Ireland around 795 AD and began plundering monasteries and settlements for riches and to capture slaves. In the mid-9th century, Vikings established a base which took advantage of the natural harbour at Wicklow. It is from this chapter of Wicklow's history that the name 'Wicklow' originates.<ref name="Footsteps"/>
[[File:Bridge on the Leitrim River in Wicklow Town - geograph.org.uk - 1437981.jpg|thumbnail|'Stone' Bridge over the River Vartry (also known as River Leitrim at this point)]]

The Norman influence can still be seen today in some of the town's place and family names. After the [[Norman invasion of Ireland|Norman invasion]], Wicklow was granted to [[Maurice FitzGerald, Lord of Lanstephan|Maurice FitzGerald]] who set about building the 'Black Castle', a land-facing fortification that lies ruined on the coast immediately south of the harbour. The castle was briefly held by the local O'Byrne, the O'Toole and Kavanagh clans<ref>[[James Wills|Wills, James]] ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_3gHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA449 Lives of illustrious and distinguished Irishmen]''. MacGregor, Polson, 1840, p. 449.</ref> in the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|uprising of 1641]] but was quickly abandoned when English troops approached the town. [[Sir Charles Coote, 1st Baronet|Sir Charles Coote]], who led the troops is then recorded as engaging in "savage and indiscriminate" slaughter of the townspeople in an act of revenge.<ref>Wills, James ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_3gHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA448 Lives of illustrious and distinguished Irishmen]''. MacGregor, Polson, 1840, p. 448.</ref> Local oral history contends that one of these acts of "wanton cruelty" was the entrapment and deliberate burning to death of an unknown number of people in a building in the town. Though no written account of this particular detail of Coote's attack on Wicklow is available, a small laneway, locally referred to as "Melancholy Lane", is said to have been where this event took place.

Though the surrounding [[County Wicklow|County of Wicklow]] is rich in [[bronze age]] monuments, the oldest surviving settlement in the town is the ruined [[Franciscan]] Abbey. This is located at the west end of Main Street, within the gardens of the local [[Roman Catholic]] parish grounds. Other notable buildings include the Town Hall and [[Wicklow Gaol|the Gaol]], built in 1702 and recently renovated as a heritage centre and tourist attraction. The East Breakwater, arguably the most important building in the town, was built in the early 1880s by Wicklow Harbour Commissioners. The architect was William George Strype and the builder was John Jackson of Westminster. The North [[Groyne]] was completed by about 1909 – John Pansing was the designer and Louis Nott of Bristol the builder. [[Wicklow Gaol]] was a place of execution up to the end of the 19th century and it was here that Billy Byrne, a leader of the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|1798 rebellion]], met his end in 1799. He is commemorated by a statue in the town square. The gaol closed in 1924 and is today a tourist attraction with living displays and exhibits.<ref>{{cite book
| title = Illustrated guide to Ireland
| author = S Shepherd| publisher = [[Reader's Digest]]
| year = 1992|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

At Fitzwilliam Square in the centre of Wicklow town is an obelisk commemorating the career of [[Robert Halpin|Captain Robert Halpin]], commander of the telegraph cable ship [[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]], who was born in Wicklow in 1836.<ref name=aa>{{cite book
| title = The illustrated road book of Ireland
| publisher = [[The Automobile Association|Automobile Association]]
| year = 1970}}</ref>

==Transport==
Bus Éireann and Irish Rail both operate through the town.
Bus Éireann provides an hourly which is half-hourly at peak-time service to Dublin City Centre and Airport.Also a service is operated twice daily to Arklow via Rathdrum.
*Route 133 Wicklow (Monument)-Dublin Airport via Grand Hotel, Wicklow Community College, Lidl, Rathnew, Ashford, Newcastle Hospital, Newtownmountkennedy, Garden Village, Kilpedder, Glen of the Downs, Kilmacanogue, Ballywaltrim, Bray, Loughlinstown Hospital, N11, UCD Belfield, RTÉ, Donnybrook Village, Leeson Street, Dawson Street/Kildare Street, City Quays en route to Dublin Airport.<ref name="buseireann.ie">http://www.buseireann.ie/pdf/1367495369-133.pdf</ref>
*Route 133 Wicklow (Monument)-Arklow via Grand Hotel, Wicklow Community College, Lidl, Rathnew, Glenealy, Rathdrum, Meeting Of The Waters, Avoca and Woodenbridge en route to Arklow.<ref name="buseireann.ie"/>
* A train service operates northbound to Dublin Connolly via Kilcoole, Greystones, Bray, Dun Laoghaire, Pearse Street and Tara Street en route to Connolly 6 times on Monday to Fridays.<ref name="irishrail.ie">http://www.irishrail.ie/media/08-dublinrosslareeuroport250920131.pdf?v=gchdrpe</ref>
Trains operate southbound to Rosslare Europort via Rathdrum, Arklow, Gorey, Enniscorthy, Wexford and Rosslare Strand.<ref name="irishrail.ie"/>

==Sports and recreation==

Wicklow Golf Club, founded in 1904, is located between the town and Wicklow head, while [[Blainroe Golf Club]] is situated about 3.5 km south of Wicklow.

==International relations==
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in the Republic of Ireland}}
Wicklow has [[town twinning]] agreements with:
* [[Montigny-le-Bretonneux]], France<ref>{{cite web |title=Wicklow Town hosted Europe en Scene 2011 – The Year to Volunteer |publisher=[[Wicklow County Council]] |year=2012 |url=http://www.wicklow.ie/apps/wicklowbeta/TownCouncils/EuropeEnScene.aspx |accessdate=24 September 2013 }}</ref>
* [[Porthmadog]], Wales{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}
* [[Eichenzell]], Germany

==Notable residents==
* [[Robert Halpin]], (b. 1836) Captain of the [[Brunel]]-designed [[SS Great Eastern]] which laid the [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] in the late 19th century
* [[F. E. Higgins]], writer and former resident of Wicklow<ref>{{cite news|title=Fiona's new book to again be a favourite|url=http://www.independent.ie/regionals/braypeople/news/fionas-new-book-to-again-be-a-favourite-27621452.html|accessdate=4 October 2013|newspaper=Irish Independent|date=27 March 2008}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of towns and villages in the Republic of Ireland|List of towns and villages in Ireland]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* Cleary, J and O'Brien, A (2001) ''Wicklow Harbour: A History'', Wicklow Harbour Commissioners

==External links==
{{Commons category|Wicklow}}
*[http://visitwicklow.ie/towns-villages/wicklow-town/ Wicklow Tourism page on Wicklow Town]
*[http://www.wicklowchamber.ie/ Wicklow Chamber of Commerce]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080908013232/http://www.wicklow.com/walk/ History of Wicklow Town in MP3 format]
*[http://www.wicklowmountainsnationalpark.ie/ Wicklow Mountains National Park]
*[http://www.wicklowwalks.com/ Wicklow Walks]

{{County Wicklow}}

[[Category:Wicklow (town)| ]]
[[Category:Towns and villages in County Wicklow]]
[[Category:Port cities and towns in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:County towns in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Viking Age populated places]]

Black Castle (County Wicklow)

2017-12-01T09:35:51Z

Cahk: Reverted 2 edits by Imgoingtocrashaplane (talk) to last revision by Cahk. (TW)

Black Castle (County Wicklow)

2017-12-01T09:30:26Z

Cahk: rvv

I-Doser

2015-08-24T22:07:29Z

Cahk: Reverted 1 edit by 187.122.233.226 (talk) to last revision by Frap. (TW)

{{Infobox software
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| website =
}}
'''I-Doser''' is an application for the playback of proprietary audio content. The developer claims the separately purchasable content aims to simulate specific [[altered states of consciousness|mental states]] through the use of [[binaural beat]]s, and some of it is named after [[Drug prohibition|prohibited]] recreational drugs.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/08/02/AR2010080204842.html "Some call i-dosing a drug substitute, while others say binaural beats fall flat"], Washington Post, 3 Aug 2010</ref> The I-Doser player has been downloaded millions and millions of times<ref>[http://www.news.com.au/technology/idosing-and-digital-drugs-can-your-kids-really-get-high-without-narcotics/story-e6frfro0-1225892539705 "iDosing and digital drugs - can your kids really get high without narcotics?"], news.com.au, July 16, 2010</ref> and is based on the audio technology of a GPL-licensed [[comparison of brainwave entrainment software|binaural beat generator]], SBaGen.<ref>[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/access/1535916901.html?dids=1535916901:1535916901&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Aug+19%2C+2008&author=DAVID+SHAMAH&pub=Jerusalem+Post&desc=This+is+your+mind+on...+binaural+beats&pqatl=google "This is your mind on... binaural beats"] Jerusalem Post, Aug 19, 2008, p18</ref> The player can be downloaded for free, and includes some sample audio content. Additional audio content can be purchased.

==Marketing==
I-Doser tracks are usually 30–40 minutes long and administered with a program called I-Doser. The file format containing the encoded sounds ends in .drg which only the I-Doser program can run. Most ''doses'' are priced in the US $1.99–3.99. There are a small number of premium experimental doses costing more. Some are marketed as intended for relaxation, others to simulate substances and others for mind/mental improvement, like the title Brain+, or 3 called Alpha, Beta, and Theta to target those parts of the brainwaves. There are also mobile applications available for iOS and Android with an extensive in-app store for additional doses. MP3 and CD "packs" can also be purchased, that are simply the doses ported to the format enhanced with ambient sound and music.

The I-Doser .drg files are a derivation of the open source SBaGen file format. The marketing hype behind I-Doser has helped drive its sales.

==Evaluation of claims==
Research into the neurological technology behind I-Doser is sparse. [[Peer review|Peer-reviewed]] studies exist suggesting that some specific binaural beat mixes can affect aspects of mental performance and mood,<ref>Lane, Kasian, Owens & Marsh, [http://prosopopeia.sics.se/style/pdf/binauralbeats.pdf "Binaural Auditory Beats Affect Vigilance Performance and Mood"], Physiology & Behavior, 1998, 63, No. 2, p249–252</ref><ref>Padmanabhan, Hildreth & Laws, [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2044.2005.04287.x/abstract "A prospective, randomised, controlled study examining binaural beat audio and pre-operative anxiety in patients undergoing general anaesthesia for day case surgery"], Anaesthesia, 2005, 60 p874–877</ref> act as analgesic supplements<ref>Lewis, Osborn & Roth, [http://www.anesthesia-analgesia.org/content/98/2/533.full "The Effect of Hemispheric Synchronization on Intraoperative Analgesia"], Anesthesia & Analgesia, February 2014, 98 no. 2 p533-536</ref> or affect perceptions,<ref>Johnson & [[God helmet|Persinger]], [http://www.laurentienne.ca/NR/rdonlyres/30DE8955-053D-49F8-B725-0CDC33F4B5DC/0/1990_125.pdf "The Sensed Presence may be Facilitated by Interhemispheric Intercalation"], Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1994, 79, p351-354</ref> but there have been no formal studies of any effects of mixes particular to I-Doser. Researchers from Oregon Health and Science University interviewed about I-Doser have expressed skepticism over its scientific basis, citing a four-person controlled study of binaural beats that demonstrated no evidence of [[brainwave entrainment]].<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128519787&ft=1&f=1030 "Researcher Dispels Notion Music Can Get Kids High"], NPR, 14 July 2014</ref> Other universities have also stated skepticism.<ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/health/2012201357_digitaldrugs25.html "Turn on, tune in and get high on 'audio drugs'?"], Seattle Times, 24 Jun 2014</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Software]]

Thomas Strakosha

2015-08-09T23:03:14Z

Cahk: Requesting speedy deletion (CSD G7). (TW)

Stoneghost

2013-02-08T19:51:43Z

Cahk: /* 2012 Canadian Spy Case */

'''STONEGHOST''' or "'''Stone Ghost'''", is a name for a [[Top Secret]] [[Sensitive Compartmented Information]] network operated by the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] connecting classified intelligence programs and information from [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]].<ref>[http://www.cdi-crd.forces.gc.ca/sites/page-eng.asp?page=1413 Biography of John F. Cruse]</ref><ref>[http://www.afcea.org/signal/articles/templates/SIGNAL_Article_Template.asp?articleid=427&zoneid=31 Kenyon, Henry S. "Desktop System Streamlines Analysis Work"]</ref><ref>[http://www.dni.gov/reports/IC_Consumers_Guide_2009.pdf U.S. Intelligence Community Consumers Guide 2009]</ref> STONEGHOST is a highly secured network with strict physical and digital security requirements. The network was previously known as [[Intelink]]-C and may be referred to as “Q-Lat” or “Quad link.”

== 2012 Canadian Spy Case ==
[[Royal Canadian Navy]] intelligence officer Sub-Lt. [[Jeffrey Delisle]] pleaded guilty on 10 October 2012 to charges including having downloaded and sold information from the STONEGHOST system to the Russian spy agency [[GRU]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Navy spy sold secrets to Russia for $3K a month|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/story/2012/10/10/ns-delisle-spy-hearing.html|accessdate=10 October 2012|newspaper=CBC News|date=10 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="Corera-2012"/> He was sentenced to 20 years in [[penitentiary]], minus time served on Feburary 6, 2013 for contravening the ''[[Security of Information Act]]''.<ref> [http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/story/2013/02/08/ns-spy-faces-sentencing.html Navy spy Delisle sentenced to 20 years in prison]</ref><ref> [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/canadian-spy-jeffrey-delisle-gets-20-years-for-selling-secrets-to-russia/article8390425/ Canadian spy Jeffrey Delisle gets 20 years for selling secrets to Russia]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Corera-2012">{{cite url|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20112616|title=Jeffrey Delisle: Canadian spy passed on UK secrets|last=Corera|first=Gordon|publisher=[[BBC]]|work=[[BBC News]]|date=28 October 2012|accessdate=28 October 2012}}</ref>
}}

{{government-stub}}
[[Category:Defense Intelligence Agency]]

Stoneghost

2013-02-08T19:51:04Z

Cahk:

'''STONEGHOST''' or "'''Stone Ghost'''", is a name for a [[Top Secret]] [[Sensitive Compartmented Information]] network operated by the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] connecting classified intelligence programs and information from [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]].<ref>[http://www.cdi-crd.forces.gc.ca/sites/page-eng.asp?page=1413 Biography of John F. Cruse]</ref><ref>[http://www.afcea.org/signal/articles/templates/SIGNAL_Article_Template.asp?articleid=427&zoneid=31 Kenyon, Henry S. "Desktop System Streamlines Analysis Work"]</ref><ref>[http://www.dni.gov/reports/IC_Consumers_Guide_2009.pdf U.S. Intelligence Community Consumers Guide 2009]</ref> STONEGHOST is a highly secured network with strict physical and digital security requirements. The network was previously known as [[Intelink]]-C and may be referred to as “Q-Lat” or “Quad link.”

== 2012 Canadian Spy Case ==
[[Royal Canadian Navy]] intelligence officer Sub-Lt. [[Jeffrey Delisle]] pleaded guilty on 10 October 2012 to charges including having downloaded and sold information from the STONEGHOST system to the Russian spy agency [[GRU]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Navy spy sold secrets to Russia for $3K a month|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/story/2012/10/10/ns-delisle-spy-hearing.html|accessdate=10 October 2012|newspaper=CBC News|date=10 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="Corera-2012"/> He was sentenced to 20 years in [[penitentiary]], minus time served on Feburary 6, 2013 for contravening the ''[[Security of Information Act]]''.

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Corera-2012">{{cite url|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20112616|title=Jeffrey Delisle: Canadian spy passed on UK secrets|last=Corera|first=Gordon|publisher=[[BBC]]|work=[[BBC News]]|date=28 October 2012|accessdate=28 October 2012}}</ref>
}}

{{government-stub}}
[[Category:Defense Intelligence Agency]]

Laurentian University

2011-05-29T19:36:55Z

Cahk: +CoA

{{More footnotes|date=March 2009}}
{{Coord|46|27|57.75|N|80|58|13.77|W|display=title|type:edu}}

{{Infobox University
|image = [[File:LaurentianU COA.jpg]]
|name = '''Laurentian University'''
|image_name =
|motto = ''Emitte lucem et veritatem'' (Send forth thy light and thy truth)
|established = 1960 Laurentian University of Sudbury/Université Laurentienne de Sudbury. Former name, University of Sudbury
|type = [[Public university|Public]]
|endowment = [[Canadian dollar|C$]]143 million
|president = [[Dominic Giroux]]
|chancellor = [[Aline Chrétien]]
|city = [[Greater Sudbury|Sudbury]]
|state = [[Ontario]]
|country = [[Canada]]
|undergrad = Over 9000
|postgrad = 515
|staff = 922
|campus = [[Urban area|urban]] [[green belt]], 304 ha (750 acres)
|free_label = Sport Teams
|free = [[Laurentian Voyageurs]]
|nickname = Voyageur
|mascot = Voyageur
|affiliations = [[Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada|AUCC]], [[International Association of Universities|IAU]], [[Council of Ontario Universities|COU]], [[L'Association des universités de la francophonie canadienne|AUFC]], [[Canadian Virtual University|CVU]], Ontario Network of [[Women in engineering]], [[Canadian Interuniversity Sport|CIS]], [[Ontario University Athletics|OUA]], [[Canadian Bureau for International Education|CBIE]], [[Canadian University Press|CUP]].
|website = [http://www.laurentian.ca www.laurentian.ca]
|telephone = 1-800-461-4030
|colours = [[Gold (color)|gold]] {{color box|#FDD017}} & [[Blue (color)|blue]] {{color box|#072B61}}
|logo = [[Image:Laurentian University.svg|250px]]
|}}

'''Laurentian University''' (''Université Laurentienne''), founded in 1960, is a mid-sized [[bilingualism in Canada|bilingual]] [[university]] in [[Greater Sudbury]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. While LU's focus is primarily on undergraduate programming, the university also features Canada's newest medical school — opened in 2005, the [[Northern Ontario School of Medicine]], in consortium with [[Lakehead University]]. Its school of Graduate Studies offers a growing number of graduate-level degrees.<ref>[http://laurentian.ca/Laurentian/Home/Academic+Calendar/Graduate+Calendar/Graduate+Calendar.htm?Laurentian_Lang=en-CA]</ref> Laurentian is the largest bilingual provider of [[distance education]] in Canada.

==Overview==
The university's campus is located on the south side of [[Lake Ramsey]], just south of Greater Sudbury's downtown core and near some of the city's wealthiest residential neighbourhoods. The city's Idylwylde [[golf course]] also borders on the university campus.

The university has a [[federated school]] structure, similar to that of the [[University of Toronto]]. The school also has an unusual and sometimes controversial student government structure — there are actually two separate [[Students' union|student unions]] (in addition to the part time and graduate student associations). The Francophone Student's Association (AEF) is for [[francophones]], while the Student's General Association (SGA) is for both [[English Canadian|anglophones]] and francophones. However, any student can affiliate with either union, regardless of language, and because the two unions do not offer identical student services, many students from one language group change their affiliation to the other student union depending on which services they want. Consequently, in practice the two student unions often compete with each other rather than serving distinct groups.

==History==
Laurentian's historical roots lie in the [[Roman Catholic]] church.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0001983 Laurentian University/Université Laurentienne]</ref>
A university federation combining representatives from the Roman Catholic, United, and Anglican churches was formed in the 1959-60 academic year.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> With the new university's space needs exceeding the capacity of the existing [[University of Sudbury|Collège du Sacré-Coeur]] facility, the university held classes in a variety of locations in the city, including the [[Sudbury Steelworkers Hall]], until its current campus was opened in 1964.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

The federated colleges include [[Huntington University, Ontario|Huntington College]] ([[United Church of Canada|United Church]]), [[University of Sudbury|University of Sudbury College]] ([[Roman Catholic]], descended from the Collège du Sacré-Coeur established by the [[Jesuits]] in 1913), and [[Thorneloe University|Thorneloe College]] ([[Anglican Church of Canada|Anglican]])<ref>http://www.heritagefdn.on.ca/userfiles/HTML/nts_1_6566_1.html|Ontario Heritage Trust Laurentian University of Sudbury.</ref> [[Université de Hearst|Collège universitaire de Hearst]] in [[Hearst, Ontario|Hearst]] is the only remaining affiliated college while both [[Nipissing University|Nipissing University College]] in [[North Bay, Ontario|North Bay]] and [[Algoma University|Algoma University College]] in [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario|Sault Ste. Marie]] were previously affiliated with Laurentian.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> Nipissing University and Algoma University were established as independent universities, in 1992 and in 2008 respectively.

There is a plaque at the entrance to the R. D. Parker Building, University Dr., Sudbury
{{cquote|Laurentian University of Sudbury; 
On petition of the University of Sudbury, the [[United Church of Canada]] and the Anglican Diocese of Algoma, supported by prominent citizens, this non-denominational, bilingual institution of higher learning was incorporated in 1960. Higher education in Northern Ontario had its origins in Sacred Heart College, founded in 1913 by the [[Society of Jesus]], which as the University of Sudbury first exercised its degree-granting powers in 1957. Such power, except in theology, were suspended in 1960 when both the University of Sudbury ([[Roman Catholic]]) and the newly incorporated Huntington University (United Church) federated with Laurentian University, which awarded its first degrees in 1961. In 1963, Thorneloe University (Anglican), incorporated in 1961, joined the federation.}}

==Partnership==
[[File:NOSMexterior.jpg|right|thumb|Northern Ontario Medical School]]
The university has strong ties with the mining industry, being one of the few schools in Canada offering mining engineering, and the only Canadian university located in a city where the major industry is mining. The [[Willett Green Miller Centre]], a provincial building located on the site, is home to the Mining Innovation, Rehabilitation and Applied Research Corporation ([[MIRARCO]]), a not-for-profit applied research and technical service company formed through collaboration between Laurentian University and the private and public sectors. The Willett Green Miller Centre is also home to the Mineral Exploration Research Centre (MERC), a semi-autonomous research and teaching centre whose focus is field-based, collaborative research on mineral deposits and their environments. The mission of MERC is to conduct and promote cutting-edge, field-based, collaborative research on mineral deposits and their environments, and to educate and train highly qualified personnel for careers in the minerals industry, academia or government.

The university is also a key partner in the [[Sudbury Neutrino Observatory]] (SNO), the world's deepest underground laboratory that has been providing, since 1998, new clues on the composition of the [[sun]] and the origins of the universe.

In 2004, the university, along with [[Lakehead University]], formed the [[Northern Ontario Medical School]].

The university is a member of [[L'Association des universités de la francophonie canadienne]], a network of academic institutions of the Canadian Francophonie.<ref>[http://www.aufc.ca/ AUFC]</ref>

==Administration==
Upon the resignation of the last president, Dr. Judith Woodsworth, Dominic Giroux became the president of Laurentian University. Dr. Woodsworth had been president of Laurentian University since July 2002. In April 2006, she had been reappointed by the Board of Governors for a second five-year term which commenced in July 2007. She left the university as the new President and Vice-Chancellor of Concordia University, Montreal. Under her leadership, Laurentian saw the opening of the Northern Ontario School of Medicine in 2005, the creation of the university’s first six PhD programs, tremendous growth in research capacity and numerous construction projects on campus. The Board of Governors heads the university with the president. Directly to the left and right of the president is the assistant to the president, and the Laurentian University senate.

[[Aline Chrétien]], the wife of former Canadian Prime Minister [[Jean Chrétien]], was named the university's chancellor on September 22, 2010.<ref>[http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/864845--aline-chretien-named-first-chancellor-of-laurentian-university "Aline Chrétien named first chancellor of Laurentian University"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', September 22, 2010.</ref>

Laurentian University's affiliate universities, each have a chancellor. The chancellor is largely a ceremonial role, and has little participation in the day-to-day operations of the university. The chancellor for the affiliated, University of Sudbury is prominent Sudbury lawyer André Lacroix Q.C./c.r. LL.D. (from the law firm Lacroix Forest LLP/s.r.l.). The chancellor for the affiliated Thorneloe University is Dr. Ernie Checkeris. And the first chancellor of the affiliated Huntington University is Dr. Edward (Ted) Conroy, another prominent Sudbury lawyer from the law firm of Conroy Scott Trebb Hurtubise LLP. University administration is the responsibility of the Board of Governors, headed by the chairperson of the Board of Governors. This post is current held by [[Floyd Laughren]].

===Presidents of Laurentian University===
* Stanley G. Mullins (1963–1970)
* R.J.A. Cloutier (1970–1972)
* Edward J. Monahan (1972–1977)
* Henry Best (1977–1984)
* John Daniel (1984–1991)
* Ross Paul (1991–1998)
* Jean Watters (1998–2001)
* Dr. Judith Woodsworth (2002–2008)
* Dominic Giroux (2009–present)

===Chairpersons of the Board of Governors===
* Ralph D. Parker (1960–1965)
* Horace J. Fraser (1965–1969)
* W.J.(Bill) Shea (1969–1971)
* W.B.(Bill) Plaunt (1971–1973)
* [[Jean-Noël Desmarais]] (1973–1978)
* André Lacroix (1978–1981)
* Frank Clumpus (1981–1984)
* Normand Forest (1984–1987)
* Alan Querney (1987–1991)
* Roberto Grosso (1991–1994)
* Jamie Wallace (1994–1996)
* Douglas Los (1996–1998)
* Robert Del Frate (1998–2001)
* Maureen Lacroix (2001–2004)
* Jim Smith (2004–2007)
* Carolyn Sinclair (2007–2010)
* [[Floyd Laughren]] (2010–present)

==Undergraduate Programs==


===Arts===
''Humanities''
* [[Computer Science]]
* [[Communication Studies]]
* [[English studies|English]]
* [[French language|French]]
* [[Modern Languages and Literatures]]
* [[Philosophy]]
* [[Fine Arts]]
* [[General Arts]]
* [[Arts d'Expression]]
* [[Theatre Arts]]
* [[Music]]
* [[Religious Studies]]
* [[Women's Studies]]
* [[Classical Studies]]
* [[Folklore and Ethnology]]
* [[Native Studies]]
* [[Mathematics]]
* [[Ethics Studies]]

''Social Sciences''
* [[Anthropology]]
* [[Earth Science]]
* [[Economics]]
* [[Geography]]
* [[Gerontology]]
* [[History]]
* [[Labour and Trade Union Studies]]
* [[Law and Justice]]
* [[Political Science]]
* [[Psychology]]
* [[Sociology]]
* [[Sports Psychology]]

===Sciences===
* [[Anthropology]]
* [[Behavioral neuroscience]]
* [[Biochemistry]]
* [[Biology]]
* [[Chemistry]]
* [[Computer Science]]
* [[Environmental Earth Sciences]]
* [[Forensic Science]]
* [[Geology]]
* [[Liberal Science]]
* [[Mathematics]]
* [[Physics]]
* [[Psychology]]

===Professional Programs===

* [[Commerce and Administration]]
* [[Commerce and Computer Science (E-Business Science)]]
* [[Education]]
* [[Human Kinetics]]
* [[Medicine]]
* [[Midwifery]]
* [[Native Human Services]]
* [[Nursing]]
* [[Social Work]]
* [[Sports Administration]]

===Commerce and Administration===
Laurentian's school of commerce and administration was founded in 1960. Laurentian has embraced the world of international business by creating and maintaining relationships with other universities around the world. It is modeled on the prestigious [[University of Western Ontario]]'s [[Richard Ivey School of Business]]. The school offers small class sizes, one-on-one teaching, and an outstanding faculty.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}} The school of commerce and administration offers a wide variety of programs, from [[Master of Business Administration|MBAs]] to honours degrees in Commerce, Sports Administration (SPAD) and e-Business.

The school utilizes the case study method, in which it teaches through extensive use of business case studies. The case method enables class discussion of real business problems; which will apply the concepts, decision making methods and tools to those situations to help develop analytical and decision making skills. Students get involved in the community by studying real organizations of their choice, participating in research projects sponsored by businesses in the community and solving real problems.

===Education===
Currently, Laurentian has both English and French language education programs for teacher training.
* ''L`École des sciences''
In the Alphonse Raymond building, at the east end of campus, is '''L`École des sciences de l`éducation de l`Université Laurentienne'''. Named after Father Alphonse Raymond, and opened in 1974, the building houses classrooms, a cafeteria, an auditorium, a small gymnasium, and offices for more than a dozen professors. Students attending L'École des sciences have a variety of programs from which to choose. The school, for example, offers a traditional consecutive post-grad B.Ed., a newer concurrent B.A. Educ. degree that can be taken full or part-time, the possibility of engaging in studies on-line, and the chance for certified teachers to complete additional qualifications. B.Ed. students who attend L'École des sciences must complete fifty days of practicum placement focusing on observation and practice teaching. The program provides many of the French-speaking teachers who work in Ontario's publicly-funded education system, particularly in schools located in the northeastern section of the province. See http://laurentienne.ca/educ/index.htm
* ''English-language school''
The English side of the education equation has been more chequered. In 1967 Nipissing University College (with its origins in the North Bay Normal School - commonly called a "Teachers’ College" in Ontario) became affiliated with Laurentian. But in 1992 Nipissing received its own charter and Laurentian lost its formal connection to an English language school of education. More than a decade later, in September 2003, Laurentian began offering its own bachelor of education program in English. This concurrent B.Ed. is a four or five-year program taken along with an undergraduate degree. The primary goal of the English-language bachelor of education program is to foster the development of a new generation of reflective educators who employ holistic teaching approaches. The curriculum features an emphasis on equity and diversity as well as the infusion of [[First Nations|aboriginal]] issues and content. At the moment, the program is offered in just two of the three areas of potential concentration: the primary/junior and junior/intermediate divisions. A new school of education building - based on sustainable environmental principles and located across from L`École des sciences at the east end of the campus – was completed in the summer of 2008. The program requires a 75% average over one's first four years (weighted 12.5/12.5/37.5/37.5) in order to progress to the final (or Pro Year). The 75% minimum average required for entry in the final year means a nearly 80% entering grade in reality, so the annual Pro Year class (ranging from about 65 to 95 students) constitutes a rather elite cohort compared to most other Ontario concurrent programs. Many graduates have gone on to employment with both the local Sudbury boards, with other school boards across Ontario, while many others have acquired employment in Alberta, B.C., and Saskatchewan, with a significant number working overseas (particularly in Britain). See http://laurentian.ca/education/.

==Graduate programs==
* [[Biology]] (M.Sc.)
* [[Business Administration]] (M.B.A.)
* [[Chemical Sciences]] (M.Sc.)
* [[Mineral Resources Engineering]] (M.Eng. and M.A.Sc.)
* [[Geology]] (M.Sc., Ph.D.)
* [[History]] (M.A.)
* [[Human development (psychology)|Human Development]] (M.A. and M.Sc.)
* [[Human Kinetics]] (M.H.K.)
* [[Interdisciplinary Humanities]] (M.A.)
* [[Nursing]] (M.Sc.)
* [[Physics]] (M.Sc.)
* [[Science Communication]] (Graduate Diploma)
* [[Social Work]] (M.S.W.)
* [[Applied Sociology]] (M.A.)
* [[Biomolecular Sciences]] (Ph.D)
* [[Human Studies (Human Science)|Human Studies]] (Ph.D)
* [[Mineral Deposits and Precambrian Geology]] (Ph.D)
* [[Natural Resources Engineering]] (Ph.D)
* [[Boreal Ecology]] (Ph.D)
* [[Diploma in Health Services and Policy Research]] (Graduate Diploma)
* [[Rural and Northern Health]] (Ph.D)
* [[Experimental Psychology]] (M.A.)
* [[Applied Psychology]] (Clinical) (M.A.)

==Federated Schools==
* [[Huntington University, Ontario|Huntington University]]
* [[Northern Ontario School of Medicine]] (in partnership with [[Lakehead University]])
* [[Université de Hearst]]
* [[Thorneloe University]]
* [[University of Sudbury]]

[[Nipissing University]] in [[North Bay, Ontario|North Bay]] and [[Algoma University]] in [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario|Sault Ste. Marie]], both now independent universities, were formerly federated schools of Laurentian.

Laurentian's Bachelor of Science in Nursing program is also taught colleges across Ontario as part of one of three agreements between colleges and the university. Graduates of these collaborate programs receive Laurentian degrees upon graduation. The Northeastern Ontario Collaborative Nursing Program (NEOCNP) is a partnership between Laurentian University, [[Cambrian College]], [[Northern College]], and [[Sault College]]. [[St. Lawrence College, Ontario|St. Lawrence College]] offers Laurentian's Nursing Program through an agreement called the Laurentian-St. Lawrence Collaborative Nursing Program. Finally, [[Collège Boréal]] provides the Nursing program through an agreement with Laurentian University's French-language "sciences infirmières" program.

[[St. Lawrence College, Ontario|St. Lawrence College]] also offers Laurentian's Bachelor of Business degree, a four year program.

==Research Centres==
* [[Association francophone pour le savoir]] (ACFAS)
* [[Centre for Excellence in Mining Innovation (CEMI)]]
* [[Centre in Mining Materials Research]] (CIMMR)
* [[Centre for Research and Human Development]] (CRHD)
* [[Centre for Rural and Northern Health Research]] ([[CRaNHR]])
* [[Cooperative Freshwater Ecology Unit]] (CFEU)
* [[Elliot Lake Research Field Station]] (ELRFS)
* [[Geomechanics Research Centre]] (GRC)
* [[Institut Franco-Ontarien]] (IFO)
* [[Institute of Northern Ontario Research and Development]] (INORD)
* [[Laurentian University Mining Automation Laboratory]] (LUMAL)
* [[Mineral Exploration Research Centre]] (MERC)
* [[MIRARCO|Mining Innovation, Rehabilitation and Applied Research Corporation]] (MIRARCO)
* [[Sudbury Neutrino Observatory]] (SNO)

==Student life==
===Student General Association===
The SGA is the largest student union at Laurentian, with around 5100 students. It offers services in both English and French, although in recent years the English services have become predominant. The association is presided over by a board of directors consisting of representatives of each of the academic departments and residences, as well as commissioners representing groups within the school ([[francophone]], [[First Nations|aboriginal]], [[LGBT|lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender]], [[international students]], [[women's issues|women]], cultural affairs and special needs), three university senators and the executive. Under the by-laws the board only comes into existence on the first day of classes of the fall session and is dissolved at the end of the winter session, for the remainder of year the executive has the full powers of the board.

The executive consists of the president and two vice-presidents (student issues and services), supplemented by an executive director and a receptionist. The staff of the association is relatively small — the president, executive director and receptionist are all full time employees. The vice-president of services is a full time employee from May 1 until the first day of classes in the fall term, when he or she becomes part time. The vice-president of student issues is a part time employee from the second Monday in August onward. The Chief Returning Officer is a part time employee during the election campaign. The editor of ''[[Lambda (newspaper)|Lambda]]'', the director of [[CKLU-FM|CKLU]], the manager of Pub Down Under and the manager of the games room are part-time employees of arm length operations.

===Media===
The university's [[campus radio]] station, [[CKLU-FM|CKLU]], broadcasts at [[FM radio|FM]] 96.7 in both [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]]. Its campus newspapers are ''[[Lambda (newspaper)|Lambda]]'' in English and ''[[L'Orignal déchaîné]]'' ("The Unchained Moose") in French. ''Lambda'' is a member of [[Canadian University Press]], and CKLU is a member of the [[National Campus and Community Radio Association]].

===Sports===
The university's varsity teams, known as the '''Voyageurs''' for the men's teams and the '''Lady Vees''' for the women's teams, compete in [[basketball]], [[soccer]], [[Swimming (sport)|swimming]], [[cross-country running]], [[golf]], [[curling]], and [[Nordic skiing]]. There are also competitive club teams in [[lacrosse]] and [[rowing (sport)|rowing]] and a plethora of intramural sports programmes. The Lady Vees basketball team have been one of the most successful franchises in the history of the [[Canadian Interuniversity Sport women's basketball championship]], winning the title seven times. Notable alumnae of the basketball team include broadcaster [[Sylvia Sweeney]]. The current director of the athletic department is Peter Hellstrom.

==Campus==
===Great Hall (Grand Salon)===
The Great Hall is a multipurpose dining hall and [[auditorium]] that plays a prominent role in the life of the University. During special events, invited speakers and dignitaries may address the University population or general public from the Great Hall. Many conferences held in Sudbury may book the hall for lectures or presentations. Even bands touring Canadian campuses may schedule concerts at the Great Hall.

On a more routine basis, the Great Hall serves as the dining area of the university [[cafeteria]], and is a popular place for student, staff, and faculty alike to grab a snack at breakfast, lunch, or dinner. (The adjacent servery features a made-to-order sandwich bar, [[Pizza Pizza]] counter, stir-fry station, grill, and baked goods stand.)

The hall's outdoor balcony has a view of the greens of the Idywylde Golf and Country Club.

===Fraser Auditorium===
The Fraser Auditorium in the Fraser Building is another large-volume auditorium, though it is more formal than the Great Hall and is regularly used for the larger first-year classes. The Fraser Auditorium is also used for special events and conferences, but a student's most memorable visit will likely be for [[convocation]] ceremonies, held within the auditorium each spring.
In addition the Fraser Auditorium has hosted the Falconbridge Lecture Series hosting such guests as Chief Justice [[Beverley McLachlin]], and Senator [[Roméo Dallaire]] (March 2006).

The auditorium also sometimes hosts cultural events, such as theatre and concert performances, and was the original home of the city's [[Théâtre du Nouvel-Ontario]] and [[Sudbury Theatre Centre]].

===Ben Avery===
The Ben Avery is the sports building. There are a number for Varsity teams from the popular basketball teams to the soccer teams on the field. The Ben Avery is the focal point of the non-academic action. The Ben Avery also has a weight and cardiovascular room. An [[IAAF]] 8 lane 400m mondo track (2010) compliments the sport fields with seating for 5000.

==Residences==
The Laurentian Residences offers four unique residences under the supervision of the main campus and three located at the main campus under the supervision of the federated colleges.

===Single Student Residence (SSR)===
The Single Student Residence is an apartment style complex consisting of 4-6 residents in personal apartment containing a living room, kitchen, and washrooms. The entire complex includes rooms for 387 students in 72 apartments. Student Street, consisting of a convenience store, computer room, mail room, snack bar, and games room, among other rooms and services, is located at the bottom of the SSR complex.

===University College Residence (UC)===
The University College Residence is a ten storey co-ed building with single and double (shared) rooms, providing accommodations for 240 students. University College is also connected to student street giving students access to the same amenitties available to SSR students.

===Married/Mature Student Residence (MSR)===
The Mature Student Residence offers furnished apartments for those whom have accumulated over 90 university credits. The residence is generally thought of as the overall quietest at Laurentian. The rooms consist of one bedroom, a living room, bathroom and kitchen.

===The West Residence===
This residence is the newest residence at Laurentian. It is designed for students who have spent at least two years at the university and obtained a minimum of at least 60 credits. The residence consists of same sex apartment style rooms and cost $14.5 million CAD.

===Thorneloe Residence===
The Thorneloe University College Residence provides accommodations for 58 students. This residence offers large kitchens, sauna, and common rooms with large pool tables. In 2004 the former administrative offices were transformed into a suite for four students. Thorneloe University College, although founded by the Anglican Diocese of Algoma, welcomes all students at Laurentian.

===University of Sudbury===
The University of Sudbury Lucien Matte Residence houses 174 students in 92 single and 41 double bedrooms. The University of Sudbury, although associated with the Roman Catholic Church, welcomes those of all religions.

{{main|University of Sudbury}}

===Huntington University===
{{Main|Huntington University, Ontario}}
The Huntington University College Residence houses 184 students in dorm-style rooms. Kitchens and TV lounges are present on all four floors. The residence is located with the Academic complex which includes classrooms and a library. Huntington University is affiliated with the [[United Church of Canada]], but does not require religious affiliation.
Christopher Levan, noted author, was once president of Huntington University.

==Notable alumni==
[[Image:LaurentianU.png|thumb|Former Laurentian University Logo]]
{{unreferenced section|date=March 2008}}
* [[Rick Bartolucci]]
* [[Alex Baumann]]
* [[Michel Bock]]
* [[Minnijean Brown-Trickey]]
* [[Carlo Cattarello]]
* [[Leo Gerard]]
* [[Elie Martel]]
* [[Tony Martin (politician)|Tony Martin]]
* [[Sharon Murdock]]
* [[André Paiement]]
* [[Marie-Paule Poulin]]
* [[Tony Ruprecht]]
* [[Dave Salmoni]]
* [[Derwyn Shea]]
* [[John Sola]]
* [[Sylvia Sweeney]]
* [[Shawn Swords]]
* [[Gary Wilson (politician)|Gary Wilson]]

==Noted faculty==
* [[Lorenzo Cadieux]]
* Dr. [[Hoi Cheu]]
* [[Robert Dickson (writer)|Robert Dickson]]
* [[Fernand Dorais]]
* Dr. [[Rand Dyck]]
* Dr. Harold Gibson (Geology) - international leader in volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits and winner of the 1992 William Harvey Gross Medal of the Mineral Deposits Division of the [[Geological Association of Canada]].
* [[J. F. Hendry]]
* Dr. [[Shannon E. Hengen]]
* Dr. Balz Kamber (Geology) - international leader and Canada Research Chair in Precambrian Geology and geochemistry. He is also the 2007 Ingerson Lecturer of the International Association of Geochemistry.
* Dr. [[Gary Kinsman]]
* Dr. C. [[Michael Lesher]] (Geology) - international leader in magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide deposit genesis and winner of the 2007 Duncan Derry Medal of the Mineral Deposits Division of the Geological Association of Canada.
* Dr. [[Graeme S. Mount]]
* Dr. [[Roger Nash]]
* Dr. Adam Morin
* [[Alan Nursall]]
* Dr. [[David Pearson (scientist)|David Pearson]]
* Dr. [[Michael Persinger]]
* [[Luis Radford]], educator
* Dr. Mary Vaughan - Noted fictional geneticist (Main Character in Robert J. Sawyer's The Neanderthal Parallax)

==See also==
* [[List of Ontario Universities]]
* [[Ontario Student Assistance Program]]
* [[Higher education in Ontario]]
* [[Canadian Interuniversity Sport]]
* [[Canadian government scientific research organizations]]
* [[Canadian university scientific research organizations]]
* [[Canadian industrial research and development organizations]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.laurentian.ca Laurentian University]
* [http://laurentian.ca/alumni/english/index.html Alumni@Laurentian]

{{Ont post-secondary|d}}
{{Ontario Sports}}

[[Category:Laurentian University| ]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1960]]

[[fr:Université Laurentienne]]
[[pl:Uniwersytet Laurentyński]]

Environment and Climate Change Canada

2011-02-23T19:44:00Z

Cahk: /* External links */

{{Infobox Canadian government departments
|department=Environment
|french=Environnement
|logo=FIP Environment Canada.PNG
|current_minister=Peter Kent
|deputy_minister=Paul Boothe
|secretary=Mark Warawa
|established=1971
|responsibilities=Meteorological Service of Canada

Parks Canada

Canadian Ice Service

Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

Water Survey of Canada

National Water Research Institute

National Pollutant Release Inventory
|employees= ~6,000 <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=BD3CE17D-1 About Environment Canada]</ref>
|website=http://www.ec.gc.ca
}}
'''Environment Canada (EC)''' (French: '''Environnement Canada'''), legally incorporated as the '''Department of the Environment''' under the ''Department of the Environment Act'' ( R.S., 1985, c. E-10 ), is the [[Ministry (government department)|department]] of the [[Government of Canada]] with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources.
(a) the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment, including water, air and soil quality;
(b) renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna;
(c) water;
(d) meteorology;
(e) the enforcement of any rules or regulations made by the International Joint Commission; and
(f) the coordination of the policies and programs of the Government of Canada respecting the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment. Its headquarters is located in Place Vincent Massey, [[Gatineau, Quebec]].<ref>"[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=84AA050D-1 Inquiry Centre]." Environment Canada. Retrieved on February 4, 2011. "Inquiry Centre 351 St. Joseph Blvd. 8th Floor, Place Vincent Massey Gatineau, Quebec K1A 0H3" [http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=Fr&n=84AA050D-1 Address in French]: "Informathèque 351, boul. St-Joseph 8e étage, Place Vincent Massey Gatineau (Québec) K1A 0H3."</ref><ref>"[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=DA294545-1 Contact Us]." Environment Canada. Retrieved on February 4, 2011. "Address: Environment Canada Inquiry Centre 351 St. Joseph Boulevard Place Vincent Massey, 8th Floor Gatineau, Quebec." [http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=Fr&n=DA294545-1 Address in French]: "Environnement Canada Informathèque 351, boulevard St-Joseph Place Vincent-Massey, 8e étage Gatineau (Québec)."</ref>

Under the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' (R.S., 1999, c. 33), Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the clean up hazardous waste and [[oil spill]]s. The department is also responsible for international environmental issues (e.g., Canada-USA air issues).

Under the [[Constitution of Canada]], responsibility for environmental management in [[Canada]] is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments. For example, provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges (e.g., to the air). The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country (e.g., [[benzene]]). Environment Canada provides stewardship of the [[Environmental Choice Program]], which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of (GEN) [[Global Ecolabelling Network]].

Environment Canada continues (2005-present) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making, and to standardize policy implementation.

== Division ==

Environment Canada is divided into several geographic regions:

* [[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic]] ([[Maritimes]] and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]])
* [[Quebec]]
* [[National Capital Region (Canada)|National Capital]]
* [[Ontario]]
* Prairie-Northern ([[Nunavut]], [[Northwest Territories|NWT]] and [[Canadian prairies|Prairies]])
* Pacific-[[Yukon]] ([[British Columbia|BC]] and [[Yukon]])

The department has several organizations which carry out specific tasks:

* [[Meteorological Service of Canada]] (for [[weather forecasting]]; [[climate]], [[air quality]] and [[water monitoring]])<ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/contents_e.html''MSC'']</ref>
** Weather and [[environmental monitoring]] <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/amwsd_e.html''Monitoring'']</ref>
*** Climate Monitoring
***[[Water Survey of Canada]]
** Weather and Environmental Operations
*** Regional Weather Operations
** Weather and Environmental Prediction and Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/aepd_e.html''Predition'']</ref>
*** Aviation and Defence Weather Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/scpd/index_e.cfm''Aviation & Ice Services'']</ref>
*** Marine and Ice Services [(Canadian Ice Service )]
*** National Weather Predictions
**** [[Weatheradio Canada]], a national system of emergency weather broadcast transmitters
* Enforcement Branch
** Environmental Enforcement
** Wildlife Enforcement
* Environmental Stewardship Branch
** [[Canadian Wildlife Service]]<ref>[http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/index_e.cfm ''CWS'']</ref>
** Chemical Sectors
** Energy and Transportation
** Environmental Protection Operations
* Science and Technology Branch
** Atmospheric and Climate Science <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/contents_e.html ''Climate Science'']</ref>
** National Water Research Institute
** [[National Pollutant Release Inventory]]<ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/npri ''NPRI'']</ref>

The Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency is an arms-length agency that reports to the Minister of Environment <ref>[http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=D75FB358-1 (''CEAA'')]</ref>

[[Parks Canada]], which manages the [[National Parks of Canada|Canadian National Parks]] system, was removed from Environment Canada and became an agency reporting to the Minister of Heritage in 1998. In 2003, responsibility for Parks Canada was returned to the Minister of the Environment. <ref>[http://www.pc.gc.ca/index_e.asp ''Parks Canada'']</ref>

== Enforcement ==
[[File:ECBadge.gif|right]]

Environment Canada Enforcement Branch is responsible for ensuring compliance with several federal statues. The [[Governor-in-Council]] appoints enforcement officers and pursuant to section 217(3) of the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'', enforcement officers have all the powers of [[peace officer]]s.

There are two designations of enforcement officers: Environmental Enforcement and Wildlife Enforcement. The former administers the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' and pollution provisions of the ''Fisheries Act'' and corresponding regulations. The latter enforces
''Migratory Birds Convention Act'', ''Canada Wildlife Act'', ''Species at Risk Act'' and ''The Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act''.<ref> [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/default.asp?lang=en&n=2140D763-1 Environment Canada - Acts, Regulations and Agreements - Enforcement - Acts and Regulations]</ref> All officers wear dark green uniform with black ties and a badge (appear on the right). Environmental Enforcement Officers only carry [[Baton (law enforcement)|baton]] whereas Wildlife Enforcement Officers are also equipped with [[firearm]].<ref> [http://www2.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=21ed1bb2-58f3-48d4-8484-6242a268f44d&k=62081 Canada's newest environment officers set to help turn the country green]</ref>

The [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister]] may also appoint members of the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]], [[Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada#Enforcement|fishery officers]], [[Parks_Canada#Enforcement|parks officers]], [[Canada_Border_Services_Agency#Border_Services_Officer|customs officers]] and conservation officers of provincial and territorial governments as enforcement officers and to allow them to exercise the powers and privilege of Environment Canada officers.

On March 4, 2009, a bill to increase the enforcement capabilities of Environment Canada was introduced into the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]]. The Environmental Enforcement Bill would increase the fines for individuals and corporations for serious offenses, give enforcement officers new powers to investigate cases and grants courts new sentencing authorities that ensure penalties reflect the seriousness of the pollution and wildlife offences. <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=714D9AAE-1&news=FF3737AB-7757-4C49-A477-C8FD21750872 New Enforcement Legislation Cracks Down on Environmental Offenders]</ref>

More information: [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/Default.asp?lang=En&n=B670A72A-1/default.asp EC Enforcement Branch]

== Related legislation ==
*[[Canada National Parks Act]]
*[[Canada Water Act]]
*[[Canada Wildlife Act]]
*[[Canadian Environmental Assessment Act]] (1992, c. 37)
*[[Canadian Environmental Protection Act]] (1999)
*[[Department of the Environment Act (Canada)|Department of the Environment Act]]
*[[Environment Week Act]], Canadian
*[[Fisheries Act]] (pollution prevention into fish bearing waters) (R.S., 1985, c. F-14)
*[[International Boundary Waters Treaty Act]] (R.S., 1985, c. I-17)
*[[International River Improvements Act]]
*[[Lac Seul Conservation Act]]
*[[Lake of the Woods Control Board Act]]
*[[Manganese-Based Fuel Additives Act]]
*[[Migratory Birds Convention Act]]
*[[National Wildlife Week Act]]
*[[Resources and Technical Surveys Act]] (R.S., 1985, c. R-7)
*[[Species at Risk Act]] (2002)
*[[Weather Modification Information Act]]
*[[Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Inter-provincial Trade Act]]

== See also ==
{{Portalbox|Canada|Environment}}
* [[Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics]]
* [[Alberta Hail Project]]
* [[North American Game Warden Museum]]
* [[Renewable energy in Canada]]
{{-}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca Environment Canada]
*{{YouTube channel|user=environmentcan}}
*[http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.pc.gc.ca Parks Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/introec/orgs_e.htm Select programs and services of Environment Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroRegs/ENG/Default.cfm Related acts and regulations]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm National Pollutant Release Inventory]
*[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/rhc-wsc/ Water Survey of Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=BBCCE501-1 Canadian Lightning Detection Network]
*[http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/press.cfm?Year=All&Lang=e Press releases issued by Environment Canada for Ontario - entire archive]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/index.html Consolidated Acts and Regulations of Canada]
*[http://www.top500.org/site/history/2433 Environment Canada on top500.org]
* [http://www.nimonik.ca Plain language environmental regulations in Canada - with updates and other info]

{{Government Departments of Canada}}
{{Law enforcement agencies in Canada}}

[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Environment Canada]]
[[Category:Environment ministries]]
[[Category:Federal law enforcement agencies of Canada]]
[[Category:Regulators of biotechnology products]]
[[Category:Environmental protection agencies]]
[[Category:Ministries established in 1971]]
[[Category:Uniformed services of Canada]]

[[es:Environment Canada]]
[[fr:Environnement Canada]]
[[pt:Environment Canada]]
[[zh:加拿大環境部]]

South African Defence Force

2011-02-16T03:01:29Z

Cahk: Reverted edits by 142.27.170.8 (talk) to last version by Cydebot

The '''South African Defence Force''' (SADF) was the [[South Africa]]n [[armed forces]] from 1957 until 1994. The former [[South African Army|Union Defence Force]] was renamed to the South African Defence Force in the Defence Act (No. 44) of 1957. The SADF was superseded by the [[South African National Defence Force]] in 1994.

The SADF was involved in the [[South African Border War]] and in the [[Angolan Civil War]] on the side of [[National Union for the Total Independence of Angola|UNITA]] and Angola rebel leader [[Jonas Savimbi]].

Within South Africa, the SADF was also widely used in the suppression of opposition to [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|apartheid]].

The SADF implemented [[conscription]] of white men and black men, opposed by organisations such as the [[End Conscription Campaign]].

==Organization==
The State President was the Commander-in-Chief of the SADF with:

* [[Chief of the Defence Staff]] - overall senior command officer
* [[Chief of the Army]]
* [[Chief of the Air Force]]
* [[Chief of the Navy]]
* Surgeon General
* [[Joint Forces Commander]]

Staff Divisions under the Chief of Defence Staff included:

* [[Personnel]]
* [[Intelligence]]
* [[Operations]]
* [[Logistics]]
* [[Finance]]

Other Support Services commands included:

* [[Inspector General of the SADF]]
* [[Chaplain General of the SADF]]

A list of Chiefs of Defence Staff of the SADF:

* [[General]] [[A.J. Liebenberg]], [[Order of the Star of South Africa|SSA]], [[Southern Cross Decoration|SD]], [[South African Police Star for Outstanding Service|SOE]], [[Southern Cross Medal|SM]], [[Military Merit Medal|MMM]]
* [[General]] [[Constand Viljoen]], SSA, SD, SOE, SM
* [[General]] [[J.J. Geldenhuys]], SSA, SD, SOE, SM
* [[General]] [[Magnus Malan]], SSA, [[Order for Meritorious Service|OMSG]], SD, SM

Other senior officers:

* [[Lieutenant General]] D.P. Knobel, [[Order of the Star of South Africa|SSAS]], SD, SOE, SM, MMM, K St J
* [[Vice Admiral]] G. Syndercombe, SAA, SD, SOE, SM, Chief of SAN
* [[Colonel]] N.C. Parkins
* [[Brigader]] Philip Schalkwyk
* [[Major General]] D.R. Marais

==Personnel==
* [[Permanent Force]]s - Full time Active members
* [[National Service]]men - Initially called up for 1 year national service, later extended to 2 years national service in 1977, with ongoing short term service requirements. Troops were generally fully trained for operational duty within the space of 4-7 months
* [[Citizen Force]]s - fully trained part-time members
* [[Commando system|Commando Force]]s - AKA "Active Citizen Force" - fully trained members
* [[South African Special Forces Brigade|Special forces]] - including [[South African 32 Battalion|32 Battalion]] , the Reconnaissance Commandos, and the [[Civil Co-operation Bureau]]
* Voluntary Term Service - created in 1992 to replace the National Service
* Service Volunteers - non-permanent full time members
* Auxiliary Service - limited duty personnel who did not meet the academic or physical requirements for national service but performed guard, [[COIN]], labour, and driving duties.

Prior to the dissolution, the SADF had the following force:

* Full-time - 40 000 Volunteer Service, 5 000 National Service
** auxiliaries - 16 000
** civilians - 24 000

* Part-time - 500 000
** Citizen Force (approximately 120 000)
** Commando Force (approximately 130 000 in 200 Units)
** Reserves (approximately 180 000)

==Four armed services==

Four armed services made up the forces of the SADF:

*[[South African Army]]
*[[South African Air Force]]
*[[South African Navy]]
*[[South African Military Health Service|South African Medical Service]]

==Nuclear weapons==
{{main|South Africa and weapons of mass destruction}}

South Africa at one time possessed weapons of mass destruction, including [[nuclear weapons]], but its stockpile was dismantled during the political transition of the early 1990s.

==Integration==
At the end of apartheid in 1994, the SADF was amalgamated with the defence forces of a number of formerly independent [[Bantustan|homelands]] as well as personnel from the former anti-apartheid guerrilla forces such as the [[African National Congress]]'s [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]], the [[Pan Africanist Congress]]'s [[Azanian People's Liberation Army|APLA]] and the Self-Protection Units of the [[Inkatha Freedom Party]] (IFP). The new integrated force became known as the [[South African National Defence Force]].

==See also==
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[South African Police Service]]
*[[South West African Territorial Force]] (SWATF)
*[[Orders, decorations, and medals of South Africa]]
*[[South African National Defence Force]]

==References==
* [http://www.iss.co.za/PUBS/ASR/SADR13/Sass.html Overview of the changing of the SADF]

{{South Africa topics}}
{{Africa topic|Military of}}

[[Category:Organisations associated with apartheid]]
[[Category:History of South Africa]]
[[Category:Military history of South Africa]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1957]]
[[Category:Defunct organisations of South Africa]]
[[Category:Disbanded armed forces]]

[[af:Suid-Afrikaanse Weermag]]
[[cs:Jihoafrické obranné síly]]
[[es:Fuerzas de Defensa de Sudáfrica]]
[[fr:South African Defence Force]]
[[pl:South African Defence Forces]]
[[pt:South African Defence Force]]
[[fi:SADF]]

David Neuberger, Baron Neuberger of Abbotsbury

2010-12-01T12:20:59Z

Cahk: +CFAHK

{{Infobox judge
|honorific-prefix = <center>[[The Right Honourable]]</center>
|name = The Lord Neuberger of Abbotsbury
|honorific-suffix = <center>[[Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council|PC]]</center>
|image = Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom.svg
|imagesize = 150px
|caption = [[Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom]]
|office = [[Master of the Rolls]]
|term_start = 1 October 2009
|term_end =
|monarch = [[Elizabeth II]]
|predecessor = [[Anthony Clarke, Baron Clarke of Stone-cum-Ebony|The Lord Clarke]]
|successor = ''Incumbent''
|office2 = [[Lord of Appeal in Ordinary]]
|term_start2 = 11 January 2007
|term_end2 = 30 September 2009
|predecessor2 = [[Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead|The Lord Nicholls]]
|successor2 = Position eliminated
|office3 = [[Lord Justice of Appeal]]
|term_start3 = 2004
|term_end3 = 2007
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1948|1|10|df=yes}}
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|restingplace =
|birthname = David Edmond Neuberger
|nationality =
|spouse = Angela Holdsworth
|relations = [[Herman N. Neuberger|Rabbi Herman N. Neuberger]] (uncle), [[Julia Neuberger, Baroness Neuberger|Rabbi the Baroness Neuberger]] (sister-in-law)
|residence =
|alma_mater = [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]
|occupation = Judge
|profession = [[Barristers in England and Wales|Barrister]]
|religion =
|signature =
|website =
|footnotes =
}}

'''David Edmond Neuberger, Baron Neuberger of Abbotsbury''', [[Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council|PC]], (born 10 January 1948) is a English lawyer. He was formerly a [[Lord of Appeal in Ordinary]], and since 2009 has been [[Master of the Rolls]], the second most senior judge in England and Wales. He also serves as a [[Court of Final Appeal (Hong Kong)|Non-Permanent Judge of the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal]].<ref> [http://www.judiciary.gov.hk/en/organization/judges.htm List of Judges and Judicial Officers (Position as at 1 September 2010)]</ref>

==Early life==
Neuberger was born on 10 January 1948, the son of [[Albert Neuberger|Professor Albert Neuberger]],<ref name="whoswho">{{citeweb|title=NEUBERGER OF ABBOTSBURY|url=http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whoswho/U29330|work=[[Who's Who (UK)|Who's Who]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|date=December 2008|accessdate=27 July 2009}}</ref> Professor of Chemical [[Pathology]] at [[St Mary's Hospital, London|St Mary's Hospital]], [[University of London]], and his wife, Lilian. His uncle was the noted [[rabbi]], [[Herman N. Neuberger]]. All three of his brothers are now professors: [[James Neuberger|James]] is Professor of Medicine at the [[University of Birmingham]], [[Michael Neuberger|Michael]] is Professor of Molecular Immunology at the University of Cambridge, while Anthony is Professor in Finance at [[Warwick Business School]], [[University of Warwick]].<ref>{{citeweb|title=Anthony Neuberger|url=http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/wbs/subjects/finance/faculty1/anthony_neuberger/|accessdate=27 July 2009}}</ref> Anthony's wife is the rabbi, [[Julia Neuberger, Baroness Neuberger]].

He was educated at the [[Independent school (UK)|independent]] [[Westminster School]] in the precincts of [[Westminster Abbey]], and studied [[Chemistry]] at [[Christ Church, Oxford]].<ref name="whoswho"/><ref name="cabinetoffice">{{citeweb|title=The Panel on Fair Access to the Professions: David Neuberger|url=http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/strategy/work_areas/accessprofessions/david_neuberger.aspx|publisher=[[Cabinet Office]]|date=23 February 2009|accessdate=28 July 2009}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Upon graduation, he worked at the [[merchant bank]], [[N M Rothschild & Sons]], from 1970-1973.<ref name="whoswho"/><ref>[http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601102&sid=aNLSTDfvAyUI&refer=uk U.K.'s Youngest Law Lord David Neuberger Joins Court at Age 59], [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]], 10 January 2007.</ref>

==Legal career==
Neuberger was [[called to the Bar]] at [[Lincoln's Inn]] in 1974,<ref name="whoswho"/><ref name="no10">{{citeweb|title=Judicial Appointment for Sir David|url=http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page10592|publisher=[[10 Downing Street]]|date=13 December 2006|accessdate=27 July 2009}}</ref> where he became a [[Bencher]] in 1993. He became a [[Queen's Counsel]] in 1987. He was a [[Recorder (judge)|Recorder]] from 1990 to 1996, when he was appointed a [[High Court Judge]] in the [[Chancery Division]] and received the customary [[knight bachelor|knighthood]]. In 2001, he was made Supervisory Chancery Judge of [[English Midlands|Midland]], Wales and [[Chester]], and of the Western Circuits, a post he held until 2004, when he was promoted to become a [[Lord Justice of Appeal]] and a member of the [[Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council|Privy Council]].<ref name="whoswho"/><ref name="no10"/>

On 11 January 2007, he succeeded [[Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead]] as a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary<ref name="no10"/> and was made a [[life peer]] as '''Baron Neuberger of Abbotsbury''', of [[Abbotsbury]], in the County of [[Dorset]], and introduced to the House on 15 January 2007 between [[Lord Bingham of Cornhill]] and his sister-in-law, [[Baroness Neuberger]].<ref>{{citeweb|title=Introduction of Lord Neuberger of Abbotsbury|url=http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200607/ldhansrd/text/70115-0001.htm|date=15 January 2007|accessdate=27 July 2009}}</ref> His rise to the [[Court of Appeal]] and then to the House of Lords is one of the quickest in recent times. Although [[Patrick Devlin, Baron Devlin|Lord Devlin]] was, at 55, even younger on his own appointment to the House of Lords in 1960, Lord Neuberger of Abbotsbury was in turn the youngest current Law Lord.<ref>[http://www.thelawyer.com/cgi-bin/item.cgi?id=123470 Neuberger LJ in fast-track promotion to the Lords], ''[[The Lawyer]]'', 13 December 2006.</ref> He likes to play sports. It was announced on 23 July 2009 that he would be appointed the next [[Master of the Rolls]], succeeding [[Anthony Clarke, Baron Clarke of Stone-cum-Ebony|Lord Clarke of Stone-cum-Ebony]], who became one of the inaugural [[Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Justices]] of the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Supreme Court]] on the retirement of [[Richard Scott, Baron Scott of Foscote|Lord Scott of Foscote]]. This appointment duly took effect on 1 October 2009.

Between 2006-2007, he led an investigation for the Bar Council into widening access to the Bar. He also served on the Panel on Fair Access to the Professions, led by former [[Secretary of State for Health|Health Secretary]] [[Alan Milburn]], which reported in July 2009. Other Panel members included [[Trevor Phillips]], head of the [[Commission for Equalities and Human Rights]], [[Michael Grade]], Chairman of [[ITV]], and [[Martin Rees]], [[Astronomer Royal]].<ref>{{citeweb|title=Panel on Fair Access to the Professions|url=http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/strategy/work_areas/accessprofessions.aspx|date=27 July 2009|accessdate=28 July 2009}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

In May 2010, Lord Neuberger gave a controversial, minority, ''ex tempore'' dissenting judgment that the trade union [[Unite]] had not complied with ballot rules under [[TULRCA 1992|trade union legislation]].<ref>{{citeweb|title=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/10130274.stm|date=20th May 2010|accessdate=21th May 2010}}</ref> In July 2010 Neuberger ruled that peace protesters in [[Parliament Square]] who had camped out in Democracy Village should be evicted after the protesters lost an appeal.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-10659518</ref>

==Personal life==
In 1976, Neuberger married Angela Holdsworth, the TV producer and writer. They have three children, Jessica, Nicholas and Max, who are all solicitors.<ref name="cabinetoffice"/> He has been Chairman of the Schizophrenia Trust since 2003. Since 2000, he has been a Governor of the [[University of the Arts London]].<ref name="whoswho"/><ref>{{citeweb|title=University of the Arts London - Governors Who's Who|url=http://www.arts.ac.uk/13104.htm|accessdate=28 July 2009}}</ref>

==Cases==
*''[[In re Osiris Insurance Ltd]]'' [1991] 1 BCLC 182
*''[[Re Park House Properties]]'' [1997] 2 BCLC 530
*''[[Yuen v McDonald's Corp]]'' (Chancery Division, 27 November 2001) ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'', 6 December 2001
*''[[Re T&D Industries plc]]'' [2000] BCC 956
*''[[Krasner v McMath]]'' [2005] [http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/2005/1072.html EWCA Civ 1072]
*''[[St Helen’s MBC v Derbyshire]]'' [2007] UKHL 16, [2007] ICR 841
*''[[Ladele v London Borough of Islington]]'' [2009] [http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/2009/1357.html EWCA Civ 1357]
*''[[British Airways plc v Unite the Union]]'' [2010] EWCA Civ

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hmcourts-service.gov.uk/cms/1287.htm Lord Neuberger's entry on Court of Appeal webpage]

{{S-start}}
{{s-legal}}
{{Succession box| before=[[Anthony Clarke, Baron Clarke of Stone-cum-Ebony|Lord Clarke of Stone-cum-Ebony]] | title=[[Master of the Rolls]] | years=2009– | after= Incumbent }}
{{s-prec}}
{{S-before|before = [[Robert Walker, Baron Walker of Gestingthorpe|Lord Walker of Gestingthorpe]] ''Non-Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal''}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[Hong Kong order of precedence]] ''Non-Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal''}}
{{S-aft|after = [[Geoffrey Ma]] ''Chief Judge of the High Court''}}
{{S-end}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2010}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Neuberger, David
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =10 January 1948
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Neuberger, David}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Old Westminsters]]
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]
[[Category:English judges]]
[[Category:English Jews]]
[[Category:Life peers|Neuberger of Abbotsbury]] 
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Chancery Division judges]]
[[Category:Members of Lincoln's Inn]]
[[Category:Members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]]
[[Category:Masters of the Rolls]]
[[Category:Justices of the Court of Final Appeal (Hong Kong)]]
[[Category:Hong Kong judges]]

Communications Security Establishment Canada

2010-11-26T02:01:46Z

Cahk:

{{Infobox Government agency
|agency_name = Communications Security Establishment Canada
|nativename =
|nativename_a =
|nativename_r =
|logo =
|logo_width =
|logo_caption =
|seal = Cse badge.png
|seal_width = 110 px
|seal_caption = [[Badge of the Communications Security Establishment]] Canada
|formed = 1946
|preceding1 =
|preceding2 =
|dissolved =
|superseding =
|jurisdiction =
|headquarters = [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
|employees = 1,650 (approx.)
|budget = $220 million
|minister1_name = Hon. [[Peter MacKay]]
|minister1_pfo = [[Minister of National Defence (Canada)|Minister of National Defence]]
|minister2_name =
|minister2_pfo =
|chief1_name = [[John Adams (Major General)|John Adams]]
|chief1_position = Chief
|chief2_name =
|chief2_position =
|parent_agency = [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]]
|child1_agency =
|child2_agency =
|website = [http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/ www.cse-cst.gc.ca]
|footnotes =
}}
[[File:Tilley Building.JPG|right|thumb|240px|Sir Leonard Tilley Building, headquarters of the CSEC]]

The '''Communications Security Establishment Canada''' ('''CSEC''' or '''CSE''') ({{lang-fr|Centre de la sécurité des télécommunications Canada}}) (''CSTC'' or ''CST'') is the [[Canadian]] [[Government of Canada|government]]'s [[foreign intelligence]] and national [[Cryptology|cryptologic]] agency. Administered under the [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]] (DND), it is charged with the duty of keeping track of foreign [[signals intelligence]] (SIGINT), and protecting Canadian government electronic information and communication networks. The CSEC is accountable to the [[Minister of National Defence (Canada)|Minister of National Defence]] through two deputy ministers, the [[National Security Advisor (Canada)|National Security Advisor to the Prime Minister]] is responsible for policy and operations while the Deputy Minister of National Defence is responsible for administration. The Minister of National Defence is in turn accountable to the [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] and [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]].

==History==
The CSEC was established in 1946 as the Communications Branch of the [[National Research Council of Canada|National Research Council]] (CBNRC), and was transferred to the DND in 1975 by [[Order-in-Council]]. The origins of the CSEC can be traced back to the [[World War II|Second World War]] where the civilian organization worked with intercepted foreign electronic communications, collected largely from the [[Royal Canadian Corps of Signals|Canadian Signal Corps]] station at [[Ottawa/Rockcliffe Airport|Rockcliffe airport]] in Ottawa. CSEC also worked with CFS Leitrim, located just south of Ottawa, is Canada's oldest operational signal intelligence collection station. Established by the Royal Canadian Corps of Signals in 1941 as 1 Special Wireless Station and renamed Ottawa Wireless Station in 1949, CFS Leitrim acquired its current name when the Supplementary Radio System was created in 1966. In 1946, the station's complement was 75 personnel. The current strength (2005) is 450 military personnel and 28 civilian employees. This unit successfully decrypted, translated, and analyzed these foreign signals, and turned that raw information into useful intelligence reports during the course of the war.

The CSEC and the information it gathered and shared was secret for 34 years, when the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] program ''[[The Fifth Estate]]'' did a story on the organization{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}, resulting in an outcry in the [[Canadian House of Commons]] and an admission by the Canadian government that the organization existed. The CSEC is now publicly known, and occupies several buildings in Ottawa, including the well-known [[Edward Drake Building]] and the neighbouring [[Sir Leonard Tilley Building]].

During the [[Cold War]], CSEC was primarily responsible for providing SIGINT data to the Department of National Defence regarding the [[military operation]]s of the [[Soviet Union]]. Since then, CSEC has diversified and now is the primary SIGINT resource in Canada. The CSEC also provides technical advice, guidance and services to the Government of Canada to maintain the security of its information and information infrastructures.

In early 2008, in line with the [[Federal Identity Program]] (FIP) of the Government of Canada, which requires all federal agencies to have the word ''Canada'' in their name,<ref>[http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/fip-pcim/ Federal Identity Program - Programme de coordination de l'image de marque]</ref> CSE adopted the applied title ''Communications Security Establishment Canada'' (CSEC) or ({{lang-fr|Centre de la sécurité des télécommunications Canada}}) (CSTC).

==Role==
Unique within Canada's security and intelligence community, the Communications Security Establishment Canada employs code-makers and code-breakers ([[cryptanalysis]]) to provide the Government of Canada with [[Information security|information technology security (IT Security)]] and foreign signals intelligence services. CSEC also provides technical and operational assistance to the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] and federal law enforcement and security agencies, including the [[Canada Border Services Agency]] and the [[Canadian Air Transport Security Authority]].

===SIGINT===
CSEC’s SIGINT program produces intelligence that responds to Canadian government requirements. At [[CFS Leitrim]], the main SIGINT coalation CSEC facility in the south end of Ottawa, the establishment collects foreign intelligence that can be used by the government for strategic warning, policy formulation, decision-making in the fields of [[national security]] and national defence, and day-to-day assessment of foreign capabilities and intentions. The station at Leitrim specializes in intercepting electronic communications to and from embassies in Ottawa. Other CSEC SIGINT facilities are located at: [[CFB Gander]] Newfoundland with a detachment from CFS Leitrim, CFS Masset, BC (under remote control from CFS Leitrim) and [[CFS Alert]], [[Nunavut]].

The success of this process is founded on CSEC’s understanding of the leading-edge technologies used by the global information infrastructure. CSEC relies on its closest foreign intelligence allies, the US, UK, Australia and New Zealand to share the collection burden and the resulting intelligence yield. [[Canada]] is a substantial beneficiary of the collaborative effort within the partnership to collect and report on foreign communications.

During the [[Cold War]], CSEC’s primary client for signals intelligence was National Defence, and its focus was the [[military operations]] of the then [[Soviet Union]]. Since the end of the Cold War, Government of Canada requirements have evolved to include a wide variety of political, defence, and security issues of interest to a much broader range of client departments.

While these continue to be key intelligence priorities for Government of Canada decision-makers, increasing focus on protecting the safety of Canadians is prompting greater interest in intelligence on transnational issues, including [[terrorism]].

====Code Breaking Equipment====
CSE code breaking capabilities degraded substantially in the sixties and seventies but were upgraded with the acquisition of a Cray X-MP/11 (modified) supercomputer delivered to the Sir Leonard Tilley building in March 1985 and the hiring of code breaking analysts. It was, at the time, the most powerful computer in Canada. In the early 1990s, the Establishment purchased a Floating Point Systems FPS 522-EA supercomputer at a cost of $1,620,371. This machine was upgraded to a Cray S-MP superserver after Cray acquired Floating Point Systems in December in 1991 and used the Folklore Operating System supplied by the NSA in the US.<ref>http://luxexumbra.blogspot.com/2008_06_01_archive.html</ref> These machines are now retired.
Little information is available on the types of computers used by the CSEC since then. However, Cray in the US has produced a number of improved supercomputers since then. These include the Cray SX-6, early 2000s, the [[Cray X1]], 2003 (development funded in part by the NSA), [[Cray XD1]], 2004, Cray XT3, [[Cray XT4]], 2006, Cray XMt, 2006 and Cray CX1, 2008. It is possible that some of these models have been used by the CSEC and are in use today.

===IT Security===
Formerly known as [[communications security]] (COMSEC), the CSEC’s IT Security Program grew out of a need to protect [[sensitive information]] transmitted by various agencies of the government, especially the [[Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade]] (DFAIT), [[Canada Border Services Agency]] (CBSA), DND, and the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP). As a result of this critical and urgent need, the IT Security program’s strategic stance has made possible a shift to that of a predictive nature allowing the program to provide relevant knowledge based upon sound practices and forward looking solutions.

The CSEC’s IT Security Program has earned highly valued global respect and a reputation of technical excellence. It now extends its expertise past its traditional technical clients to those within the Government of Canada who are responsible for the formulation and implementation of policy and program managers, and is committed to ensuring cyber networks and critical infrastructures are trustworthy and secure. CSEC also conducts research and development on behalf of the Government of Canada in fields related to communications security.

==Mandate==
In December 2001 the Canadian government passed omnibus [[Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act|bill C-36]] into law as the [[Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act|Anti-terrorism Act]]. The new act amended portions of the [[National Defence Act]] and officially recognized CSEC's three-part mandate:

* To acquire and use information from the global information infrastructure for the purpose of providing foreign intelligence, in accordance with Government of Canada intelligence priorities.
* To provide advice, guidance and services to help ensure the protection of electronic information and of information infrastructures of importance to the Government of Canada.
* To provide technical and operational assistance to federal law enforcement and security agencies in the performance of their lawful duties.

The Anti-Terrorism Act also strengthened CSEC's capacity to engage in the war on terrorism by providing needed authorities to fulfill its mandate.

CSEC is forbidden, by law, to intercept domestic communications. When intercepting communications between a domestic and foreign source, the domestic communications are destroyed or otherwise ignored (however, after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] on the United States, CSEC's powers expanded to allow the interception of foreign communications that begin or end in Canada, as long as the other party is outside the border and ministerial authorization is issued specifically for this case and purpose<ref>[http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/privacy/protecting-privacy-e.html CSEC : Parliamentary Accountability]</ref>). CSEC is bound by all Canadian laws, including the [[Criminal Code of Canada]], the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], and the [[Privacy Act 1982|Privacy Act]].

===Commissioner===

The Office of the Communications Security Establishment Commissioner (OCSEC) was created on June 19, 1996, to review CSE's activities for compliance with the applicable legislation, accept and investigate complaints regarding the lawfulness of the agency's activities, and to perform special duties under the 'Public Interest Defence' clause of the [[Security of Information Act]].<ref>[http://www.ocsec-bccst.gc.ca/mandate/index_e.php OCSEC Mandate]</ref> Once a year, the Commissioner provides a public report on his activities and findings to Parliament, through the Minister of National Defence.

As of 2010, there have been five Commissioners:
* the Honourable [[Claude Bisson]], (1996–2003)
* the Right Honourable [[Antonio Lamer]], (2003–2006)
* the Honourable [[Charles Gonthier]], (2006–2009)
* the Honourable [[Peter Cory]], appointed 14 December 2009.<ref>[http://www.ocsec-bccst.gc.ca/hist/index_e.php OCSEC History]</ref>
* the Honourable [[Robert Décary]], appointed 18 June 2010.<ref>[http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/news-nouvelles/news-nouvelles-eng.asp?cat=00&id=3434]</ref>

===New Facilities===
With the rapid expansion in the number of CSEC personnel since the 9/11 attack in the US, the existing CSEC facilities are no longer sufficiently large. A new C$880 million, 72,000 sq. m. facility will be built in SE Ottawa with construction expected to begin in early 2011 and completed in 2015.<ref>Defence Industry Daily, DID » Logistics & Support » Bases & Infrastructure » Canada’s CSE SIGINT Agency Building New Facilities, 10 jun 2009</ref>

===Communications data===
In Proceedings of the Canadian Senate Standing Committee on National Security and Defence|Standing Senate Committee on National Security and Defence, CSE Chief John Adams, indicated that the CSE is collecting [[communications data]] when he suggested that the legislation was not perfect in regard to interception of information relating to the "envelope".<ref>[http://www.parl.gc.ca/39/1/parlbus/commbus/senate/Com-e/defe-e/15evb-e.htm?Language=E&Parl=39&Ses=1&comm_id=76 Issue 15 - Evidence] ''Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on National Security and Defence'' April 30, 2007</ref>

==ECHELON==
Under the 1948 [[UKUSA]] agreement, CSEC's intelligence is shared with the [[United States]] [[National Security Agency]] (NSA), the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Government Communications Headquarters]] (GCHQ), the [[Australia]]n [[Defence Signals Directorate]] (DSD) and [[New Zealand|New Zealand's]] [[Government Communications Security Bureau]] (GCSB). Along with these services from the United States, the UK, New Zealand and Australia, CSEC is believed to form the [[ECHELON]] system. Its capabilities are suspected to include the ability to monitor a large proportion of the world's transmitted civilian telephone, fax and data traffic. The intercepted data, or "dictionaries" are "reported linked together through a high-powered array of computers known as ‘Platform’.<ref>Rudner, Martin. (2007). "Canada's Communications Security Establishment, Signals Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism". Intelligence and National Security: 22(4) pp. 473-490</ref>

==Controversies==

There has been some criticism over the years of CSEC.

A former employee of the organization, Mike Frost, claimed in a 1994 book, ''Spyworld'', that the agency eavesdropped on [[Margaret Trudeau]] to find out if she smoked [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]] and that CSEC monitored two of former British prime minister [[Margaret Thatcher|Margaret Thatcher's]] dissenting cabinet ministers in London on behalf of the UK's secret service.<ref>Morris, Nomi (1996). "Inside Canada's most secret agency." Maclean's: 109(36) pp. 32-35</ref>

In 1996, it was suggested that CSEC had monitored all communications between [[National Defence Headquarters]] and Somalia, and were withholding information from the [[Somalia Affair|Somalia Inquiry]] into the killing of two unarmed Somalis by Canadian soldiers.<ref name="desb">Desbarats, Peter. "Somalia cover-up: A commissioner's journal", 1997</ref>

In 2006, [[CFCF-TV|CTV Montreal]]’s program ''On Your Side'' conducted a three-part documentary on CSEC naming it “Canada’s most secretive spy agency” and that “this ultra-secret agency has now become very powerful”, conducting unlawful surveillance by monitoring phone calls, e-mails, chat groups, radio, microwave, and satellite.<ref>http://montreal.ctv.ca/cfcf/news/oys&id=1367</ref>

In 2007, former Ontario lieutenant-governor, [[James Bartleman]], testified at the Air India Inquiry on May 3 that he saw a CSEC communications intercept warning of the June 22, 1985 bombing of [[Air India Flight 182]] before it occurred. Two former CSEC employees, Bill Sheahan (CSEC Client Relations Officer) and Pierre LaCompte (CSEC Liaison Officer), have since testified that no CSEC report was ever produced.<ref>http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2007/05/03/bartleman-airindia.html</ref>

==See also==
* [[CFS Leitrim]]
*[[Canadian Forces]] Information Management Group
* [[ECHELON]]
* [[Joint Task Force 2]]
* [[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]] (CSIS)
* [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP)
* [[RCMP Security Service]]
* [[Security_clearance#Canada|Security clearances]]
* [[Security of Information Act]]
* [[Treasury Board]]
* [[Badge of the Communications Security Establishment]]
* [[Cray]]
* [[List of intelligence agencies]]
* [[National Security Agency]] (NSA)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/ Communications Security Establishment Canada - Official Website]
* [http://www.ocsec-bccst.gc.ca/index_e.php/ Official website of the CSE Commissioner]
* [http://luxexumbra.blogspot.com/ Lux ex Umbra - a blog about the CSE]
* http://www.img.forces.gc.ca/index-eng.asp - Canadian Forces Information Management Group
* http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/prg/em/ccirc/index-eng.aspx - Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre
* [http://www2.parl.gc.ca/content/lop/researchpublications/bp343-e.htm The Communications Security Establishment - Canada's Most Secret Intelligence Agency]
{{Coord|45.375|-75.687|type:landmark_region:CA|display=title}}
* [http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/ CSIS Official Web Site]

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Environment and Climate Change Canada

2010-11-21T12:20:05Z

Cahk: /* Enforcement */

{{Infobox Canadian government departments
|department=Environment
|french=Environnement
|logo=FIP Environment Canada.PNG
|current_minister=John Baird
|deputy_minister=Paul Boothe
|secretary=Mark Warawa
|established=1971
|responsibilities=Meteorological Service of Canada

Parks Canada

Canadian Ice Service

Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

Water Survey of Canada

National Water Research Institute

National Pollutant Release Inventory
|employees= ~6,000 <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=BD3CE17D-1 About Environment Canada]</ref>
|website=http://www.ec.gc.ca
}}
'''Environment Canada (EC)''', legally incorporated as the '''Department of the Environment''' under the ''Department of the Environment Act'' ( R.S., 1985, c. E-10 ), is the [[Ministry (government department)|department]] of the [[Government of Canada]] with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources.

(a) the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment, including water, air and soil quality;
(b) renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna;
(c) water;
(d) meteorology;
(e) the enforcement of any rules or regulations made by the International Joint Commission; and
(f) the coordination of the policies and programs of the Government of Canada respecting the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment.

Under the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' (R.S., 1999, c. 33), Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the clean up hazardous waste and [[oil spill]]s. The department is also responsible for international environmental issues (e.g., Canada-USA air issues).

Under the [[Constitution of Canada]], responsibility for environmental management in [[Canada]] is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments. For example, provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges (e.g., to the air). The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country (e.g., [[benzene]]). Environment Canada provides stewardship of the [[Environmental Choice Program]], which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of (GEN) [[Global Ecolabelling Network]].

Environment Canada continues (2005-present) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making, and to standardize policy implementation.

== Division ==

Environment Canada is divided into several geographic regions:

* [[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic]] ([[Maritimes]] and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]])
* [[Quebec]]
* [[National Capital Region (Canada)|National Capital]]
* [[Ontario]]
* Prairie-Northern ([[Nunavut]], [[Northwest Territories|NWT]] and [[Canadian prairies|Prairies]])
* Pacific-[[Yukon]] ([[British Columbia|BC]] and [[Yukon]])

The department has several organizations which carry out specific tasks:

* [[Meteorological Service of Canada]] (for [[weather forecasting]]; [[climate]], [[air quality]] and [[water monitoring]])<ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/contents_e.html''MSC'']</ref>
** Weather and [[environmental monitoring]] <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/amwsd_e.html''Monitoring'']</ref>
*** Climate Monitoring
***[[Water Survey of Canada]]
** Weather and Environmental Operations
*** Regional Weather Operations
** Weather and Environmental Prediction and Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/aepd_e.html''Predition'']</ref>
*** Aviation and Defence Weather Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/scpd/index_e.cfm''Aviation & Ice Services'']</ref>
*** Marine and Ice Services [(Canadian Ice Service )]
*** National Weather Predictions
**** [[Weatheradio Canada]], a national system of emergency weather broadcast transmitters
* Enforcement Branch
** Environmental Enforcement
** Wildlife Enforcement
* Environmental Stewardship Branch
** [[Canadian Wildlife Service]]<ref>[http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/index_e.cfm ''CWS'']</ref>
** Chemical Sectors
** Energy and Transportation
** Environmental Protection Operations
* Science and Technology Branch
** Atmospheric and Climate Science <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/contents_e.html ''Climate Science'']</ref>
** National Water Research Institute
** [[National Pollutant Release Inventory]]<ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/npri ''NPRI'']</ref>

The Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency is an arm-length agency that reports to the Minister of Environment <ref>[http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=D75FB358-1 (''CEAA'')]</ref>

[[Parks Canada]], which manages the [[National Parks of Canada|Canadian National Parks]] system, was removed from Environment Canada and became an agency reporting to the Minister of Heritage in 1998. In 2003, responsibility for Parks Canada was returned to the Minister of the Environment. <ref>[http://www.pc.gc.ca/index_e.asp ''Parks Canada'']</ref>

== Enforcement ==
[[File:ECBadge.gif|right]]

Environment Canada Enforcement Branch is responsible for ensuring compliance with several federal statues. The [[Governor-in-Council]] appoints enforcement officers and pursuant to section 217(3) of the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'', enforcement officers have all the powers of [[peace officer]]s.

There are two designations of enforcement officers: Environmental Enforcement and Wildlife Enforcement. The former administers the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' and pollution provisions of the ''Fisheries Act'' and corresponding regulations. The latter enforces
''Migratory Birds Convention Act'', ''Canada Wildlife Act'', ''Species at Risk Act'' and ''The Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act''.<ref> [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/default.asp?lang=en&n=2140D763-1 Environment Canada - Acts, Regulations and Agreements - Enforcement - Acts and Regulations]</ref> All officers wear dark green uniform with black ties and a badge (appear on the right). Environmental Enforcement Officers only carry [[Baton (law enforcement)|baton]] whereas Wildlife Enforcement Officers are also equipped with [[firearm]].<ref> [http://www2.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=21ed1bb2-58f3-48d4-8484-6242a268f44d&k=62081 Canada's newest environment officers set to help turn the country green]</ref>

The [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister]] may also appoint members of the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]], [[Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada#Enforcement|fishery officers]], [[Parks_Canada#Enforcement|parks officers]], [[Canada_Border_Services_Agency#Border_Services_Officer|customs officers]] and conservation officers of provincial and territorial governments as enforcement officers and to allow them to excercise the powers and privilege of Environment Canada officers.

On March 4, 2009, a bill to increase the enforcement capabilities of Environment Canada was introduced into the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]]. The Environmental Enforcement Bill would increase the fines for individuals and corporations for serious offenses, give enforcement officers new powers to investigate cases and grants courts new sentencing authorities that ensure penalties reflect the seriousness of the pollution and wildlife offences. <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=714D9AAE-1&news=FF3737AB-7757-4C49-A477-C8FD21750872 New Enforcement Legislation Cracks Down on Environmental Offenders]</ref>

More information: [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/Default.asp?lang=En&n=B670A72A-1/default.asp EC Enforcement Branch]

== Related legislation ==
*[[Canada National Parks Act]]
*Canada Water Act
*Canada Wildlife Act
*Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (1992, c. 37)
*[[Canadian Environmental Protection Act]] (1999)
*[[Department of the Environment Act (Canada)|Department of the Environment Act]]
*Environment Week Act, Canadian
*Fisheries Act (pollution prevention into fish bearing waters) (R.S., 1985, c. F-14)
*International Boundary Waters Treaty Act (R.S., 1985, c. I-17)
*International River Improvements Act
*Lac Seul Conservation Act
*Lake of the Woods Control Board Act
*Manganese-Based Fuel Additives Act
*[[Migratory Birds Convention Act]]
*National Wildlife Week Act
*Resources and Technical Surveys Act (R.S., 1985, c. R-7)
*Species at Risk Act (2002)
*Weather Modification Information Act
*Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Inter-provincial Trade Act

== See also ==
* [[Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics]]
* [[Alberta Hail Project]]
* [[North American Game Warden Museum]]
* [[Renewable energy in Canada]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca Environment Canada]
*{{YouTube channel|user=environmentcan}}
*[http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.pc.gc.ca Parks Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/introec/orgs_e.htm Select programs and services of Environment Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroRegs/ENG/Default.cfm Related acts and regulations]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm National Pollutant Release Inventory]
*[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.wsc.ec.gc.ca Water Survey of Canada]
*[http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/press.cfm?Year=All&Lang=e Press releases issued by Environment Canada for Ontario - entire archive]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/index.html Consolidated Acts and Regulations of Canada]
*[http://www.top500.org/site/history/2433 Environment Canada on top500.org]
* [http://www.nimonik.ca Plain language environmental regulations in Canada - with updates and other info]

{{Government Departments of Canada}}
{{Law enforcement agencies in Canada}}

[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Environment Canada]]
[[Category:Environment ministries]]
[[Category:Federal law enforcement agencies of Canada]]
[[Category:Regulators of biotechnology products]]
[[Category:Environmental protection agencies]]
[[Category:Ministries established in 1971]]

[[es:Environment Canada]]
[[fr:Environnement Canada]]
[[pt:Environment Canada]]
[[zh:加拿大環境部]]

Communications Security Establishment Canada

2010-11-16T01:48:03Z

Cahk: clarify

{{Infobox Government agency
|agency_name = Communications Security Establishment Canada
|nativename =
|nativename_a =
|nativename_r =
|logo =
|logo_width =
|logo_caption =
|seal = Cse badge.png
|seal_width = 110 px
|seal_caption = [[Badge of the Communications Security Establishment]] Canada
|formed = 1946
|preceding1 =
|preceding2 =
|dissolved =
|superseding =
|jurisdiction =
|headquarters = [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
|employees = 1,650 (approx.)
|budget = $220 million
|minister1_name = Hon. [[Peter MacKay]]
|minister1_pfo = [[Minister of National Defence (Canada)|Minister of National Defence]]
|minister2_name =
|minister2_pfo =
|chief1_name = [[John Adams (Major General)|John Adams]]
|chief1_position = Chief
|chief2_name =
|chief2_position =
|parent_agency = [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]]
|child1_agency =
|child2_agency =
|website = [http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/ www.cse-cst.gc.ca]
|footnotes =
}}
[[File:Tilley Building.JPG|right|thumb|240px|Sir Leonard Tilley Building, headquarters of the CSEC]]

The '''Communications Security Establishment Canada''' ('''CSEC''' or '''CSE''') ({{lang-fr|Centre de la sécurité des télécommunications Canada}}) (''CSTC'' or ''CST'') is the [[Canadian]] [[Government of Canada|government]]'s [[foreign intelligence]] and national [[Cryptology|cryptologic]] agency. Administered under the [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]] (DND), it is charged with the duty of keeping track of foreign [[signals intelligence]] (SIGINT), and protecting Canadian government electronic information and communication networks. The CSEC is accountable to the [[Minister of National Defence (Canada)|Minister of National Defence]] through two deputy ministers, the [[National Security Advisor (Canada)|National Security Advisor to the Prime Minister]] is responsible for policy and operations while the Deputy Minister of National Defence is responsible for administration. The Minister of National Defence is in turn accountable to the [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] and [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]].

==History==
The CSEC was established in 1946 as the Communications Branch of the [[National Research Council of Canada|National Research Council]] (CBNRC), and was transferred to the DND in 1975 by [[Order-in-Council]]. The origins of the CSEC can be traced back to the [[World War II|Second World War]] where the civilian organization worked with intercepted foreign electronic communications, collected largely from the [[Royal Canadian Corps of Signals|Canadian Signal Corps]] station at [[Ottawa/Rockcliffe Airport|Rockcliffe airport]] in Ottawa. CSEC also worked with CFS Leitrim, located just south of Ottawa, is Canada's oldest operational signal intelligence collection station. Established by the Royal Canadian Corps of Signals in 1941 as 1 Special Wireless Station and renamed Ottawa Wireless Station in 1949, CFS Leitrim acquired its current name when the Supplementary Radio System was created in 1966. In 1946, the station's complement was 75 personnel. The current strength (2005) is 450 military personnel and 28 civilian employees. This unit successfully decrypted, translated, and analyzed these foreign signals, and turned that raw information into useful intelligence reports during the course of the war.

The CSEC and the information it gathered and shared was secret for 34 years, when the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] program ''[[The Fifth Estate]]'' did a story on the organization{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}, resulting in an outcry in the [[Canadian House of Commons]] and an admission by the Canadian government that the organization existed. The CSEC is now publicly known, and occupies several buildings in Ottawa, including the well-known [[Edward Drake Building]] and the neighbouring [[Sir Leonard Tilley Building]].

During the [[Cold War]], CSEC was primarily responsible for providing SIGINT data to the Department of National Defence regarding the [[military operation]]s of the [[Soviet Union]]. Since then, CSEC has diversified and now is the primary SIGINT resource in Canada. The CSEC also provides technical advice, guidance and services to the Government of Canada to maintain the security of its information and information infrastructures.

In early 2008, in line with the [[Federal Identity Program]] (FIP) of the Government of Canada, which requires all federal agencies to have the word ''Canada'' in their name<ref>[http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/fip-pcim/ Federal Identity Program - Programme de coordination de l'image de marque]</ref>, CSE adopted the applied title ''Communications Security Establishment Canada'' (CSEC) or ({{lang-fr|Centre de la sécurité des télécommunications Canada}}) (CSTC).

==Role==
Unique within Canada's security and intelligence community, the Communications Security Establishment Canada employs code-makers and code-breakers ([[cryptanalysis]]) to provide the Government of Canada with [[Information security|information technology security (IT Security)]] and foreign signals intelligence services. CSEC also provides technical and operational assistance to [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|federal law enforcement]] and security agencies.

===SIGINT===
CSEC’s SIGINT program produces intelligence that responds to Canadian government requirements. The CSEC collects foreign intelligence that can be used by the government for strategic warning, policy formulation, decision-making in the fields of [[national security]] and national defence, and day-to-day assessment of foreign capabilities and intentions. The success of this process is founded on CSEC’s understanding of the leading-edge technologies used by the global information infrastructure. CSEC relies on its closest foreign intelligence allies, the US, UK, Australia and New Zealand to share the collection burden and the resulting intelligence yield. [[Canada]] is a substantial beneficiary of the collaborative effort within the partnership to collect and report on foreign communications.

During the [[Cold War]], CSEC’s primary client for signals intelligence was National Defence, and its focus was the [[military operations]] of the then [[Soviet Union]]. Since the end of the Cold War, Government of Canada requirements have evolved to include a wide variety of political, defence, and security issues of interest to a much broader range of client departments.

While these continue to be key intelligence priorities for Government of Canada decision-makers, increasing focus on protecting the safety of Canadians is prompting greater interest in intelligence on transnational issues, including [[terrorism]].

===IT Security===
Formerly known as [[communications security]] (COMSEC), the CSEC’s IT Security Program grew out of a need to protect [[sensitive information]] transmitted by various agencies of the government, especially the [[Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade]] (DFAIT), [[Canada Border Services Agency]] (CBSA), DND, and the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP). As a result of this critical and urgent need, the IT Security program’s strategic stance has made possible a shift to that of a predictive nature allowing the program to provide relevant knowledge based upon sound practices and forward looking solutions.

The CSEC’s IT Security Program has earned highly valued global respect and a reputation of technical excellence. It now extends its expertise past its traditional technical clients to those within the Government of Canada who are responsible for the formulation and implementation of policy and program managers, and is committed to ensuring cyber networks and critical infrastructures are trustworthy and secure. CSEC also conducts research and development on behalf of the Government of Canada in fields related to communications security.

==Mandate==
In December 2001 the Canadian government passed omnibus [[Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act|bill C-36]] into law as the [[Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act|Anti-terrorism Act]]. The new act amended portions of the [[National Defence Act]] and officially recognized CSEC's three-part mandate:

* To acquire and use information from the global information infrastructure for the purpose of providing foreign intelligence, in accordance with Government of Canada intelligence priorities.
* To provide advice, guidance and services to help ensure the protection of electronic information and of information infrastructures of importance to the Government of Canada.
* To provide technical and operational assistance to federal law enforcement and security agencies in the performance of their lawful duties.

The Anti-Terrorism Act also strengthened CSEC's capacity to engage in the war on terrorism by providing needed authorities to fulfill its mandate.

CSEC is forbidden, by law, to intercept domestic communications. When intercepting communications between a domestic and foreign source, the domestic communications are destroyed or otherwise ignored (however, after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] on the United States, CSEC's powers expanded to allow the interception of foreign communications that begin or end in Canada, as long as the other party is outside the border and ministerial authorization is issued specifically for this case and purpose<ref>[http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/privacy/protecting-privacy-e.html CSEC : Parliamentary Accountability]</ref>). CSEC is bound by all Canadian laws, including the [[Criminal Code of Canada]], the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], and the [[Privacy Act 1982|Privacy Act]].

===Commissioner===

The Office of the Communications Security Establishment Commissioner (OCSEC) was created on June 19, 1996, to review CSE's activities for compliance with the applicable legislation, accept and investigate complaints regarding the lawfulness of the agency's activities, and to perform special duties under the 'Public Interest Defence' clause of the [[Security of Information Act]].<ref>[http://www.ocsec-bccst.gc.ca/mandate/index_e.php OCSEC Mandate]</ref> Once a year, the Commissioner provides a public report on his activities and findings to Parliament, through the Minister of National Defence.

As of 2010, there have been five Commissioners:
* the Honourable [[Claude Bisson]], (1996–2003)
* the Right Honourable [[Antonio Lamer]], (2003–2006)
* the Honourable [[Charles Gonthier]], (2006–2009)
* the Honourable [[Peter Cory]], appointed 14 December 2009.<ref>[http://www.ocsec-bccst.gc.ca/hist/index_e.php OCSEC History]</ref>
* the Honourable [[Robert Décary]], appointed 18 June 2010.<ref>[http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/news-nouvelles/news-nouvelles-eng.asp?cat=00&id=3434]</ref>

===Communications data===
In Proceedings of the [[Canadian Senate Standing Committee on National Security and Defence|Standing Senate Committee on National Security and Defence]], CSE Chief John Adams, indicated that the CSE is collecting [[communications data]] when he suggested that the legislation was not perfect in regard to interception of information relating to the "envelope".<ref>[http://www.parl.gc.ca/39/1/parlbus/commbus/senate/Com-e/defe-e/15evb-e.htm?Language=E&Parl=39&Ses=1&comm_id=76 Issue 15 - Evidence] ''Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on National Security and Defence'' April 30, 2007</ref>

==ECHELON==
Under the 1948 [[UKUSA]] agreement, CSEC's intelligence is shared with the [[United States]] [[National Security Agency]] (NSA), the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Government Communications Headquarters]] (GCHQ), the [[Australia]]n [[Defence Signals Directorate]] (DSD) and [[New Zealand|New Zealand's]] [[Government Communications Security Bureau]] (GCSB). Along with these services from the United States, the UK, New Zealand and Australia, CSEC is believed to form the [[ECHELON]] system. Its capabilities are suspected to include the ability to monitor a large proportion of the world's transmitted civilian telephone, fax and data traffic. The intercepted data, or "dictionaries" are "reported linked together through a high-powered array of computers known as ‘Platform’.<ref>Rudner, Martin. (2007). "Canada's Communications Security Establishment, Signals Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism". Intelligence and National Security: 22(4) pp. 473-490</ref>

==Controversies==

There has been some criticism over the years of CSEC.

A former employee of the organization, Mike Frost, claimed in a 1994 book, ''Spyworld'', that the agency eavesdropped on [[Margaret Trudeau]] to find out if she smoked [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]] and that CSEC monitored two of former British prime minister [[Margaret Thatcher|Margaret Thatcher's]] dissenting cabinet ministers in London on behalf of the UK's secret service.<ref>Morris, Nomi (1996). "Inside Canada's most secret agency." Maclean's: 109(36) pp. 32-35</ref>

In 1996, it was suggested that CSEC had monitored all communications between [[National Defence Headquarters]] and Somalia, and were withholding information from the [[Somalia Affair|Somalia Inquiry]] into the killing of two unarmed Somalis by Canadian soldiers.<ref name="desb">Desbarats, Peter. "Somalia cover-up: A commissioner's journal", 1997</ref>

In 2006, [[CFCF-TV|CTV Montreal]]’s program ''On Your Side'' conducted a three-part documentary on CSEC naming it “Canada’s most secretive spy agency” and that “this ultra-secret agency has now become very powerful”, conducting unlawful surveillance by monitoring phone calls, e-mails, chat groups, radio, microwave, and satellite.<ref>http://montreal.ctv.ca/cfcf/news/oys&id=1367</ref>

In 2007, former Ontario lieutenant-governor, [[James Bartleman]], testified at the Air India Inquiry on May 3 that he saw a CSEC communications intercept warning of the June 22, 1985 bombing of [[Air India Flight 182]] before it occurred. Two former CSEC employees, Bill Sheahan (CSEC Client Relations Officer) and Pierre LaCompte (CSEC Liaison Officer), have since testified that no CSEC report was ever produced.<ref>http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2007/05/03/bartleman-airindia.html</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of intelligence agencies]]
* [[ECHELON]]
* [[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]] (CSIS)
* [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP)
* [[RCMP Security Service]]
* [[Security_clearance#Canada|Security clearances]]
* [[Security of Information Act]]
* [[Treasury Board]]
* [[National Security Agency]] (NSA)
* [[Badge of the Communications Security Establishment]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/ Communications Security Establishment Canada - Official Website]
* [http://www.ocsec-bccst.gc.ca/index_e.php/ Official website of the CSE Commissioner]
* [http://luxexumbra.blogspot.com/ Lux ex Umbra - a blog about the CSE]
* [http://www2.parl.gc.ca/content/lop/researchpublications/bp343-e.htm The Communications Security Establishment - Canada's Most Secret Intelligence Agency]
{{Coord|45.375|-75.687|type:landmark_region:CA|display=title}}

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{{Government Departments of Canada}}
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[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Organizations in cryptography|Canada]]
[[Category:Canadian intelligence agencies]]
[[Category:Government agencies established in 1946]]
[[Category:Signals intelligence agencies|Canada]]

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Environment and Climate Change Canada

2010-11-05T06:27:08Z

Cahk: Prentice resigned from Cabinet

{{Infobox Canadian government departments
|department=Environment
|french=Environnement
|logo=FIP Environment Canada.PNG
|current_minister=''Vacant''
|deputy_minister=Paul Boothe
|secretary=Mark Warawa
|established=1971
|responsibilities=Meteorological Service of Canada

Parks Canada

Canadian Ice Service

Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

Water Survey of Canada

National Water Research Institute

National Pollutant Release Inventory
|employees= ~6,000 <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=BD3CE17D-1 About Environment Canada]</ref>
|website=http://www.ec.gc.ca
}}
'''Environment Canada (EC)''', legally incorporated as the '''Department of the Environment''' under the ''Department of the Environment Act'' ( R.S., 1985, c. E-10 ), is the [[Ministry (government department)|department]] of the [[Government of Canada]] with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources.

(a) the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment, including water, air and soil quality;
(b) renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna;
(c) water;
(d) meteorology;
(e) the enforcement of any rules or regulations made by the International Joint Commission; and
(f) the coordination of the policies and programs of the Government of Canada respecting the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment.

Under the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' (R.S., 1999, c. 33), Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the clean up hazardous waste and [[oil spill]]s. The department is also responsible for international environmental issues (e.g., Canada-USA air issues).

Under the [[Constitution of Canada]], responsibility for environmental management in [[Canada]] is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments. For example, provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges (e.g., to the air). The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country (e.g., [[benzene]]). Environment Canada provides stewardship of the [[Environmental Choice Program]], which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of (GEN) [[Global Ecolabelling Network]].

Environment Canada continues (2005-present) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making, and to standardize policy implementation.

== Division ==

Environment Canada is divided into several geographic regions:

* [[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic]] ([[Maritimes]] and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]])
* [[Quebec]]
* [[National Capital Region (Canada)|National Capital]]
* [[Ontario]]
* Prairie-Northern ([[Nunavut]], [[Northwest Territories|NWT]] and [[Canadian prairies|Prairies]])
* Pacific-[[Yukon]] ([[British Columbia|BC]] and [[Yukon]])

The department has several organizations which carry out specific tasks:

* [[Meteorological Service of Canada]] (for [[weather forecasting]]; [[climate]], [[air quality]] and [[water monitoring]])<ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/contents_e.html''MSC'']</ref>
** Weather and [[environmental monitoring]] <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/amwsd_e.html''Monitoring'']</ref>
*** Climate Monitoring
***[[Water Survey of Canada]]
** Weather and Environmental Operations
*** Regional Weather Operations
** Weather and Environmental Prediction and Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/aepd_e.html''Predition'']</ref>
*** Aviation and Defence Weather Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/scpd/index_e.cfm''Aviation & Ice Services'']</ref>
*** Marine and Ice Services [(Canadian Ice Service )]
*** National Weather Predictions
**** [[Weatheradio Canada]], a national system of emergency weather broadcast transmitters
* Enforcement Branch
** Environmental Enforcement
** Wildlife Enforcement
* Environmental Stewardship Branch
** [[Canadian Wildlife Service]]<ref>[http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/index_e.cfm ''CWS'']</ref>
** Chemical Sectors
** Energy and Transportation
** Environmental Protection Operations
* Science and Technology Branch
** Atmospheric and Climate Science <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/contents_e.html ''Climate Science'']</ref>
** National Water Research Institute
** [[National Pollutant Release Inventory]]<ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/npri ''NPRI'']</ref>

The Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency is an arm-length agency that reports to the Minister of Environment <ref>[http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=D75FB358-1 (''CEAA'')]</ref>

[[Parks Canada]], which manages the [[National Parks of Canada|Canadian National Parks]] system, was removed from Environment Canada and became an agency reporting to the Minister of Heritage in 1998. In 2003, responsibility for Parks Canada was returned to the Minister of the Environment. <ref>[http://www.pc.gc.ca/index_e.asp ''Parks Canada'']</ref>

== Enforcement ==
[[File:ECBadge.gif|right]]

Environment Canada Enforcement Branch is responsible for ensuring compliance with several federal statues. The [[Governor-in-Council]] appoints enforcement officers and pursuant to section 217(3) of the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'', enforcement officers have all the powers of [[peace officer]]s.

There are two designations of enforcement officers: Environmental Enforcement and Wildlife Enforcement. The former administers the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' and pollution provisions of the ''Fisheries Act'' and corresponding regulations. The latter enforces
''Migratory Birds Convention Act'', ''Canada Wildlife Act'', ''Species at Risk Act'' and ''The Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act''.<ref> [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/default.asp?lang=en&n=2140D763-1 Environment Canada - Acts, Regulations and Agreements - Enforcement - Acts and Regulations]</ref> All officers wear dark green uniform with black ties and a badge (appear on the right). Environmental Enforcement Officers only carry [[Baton (law enforcement)|baton]] whereas Wildlife Enforcement Officers are also equipped with [[firearm]].<ref> [http://www2.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=21ed1bb2-58f3-48d4-8484-6242a268f44d&k=62081 Canada's newest environment officers set to help turn the country green]</ref>

The [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister]] may also appoint members of the [[RCMP]], [[Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada#Enforcements|fishery officers]], [[Parks_Canada#Enforcement|parks officers]], [[Canada_Border_Services_Agency#Border_Services_Officer|customs officers]] and conservation officers of provincial and territorial governments as enforcement officers and to allow them to excericse the powers and privilege of Environment Canada officers.

On March 4, 2009, a bill to increase the enforcement capabilities of Environment Canada was introduced into the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]]. The Environmental Enforcement Bill would increase the fines for individuals and corporations for serious offenses, give enforcement officers new powers to investigate cases and grants courts new sentencing authorities that ensure penalties reflect the seriousness of the pollution and wildlife offences. <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=714D9AAE-1&news=FF3737AB-7757-4C49-A477-C8FD21750872 New Enforcement Legislation Cracks Down on Environmental Offenders]</ref>

More information: [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/Default.asp?lang=En&n=B670A72A-1/default.asp EC Enforcement Branch]

== Related legislation ==
*[[Canada National Parks Act]]
*Canada Water Act
*Canada Wildlife Act
*Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (1992, c. 37)
*[[Canadian Environmental Protection Act]] (1999)
*[[Department of the Environment Act (Canada)|Department of the Environment Act]]
*Environment Week Act, Canadian
*Fisheries Act (pollution prevention into fish bearing waters) (R.S., 1985, c. F-14)
*International Boundary Waters Treaty Act (R.S., 1985, c. I-17)
*International River Improvements Act
*Lac Seul Conservation Act
*Lake of the Woods Control Board Act
*Manganese-Based Fuel Additives Act
*[[Migratory Birds Convention Act]]
*National Wildlife Week Act
*Resources and Technical Surveys Act (R.S., 1985, c. R-7)
*Species at Risk Act (2002)
*Weather Modification Information Act
*Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Inter-provincial Trade Act

== See also ==
* [[Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics]]
* [[Alberta Hail Project]]
* [[North American Game Warden Museum]]
* [[Renewable energy in Canada]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca Environment Canada]
*{{YouTube channel|user=environmentcan}}
*[http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.pc.gc.ca Parks Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/introec/orgs_e.htm Select programs and services of Environment Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroRegs/ENG/Default.cfm Related acts and regulations]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm National Pollutant Release Inventory]
*[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.wsc.ec.gc.ca Water Survey of Canada]
*[http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/press.cfm?Year=All&Lang=e Press releases issued by Environment Canada for Ontario - entire archive]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/index.html Consolidated Acts and Regulations of Canada]
*[http://www.top500.org/site/history/2433 Environment Canada on top500.org]
* [http://www.nimonik.ca Plain language environmental regulations in Canada - with updates and other info]

{{Government Departments of Canada}}
{{Law enforcement agencies in Canada}}

[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Environment Canada]]
[[Category:Environment ministries]]
[[Category:Federal law enforcement agencies of Canada]]
[[Category:Regulators of biotechnology products]]
[[Category:Environmental protection agencies]]
[[Category:Ministries established in 1971]]

[[es:Environment Canada]]
[[fr:Environnement Canada]]
[[pt:Environment Canada]]
[[zh:加拿大環境部]]

Walmart Canada

2010-10-22T16:00:56Z

Cahk: walmart.ca is the homepage, fmt

{{Refimprove|date=December 2009}}
{{Infobox company
| company_name = Walmart Canada
| company_logo = [[File:Walmart Canada Logo.svg|225px]]
| company_type = [[Department store#Discount department store|Discount department store]]
| company_slogan =
| foundation = 1994
| location = {{flagicon|CAN}} [[Mississauga]], [[Ontario]]
| locations = 319<ref name="factsheet">[http://walmartstores.com/download/1998.pdf Wal-Mart Canada Fact Sheet]</ref>
| key_people = David Cheesewright, President & [[Chief executive officer|CEO]]
| industry = [[Retailing|Retail]]
| num_employees = 78,138 (2010)<ref name="factsheet"/>
| products = [[department store|Discount store]]s, [[supermarket|grocery store]]s, and [[hypermarket]]s, [[Optics|Optical]], [[Pharmacy]], Portrait Studio
| revenue =
| net_income =
| parent = {{flagicon|US}} [[Wal-Mart]]
| homepage = [http://www.walmart.ca/ www.walmart.ca]
}}
'''Walmart Canada''' is the [[Canada|Canadian]] unit of [[Wal-Mart]] and was founded in [[1994]] in [[Mississauga|Mississauga, Ontario]] with the purchase of the Canadian [[Woolco]] stores from [[F. W. Woolworth Company|Woolworth Canada]].

Walmart typically competes with [[Zellers]], [[Canadian Tire]], [[Hart Stores]], [[Giant Tiger]], and [[Real Canadian Superstore]], [[Costco]], and increasingly grocery stores such as [[Loblaws]], [[Metro Inc.|Metro]], [[Sobeys]], [[Thrifty Foods]], [[Safeway Inc.|Safeway]], [[Save-On-Foods]], [[Country Grocer]], [[Fairway Markets]], Quality Foods, others.

Beginning in the fall of [[2006 in Canada|2006]], Walmart opened new [[Walmart supercentre#Wal-Mart Supercenter|Supercentres]] in select Canadian cities with 14 new stores by the end of [[2007 in Canada|2007]]. Walmart locations already carry limited grocery items in [[Canada]].

==History==
[[File:Old walmart logo.gif‎|thumb|Walmart Canada logo used 1994-2001]]
Headquartered in Mississauga, Ontario, Wal-Mart Canada was established in 1994 with the acquisition of the Woolco Canada chain of 122 stores. Walmart Canada has plans to open 15–20 stores each year. Almost all Canadian Walmart stores have [[McDonald's]] locations. As of 2010, [[Nunavut]] is the only territory in Canada that does not have a Walmart location.

==Community involvement==
* Raised and donated $7.6 million to [[Children's Miracle Network]] (CMN) to support children's hospitals across Canada.<ref name="factsheet"/>
* Contributed $2.9 million to more than 1,000 local non-profit organizations through Wal-Mart's Local Matching Grant program.
* Raised and contributed $2.8 million for the [[Breakfast for Learning]] Canada program, a school nutrition program and partnership with a goal to ensure all school children attend class well nourished and ready to learn.
* Became the top corporate sponsor of the [[Canadian Red Cross]], with $1 million in relief aid related to [[Hurricane Katrina]], the India earthquake and other projects.
* Donated $300,000 to Evergreen, a Canadian non-profit environmental organization to help community groups create and improve green space in urban areas across the country.<ref>[http://www.evergreen.ca/en/about/media-press39.html Wal-Mart Canada and Evergreen Continue Green Grants Partnership]</ref>
* Awarded $115,000 in scholarships to Canadian university and college students.
* Supported 150 Canadian schools through a number of programs including Wal-Mart Canada's Adopt-a School program.

==Wal-Mart Discount Stores in Canada==
[[Image:Walmart Sault Ste. Marie.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sault Ste. Marie Wal-Mart in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.]]

A typical Wal-Mart discount department store. Wal-Mart Discount Stores are discount department stores with size varying from {{convert|51000|to|150000|sqft|m2|1}}, with an average store covering about {{convert|102000|sqft|m2|1}}. They carry general merchandise and a selection of food. Many of these stores also have a garden centre, a pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, a bank branch, a cell phone store and a fast food outlet (usually McDonald's).

Walmart was established in Canada in 1994 with the acquisition of the 122-store Woolco division of Woolworth Canada.

As of June 30, 2010, there were 220 Wal-Mart Discount Stores in Canada.<ref name="factsheet"/> In 2006, the busiest in the country was one in [[Square One Shopping Centre]], 100 City Centre Drive, Mississauga, Ontario (Store 3055).

==Wal-Mart Supercentres in Canada==
[[Image:Wal-Mart Supercenter in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, Jan 2008.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Vaughan Wal-Mart Supercentre in Vaughan, Ontario.]]
With the success of both Wal-Mart in [[Canada]] and [[Wal-Mart|Wal-Mart Supercentres]] in the [[United States]], it was announced in late [[2005 in Canada|2005]] that the Supercentre concept would be arriving in Canada. On [[November 8]], [[2006 in Canada|2006]], Canada's first three Supercentres opened in Ancaster (Hamilton), London, and Stouffville in Ontario.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/consumer/story/2006/11/07/wawlmart-superstores.html Wal-Mart unveils plans to open up to 14 supercentres in 2007]</ref> [[Alberta]] became the second province with Supercentres the following year in September 2007.<ref>[http://www2.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/business/story.html?id=7db0ae07-1fc7-4190-9bae-11f05a96290c Wal-Mart shifts to Supercentres in Alberta]</ref> The first Supercentre in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] opened in January 2009 in a former Costco/Price Club location which moved to a new larger site nearby in Burnaby.<ref>[http://www.globaltv.com/globaltv/bc/Mart+cracks+Vancouver+market+with+Grandview+store/1197070/story.html Wal-Mart cracks Vancouver market with Grandview store]</ref>

These stock everything a Wal-Mart Discount Store does, and also include a full-service supermarket, including meat and poultry, baked goods, delicatessen, frozen foods, dairy products, garden produce, and fresh seafood. Many Wal-Mart Supercentres also have a garden centre, pet shop, pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, and numerous alcove shops, such as cellular phone stores, hair and nail salons, video rental stores, local bank branches, and fast food outlets (usually McDonald's).

As of June 30, 2010, there were now 100 Wal-Mart Supercentres in Canada. The largest was one at the [[Uptown Victoria]] mall<ref name="factsheet"/>

{{wikinews|Three Walmart superstores open in select cities in Canada}}

==Wal-Mart Canada Bank==
Wal-Mart Canada launched its application for banking license in 2008 to compete with similar stores in Canada such as [[Loblaw Companies|Loblaw]].<ref> [http://www.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/story.html?id=6f8b9feb-8d59-463e-bdd8-06985f4f5a9b Wal-Mart files for Canadian banking licence]</ref> On July 24, 2009, Wal-Mart Canada Bank was incorporated under the ''[[Canada Bank Act|Bank Act]]'' in Canada. <ref> [http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2009/2009-08-08/html/notice-avis-eng.html Canada Gazette – GOVERNMENT NOTICES]</ref>

On June 15, 2010, Wal-Mart officially launched into the banking sector under the name Wal-Mart Canada Bank ({{lang-fr|La Banque Wal-Mart du Canada}}).<ref> [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aVAFXXvF5vJQ&refer=canada Wal-Mart Canadian Unit Seeks to Offer Bank Services]</ref> As a Schedule II [[List of banks and credit unions in Canada|federal financial institution]], it is regulated by the [[Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions (Canada)|Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]].<ref> [http://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/wwwapps/lists/cid.asp?sCode=1&cid=FM Federally Regulated Financial Institutions]</ref> Currently, WMCB only offers a [[Mastercard]] product but could offer more banking services in the future.<ref> [http://www.thestar.com/business/companies/walmart/article/823669--wal-mart-canada-issues-rewards-based-mastercard Wal-Mart Canada issues rewards-based MasterCard]</ref>

==Controversy==
{{further|[[Criticism of Wal-Mart]]}}

Wal-Mart has been the subject of some criticism by certain groups who claim that they have lower labour standards than other similar retailers. Other criticisms centre around the claim that due to their low prices they drive out local businesses.

There are also accusations that Walmart Canada has engaged in some practices that discourage associates from exercising their right to join a [[labor union|union]] and negotiate a [[collective bargaining agreement]]. Wal-Mart closed their [[Saguenay, Quebec]] store, in April 2005 after workers unionized and just days before contract settlement by binding arbitration, putting 190 employees out of work. Wal-Mart argued that the store wasn’t profitable and the Supreme Court of Canada affirmed 6-3 on November 27, 2009 that the company had the legal right to close the store.<ref>[http://montreal.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20091127/mtl_scoc_wal_mart091127/20091127/?hub=MontrealHome]</ref> Wal-Mart also closed its automotive centre in [[Gatineau, Quebec]], after employees unionized and an arbitrator imposed a 33 per cent wage increase. At St-Hyacinthe Wal-Mart, the 200 employees had organized successfully in January 2005 but contract negotiations stalled and an arbitrator was called in, finally reaching a two-year deal on April 9, 2009.
<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/ottawa/story/2009/04/09/mtl-walmart-sthyacinthe-unionized-0409.html]</ref>

Wal-Mart Canada has been accused of undermining [[internet rights]] and [[freedom of speech]], as a result of its June 2009 decision to seek an injunction against the [[Walmart Workers Canada]] campaign and its longstanding Walmart Workers Canada website <ref>[http://www.walmartworkerscanada.ca Walmart Workers Canada]</ref> in particular, a [[labour rights]] website sponsored by [[UFCW Canada]].

==Slogans==
*''Where Everyday Costs Less'' 1994-1995
*''Always Low Prices Always Wal-Mart'' 1995-Late 1990s
*''We Sell For Less Everyday'' Late 1990s-2009.
*''Save Money. Live Better.'' 2009–Present

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:WalmartMoncton.JPG|Moncton Wal-Mart in Moncton, New Brunswick
Image:Walmart_Sault_Ste._Marie.jpg|Sault Ste. Marie Wal-Mart in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
Image:Yellowknife Wal-Mart.jpg|Yellowknife Wal-Mart in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories.
Image:Whitehorse_Wal-Mart.jpg|Whitehorse Wal-Mart in Whitehorse, Yukon.
Image:New_Wal-Mart_Simcoe.jpg|Simcoe New Wal-Mart in Simcoe, Ontario.
Image:Ancaster_Wal-mart,_Hamilton.JPG|Ancaster Wal-Mart Supercentre in Hamilton, Ontario.
Image:Wal-Mart Supercenter in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, Jan 2008.jpg|Vaughan Wal-Mart Supercentre in Vaughan, Ontario.
Image:Walmart_Supercentre_Mississauga.jpg‎|Mississauga Wal-Mart Supercentre in Mississauga, Ontario.
Image:Walmart_burl_sc.jpg‎|Burlington New Wal-Mart Supercentre in Burlington, Ontario.
File:Walmart Centre Laval Mall Entrance.jpg|Mall entrance of a Walmart store (former Woolco) in [[Laval, Quebec]], [[Canada]]. It was the second Woolco store in [[Quebec]] before Walmart acquired Woolco, but retains Walmart Canada's original logo as of 2010.
File:Walmart Carrefour Langelier.jpg ‎ |A Walmart store at [[Montreal]]'s [[Carrefour Langelier]] shopping centre. It is the last-remaining Walmart store in the [[Island of Montreal]] that operated as a Woolco in the past. The original Walmart Canada logo remains, alongside the older Woolco look.
File:Walmart Carrefour Langelier Sign.jpg|Original Walmart Canada logo and Carrefour Langelier's logo on a sign.
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Supermarkets in Canada|List of Canadian supermarkets]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.walmart.ca/ Wal-Mart Canada]
* [http://walmartstores.com/GlobalWMStoresWeb/navigate.do?catg=374 Wal-Mart Canadian operations]

{{Canadian Supermarkets}}

[[Category:Canadian subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Companies based in Mississauga]]
[[Category:Department stores of Canada]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1994]]
[[Category:Supermarkets of Canada]]
[[Category:Wal-Mart]]
[[Category:Woolworth]]

[[fr:Walmart Canada]]

Walmart Canada

2010-10-19T19:34:49Z

Cahk: /* Wal-Mart Canada Bank */

{{Refimprove|date=December 2009}}
{{Infobox company
| company_name = Walmart Canada
| company_logo = [[File:Walmart Canada Logo.svg|225px]]
| company_type = [[Department store#Discount department store|Discount department store]]
| company_slogan =
| foundation = 1994
| location = {{flagicon|CAN}} [[Mississauga]], [[Ontario]]
| locations = 319<ref name="factsheet">[http://walmartstores.com/download/1998.pdf Wal-Mart Canada Fact Sheet]</ref>
| key_people = David Cheesewright, President & [[Chief executive officer|CEO]]
| industry = [[Retailing|Retail]]
| num_employees = 78,138 (2010)<ref name="factsheet"/>
| products = [[department store|Discount store]]s, [[supermarket|grocery store]]s, and [[hypermarket]]s, [[Optics|Optical]], [[Pharmacy]], Portrait Studio
| revenue =
| net_income =
| parent = {{flagicon|US}} [[Wal-Mart]]
| homepage = [http://www.walmart.ca/ www.walmart.ca]
}}
'''Walmart Canada''' is the [[Canada|Canadian]] unit of [[Wal-Mart]] and was founded in [[1994]] in [[Mississauga|Mississauga, Ontario]] with the purchase of the Canadian [[Woolco]] stores from [[F. W. Woolworth Company|Woolworth Canada]].

Walmart typically competes with [[Zellers]], [[Canadian Tire]], [[Hart Stores]], [[Giant Tiger]], and [[Real Canadian Superstore]], [[Costco]], and increasingly grocery stores such as [[Loblaws]], [[Metro Inc.|Metro]], [[Sobeys]], [[Thrifty Foods]], [[Safeway Inc.|Safeway]], [[Save-On-Foods]], [[Country Grocer]], [[Fairway Markets]], Quality Foods, others.

Beginning in the fall of [[2006 in Canada|2006]], Walmart opened new [[Walmart supercentre#Wal-Mart Supercenter|Supercentres]] in select Canadian cities with 14 new stores by the end of [[2007 in Canada|2007]]. Walmart locations already carry limited grocery items in [[Canada]].

==History==

Headquartered in Mississauga, Ontario, Wal-Mart Canada was established in 1994 with the acquisition of the Woolco Canada chain of 122 stores. Walmart Canada has plans to open 15–20 stores each year. Almost all Canadian Walmart stores have [[McDonald's]] locations. As of 2010, [[Nunavut]] is the only territory in Canada that does not have a Walmart location.
[[File:Old walmart logo.gif‎|Walmart Canada logo used 1994-2001]]

==Community involvement==
* Raised and donated $7.6 million to [[Children's Miracle Network]] (CMN) to support children's hospitals across Canada.<ref name="factsheet"/>
* Contributed $2.9 million to more than 1,000 local non-profit organizations through Wal-Mart's Local Matching Grant program.
* Raised and contributed $2.8 million for the [[Breakfast for Learning]] Canada program, a school nutrition program and partnership with a goal to ensure all school children attend class well nourished and ready to learn.
* Became the top corporate sponsor of the [[Canadian Red Cross]], with $1 million in relief aid related to [[Hurricane Katrina]], the India earthquake and other projects.
* Donated $300,000 to Evergreen, a Canadian non-profit environmental organization to help community groups create and improve green space in urban areas across the country.<ref>[http://www.evergreen.ca/en/about/media-press39.html Wal-Mart Canada and Evergreen Continue Green Grants Partnership]</ref>
* Awarded $115,000 in scholarships to Canadian university and college students.
* Supported 150 Canadian schools through a number of programs including Wal-Mart Canada's Adopt-a School program.

==Wal-Mart Discount Stores in Canada==
[[Image:Walmart Sault Ste. Marie.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sault Ste. Marie Wal-Mart in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.]]

A typical Wal-Mart discount department store. Wal-Mart Discount Stores are discount department stores with size varying from {{convert|51000|to|150000|sqft|m2|1}}, with an average store covering about {{convert|102000|sqft|m2|1}}. They carry general merchandise and a selection of food. Many of these stores also have a garden centre, a pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, a bank branch, a cell phone store and a fast food outlet (usually McDonald's).

Walmart was established in Canada in 1994 with the acquisition of the 122-store Woolco division of Woolworth Canada.

As of June 30, 2010, there were 220 Wal-Mart Discount Stores in Canada.<ref name="factsheet"/> In 2006, the busiest in the country was one in [[Square One Shopping Centre]], 100 City Centre Drive, Mississauga, Ontario (Store 3055).

==Wal-Mart Supercentres in Canada==
[[Image:Wal-Mart Supercenter in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, Jan 2008.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Vaughan Wal-Mart Supercentre in Vaughan, Ontario.]]
With the success of both Wal-Mart in [[Canada]] and [[Wal-Mart|Wal-Mart Supercentres]] in the [[United States]], it was announced in late [[2005 in Canada|2005]] that the Supercentre concept would be arriving in Canada. On [[November 8]], [[2006 in Canada|2006]], Canada's first three Supercentres opened in Ancaster (Hamilton), London, and Stouffville in Ontario.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/consumer/story/2006/11/07/wawlmart-superstores.html Wal-Mart unveils plans to open up to 14 supercentres in 2007]</ref> [[Alberta]] became the second province with Supercentres the following year in September 2007.<ref>[http://www2.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/business/story.html?id=7db0ae07-1fc7-4190-9bae-11f05a96290c Wal-Mart shifts to Supercentres in Alberta]</ref> The first Supercentre in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] opened in January 2009 in a former Costco/Price Club location which moved to a new larger site nearby in Burnaby.<ref>[http://www.globaltv.com/globaltv/bc/Mart+cracks+Vancouver+market+with+Grandview+store/1197070/story.html Wal-Mart cracks Vancouver market with Grandview store]</ref>

These stock everything a Wal-Mart Discount Store does, and also include a full-service supermarket, including meat and poultry, baked goods, delicatessen, frozen foods, dairy products, garden produce, and fresh seafood. Many Wal-Mart Supercentres also have a garden centre, pet shop, pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, and numerous alcove shops, such as cellular phone stores, hair and nail salons, video rental stores, local bank branches, and fast food outlets (usually McDonald's).

As of June 30, 2010, there were now 100 Wal-Mart Supercentres in Canada. The largest was one at the [[Uptown Victoria]] mall<ref name="factsheet"/>

{{wikinews|Three Walmart superstores open in select cities in Canada}}

==Wal-Mart Canada Bank==
Wal-Mart Canada launched its application for banking license in 2008 to compete with similar stores in Canada such as [[Loblaw Companies|Loblaw]].<ref> [http://www.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/story.html?id=6f8b9feb-8d59-463e-bdd8-06985f4f5a9b Wal-Mart files for Canadian banking licence]</ref> On July 24, 2009, Wal-Mart Canada Bank was incorporated under the ''[[Canada Bank Act|Bank Act]]'' in Canada. <ref> [http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2009/2009-08-08/html/notice-avis-eng.html Canada Gazette – GOVERNMENT NOTICES]</ref>

On June 15, 2010, Wal-Mart officially launched into the banking sector under the name Wal-Mart Canada Bank ({{lang-fr|La Banque Wal-Mart du Canada}}).<ref> [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aVAFXXvF5vJQ&refer=canada Wal-Mart Canadian Unit Seeks to Offer Bank Services]</ref> As a Schedule II [[List of banks and credit unions in Canada|federal financial institution]], it is regulated by the [[Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions (Canada)|Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]].<ref> [http://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/wwwapps/lists/cid.asp?sCode=1&cid=FM Federally Regulated Financial Institutions]</ref> Currently, WMCB only offers a [[Mastercard]] product but could offer more banking services in the future.<ref> [http://www.thestar.com/business/companies/walmart/article/823669--wal-mart-canada-issues-rewards-based-mastercard Wal-Mart Canada issues rewards-based MasterCard]</ref>

==Controversy==
{{further|[[Criticism of Wal-Mart]]}}

Wal-Mart has been the subject of some criticism by certain groups who claim that they have lower labour standards than other similar retailers. Other criticisms centre around the claim that due to their low prices they drive out local businesses.

There are also accusations that Walmart Canada has engaged in some practices that discourage associates from exercising their right to join a [[labor union|union]] and negotiate a [[collective bargaining agreement]]. Wal-Mart closed their [[Saguenay, Quebec]] store, in April 2005 after workers unionized and just days before contract settlement by binding arbitration, putting 190 employees out of work. Wal-Mart argued that the store wasn’t profitable and the Supreme Court of Canada affirmed 6-3 on November 27, 2009 that the company had the legal right to close the store.<ref>[http://montreal.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20091127/mtl_scoc_wal_mart091127/20091127/?hub=MontrealHome]</ref> Wal-Mart also closed its automotive centre in [[Gatineau, Quebec]], after employees unionized and an arbitrator imposed a 33 per cent wage increase. At St-Hyacinthe Wal-Mart, the 200 employees had organized successfully in January 2005 but contract negotiations stalled and an arbitrator was called in, finally reaching a two-year deal on April 9, 2009.
<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/ottawa/story/2009/04/09/mtl-walmart-sthyacinthe-unionized-0409.html]</ref>

Wal-Mart Canada has been accused of undermining [[internet rights]] and [[freedom of speech]], as a result of its June 2009 decision to seek an injunction against the [[Walmart Workers Canada]] campaign and its longstanding Walmart Workers Canada website <ref>[http://www.walmartworkerscanada.ca Walmart Workers Canada]</ref> in particular, a [[labour rights]] website sponsored by [[UFCW Canada]].

==Slogans==
*''Where Everyday Costs Less'' 1994-1995
*''Always Low Prices Always Wal-Mart'' 1995-Late 1990s
*''We Sell For Less Everyday'' Late 1990s-2009.
*''Save Money. Live Better.'' 2009–Present

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:WalmartMoncton.JPG|Moncton Wal-Mart in Moncton, New Brunswick
Image:Walmart_Sault_Ste._Marie.jpg|Sault Ste. Marie Wal-Mart in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
Image:Yellowknife Wal-Mart.jpg|Yellowknife Wal-Mart in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories.
Image:Whitehorse_Wal-Mart.jpg|Whitehorse Wal-Mart in Whitehorse, Yukon.
Image:New_Wal-Mart_Simcoe.jpg|Simcoe New Wal-Mart in Simcoe, Ontario.
Image:Ancaster_Wal-mart,_Hamilton.JPG|Ancaster Wal-Mart Supercentre in Hamilton, Ontario.
Image:Wal-Mart Supercenter in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, Jan 2008.jpg|Vaughan Wal-Mart Supercentre in Vaughan, Ontario.
Image:Walmart_Supercentre_Mississauga.jpg‎|Mississauga Wal-Mart Supercentre in Mississauga, Ontario.
Image:Walmart_burl_sc.jpg‎|Burlington New Wal-Mart Supercentre in Burlington, Ontario.
File:Walmart Centre Laval Mall Entrance.jpg|Mall entrance of a Walmart store (former Woolco) in [[Laval, Quebec]], [[Canada]]. It was the second Woolco store in [[Quebec]] before Walmart acquired Woolco, but retains Walmart Canada's original logo as of 2010.
File:Walmart Carrefour Langelier.jpg ‎ |A Walmart store at [[Montreal]]'s [[Carrefour Langelier]] shopping centre. It is the last-remaining Walmart store in the [[Island of Montreal]] that operated as a Woolco in the past. The original Walmart Canada logo remains, alongside the older Woolco look.
File:Walmart Carrefour Langelier Sign.jpg|Original Walmart Canada logo and Carrefour Langelier's logo on a sign.
File:File:Walmartincanada.jpg|a walmart in tillsonburg ontario.

</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Supermarkets in Canada|List of Canadian supermarkets]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.walmart.ca/ Wal-Mart Canada]
* [http://walmartstores.com/GlobalWMStoresWeb/navigate.do?catg=374 Wal-Mart Canadian operations]

{{Canadian Supermarkets}}

[[Category:Canadian subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Companies based in Mississauga]]
[[Category:Department stores of Canada]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1994]]
[[Category:Supermarkets of Canada]]
[[Category:Wal-Mart]]
[[Category:Woolworth]]

[[fr:Walmart Canada]]

Walmart Canada

2010-10-19T19:34:22Z

Cahk: /* Wal-Mart Canada Bank */

{{Refimprove|date=December 2009}}
{{Infobox company
| company_name = Walmart Canada
| company_logo = [[File:Walmart Canada Logo.svg|225px]]
| company_type = [[Department store#Discount department store|Discount department store]]
| company_slogan =
| foundation = 1994
| location = {{flagicon|CAN}} [[Mississauga]], [[Ontario]]
| locations = 319<ref name="factsheet">[http://walmartstores.com/download/1998.pdf Wal-Mart Canada Fact Sheet]</ref>
| key_people = David Cheesewright, President & [[Chief executive officer|CEO]]
| industry = [[Retailing|Retail]]
| num_employees = 78,138 (2010)<ref name="factsheet"/>
| products = [[department store|Discount store]]s, [[supermarket|grocery store]]s, and [[hypermarket]]s, [[Optics|Optical]], [[Pharmacy]], Portrait Studio
| revenue =
| net_income =
| parent = {{flagicon|US}} [[Wal-Mart]]
| homepage = [http://www.walmart.ca/ www.walmart.ca]
}}
'''Walmart Canada''' is the [[Canada|Canadian]] unit of [[Wal-Mart]] and was founded in [[1994]] in [[Mississauga|Mississauga, Ontario]] with the purchase of the Canadian [[Woolco]] stores from [[F. W. Woolworth Company|Woolworth Canada]].

Walmart typically competes with [[Zellers]], [[Canadian Tire]], [[Hart Stores]], [[Giant Tiger]], and [[Real Canadian Superstore]], [[Costco]], and increasingly grocery stores such as [[Loblaws]], [[Metro Inc.|Metro]], [[Sobeys]], [[Thrifty Foods]], [[Safeway Inc.|Safeway]], [[Save-On-Foods]], [[Country Grocer]], [[Fairway Markets]], Quality Foods, others.

Beginning in the fall of [[2006 in Canada|2006]], Walmart opened new [[Walmart supercentre#Wal-Mart Supercenter|Supercentres]] in select Canadian cities with 14 new stores by the end of [[2007 in Canada|2007]]. Walmart locations already carry limited grocery items in [[Canada]].

==History==

Headquartered in Mississauga, Ontario, Wal-Mart Canada was established in 1994 with the acquisition of the Woolco Canada chain of 122 stores. Walmart Canada has plans to open 15–20 stores each year. Almost all Canadian Walmart stores have [[McDonald's]] locations. As of 2010, [[Nunavut]] is the only territory in Canada that does not have a Walmart location.
[[File:Old walmart logo.gif‎|Walmart Canada logo used 1994-2001]]

==Community involvement==
* Raised and donated $7.6 million to [[Children's Miracle Network]] (CMN) to support children's hospitals across Canada.<ref name="factsheet"/>
* Contributed $2.9 million to more than 1,000 local non-profit organizations through Wal-Mart's Local Matching Grant program.
* Raised and contributed $2.8 million for the [[Breakfast for Learning]] Canada program, a school nutrition program and partnership with a goal to ensure all school children attend class well nourished and ready to learn.
* Became the top corporate sponsor of the [[Canadian Red Cross]], with $1 million in relief aid related to [[Hurricane Katrina]], the India earthquake and other projects.
* Donated $300,000 to Evergreen, a Canadian non-profit environmental organization to help community groups create and improve green space in urban areas across the country.<ref>[http://www.evergreen.ca/en/about/media-press39.html Wal-Mart Canada and Evergreen Continue Green Grants Partnership]</ref>
* Awarded $115,000 in scholarships to Canadian university and college students.
* Supported 150 Canadian schools through a number of programs including Wal-Mart Canada's Adopt-a School program.

==Wal-Mart Discount Stores in Canada==
[[Image:Walmart Sault Ste. Marie.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sault Ste. Marie Wal-Mart in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.]]

A typical Wal-Mart discount department store. Wal-Mart Discount Stores are discount department stores with size varying from {{convert|51000|to|150000|sqft|m2|1}}, with an average store covering about {{convert|102000|sqft|m2|1}}. They carry general merchandise and a selection of food. Many of these stores also have a garden centre, a pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, a bank branch, a cell phone store and a fast food outlet (usually McDonald's).

Walmart was established in Canada in 1994 with the acquisition of the 122-store Woolco division of Woolworth Canada.

As of June 30, 2010, there were 220 Wal-Mart Discount Stores in Canada.<ref name="factsheet"/> In 2006, the busiest in the country was one in [[Square One Shopping Centre]], 100 City Centre Drive, Mississauga, Ontario (Store 3055).

==Wal-Mart Supercentres in Canada==
[[Image:Wal-Mart Supercenter in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, Jan 2008.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Vaughan Wal-Mart Supercentre in Vaughan, Ontario.]]
With the success of both Wal-Mart in [[Canada]] and [[Wal-Mart|Wal-Mart Supercentres]] in the [[United States]], it was announced in late [[2005 in Canada|2005]] that the Supercentre concept would be arriving in Canada. On [[November 8]], [[2006 in Canada|2006]], Canada's first three Supercentres opened in Ancaster (Hamilton), London, and Stouffville in Ontario.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/consumer/story/2006/11/07/wawlmart-superstores.html Wal-Mart unveils plans to open up to 14 supercentres in 2007]</ref> [[Alberta]] became the second province with Supercentres the following year in September 2007.<ref>[http://www2.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/business/story.html?id=7db0ae07-1fc7-4190-9bae-11f05a96290c Wal-Mart shifts to Supercentres in Alberta]</ref> The first Supercentre in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] opened in January 2009 in a former Costco/Price Club location which moved to a new larger site nearby in Burnaby.<ref>[http://www.globaltv.com/globaltv/bc/Mart+cracks+Vancouver+market+with+Grandview+store/1197070/story.html Wal-Mart cracks Vancouver market with Grandview store]</ref>

These stock everything a Wal-Mart Discount Store does, and also include a full-service supermarket, including meat and poultry, baked goods, delicatessen, frozen foods, dairy products, garden produce, and fresh seafood. Many Wal-Mart Supercentres also have a garden centre, pet shop, pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, and numerous alcove shops, such as cellular phone stores, hair and nail salons, video rental stores, local bank branches, and fast food outlets (usually McDonald's).

As of June 30, 2010, there were now 100 Wal-Mart Supercentres in Canada. The largest was one at the [[Uptown Victoria]] mall<ref name="factsheet"/>

{{wikinews|Three Walmart superstores open in select cities in Canada}}

==Wal-Mart Canada Bank==
Wal-Mart Canada launched its application for banking license in 2008 to compete with similar stores in Canada such as [[Loblaw Companies|Loblaw]].<ref> [http://www.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/story.html?id=6f8b9feb-8d59-463e-bdd8-06985f4f5a9b Wal-Mart files for Canadian banking licence]</ref> On July 24, 2009, Wal-Mart Canada Bank was incorporated under the ''[[Canada Bank Act|Bank Act]]'' in Canada. <ref> [http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2009/2009-08-08/html/notice-avis-eng.html Canada Gazette – GOVERNMENT NOTICES]</ref>

On June 15, 2010, Wal-Mart officially launched into the banking sector under the name Wal-Mart Canada Bank ({{lang-fr|La Banque Wal-Mart du Canada}}).<ref> [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aVAFXXvF5vJQ&refer=canada Wal-Mart Canadian Unit Seeks to Offer Bank Services]</ref> As a Schedule II [[List of banks and credit unions in Canada
|federal financial institution]], it is regulated by the [[Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions (Canada)|Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]].<ref> [http://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/wwwapps/lists/cid.asp?sCode=1&cid=FM Federally Regulated Financial Institutions]</ref> Currently, WMCB only offers a [[Mastercard]] product but could offer more banking services in the future.<ref> [http://www.thestar.com/business/companies/walmart/article/823669--wal-mart-canada-issues-rewards-based-mastercard Wal-Mart Canada issues rewards-based MasterCard]</ref>

==Controversy==
{{further|[[Criticism of Wal-Mart]]}}

Wal-Mart has been the subject of some criticism by certain groups who claim that they have lower labour standards than other similar retailers. Other criticisms centre around the claim that due to their low prices they drive out local businesses.

There are also accusations that Walmart Canada has engaged in some practices that discourage associates from exercising their right to join a [[labor union|union]] and negotiate a [[collective bargaining agreement]]. Wal-Mart closed their [[Saguenay, Quebec]] store, in April 2005 after workers unionized and just days before contract settlement by binding arbitration, putting 190 employees out of work. Wal-Mart argued that the store wasn’t profitable and the Supreme Court of Canada affirmed 6-3 on November 27, 2009 that the company had the legal right to close the store.<ref>[http://montreal.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20091127/mtl_scoc_wal_mart091127/20091127/?hub=MontrealHome]</ref> Wal-Mart also closed its automotive centre in [[Gatineau, Quebec]], after employees unionized and an arbitrator imposed a 33 per cent wage increase. At St-Hyacinthe Wal-Mart, the 200 employees had organized successfully in January 2005 but contract negotiations stalled and an arbitrator was called in, finally reaching a two-year deal on April 9, 2009.
<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/ottawa/story/2009/04/09/mtl-walmart-sthyacinthe-unionized-0409.html]</ref>

Wal-Mart Canada has been accused of undermining [[internet rights]] and [[freedom of speech]], as a result of its June 2009 decision to seek an injunction against the [[Walmart Workers Canada]] campaign and its longstanding Walmart Workers Canada website <ref>[http://www.walmartworkerscanada.ca Walmart Workers Canada]</ref> in particular, a [[labour rights]] website sponsored by [[UFCW Canada]].

==Slogans==
*''Where Everyday Costs Less'' 1994-1995
*''Always Low Prices Always Wal-Mart'' 1995-Late 1990s
*''We Sell For Less Everyday'' Late 1990s-2009.
*''Save Money. Live Better.'' 2009–Present

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:WalmartMoncton.JPG|Moncton Wal-Mart in Moncton, New Brunswick
Image:Walmart_Sault_Ste._Marie.jpg|Sault Ste. Marie Wal-Mart in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
Image:Yellowknife Wal-Mart.jpg|Yellowknife Wal-Mart in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories.
Image:Whitehorse_Wal-Mart.jpg|Whitehorse Wal-Mart in Whitehorse, Yukon.
Image:New_Wal-Mart_Simcoe.jpg|Simcoe New Wal-Mart in Simcoe, Ontario.
Image:Ancaster_Wal-mart,_Hamilton.JPG|Ancaster Wal-Mart Supercentre in Hamilton, Ontario.
Image:Wal-Mart Supercenter in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, Jan 2008.jpg|Vaughan Wal-Mart Supercentre in Vaughan, Ontario.
Image:Walmart_Supercentre_Mississauga.jpg‎|Mississauga Wal-Mart Supercentre in Mississauga, Ontario.
Image:Walmart_burl_sc.jpg‎|Burlington New Wal-Mart Supercentre in Burlington, Ontario.
File:Walmart Centre Laval Mall Entrance.jpg|Mall entrance of a Walmart store (former Woolco) in [[Laval, Quebec]], [[Canada]]. It was the second Woolco store in [[Quebec]] before Walmart acquired Woolco, but retains Walmart Canada's original logo as of 2010.
File:Walmart Carrefour Langelier.jpg ‎ |A Walmart store at [[Montreal]]'s [[Carrefour Langelier]] shopping centre. It is the last-remaining Walmart store in the [[Island of Montreal]] that operated as a Woolco in the past. The original Walmart Canada logo remains, alongside the older Woolco look.
File:Walmart Carrefour Langelier Sign.jpg|Original Walmart Canada logo and Carrefour Langelier's logo on a sign.
File:File:Walmartincanada.jpg|a walmart in tillsonburg ontario.

</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Supermarkets in Canada|List of Canadian supermarkets]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.walmart.ca/ Wal-Mart Canada]
* [http://walmartstores.com/GlobalWMStoresWeb/navigate.do?catg=374 Wal-Mart Canadian operations]

{{Canadian Supermarkets}}

[[Category:Canadian subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Companies based in Mississauga]]
[[Category:Department stores of Canada]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1994]]
[[Category:Supermarkets of Canada]]
[[Category:Wal-Mart]]
[[Category:Woolworth]]

[[fr:Walmart Canada]]

Walmart Canada

2010-10-18T02:50:13Z

Cahk: /* Wal-Mart Canada Bank */

{{Refimprove|date=December 2009}}
{{Infobox company
| company_name = Walmart Canada
| company_logo = [[File:Walmart Canada Logo.svg|225px]]
| company_type = [[Department store#Discount department store|Discount department store]]
| company_slogan =
| foundation = 1994
| location = {{flagicon|CAN}} [[Mississauga]], [[Ontario]]
| locations = 319<ref name="factsheet">[http://walmartstores.com/download/1998.pdf Wal-Mart Canada Fact Sheet]</ref>
| key_people = David Cheesewright, President & [[Chief executive officer|CEO]]
| industry = [[Retailing|Retail]]
| num_employees = 78,138 (2010)<ref name="factsheet"/>
| products = [[department store|Discount store]]s, [[supermarket|grocery store]]s, and [[hypermarket]]s, [[Optics|Optical]], [[Pharmacy]], Portrait Studio
| revenue =
| net_income =
| parent = {{flagicon|US}} [[Wal-Mart]]
| homepage = [http://www.walmart.ca/ www.walmart.ca]
}}
'''Walmart Canada''' is the [[Canada|Canadian]] unit of [[Wal-Mart]] and was founded in [[1994]] in [[Mississauga|Mississauga, Ontario]] with the purchase of the Canadian [[Woolco]] stores from [[F. W. Woolworth Company|Woolworth Canada]].

Walmart typically competes with [[Zellers]], [[Canadian Tire]], [[Hart Stores]], [[Giant Tiger]], and [[Real Canadian Superstore]], [[Costco]], and increasingly grocery stores such as [[Loblaws]], [[Metro Inc.|Metro]], [[Sobeys]], [[Thrifty Foods]], [[Safeway Inc.|Safeway]], [[Save-On-Foods]], [[Country Grocer]], [[Fairway Markets]], Quality Foods, others.

Beginning in the fall of [[2006 in Canada|2006]], Walmart opened new [[Walmart supercentre#Wal-Mart Supercenter|Supercentres]] in select Canadian cities with 14 new stores by the end of [[2007 in Canada|2007]]. Walmart locations already carry limited grocery items in [[Canada]].

==History==

Headquartered in Mississauga, Ontario, Wal-Mart Canada was established in 1994 with the acquisition of the Woolco Canada chain of 122 stores. Wal-Mart Canada has plans to open 15-20 stores each year. Almost all Canadian Walmart stores have [[McDonald's]] locations. As of 2010, [[Nunavut]] is the only territory in Canada that does not have a Walmart location.
[[File:Walmart complete.jpg|thumb|right|Walmart Canada Logo used From 1994-2001 {{pufc|Walmart complete.jpg|date=16 October 2010}}]]

==Community involvement==
* Raised and donated $7.6 million to [[Children's Miracle Network]] (CMN) to support children's hospitals across Canada.<ref name="factsheet"/>
* Contributed $2.9 million to more than 1,000 local non-profit organizations through Wal-Mart's Local Matching Grant program.
* Raised and contributed $2.8 million for the [[Breakfast for Learning]] Canada program, a school nutrition program and partnership with a goal to ensure all school children attend class well nourished and ready to learn.
* Became the top corporate sponsor of the [[Canadian Red Cross]], with $1 million in relief aid related to [[Hurricane Katrina]], the India earthquake and other projects.
* Donated $300,000 to Evergreen, a Canadian non-profit environmental organization to help community groups create and improve green space in urban areas across the country.<ref>[http://www.evergreen.ca/en/about/media-press39.html Wal-Mart Canada and Evergreen Continue Green Grants Partnership]</ref>
* Awarded $115,000 in scholarships to Canadian university and college students.
* Supported 150 Canadian schools through a number of programs including Wal-Mart Canada's Adopt-a School program.

==Wal-Mart Discount Stores in Canada==
[[Image:Walmart Sault Ste. Marie.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sault Ste. Marie Wal-Mart in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.]]

A typical Wal-Mart discount department store. Wal-Mart Discount Stores are discount department stores with size varying from {{convert|51000|to|150000|sqft|m2|1}}, with an average store covering about {{convert|102000|sqft|m2|1}}. They carry general merchandise and a selection of food. Many of these stores also have a garden centre, a pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, a bank branch, a cell phone store and a fast food outlet (usually McDonald's).

Walmart was established in Canada in 1994 with the acquisition of the 122-store Woolco division of Woolworth Canada.

As of June 30, 2010, there were 220 Wal-Mart Discount Stores in Canada.<ref name="factsheet"/> In 2006, the busiest in the country was one in [[Square One Shopping Centre]], 100 City Centre Drive, Mississauga, Ontario (Store 3055).

==Wal-Mart Supercentres in Canada==
[[Image:Wal-Mart Supercenter in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, Jan 2008.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Vaughan Wal-Mart Supercentre in Vaughan, Ontario.]]
With the success of both Wal-Mart in [[Canada]] and [[Wal-Mart|Wal-Mart Supercentres]] in the [[United States]], it was announced in late [[2005 in Canada|2005]] that the Supercentre concept would be arriving in Canada. On [[November 8]], [[2006 in Canada|2006]], Canada's first three Supercentres opened in Ancaster (Hamilton), London, and Stouffville in Ontario.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/consumer/story/2006/11/07/wawlmart-superstores.html Wal-Mart unveils plans to open up to 14 supercentres in 2007]</ref> [[Alberta]] became the second province with Supercentres the following year in September 2007.<ref>[http://www2.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/business/story.html?id=7db0ae07-1fc7-4190-9bae-11f05a96290c Wal-Mart shifts to Supercentres in Alberta]</ref> The first Supercentre in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] opened in January 2009 in a former Costco/Price Club location which moved to a new larger site nearby in Burnaby.<ref>[http://www.globaltv.com/globaltv/bc/Mart+cracks+Vancouver+market+with+Grandview+store/1197070/story.html Wal-Mart cracks Vancouver market with Grandview store]</ref>

These stock everything a Wal-Mart Discount Store does, and also include a full-service supermarket, including meat and poultry, baked goods, delicatessen, frozen foods, dairy products, garden produce, and fresh seafood. Many Wal-Mart Supercentres also have a garden centre, pet shop, pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, and numerous alcove shops, such as cellular phone stores, hair and nail salons, video rental stores, local bank branches, and fast food outlets (usually McDonald's).

As of June 30, 2010, there were now 100 Wal-Mart Supercentres in Canada. The largest was one at the [[Uptown Victoria]] mall<ref name="factsheet"/>

{{wikinews|Three Walmart superstores open in select cities in Canada}}

==Wal-Mart Canada Bank==
Wal-Mart Canada launched its application for banking license in 2008 to compete with similar stores in Canada such as [[Loblaw Companies|Loblaw]].<ref> [http://www.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/story.html?id=6f8b9feb-8d59-463e-bdd8-06985f4f5a9b Wal-Mart files for Canadian banking licence]</ref> On July 24, 2009, Wal-Mart Canada Bank was incorporated under the ''[[Canada Bank Act|Bank Act]]'' in Canada. <ref> [http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2009/2009-08-08/html/notice-avis-eng.html Canada Gazette – GOVERNMENT NOTICES]</ref>

On June 15, 2010, Wal-Mart officially launched into the banking sector under the name Wal-Mart Canada Bank ({{lang-fr|La Banque Wal-Mart du Canada}}).<ref> [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aVAFXXvF5vJQ&refer=canada Wal-Mart Canadian Unit Seeks to Offer Bank Services]</ref> As a federal financial institution, it is regulated by the [[Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions (Canada)|Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]].<ref> [http://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/wwwapps/lists/cid.asp?sCode=1&cid=FM Federally Regulated Financial Institutions]</ref> Currently, WMCB only offers a [[Mastercard]] product but could offer more banking services in the future.<ref> [http://www.thestar.com/business/companies/walmart/article/823669--wal-mart-canada-issues-rewards-based-mastercard Wal-Mart Canada issues rewards-based MasterCard]</ref>

==Controversy==
{{further|[[Criticism of Wal-Mart]]}}

Wal-Mart has been the subject of some criticism by certain groups who claim that they have lower labour standards than other similar retailers. Other criticisms centre around the claim that due to their low prices they drive out local businesses.

There are also accusations that Walmart Canada has engaged in some practices that discourage associates from exercising their right to join a [[labor union|union]] and negotiate a [[collective bargaining agreement]]. Wal-Mart closed their [[Saguenay, Quebec]] store, in April 2005 after workers unionized and just days before contract settlement by binding arbitration, putting 190 employees out of work. Wal-Mart argued that the store wasn’t profitable and the Supreme Court of Canada affirmed 6-3 on November 27, 2009 that the company had the legal right to close the store.<ref>[http://montreal.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20091127/mtl_scoc_wal_mart091127/20091127/?hub=MontrealHome]</ref> Wal-Mart also closed its automotive centre in [[Gatineau, Quebec]], after employees unionized and an arbitrator imposed a 33 per cent wage increase. At St-Hyacinthe Wal-Mart, the 200 employees had organized successfully in January 2005 but contract negotiations stalled and an arbitrator was called in, finally reaching a two-year deal on April 9, 2009.
<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/ottawa/story/2009/04/09/mtl-walmart-sthyacinthe-unionized-0409.html]</ref>

Wal-Mart Canada has been accused of undermining [[internet rights]] and [[freedom of speech]], as a result of its June 2009 decision to seek an injunction against the [[Walmart Workers Canada]] campaign and its longstanding Walmart Workers Canada website <ref>[http://www.walmartworkerscanada.ca Walmart Workers Canada]</ref> in particular, a [[labour rights]] website sponsored by [[UFCW Canada]].

==Slogans==
*''Where Everyday Costs Less'' 1994-1995
*''Always Low Prices Always Wal-Mart'' 1995-Late 1990s
*''We Sell For Less Everyday'' Late 1990s-2009.
*''Save Money. Live Better.'' 2009–Present

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:WalmartMoncton.JPG|Moncton Wal-Mart in Moncton, New Brunswick
Image:Walmart_Sault_Ste._Marie.jpg|Sault Ste. Marie Wal-Mart in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
Image:Yellowknife Wal-Mart.jpg|Yellowknife Wal-Mart in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories.
Image:Whitehorse_Wal-Mart.jpg|Whitehorse Wal-Mart in Whitehorse, Yukon.
Image:New_Wal-Mart_Simcoe.jpg|Simcoe New Wal-Mart in Simcoe, Ontario.
Image:Ancaster_Wal-mart,_Hamilton.JPG|Ancaster Wal-Mart Supercentre in Hamilton, Ontario.
Image:Wal-Mart Supercenter in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, Jan 2008.jpg|Vaughan Wal-Mart Supercentre in Vaughan, Ontario.
Image:Walmart_Supercentre_Mississauga.jpg‎|Mississauga Wal-Mart Supercentre in Mississauga, Ontario.
Image:Walmart_burl_sc.jpg‎|Burlington New Wal-Mart Supercentre in Burlington, Ontario.
File:Walmart Centre Laval Mall Entrance.jpg|Mall entrance of a Walmart store (former Woolco) in [[Laval, Quebec]], [[Canada]]. It was the second Woolco store in [[Quebec]] before Walmart acquired Woolco, but retains Walmart Canada's original logo as of 2010.
File:Walmart Carrefour Langelier.jpg ‎ |A Walmart store at [[Montreal]]'s [[Carrefour Langelier]] shopping centre. It is the last-remaining Walmart store in the [[Island of Montreal]] that operated as a Woolco in the past. The original Walmart Canada logo remains, alongside the older Woolco look.
File:Walmart Carrefour Langelier Sign.jpg|Original Walmart Canada logo and Carrefour Langelier's logo on a sign.
File:File:Walmartincanada.jpg|a walmart in tillsonburg ontario.

</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Supermarkets in Canada|List of Canadian supermarkets]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.walmart.ca/ Wal-Mart Canada]
* [http://walmartstores.com/GlobalWMStoresWeb/navigate.do?catg=374 Wal-Mart Canadian operations]

{{Canadian Supermarkets}}

[[Category:Canadian subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Companies based in Mississauga]]
[[Category:Department stores of Canada]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1994]]
[[Category:Supermarkets of Canada]]
[[Category:Wal-Mart]]
[[Category:Woolworth]]

[[fr:Walmart Canada]]

Walmart Canada

2010-10-18T02:47:35Z

Cahk: +WMCB

{{Refimprove|date=December 2009}}
{{Infobox company
| company_name = Walmart Canada
| company_logo = [[File:Walmart Canada Logo.svg|225px]]
| company_type = [[Department store#Discount department store|Discount department store]]
| company_slogan =
| foundation = 1994
| location = {{flagicon|CAN}} [[Mississauga]], [[Ontario]]
| locations = 319<ref name="factsheet">[http://walmartstores.com/download/1998.pdf Wal-Mart Canada Fact Sheet]</ref>
| key_people = David Cheesewright, President & [[Chief executive officer|CEO]]
| industry = [[Retailing|Retail]]
| num_employees = 78,138 (2010)<ref name="factsheet"/>
| products = [[department store|Discount store]]s, [[supermarket|grocery store]]s, and [[hypermarket]]s, [[Optics|Optical]], [[Pharmacy]], Portrait Studio
| revenue =
| net_income =
| parent = {{flagicon|US}} [[Wal-Mart]]
| homepage = [http://www.walmart.ca/ www.walmart.ca]
}}
'''Walmart Canada''' is the [[Canada|Canadian]] unit of [[Wal-Mart]] and was founded in [[1994]] in [[Mississauga|Mississauga, Ontario]] with the purchase of the Canadian [[Woolco]] stores from [[F. W. Woolworth Company|Woolworth Canada]].

Walmart typically competes with [[Zellers]], [[Canadian Tire]], [[Hart Stores]], [[Giant Tiger]], and [[Real Canadian Superstore]], [[Costco]], and increasingly grocery stores such as [[Loblaws]], [[Metro Inc.|Metro]], [[Sobeys]], [[Thrifty Foods]], [[Safeway Inc.|Safeway]], [[Save-On-Foods]], [[Country Grocer]], [[Fairway Markets]], Quality Foods, others.

Beginning in the fall of [[2006 in Canada|2006]], Walmart opened new [[Walmart supercentre#Wal-Mart Supercenter|Supercentres]] in select Canadian cities with 14 new stores by the end of [[2007 in Canada|2007]]. Walmart locations already carry limited grocery items in [[Canada]].

==History==

Headquartered in Mississauga, Ontario, Wal-Mart Canada was established in 1994 with the acquisition of the Woolco Canada chain of 122 stores. Wal-Mart Canada has plans to open 15-20 stores each year. Almost all Canadian Walmart stores have [[McDonald's]] locations. As of 2010, [[Nunavut]] is the only territory in Canada that does not have a Walmart location.
[[File:Walmart complete.jpg|thumb|right|Walmart Canada Logo used From 1994-2001 {{pufc|Walmart complete.jpg|date=16 October 2010}}]]

==Community involvement==
* Raised and donated $7.6 million to [[Children's Miracle Network]] (CMN) to support children's hospitals across Canada.<ref name="factsheet"/>
* Contributed $2.9 million to more than 1,000 local non-profit organizations through Wal-Mart's Local Matching Grant program.
* Raised and contributed $2.8 million for the [[Breakfast for Learning]] Canada program, a school nutrition program and partnership with a goal to ensure all school children attend class well nourished and ready to learn.
* Became the top corporate sponsor of the [[Canadian Red Cross]], with $1 million in relief aid related to [[Hurricane Katrina]], the India earthquake and other projects.
* Donated $300,000 to Evergreen, a Canadian non-profit environmental organization to help community groups create and improve green space in urban areas across the country.<ref>[http://www.evergreen.ca/en/about/media-press39.html Wal-Mart Canada and Evergreen Continue Green Grants Partnership]</ref>
* Awarded $115,000 in scholarships to Canadian university and college students.
* Supported 150 Canadian schools through a number of programs including Wal-Mart Canada's Adopt-a School program.

==Wal-Mart Discount Stores in Canada==
[[Image:Walmart Sault Ste. Marie.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sault Ste. Marie Wal-Mart in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.]]

A typical Wal-Mart discount department store. Wal-Mart Discount Stores are discount department stores with size varying from {{convert|51000|to|150000|sqft|m2|1}}, with an average store covering about {{convert|102000|sqft|m2|1}}. They carry general merchandise and a selection of food. Many of these stores also have a garden centre, a pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, a bank branch, a cell phone store and a fast food outlet (usually McDonald's).

Walmart was established in Canada in 1994 with the acquisition of the 122-store Woolco division of Woolworth Canada.

As of June 30, 2010, there were 220 Wal-Mart Discount Stores in Canada.<ref name="factsheet"/> In 2006, the busiest in the country was one in [[Square One Shopping Centre]], 100 City Centre Drive, Mississauga, Ontario (Store 3055).

==Wal-Mart Supercentres in Canada==
[[Image:Wal-Mart Supercenter in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, Jan 2008.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Vaughan Wal-Mart Supercentre in Vaughan, Ontario.]]
With the success of both Wal-Mart in [[Canada]] and [[Wal-Mart|Wal-Mart Supercentres]] in the [[United States]], it was announced in late [[2005 in Canada|2005]] that the Supercentre concept would be arriving in Canada. On [[November 8]], [[2006 in Canada|2006]], Canada's first three Supercentres opened in Ancaster (Hamilton), London, and Stouffville in Ontario.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/consumer/story/2006/11/07/wawlmart-superstores.html Wal-Mart unveils plans to open up to 14 supercentres in 2007]</ref> [[Alberta]] became the second province with Supercentres the following year in September 2007.<ref>[http://www2.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/business/story.html?id=7db0ae07-1fc7-4190-9bae-11f05a96290c Wal-Mart shifts to Supercentres in Alberta]</ref> The first Supercentre in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]] opened in January 2009 in a former Costco/Price Club location which moved to a new larger site nearby in Burnaby.<ref>[http://www.globaltv.com/globaltv/bc/Mart+cracks+Vancouver+market+with+Grandview+store/1197070/story.html Wal-Mart cracks Vancouver market with Grandview store]</ref>

These stock everything a Wal-Mart Discount Store does, and also include a full-service supermarket, including meat and poultry, baked goods, delicatessen, frozen foods, dairy products, garden produce, and fresh seafood. Many Wal-Mart Supercentres also have a garden centre, pet shop, pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical centre, one-hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, and numerous alcove shops, such as cellular phone stores, hair and nail salons, video rental stores, local bank branches, and fast food outlets (usually McDonald's).

As of June 30, 2010, there were now 100 Wal-Mart Supercentres in Canada. The largest was one at the [[Uptown Victoria]] mall<ref name="factsheet"/>

{{wikinews|Three Walmart superstores open in select cities in Canada}}

==Wal-Mart Canada Bank==
Wal-Mart Canada launched its application for banking license in 2008 to compete with similar stores in Canada such as [[Loblaw Companies|Loblaw]].<ref> [http://www.canada.com/saskatoonstarphoenix/news/story.html?id=6f8b9feb-8d59-463e-bdd8-06985f4f5a9b Wal-Mart files for Canadian banking licence]</ref> On July 24, 2009, Wal-Mart Canada Bank was incorporated under the ''Bank Act'' in Canada. <ref> [http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2009/2009-08-08/html/notice-avis-eng.html Canada Gazette – GOVERNMENT NOTICES]</ref>

On June 15, 2010, Wal-Mart officially launched into the banking sector under the name Wal-Mart Canada Bank ({{lang-fr|La Banque Wal-Mart du Canada}}).<ref> [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aVAFXXvF5vJQ&refer=canada Wal-Mart Canadian Unit Seeks to Offer Bank Services]</ref> As a federal financial institution, it is regulated by the [[Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions (Canada)|Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]].<ref> [http://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/wwwapps/lists/cid.asp?sCode=1&cid=FM Federally Regulated Financial Institutions]</ref> Currently, WMCB only offers a [[Mastercard]] product but could offer more banking services in the future.<ref> [http://www.thestar.com/business/companies/walmart/article/823669--wal-mart-canada-issues-rewards-based-mastercard Wal-Mart Canada issues rewards-based MasterCard]</ref>
==Controversy==
{{further|[[Criticism of Wal-Mart]]}}

Wal-Mart has been the subject of some criticism by certain groups who claim that they have lower labour standards than other similar retailers. Other criticisms centre around the claim that due to their low prices they drive out local businesses.

There are also accusations that Walmart Canada has engaged in some practices that discourage associates from exercising their right to join a [[labor union|union]] and negotiate a [[collective bargaining agreement]]. Wal-Mart closed their [[Saguenay, Quebec]] store, in April 2005 after workers unionized and just days before contract settlement by binding arbitration, putting 190 employees out of work. Wal-Mart argued that the store wasn’t profitable and the Supreme Court of Canada affirmed 6-3 on November 27, 2009 that the company had the legal right to close the store.<ref>[http://montreal.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20091127/mtl_scoc_wal_mart091127/20091127/?hub=MontrealHome]</ref> Wal-Mart also closed its automotive centre in [[Gatineau, Quebec]], after employees unionized and an arbitrator imposed a 33 per cent wage increase. At St-Hyacinthe Wal-Mart, the 200 employees had organized successfully in January 2005 but contract negotiations stalled and an arbitrator was called in, finally reaching a two-year deal on April 9, 2009.
<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/ottawa/story/2009/04/09/mtl-walmart-sthyacinthe-unionized-0409.html]</ref>

Wal-Mart Canada has been accused of undermining [[internet rights]] and [[freedom of speech]], as a result of its June 2009 decision to seek an injunction against the [[Walmart Workers Canada]] campaign and its longstanding Walmart Workers Canada website <ref>[http://www.walmartworkerscanada.ca Walmart Workers Canada]</ref> in particular, a [[labour rights]] website sponsored by [[UFCW Canada]].

==Slogans==
*''Where Everyday Costs Less'' 1994-1995
*''Always Low Prices Always Wal-Mart'' 1995-Late 1990s
*''We Sell For Less Everyday'' Late 1990s-2009.
*''Save Money. Live Better.'' 2009–Present

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:WalmartMoncton.JPG|Moncton Wal-Mart in Moncton, New Brunswick
Image:Walmart_Sault_Ste._Marie.jpg|Sault Ste. Marie Wal-Mart in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
Image:Yellowknife Wal-Mart.jpg|Yellowknife Wal-Mart in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories.
Image:Whitehorse_Wal-Mart.jpg|Whitehorse Wal-Mart in Whitehorse, Yukon.
Image:New_Wal-Mart_Simcoe.jpg|Simcoe New Wal-Mart in Simcoe, Ontario.
Image:Ancaster_Wal-mart,_Hamilton.JPG|Ancaster Wal-Mart Supercentre in Hamilton, Ontario.
Image:Wal-Mart Supercenter in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, Jan 2008.jpg|Vaughan Wal-Mart Supercentre in Vaughan, Ontario.
Image:Walmart_Supercentre_Mississauga.jpg‎|Mississauga Wal-Mart Supercentre in Mississauga, Ontario.
Image:Walmart_burl_sc.jpg‎|Burlington New Wal-Mart Supercentre in Burlington, Ontario.
File:Walmart Centre Laval Mall Entrance.jpg|Mall entrance of a Walmart store (former Woolco) in [[Laval, Quebec]], [[Canada]]. It was the second Woolco store in [[Quebec]] before Walmart acquired Woolco, but retains Walmart Canada's original logo as of 2010.
File:Walmart Carrefour Langelier.jpg ‎ |A Walmart store at [[Montreal]]'s [[Carrefour Langelier]] shopping centre. It is the last-remaining Walmart store in the [[Island of Montreal]] that operated as a Woolco in the past. The original Walmart Canada logo remains, alongside the older Woolco look.
File:Walmart Carrefour Langelier Sign.jpg|Original Walmart Canada logo and Carrefour Langelier's logo on a sign.
File:File:Walmartincanada.jpg|a walmart in tillsonburg ontario.

</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Supermarkets in Canada|List of Canadian supermarkets]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.walmart.ca/ Wal-Mart Canada]
* [http://walmartstores.com/GlobalWMStoresWeb/navigate.do?catg=374 Wal-Mart Canadian operations]

{{Canadian Supermarkets}}

[[Category:Canadian subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Companies based in Mississauga]]
[[Category:Department stores of Canada]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1994]]
[[Category:Supermarkets of Canada]]
[[Category:Wal-Mart]]
[[Category:Woolworth]]

[[fr:Walmart Canada]]

Environment and Climate Change Canada

2010-10-17T19:13:05Z

Cahk: Undid revision 391282642 by Cahk (talk)

{{Infobox Canadian government departments
|department=Environment
|french=Environnement
|logo=FIP Environment Canada.PNG
|current_minister=Jim Prentice |Jim Prentice|
|deputy_minister=Paul Boothe
|secretary=Mark Warawa
|established=1971
|responsibilities=Meteorological Service of Canada

Parks Canada

Canadian Ice Service

Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

Water Survey of Canada

National Water Research Institute

National Pollutant Release Inventory
|employees= ~6,000 <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=BD3CE17D-1 About Environment Canada]</ref>
|website=http://www.ec.gc.ca
}}
'''Environment Canada (EC)''', legally incorporated as the '''Department of the Environment''' under the ''Department of the Environment Act'' ( R.S., 1985, c. E-10 ), is the [[Ministry (government department)|department]] of the [[Government of Canada]] with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources.

(a) the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment, including water, air and soil quality;
(b) renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna;
(c) water;
(d) meteorology;
(e) the enforcement of any rules or regulations made by the International Joint Commission; and
(f) the coordination of the policies and programs of the Government of Canada respecting the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment.

Under the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' (R.S., 1999, c. 33), Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the clean up hazardous waste and [[oil spill]]s. The department is also responsible for international environmental issues (e.g., Canada-USA air issues).

Under the [[Constitution of Canada]], responsibility for environmental management in [[Canada]] is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments. For example, provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges (e.g., to the air). The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country (e.g., [[benzene]]). Environment Canada provides stewardship of the [[Environmental Choice Program]], which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of (GEN) [[Global Ecolabelling Network]].

Environment Canada continues (2005-present) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making, and to standardize policy implementation.

[[Jim Prentice]] is the current [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister of the Environment]] (2008-)<ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=B6832638-1 ''J. Prentice'']</ref>.

== Division ==

Environment Canada is divided into several geographic regions:

* [[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic]] ([[Maritimes]] and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]])
* [[Quebec]]
* [[National Capital Region (Canada)|National Capital]]
* [[Ontario]]
* Prairie-Northern ([[Nunavut]], [[Northwest Territories|NWT]] and [[Canadian prairies|Prairies]])
* Pacific-[[Yukon]] ([[British Columbia|BC]] and [[Yukon]])

The department has several organizations which carry out specific tasks:

* [[Meteorological Service of Canada]] (for [[weather forecasting]]; [[climate]], [[air quality]] and [[water monitoring]])<ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/contents_e.html''MSC'']</ref>
** Weather and [[environmental monitoring]] <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/amwsd_e.html''Monitoring'']</ref>
*** Climate Monitoring
***[[Water Survey of Canada]]
** Weather and Environmental Operations
*** Regional Weather Operations
** Weather and Environmental Prediction and Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/aepd_e.html''Predition'']</ref>
*** Aviation and Defence Weather Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/scpd/index_e.cfm''Aviation & Ice Services'']</ref>
*** Marine and Ice Services [(Canadian Ice Service )]
*** National Weather Predictions
**** [[Weatheradio Canada]], a national system of emergency weather broadcast transmitters
* Enforcement Branch
** Environmental Enforcement
** Wildlife Enforcement
* Environmental Stewardship Branch
** [[Canadian Wildlife Service]]<ref>[http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/index_e.cfm ''CWS'']</ref>
** Chemical Sectors
** Energy and Transportation
** Environmental Protection Operations
* Science and Technology Branch
** Atmospheric and Climate Science <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/contents_e.html ''Climate Science'']</ref>
** National Water Research Institute
** [[National Pollutant Release Inventory]]<ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/npri ''NPRI'']</ref>

The Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency is an arm-length agency that reports to the Minister of Environment <ref>[http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=D75FB358-1 (''CEAA'')]</ref>

[[Parks Canada]], which manages the [[National Parks of Canada|Canadian National Parks]] system, was removed from Environment Canada and became an agency reporting to the Minister of Heritage in 1998. In 2003, responsibility for Parks Canada was returned to the Minister of the Environment. <ref>[http://www.pc.gc.ca/index_e.asp ''Parks Canada'']</ref>

== Enforcement ==
[[File:ECBadge.gif|right]]

Environment Canada Enforcement Branch is responsible for ensuring compliance with several federal statues. The [[Governor-in-Council]] appoints enforcement officers and pursuant to section 217(3) of the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'', enforcement officers have all the powers of [[peace officer]]s.

There are two designations of enforcement officers: Environmental Enforcement and Wildlife Enforcement. The former administers the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' and pollution provisions of the ''Fisheries Act'' and corresponding regulations. The latter enforces
''Migratory Birds Convention Act'', ''Canada Wildlife Act'', ''Species at Risk Act'' and ''The Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act''.<ref> [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/default.asp?lang=en&n=2140D763-1 Environment Canada - Acts, Regulations and Agreements - Enforcement - Acts and Regulations]</ref> All officers wear dark green uniform with black ties and a badge (appear on the right). Environmental Enforcement Officers only carry [[Baton (law enforcement)|baton]] whereas Wildlife Enforcement Officers are also equipped with [[firearm]].<ref> [http://www2.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=21ed1bb2-58f3-48d4-8484-6242a268f44d&k=62081 Canada's newest environment officers set to help turn the country green]</ref>

The [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister]] may also appoint members of the [[RCMP]], [[Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada#Enforcements|fishery officers]], [[Parks_Canada#Enforcement|parks officers]], [[Canada_Border_Services_Agency#Border_Services_Officer|customs officers]] and conservation officers of provincial and territorial governments as enforcement officers and to allow them to excericse the powers and privilege of Environment Canada officers.

On March 4, 2009, a bill to increase the enforcement capabilities of Environment Canada was introduced into the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]]. The Environmental Enforcement Bill would increase the fines for individuals and corporations for serious offenses, give enforcement officers new powers to investigate cases and grants courts new sentencing authorities that ensure penalties reflect the seriousness of the pollution and wildlife offences. <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=714D9AAE-1&news=FF3737AB-7757-4C49-A477-C8FD21750872 New Enforcement Legislation Cracks Down on Environmental Offenders]</ref>

More information: [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/Default.asp?lang=En&n=B670A72A-1/default.asp EC Enforcement Branch]

== Related legislation ==
*[[Canada National Parks Act]]
*Canada Water Act
*Canada Wildlife Act
*Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (1992, c. 37)
*[[Canadian Environmental Protection Act]] (1999)
*[[Department of the Environment Act (Canada)|Department of the Environment Act]]
*Environment Week Act, Canadian
*Fisheries Act (pollution prevention into fish bearing waters) (R.S., 1985, c. F-14)
*International Boundary Waters Treaty Act (R.S., 1985, c. I-17)
*International River Improvements Act
*Lac Seul Conservation Act
*Lake of the Woods Control Board Act
*Manganese-Based Fuel Additives Act
*[[Migratory Birds Convention Act]]
*National Wildlife Week Act
*Resources and Technical Surveys Act (R.S., 1985, c. R-7)
*Species at Risk Act (2002)
*Weather Modification Information Act
*Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Inter-provincial Trade Act

== See also ==
* [[Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics]]
* [[Alberta Hail Project]]
* [[North American Game Warden Museum]]
* [[Renewable energy in Canada]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca Environment Canada]
*{{YouTube channel|user=environmentcan}}
*[http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.pc.gc.ca Parks Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/introec/orgs_e.htm Select programs and services of Environment Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroRegs/ENG/Default.cfm Related acts and regulations]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm National Pollutant Release Inventory]
*[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.wsc.ec.gc.ca Water Survey of Canada]
*[http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/press.cfm?Year=All&Lang=e Press releases issued by Environment Canada for Ontario - entire archive]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/index.html Consolidated Acts and Regulations of Canada]
*[http://www.top500.org/site/history/2433 Environment Canada on top500.org]
* [http://www.nimonik.ca Plain language environmental regulations in Canada - with updates and other info]

{{Government Departments of Canada}}
{{Law enforcement agencies in Canada}}

[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Environment Canada]]
[[Category:Environment ministries]]
[[Category:Federal law enforcement agencies of Canada]]
[[Category:Regulators of biotechnology products]]
[[Category:Environmental protection agencies]]
[[Category:Ministries established in 1971]]

[[es:Environment Canada]]
[[fr:Environnement Canada]]
[[pt:Environment Canada]]
[[zh:加拿大環境部]]

Environment and Climate Change Canada

2010-10-17T19:12:15Z

Cahk: Reverted edits by 199.212.16.20 (talk) to last version by Cahk

{{Infobox Canadian government departments
|department=Environment
|french=Environnement
|logo=FIP Environment Canada.PNG
|current_minister=Jim Prentice |Jim Prentice|
|deputy_minister=Ian Shugart
|secretary=Mark Warawa
|established=1971
|responsibilities=Meteorological Service of Canada

Parks Canada

Canadian Ice Service

Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

Water Survey of Canada

National Water Research Institute

National Pollutant Release Inventory
|employees= ~6,000 <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=BD3CE17D-1 About Environment Canada]</ref>
|website=http://www.ec.gc.ca
}}
'''Environment Canada (EC)''', legally incorporated as the '''Department of the Environment''' under the ''Department of the Environment Act'' ( R.S., 1985, c. E-10 ), is the [[Ministry (government department)|department]] of the [[Government of Canada]] with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources.

(a) the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment, including water, air and soil quality;
(b) renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna;
(c) water;
(d) meteorology;
(e) the enforcement of any rules or regulations made by the International Joint Commission; and
(f) the coordination of the policies and programs of the Government of Canada respecting the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment.

Under the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' (R.S., 1999, c. 33), Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the clean up hazardous waste and [[oil spill]]s. The department is also responsible for international environmental issues (e.g., Canada-USA air issues).

Under the [[Constitution of Canada]], responsibility for environmental management in [[Canada]] is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments. For example, provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges (e.g., to the air). The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country (e.g., [[benzene]]). Environment Canada provides stewardship of the [[Environmental Choice Program]], which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of (GEN) [[Global Ecolabelling Network]].

Environment Canada continues (2005-present) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making, and to standardize policy implementation.

[[Jim Prentice]] is the current [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister of the Environment]] (2008-)<ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=B6832638-1 ''J. Prentice'']</ref>.

== Division ==

Environment Canada is divided into several geographic regions:

* [[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic]] ([[Maritimes]] and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]])
* [[Quebec]]
* [[National Capital Region (Canada)|National Capital]]
* [[Ontario]]
* Prairie-Northern ([[Nunavut]], [[Northwest Territories|NWT]] and [[Canadian prairies|Prairies]])
* Pacific-[[Yukon]] ([[British Columbia|BC]] and [[Yukon]])

The department has several organizations which carry out specific tasks:

* [[Meteorological Service of Canada]] (for [[weather forecasting]]; [[climate]], [[air quality]] and [[water monitoring]])<ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/contents_e.html''MSC'']</ref>
** Weather and [[environmental monitoring]] <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/amwsd_e.html''Monitoring'']</ref>
*** Climate Monitoring
***[[Water Survey of Canada]]
** Weather and Environmental Operations
*** Regional Weather Operations
** Weather and Environmental Prediction and Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/aepd_e.html''Predition'']</ref>
*** Aviation and Defence Weather Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/scpd/index_e.cfm''Aviation & Ice Services'']</ref>
*** Marine and Ice Services [(Canadian Ice Service )]
*** National Weather Predictions
**** [[Weatheradio Canada]], a national system of emergency weather broadcast transmitters
* Enforcement Branch
** Environmental Enforcement
** Wildlife Enforcement
* Environmental Stewardship Branch
** [[Canadian Wildlife Service]]<ref>[http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/index_e.cfm ''CWS'']</ref>
** Chemical Sectors
** Energy and Transportation
** Environmental Protection Operations
* Science and Technology Branch
** Atmospheric and Climate Science <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/contents_e.html ''Climate Science'']</ref>
** National Water Research Institute
** [[National Pollutant Release Inventory]]<ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/npri ''NPRI'']</ref>

The Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency is an arm-length agency that reports to the Minister of Environment <ref>[http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=D75FB358-1 (''CEAA'')]</ref>

[[Parks Canada]], which manages the [[National Parks of Canada|Canadian National Parks]] system, was removed from Environment Canada and became an agency reporting to the Minister of Heritage in 1998. In 2003, responsibility for Parks Canada was returned to the Minister of the Environment. <ref>[http://www.pc.gc.ca/index_e.asp ''Parks Canada'']</ref>

== Enforcement ==
[[File:ECBadge.gif|right]]

Environment Canada Enforcement Branch is responsible for ensuring compliance with several federal statues. The [[Governor-in-Council]] appoints enforcement officers and pursuant to section 217(3) of the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'', enforcement officers have all the powers of [[peace officer]]s.

There are two designations of enforcement officers: Environmental Enforcement and Wildlife Enforcement. The former administers the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' and pollution provisions of the ''Fisheries Act'' and corresponding regulations. The latter enforces
''Migratory Birds Convention Act'', ''Canada Wildlife Act'', ''Species at Risk Act'' and ''The Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act''.<ref> [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/default.asp?lang=en&n=2140D763-1 Environment Canada - Acts, Regulations and Agreements - Enforcement - Acts and Regulations]</ref> All officers wear dark green uniform with black ties and a badge (appear on the right). Environmental Enforcement Officers only carry [[Baton (law enforcement)|baton]] whereas Wildlife Enforcement Officers are also equipped with [[firearm]].<ref> [http://www2.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=21ed1bb2-58f3-48d4-8484-6242a268f44d&k=62081 Canada's newest environment officers set to help turn the country green]</ref>

The [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister]] may also appoint members of the [[RCMP]], [[Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada#Enforcements|fishery officers]], [[Parks_Canada#Enforcement|parks officers]], [[Canada_Border_Services_Agency#Border_Services_Officer|customs officers]] and conservation officers of provincial and territorial governments as enforcement officers and to allow them to excericse the powers and privilege of Environment Canada officers.

On March 4, 2009, a bill to increase the enforcement capabilities of Environment Canada was introduced into the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]]. The Environmental Enforcement Bill would increase the fines for individuals and corporations for serious offenses, give enforcement officers new powers to investigate cases and grants courts new sentencing authorities that ensure penalties reflect the seriousness of the pollution and wildlife offences. <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=714D9AAE-1&news=FF3737AB-7757-4C49-A477-C8FD21750872 New Enforcement Legislation Cracks Down on Environmental Offenders]</ref>

More information: [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/Default.asp?lang=En&n=B670A72A-1/default.asp EC Enforcement Branch]

== Related legislation ==
*[[Canada National Parks Act]]
*Canada Water Act
*Canada Wildlife Act
*Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (1992, c. 37)
*[[Canadian Environmental Protection Act]] (1999)
*[[Department of the Environment Act (Canada)|Department of the Environment Act]]
*Environment Week Act, Canadian
*Fisheries Act (pollution prevention into fish bearing waters) (R.S., 1985, c. F-14)
*International Boundary Waters Treaty Act (R.S., 1985, c. I-17)
*International River Improvements Act
*Lac Seul Conservation Act
*Lake of the Woods Control Board Act
*Manganese-Based Fuel Additives Act
*[[Migratory Birds Convention Act]]
*National Wildlife Week Act
*Resources and Technical Surveys Act (R.S., 1985, c. R-7)
*Species at Risk Act (2002)
*Weather Modification Information Act
*Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Inter-provincial Trade Act

== See also ==
* [[Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics]]
* [[Alberta Hail Project]]
* [[North American Game Warden Museum]]
* [[Renewable energy in Canada]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca Environment Canada]
*{{YouTube channel|user=environmentcan}}
*[http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.pc.gc.ca Parks Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/introec/orgs_e.htm Select programs and services of Environment Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroRegs/ENG/Default.cfm Related acts and regulations]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm National Pollutant Release Inventory]
*[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.wsc.ec.gc.ca Water Survey of Canada]
*[http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/press.cfm?Year=All&Lang=e Press releases issued by Environment Canada for Ontario - entire archive]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/index.html Consolidated Acts and Regulations of Canada]
*[http://www.top500.org/site/history/2433 Environment Canada on top500.org]
* [http://www.nimonik.ca Plain language environmental regulations in Canada - with updates and other info]

{{Government Departments of Canada}}
{{Law enforcement agencies in Canada}}

[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Environment Canada]]
[[Category:Environment ministries]]
[[Category:Federal law enforcement agencies of Canada]]
[[Category:Regulators of biotechnology products]]
[[Category:Environmental protection agencies]]
[[Category:Ministries established in 1971]]

[[es:Environment Canada]]
[[fr:Environnement Canada]]
[[pt:Environment Canada]]
[[zh:加拿大環境部]]

Environment and Climate Change Canada

2010-10-13T19:02:49Z

Cahk: /* Enforcement */

{{Infobox Canadian government departments
|department=Environment
|french=Environnement
|logo=FIP Environment Canada.PNG
|current_minister=Jim Prentice |Jim Prentice|
|deputy_minister=Ian Shugart
|secretary=Mark Warawa
|established=1971
|responsibilities=Meteorological Service of Canada

Parks Canada

Canadian Ice Service

Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

Water Survey of Canada

National Water Research Institute

National Pollutant Release Inventory
|employees= ~6,000 <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=BD3CE17D-1 About Environment Canada]</ref>
|website=http://www.ec.gc.ca
}}
'''Environment Canada (EC)''', legally incorporated as the '''Department of the Environment''' under the ''Department of the Environment Act'' ( R.S., 1985, c. E-10 ), is the [[Ministry (government department)|department]] of the [[Government of Canada]] with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources.

(a) the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment, including water, air and soil quality;
(b) renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna;
(c) water;
(d) meteorology;
(e) the enforcement of any rules or regulations made by the International Joint Commission; and
(f) the coordination of the policies and programs of the Government of Canada respecting the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment.

Under the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' (R.S., 1999, c. 33), Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the clean up hazardous waste and [[oil spill]]s. The department is also responsible for international environmental issues (e.g., Canada-USA air issues).

Under the [[Constitution of Canada]], responsibility for environmental management in [[Canada]] is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments. For example, provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges (e.g., to the air). The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country (e.g., [[benzene]]). Environment Canada provides stewardship of the [[Environmental Choice Program]], which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of (GEN) [[Global Ecolabelling Network]].

Environment Canada continues (2005-present) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making, and to standardize policy implementation.

[[Jim Prentice]] is the current [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister of the Environment]] (2008-)<ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=B6832638-1 ''J. Prentice'']</ref>.

== Division ==

Environment Canada is divided into several geographic regions:

* [[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic]] ([[Maritimes]] and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]])
* [[Quebec]]
* [[National Capital Region (Canada)|National Capital]]
* [[Ontario]]
* Prairie-Northern ([[Nunavut]], [[Northwest Territories|NWT]] and [[Canadian prairies|Prairies]])
* Pacific-[[Yukon]] ([[British Columbia|BC]] and [[Yukon]])

The department has several organizations which carry out specific tasks:

* [[Meteorological Service of Canada]] (for [[weather forecasting]]; [[climate]], [[air quality]] and [[water monitoring]])<ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/contents_e.html''MSC'']</ref>
** Weather and [[environmental monitoring]] <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/amwsd_e.html''Monitoring'']</ref>
*** Climate Monitoring
***[[Water Survey of Canada]]
** Weather and Environmental Operations
*** Regional Weather Operations
** Weather and Environmental Prediction and Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/aepd_e.html''Predition'']</ref>
*** Aviation and Defence Weather Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/scpd/index_e.cfm''Aviation & Ice Services'']</ref>
*** Marine and Ice Services [(Canadian Ice Service )]
*** National Weather Predictions
**** [[Weatheradio Canada]], a national system of emergency weather broadcast transmitters
* Enforcement Branch
** Environmental Enforcement
** Wildlife Enforcement
* Environmental Stewardship Branch
** [[Canadian Wildlife Service]]<ref>[http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/index_e.cfm ''CWS'']</ref>
** Chemical Sectors
** Energy and Transportation
** Environmental Protection Operations
* Science and Technology Branch
** Atmospheric and Climate Science <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/contents_e.html ''Climate Science'']</ref>
** National Water Research Institute
** [[National Pollutant Release Inventory]]<ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/npri ''NPRI'']</ref>

The Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency is an arm-length agency that reports to the Minister of Environment <ref>[http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=D75FB358-1 (''CEAA'')]</ref>

[[Parks Canada]], which manages the [[National Parks of Canada|Canadian National Parks]] system, was removed from Environment Canada and became an agency reporting to the Minister of Heritage in 1998. In 2003, responsibility for Parks Canada was returned to the Minister of the Environment. <ref>[http://www.pc.gc.ca/index_e.asp ''Parks Canada'']</ref>

== Enforcement ==
[[File:ECBadge.gif|right]]

Environment Canada Enforcement Branch is responsible for ensuring compliance with several federal statues. The [[Governor-in-Council]] appoints enforcement officers and pursuant to section 217(3) of the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'', enforcement officers have all the powers of [[peace officer]]s.

There are two designations of enforcement officers: Environmental Enforcement and Wildlife Enforcement. The former administers the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' and pollution provisions of the ''Fisheries Act'' and corresponding regulations. The latter enforces
''Migratory Birds Convention Act'', ''Canada Wildlife Act'', ''Species at Risk Act'' and ''The Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act''.<ref> [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/default.asp?lang=en&n=2140D763-1 Environment Canada - Acts, Regulations and Agreements - Enforcement - Acts and Regulations]</ref> All officers wear dark green uniform with black ties and a badge (appear on the right). Environmental Enforcement Officers only carry [[Baton (law enforcement)|baton]] whereas Wildlife Enforcement Officers are also equipped with [[firearm]].<ref> [http://www2.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=21ed1bb2-58f3-48d4-8484-6242a268f44d&k=62081 Canada's newest environment officers set to help turn the country green]</ref>

The [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister]] may also appoint members of the [[RCMP]], [[Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada#Enforcements|fishery officers]], [[Parks_Canada#Enforcement|parks officers]], [[Canada_Border_Services_Agency#Border_Services_Officer|customs officers]] and conservation officers of provincial and territorial governments as enforcement officers and to allow them to excericse the powers and privilege of Environment Canada officers.

On March 4, 2009, a bill to increase the enforcement capabilities of Environment Canada was introduced into the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]]. The Environmental Enforcement Bill would increase the fines for individuals and corporations for serious offenses, give enforcement officers new powers to investigate cases and grants courts new sentencing authorities that ensure penalties reflect the seriousness of the pollution and wildlife offences. <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=714D9AAE-1&news=FF3737AB-7757-4C49-A477-C8FD21750872 New Enforcement Legislation Cracks Down on Environmental Offenders]</ref>

More information: [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/Default.asp?lang=En&n=B670A72A-1/default.asp EC Enforcement Branch]

== Related legislation ==
*[[Canada National Parks Act]]
*Canada Water Act
*Canada Wildlife Act
*Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (1992, c. 37)
*[[Canadian Environmental Protection Act]] (1999)
*[[Department of the Environment Act (Canada)|Department of the Environment Act]]
*Environment Week Act, Canadian
*Fisheries Act (pollution prevention into fish bearing waters) (R.S., 1985, c. F-14)
*International Boundary Waters Treaty Act (R.S., 1985, c. I-17)
*International River Improvements Act
*Lac Seul Conservation Act
*Lake of the Woods Control Board Act
*Manganese-Based Fuel Additives Act
*[[Migratory Birds Convention Act]]
*National Wildlife Week Act
*Resources and Technical Surveys Act (R.S., 1985, c. R-7)
*Species at Risk Act (2002)
*Weather Modification Information Act
*Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Inter-provincial Trade Act

== See also ==
* [[Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics]]
* [[Alberta Hail Project]]
* [[North American Game Warden Museum]]
* [[Renewable energy in Canada]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca Environment Canada]
*{{YouTube channel|user=environmentcan}}
*[http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.pc.gc.ca Parks Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/introec/orgs_e.htm Select programs and services of Environment Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroRegs/ENG/Default.cfm Related acts and regulations]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm National Pollutant Release Inventory]
*[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.wsc.ec.gc.ca Water Survey of Canada]
*[http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/press.cfm?Year=All&Lang=e Press releases issued by Environment Canada for Ontario - entire archive]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/index.html Consolidated Acts and Regulations of Canada]
*[http://www.top500.org/site/history/2433 Environment Canada on top500.org]
* [http://www.nimonik.ca Plain language environmental regulations in Canada - with updates and other info]

{{Government Departments of Canada}}
{{Law enforcement agencies in Canada}}

[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Environment Canada]]
[[Category:Environment ministries]]
[[Category:Federal law enforcement agencies of Canada]]
[[Category:Regulators of biotechnology products]]
[[Category:Environmental protection agencies]]
[[Category:Ministries established in 1971]]

[[es:Environment Canada]]
[[fr:Environnement Canada]]
[[pt:Environment Canada]]
[[zh:加拿大環境部]]

Environment and Climate Change Canada

2010-08-08T23:37:32Z

Cahk: /* Enforcement */ wikify

{{Infobox Canadian government departments
|department=Environment
|french=Environnement
|logo=FIP Environment Canada.PNG
|current_minister=Jim Prentice |Jim Prentice|
|deputy_minister=Ian Shugart
|secretary=Mark Warawa
|established=1971
|responsibilities=Meteorological Service of Canada

Parks Canada

Canadian Ice Service

Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

Water Survey of Canada

National Water Research Institute

National Pollutant Release Inventory
|employees= ~6,000 [http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=ECBC00D9-1]
|website=http://www.ec.gc.ca
}}
'''Environment Canada (EC)''', legally incorporated as the '''Department of the Environment''' under the ''Department of the Environment Act'' ( R.S., 1985, c. E-10 ), is the [[Ministry (government department)|department]] of the [[Government of Canada]] with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources.

(a) the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment, including water, air and soil quality;
(b) renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna;
(c) water;
(d) meteorology;
(e) the enforcement of any rules or regulations made by the International Joint Commission; and
(f) the coordination of the policies and programs of the Government of Canada respecting the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment.

Under the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' (R.S., 1999, c. 33), Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the clean up hazardous waste and [[oil spill]]s. The department is also responsible for international environmental issues (e.g., Canada-USA air issues).

Under the [[Constitution of Canada]], responsibility for environmental management in [[Canada]] is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments. For example, provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges (e.g., to the air). The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country (e.g., [[benzene]]). Environment Canada provides stewardship of the [[Environmental Choice Program]], which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of (GEN) [[Global Ecolabelling Network]].

Environment Canada continues (2005-present) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making, and to standardize policy implementation.

[[Jim Prentice]] is the current [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister of the Environment]] (2008-)<ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=B6832638-1 ''J. Prentice'']</ref>.

== Division ==

Environment Canada is divided into several geographic regions:

* [[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic]] ([[Maritimes]] and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]])
* [[Quebec]]
* [[National Capital Region (Canada)|National Capital]]
* [[Ontario]]
* Prairie-Northern ([[Nunavut]], [[Northwest Territories|NWT]] and [[Canadian prairies|Prairies]])
* Pacific-[[Yukon]] ([[British Columbia|BC]] and [[Yukon]])

The department has several organizations which carry out specific tasks:

* [[Meteorological Service of Canada]] (for [[weather forecasting]]; [[climate]], [[air quality]] and [[water monitoring]])<ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/contents_e.html''MSC'']</ref>
** Weather and [[environmental monitoring]] <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/amwsd_e.html''Monitoring'']</ref>
*** Climate Monitoring
***[[Water Survey of Canada]]
** Weather and Environmental Operations
*** Regional Weather Operations
** Weather and Environmental Prediction and Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/aepd_e.html''Predition'']</ref>
*** Aviation and Defence Weather Services <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/scpd/index_e.cfm''Aviation & Ice Services'']</ref>
*** Marine and Ice Services [(Canadian Ice Service )]
*** National Weather Predictions
**** [[Weatheradio Canada]], a national system of emergency weather broadcast transmitters
* Enforcement Branch
** Environmental Enforcement
** Wildlife Enforcement
* Environmental Stewardship Branch
** [[Canadian Wildlife Service]]<ref>[http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/index_e.cfm ''CWS'']</ref>
** Chemical Sectors
** Energy and Transportation
** Environmental Protection Operations
* Science and Technology Branch
** Atmospheric and Climate Science <ref>[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/msc/contents_e.html ''Climate Science'']</ref>
** National Water Research Institute
** [[National Pollutant Release Inventory]]<ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/npri ''NPRI'']</ref>

The Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency is an arm-length agency that reports to the Minister of Environment <ref>[http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=D75FB358-1 (''CEAA'')]</ref>

[[Parks Canada]], which manages the [[National Parks of Canada|Canadian National Parks]] system, was removed from Environment Canada and became an agency reporting to the Minister of Heritage in 1998. In 2003, responsibility for Parks Canada was returned to the Minister of the Environment. <ref>[http://www.pc.gc.ca/index_e.asp ''Parks Canada'']</ref>

== Enforcement ==
[[File:ECBadge.gif|right]]

Environment Canada Enforcement Branch is responsible for ensuring compliance with several federal statues. The [[Governor-in-Council]] appoints enforcement officers and pursuant to section 217(3) of the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'', enforcement officers of Environment Canada have all the powers of [[peace officer]]s.

There are two designations of enforcement officers: Environmental Enforcement and Wildlife Enforcement. The former administers the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' and pollution provisions of the ''Fisheries Act'' and corresponding regulations. The latter enforces
''Migratory Birds Convention Act'', ''Canada Wildlife Act'', ''Species at Risk Act'' and ''The Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act''.<ref> [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/default.asp?lang=en&n=2140D763-1 Environment Canada - Acts, Regulations and Agreements - Enforcement - Acts and Regulations]</ref>

On March 4, 2009, a bill to increase the enforcement capabilities of Environment Canada was introduced into the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]]. The Environmental Enforcement Bill would increase the fines for individuals and corporations for serious offenses, give enforcement officers new powers to investigate cases and grants courts new sentencing authorities that ensure penalties reflect the seriousness of the pollution and wildlife offences. <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=714D9AAE-1&news=FF3737AB-7757-4C49-A477-C8FD21750872 New Enforcement Legislation Cracks Down on Environmental Offenders]</ref>

All officers wear dark green uniform with black ties and a badge (appear on the right). Environmental Enforcement Officers only carry [[Baton (law enforcement)|baton]] whereas Wildlife Enforcement Officers are also equipped with [[firearm]].<ref> [http://www2.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=21ed1bb2-58f3-48d4-8484-6242a268f44d&k=62081 Canada's newest environment officers set to help turn the country green]</ref>

More information: [http://www.ec.gc.ca/alef-ewe/Default.asp?lang=En&n=B670A72A-1/default.asp EC Enforcement Branch]

== Related legislation ==
*[[Canada National Parks Act]]
*Canada Water Act
*Canada Wildlife Act
*Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (1992, c. 37)
*[[Canadian Environmental Protection Act]] (1999)
*[[Department of the Environment Act (Canada)|Department of the Environment Act]]
*Environment Week Act, Canadian
*Fisheries Act (pollution prevention into fish bearing waters) (R.S., 1985, c. F-14)
*International Boundary Waters Treaty Act (R.S., 1985, c. I-17)
*International River Improvements Act
*Lac Seul Conservation Act
*Lake of the Woods Control Board Act
*Manganese-Based Fuel Additives Act
*[[Migratory Birds Convention Act]]
*National Wildlife Week Act
*Resources and Technical Surveys Act (R.S., 1985, c. R-7)
*Species at Risk Act (2002)
*Weather Modification Information Act
*Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Inter-provincial Trade Act

== See also ==
* [[Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics]]
* [[Alberta Hail Project]]
* [[North American Game Warden Museum]]
* [[Renewable energy in Canada]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca Environment Canada]
*{{YouTube channel|user=environmentcan}}
*[http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.pc.gc.ca Parks Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/introec/orgs_e.htm Select programs and services of Environment Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroRegs/ENG/Default.cfm Related acts and regulations]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm National Pollutant Release Inventory]
*[http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.wsc.ec.gc.ca Water Survey of Canada]
*[http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/press.cfm?Year=All&Lang=e Press releases issued by Environment Canada for Ontario - entire archive]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/index.html Consolidated Acts and Regulations of Canada]
*[http://www.top500.org/site/history/2433 Environment Canada on top500.org]
* [http://www.nimonik.ca Plain language environmental regulations in Canada - with updates and other info]

{{Government Departments of Canada}}
{{Law enforcement agencies in Canada}}

[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Environment Canada]]
[[Category:Environment ministries]]
[[Category:Federal law enforcement agencies of Canada]]
[[Category:Regulators of biotechnology products]]
[[Category:Environmental protection agencies]]
[[Category:Ministries established in 1971]]

[[es:Environment Canada]]
[[fr:Environnement Canada]]
[[pt:Environment Canada]]
[[zh:加拿大環境部]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Missachtung des Gerichts

2009-05-20T07:37:33Z

Cahk: /* Hong Kong */ typos

{{worldview}}

'''Contempt of court''' is a [[court order]] which, in the context of a court [[Trial (law)|trial]] or [[Hearing (law)|hearing]], deems an individual as having been disrespectful of the [[court]], its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt" or a person "held in contempt", it is the highest remedy of a [[judge]] to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which excessively or in a wanton manner disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a [[fair trial]]. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or [[prison|jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.

In civil cases involving relations between private citizens, the intended victim of the act of contempt is usually the party for whose benefit the ruling was implemented, rather than the court.

A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt:

* existence of a lawful order
* the contemnor's knowledge of the order
* the contemnor's ability to comply
* the contemnor's failure to comply

==Canada==
Criminal offences are found within the Criminal Code of Canada or other federal/provincial laws, with the exception that contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.<ref> [http://www.courts.gov.bc.ca/legal_compendium/Chapter22.asp A Compendium of Law and Judges]</ref>

Contempt of Court includes the following behaviours:
* fails to maintain a respectful attitude, remain silent or refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding
* refuses or neglects to obey a subpoena
* wilfully disobeys a process or order of the Court
* interfere with the orderly administration of justice or to impair the authority or dignity of the Court
* officer of the Court fails to perform his or her duties
* sheriff or bailiff and does not execute a writ forthwith or does not make a return thereof

===Federal Courts===
''This section applies only to [[Federal Court of Appeal]] and [[Federal Court (Canada)|Federal Court]].''

Under Federal Court Rules, section 472, a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved. <ref> [http://reports.fja.gc.ca/regles/partie12.html Federal Court Rules Chapter 12]</ref>

If it's a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person be imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order, fine, or be ordered to do or refrain from doing any act as considered by the judge.

===Tax Court of Canada===
Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of ''Tax Court of Canada Act'', a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.

===Provincial Courts===
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in [[British Columbia|BC]], [[Justice of Peace]] can only issue summon to the offender for Contempt, for which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done at the face of the Justice.<ref> [http://www.qp.gov.bc.ca/statreg/stat/P/96379_01.htm#section31 Provincial Court Act Jurisdiction of justice]</ref>

==Hong Kong==
Judges from the [[Court of Final Appeal (Hong Kong)|Court of Final Appeal]], [[High Court (Hong Kong)|High Court]], [[District Court (Hong Kong)|District Courts]] along with members from the various tribunals and Coroner's Court all have the power to impose immediate punishments for contempt in the face of the court, derived from legislations or through [[Common Law]]:

* Insult a judge or justice, witness or [[officers of the court]]
* Interrupts the proceedings of the Court
* Interfere with the course of justice
* Misbehaves in court (i.e. use of [[mobile phone]] or recording devices without permission]
* [[Juror]] who leaves without permission of the court during proceedings
* Disobeying a judgement or court order
* Breach of undertaking
* Breach of a duty imposed upon a solicitor by rules of court

The use of insulting or threatening language in the [[Magistrates' court (Hong Kong)|Magistrates' courts]] or against a magistrate is in breach of HK Laws. Chap 227 ''Magistrates Ordinance'' Section 99 which states the magistrate can 'summarily sentence the offender to a fine at level 3 and to imprisonment for 6 months.'

In addition, certain appeal boards are given the statutory authority and protection of a court in its proceedings (i.e. Residential Care Home, Hotel and Guesthouse Accommodation, Air Pollution Control, etc). For contempt in front of these boards, the chairperson will certify the act of contempt to the [[Court of First Instance (Hong Kong)|Court of First Instance]] who will then proceed with a hearing and determine the punishment.

==United Kingdom==

In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[Crime|criminal]] or [[civil]] offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years.

Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behavior toward the judge or magistrates while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behavior observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual affected by a court order may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.

===Criminal contempt of court===

The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under the [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).

[[Magistrates' Court]]s are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the court may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to [[Pound sterling|GBP]]2500, or do both.

It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."

===Strict liability contempt===

Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===

In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[bench warrant]] is issued, authorizing the [[tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" - i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment - is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American [[jurisprudence]], acts of contempt are divided into two types.

# '''Direct contempt''' is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae'') and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice. After giving the person the opportunity to respond, the judge may impose the sanction immediately.
# '''Indirect contempt''' occurs outside the immediate presence of the court and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt and to present evidence in rebuttal.

Contempt of court in a [[civil suit]] is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court.

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[Burden of proof|reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the [[sheriff]] or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The imposed party is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional [[due process of law|due process]] is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

==See also==
*[[Contempt of Congress]]
*[[Contempt of Parliament]]
*[[Contumacy]]
*[[Judicial discretion]]
*[[Perjury]]
*[[Perverting the course of justice]]
*[[Obstruction of justice]]

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

*Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).

[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]

[[de:Ordnungsmittel]]
[[ja:法廷侮辱罪]]
[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]
[[ur:توہین عدالت]]
[[zh:藐視法庭]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Missachtung des Gerichts

2009-05-20T07:20:35Z

Cahk: +HK

{{worldview}}

'''Contempt of court''' is a [[court order]] which, in the context of a court [[Trial (law)|trial]] or [[Hearing (law)|hearing]], deems an individual as having been disrespectful of the [[court]], its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt" or a person "held in contempt", it is the highest remedy of a [[judge]] to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which excessively or in a wanton manner disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a [[fair trial]]. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or [[prison|jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.

In civil cases involving relations between private citizens, the intended victim of the act of contempt is usually the party for whose benefit the ruling was implemented, rather than the court.

A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt:

* existence of a lawful order
* the contemnor's knowledge of the order
* the contemnor's ability to comply
* the contemnor's failure to comply

==Canada==
Criminal offences are found within the Criminal Code of Canada or other federal/provincial laws, with the exception that contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.<ref> [http://www.courts.gov.bc.ca/legal_compendium/Chapter22.asp A Compendium of Law and Judges]</ref>

Contempt of Court includes the following behaviours:
* fails to maintain a respectful attitude, remain silent or refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding
* refuses or neglects to obey a subpoena
* wilfully disobeys a process or order of the Court
* interfere with the orderly administration of justice or to impair the authority or dignity of the Court
* officer of the Court fails to perform his or her duties
* sheriff or bailiff and does not execute a writ forthwith or does not make a return thereof

===Federal Courts===
''This section applies only to [[Federal Court of Appeal]] and [[Federal Court (Canada)|Federal Court]].''

Under Federal Court Rules, section 472, a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved. <ref> [http://reports.fja.gc.ca/regles/partie12.html Federal Court Rules Chapter 12]</ref>

If it's a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person be imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order, fine, or be ordered to do or refrain from doing any act as considered by the judge.

===Tax Court of Canada===
Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of ''Tax Court of Canada Act'', a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.

===Provincial Courts===
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in [[British Columbia|BC]], [[Justice of Peace]] can only issue summon to the offender for Contempt, for which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done at the face of the Justice.<ref> [http://www.qp.gov.bc.ca/statreg/stat/P/96379_01.htm#section31 Provincial Court Act Jurisdiction of justice]</ref>

==Hong Kong==
Judges from the [[Court of Final Appeal (Hong Kong)|Court of Final Appeal]], [[High Court (Hong Kong)|High Court]], [[District Court (Hong Kong)|District Courts]] along with members from the various tribunals and Coroner's Court all have the power to impose immediate punishments for contempt in the face of the court:

* Insult a judge, witness or officers of the court
* Interrupts the proceedings of the Court
* Interfere with the course of justice
* Misbehaves in court
* Juror who leaves without permission of the court during proceedings
* Disobeying a judgement or court order
* Breach of undertaking
* Breach of a duty imposed upon a solicitor by rules of court

The use of insulting or threatening language in the [[Magistrates' court (Hong Kong)|Magistrates' courts]] or against a magistrate is in breach of HK Laws. Chap 227 Section 99 which states the magistrate can 'summarily sentence the offender to a fine at level 3 and to imprisonment for 6 months.'

In addition, certain appeal boards are given the statutory authority and protection of a court in its proceedings (i.e. Residential Care Home, Hotel and Guesthouse Accommodation, Air Pollution Control, etc). For contempt in front of these boards, the Chairperson will certify the act of contempt to the [[Court of First Instance (Hong Kong)|Court of First Instance]] who will proceed with a hearing and determine the punishment.

==United Kingdom==

In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[Crime|criminal]] or [[civil]] offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years.

Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behavior toward the judge or magistrates while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behavior observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual affected by a court order may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.

===Criminal contempt of court===

The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under the [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).

[[Magistrates' Court]]s are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the court may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to [[Pound sterling|GBP]]2500, or do both.

It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."

===Strict liability contempt===

Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===

In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[bench warrant]] is issued, authorizing the [[tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" - i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment - is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American [[jurisprudence]], acts of contempt are divided into two types.

# '''Direct contempt''' is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae'') and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice. After giving the person the opportunity to respond, the judge may impose the sanction immediately.
# '''Indirect contempt''' occurs outside the immediate presence of the court and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt and to present evidence in rebuttal.

Contempt of court in a [[civil suit]] is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court.

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[Burden of proof|reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the [[sheriff]] or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The imposed party is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional [[due process of law|due process]] is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

==See also==
*[[Contempt of Congress]]
*[[Contempt of Parliament]]
*[[Contumacy]]
*[[Judicial discretion]]
*[[Perjury]]
*[[Perverting the course of justice]]
*[[Obstruction of justice]]

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

*Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).

[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]

[[de:Ordnungsmittel]]
[[ja:法廷侮辱罪]]
[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]
[[ur:توہین عدالت]]
[[zh:藐視法庭]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Missachtung des Gerichts

2009-05-20T01:31:18Z

Cahk: /* Tax Court of Canada */

{{worldview}}

'''Contempt of court''' is a [[court order]] which, in the context of a court [[Trial (law)|trial]] or [[Hearing (law)|hearing]], deems an individual as having been disrespectful of the [[court]], its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt" or a person "held in contempt", it is the highest remedy of a [[judge]] to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which excessively or in a wanton manner disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a [[fair trial]]. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or [[prison|jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.

In civil cases involving relations between private citizens, the intended victim of the act of contempt is usually the party for whose benefit the ruling was implemented, rather than the court.

A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt:

* existence of a lawful order
* the contemnor's knowledge of the order
* the contemnor's ability to comply
* the contemnor's failure to comply

==Canada==
Criminal offences are found within the Criminal Code of Canada or other federal/provincial laws, with the exception that contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.<ref> [http://www.courts.gov.bc.ca/legal_compendium/Chapter22.asp A Compendium of Law and Judges]</ref>

Contempt of Court includes the following behaviours:
* fails to maintain a respectful attitude, remain silent or refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding
* refuses or neglects to obey a subpoena
* wilfully disobeys a process or order of the Court
* interfere with the orderly administration of justice or to impair the authority or dignity of the Court
* officer of the Court fails to perform his or her duties
* sheriff or bailiff and does not execute a writ forthwith or does not make a return thereof

===Federal Courts===
''This section applies only to [[Federal Court of Appeal]] and [[Federal Court (Canada)|Federal Court]].''

Under Federal Court Rules, section 472, a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved. <ref> [http://reports.fja.gc.ca/regles/partie12.html Federal Court Rules Chapter 12]</ref>

If it's a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person be imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order, fine, or be ordered to do or refrain from doing any act as considered by the judge.

===Tax Court of Canada===
Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of ''Tax Court of Canada Act'', a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.

===Provincial Courts===
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in [[British Columbia|BC]], [[Justice of Peace]] can only issue summon to the offender for Contempt, for which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done at the face of the Justice.<ref> [http://www.qp.gov.bc.ca/statreg/stat/P/96379_01.htm#section31 Provincial Court Act Jurisdiction of justice]</ref>

==United Kingdom==

In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[Crime|criminal]] or [[civil]] offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years.

Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behavior toward the judge or magistrates while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behavior observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual affected by a court order may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.

===Criminal contempt of court===

The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under the [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).

[[Magistrates' Court]]s are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the court may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to [[Pound sterling|GBP]]2500, or do both.

It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."

===Strict liability contempt===

Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===

In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[bench warrant]] is issued, authorizing the [[tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" - i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment - is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American [[jurisprudence]], acts of contempt are divided into two types.

# '''Direct contempt''' is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae'') and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice. After giving the person the opportunity to respond, the judge may impose the sanction immediately.
# '''Indirect contempt''' occurs outside the immediate presence of the court and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt and to present evidence in rebuttal.

Contempt of court in a [[civil suit]] is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court.

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[Burden of proof|reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the [[sheriff]] or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The imposed party is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional [[due process of law|due process]] is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

==See also==
*[[Contempt of Congress]]
*[[Contempt of Parliament]]
*[[Contumacy]]
*[[Judicial discretion]]
*[[Perjury]]
*[[Perverting the course of justice]]
*[[Obstruction of justice]]

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

*Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).

[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]

[[de:Ordnungsmittel]]
[[ja:法廷侮辱罪]]
[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]
[[ur:توہین عدالت]]
[[zh:藐視法庭]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Missachtung des Gerichts

2009-05-20T01:28:58Z

Cahk: restore section on Canada

{{worldview}}

'''Contempt of court''' is a [[court order]] which, in the context of a court [[Trial (law)|trial]] or [[Hearing (law)|hearing]], deems an individual as having been disrespectful of the [[court]], its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt" or a person "held in contempt", it is the highest remedy of a [[judge]] to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which excessively or in a wanton manner disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a [[fair trial]]. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or [[prison|jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.

In civil cases involving relations between private citizens, the intended victim of the act of contempt is usually the party for whose benefit the ruling was implemented, rather than the court.

A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt:

* existence of a lawful order
* the contemnor's knowledge of the order
* the contemnor's ability to comply
* the contemnor's failure to comply

==Canada==
Criminal offences are found within the Criminal Code of Canada or other federal/provincial laws, with the exception that contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.<ref> [http://www.courts.gov.bc.ca/legal_compendium/Chapter22.asp A Compendium of Law and Judges]</ref>

Contempt of Court includes the following behaviours:
* fails to maintain a respectful attitude, remain silent or refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding
* refuses or neglects to obey a subpoena
* wilfully disobeys a process or order of the Court
* interfere with the orderly administration of justice or to impair the authority or dignity of the Court
* officer of the Court fails to perform his or her duties
* sheriff or bailiff and does not execute a writ forthwith or does not make a return thereof

===Federal Courts===
''This section applies only to [[Federal Court of Appeal]] and [[Federal Court (Canada)|Federal Court]].''

Under Federal Court Rules, section 472, a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved. <ref> [http://reports.fja.gc.ca/regles/partie12.html Federal Court Rules Chapter 12]</ref>

If it's a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person be imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order, fine, or be ordered to do or refrain from doing any act as considered by the judge.

===Tax Court of Canada===
Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of ''Tax Court of Canada Act'', a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court. FUCK

===Provincial Courts===
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in [[British Columbia|BC]], [[Justice of Peace]] can only issue summon to the offender for Contempt, for which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done at the face of the Justice.<ref> [http://www.qp.gov.bc.ca/statreg/stat/P/96379_01.htm#section31 Provincial Court Act Jurisdiction of justice]</ref>

==United Kingdom==

In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[Crime|criminal]] or [[civil]] offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years.

Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behavior toward the judge or magistrates while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behavior observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual affected by a court order may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.

===Criminal contempt of court===

The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under the [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).

[[Magistrates' Court]]s are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the court may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to [[Pound sterling|GBP]]2500, or do both.

It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."

===Strict liability contempt===

Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===

In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[bench warrant]] is issued, authorizing the [[tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" - i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment - is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American [[jurisprudence]], acts of contempt are divided into two types.

# '''Direct contempt''' is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae'') and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice. After giving the person the opportunity to respond, the judge may impose the sanction immediately.
# '''Indirect contempt''' occurs outside the immediate presence of the court and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt and to present evidence in rebuttal.

Contempt of court in a [[civil suit]] is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court.

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[Burden of proof|reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the [[sheriff]] or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The imposed party is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional [[due process of law|due process]] is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

==See also==
*[[Contempt of Congress]]
*[[Contempt of Parliament]]
*[[Contumacy]]
*[[Judicial discretion]]
*[[Perjury]]
*[[Perverting the course of justice]]
*[[Obstruction of justice]]

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

*Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).

[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]

[[de:Ordnungsmittel]]
[[ja:法廷侮辱罪]]
[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]
[[ur:توہین عدالت]]
[[zh:藐視法庭]]

Environment and Climate Change Canada

2009-02-07T05:22:48Z

Cahk: /* External links */ +{{Law enforcement agencies in Canada}}

Environment and Climate Change Canada

2009-02-06T10:18:18Z

Cahk: /* Enforcement */ +info

Citizens Bank of Canada

2008-11-26T00:58:33Z

Cahk: Oxfam Quebec is not the same as Oxfam Canada

{{Infobox_Company |
logo = [[Image:Citizens bank.gif|size=240px]]|
company_name = Citizens Bank of Canada|
company_type = [[virtual bank]] |
foundation =[[Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada]] , 1997 |
location = [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] |
key_people = [[Jason Farris]] - CEO |
industry = [[Financial Institution]] |
products = Financial services |
num_employees = 380 |
homepage = http://www.citizensbank.ca/
}}
:''Several banks are commonly known as [[Citizens Bank]]''.
'''Citizens Bank of Canada''' is a [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]] based [[virtual bank]] which incorporates its ethical policy [https://www.citizensbank.ca/Personal/AboutUs/CorporateSocialResponsibility/EthicalPolicy/OurEthicalPolicy/] into all aspects of doing business. The ethical policy covers five areas:

* ethical business practices
* environmental leadership
* respect and fair treatment
* healthy communities and
* peaceful communities

They offer many common personal banking products. Like [[Mouvement Desjardins|Desjardins]], they offer the [[Amnesty International]] Visa cards in Canada. They also offer unique "Shared World" [[Time deposit|term deposits]], in which the principal is used for micro-credit lending. Citizens Bank of Canada was the first Schedule I bank to offer unlimited chequing with no monthly fees and no surcharges for foreign ATM usage on the [[plus (atm network)|Plus]] network. It is the first North American bank to become [[carbon neutral]], publicly declared by [[David Suzuki]] on April 9, 2008.

Citizens Bank powers a community site for amateur hockey players, hockeystars.com

Like all Canadian Banks, it is insured by the [[Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation|CDIC]] and was started in 1997.

Citizens Bank currently has over 30,000 members, primarily spread across major cities of Canada. Its head office is located in [[Vancouver]], with two boutiques located in [[Calgary]] and [[Toronto]].

The bank is owned by [[Vancouver City Credit Union|Vancity]].

==External links==
*https://www.citizensbank.ca/
*https://www.hockeystars.com/


{{Canadian banks}}
{{Vancouver Corporations}}
[[Category:Banks of Canada]]
[[Category:Companies based in Vancouver]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1997]]

{{bank-stub}}
{{canada-corp-stub}}

Department of Finance Canada

2008-08-17T02:25:10Z

Cahk: moved Department of Finance (Canada) to Department of Finance Canada over redirect: Renamed per FIP policy http://www.fin.gc.ca/

{{Infobox Canadian government departments
|department=Finance
|logo=
|current_minister=Jim Flaherty
|established= July 1, 1867
|website=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_of_Canada
|responsibilities=Economic and Fiscal Policy

Economic Development and Corporate Finance

Federal-Provincial Relations and Social Policy

Financial Sector Policy

International Trade and Finance

Tax Policy

Corporate Services
|employees=1000
|website=http://www.fin.gc.ca/
}}

'''Department of Finance Canada''' operates under the [[Minister of Finance (Canada)|Minister of Finance]].

The department is headquartered in the [[Esplanade Laurier]] building in downtown [[Ottawa]] at the corner of O'Connor and Laurier.

==Branches==

The department is divided into several branches:

* Economic and Fiscal Policy Branch
* Economic Development and Corporate Finance Branch

* Federal-Provincial Relations and Social Policy Branch
* Financial Sector Policy Branch
* International Trade and Finance Branch
* Tax Policy Branch
* Law Branch
* Corporate Services Branch
* Consultations and Communications Branch

==Related legislation==

Acts and legislations under the Department:

* Income Tax Act
* Federal-Provincial Fiscal Arrangements Act
* Customs Act
* Customs Tariff Act
* Excise Act
* Excise Tax Act
* Proceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) Act
* Income Tax Conventions Implementation Act
* Payment Clearing and Settlement Act
* Financial Administration Act
* Special Import Measures Act

==External links==

*[http://www.fin.gc.ca/ Department of Finance Canada]

{{Government Departments of Canada}}

[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]

[[Category:Finance ministries|Canada]]

Department of Finance Canada

2008-08-17T02:24:41Z

Cahk: bold

Department of Finance Canada

2008-08-17T02:24:17Z

Cahk: renamed to Department of Finance Canada http://www.fin.gc.ca/

{{Infobox Canadian government departments
|department=Finance
|logo=
|current_minister=Jim Flaherty
|established= July 1, 1867
|website=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_of_Canada
|responsibilities=Economic and Fiscal Policy

Economic Development and Corporate Finance

Federal-Provincial Relations and Social Policy

Financial Sector Policy

International Trade and Finance

Tax Policy

Corporate Services
|employees=1000
|website=http://www.fin.gc.ca/
}}
Department of Finance Canada operates under the [[Minister of Finance (Canada)|Minister of Finance]].

The department is headquartered in the [[Esplanade Laurier]] building in downtown [[Ottawa]] at the corner of O'Connor and Laurier.

==Branches==

The department is divided into several branches:

* Economic and Fiscal Policy Branch
* Economic Development and Corporate Finance Branch

* Federal-Provincial Relations and Social Policy Branch
* Financial Sector Policy Branch
* International Trade and Finance Branch
* Tax Policy Branch
* Law Branch
* Corporate Services Branch
* Consultations and Communications Branch

==Related legislation==

Acts and legislations under the Department:

* Income Tax Act
* Federal-Provincial Fiscal Arrangements Act
* Customs Act
* Customs Tariff Act
* Excise Act
* Excise Tax Act
* Proceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) Act
* Income Tax Conventions Implementation Act
* Payment Clearing and Settlement Act
* Financial Administration Act
* Special Import Measures Act

==External links==

*[http://www.fin.gc.ca/ Department of Finance Canada]

{{Government Departments of Canada}}

[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]

[[Category:Finance ministries|Canada]]

Transportation Safety Board of Canada

2008-08-17T00:14:40Z

Cahk: new member

[[Image:Transportation Safety Board of Canada Logo.gif|right]]
The '''Transportation Safety Board of Canada''' (''French: Bureau de la sécurité des transports du Canada)'', officially the '''Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board''' (''French: Bureau canadien d’enquête sur les accidents de transport et de la sécurité des transports)''[http://www.crtfp-pslrb.gc.ca/decisions/summaries/2007-87_e.asp] is the agency of the [[Government of Canada]] responsible for maintaining transportation safety in Canada. The agency investigates accidents and makes safety recommendations in several modes of transport, including aviation, rail, marine and pipelines.

The TSB was convened for the first time under the Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board Act, which was enacted on March 29th, 1990. It was formed partly in response to widespread criticism of the Canadian government's handling (through the responsible agency at the time, the Canadian Aviation Safety Board) of the investigation into the crash of [[Arrow Air Flight 1285]]. The [[headquarters]] are located in [[Gatineau, Quebec]].

The provisions of Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board Act were written to establish a more independent relationship between the board and the government. This new mechanism's first major test came with the crash of [[Swissair Flight 111|Swissair 111]], on September 2, 1998, the largest single aviation accident on Canadian territory since the Arrow Air disaster. The TSB delivered its report on the accident on [[March 27]], [[2003]], some 4 1/2 years after the accident and at a cost of $57 million CAD, making it the most complex and costly accident investigation in Canadian history.

The TSB's board is composed of 5 members<ref> [http://www.tsb.gc.ca/en/common/board_members.asp The Board]</ref>:

* Chair Wendy A. Tadros
* Member Jonathan Seymour
* Member James P. Walsh
* Member R. Henry Wright
* Member Kathy Fox

The Transportation Safety Board's mandate is as follows:

* conducting independent investigations, public inquiries when necessary, into selected transportation occurrences in order to make findings as to their causes and contributing factors;
* identifying [[safety]] deficiencies, as evidenced by transportation occurrences;
* making recommendations designed to eliminate or reduce any such safety deficiencies; and
* [[reporting]] publicly on our investigations and on the findings in relation thereto

The TSB may assist other transportation safety boards in their investigations. This may happen when:

* an incident or accident occurs involving a Canadian-registered aircraft in commercial or air transport use;
* an incident or accident occurs involving a Canadian-built aircraft (or an aircraft with Canadian-built engines, propellers, or other vital components) in commercial or air transport use;
* a country without the technical ability to conduct a full investigation asks for the TSB's assistance (especially in the field of reading and analyzing the content of [[flight data recorder]]s and [[cockpit voice recorder]]s).

TSB statistics report that Air, Rail, and Marine accident rates have been fairly steady over the past five years (2001 - 2006). (Pipeline accidents are not common enough for statistics to be relevant.) Traffic on the three major modes of transport has risen about 5% in the meantime.
In the fiscal year 2005-2006, there were over 4000 transportation "occurrences" reported in Canada. Most of these were minor incidents, involving only property damage, but major fatal [[accidents]] are also be included in this total. In the same year, 79 accidents and incidents required TSB investigation.

The federal or provincial governments may call upon the TSB to investigate such occurrences. Usually it is [[Transport Canada]] that initiates an investigation. Public reports are published following each investigation. Recommendations made by the TSB are not legally binding upon the Government of Canada, nor any Ministers of Departments, but the Minister who initiated the investigation must acknowledge the recommendations made by the TSB.

The TSB reports to the [[Parliament of Canada]] through the [[President of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Air safety]]
*[[NTSB]], the [[United States of America|US]] counterpart agency.
*[[Air Accidents Investigation Branch|AAIB]], the [[United Kingdom]] counterpart agency.
*[[Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la sécurité de l'Aviation Civile|BEA]], the [[France]] counterpart agency.
*[[Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung|BFU]], the [[Germany]] counterpart agency.

==External links==
* [http://www.tsb.gc.ca Transportation Safety Board website]

[[Category:Rail accident investigators]]
[[Category:Organizations investigating aviation accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:Aviation authorities]]
[[Category:Safety organizations]]
[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Aviation in Canada]]

[[fr:Bureau de la sécurité des transports]]

Canada Revenue Agency

2008-04-12T09:21:22Z

Cahk: copyedit

[[Image:Cheque.jpg|thumb|250px|Example of a cheque from the Canada Revenue Agency]]
The '''Canada Revenue Agency (CRA)''' administers:

* [[tax law]]s for the Government of [[Canada]] and for most provinces and territories;
* [[international trade]] legislation; and
* various social and economic benefit and incentive programs delivered through the tax system.
* the registration of charities in Canada
* the [[Scientific Research and Experimental Development Tax Credit Program]]

The Canada Revenue Agency was previously known as the '''Canada Customs and Revenue Agency''' (CCRA) until a federal government reorganization in December 2003 when it was decided to split the organization's customs and revenue responsibilities into separate organizations. Since then, [[Canada Border Services Agency]] is part of the [[Public Safety Canada]] portfolio to handle customs responsibilities.

The CCRA was short-lived, having been created in a November 1999 reorganization of the federal government where it had been known for many years under its statutory name the '''Department of National Revenue'''. It was also referred to as '''Revenue Canada''' under the Federal Identity Program of the Treasury Board of Canada. To this day, most Canadians have continued to refer to the agency as "Revenue Canada" through its CCRA and CRA official designation periods.

==See also==
*[[Taxation in Canada]]
*[[EFILE]]
*[[NETFILE]]
*[[Canada Border Services Agency]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/ Canada Revenue Agency]

{{Government Departments of Canada}}
[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies|Revenue Agency]]
[[Category:Taxation in Canada|Revenue Agency]]

Beziehungen zwischen Japan und den Vereinigten Staaten

2008-04-03T20:36:35Z

Cahk: withdraw copyvio template - US govt' work can not claim copyright

{{update}}
{{Missing information|The time between 1860s and 1950s including World War II|date=March 2008}}
{{bilateral|Japanese-American|Japan|USA}}
The '''relationship between [[Japan]] and the [[United States of America]]''' is one of very close economic and military cooperation, as well as great cultural proliferation.

==Historical background==
===The earliest interactions===
[[Image:Hasekura in Rome.JPG|thumb|left|150px|[[Hasekura Tsunenaga]] was the first Japanese diplomat to be sent to North America, arriving in 1614.]]
The indirect exchange of trade goods from North America to Japan occurred during the [[Nanban trade period]] of the early 17th century; there was no direct contact between Japan and the European colonies which would later become the United States, as the trade was always dealt with through European proxies.

Several Spanish ships had established contact with Japan after setting sail from [[Nueva España]] (present-day [[Mexico]]), so that Japanese sailors, such as [[Christopher and Cosmas]] are known to have reached the American continent onboard Spanish [[galleon]]s as early as 1587. In 1610, the Japanese [[Tanaka Shosuke]] then travelled to the Americas with 20 other Japanese representatives onboard a Japanese-made ship, the ''[[San Buena Ventura]]''. In 1611, the Spanish explorer [[Sebastian Vizcaino]] reciprocated Tanaka's visit and set out to establish formal relations from [[California]] - today, a U.S. state.

Vizcaino's embassy was reciprocated in 1613 by the embassy of the samurai [[Hasekura Tsunenaga]], who reached [[Cape Mendocino]] in today's [[California]], and then continued to Nueva España (including territories that would later be annexed by the United States) on the Japanese-built galleon [[Japanese warship San Juan Bautista|''San Juan Bautista'']], and then went on to Europe in 1614.

When the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] enacted the [[sakoku|sakoku laws]] in 1650, almost all foreign trade ended in Japan; only the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], the [[Ryūkyū]]ans, the [[Korea]]ns, and the [[China|Chinese]] were allowed into the country, and only on a limited scale. When the United States achieved its independence in the late 18th century, there was no interaction between the two countries. Throughout the early 19th century, the [[great power|powers]] of Europe - as well as the United States - made attempts to open Japan up to renewed foreign relations.

===Early American expeditions to Japan===
*In 1791, two American ships commanded by the American explorer [[John Kendrick (American sea captain)|Kendrick]] stopped for 11 days on [[Kii Oshima]] island, south of the [[Kii Peninsula]]. He is the first known American to have visited Japan. He apparently planted an American flag and claimed the islands, although accounts of his visit in Japan are nonexistent.

[[Image:VincennesYedoBay1846.PNG|thumb|300px|The [[USS Columbus (1819)|USS ''Columbus'']] of James Biddle, and an American crewman in [[Edo]] Bay in 1846.]]
* From 1797 to 1809, several American ships traded in [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]] under the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] flag, upon the request of the Dutch; they were unable to send their own ships due to their conflict against [[United Kingdom|Britain]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

* In 1837, [[Charles W. King]], an American businessman in [[Canton, China|Canton]], saw an opportunity to open trade by trying to return to Japan three Japanese sailors (among them, [[Otokichi]]) that'd been shipwrecked a few years before on the coast of [[Oregon]]. He went to the [[Uraga Channel]] with ''Morrison'', an unarmed American merchant ship. The ship was fired upon several times, and it eventually had to sail back unsuccessfully.

* In 1846, Commander [[James Biddle]], sent by the United States Government to open trade, anchored himself in [[Tokyo Bay]] with two ships, one of which was armed with seventy-two cannons. Regardless, his demands for a trade agreement remained unsuccessful.

* In 1848, Captain [[James Glynn]] sailed to [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], which lead to the first successful negotiation by an American with [[sakoku]] Japan. Upon his return to North America, Glynn recommended to the [[U.S. Congress]] that any negotiations to open up Japan should be backed up by a demonstration of force; this paved the way for the later expedition of Commodore [[Matthew C. Perry|Matthew Perry]].

===Commodore Matthew Perry===
====The first visit, 1852 to 1853====
[[Image:PerryFleet.jpg|thumb|350px|Commodore Perry's fleet for his second visit to Japan in 1854.]]
In 1852, Perry embarked from [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]], [[Virginia]], for [[Japan]], in command of a squadron that would negotiate a Japanese trade treaty. Aboard a black-hulled steam frigate, he ported [[USS Mississippi (1841)|''Mississippi'']], [[USS Plymouth (1844)|''Plymouth'']], [[USS Saratoga (1842)|''Saratoga'']], and [[USS Susquehanna (1847)|''Susquehanna'']] at Uraga Harbor near [[Edo]] (present-day [[Tokyo]]) on [[July 8]], [[1853]], and he was met by representatives of the [[Tokugawa Shogunate]]. They told him to proceed to [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], where the sakoku laws allowed limited trade by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]]. Perry refused to leave, and he demanded permission to present a letter from [[President of the United States|President]] [[Millard Fillmore]], threatening force if he was denied. Japan had shunned modern technology for centuries, and the Japanese military wouldn't be able to resist Perry's ships; these "[[Black Ships]]" would later become a symbol of threatening Western technology and [[colony|colonialism]] in Japan.

The Japanese government had to accept Perry's coming ashore to avoid a naval bombardment. Perry proceeded ashore at [[Kurihama]] (near present-day [[Yokosuka]]) on [[July 14]], presented the letter to the delegates present, and left for the Chinese coast, promising to return later for a reply.

====The second visit, 1854====
Perry returned in February of 1854 with twice as many ships, finding that the delegates had prepared a treaty embodying virtually all the demands in Fillmore's letter. Perry signed the [[Convention of Kanagawa]] on [[March 31]], [[1854]], and departed, mistakenly believing that the agreement had been made with [[Emperor of Japan|imperial]] representatives.

===Japanese embassy to the United States===
[[Image:Kanrinmaru.jpg|left|thumb|300px|[[Japanese warship Kanrin Maru|''Kanrin Maru'']], Japan's first screw-driven steam warship, transported 1860s delegation to San Francisco.]]
[[Image:Kanrin Maru members.jpg|thumb|300px|Members of the [[Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860)]]. Sailors of the ''[[Kanrin Maru]]''. Fukuzawa Yukichi sits on the right.]]
[[Image:1860Kanrinmaru delegation.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860)]].]]
Six years later, the Shogun sent [[Japanese warship Kanrin Maru|''Kanrin Maru'']] on a mission to the United States; it was his intention to show the world that Japan had mastered Western navigation techniques and ship technologies. On the [[January 19]], [[1860]], ''Kanrin Maru'' left the [[Uraga Channel]] for [[San Francisco]]. The delegation included [[Katsu Kaishu]], as ship captain; [[Nakahama Manjiro|John Manjiro]]; and [[Fukuzawa Yukichi]]. The Embassy went on to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] via Panama, on American vessels.

The official objective of the mission was to send the first Japanese embassy to the United States ever, and also to ratify the new Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation between the two governments. The delegates also tried to revise some of the unequal clauses in [[Matthew C. Perry|Perry]]'s treaties; they were unsuccessful.

==Political relations==
===Post-war Occupation period===
''Main article:'' [[Occupied Japan]]

At the end of the Second World War, Japan was occupied by the Allied Powers, led by the United States with contributions from Australia, India, the United Kingdom and New Zealand. This was the first time since the unification of Japan that the island nation had been occupied by a foreign power. The San Francisco Peace Treaty, signed on September 8, 1951, marked the end of the Allied occupation, and when it went into effect on April 28, 1952, Japan was once again an independent state.
===1950s: After the occupation===
{{main|San Francisco System}}
In the years after [[World War II]], Japan's relations with the United States were placed on an equal footing for the first time at the end of the occupation by the Allied forces in April 1952. This equality, the legal basis of which was laid down in the [[Treaty of Peace with Japan|peace treaty signed by forty-eight Allied nations and Japan]], was initially largely nominal, because in the early postoccupation period Japan required direct United States economic assistance. A favorable Japanese balance of payments with the United States was achieved in 1954, mainly as a result of United States military and aid spending in Japan.

The Japanese people's feeling of dependence lessened gradually as the disastrous results of World War II subsided into the background and trade with the United States expanded. Self-confidence grew as the country applied its resources and organizational skill to regaining economic health. This situation gave rise to a general desire for greater independence from United States influence. During the 1950s and 1960s, this feeling was especially evident in the Japanese attitude toward United States military bases on the four main islands of Japan and in Okinawa Prefecture, occupying the southern two-thirds of the [[Ryukyu Islands]].

The government had to balance left-wing pressure advocating dissociation from the United States allegedly 'against the realities' of the need for military protection. Recognizing the popular desire for the return of the Ryukyu Islands and the Bonin Islands (also known as the [[Ogasawara Islands]]), the United States as early as 1953 relinquished its control of the [[Amami]] group of islands at the northern end of the Ryukyu Islands. But the United States made no commitment to return Okinawa, which was then under United States military administration for an indefinite period as provided in Article 3 of the peace treaty. Popular agitation culminated in a unanimous resolution adopted by the [[Japanese diet|Diet]] in June 1956, calling for a return of Okinawa to Japan.

===1960s: Military Alliance and return of territories===
Bilateral talks on revising the 1952 security pact began in 1959, and the new [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security]] was signed in Washington on [[January 19]], [[1960]]. When the pact was submitted to the Diet for ratification on [[February 5]], it became the subject of bitter debate over the Japan-United States relationship and the occasion for violence in an all-out effort by the leftist opposition to prevent its passage. It was finally approved by the [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]] on [[May 20]]. [[Japan Socialist Party]] deputies boycotted the lower house session and tried to prevent the [[Liberal Democratic Party of Japan|LDP]] deputies from entering the chamber; they were forcibly removed by the police. Massive demonstrations and rioting by students and trade unions followed. These outbursts prevented a scheduled visit to Japan by President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and precipitated the resignation of Prime Minister [[Kishi Nobusuke]], but not before the treaty was passed by default on [[June 19]], when the [[House of Councillors]] failed to vote on the issue within the required thirty days after lower house approval.

Under the treaty, both parties assumed an obligation to assist each other in case of armed attack on territories under Japanese administration. (It was understood, however, that Japan could not come to the defense of the United States because it was constitutionally forbidden to send armed forces overseas (Article 9). In particular, the constitution forbids the maintenance of "land, sea, and air forces." It also expresses the Japanese people's renunciation of "the threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes". Accordingly, the Japanese find it difficult to send their "self-defense" forces overseas, even for peace-keeping purposes.) The scope of the new treaty did not extend to the Ryukyu Islands, but an appended minute made clear that in case of an armed attack on the islands, both governments would consult and take appropriate action. Notes accompanying the treaty provided for prior consultation between the two governments before any major change occurred in the deployment of United States troops or equipment in Japan. Unlike the 1952 security pact, the new treaty provided for a ten-year term, after which it could be revoked upon one year's notice by either party. The treaty included general provisions on the further development of international cooperation and on improved future economic cooperation.

Both countries worked closely to fulfill the United States promise, under Article 3 of the peace treaty, to return all Japanese territories acquired by the United States in war. In June 1968, the United States returned the [[Bonin Islands]] (including [[Iwo Jima]]) to Japanese administration control. In 1969, the Okinawa reversion issue and Japan's security ties with the United States became the focal points of partisan political campaigns. The situation calmed considerably when Prime Minister Sato Eisaku visited Washington in November 1969, and in a joint communiqué signed by him and President [[Richard M. Nixon]], announced the United States agreement to return Okinawa to Japan in 1972. In June 1971, after eighteen months of negotiations, the two countries signed an agreement providing for the return of Okinawa to Japan in 1972.

The Japanese government's firm and voluntary endorsement of the security treaty and the settlement of the Okinawa reversion question meant that, two major political issues in Japan-United States relations were eliminated. But new issues arose. In July 1971, the Japanese government was surprised by Nixon's dramatic announcement of his forthcoming [[Nixon visit to China 1972|visit to the People's Republic of China]]. Many Japanese were chagrined by the failure of the United States to consult in advance with Japan before making such a fundamental change in foreign policy. The following month, the government was again surprised to learn that, without prior consultation, the United States had imposed a 10 percent surcharge on imports, a decision certain to hinder Japan's exports to the United States. Relations between Tokyo and Washington were further strained by the monetary crisis involving the December 1971 revaluation of the Japanese yen.

These events of 1971 marked the beginning of a new stage in relations, a period of adjustment to a changing world situation that was not without episodes of strain in both political and economic spheres, although the basic relationship remained close. The political issues between the two countries were essentially security-related and derived from efforts by the United States to induce Japan to contribute more to its own defense and to regional security. The economic issues tended to stem from the ever-widening United States trade and payments deficits with Japan, which began in 1965 when Japan reversed its imbalance in trade with the United States and, for the first time, achieved an export surplus.

===1970s: Indochina War and Middle-East crisis===
The United States withdrawal from Indochina in 1975 and the end of the [[Second Indochina War]] meant that the question of Japan's role in the security of East Asia and it's contributions to it's own defense became central topics in the dialogue between the two countries. United States dissatisfaction with Japanese defense efforts began to surface in 1975 when Secretary of Defense [[James R. Schlesinger]] publicly stigmatized Japan. The Japanese government, constrained by constitutional limitations and strongly pacifist public opinion, responded slowly to pressures for a more rapid buildup of its [[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Self-Defense Forces]] (SDF). It steadily increased its budgetary outlays for those forces, however, and indicated its willingness to shoulder more of the cost of maintaining the United States military bases in Japan. In 1976 the United States and Japan formally established a subcommittee for defense cooperation, in the framework of a bilateral Security Consultative Committee provided for under the 1960 security treaty. This subcommittee, in turn, drew up new Guidelines for Japan-United States Defense Cooperation, under which military planners of the two countries have conducted studies relating to joint military action in the event of an armed attack on Japan.

On the economic front, Japan sought to ease trade frictions by agreeing to Orderly Marketing Arrangements, which limited exports on products whose influx into the United States was creating political problems. In 1977 an Orderly Marketing Arrangement limiting Japanese color television exports to the United States was signed, following the pattern of an earlier disposition of the textile problem. Steel exports to the United States were also curtailed, but the problems continued as disputes flared over United States restrictions on Japanese development of nuclear fuel- reprocessing facilities, Japanese restrictions on certain agricultural imports, such as beef and oranges, and liberalization of capital investment and government procurement within Japan.

In response to the call from its allies for a greater and more responsible role in the world, Japan developed what prime minister [[Ohira Masayoshi]] called a "comprehensive security and defense strategy to safeguard peace." Under this policy, Japan sought closer cooperation with the United States for a more reciprocal and autonomous basis on a global scale.

This policy was put to the test in November 1979, when radical Iranians seized the United States embassy in Tehran, taking sixty hostages. Japan reacted by condemning the action as a violation of international law. At the same time, Japanese trading firms and oil companies reportedly purchased Iranian oil that had become available when the United States banned oil imported from Iran. This action brought sharp criticism from the United States of Japanese government "insensitivity" for allowing the oil purchases and led to a Japanese apology and agreement to participate in sanctions against Iran in concert with other United States allies.

Following that incident, the Japanese government took greater care to support United States international policies designed to preserve stability and promote prosperity. Japan was prompt and effective in announcing and implementing sanctions against the Soviet Union following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979. In 1981, in response to United States requests, it accepted greater responsibility for defense of seas around Japan, pledged greater support for United States forces in Japan, and persisted with a steady buildup of the SDF.

===1980s: Rise of the falcons===
A qualitatively new stage of Japan-United States cooperation in world affairs appeared to be reached in late 1982 with the election of Prime Minister [[Nakasone Yasuhiro]]. Officials of the [[Ronald Reagan]] administration worked closely with their Japanese counterparts to develop a personal relationship between the two leaders based on their common security and international outlook. Nakasone reassured United States leaders of Japan's determination against the Soviet threat, closely coordinated policies with the United States toward such Asian trouble spots as the Korean Peninsula and Southeast Asia, and worked cooperatively with the United States in developing China policy. The Japanese government welcomed the increase of United States forces in Japan and the western Pacific, continued the steady buildup of the SDF, and positioned Japan firmly on the side of the United States against the threat of Soviet international expansion. Japan continued to cooperate closely with United States policy in these areas following Nakasone's term of office, although the political leadership scandals in Japan in the late 1980s (i.e. the [[Recruit scandal]]) made it difficult for newly elected President [[George H. W. Bush]] to establish the same kind of close personal ties that marked the Reagan years.

A specific example of Japan's close cooperation with the United States included its quick response to the United States call for greater host nation support from Japan following the rapid realignment of Japan-United States currencies in the mid-1980s. The currency realignment resulted in a rapid rise of United States costs in Japan, which the Japanese government, upon United States request, was willing to offset. Another set of examples was provided by Japan's willingness to respond to United States requests for foreign assistance to countries considered of strategic importance to the West. During the 1980s, United States officials voiced appreciation for Japan's "strategic aid" to countries such as [[Pakistan]], [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]], and [[Jamaica]]. Prime Minister [[Kaifu Toshiki]]'s pledges of support for [[Eastern Europe|East European]] and [[Middle East]]ern countries in 1990 fit the pattern of Japan's willingness to share greater responsibility for world stability.

Despite complaints from some Japanese businesses and diplomats, the Japanese government remained in basic agreement with United States policy toward China and Indochina. The government held back from large-scale aid efforts until conditions in China and Indochina were seen as more compatible with Japanese and United States interests. Of course, there also were instances of limited Japanese cooperation. Japan's response to the United States decision to help to protect tankers in the Persian Gulf during the [[Iran-Iraq War]] (1980-88) was subject to mixed reviews. Some United States officials stressed the positive, noting that Japan was unable to send military forces because of constitutional reasons but compensated by supporting the construction of a navigation system in the Persian Gulf, providing greater host nation support for United States forces in Japan, and providing loans to Oman and Jordan. Japan's refusal to join even in a mine-sweeping effort in the Persian Gulf was an indication to some United States officials of Tokyo's unwillingness to cooperate with the United States in areas of sensitivity to Japanese leaders at home or abroad.

The main area of noncooperation with the United States in the 1980s was Japanese resistance to repeated United States efforts to get Japan to open its market more to foreign goods and to change other economic practices seen as adverse to United States economic interests. A common pattern was followed. The Japanese government was sensitive to political pressures from important domestic constituencies that would be hurt by greater openness. In general, these constituencies were of two types—those representing inefficient or "declining" producers, manufacturers, and distributors, who could not compete if faced with full foreign competition; and those up-and-coming industries that the Japanese government wished to protect from foreign competition until they could compete effectively on world markets. To deal with domestic pressures while trying to avoid a break with the United States, the Japanese government engaged in protracted negotiations. This tactic bought time for declining industries to restructure themselves and new industries to grow stronger. Agreements reached dealt with some aspects of the problems, but it was common for trade or economic issues to be dragged out in talks over several years, involving more than one market-opening agreement. Such agreements were sometimes vague and subject to conflicting interpretations in Japan and the United States.

Growing interdependence was accompanied by markedly changing circumstances at home and abroad that were widely seen to have created a crisis in Japan-United States relations in the late 1980s. United States government officials continued to emphasize the positive aspects of the relationship but warned that there was a need for "a new conceptual framework." [[The Wall Street Journal]] publicized a series of lengthy reports documenting changes in the relationship in the late 1980s and reviewing the considerable debate in Japan and the United States over whether a closely cooperative relationship was possible or appropriate for the 1990s. An authoritative review of popular and media opinion, published in 1990 by the Washington-based Commission on US-Japan Relations for the Twenty-first Century, was concerned with preserving a close Japan-United States relationship. It warned of a "new orthodoxy" of "suspicion, criticism and considerable self- justification," which it said was endangering the fabric of Japan- United States relations.

The relative economic power of Japan and the United States was undergoing sweeping change, especially in the 1980s. This change went well beyond the implications of the United States trade deficit with Japan, which had remained between US$40 billion and US$48 billion annually since the mid-1980s. The persisting United States trade and budget deficits of the early 1980s led to a series of decisions in the middle of the decade that brought a major realignment of the value of Japanese and United States currencies. The stronger Japanese currency gave Japan the ability to purchase more United States goods and to make important investments in the United States. By the late 1980s, Japan was the main international creditor.

Japan's growing investment in the United States—it was the second largest investor after Britain—led to complaints from some American constituencies. Moreover, Japanese industry seemed well positioned to use its economic power to invest in the high-technology products in which United States manufacturers were still leaders. The United States's ability to compete under these circumstances was seen by many Japanese and Americans as hampered by heavy personal, government, and business debt and a low savings rate.

In the late 1980s, the breakup of the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe and the growing preoccupation of Soviet leaders with massive internal political and economic difficulties forced the Japanese and United States governments to reassess their longstanding alliance against the Soviet threat. Officials of both nations had tended to characterize the security alliance as the linchpin of the relationship, which should have priority over economic and other disputes. Some Japanese and United States officials and commentators continued to emphasize the common dangers to Japan- United States interests posed by the continued strong Soviet military presence in Asia. They stressed that until Moscow followed its moderation in Europe with major demobilization and reductions in its forces positioned against the United States and Japan in the Pacific, Washington and Tokyo needed to remain militarily prepared and vigilant.

Increasingly, however, other perceived benefits of close Japan- United States security ties were emphasized. The alliance was seen as deterring other potentially disruptive forces in East Asia, notably the Democratic People's Republic of Korea ([[North Korea]]). Ironically, some United States officials noted that the alliance helped keep Japan's potential military power in check and under the supervision of the United States.

===1990s: After the cold war===
Japan-United States relations were more uncertain in the early 1990s than at any time since World War II. As long-standing military allies and increasingly interdependent economic partners, Japan and the United States cooperated closely to build a strong, multifaceted relationship based on democratic values and interests in world stability and development. Japan-United States relations improved enormously in the 1970s and 1980s, as the two societies and economies became increasingly intertwined. In 1990 their combined [[gross national product]] (GNP) totaled about one third of the world's GNP. Japan received about 11 percent of United States exports (a larger share than any other country except Canada), and the United States bought about 34 percent of Japan's exports. Japan had US$148 billion in direct investment in the United States in 1991, while the United States had more than US$17 billion invested in Japan. Some US$100 billion in United States government securities held by institutions in Japan helped finance much of the United States budget deficit. Economic exchanges were reinforced by a variety of scientific, technical, tourist, and other exchanges. Each society continued to see the other as its main ally in Asia and the Pacific. Certain developments in the late 1980s damaged bilateral relations. Nevertheless, public opinion surveys continued to reveal that substantial majorities of Japanese and Americans believed that the bilateral relationship was vital to both countries.

The post-Cold War environment strengthened the relative importance of economic prowess over military power as the major source of world influence in the early 1990s. This shift affected the perceived relative standing of Japan, the United States, and other powers. Increasingly, Japan was expected to shoulder international aid and economic responsibilities that in the past were discharged by the United States and other Western countries.

The declining Soviet threat, the rising power of the Japanese economy, increasingly close United States interaction (and related disputes) with Japan, and other factors led by 1990 to a decided shift in United States opinion about Japan and to less marked but nonetheless notable shifts in Japanese opinion. In the United States, this shift was reflected in questions about which was the more serious, the military threat from the Soviet Union or the economic challenge from Japan. In a series of polls in 1989 and 1990, most respondents considered the challenge from Japan the more serious. Similarly, poll data from early 1990 showed that most Japanese considered negative United States attitudes toward Japan a reflection of United States anger at "America's slipping economic position." Meanwhile, Japanese opinion was showing greater confidence in Japan's ability to handle its own affairs without constant reference—as in the past—to the United States. Japan's belief in United States reliability as a world leader also lessened.

In both countries, new or "revisionist" views of the Japan- United States relationship were promoted. In Japan some commentators argued that the United States was weak, dependent on Japan, and unable to come to terms with world economic competition. They urged Japan to strike out on a more independent course. In the United States, prominent commentators warned of a Japanese economic juggernaut, out of control of the Japanese government, which needed to be "contained" by the United States.

At the same time, it was easy to overstate the changes in opinion in both countries. The Japanese still considered the United States positively as their closest friend, the principal guardian of their external security, their most important economic partner and market, and the exemplar of a life-style that had much to offer—and much to envy. Moreover, the vast majority of Americans still viewed Japan positively, had high respect for Japanese accomplishments, and supported the United States defense commitment to Japan.

With the end of the Cold War and changing administrations in Japan and the United States, Japan's relations with the United States entered a period of uncertainty and friction. In late 1993, the successful conclusion of the Uruguay Round of the GATT negotiations and Japan's decision to allow some rice imports to make up for a reduced domestic crop provided a basis for further progress on trade issues, but the growing United States deficit in bilateral trade prompted Washington to demand that Tokyo set specific objectives for opening its markets to United States products. After fifteen months of sometimes contentious talks, on [[October 1]], [[1994]], Japan and the United States concluded an agreement to open up three major Japanese markets to products from the United States. These were the Japanese insurance market and government purchases of telecommunications and medical equipment. The two sides failed to reach agreement on the import of American-made automobiles, automotive parts, and flat glass (used in automotive manufacturing and construction) to Japan but agreed to reach some resolution in thirty days.

In late May 1994, high-level negotiators from Japan and the United States, concerned that the trade frictions could jeopardize overall relations, reached an agreement to restart the framework talks at an early date. Despite the general failure of the framework talks, the two countries revealed in May that they would be engaging in joint high-technology research to develop ceramics used in high-density integrated circuits, composite carbon fiber materials used in manufacturing machinery, data collection using a crystal protein system, and technology to build environmentally friendly factories.

===New Millennium: A stronger alliance===
By the late 90's and beyond the US-Japan relationship had been improved and strengthened. The major cause of friction in the relationship, trade disputes, became less problematic as China displaced Japan as the greatest perceived economic threat to the U.S. Meanwhile, though in the immediate post-Cold War period the security alliance suffered from a lack of a defined threat, the emergence of North Korea as a belligerent rogue state and China's economic and military expansion provided a purpose to strengthen the relationship. While Bush administration foreign policy has put a strain on many international relations of the United States, the alliance with Japan has become stronger in the new millennium, as evidenced in the [[Deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq]] and the joint development of anti-missile defense systems. The notion that Japan is becoming the "Great Britain of the Pacific", or the key and pivotal ally of the U.S. in the region, is frequently alluded to in international studies, but the extent to which this is true is still the subject of academic debate.

==Economic relations==
===Trade volume===
The United States has been Japan's largest economic partner, taking 31.5 percent of its exports, supplying 22.3 percent of its imports, and accounting for 45.9 percent of its direct investment abroad in 1990. As of 2004, the United States takes up 22.7% of Japanese exports, and supplies 14% of its imports (the slack having been picked up by China, which now provides 20.7%).

Japan's imports from the United States included both raw materials and manufactured goods. United States agricultural products were a leading import in 1990 (US$8.5 billion as measured by United States export statistics), made up of meat (US$1.5 billion), fish (US$1.8 million), grains (US$2.4 billion), and soybeans (US$8.8 billion). Imports of manufactured goods were mainly in the category of machinery and transportation equipment, rather than consumer goods. In 1990 Japan imported US$11.1 billion of machinery from the United States, of which computers and computer parts (US$3.6 billion) formed the largest single component. In the category of transportation equipment, Japan imported US$3.3 billion of aircraft and parts (automobiles and parts accounted for only US$1.8 billion).

Japan's exports to the United States were almost entirely manufactured goods. Automobiles were by far the largest single category, amounting to US$21.5 billion in 1990, or 24 percent of total Japanese exports to the United States. Automotive parts accounted for another US$10.7 billion. Other major items were office machinery (including computers), which totaled US$8.6 billion in 1990, telecommunications equipment (US$4.1 billion) and power-generating machinery (US$451 million).

From the mid-1960s, the trade balance has been in Japan's favor. According to Japanese data, its surplus with the United States grew from US$380 million in 1970 to nearly US$48 billion in 1988, declining to approximately US$38 billion in 1990. United States data on the trade relationship (which differ slightly because each nation includes transportation costs on the import side but not the export side) also show a rapid deterioration of the imbalance in the 1980s, from a Japanese surplus of US$10 billion in 1980 to one of US$60 billion in 1987, with an improvement to one of US$37.7 billion in 1990.

===Trade frictions===
The general deterioration, and the very modest improvement in the trade balance after the yen rose in value after 1985, contributed greatly to strained economic relations. The United States had pressured Japan to open its markets since the early 1960s, but the intensity of the pressure increased through the 1970s and 1980s.

Tensions were exacerbated by issues specific to particular industries perhaps more than by the trade imbalance in general. Beginning with textiles in the 1950s, a number of Japanese exports to the United States were subject to opposition from United States industry. These complaints generally alleged unfair trading practices, such as dumping (selling at a lower cost than at home, or selling below the cost of production) and patent infringement. The result of negotiations was often Japan's agreement "voluntarily" to restrain exports to the United States. Such agreements applied to a number of products, including color television sets in the late 1970s and automobiles in the 1980s.

During the 1970s and 1980s, United States administrations had favored an issue-by-issue approach in negotiating such economic disputes with Japan. This approach ostensibly limited the areas of dispute. But it resulted in widespread negative publicity, at a time when changing economic and security circumstances were causing both countries to reevaluate the relationship. Notable outpourings of United States congressional and media rhetoric critical of Japan accompanied the disclosure in 1987 that Toshiba had illegally sold sophisticated machinery of United States origin to the Soviet Union, which reportedly allowed Moscow to make submarines quiet enough to avoid United States detection, and the United States congressional debate in 1989 over the Japan-United States agreement to develop a new fighter aircraft—the [[FSX]]—for the [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force]].

Some innovative approaches emerged in the 1980s as United States companies strove to achieve greater access to Japanese markets. MOSS negotiations in 1985 addressed access problems related to four industries: forest products, pharmaceuticals and medical equipment, electronics, and telecommunications equipment and services.

Problems of access to Japanese markets were among the motivations for the [[United States Trade Act]] of 1988, which included a provision calling on the president to identify unfair trading partners of the United States and to specify products for negotiation with these countries. In the spring of 1989, Japan was named as an unfair trading partner under this provision and three areas—forest products, telecommunications satellites, and [[supercomputer]]s—were selected for negotiations. This action exemplified the continuing mood of dissatisfaction over access to Japanese markets at the end of the decade.

At the same time, the United States initiated broad talks concerning the structural factors inhibiting manufactured imports in Japan, in the Structural Impediments Initiative. These talks addressed such areas as the law restraining the growth of large discount store chains in Japan, weak antitrust law enforcement, land taxation that encouraged inefficient farming, and [[Japanese asset price bubble|high real estate prices]].

Trade friction notwithstanding, the Japanese have a strong appetite for consumer goods produced in America. Exporting to Japan is challenging, at best, and this has given rise to companies that facilitate exporting consumer goods to Japan. Companies such as [http://www.35north.com 35north] have carved out niche markets to fill the Japanese demand for American consumer goods.

===Frictions in the semiconductor industry sector===
By the end of the 1980s, Japanese firms dominated world production and trade in certain segments of the [[semiconductor]] industry. In particular, they came to dominate the world market in [[Dynamic random access memory|dynamic random-access memory units]] (DRAMs). The Japanese share of the world merchant market for 1-megabit DRAMs at the end of the decade, for example, was estimated at 90 percent, while other estimates put the Japanese share of all semiconductor devices at 48 percent. Trade data showed that in 1988 Japan exported more than US$12 billion in semiconductor devices (and vacuum tubes), representing a dramatic increase from US$6 million in 1960 and just over US$2 billion in 1980. Semiconductor imports, however, totaled only US$2.2 billion in 1988.

The rise of Japanese competition and the decline in the world market share held by United States manufacturers, coupled with allegations of unfair trade practices, made semiconductors a contentious issue between the United States and Japan throughout the 1980s. The allegations included charges of dumping in the United States market and of import barriers artificially limiting the market share of United States firms selling in Japan. Negotiations in 1986 produced an agreement that led to an increase in Japanese DRAM export prices and that also included a provision to increase the United States share of the Japanese market (from the 10 percent that prevailed at that time to 20 percent by 1991). United States complaints that Japan failed to carry out the agreement in good faith led to retaliation, the imposition of punitive 100 percent tariffs on US$300 million of Japanese exports to the United States. Evidence that the export prices of DRAMs had risen led to partial elimination of the sanctions, but others remained until compliance was seen in increasing the United States market share in Japan. This entire episode remained very controversial at the end of the decade, particularly the question of specifying an acceptable market share for United States-made products in Japan.

===Structural Impediments Initiative===
A new approach was added in 1989. The so-called Structural Impediments Initiative was a series of talks designed to deal with domestic structural problems limiting trade on both sides. After several rounds of often contentious talks, agreements were reached in April and July 1990 that promised major changes in such sensitive areas as Japanese retailing practices, land use, and investment in public works. The United States pledged to deal more effectively with its budget deficit and to increase domestic savings. United States supporters saw the Structural Impediments Initiative talks as addressing fundamental causes of Japan-United States economic friction. Skeptics pointed to them as ways for officials to buy time and avoid an acute crisis in Japan-United States relations. The [[Bill Clinton]] administration decided to end the Structural Impediments Initiative in the summer of 1993 as a framework for dealing with United States-Japan bilateral relations.

===Direct Investment===
As elsewhere, Japan's direct investment in the United States expanded rapidly and is an important new dimension in the countries' relationship. The total value of cumulative investments of this kind was US$8.7 billion in 1980. By 1990 it had grown to US$83.1 billion. United States data identified Japan as the second largest investor in the United States; it had about half the value of investments of Britain, but more than those of the Netherlands, Canada, or West Germany. Much of Japan's investment in the United States in the late 1980s was in the commercial sector, providing the basis for distribution and sale of Japanese exports to the United States. Wholesale and retail distribution accounted for 32.2 percent of all Japanese investments in the United States in 1990, while manufacturing accounted for 20.6 percent. Real estate became a popular investment during the 1980s, with cumulative investments rising to US$15.2 billion by 1988, or 18.4 percent of total direct investment in the United States.

==Military relations==
[[Image:US Military bases in Japan.jpg|thumb|right|Major US military bases in Japan]]
[[Image:US Military bases in Okinawa.jpg|thumb|right|US military bases in [[Okinawa]]]]
The 1952 [[Mutual Security Assistance Pact]] provided the initial basis for the nation's security relations with the United States. The pact was replaced in 1960 by the [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security]], which declares that both nations will maintain and develop their capacities to resist armed attack in common and that each recognizes that an armed attack on either one in territories administered by Japan will be considered dangerous to the safety of the other. The Agreed Minutes to the treaty specified that the Japanese government must be consulted prior to major changes in United States force deployment in Japan or to the use of Japanese bases for combat operations other than in defense of Japan itself. However, Japan was relieved by its constitutional prohibition of participating in external military operations from any obligation to defend the United States if it were attacked outside of Japanese territories. In 1990 the Japanese government expressed its intention to continue to rely on the treaty's arrangements to guarantee national security.

The Agreed Minutes under Article 6 of the 1960 treaty contain a status-of-forces agreement on the stationing of United States forces in Japan, with specifics on the provision of facilities and areas for their use and on the administration of Japanese citizens employed in the facilities. Also covered are the limits of the two countries' jurisdictions over crimes committed in Japan by United States military personnel.

The Mutual Security Assistance Pact of 1952 initially involved a military aid program that provided for Japan's acquisition of funds, matériel, and services for the nation's essential defense. Although Japan no longer received any aid from the United States by the 1960s, the agreement continued to serve as the basis for purchase and licensing agreements ensuring interoperability of the two nations' weapons and for the release of classified data to Japan, including both international intelligence reports and classified technical information.

===Ryukyu Islands===
A major issue for military relations between the two nations was resolved in 1972 when the [[Ryukyu Islands]], including [[Okinawa]], reverted to Japanese control and the provisions of the 1960 security treaty were extended to cover them. The United States retained the right to station forces on these islands. In 1990 about 30,000 United States troops still occupied 20 percent of Okinawa's land, a source of friction with the local population.

Military relations improved after the mid-1970s. In 1960 the Security Consultative Committee, with representatives from both countries, was set up under the 1960 security treaty to discuss and coordinate security matters concerning both nations. In 1976 a subcommittee of that body prepared the Guidelines for Japan-United States Defense Cooperation that were approved by the full committee in 1978 and later approved by the National Defense Council and cabinet. The guidelines authorized unprecedented activities in joint defense planning, response to an armed attack on Japan, and cooperation on situations in Asia and the Pacific region that could affect Japan's security.

===Joint exercises===
Under the framework of the guidelines, Japan's [[Joint Staff Council]] and the commander of [[United States Forces Japan|United States Forces, Japan]], drew up a long-range program for joint exercises to encompass all three services of both nations. Every year during the 1980s, the [[Japan Ground Self-Defense Force|GSDF]] conducted command post and field-training exercises involving units from each of the regional armies in combined training with United States forces. Although the [[Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force|MSDF]] had participated in exercises with the [[United States Navy]] since 1955, in 1980 Japan, in an unprecedented move, permitted a task force of ships and aircraft to train in the Rim of the Pacific ([[RIMPAC]]) comprehensive naval exercise with naval forces from the United States, [[Australia]], [[Canada]], and [[New Zealand]]. Japan also participated in RIMPAC '88 with eight destroyers and frigates, one submarine, eight P-3C antisubmarine aircraft, and one supply ship. The [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force|ASDF]] also conducted numerous air defense, fighter, rescue, and command post training exercises with [[United States Air Force]] units. The [[Japan Coast Guard]] and [[United States Coast Guard]] have also performed joint exercises together.

In 1992, more than 50,000 members of the United States Armed Forces were stationed in Japan, including 21,300 marines, 10,300 air force personnel, 5,500 navy personnel, and 2,200 army personnel, who were deployed at several locations on [[Honshū]], [[Kyūshū]], and Okinawa. These numbers represented a substantial decrease from the 1990 level.

Close security ties were considered extremely important to both Japan and the United States. In March 1994, the first "two-plus-two" meeting of the Japanese foreign minister and the Defense Agency director with the United States secretary of state and secretary of defense was held in Tokyo to discuss a coordinated approach to post-Cold War regional and global security problems. Both sides indicated that they fully supported the United States- Japan Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security. Further, the United States thanked Japan for its strong host nation support for United States forces stationed in Japan, and the two nations agreed to begin consultations to renew the host nation support agreement when it expires in 1996.

''See also:'' [[United States Forces Japan]]

==See also==
*[[Foreign relations of Japan]]
*[[American Embassy, Tokyo]]
*[[List of United States ambassadors to Japan]]
*For the World War II period, see [[Pacific War]]
*[[Treaty of Peace with Japan]]
*[[Plaza Accord]]
*[[Omoiyari Yosan]]

==References==
* {{loc}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan]
{{Foreign relations of Japan}}
{{US-Asia bilateral}}

[[Category:Japanese-American relations| ]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United States by country]]

[[ja:日米関係史]]

Beziehungen zwischen Japan und den Vereinigten Staaten

2008-03-31T22:41:48Z

Cahk:

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{{Missing information|The time between 1860s and 1950s including World War II|date=March 2008}}
{{bilateral|Japanese-American|Japan|USA}}
The '''relationship between [[Japan]] and the [[United States of America]]''' is one of very close economic and military cooperation, as well as great cultural proliferation.

==Historical background==
===The earliest interactions===
[[Image:Hasekura in Rome.JPG|thumb|left|150px|[[Hasekura Tsunenaga]] was the first Japanese diplomat to be sent to North America, arriving in 1614.]]
The indirect exchange of trade goods from North America to Japan occurred during the [[Nanban trade period]] of the early 17th century; there was no direct contact between Japan and the European colonies which would later become the United States, as the trade was always dealt with through European proxies.

Several Spanish ships had established contact with Japan after setting sail from [[Nueva España]] (present-day [[Mexico]]), so that Japanese sailors, such as [[Christopher and Cosmas]] are known to have reached the American continent onboard Spanish [[galleon]]s as early as 1587. In 1610, the Japanese [[Tanaka Shosuke]] then travelled to the Americas with 20 other Japanese representatives onboard a Japanese-made ship, the ''[[San Buena Ventura]]''. In 1611, the Spanish explorer [[Sebastian Vizcaino]] reciprocated Tanaka's visit and set out to establish formal relations from [[California]] - today, a U.S. state.

Vizcaino's embassy was reciprocated in 1613 by the embassy of the samurai [[Hasekura Tsunenaga]], who reached [[Cape Mendocino]] in today's [[California]], and then continued to Nueva España (including territories that would later be annexed by the United States) on the Japanese-built galleon [[Japanese warship San Juan Bautista|''San Juan Bautista'']], and then went on to Europe in 1614.

When the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] enacted the [[sakoku|sakoku laws]] in 1650, almost all foreign trade ended in Japan; only the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], the [[Ryūkyū]]ans, the [[Korea]]ns, and the [[China|Chinese]] were allowed into the country, and only on a limited scale. When the United States achieved its independence in the late 18th century, there was no interaction between the two countries. Throughout the early 19th century, the [[great power|powers]] of Europe - as well as the United States - made attempts to open Japan up to renewed foreign relations.

===Early American expeditions to Japan===
*In 1791, two American ships commanded by the American explorer [[John Kendrick (American sea captain)|Kendrick]] stopped for 11 days on [[Kii Oshima]] island, south of the [[Kii Peninsula]]. He is the first known American to have visited Japan. He apparently planted an American flag and claimed the islands, although accounts of his visit in Japan are nonexistent.

[[Image:VincennesYedoBay1846.PNG|thumb|300px|The [[USS Columbus (1819)|USS ''Columbus'']] of James Biddle, and an American crewman in [[Edo]] Bay in 1846.]]
* From 1797 to 1809, several American ships traded in [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]] under the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] flag, upon the request of the Dutch; they were unable to send their own ships due to their conflict against [[United Kingdom|Britain]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

* In 1837, [[Charles W. King]], an American businessman in [[Canton, China|Canton]], saw an opportunity to open trade by trying to return to Japan three Japanese sailors (among them, [[Otokichi]]) that'd been shipwrecked a few years before on the coast of [[Oregon]]. He went to the [[Uraga Channel]] with ''Morrison'', an unarmed American merchant ship. The ship was fired upon several times, and it eventually had to sail back unsuccessfully.

* In 1846, Commander [[James Biddle]], sent by the United States Government to open trade, anchored himself in [[Tokyo Bay]] with two ships, one of which was armed with seventy-two cannons. Regardless, his demands for a trade agreement remained unsuccessful.

* In 1848, Captain [[James Glynn]] sailed to [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], which lead to the first successful negotiation by an American with [[sakoku]] Japan. Upon his return to North America, Glynn recommended to the [[U.S. Congress]] that any negotiations to open up Japan should be backed up by a demonstration of force; this paved the way for the later expedition of Commodore [[Matthew C. Perry|Matthew Perry]].

===Commodore Matthew Perry===
====The first visit, 1852 to 1853====
[[Image:PerryFleet.jpg|thumb|350px|Commodore Perry's fleet for his second visit to Japan in 1854.]]
In 1852, Perry embarked from [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]], [[Virginia]], for [[Japan]], in command of a squadron that would negotiate a Japanese trade treaty. Aboard a black-hulled steam frigate, he ported [[USS Mississippi (1841)|''Mississippi'']], [[USS Plymouth (1844)|''Plymouth'']], [[USS Saratoga (1842)|''Saratoga'']], and [[USS Susquehanna (1847)|''Susquehanna'']] at Uraga Harbor near [[Edo]] (present-day [[Tokyo]]) on [[July 8]], [[1853]], and he was met by representatives of the [[Tokugawa Shogunate]]. They told him to proceed to [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], where the sakoku laws allowed limited trade by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]]. Perry refused to leave, and he demanded permission to present a letter from [[President of the United States|President]] [[Millard Fillmore]], threatening force if he was denied. Japan had shunned modern technology for centuries, and the Japanese military wouldn't be able to resist Perry's ships; these "[[Black Ships]]" would later become a symbol of threatening Western technology and [[colony|colonialism]] in Japan.

The Japanese government had to accept Perry's coming ashore to avoid a naval bombardment. Perry proceeded ashore at [[Kurihama]] (near present-day [[Yokosuka]]) on [[July 14]], presented the letter to the delegates present, and left for the Chinese coast, promising to return later for a reply.

====The second visit, 1854====
Perry returned in February of 1854 with twice as many ships, finding that the delegates had prepared a treaty embodying virtually all the demands in Fillmore's letter. Perry signed the [[Convention of Kanagawa]] on [[March 31]], [[1854]], and departed, mistakenly believing that the agreement had been made with [[Emperor of Japan|imperial]] representatives.

===Japanese embassy to the United States===
[[Image:Kanrinmaru.jpg|left|thumb|300px|[[Japanese warship Kanrin Maru|''Kanrin Maru'']], Japan's first screw-driven steam warship, transported 1860s delegation to San Francisco.]]
[[Image:Kanrin Maru members.jpg|thumb|300px|Members of the [[Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860)]]. Sailors of the ''[[Kanrin Maru]]''. Fukuzawa Yukichi sits on the right.]]
[[Image:1860Kanrinmaru delegation.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860)]].]]
Six years later, the Shogun sent [[Japanese warship Kanrin Maru|''Kanrin Maru'']] on a mission to the United States; it was his intention to show the world that Japan had mastered Western navigation techniques and ship technologies. On the [[January 19]], [[1860]], ''Kanrin Maru'' left the [[Uraga Channel]] for [[San Francisco]]. The delegation included [[Katsu Kaishu]], as ship captain; [[Nakahama Manjiro|John Manjiro]]; and [[Fukuzawa Yukichi]]. The Embassy went on to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] via Panama, on American vessels.

The official objective of the mission was to send the first Japanese embassy to the United States ever, and also to ratify the new Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation between the two governments. The delegates also tried to revise some of the unequal clauses in [[Matthew C. Perry|Perry]]'s treaties; they were unsuccessful.

==Political relations==
===Post-war Occupation period===
''Main article:'' [[Occupied Japan]]

At the end of the Second World War, Japan was occupied by the Allied Powers, led by the United States with contributions from Australia, India, the United Kingdom and New Zealand. This was the first time since the unification of Japan that the island nation had been occupied by a foreign power. The San Francisco Peace Treaty, signed on September 8, 1951, marked the end of the Allied occupation, and when it went into effect on April 28, 1952, Japan was once again an independent state.
===1950s: After the occupation===
{{main|San Francisco System}}
In the years after [[World War II]], Japan's relations with the United States were placed on an equal footing for the first time at the end of the occupation by the Allied forces in April 1952. This equality, the legal basis of which was laid down in the [[Treaty of Peace with Japan|peace treaty signed by forty-eight Allied nations and Japan]], was initially largely nominal, because in the early postoccupation period Japan required direct United States economic assistance. A favorable Japanese balance of payments with the United States was achieved in 1954, mainly as a result of United States military and aid spending in Japan.

The Japanese people's feeling of dependence lessened gradually as the disastrous results of World War II subsided into the background and trade with the United States expanded. Self-confidence grew as the country applied its resources and organizational skill to regaining economic health. This situation gave rise to a general desire for greater independence from United States influence. During the 1950s and 1960s, this feeling was especially evident in the Japanese attitude toward United States military bases on the four main islands of Japan and in Okinawa Prefecture, occupying the southern two-thirds of the [[Ryukyu Islands]].

The government had to balance left-wing pressure advocating dissociation from the United States allegedly 'against the realities' of the need for military protection. Recognizing the popular desire for the return of the Ryukyu Islands and the Bonin Islands (also known as the [[Ogasawara Islands]]), the United States as early as 1953 relinquished its control of the [[Amami]] group of islands at the northern end of the Ryukyu Islands. But the United States made no commitment to return Okinawa, which was then under United States military administration for an indefinite period as provided in Article 3 of the peace treaty. Popular agitation culminated in a unanimous resolution adopted by the [[Japanese diet|Diet]] in June 1956, calling for a return of Okinawa to Japan.

===1960s: Military Alliance and return of territories===
Bilateral talks on revising the 1952 security pact began in 1959, and the new [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security]] was signed in Washington on [[January 19]], [[1960]]. When the pact was submitted to the Diet for ratification on [[February 5]], it became the subject of bitter debate over the Japan-United States relationship and the occasion for violence in an all-out effort by the leftist opposition to prevent its passage. It was finally approved by the [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]] on [[May 20]]. [[Japan Socialist Party]] deputies boycotted the lower house session and tried to prevent the [[Liberal Democratic Party of Japan|LDP]] deputies from entering the chamber; they were forcibly removed by the police. Massive demonstrations and rioting by students and trade unions followed. These outbursts prevented a scheduled visit to Japan by President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and precipitated the resignation of Prime Minister [[Kishi Nobusuke]], but not before the treaty was passed by default on [[June 19]], when the [[House of Councillors]] failed to vote on the issue within the required thirty days after lower house approval.

Under the treaty, both parties assumed an obligation to assist each other in case of armed attack on territories under Japanese administration. (It was understood, however, that Japan could not come to the defense of the United States because it was constitutionally forbidden to send armed forces overseas (Article 9). In particular, the constitution forbids the maintenance of "land, sea, and air forces." It also expresses the Japanese people's renunciation of "the threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes". Accordingly, the Japanese find it difficult to send their "self-defense" forces overseas, even for peace-keeping purposes.) The scope of the new treaty did not extend to the Ryukyu Islands, but an appended minute made clear that in case of an armed attack on the islands, both governments would consult and take appropriate action. Notes accompanying the treaty provided for prior consultation between the two governments before any major change occurred in the deployment of United States troops or equipment in Japan. Unlike the 1952 security pact, the new treaty provided for a ten-year term, after which it could be revoked upon one year's notice by either party. The treaty included general provisions on the further development of international cooperation and on improved future economic cooperation.

Both countries worked closely to fulfill the United States promise, under Article 3 of the peace treaty, to return all Japanese territories acquired by the United States in war. In June 1968, the United States returned the [[Bonin Islands]] (including [[Iwo Jima]]) to Japanese administration control. In 1969, the Okinawa reversion issue and Japan's security ties with the United States became the focal points of partisan political campaigns. The situation calmed considerably when Prime Minister Sato Eisaku visited Washington in November 1969, and in a joint communiqué signed by him and President [[Richard M. Nixon]], announced the United States agreement to return Okinawa to Japan in 1972. In June 1971, after eighteen months of negotiations, the two countries signed an agreement providing for the return of Okinawa to Japan in 1972.

The Japanese government's firm and voluntary endorsement of the security treaty and the settlement of the Okinawa reversion question meant that, two major political issues in Japan-United States relations were eliminated. But new issues arose. In July 1971, the Japanese government was surprised by Nixon's dramatic announcement of his forthcoming [[Nixon visit to China 1972|visit to the People's Republic of China]]. Many Japanese were chagrined by the failure of the United States to consult in advance with Japan before making such a fundamental change in foreign policy. The following month, the government was again surprised to learn that, without prior consultation, the United States had imposed a 10 percent surcharge on imports, a decision certain to hinder Japan's exports to the United States. Relations between Tokyo and Washington were further strained by the monetary crisis involving the December 1971 revaluation of the Japanese yen.

These events of 1971 marked the beginning of a new stage in relations, a period of adjustment to a changing world situation that was not without episodes of strain in both political and economic spheres, although the basic relationship remained close. The political issues between the two countries were essentially security-related and derived from efforts by the United States to induce Japan to contribute more to its own defense and to regional security. The economic issues tended to stem from the ever-widening United States trade and payments deficits with Japan, which began in 1965 when Japan reversed its imbalance in trade with the United States and, for the first time, achieved an export surplus.

===1970s: Indochina War and Middle-East crisis===
The United States withdrawal from Indochina in 1975 and the end of the [[Second Indochina War]] meant that the question of Japan's role in the security of East Asia and it's contributions to it's own defense became central topics in the dialogue between the two countries. United States dissatisfaction with Japanese defense efforts began to surface in 1975 when Secretary of Defense [[James R. Schlesinger]] publicly stigmatized Japan. The Japanese government, constrained by constitutional limitations and strongly pacifist public opinion, responded slowly to pressures for a more rapid buildup of its [[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Self-Defense Forces]] (SDF). It steadily increased its budgetary outlays for those forces, however, and indicated its willingness to shoulder more of the cost of maintaining the United States military bases in Japan. In 1976 the United States and Japan formally established a subcommittee for defense cooperation, in the framework of a bilateral Security Consultative Committee provided for under the 1960 security treaty. This subcommittee, in turn, drew up new Guidelines for Japan-United States Defense Cooperation, under which military planners of the two countries have conducted studies relating to joint military action in the event of an armed attack on Japan.

On the economic front, Japan sought to ease trade frictions by agreeing to Orderly Marketing Arrangements, which limited exports on products whose influx into the United States was creating political problems. In 1977 an Orderly Marketing Arrangement limiting Japanese color television exports to the United States was signed, following the pattern of an earlier disposition of the textile problem. Steel exports to the United States were also curtailed, but the problems continued as disputes flared over United States restrictions on Japanese development of nuclear fuel- reprocessing facilities, Japanese restrictions on certain agricultural imports, such as beef and oranges, and liberalization of capital investment and government procurement within Japan.

In response to the call from its allies for a greater and more responsible role in the world, Japan developed what prime minister [[Ohira Masayoshi]] called a "comprehensive security and defense strategy to safeguard peace." Under this policy, Japan sought closer cooperation with the United States for a more reciprocal and autonomous basis on a global scale.

This policy was put to the test in November 1979, when radical Iranians seized the United States embassy in Tehran, taking sixty hostages. Japan reacted by condemning the action as a violation of international law. At the same time, Japanese trading firms and oil companies reportedly purchased Iranian oil that had become available when the United States banned oil imported from Iran. This action brought sharp criticism from the United States of Japanese government "insensitivity" for allowing the oil purchases and led to a Japanese apology and agreement to participate in sanctions against Iran in concert with other United States allies.

Following that incident, the Japanese government took greater care to support United States international policies designed to preserve stability and promote prosperity. Japan was prompt and effective in announcing and implementing sanctions against the Soviet Union following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979. In 1981, in response to United States requests, it accepted greater responsibility for defense of seas around Japan, pledged greater support for United States forces in Japan, and persisted with a steady buildup of the SDF.

===1980s: Rise of the falcons===
A qualitatively new stage of Japan-United States cooperation in world affairs appeared to be reached in late 1982 with the election of Prime Minister [[Nakasone Yasuhiro]]. Officials of the [[Ronald Reagan]] administration worked closely with their Japanese counterparts to develop a personal relationship between the two leaders based on their common security and international outlook. Nakasone reassured United States leaders of Japan's determination against the Soviet threat, closely coordinated policies with the United States toward such Asian trouble spots as the Korean Peninsula and Southeast Asia, and worked cooperatively with the United States in developing China policy. The Japanese government welcomed the increase of United States forces in Japan and the western Pacific, continued the steady buildup of the SDF, and positioned Japan firmly on the side of the United States against the threat of Soviet international expansion. Japan continued to cooperate closely with United States policy in these areas following Nakasone's term of office, although the political leadership scandals in Japan in the late 1980s (i.e. the [[Recruit scandal]]) made it difficult for newly elected President [[George H. W. Bush]] to establish the same kind of close personal ties that marked the Reagan years.

A specific example of Japan's close cooperation with the United States included its quick response to the United States call for greater host nation support from Japan following the rapid realignment of Japan-United States currencies in the mid-1980s. The currency realignment resulted in a rapid rise of United States costs in Japan, which the Japanese government, upon United States request, was willing to offset. Another set of examples was provided by Japan's willingness to respond to United States requests for foreign assistance to countries considered of strategic importance to the West. During the 1980s, United States officials voiced appreciation for Japan's "strategic aid" to countries such as [[Pakistan]], [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]], and [[Jamaica]]. Prime Minister [[Kaifu Toshiki]]'s pledges of support for [[Eastern Europe|East European]] and [[Middle East]]ern countries in 1990 fit the pattern of Japan's willingness to share greater responsibility for world stability.

Despite complaints from some Japanese businesses and diplomats, the Japanese government remained in basic agreement with United States policy toward China and Indochina. The government held back from large-scale aid efforts until conditions in China and Indochina were seen as more compatible with Japanese and United States interests. Of course, there also were instances of limited Japanese cooperation. Japan's response to the United States decision to help to protect tankers in the Persian Gulf during the [[Iran-Iraq War]] (1980-88) was subject to mixed reviews. Some United States officials stressed the positive, noting that Japan was unable to send military forces because of constitutional reasons but compensated by supporting the construction of a navigation system in the Persian Gulf, providing greater host nation support for United States forces in Japan, and providing loans to Oman and Jordan. Japan's refusal to join even in a mine-sweeping effort in the Persian Gulf was an indication to some United States officials of Tokyo's unwillingness to cooperate with the United States in areas of sensitivity to Japanese leaders at home or abroad.

The main area of noncooperation with the United States in the 1980s was Japanese resistance to repeated United States efforts to get Japan to open its market more to foreign goods and to change other economic practices seen as adverse to United States economic interests. A common pattern was followed. The Japanese government was sensitive to political pressures from important domestic constituencies that would be hurt by greater openness. In general, these constituencies were of two types—those representing inefficient or "declining" producers, manufacturers, and distributors, who could not compete if faced with full foreign competition; and those up-and-coming industries that the Japanese government wished to protect from foreign competition until they could compete effectively on world markets. To deal with domestic pressures while trying to avoid a break with the United States, the Japanese government engaged in protracted negotiations. This tactic bought time for declining industries to restructure themselves and new industries to grow stronger. Agreements reached dealt with some aspects of the problems, but it was common for trade or economic issues to be dragged out in talks over several years, involving more than one market-opening agreement. Such agreements were sometimes vague and subject to conflicting interpretations in Japan and the United States.

Growing interdependence was accompanied by markedly changing circumstances at home and abroad that were widely seen to have created a crisis in Japan-United States relations in the late 1980s. United States government officials continued to emphasize the positive aspects of the relationship but warned that there was a need for "a new conceptual framework." [[The Wall Street Journal]] publicized a series of lengthy reports documenting changes in the relationship in the late 1980s and reviewing the considerable debate in Japan and the United States over whether a closely cooperative relationship was possible or appropriate for the 1990s. An authoritative review of popular and media opinion, published in 1990 by the Washington-based Commission on US-Japan Relations for the Twenty-first Century, was concerned with preserving a close Japan-United States relationship. It warned of a "new orthodoxy" of "suspicion, criticism and considerable self- justification," which it said was endangering the fabric of Japan- United States relations.

The relative economic power of Japan and the United States was undergoing sweeping change, especially in the 1980s. This change went well beyond the implications of the United States trade deficit with Japan, which had remained between US$40 billion and US$48 billion annually since the mid-1980s. The persisting United States trade and budget deficits of the early 1980s led to a series of decisions in the middle of the decade that brought a major realignment of the value of Japanese and United States currencies. The stronger Japanese currency gave Japan the ability to purchase more United States goods and to make important investments in the United States. By the late 1980s, Japan was the main international creditor.

Japan's growing investment in the United States—it was the second largest investor after Britain—led to complaints from some American constituencies. Moreover, Japanese industry seemed well positioned to use its economic power to invest in the high-technology products in which United States manufacturers were still leaders. The United States's ability to compete under these circumstances was seen by many Japanese and Americans as hampered by heavy personal, government, and business debt and a low savings rate.

In the late 1980s, the breakup of the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe and the growing preoccupation of Soviet leaders with massive internal political and economic difficulties forced the Japanese and United States governments to reassess their longstanding alliance against the Soviet threat. Officials of both nations had tended to characterize the security alliance as the linchpin of the relationship, which should have priority over economic and other disputes. Some Japanese and United States officials and commentators continued to emphasize the common dangers to Japan- United States interests posed by the continued strong Soviet military presence in Asia. They stressed that until Moscow followed its moderation in Europe with major demobilization and reductions in its forces positioned against the United States and Japan in the Pacific, Washington and Tokyo needed to remain militarily prepared and vigilant.

Increasingly, however, other perceived benefits of close Japan- United States security ties were emphasized. The alliance was seen as deterring other potentially disruptive forces in East Asia, notably the Democratic People's Republic of Korea ([[North Korea]]). Ironically, some United States officials noted that the alliance helped keep Japan's potential military power in check and under the supervision of the United States.

===1990s: After the cold war===
Japan-United States relations were more uncertain in the early 1990s than at any time since World War II. As long-standing military allies and increasingly interdependent economic partners, Japan and the United States cooperated closely to build a strong, multifaceted relationship based on democratic values and interests in world stability and development. Japan-United States relations improved enormously in the 1970s and 1980s, as the two societies and economies became increasingly intertwined. In 1990 their combined [[gross national product]] (GNP) totaled about one third of the world's GNP. Japan received about 11 percent of United States exports (a larger share than any other country except Canada), and the United States bought about 34 percent of Japan's exports. Japan had US$148 billion in direct investment in the United States in 1991, while the United States had more than US$17 billion invested in Japan. Some US$100 billion in United States government securities held by institutions in Japan helped finance much of the United States budget deficit. Economic exchanges were reinforced by a variety of scientific, technical, tourist, and other exchanges. Each society continued to see the other as its main ally in Asia and the Pacific. Certain developments in the late 1980s damaged bilateral relations. Nevertheless, public opinion surveys continued to reveal that substantial majorities of Japanese and Americans believed that the bilateral relationship was vital to both countries.

The post-Cold War environment strengthened the relative importance of economic prowess over military power as the major source of world influence in the early 1990s. This shift affected the perceived relative standing of Japan, the United States, and other powers. Increasingly, Japan was expected to shoulder international aid and economic responsibilities that in the past were discharged by the United States and other Western countries.

The declining Soviet threat, the rising power of the Japanese economy, increasingly close United States interaction (and related disputes) with Japan, and other factors led by 1990 to a decided shift in United States opinion about Japan and to less marked but nonetheless notable shifts in Japanese opinion. In the United States, this shift was reflected in questions about which was the more serious, the military threat from the Soviet Union or the economic challenge from Japan. In a series of polls in 1989 and 1990, most respondents considered the challenge from Japan the more serious. Similarly, poll data from early 1990 showed that most Japanese considered negative United States attitudes toward Japan a reflection of United States anger at "America's slipping economic position." Meanwhile, Japanese opinion was showing greater confidence in Japan's ability to handle its own affairs without constant reference—as in the past—to the United States. Japan's belief in United States reliability as a world leader also lessened.

In both countries, new or "revisionist" views of the Japan- United States relationship were promoted. In Japan some commentators argued that the United States was weak, dependent on Japan, and unable to come to terms with world economic competition. They urged Japan to strike out on a more independent course. In the United States, prominent commentators warned of a Japanese economic juggernaut, out of control of the Japanese government, which needed to be "contained" by the United States.

At the same time, it was easy to overstate the changes in opinion in both countries. The Japanese still considered the United States positively as their closest friend, the principal guardian of their external security, their most important economic partner and market, and the exemplar of a life-style that had much to offer—and much to envy. Moreover, the vast majority of Americans still viewed Japan positively, had high respect for Japanese accomplishments, and supported the United States defense commitment to Japan.

With the end of the Cold War and changing administrations in Japan and the United States, Japan's relations with the United States entered a period of uncertainty and friction. In late 1993, the successful conclusion of the Uruguay Round of the GATT negotiations and Japan's decision to allow some rice imports to make up for a reduced domestic crop provided a basis for further progress on trade issues, but the growing United States deficit in bilateral trade prompted Washington to demand that Tokyo set specific objectives for opening its markets to United States products. After fifteen months of sometimes contentious talks, on [[October 1]], [[1994]], Japan and the United States concluded an agreement to open up three major Japanese markets to products from the United States. These were the Japanese insurance market and government purchases of telecommunications and medical equipment. The two sides failed to reach agreement on the import of American-made automobiles, automotive parts, and flat glass (used in automotive manufacturing and construction) to Japan but agreed to reach some resolution in thirty days.

In late May 1994, high-level negotiators from Japan and the United States, concerned that the trade frictions could jeopardize overall relations, reached an agreement to restart the framework talks at an early date. Despite the general failure of the framework talks, the two countries revealed in May that they would be engaging in joint high-technology research to develop ceramics used in high-density integrated circuits, composite carbon fiber materials used in manufacturing machinery, data collection using a crystal protein system, and technology to build environmentally friendly factories.

===New Millennium: A stronger alliance===
By the late 90's and beyond the US-Japan relationship had been improved and strengthened. The major cause of friction in the relationship, trade disputes, became less problematic as China displaced Japan as the greatest perceived economic threat to the U.S. Meanwhile, though in the immediate post-Cold War period the security alliance suffered from a lack of a defined threat, the emergence of North Korea as a belligerent rogue state and China's economic and military expansion provided a purpose to strengthen the relationship. While Bush administration foreign policy has put a strain on many international relations of the United States, the alliance with Japan has become stronger in the new millennium, as evidenced in the [[Deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq]] and the joint development of anti-missile defense systems. The notion that Japan is becoming the "Great Britain of the Pacific", or the key and pivotal ally of the U.S. in the region, is frequently alluded to in international studies, but the extent to which this is true is still the subject of academic debate.

==Economic relations==
===Trade volume===
The United States has been Japan's largest economic partner, taking 31.5 percent of its exports, supplying 22.3 percent of its imports, and accounting for 45.9 percent of its direct investment abroad in 1990. As of 2004, the United States takes up 22.7% of Japanese exports, and supplies 14% of its imports (the slack having been picked up by China, which now provides 20.7%).

Japan's imports from the United States included both raw materials and manufactured goods. United States agricultural products were a leading import in 1990 (US$8.5 billion as measured by United States export statistics), made up of meat (US$1.5 billion), fish (US$1.8 million), grains (US$2.4 billion), and soybeans (US$8.8 billion). Imports of manufactured goods were mainly in the category of machinery and transportation equipment, rather than consumer goods. In 1990 Japan imported US$11.1 billion of machinery from the United States, of which computers and computer parts (US$3.6 billion) formed the largest single component. In the category of transportation equipment, Japan imported US$3.3 billion of aircraft and parts (automobiles and parts accounted for only US$1.8 billion).

Japan's exports to the United States were almost entirely manufactured goods. Automobiles were by far the largest single category, amounting to US$21.5 billion in 1990, or 24 percent of total Japanese exports to the United States. Automotive parts accounted for another US$10.7 billion. Other major items were office machinery (including computers), which totaled US$8.6 billion in 1990, telecommunications equipment (US$4.1 billion) and power-generating machinery (US$451 million).

From the mid-1960s, the trade balance has been in Japan's favor. According to Japanese data, its surplus with the United States grew from US$380 million in 1970 to nearly US$48 billion in 1988, declining to approximately US$38 billion in 1990. United States data on the trade relationship (which differ slightly because each nation includes transportation costs on the import side but not the export side) also show a rapid deterioration of the imbalance in the 1980s, from a Japanese surplus of US$10 billion in 1980 to one of US$60 billion in 1987, with an improvement to one of US$37.7 billion in 1990.

===Trade frictions===
The general deterioration, and the very modest improvement in the trade balance after the yen rose in value after 1985, contributed greatly to strained economic relations. The United States had pressured Japan to open its markets since the early 1960s, but the intensity of the pressure increased through the 1970s and 1980s.

Tensions were exacerbated by issues specific to particular industries perhaps more than by the trade imbalance in general. Beginning with textiles in the 1950s, a number of Japanese exports to the United States were subject to opposition from United States industry. These complaints generally alleged unfair trading practices, such as dumping (selling at a lower cost than at home, or selling below the cost of production) and patent infringement. The result of negotiations was often Japan's agreement "voluntarily" to restrain exports to the United States. Such agreements applied to a number of products, including color television sets in the late 1970s and automobiles in the 1980s.

During the 1970s and 1980s, United States administrations had favored an issue-by-issue approach in negotiating such economic disputes with Japan. This approach ostensibly limited the areas of dispute. But it resulted in widespread negative publicity, at a time when changing economic and security circumstances were causing both countries to reevaluate the relationship. Notable outpourings of United States congressional and media rhetoric critical of Japan accompanied the disclosure in 1987 that Toshiba had illegally sold sophisticated machinery of United States origin to the Soviet Union, which reportedly allowed Moscow to make submarines quiet enough to avoid United States detection, and the United States congressional debate in 1989 over the Japan-United States agreement to develop a new fighter aircraft—the [[FSX]]—for the [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force]].

Some innovative approaches emerged in the 1980s as United States companies strove to achieve greater access to Japanese markets. MOSS negotiations in 1985 addressed access problems related to four industries: forest products, pharmaceuticals and medical equipment, electronics, and telecommunications equipment and services.

Problems of access to Japanese markets were among the motivations for the [[United States Trade Act]] of 1988, which included a provision calling on the president to identify unfair trading partners of the United States and to specify products for negotiation with these countries. In the spring of 1989, Japan was named as an unfair trading partner under this provision and three areas—forest products, telecommunications satellites, and [[supercomputer]]s—were selected for negotiations. This action exemplified the continuing mood of dissatisfaction over access to Japanese markets at the end of the decade.

At the same time, the United States initiated broad talks concerning the structural factors inhibiting manufactured imports in Japan, in the Structural Impediments Initiative. These talks addressed such areas as the law restraining the growth of large discount store chains in Japan, weak antitrust law enforcement, land taxation that encouraged inefficient farming, and [[Japanese asset price bubble|high real estate prices]].

Trade friction notwithstanding, the Japanese have a strong appetite for consumer goods produced in America. Exporting to Japan is challenging, at best, and this has given rise to companies that facilitate exporting consumer goods to Japan. Companies such as [http://www.35north.com 35north] have carved out niche markets to fill the Japanese demand for American consumer goods.

===Frictions in the semiconductor industry sector===
By the end of the 1980s, Japanese firms dominated world production and trade in certain segments of the [[semiconductor]] industry. In particular, they came to dominate the world market in [[Dynamic random access memory|dynamic random-access memory units]] (DRAMs). The Japanese share of the world merchant market for 1-megabit DRAMs at the end of the decade, for example, was estimated at 90 percent, while other estimates put the Japanese share of all semiconductor devices at 48 percent. Trade data showed that in 1988 Japan exported more than US$12 billion in semiconductor devices (and vacuum tubes), representing a dramatic increase from US$6 million in 1960 and just over US$2 billion in 1980. Semiconductor imports, however, totaled only US$2.2 billion in 1988.

The rise of Japanese competition and the decline in the world market share held by United States manufacturers, coupled with allegations of unfair trade practices, made semiconductors a contentious issue between the United States and Japan throughout the 1980s. The allegations included charges of dumping in the United States market and of import barriers artificially limiting the market share of United States firms selling in Japan. Negotiations in 1986 produced an agreement that led to an increase in Japanese DRAM export prices and that also included a provision to increase the United States share of the Japanese market (from the 10 percent that prevailed at that time to 20 percent by 1991). United States complaints that Japan failed to carry out the agreement in good faith led to retaliation, the imposition of punitive 100 percent tariffs on US$300 million of Japanese exports to the United States. Evidence that the export prices of DRAMs had risen led to partial elimination of the sanctions, but others remained until compliance was seen in increasing the United States market share in Japan. This entire episode remained very controversial at the end of the decade, particularly the question of specifying an acceptable market share for United States-made products in Japan.

===Structural Impediments Initiative===
A new approach was added in 1989. The so-called Structural Impediments Initiative was a series of talks designed to deal with domestic structural problems limiting trade on both sides. After several rounds of often contentious talks, agreements were reached in April and July 1990 that promised major changes in such sensitive areas as Japanese retailing practices, land use, and investment in public works. The United States pledged to deal more effectively with its budget deficit and to increase domestic savings. United States supporters saw the Structural Impediments Initiative talks as addressing fundamental causes of Japan-United States economic friction. Skeptics pointed to them as ways for officials to buy time and avoid an acute crisis in Japan-United States relations. The [[Bill Clinton]] administration decided to end the Structural Impediments Initiative in the summer of 1993 as a framework for dealing with United States-Japan bilateral relations.

===Direct Investment===
As elsewhere, Japan's direct investment in the United States expanded rapidly and is an important new dimension in the countries' relationship. The total value of cumulative investments of this kind was US$8.7 billion in 1980. By 1990 it had grown to US$83.1 billion. United States data identified Japan as the second largest investor in the United States; it had about half the value of investments of Britain, but more than those of the Netherlands, Canada, or West Germany. Much of Japan's investment in the United States in the late 1980s was in the commercial sector, providing the basis for distribution and sale of Japanese exports to the United States. Wholesale and retail distribution accounted for 32.2 percent of all Japanese investments in the United States in 1990, while manufacturing accounted for 20.6 percent. Real estate became a popular investment during the 1980s, with cumulative investments rising to US$15.2 billion by 1988, or 18.4 percent of total direct investment in the United States.

==Military relations==
[[Image:US Military bases in Japan.jpg|thumb|right|Major US military bases in Japan]]
[[Image:US Military bases in Okinawa.jpg|thumb|right|US military bases in [[Okinawa]]]]
The 1952 [[Mutual Security Assistance Pact]] provided the initial basis for the nation's security relations with the United States. The pact was replaced in 1960 by the [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security]], which declares that both nations will maintain and develop their capacities to resist armed attack in common and that each recognizes that an armed attack on either one in territories administered by Japan will be considered dangerous to the safety of the other. The Agreed Minutes to the treaty specified that the Japanese government must be consulted prior to major changes in United States force deployment in Japan or to the use of Japanese bases for combat operations other than in defense of Japan itself. However, Japan was relieved by its constitutional prohibition of participating in external military operations from any obligation to defend the United States if it were attacked outside of Japanese territories. In 1990 the Japanese government expressed its intention to continue to rely on the treaty's arrangements to guarantee national security.

The Agreed Minutes under Article 6 of the 1960 treaty contain a status-of-forces agreement on the stationing of United States forces in Japan, with specifics on the provision of facilities and areas for their use and on the administration of Japanese citizens employed in the facilities. Also covered are the limits of the two countries' jurisdictions over crimes committed in Japan by United States military personnel.

The Mutual Security Assistance Pact of 1952 initially involved a military aid program that provided for Japan's acquisition of funds, matériel, and services for the nation's essential defense. Although Japan no longer received any aid from the United States by the 1960s, the agreement continued to serve as the basis for purchase and licensing agreements ensuring interoperability of the two nations' weapons and for the release of classified data to Japan, including both international intelligence reports and classified technical information.

===Ryukyu Islands===
A major issue for military relations between the two nations was resolved in 1972 when the [[Ryukyu Islands]], including [[Okinawa]], reverted to Japanese control and the provisions of the 1960 security treaty were extended to cover them. The United States retained the right to station forces on these islands. In 1990 about 30,000 United States troops still occupied 20 percent of Okinawa's land, a source of friction with the local population.

Military relations improved after the mid-1970s. In 1960 the Security Consultative Committee, with representatives from both countries, was set up under the 1960 security treaty to discuss and coordinate security matters concerning both nations. In 1976 a subcommittee of that body prepared the Guidelines for Japan-United States Defense Cooperation that were approved by the full committee in 1978 and later approved by the National Defense Council and cabinet. The guidelines authorized unprecedented activities in joint defense planning, response to an armed attack on Japan, and cooperation on situations in Asia and the Pacific region that could affect Japan's security.

===Joint exercises===
Under the framework of the guidelines, Japan's [[Joint Staff Council]] and the commander of [[United States Forces Japan|United States Forces, Japan]], drew up a long-range program for joint exercises to encompass all three services of both nations. Every year during the 1980s, the [[Japan Ground Self-Defense Force|GSDF]] conducted command post and field-training exercises involving units from each of the regional armies in combined training with United States forces. Although the [[Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force|MSDF]] had participated in exercises with the [[United States Navy]] since 1955, in 1980 Japan, in an unprecedented move, permitted a task force of ships and aircraft to train in the Rim of the Pacific ([[RIMPAC]]) comprehensive naval exercise with naval forces from the United States, [[Australia]], [[Canada]], and [[New Zealand]]. Japan also participated in RIMPAC '88 with eight destroyers and frigates, one submarine, eight P-3C antisubmarine aircraft, and one supply ship. The [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force|ASDF]] also conducted numerous air defense, fighter, rescue, and command post training exercises with [[United States Air Force]] units. The [[Japan Coast Guard]] and [[United States Coast Guard]] have also performed joint exercises together.

In 1992, more than 50,000 members of the United States Armed Forces were stationed in Japan, including 21,300 marines, 10,300 air force personnel, 5,500 navy personnel, and 2,200 army personnel, who were deployed at several locations on [[Honshū]], [[Kyūshū]], and Okinawa. These numbers represented a substantial decrease from the 1990 level.

Close security ties were considered extremely important to both Japan and the United States. In March 1994, the first "two-plus-two" meeting of the Japanese foreign minister and the Defense Agency director with the United States secretary of state and secretary of defense was held in Tokyo to discuss a coordinated approach to post-Cold War regional and global security problems. Both sides indicated that they fully supported the United States- Japan Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security. Further, the United States thanked Japan for its strong host nation support for United States forces stationed in Japan, and the two nations agreed to begin consultations to renew the host nation support agreement when it expires in 1996.

''See also:'' [[United States Forces Japan]]

==See also==
*[[Foreign relations of Japan]]
*[[American Embassy, Tokyo]]
*[[List of United States ambassadors to Japan]]
*For the World War II period, see [[Pacific War]]
*[[Treaty of Peace with Japan]]
*[[Plaza Accord]]
*[[Omoiyari Yosan]]

==References==
* {{loc}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan]
{{Foreign relations of Japan}}
{{US-Asia bilateral}}

[[Category:Japanese-American relations| ]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United States by country]]

[[ja:日米関係史]]

Beziehungen zwischen Japan und den Vereinigten Staaten

2008-03-31T21:54:17Z

Cahk: copyvio tag

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{{Missing information|The time between 1860s and 1950s including World War II|date=March 2008}}
{{bilateral|Japanese-American|Japan|USA}}
The '''relationship between [[Japan]] and the [[United States of America]]''' is one of very close economic and military cooperation, as well as great cultural proliferation.

==Historical background==
===The earliest interactions===
[[Image:Hasekura in Rome.JPG|thumb|left|150px|[[Hasekura Tsunenaga]] was the first Japanese diplomat to be sent to North America, arriving in 1614.]]
The indirect exchange of trade goods from North America to Japan occurred during the [[Nanban trade period]] of the early 17th century; there was no direct contact between Japan and the European colonies which would later become the United States, as the trade was always dealt with through European proxies.

Several Spanish ships had established contact with Japan after setting sail from [[Nueva España]] (present-day [[Mexico]]), so that Japanese sailors, such as [[Christopher and Cosmas]] are known to have reached the American continent onboard Spanish [[galleon]]s as early as 1587. In 1610, the Japanese [[Tanaka Shosuke]] then travelled to the Americas with 20 other Japanese representatives onboard a Japanese-made ship, the ''[[San Buena Ventura]]''. In 1611, the Spanish explorer [[Sebastian Vizcaino]] reciprocated Tanaka's visit and set out to establish formal relations from [[California]] - today, a U.S. state.

Vizcaino's embassy was reciprocated in 1613 by the embassy of the samurai [[Hasekura Tsunenaga]], who reached [[Cape Mendocino]] in today's [[California]], and then continued to Nueva España (including territories that would later be annexed by the United States) on the Japanese-built galleon [[Japanese warship San Juan Bautista|''San Juan Bautista'']], and then went on to Europe in 1614.

When the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] enacted the [[sakoku|sakoku laws]] in 1650, almost all foreign trade ended in Japan; only the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], the [[Ryūkyū]]ans, the [[Korea]]ns, and the [[China|Chinese]] were allowed into the country, and only on a limited scale. When the United States achieved its independence in the late 18th century, there was no interaction between the two countries. Throughout the early 19th century, the [[great power|powers]] of Europe - as well as the United States - made attempts to open Japan up to renewed foreign relations.

===Early American expeditions to Japan===
*In 1791, two American ships commanded by the American explorer [[John Kendrick (American sea captain)|Kendrick]] stopped for 11 days on [[Kii Oshima]] island, south of the [[Kii Peninsula]]. He is the first known American to have visited Japan. He apparently planted an American flag and claimed the islands, although accounts of his visit in Japan are nonexistent.

[[Image:VincennesYedoBay1846.PNG|thumb|300px|The [[USS Columbus (1819)|USS ''Columbus'']] of James Biddle, and an American crewman in [[Edo]] Bay in 1846.]]
* From 1797 to 1809, several American ships traded in [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]] under the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] flag, upon the request of the Dutch; they were unable to send their own ships due to their conflict against [[United Kingdom|Britain]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

* In 1837, [[Charles W. King]], an American businessman in [[Canton, China|Canton]], saw an opportunity to open trade by trying to return to Japan three Japanese sailors (among them, [[Otokichi]]) that'd been shipwrecked a few years before on the coast of [[Oregon]]. He went to the [[Uraga Channel]] with ''Morrison'', an unarmed American merchant ship. The ship was fired upon several times, and it eventually had to sail back unsuccessfully.

* In 1846, Commander [[James Biddle]], sent by the United States Government to open trade, anchored himself in [[Tokyo Bay]] with two ships, one of which was armed with seventy-two cannons. Regardless, his demands for a trade agreement remained unsuccessful.

* In 1848, Captain [[James Glynn]] sailed to [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], which lead to the first successful negotiation by an American with [[sakoku]] Japan. Upon his return to North America, Glynn recommended to the [[U.S. Congress]] that any negotiations to open up Japan should be backed up by a demonstration of force; this paved the way for the later expedition of Commodore [[Matthew C. Perry|Matthew Perry]].

===Commodore Matthew Perry===
====The first visit, 1852 to 1853====
[[Image:PerryFleet.jpg|thumb|350px|Commodore Perry's fleet for his second visit to Japan in 1854.]]
In 1852, Perry embarked from [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]], [[Virginia]], for [[Japan]], in command of a squadron that would negotiate a Japanese trade treaty. Aboard a black-hulled steam frigate, he ported [[USS Mississippi (1841)|''Mississippi'']], [[USS Plymouth (1844)|''Plymouth'']], [[USS Saratoga (1842)|''Saratoga'']], and [[USS Susquehanna (1847)|''Susquehanna'']] at Uraga Harbor near [[Edo]] (present-day [[Tokyo]]) on [[July 8]], [[1853]], and he was met by representatives of the [[Tokugawa Shogunate]]. They told him to proceed to [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], where the sakoku laws allowed limited trade by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]]. Perry refused to leave, and he demanded permission to present a letter from [[President of the United States|President]] [[Millard Fillmore]], threatening force if he was denied. Japan had shunned modern technology for centuries, and the Japanese military wouldn't be able to resist Perry's ships; these "[[Black Ships]]" would later become a symbol of threatening Western technology and [[colony|colonialism]] in Japan.

The Japanese government had to accept Perry's coming ashore to avoid a naval bombardment. Perry proceeded ashore at [[Kurihama]] (near present-day [[Yokosuka]]) on [[July 14]], presented the letter to the delegates present, and left for the Chinese coast, promising to return later for a reply.

====The second visit, 1854====
Perry returned in February of 1854 with twice as many ships, finding that the delegates had prepared a treaty embodying virtually all the demands in Fillmore's letter. Perry signed the [[Convention of Kanagawa]] on [[March 31]], [[1854]], and departed, mistakenly believing that the agreement had been made with [[Emperor of Japan|imperial]] representatives.

===Japanese embassy to the United States===
[[Image:Kanrinmaru.jpg|left|thumb|300px|[[Japanese warship Kanrin Maru|''Kanrin Maru'']], Japan's first screw-driven steam warship, transported 1860s delegation to San Francisco.]]
[[Image:Kanrin Maru members.jpg|thumb|300px|Members of the [[Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860)]]. Sailors of the ''[[Kanrin Maru]]''. Fukuzawa Yukichi sits on the right.]]
[[Image:1860Kanrinmaru delegation.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860)]].]]
Six years later, the Shogun sent [[Japanese warship Kanrin Maru|''Kanrin Maru'']] on a mission to the United States; it was his intention to show the world that Japan had mastered Western navigation techniques and ship technologies. On the [[January 19]], [[1860]], ''Kanrin Maru'' left the [[Uraga Channel]] for [[San Francisco]]. The delegation included [[Katsu Kaishu]], as ship captain; [[Nakahama Manjiro|John Manjiro]]; and [[Fukuzawa Yukichi]]. The Embassy went on to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] via Panama, on American vessels.

The official objective of the mission was to send the first Japanese embassy to the United States ever, and also to ratify the new Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation between the two governments. The delegates also tried to revise some of the unequal clauses in [[Matthew C. Perry|Perry]]'s treaties; they were unsuccessful.

==Political relations==
===Post-war Occupation period===
''Main article:'' [[Occupied Japan]]

At the end of the Second World War, Japan was occupied by the Allied Powers, led by the United States with contributions from Australia, India, the United Kingdom and New Zealand. This was the first time since the unification of Japan that the island nation had been occupied by a foreign power. The San Francisco Peace Treaty, signed on September 8, 1951, marked the end of the Allied occupation, and when it went into effect on April 28, 1952, Japan was once again an independent state.
===1950s: After the occupation===
{{main|San Francisco System}}
In the years after [[World War II]], Japan's relations with the United States were placed on an equal footing for the first time at the end of the occupation by the Allied forces in April 1952. This equality, the legal basis of which was laid down in the [[Treaty of Peace with Japan|peace treaty signed by forty-eight Allied nations and Japan]], was initially largely nominal, because in the early postoccupation period Japan required direct United States economic assistance. A favorable Japanese balance of payments with the United States was achieved in 1954, mainly as a result of United States military and aid spending in Japan.

The Japanese people's feeling of dependence lessened gradually as the disastrous results of World War II subsided into the background and trade with the United States expanded. Self-confidence grew as the country applied its resources and organizational skill to regaining economic health. This situation gave rise to a general desire for greater independence from United States influence. During the 1950s and 1960s, this feeling was especially evident in the Japanese attitude toward United States military bases on the four main islands of Japan and in Okinawa Prefecture, occupying the southern two-thirds of the [[Ryukyu Islands]].

The government had to balance left-wing pressure advocating dissociation from the United States allegedly 'against the realities' of the need for military protection. Recognizing the popular desire for the return of the Ryukyu Islands and the Bonin Islands (also known as the [[Ogasawara Islands]]), the United States as early as 1953 relinquished its control of the [[Amami]] group of islands at the northern end of the Ryukyu Islands. But the United States made no commitment to return Okinawa, which was then under United States military administration for an indefinite period as provided in Article 3 of the peace treaty. Popular agitation culminated in a unanimous resolution adopted by the [[Japanese diet|Diet]] in June 1956, calling for a return of Okinawa to Japan.

===1960s: Military Alliance and return of territories===
Bilateral talks on revising the 1952 security pact began in 1959, and the new [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security]] was signed in Washington on [[January 19]], [[1960]]. When the pact was submitted to the Diet for ratification on [[February 5]], it became the subject of bitter debate over the Japan-United States relationship and the occasion for violence in an all-out effort by the leftist opposition to prevent its passage. It was finally approved by the [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]] on [[May 20]]. [[Japan Socialist Party]] deputies boycotted the lower house session and tried to prevent the [[Liberal Democratic Party of Japan|LDP]] deputies from entering the chamber; they were forcibly removed by the police. Massive demonstrations and rioting by students and trade unions followed. These outbursts prevented a scheduled visit to Japan by President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and precipitated the resignation of Prime Minister [[Kishi Nobusuke]], but not before the treaty was passed by default on [[June 19]], when the [[House of Councillors]] failed to vote on the issue within the required thirty days after lower house approval.

Under the treaty, both parties assumed an obligation to assist each other in case of armed attack on territories under Japanese administration. (It was understood, however, that Japan could not come to the defense of the United States because it was constitutionally forbidden to send armed forces overseas (Article 9). In particular, the constitution forbids the maintenance of "land, sea, and air forces." It also expresses the Japanese people's renunciation of "the threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes". Accordingly, the Japanese find it difficult to send their "self-defense" forces overseas, even for peace-keeping purposes.) The scope of the new treaty did not extend to the Ryukyu Islands, but an appended minute made clear that in case of an armed attack on the islands, both governments would consult and take appropriate action. Notes accompanying the treaty provided for prior consultation between the two governments before any major change occurred in the deployment of United States troops or equipment in Japan. Unlike the 1952 security pact, the new treaty provided for a ten-year term, after which it could be revoked upon one year's notice by either party. The treaty included general provisions on the further development of international cooperation and on improved future economic cooperation.

Both countries worked closely to fulfill the United States promise, under Article 3 of the peace treaty, to return all Japanese territories acquired by the United States in war. In June 1968, the United States returned the [[Bonin Islands]] (including [[Iwo Jima]]) to Japanese administration control. In 1969, the Okinawa reversion issue and Japan's security ties with the United States became the focal points of partisan political campaigns. The situation calmed considerably when Prime Minister Sato Eisaku visited Washington in November 1969, and in a joint communiqué signed by him and President [[Richard M. Nixon]], announced the United States agreement to return Okinawa to Japan in 1972. In June 1971, after eighteen months of negotiations, the two countries signed an agreement providing for the return of Okinawa to Japan in 1972.

The Japanese government's firm and voluntary endorsement of the security treaty and the settlement of the Okinawa reversion question meant that, two major political issues in Japan-United States relations were eliminated. But new issues arose. In July 1971, the Japanese government was surprised by Nixon's dramatic announcement of his forthcoming [[Nixon visit to China 1972|visit to the People's Republic of China]]. Many Japanese were chagrined by the failure of the United States to consult in advance with Japan before making such a fundamental change in foreign policy. The following month, the government was again surprised to learn that, without prior consultation, the United States had imposed a 10 percent surcharge on imports, a decision certain to hinder Japan's exports to the United States. Relations between Tokyo and Washington were further strained by the monetary crisis involving the December 1971 revaluation of the Japanese yen.

These events of 1971 marked the beginning of a new stage in relations, a period of adjustment to a changing world situation that was not without episodes of strain in both political and economic spheres, although the basic relationship remained close. The political issues between the two countries were essentially security-related and derived from efforts by the United States to induce Japan to contribute more to its own defense and to regional security. The economic issues tended to stem from the ever-widening United States trade and payments deficits with Japan, which began in 1965 when Japan reversed its imbalance in trade with the United States and, for the first time, achieved an export surplus.

===1970s: Indochina War and Middle-East crisis===
The United States withdrawal from Indochina in 1975 and the end of the [[Second Indochina War]] meant that the question of Japan's role in the security of East Asia and it's contributions to it's own defense became central topics in the dialogue between the two countries. United States dissatisfaction with Japanese defense efforts began to surface in 1975 when Secretary of Defense [[James R. Schlesinger]] publicly stigmatized Japan. The Japanese government, constrained by constitutional limitations and strongly pacifist public opinion, responded slowly to pressures for a more rapid buildup of its [[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Self-Defense Forces]] (SDF). It steadily increased its budgetary outlays for those forces, however, and indicated its willingness to shoulder more of the cost of maintaining the United States military bases in Japan. In 1976 the United States and Japan formally established a subcommittee for defense cooperation, in the framework of a bilateral Security Consultative Committee provided for under the 1960 security treaty. This subcommittee, in turn, drew up new Guidelines for Japan-United States Defense Cooperation, under which military planners of the two countries have conducted studies relating to joint military action in the event of an armed attack on Japan.

On the economic front, Japan sought to ease trade frictions by agreeing to Orderly Marketing Arrangements, which limited exports on products whose influx into the United States was creating political problems. In 1977 an Orderly Marketing Arrangement limiting Japanese color television exports to the United States was signed, following the pattern of an earlier disposition of the textile problem. Steel exports to the United States were also curtailed, but the problems continued as disputes flared over United States restrictions on Japanese development of nuclear fuel- reprocessing facilities, Japanese restrictions on certain agricultural imports, such as beef and oranges, and liberalization of capital investment and government procurement within Japan.

In response to the call from its allies for a greater and more responsible role in the world, Japan developed what prime minister [[Ohira Masayoshi]] called a "comprehensive security and defense strategy to safeguard peace." Under this policy, Japan sought closer cooperation with the United States for a more reciprocal and autonomous basis on a global scale.

This policy was put to the test in November 1979, when radical Iranians seized the United States embassy in Tehran, taking sixty hostages. Japan reacted by condemning the action as a violation of international law. At the same time, Japanese trading firms and oil companies reportedly purchased Iranian oil that had become available when the United States banned oil imported from Iran. This action brought sharp criticism from the United States of Japanese government "insensitivity" for allowing the oil purchases and led to a Japanese apology and agreement to participate in sanctions against Iran in concert with other United States allies.

Following that incident, the Japanese government took greater care to support United States international policies designed to preserve stability and promote prosperity. Japan was prompt and effective in announcing and implementing sanctions against the Soviet Union following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979. In 1981, in response to United States requests, it accepted greater responsibility for defense of seas around Japan, pledged greater support for United States forces in Japan, and persisted with a steady buildup of the SDF.

===1980s: Rise of the falcons===
A qualitatively new stage of Japan-United States cooperation in world affairs appeared to be reached in late 1982 with the election of Prime Minister [[Nakasone Yasuhiro]]. Officials of the [[Ronald Reagan]] administration worked closely with their Japanese counterparts to develop a personal relationship between the two leaders based on their common security and international outlook. Nakasone reassured United States leaders of Japan's determination against the Soviet threat, closely coordinated policies with the United States toward such Asian trouble spots as the Korean Peninsula and Southeast Asia, and worked cooperatively with the United States in developing China policy. The Japanese government welcomed the increase of United States forces in Japan and the western Pacific, continued the steady buildup of the SDF, and positioned Japan firmly on the side of the United States against the threat of Soviet international expansion. Japan continued to cooperate closely with United States policy in these areas following Nakasone's term of office, although the political leadership scandals in Japan in the late 1980s (i.e. the [[Recruit scandal]]) made it difficult for newly elected President [[George H. W. Bush]] to establish the same kind of close personal ties that marked the Reagan years.

A specific example of Japan's close cooperation with the United States included its quick response to the United States call for greater host nation support from Japan following the rapid realignment of Japan-United States currencies in the mid-1980s. The currency realignment resulted in a rapid rise of United States costs in Japan, which the Japanese government, upon United States request, was willing to offset. Another set of examples was provided by Japan's willingness to respond to United States requests for foreign assistance to countries considered of strategic importance to the West. During the 1980s, United States officials voiced appreciation for Japan's "strategic aid" to countries such as [[Pakistan]], [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]], and [[Jamaica]]. Prime Minister [[Kaifu Toshiki]]'s pledges of support for [[Eastern Europe|East European]] and [[Middle East]]ern countries in 1990 fit the pattern of Japan's willingness to share greater responsibility for world stability.

Despite complaints from some Japanese businesses and diplomats, the Japanese government remained in basic agreement with United States policy toward China and Indochina. The government held back from large-scale aid efforts until conditions in China and Indochina were seen as more compatible with Japanese and United States interests. Of course, there also were instances of limited Japanese cooperation. Japan's response to the United States decision to help to protect tankers in the Persian Gulf during the [[Iran-Iraq War]] (1980-88) was subject to mixed reviews. Some United States officials stressed the positive, noting that Japan was unable to send military forces because of constitutional reasons but compensated by supporting the construction of a navigation system in the Persian Gulf, providing greater host nation support for United States forces in Japan, and providing loans to Oman and Jordan. Japan's refusal to join even in a mine-sweeping effort in the Persian Gulf was an indication to some United States officials of Tokyo's unwillingness to cooperate with the United States in areas of sensitivity to Japanese leaders at home or abroad.

The main area of noncooperation with the United States in the 1980s was Japanese resistance to repeated United States efforts to get Japan to open its market more to foreign goods and to change other economic practices seen as adverse to United States economic interests. A common pattern was followed. The Japanese government was sensitive to political pressures from important domestic constituencies that would be hurt by greater openness. In general, these constituencies were of two types—those representing inefficient or "declining" producers, manufacturers, and distributors, who could not compete if faced with full foreign competition; and those up-and-coming industries that the Japanese government wished to protect from foreign competition until they could compete effectively on world markets. To deal with domestic pressures while trying to avoid a break with the United States, the Japanese government engaged in protracted negotiations. This tactic bought time for declining industries to restructure themselves and new industries to grow stronger. Agreements reached dealt with some aspects of the problems, but it was common for trade or economic issues to be dragged out in talks over several years, involving more than one market-opening agreement. Such agreements were sometimes vague and subject to conflicting interpretations in Japan and the United States.

Growing interdependence was accompanied by markedly changing circumstances at home and abroad that were widely seen to have created a crisis in Japan-United States relations in the late 1980s. United States government officials continued to emphasize the positive aspects of the relationship but warned that there was a need for "a new conceptual framework." [[The Wall Street Journal]] publicized a series of lengthy reports documenting changes in the relationship in the late 1980s and reviewing the considerable debate in Japan and the United States over whether a closely cooperative relationship was possible or appropriate for the 1990s. An authoritative review of popular and media opinion, published in 1990 by the Washington-based Commission on US-Japan Relations for the Twenty-first Century, was concerned with preserving a close Japan-United States relationship. It warned of a "new orthodoxy" of "suspicion, criticism and considerable self- justification," which it said was endangering the fabric of Japan- United States relations.

The relative economic power of Japan and the United States was undergoing sweeping change, especially in the 1980s. This change went well beyond the implications of the United States trade deficit with Japan, which had remained between US$40 billion and US$48 billion annually since the mid-1980s. The persisting United States trade and budget deficits of the early 1980s led to a series of decisions in the middle of the decade that brought a major realignment of the value of Japanese and United States currencies. The stronger Japanese currency gave Japan the ability to purchase more United States goods and to make important investments in the United States. By the late 1980s, Japan was the main international creditor.

Japan's growing investment in the United States—it was the second largest investor after Britain—led to complaints from some American constituencies. Moreover, Japanese industry seemed well positioned to use its economic power to invest in the high-technology products in which United States manufacturers were still leaders. The United States's ability to compete under these circumstances was seen by many Japanese and Americans as hampered by heavy personal, government, and business debt and a low savings rate.

In the late 1980s, the breakup of the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe and the growing preoccupation of Soviet leaders with massive internal political and economic difficulties forced the Japanese and United States governments to reassess their longstanding alliance against the Soviet threat. Officials of both nations had tended to characterize the security alliance as the linchpin of the relationship, which should have priority over economic and other disputes. Some Japanese and United States officials and commentators continued to emphasize the common dangers to Japan- United States interests posed by the continued strong Soviet military presence in Asia. They stressed that until Moscow followed its moderation in Europe with major demobilization and reductions in its forces positioned against the United States and Japan in the Pacific, Washington and Tokyo needed to remain militarily prepared and vigilant.

Increasingly, however, other perceived benefits of close Japan- United States security ties were emphasized. The alliance was seen as deterring other potentially disruptive forces in East Asia, notably the Democratic People's Republic of Korea ([[North Korea]]). Ironically, some United States officials noted that the alliance helped keep Japan's potential military power in check and under the supervision of the United States.

===1990s: After the cold war===
Japan-United States relations were more uncertain in the early 1990s than at any time since World War II. As long-standing military allies and increasingly interdependent economic partners, Japan and the United States cooperated closely to build a strong, multifaceted relationship based on democratic values and interests in world stability and development. Japan-United States relations improved enormously in the 1970s and 1980s, as the two societies and economies became increasingly intertwined. In 1990 their combined [[gross national product]] (GNP) totaled about one third of the world's GNP. Japan received about 11 percent of United States exports (a larger share than any other country except Canada), and the United States bought about 34 percent of Japan's exports. Japan had US$148 billion in direct investment in the United States in 1991, while the United States had more than US$17 billion invested in Japan. Some US$100 billion in United States government securities held by institutions in Japan helped finance much of the United States budget deficit. Economic exchanges were reinforced by a variety of scientific, technical, tourist, and other exchanges. Each society continued to see the other as its main ally in Asia and the Pacific. Certain developments in the late 1980s damaged bilateral relations. Nevertheless, public opinion surveys continued to reveal that substantial majorities of Japanese and Americans believed that the bilateral relationship was vital to both countries.

The post-Cold War environment strengthened the relative importance of economic prowess over military power as the major source of world influence in the early 1990s. This shift affected the perceived relative standing of Japan, the United States, and other powers. Increasingly, Japan was expected to shoulder international aid and economic responsibilities that in the past were discharged by the United States and other Western countries.

The declining Soviet threat, the rising power of the Japanese economy, increasingly close United States interaction (and related disputes) with Japan, and other factors led by 1990 to a decided shift in United States opinion about Japan and to less marked but nonetheless notable shifts in Japanese opinion. In the United States, this shift was reflected in questions about which was the more serious, the military threat from the Soviet Union or the economic challenge from Japan. In a series of polls in 1989 and 1990, most respondents considered the challenge from Japan the more serious. Similarly, poll data from early 1990 showed that most Japanese considered negative United States attitudes toward Japan a reflection of United States anger at "America's slipping economic position." Meanwhile, Japanese opinion was showing greater confidence in Japan's ability to handle its own affairs without constant reference—as in the past—to the United States. Japan's belief in United States reliability as a world leader also lessened.

In both countries, new or "revisionist" views of the Japan- United States relationship were promoted. In Japan some commentators argued that the United States was weak, dependent on Japan, and unable to come to terms with world economic competition. They urged Japan to strike out on a more independent course. In the United States, prominent commentators warned of a Japanese economic juggernaut, out of control of the Japanese government, which needed to be "contained" by the United States.

At the same time, it was easy to overstate the changes in opinion in both countries. The Japanese still considered the United States positively as their closest friend, the principal guardian of their external security, their most important economic partner and market, and the exemplar of a life-style that had much to offer—and much to envy. Moreover, the vast majority of Americans still viewed Japan positively, had high respect for Japanese accomplishments, and supported the United States defense commitment to Japan.

With the end of the Cold War and changing administrations in Japan and the United States, Japan's relations with the United States entered a period of uncertainty and friction. In late 1993, the successful conclusion of the Uruguay Round of the GATT negotiations and Japan's decision to allow some rice imports to make up for a reduced domestic crop provided a basis for further progress on trade issues, but the growing United States deficit in bilateral trade prompted Washington to demand that Tokyo set specific objectives for opening its markets to United States products. After fifteen months of sometimes contentious talks, on [[October 1]], [[1994]], Japan and the United States concluded an agreement to open up three major Japanese markets to products from the United States. These were the Japanese insurance market and government purchases of telecommunications and medical equipment. The two sides failed to reach agreement on the import of American-made automobiles, automotive parts, and flat glass (used in automotive manufacturing and construction) to Japan but agreed to reach some resolution in thirty days.

In late May 1994, high-level negotiators from Japan and the United States, concerned that the trade frictions could jeopardize overall relations, reached an agreement to restart the framework talks at an early date. Despite the general failure of the framework talks, the two countries revealed in May that they would be engaging in joint high-technology research to develop ceramics used in high-density integrated circuits, composite carbon fiber materials used in manufacturing machinery, data collection using a crystal protein system, and technology to build environmentally friendly factories.

===New Millennium: A stronger alliance===
By the late 90's and beyond the US-Japan relationship had been improved and strengthened. The major cause of friction in the relationship, trade disputes, became less problematic as China displaced Japan as the greatest perceived economic threat to the U.S. Meanwhile, though in the immediate post-Cold War period the security alliance suffered from a lack of a defined threat, the emergence of North Korea as a belligerent rogue state and China's economic and military expansion provided a purpose to strengthen the relationship. While Bush administration foreign policy has put a strain on many international relations of the United States, the alliance with Japan has become stronger in the new millennium, as evidenced in the [[Deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq]] and the joint development of anti-missile defense systems. The notion that Japan is becoming the "Great Britain of the Pacific", or the key and pivotal ally of the U.S. in the region, is frequently alluded to in international studies, but the extent to which this is true is still the subject of academic debate.

==Economic relations==
===Trade volume===
The United States has been Japan's largest economic partner, taking 31.5 percent of its exports, supplying 22.3 percent of its imports, and accounting for 45.9 percent of its direct investment abroad in 1990. As of 2004, the United States takes up 22.7% of Japanese exports, and supplies 14% of its imports (the slack having been picked up by China, which now provides 20.7%).

Japan's imports from the United States included both raw materials and manufactured goods. United States agricultural products were a leading import in 1990 (US$8.5 billion as measured by United States export statistics), made up of meat (US$1.5 billion), fish (US$1.8 million), grains (US$2.4 billion), and soybeans (US$8.8 billion). Imports of manufactured goods were mainly in the category of machinery and transportation equipment, rather than consumer goods. In 1990 Japan imported US$11.1 billion of machinery from the United States, of which computers and computer parts (US$3.6 billion) formed the largest single component. In the category of transportation equipment, Japan imported US$3.3 billion of aircraft and parts (automobiles and parts accounted for only US$1.8 billion).

Japan's exports to the United States were almost entirely manufactured goods. Automobiles were by far the largest single category, amounting to US$21.5 billion in 1990, or 24 percent of total Japanese exports to the United States. Automotive parts accounted for another US$10.7 billion. Other major items were office machinery (including computers), which totaled US$8.6 billion in 1990, telecommunications equipment (US$4.1 billion) and power-generating machinery (US$451 million).

From the mid-1960s, the trade balance has been in Japan's favor. According to Japanese data, its surplus with the United States grew from US$380 million in 1970 to nearly US$48 billion in 1988, declining to approximately US$38 billion in 1990. United States data on the trade relationship (which differ slightly because each nation includes transportation costs on the import side but not the export side) also show a rapid deterioration of the imbalance in the 1980s, from a Japanese surplus of US$10 billion in 1980 to one of US$60 billion in 1987, with an improvement to one of US$37.7 billion in 1990.

===Trade frictions===
The general deterioration, and the very modest improvement in the trade balance after the yen rose in value after 1985, contributed greatly to strained economic relations. The United States had pressured Japan to open its markets since the early 1960s, but the intensity of the pressure increased through the 1970s and 1980s.

Tensions were exacerbated by issues specific to particular industries perhaps more than by the trade imbalance in general. Beginning with textiles in the 1950s, a number of Japanese exports to the United States were subject to opposition from United States industry. These complaints generally alleged unfair trading practices, such as dumping (selling at a lower cost than at home, or selling below the cost of production) and patent infringement. The result of negotiations was often Japan's agreement "voluntarily" to restrain exports to the United States. Such agreements applied to a number of products, including color television sets in the late 1970s and automobiles in the 1980s.

During the 1970s and 1980s, United States administrations had favored an issue-by-issue approach in negotiating such economic disputes with Japan. This approach ostensibly limited the areas of dispute. But it resulted in widespread negative publicity, at a time when changing economic and security circumstances were causing both countries to reevaluate the relationship. Notable outpourings of United States congressional and media rhetoric critical of Japan accompanied the disclosure in 1987 that Toshiba had illegally sold sophisticated machinery of United States origin to the Soviet Union, which reportedly allowed Moscow to make submarines quiet enough to avoid United States detection, and the United States congressional debate in 1989 over the Japan-United States agreement to develop a new fighter aircraft—the [[FSX]]—for the [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force]].

Some innovative approaches emerged in the 1980s as United States companies strove to achieve greater access to Japanese markets. MOSS negotiations in 1985 addressed access problems related to four industries: forest products, pharmaceuticals and medical equipment, electronics, and telecommunications equipment and services.

Problems of access to Japanese markets were among the motivations for the [[United States Trade Act]] of 1988, which included a provision calling on the president to identify unfair trading partners of the United States and to specify products for negotiation with these countries. In the spring of 1989, Japan was named as an unfair trading partner under this provision and three areas—forest products, telecommunications satellites, and [[supercomputer]]s—were selected for negotiations. This action exemplified the continuing mood of dissatisfaction over access to Japanese markets at the end of the decade.

At the same time, the United States initiated broad talks concerning the structural factors inhibiting manufactured imports in Japan, in the Structural Impediments Initiative. These talks addressed such areas as the law restraining the growth of large discount store chains in Japan, weak antitrust law enforcement, land taxation that encouraged inefficient farming, and [[Japanese asset price bubble|high real estate prices]].

Trade friction notwithstanding, the Japanese have a strong appetite for consumer goods produced in America. Exporting to Japan is challenging, at best, and this has given rise to companies that facilitate exporting consumer goods to Japan. Companies such as [http://www.35north.com 35north] have carved out niche markets to fill the Japanese demand for American consumer goods.

===Frictions in the semiconductor industry sector===
By the end of the 1980s, Japanese firms dominated world production and trade in certain segments of the [[semiconductor]] industry. In particular, they came to dominate the world market in [[Dynamic random access memory|dynamic random-access memory units]] (DRAMs). The Japanese share of the world merchant market for 1-megabit DRAMs at the end of the decade, for example, was estimated at 90 percent, while other estimates put the Japanese share of all semiconductor devices at 48 percent. Trade data showed that in 1988 Japan exported more than US$12 billion in semiconductor devices (and vacuum tubes), representing a dramatic increase from US$6 million in 1960 and just over US$2 billion in 1980. Semiconductor imports, however, totaled only US$2.2 billion in 1988.

The rise of Japanese competition and the decline in the world market share held by United States manufacturers, coupled with allegations of unfair trade practices, made semiconductors a contentious issue between the United States and Japan throughout the 1980s. The allegations included charges of dumping in the United States market and of import barriers artificially limiting the market share of United States firms selling in Japan. Negotiations in 1986 produced an agreement that led to an increase in Japanese DRAM export prices and that also included a provision to increase the United States share of the Japanese market (from the 10 percent that prevailed at that time to 20 percent by 1991). United States complaints that Japan failed to carry out the agreement in good faith led to retaliation, the imposition of punitive 100 percent tariffs on US$300 million of Japanese exports to the United States. Evidence that the export prices of DRAMs had risen led to partial elimination of the sanctions, but others remained until compliance was seen in increasing the United States market share in Japan. This entire episode remained very controversial at the end of the decade, particularly the question of specifying an acceptable market share for United States-made products in Japan.

===Structural Impediments Initiative===
A new approach was added in 1989. The so-called Structural Impediments Initiative was a series of talks designed to deal with domestic structural problems limiting trade on both sides. After several rounds of often contentious talks, agreements were reached in April and July 1990 that promised major changes in such sensitive areas as Japanese retailing practices, land use, and investment in public works. The United States pledged to deal more effectively with its budget deficit and to increase domestic savings. United States supporters saw the Structural Impediments Initiative talks as addressing fundamental causes of Japan-United States economic friction. Skeptics pointed to them as ways for officials to buy time and avoid an acute crisis in Japan-United States relations. The [[Bill Clinton]] administration decided to end the Structural Impediments Initiative in the summer of 1993 as a framework for dealing with United States-Japan bilateral relations.

===Direct Investment===
As elsewhere, Japan's direct investment in the United States expanded rapidly and is an important new dimension in the countries' relationship. The total value of cumulative investments of this kind was US$8.7 billion in 1980. By 1990 it had grown to US$83.1 billion. United States data identified Japan as the second largest investor in the United States; it had about half the value of investments of Britain, but more than those of the Netherlands, Canada, or West Germany. Much of Japan's investment in the United States in the late 1980s was in the commercial sector, providing the basis for distribution and sale of Japanese exports to the United States. Wholesale and retail distribution accounted for 32.2 percent of all Japanese investments in the United States in 1990, while manufacturing accounted for 20.6 percent. Real estate became a popular investment during the 1980s, with cumulative investments rising to US$15.2 billion by 1988, or 18.4 percent of total direct investment in the United States.

==Military relations==
[[Image:US Military bases in Japan.jpg|thumb|right|Major US military bases in Japan]]
[[Image:US Military bases in Okinawa.jpg|thumb|right|US military bases in [[Okinawa]]]]
The 1952 [[Mutual Security Assistance Pact]] provided the initial basis for the nation's security relations with the United States. The pact was replaced in 1960 by the [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security]], which declares that both nations will maintain and develop their capacities to resist armed attack in common and that each recognizes that an armed attack on either one in territories administered by Japan will be considered dangerous to the safety of the other. The Agreed Minutes to the treaty specified that the Japanese government must be consulted prior to major changes in United States force deployment in Japan or to the use of Japanese bases for combat operations other than in defense of Japan itself. However, Japan was relieved by its constitutional prohibition of participating in external military operations from any obligation to defend the United States if it were attacked outside of Japanese territories. In 1990 the Japanese government expressed its intention to continue to rely on the treaty's arrangements to guarantee national security.

The Agreed Minutes under Article 6 of the 1960 treaty contain a status-of-forces agreement on the stationing of United States forces in Japan, with specifics on the provision of facilities and areas for their use and on the administration of Japanese citizens employed in the facilities. Also covered are the limits of the two countries' jurisdictions over crimes committed in Japan by United States military personnel.

The Mutual Security Assistance Pact of 1952 initially involved a military aid program that provided for Japan's acquisition of funds, matériel, and services for the nation's essential defense. Although Japan no longer received any aid from the United States by the 1960s, the agreement continued to serve as the basis for purchase and licensing agreements ensuring interoperability of the two nations' weapons and for the release of classified data to Japan, including both international intelligence reports and classified technical information.

===Ryukyu Islands===
A major issue for military relations between the two nations was resolved in 1972 when the [[Ryukyu Islands]], including [[Okinawa]], reverted to Japanese control and the provisions of the 1960 security treaty were extended to cover them. The United States retained the right to station forces on these islands. In 1990 about 30,000 United States troops still occupied 20 percent of Okinawa's land, a source of friction with the local population.

Military relations improved after the mid-1970s. In 1960 the Security Consultative Committee, with representatives from both countries, was set up under the 1960 security treaty to discuss and coordinate security matters concerning both nations. In 1976 a subcommittee of that body prepared the Guidelines for Japan-United States Defense Cooperation that were approved by the full committee in 1978 and later approved by the National Defense Council and cabinet. The guidelines authorized unprecedented activities in joint defense planning, response to an armed attack on Japan, and cooperation on situations in Asia and the Pacific region that could affect Japan's security.

===Joint exercises===
Under the framework of the guidelines, Japan's [[Joint Staff Council]] and the commander of [[United States Forces Japan|United States Forces, Japan]], drew up a long-range program for joint exercises to encompass all three services of both nations. Every year during the 1980s, the [[Japan Ground Self-Defense Force|GSDF]] conducted command post and field-training exercises involving units from each of the regional armies in combined training with United States forces. Although the [[Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force|MSDF]] had participated in exercises with the [[United States Navy]] since 1955, in 1980 Japan, in an unprecedented move, permitted a task force of ships and aircraft to train in the Rim of the Pacific ([[RIMPAC]]) comprehensive naval exercise with naval forces from the United States, [[Australia]], [[Canada]], and [[New Zealand]]. Japan also participated in RIMPAC '88 with eight destroyers and frigates, one submarine, eight P-3C antisubmarine aircraft, and one supply ship. The [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force|ASDF]] also conducted numerous air defense, fighter, rescue, and command post training exercises with [[United States Air Force]] units. The [[Japan Coast Guard]] and [[United States Coast Guard]] have also performed joint exercises together.

In 1992, more than 50,000 members of the United States Armed Forces were stationed in Japan, including 21,300 marines, 10,300 air force personnel, 5,500 navy personnel, and 2,200 army personnel, who were deployed at several locations on [[Honshū]], [[Kyūshū]], and Okinawa. These numbers represented a substantial decrease from the 1990 level.

Close security ties were considered extremely important to both Japan and the United States. In March 1994, the first "two-plus-two" meeting of the Japanese foreign minister and the Defense Agency director with the United States secretary of state and secretary of defense was held in Tokyo to discuss a coordinated approach to post-Cold War regional and global security problems. Both sides indicated that they fully supported the United States- Japan Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security. Further, the United States thanked Japan for its strong host nation support for United States forces stationed in Japan, and the two nations agreed to begin consultations to renew the host nation support agreement when it expires in 1996.

''See also:'' [[United States Forces Japan]]

==See also==
*[[Foreign relations of Japan]]
*[[American Embassy, Tokyo]]
*[[List of United States ambassadors to Japan]]
*For the World War II period, see [[Pacific War]]
*[[Treaty of Peace with Japan]]
*[[Plaza Accord]]
*[[Omoiyari Yosan]]

==References==
* {{loc}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan]
{{Foreign relations of Japan}}
{{US-Asia bilateral}}

[[Category:Japanese-American relations| ]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United States by country]]

[[ja:日米関係史]]

Environment and Climate Change Canada

2008-03-12T06:52:15Z

Cahk: fixed image

{{Infobox Canadian government departments
|department=Environment
|french=Environnement
|logo=FIP Environment Canada.PNG
|current_minister=John Baird
|secretary=Mark Warawa
|established=1971
|responsibilities=Meteorological Service of Canada

Parks Canada

Canadian Ice Service

Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

Water Survey of Canada

National Water Research Institute

National Pollutant Release Inventory
|employees= ~6,000 [http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=ECBC00D9-1]
|website=http://www.ec.gc.ca
}}
'''Environment Canada (EC)''', legally incorporated as the '''Department of the Environment''' under the ''Department of the Environment Act'' ( R.S., 1985, c. E-10 ), is the [[Ministry (government department)|department]] of the [[Government of Canada]] with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and conservation of wildlife.

Environment Canada is the lead department within the federal government when it comes to cleaning up hazardous waste and [[oil spill]]s. The department is also responsible for [[meteorology]] as well as research and education on [[climate change]], as well as international environmental issues (e.g., Canada-USA air issues).

Responsibility for environmental management in [[Canada]] is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments. For example, provincial governments have primary authority for permitting industrial waste discharges (e.g., to the air) while the federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country (e.g. [[benzene]]). Environment Canada provides stewardship of the [[Environmental Choice Program]], which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of (GEN) [[Global Ecolabelling Network]].

Environment Canada is currently (2005-present) undergoing a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making, and to standardize policy implementation.

[[John Baird]] is the current [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister of the Environment]] (2007-).

==Division==

Environment Canada is divided into several geographic regions:

* [[Atlantic_Canada|Atlantic]] ([[Maritimes]] and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]])
* [[Quebec]]
* [[National Capital Region (Canada)|National Capital]]
* [[Ontario]]
* Prairie-Northern ([[Nunavut]], [[Northwest_Territories|NWT]] and [[Canadian_prairies|Prairies]])
* Pacific-[[Yukon]] ([[British_Columbia|BC]] and [[Yukon]])

The department has several organizations which carry out specific tasks:

* [[Meteorological Service of Canada]] (for [[weather forecasting]])
** [[Weatheradio Canada]], a national system of emergency weather broadcast transmitters
* [[Canadian Wildlife Service]]
* [[Parks Canada]] which manages the [[Canadian National Parks]] system.
* Canadian Ice Service
* Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency
* [[Water Survey of Canada]]
* National Water Research Institute
* [[National Pollutant Release Inventory]] (NPRI)

==Enforcement==
[[Image:ECBadge.gif|right]]

Environment Canada Enforcement Branch is responsible for ensuring compliance with the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' and pollution provisions of the ''Fisheries Act'' and corresponding regulations.

The [[Governor-in-Council]] appoints Enforcement Officers and pursuant to section 217(3) of the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'', enforcement officers of Environment Canada have all the powers of [[peace officer]]s.

More information: [http://www.ec.gc.ca/ele-ale/default.asp?lang=En EC Enforcement Branch]

==Related legislation==
*[[Canada National Parks Act]]
*Canada Water Act
*Canada Wildlife Act
*[[Canadian Environmental Protection Act]] (1999)
*[[Department of the Environment Act (Canada)|Department of the Environment Act]]
*Environment Week Act, Canadian
*International River Improvements Act
*Lac Seul Conservation Act
*Lake of the Woods Control Board Act
*Manganese-Based Fuel Additives Act
*[[Migratory Birds Convention Act ]]
*National Wildlife Week Act
*Species at Risk Act (2002)
*Weather Modification Information Act
*Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Inter-provincial Trade Act

==External links==

*[http://www.ec.gc.ca Environment Canada]
*[http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.pc.gc.ca Parks Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/introec/orgs_e.htm Select programs and services of Environment Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroRegs/ENG/Default.cfm Related acts and regulations]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm National Pollutant Release Inventory]

{{Government Departments of Canada}}

[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Environment Canada]]
[[Category:Environment ministries]]
[[Category:Regulators of biotechnology products]]
[[Category:Environmental protection agencies]]

[[es:Environment Canada]]
[[fr:Environnement Canada]]

Communications Security Establishment Canada

2008-03-09T22:44:28Z

Cahk: /* Mandate */

{{Refimprove|date=February 2008}}
{{Infobox Govt Agency

| agency_name = Communications Security Establishment Canada
| nativename =
| nativename_a =
| nativename_r =
| logo =
| logo_width =
| logo_caption =
| seal = Cse badge.gif
| seal_width = 110 px
| seal_caption = Badge of the Communications Security Establishment Canada
| formed = [[1946]]
| preceding1 =
| preceding2 =
| dissolved =
| superseding =
| jurisdiction =
| headquarters = [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
| employees = 1,650 (approx.)
| budget = $220 million
| minister1_name = Hon. [[Peter MacKay]]
| minister1_pfo = [[Minister of National Defence (Canada)|Minister of National Defence]]
| minister2_name =
| minister2_pfo =
| chief1_name = John Adams
| chief1_position = [[Chief]]
| chief2_name = Hon. [[Charles Gonthier|Charles D. Gonthier]]
| chief2_position = [[Commissioner]]
| parent_agency = [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]]
| child1_agency =
| child2_agency =
| website = [http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/ www.cse-cst.gc.ca]
| footnotes =
}}

The '''Communications Security Establishment Canada''' ('''CSEC''' or '''CSE''') ([[French language|French]]: ''Centre de la sécurité des télécommunications Canada'') (''CSTC'' or ''CST'') is the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Government of Canada|government]]'s national [[Cryptology|cryptologic]] [[Intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] agency. Administered under the [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]] (DND), it is charged with the duty of keeping track of foreign [[SIGINT|signals intelligence]] (SIGINT), and protecting Canadian government electronic information and communication networks. The CSE is accountable to the [[Minister of National Defence (Canada)|Minister of National Defence]] through two deputy ministers, one of whom is responsible for Administration, the other Policy and Operations. The Minister of National Defence is in turn accountable to the [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] and [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]].

==History==
The CSE was established in [[1946]] as the Communications Branch of the [[National Research Council of Canada|National Research Council]], and was transferred to the DND in 1975 by [[Order-in-Council]]. The origins of the CSE can be traced back to the [[World War II|Second World War]] where the civilian organization worked with intercepted foreign electronic communications, collected largely from the [[Royal Canadian Corps of Signals|Canadian Signal Corps]] station at [[Ottawa/Rockcliffe Airport|Rockcliffe airport]] in Ottawa. This unit successfully decrypted, translated, and analyzed these foreign signals, and turned that raw information into useful intelligence reports during the course of the war.

The CSE and the information it gathered and shared was secret for 34 years, when the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] program ''[[the fifth estate]]'' did a story on the organization, resulting in an outcry in the [[Canadian House of Commons]] and an admission by the Canadian government that the organization existed. The CSE is now publicly known, and occupies several buildings in Ottawa, including the well-known [[Edward Drake Building]] and the neighbouring Sir Leonard Tilley Building.

During the [[Cold War]], CSE was primarily responsible for providing SIGINT data to the Department of National Defence regarding the [[military operation]]s of the [[Soviet Union]]. Since then, CSE has diversified and now is the primary SIGINT resource in Canada. The CSE also provides technical advice, guidance and services to the Government of Canada to maintain the security of its information and information infrastructures.

==Role==
Unique within Canada's security and intelligence community, the Communications Security Establishment employs code-makers and code-breakers ([[cryptanalysis]]) to provide the Government of Canada with [[Information security|information technology security (IT Security)]] and foreign signals intelligence services. CSE also provides technical and operational assistance to [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|federal law enforcement]] and security agencies.

===SIGINT===
CSE’s SIGINT program produces intelligence that responds to Canadian government requirements. The CSE collects foreign intelligence that can be used by the government for strategic warning, policy formulation, decision-making in the fields of [[national security]] and national defence, and day-to-day assessment of foreign capabilities and intentions. The success of this process is founded on CSE’s understanding of the leading-edge technologies used by the global information infrastructure. CSE relies on its closest foreign intelligence allies, the US, UK, Australia and New Zealand to share the collection burden and the resulting intelligence yield. [[Canada]] is a substantial beneficiary of the collaborative effort within the partnership to collect and report on foreign communications.

During the [[Cold War]], CSE’s primary client for signals intelligence was National Defence, and its focus was the [[military operations]] of the then [[Soviet Union]]. Since the end of the Cold War, Government of Canada requirements have evolved to include a wide variety of political, defence, and security issues of interest to a much broader range of client departments.

While these continue to be key intelligence priorities for Government of Canada decision-makers, increasing focus on protecting the safety of Canadians is prompting greater interest in intelligence on transnational issues, including [[terrorism]].

===IT Security===
Formerly known as [[Communications security|communications security]] (COMSEC), the CSE’s IT Security Program grew out of a need to protect [[sensitive information]] transmitted by various agencies of the government, especially the [[Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade]] (DFAIT), [[Canada Border Services Agency]] (CBSA), DND, and the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP). As a result of this critical and urgent need, the IT Security Program’s strategic stance has made possible a shift to that of a predictive nature allowing the program to provide relevant knowledge based upon sound practices and forward looking solutions.

The CSE’s IT Security Program has earned highly valued global respect and a reputation of technical excellence. It now extends its expertise past its traditional technical clients to those within the Government of Canada who are responsible for the formulation and implementation of policy and program managers, and is committed to ensuring cyber networks and critical infrastructures are trustworthy and secure. CSE also conducts research and development on behalf of the Government of Canada in fields related to communications security.

==Mandate==
In December 2001 the Canadian government passed omnibus [[Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act|bill C-36]] into law as the [[Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act|Anti-terrorism Act]]. The new act amended portions of the [[National Defence Act]] and officially recognized CSE's three-part mandate:

* To acquire and use information from the global information infrastructure for the purpose of providing foreign intelligence, in accordance with Government of Canada intelligence priorities.
* To provide advice, guidance and services to help ensure the protection of electronic information and of information infrastructures of importance to the Government of Canada.
* To provide technical and operational assistance to federal law enforcement and security agencies in the performance of their lawful duties.

The Anti-Terrorism Act also strengthened CSE's capacity to engage in the war on terrorism by providing needed authorities to fulfill its mandate.

CSE is forbidden, by law, to intercept domestic communications. When intercepting communications between a domestic and foreign source, the domestic communications are destroyed or otherwise ignored (however, after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] on the United States, the CSE's powers expanded to allow the interception of foreign communications that begin or end in Canada, as long as the other party is outside the border and Ministerial authorization is issued specifically for this case and purpose<ref>http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/privacy/protecting-privacy-e.html</ref>). CSE is bound by all Canadian laws, including the [[Criminal Code of Canada]], the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], and the [[Privacy Act 1982|Privacy Act]].

==ECHELON==
Under the 1948 [[UKUSA]] agreement, CSE's intelligence is shared with the [[United States]] [[National Security Agency]] (NSA), the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Government Communications Headquarters]] (GCHQ), the [[Australia]]n [[Defence Signals Directorate]] (DSD) and [[New Zealand|New Zealand's]] [[Government Communications Security Bureau]] (GCSB). Along with these services from the United States, the UK and Australia, CSE is believed to form the [[ECHELON]] system. Its capabilities are suspected to include the ability to monitor a large proportion of the world's transmitted civilian telephone, fax and data traffic.

==Controversies==
There has been some criticism over the years of the CSE. A former employee of the organization, Mike Frost, claimed in a 1994 book, ''Spyworld'', that the agency eavesdropped on [[Margaret Trudeau]] to find out if she smoked [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]] and that the CSE monitored two of former British prime minister [[Margaret Thatcher|Margaret Thatcher's]] dissenting cabinet ministers in London on behalf of the UK's secret service.

In 2006, [[CFCF-TV|CTV Montreal]]’s program ''On Your Side'', conducted a three-part documentary on the CSE naming it “Canada’s most secretive spy agency” and that “this ultra-secret agency has now become very powerful”, conducting unlawful surveillance by monitoring phone calls, e-mails, chat groups, radio, microwave, and satellite.

In 2007, former Ontario lieutenant-governor, [[James Bartleman]], testified at the Air India Inquiry on May 3 that he saw a CSE communications intercept warning of the June 22, 1985 bombing of [[Air India Flight 182]] before it occurred. Two former CSE employees, Bill Sheahan (CSE Client Relations Officer) and Pierre LaCompte (CSE Liaison Officer), have since testified that no CSE report was ever produced.

==Name Change==
In early [[2008]], in line with the Federal Identity Policy (FIP) of the Government of Canada, which requires all federal agencies to have the word ''Canada'' in their name<ref>http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/fip-pcim/</ref>, CSE changed its name to ''Communications Security Establishment Canada'' ([[CSEC]]) or ([[French language|French]]: ''Centre de la sécurité des télécommunications Canada'') (CSTC).

==See also==
* [[List of intelligence agencies]]
* [[ECHELON]]
* [[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]] (CSIS)
* [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP)
* [[RCMP Security Service]]
* [[Security_clearance#Canada|Security clearances]]
* [[Security of Information Act]]
* [[Treasury Board]]
* [[National Security Agency]] (NSA)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/ Communications Security Establishment - Official Website]
* [http://csec-ccst.gc.ca/ Official website of the CSE Commissioner]
* [http://montreal.ctv.ca/cfcf/news/oys&id=1367#1367 Transcripts of CTV Montreal’s documentary on the CSE]
* [http://luxexumbra.blogspot.com/ Lux ex Umbra - a blog about the CSE]
* [http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/PRBpubs/bp343-e.htm The Communications Security Establishment - Canada's Most Secret Intelligence Agency]

{{Signals agency}}
{{Can Intel}}

[[Category:Organizations in cryptography]]
[[Category:Canadian intelligence agencies]]
[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Signals intelligence agencies]]

[[br:CSE]]
[[cs:CSE]]
[[da:CSE]]
[[de:Communications Security Establishment]]
[[et:CSE]]
[[el:CSE]]
[[fr:Centre de la sécurité des télécommunications]]
[[gl:Communications Security Establishment]]
[[hr:Communications Security Establishment]]
[[id:Communications Security Establishment]]
[[it:Communications Security Establishment]]
[[nl:Communications Security Establishment]]
[[no:Centre de la sécurité des télécommunications]]
[[pl:Communications Security Establishment]]
[[pt:CSE]]
[[ro:Communications Security Establishment]]
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[[sv:Communications Security Establishment]]
[[tr:Communications Security Establishment]]
[[yi:CSE]]

Communications Security Establishment Canada

2008-03-06T23:18:25Z

Cahk: /* See also */

{{Refimprove|date=February 2008}}
{{Infobox Govt Agency

| agency_name = Communications Security Establishment Canada
| nativename =
| nativename_a =
| nativename_r =
| logo =
| logo_width =
| logo_caption =
| seal = Cse badge.gif
| seal_width = 110 px
| seal_caption = Badge of the Communications Security Establishment Canada
| formed = [[1946]]
| preceding1 =
| preceding2 =
| dissolved =
| superseding =
| jurisdiction =
| headquarters = [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
| employees = 1,650 (approx.)
| budget = $220 million
| minister1_name = Hon. [[Peter MacKay]]
| minister1_pfo = [[Minister of National Defence (Canada)|Minister of National Defence]]
| minister2_name =
| minister2_pfo =
| chief1_name = John Adams
| chief1_position = [[Chief]]
| chief2_name = Hon. [[Charles Gonthier|Charles D. Gonthier]]
| chief2_position = [[Commissioner]]
| parent_agency = [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]]
| child1_agency =
| child2_agency =
| website = [http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/ www.cse-cst.gc.ca]
| footnotes =
}}

The '''Communications Security Establishment Canada''' ('''CSEC''' or '''CSE''') ([[French language|French]]: ''Centre de la sécurité des télécommunications Canada'') (''CSTC'' or ''CST'') is the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Government of Canada|government]]'s national [[Cryptology|cryptologic]] [[Intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] agency. Administered under the [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]] (DND), it is charged with the duty of keeping track of foreign [[SIGINT|signals intelligence]] (SIGINT), and protecting Canadian government electronic information and communication networks. The CSE is accountable to the [[Minister of National Defence (Canada)|Minister of National Defence]] through two deputy ministers, one of whom is responsible for Administration, the other Policy and Operations. The Minister of National Defence is in turn accountable to the [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] and [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]].

==History==
The CSE was established in [[1946]] as the Communications Branch of the [[National Research Council of Canada|National Research Council]], and was transferred to the DND in 1975 by [[Order-in-Council]]. The origins of the CSE can be traced back to the [[World War II|Second World War]] where the civilian organization worked with intercepted foreign electronic communications, collected largely from the [[Royal Canadian Corps of Signals|Canadian Signal Corps]] station at [[Ottawa/Rockcliffe Airport|Rockcliffe airport]] in Ottawa. This unit successfully decrypted, translated, and analyzed these foreign signals, and turned that raw information into useful intelligence reports during the course of the war.

The CSE and the information it gathered and shared was secret for 34 years, when the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] program ''[[the fifth estate]]'' did a story on the organization, resulting in an outcry in the [[Canadian House of Commons]] and an admission by the Canadian government that the organization existed. The CSE is now publicly known, and occupies several buildings in Ottawa, including the well-known [[Edward Drake Building]] and the neighbouring Sir Leonard Tilley Building.

During the [[Cold War]], CSE was primarily responsible for providing SIGINT data to the Department of National Defence regarding the [[military operation]]s of the [[Soviet Union]]. Since then, CSE has diversified and now is the primary SIGINT resource in Canada. The CSE also provides technical advice, guidance and services to the Government of Canada to maintain the security of its information and information infrastructures.

==Role==
Unique within Canada's security and intelligence community, the Communications Security Establishment employs code-makers and code-breakers ([[cryptanalysis]]) to provide the Government of Canada with [[Information security|information technology security (IT Security)]] and foreign signals intelligence services. CSE also provides technical and operational assistance to [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|federal law enforcement]] and security agencies.

===SIGINT===
CSE’s SIGINT program produces intelligence that responds to Canadian government requirements. The CSE collects foreign intelligence that can be used by the government for strategic warning, policy formulation, decision-making in the fields of [[national security]] and national defence, and day-to-day assessment of foreign capabilities and intentions. The success of this process is founded on CSE’s understanding of the leading-edge technologies used by the global information infrastructure. CSE relies on its closest foreign intelligence allies, the US, UK, Australia and New Zealand to share the collection burden and the resulting intelligence yield. [[Canada]] is a substantial beneficiary of the collaborative effort within the partnership to collect and report on foreign communications.

During the [[Cold War]], CSE’s primary client for signals intelligence was National Defence, and its focus was the [[military operations]] of the then [[Soviet Union]]. Since the end of the Cold War, Government of Canada requirements have evolved to include a wide variety of political, defence, and security issues of interest to a much broader range of client departments.

While these continue to be key intelligence priorities for Government of Canada decision-makers, increasing focus on protecting the safety of Canadians is prompting greater interest in intelligence on transnational issues, including [[terrorism]].

===IT Security===
Formerly known as [[Communications security|communications security]] (COMSEC), the CSE’s IT Security Program grew out of a need to protect [[sensitive information]] transmitted by various agencies of the government, especially the [[Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade]] (DFAIT), [[Canada Border Services Agency]] (CBSA), DND, and the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP). As a result of this critical and urgent need, the IT Security Program’s strategic stance has made possible a shift to that of a predictive nature allowing the program to provide relevant knowledge based upon sound practices and forward looking solutions.

The CSE’s IT Security Program has earned highly valued global respect and a reputation of technical excellence. It now extends its expertise past its traditional technical clients to those within the Government of Canada who are responsible for the formulation and implementation of policy and program managers, and is committed to ensuring cyber networks and critical infrastructures are trustworthy and secure. CSE also conducts research and development on behalf of the Government of Canada in fields related to communications security.

==Mandate==
In December 2001 the Canadian government passed omnibus [[Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act|bill C-36]] into law as the [[Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act|Anti-terrorism Act]]. The new act amended portions of the [[National Defence Act]] and officially recognized CSE's three-part mandate:

* To acquire and use information from the global information infrastructure for the purpose of providing foreign intelligence, in accordance with Government of Canada intelligence priorities.
* To provide advice, guidance and services to help ensure the protection of electronic information and of information infrastructures of importance to the Government of Canada.
* To provide technical and operational assistance to federal law enforcement and security agencies in the performance of their lawful duties.

The Anti-Terrorism Act also strengthened CSE's capacity to engage in the war on terrorism by providing needed authorities to fulfill its mandate.

CSE is forbidden, by law, to intercept domestic communications. When intercepting communications between a domestic and foreign source, the domestic communications are destroyed or otherwise ignored (however, after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] on the United States, the CSE's powers expanded to allow the interception of foreign communications that begin or end in Canada, as long as the other party is outside the border and Ministerial authorization is issued specifically for this case and purpose<ref>http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/privacy/protecting-privacy-e.html</ref>). CSE is bound by all Canadian laws, including the [[Canadian Criminal Code|Criminal Code]], the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], and the [[Privacy Act 1982|Privacy Act]].

==ECHELON==
Under the 1948 [[UKUSA]] agreement, CSE's intelligence is shared with the [[United States]] [[National Security Agency]] (NSA), the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Government Communications Headquarters]] (GCHQ), the [[Australia]]n [[Defence Signals Directorate]] (DSD) and [[New Zealand|New Zealand's]] [[Government Communications Security Bureau]] (GCSB). Along with these services from the United States, the UK and Australia, CSE is believed to form the [[ECHELON]] system. Its capabilities are suspected to include the ability to monitor a large proportion of the world's transmitted civilian telephone, fax and data traffic.

==Controversies==
There has been some criticism over the years of the CSE. A former employee of the organization, Mike Frost, claimed in a 1994 book, ''Spyworld'', that the agency eavesdropped on [[Margaret Trudeau]] to find out if she smoked [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]] and that the CSE monitored two of former British prime minister [[Margaret Thatcher|Margaret Thatcher's]] dissenting cabinet ministers in London on behalf of the UK's secret service.

In 2006, [[CFCF-TV|CTV Montreal]]’s program ''On Your Side'', conducted a three-part documentary on the CSE naming it “Canada’s most secretive spy agency” and that “this ultra-secret agency has now become very powerful”, conducting unlawful surveillance by monitoring phone calls, e-mails, chat groups, radio, microwave, and satellite.

In 2007, former Ontario lieutenant-governor, [[James Bartleman]], testified at the Air India Inquiry on May 3 that he saw a CSE communications intercept warning of the June 22, 1985 bombing of [[Air India Flight 182]] before it occurred. Two former CSE employees, Bill Sheahan (CSE Client Relations Officer) and Pierre LaCompte (CSE Liaison Officer), have since testified that no CSE report was ever produced.

==Name Change==
In early [[2008]], in line with the Federal Identity Policy (FIP) of the Government of Canada, which requires all federal agencies to have the word ''Canada'' in their name<ref>http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/fip-pcim/</ref>, CSE changed its name to ''Communications Security Establishment Canada'' ([[CSEC]]) or ([[French language|French]]: ''Centre de la sécurité des télécommunications Canada'') (CSTC).

==See also==
* [[List of intelligence agencies]]
* [[ECHELON]]
* [[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]] (CSIS)
* [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP)
* [[RCMP Security Service]]
* [[Security_clearance#Canada|Security clearances]]
* [[Security of Information Act]]
* [[Treasury Board]]
* [[National Security Agency]] (NSA)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.cse-cst.gc.ca/ Communications Security Establishment - Official Website]
* [http://csec-ccst.gc.ca/ Official website of the CSE Commissioner]
* [http://montreal.ctv.ca/cfcf/news/oys&id=1367#1367 Transcripts of CTV Montreal’s documentary on the CSE]
* [http://luxexumbra.blogspot.com/ Lux ex Umbra - a blog about the CSE]
* [http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/PRBpubs/bp343-e.htm The Communications Security Establishment - Canada's Most Secret Intelligence Agency]

{{Signals agency}}
{{Can Intel}}

[[Category:Organizations in cryptography]]
[[Category:Canadian intelligence agencies]]
[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Signals intelligence agencies]]

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Meteor Ireland Music Awards

2008-02-16T02:49:20Z

Cahk: grammar

{{confuse|Meteoroid}}
{{Infobox award
| name = Meteor Award
| image =
| imagesize = 150px
| caption = The Meteor Award is round shaped with celtic design
| description = Achievements in the [[Ireland|Irish]] and [[international]] [[record industry]]
| presenter =
| country = [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
| year = [[2001]]
| website = http://meteormusicawards.meteor.ie/index.aspx
}}
The '''[[Meteor (mobile network)|Meteor]] Ireland Music Awards''' (colloquially called '''"The Meteors"''') are the national [[music]] [[award]]s of [[Ireland]]. They have been held every year since [[2001]] and are promoted by [[MCD PRODUCTIONS|MCD]]. They are the equivalent to the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[BRIT Awards]], [[Canada]]'s [[Juno Award]]s or the [[Grammy Awards]] in the [[United States]]. Originally held in [[Point Theatre|The Point]] in [[Dublin]], in 2008 the event moved to the RDS.

The Meteors take their name from their sponsors, Ireland's third most popular [[mobile phone]] company, [[Meteor (mobile network)|Meteor]]. The [[Meteor Music Awards#2008 awards|2008 Awards]] were held on [[February 15]] [[2008]].

== Recipients by year ==
=== Irish awards ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Male !! Female !! Band !! Album !! Live Performance !! New Act !! Lifetime Achievement Award
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2001 awards|2001]]''' || [[Ronan Keating]] || [[Sharon Shannon]] || [[U2]] || ''[[All That You Can't Leave Behind]]'' || [[U2]] || [[JJ72]] || [[Christy Moore]]
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2002 awards|2002]]''' || [[David Kitt]] || [[Samantha Mumba]] || [[U2]] || ''[[All That You Can't Leave Behind]]'' || - || [[The Revs]] || [[Paul McGuinness]]
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2003 awards|2003]]''' || [[Mundy]] || [[Carly Hennessy]] || [[U2]] || ''[[Skylarkin']]'' || - || [[The Thrills]] || [[Bob Geldof]]
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2004 awards|2004]]''' || [[Paddy Casey]] || [[Cara Dillon]] || [[The Frames]] || ''[[So Much for the City]]'' || - || [[Future Kings of Spain]] || [[The Dubliners]]
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2005 awards|2005]]''' || [[Paddy Casey]] || [[Juliet Turner]] || [[Snow Patrol]] || ''[[Final Straw]]'' || - || [[The Chalets]] || [[Aslan (rock band)|Aslan]]
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2006 awards|2006]]''' || [[Damien Dempsey]] || [[Gemma Hayes]] || [[U2]] || ''[[How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb]]'' || [[U2]] || [[Humanzi (band)|Humanzi]] || [[The Pogues]]
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2007 awards|2007]]''' || [[Damien Dempsey]] || [[Luan Parle]] || [[Snow Patrol]] || ''[[Eyes Open (album)|Eyes Open]]'' || [[Snow Patrol]] || [[Director (band)|Director]] || [[Clannad]]
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2008 awards|2008]]''' || [[Duke Special]] || [[Cathy Davey]] || [[Aslan (rock band)|Aslan]] || ''[[Addicted to Company]]'' || [[The Blizzards]] || - || [[The Saw Doctors]]
|-
|}

=== International awards ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Male !! Female !! Band !! Album !! Live Performance
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2001 awards|2001]]''' || [[David Gray]] || [[Whitney Houston]] || - || ''[[White Ladder]]'' || n/a
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2002 awards|2002]]''' || [[Robbie Williams]] || [[Dido (singer)|Dido]] || [[Stereophonics]] || ''[[Is This It]]'' || [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]]
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2003 awards|2003]]''' || [[Eminem]] || [[Avril Lavigne]] || [[Coldplay]] || ''[[By the Way]]'' || [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]]
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2004 awards|2004]]''' || [[Justin Timberlake]] || [[Beyoncé Knowles|Beyoncé]] || [[The Darkness]] || ''[[Elephant (album)|Elephant]]'' || [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]]
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2005 awards|2005]]''' || [[Morrissey]] || [[PJ Harvey]] || [[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]] || ''[[Franz Ferdinand (album)|Franz Ferdinand]]'' || [[The Killers (band)|The Killers]]
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2006 awards|2006]]''' || [[Kanye West]] || [[Gwen Stefani]] || [[Kaiser Chiefs]] || ''[[Employment (album)|Employment]]'' || n/a
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2007 awards|2007]]''' || [[Justin Timberlake]] || [[Lily Allen]] || [[Scissor Sisters]] || ''[[Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not]]'' || n/a
|-
| '''[[Meteor Music Awards#2008 awards|2008]]''' || - || - || - || - || [[Muse (band)|Muse]]
|-
|}

== Awards by year ==
=== 2003 awards ===
:''For 2003 nominees, see [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4161/is_20030302/ai_n12859334 here]. For 2003 photos, see [http://www.showbizireland.com/news/march03/04-mumba56.shtml here].''

The 2003 awards were hosted by comedian [[Dara Ó Briain]]. Performees included ill-fated Irish pop group [[Six (band)|Six]] who performed the song "[[After the Gold Rush (song)|After the Gold Rush]]", [[Tom Jones]], [[The Thrills]], [[B2K]], [[Alabama 3]], [[Samantha Mumba]], [[Westlife]] and [[Sinéad O'Connor]]. Actors [[Colin Farrell]], [[Colm Meaney]] and [[Stephen Rea]] were among the awards presenters. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.tcm.ie/breakingnews/2003/02/28/story90021.asp|title="Farrell to appear at Meteor Awards"|date=2004-02-28|accessdate=2007-12-16|publisher=[[BreakingNews.ie]]}}</ref>

==== Winners ====
{| border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="3" width="100%"
|- 
| valign="top" width="*" | 
* Best Group: [[U2]]
* Best Irish Female Singer: [[Carly Hennessy]]
* Best Irish Males Singer: [[Mundy]]
* Best Folk/Traditional Act: [[John Spillane]]
* Best Irish Album: ''[[Skylarkin']]'' - [[Mic Christopher]]
* Best Irish Dance Act: [[Luke Thomas]]
* Best Pop Act: [[Westlife]]
| valign="top" width="*" | 
* Best Radio DJ: [[Ian Dempsey]]
* Best country/roots artist: [[Jerry Fish]]
* Best Irish New Act: [[The Thrills]]
* Best International Group: [[Coldplay]]
* Best International Male: [[Eminem]]
* Best International Female: [[Avril Lavigne]]
* Best International Album: ''[[By the Way]]'' - [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]]
| valign="top" width="*" | 
* Best Visiting Live Performance: [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]] - ([[Lansdowne Road]], [[2002]])
* Hope for 2003 Award: [[Rubyhorse]]
* Lifetime Achievement Award: [[Bob Geldof]]
* Humanitarian Award: [[Bono]]
* The Industry Award: [[Phil Coulter]]
|}
----
=== 2004 awards ===
:''For 2004 photos, see [http://www.showbizireland.com/news/march04/04-westlife64.shtml here].''
The 2004 awards were held on Monday [[March 1]] [[2004]], hosted by comedian [[Dara Ó Briain]]. At the ceremony [[Damien Dempsey]] was presented with two awards, Best Folk/ Traditional Act and Best Irish Country/Roots Artist. [[Samantha Mumba]] made an appearance in a revealing see-through dress, [[Colin Farrell]] was pictured with both [[Bono]] and [[Chris Pontius]] whilst [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]] drummer [[Chad Smith]] posed with [[Sharon Corr]] after both collected awards. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.showbizireland.com/news/march03/04-mumba56.shtml|title="Mumba Nips Out to the Meteors..."|date=2004-03-03|accessdate=2007-12-16|publisher=[[ShowBiz Ireland]]}}</ref> Performees included [[Lionel Richie]], [[Katie Melua]], [[Counting Crows]], [[The Corrs]], [[Sugababes]], [[Westlife]], [[Hothouse Flowers]], [[The Frames]], [[The Dubliners]], [[Snow Patrol]], [[Paddy Casey]] and [[Jerry Fish and the Mudbug Club]]. Award presenters included [[Dominic West]], [[Bic Runga]] and [[Alex Zane]], actors [[George McMahon]] and [[Patrick Bergin]], ''[[No Frontiers]]'' presenter [[Kathryn Thomas]] alongside [[Kerry Katona|Kerry McFadden]], [[Miss World]] [[Rosanna Davison]], [[Keith Duffy (singer/actor)|Keith Duffy]], [[Niall Quinn]], [[Deirdre O'Kane]], [[Denis Hickey]], [[Joe Elliott]] and [[Hector Ó hEochagáin]]. The event was broadcast on [[RTÉ Two]] on Wednesday [[March 3]] at 21:00. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.tcm.ie/breakingnews/2004/03/01/story136540.asp|title="Meteor Awards winners announced"|date=2004-03-01|accessdate=2007-12-16|publisher=[[BreakingNews.ie]]}}</ref>

==== Winners ====
{| border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="3" width="100%"
|- 
| valign="top" width="*" | 

* Best Irish Radio DJ: [[Ryan Tubridy]]
* Best Irish Band: [[The Frames]]
* Best Irish Pop Act: [[Westlife]]
* Best Irish Album: ''[[So Much for the City]]'' ([[The Thrills]])
* Best Irish Female: [[Cara Dillon]]
* Best Irish Male: [[Paddy Casey]]
* Best Folk/Trad Act: [[Damien Dempsey]]
* Best Irish Country/Roots Artist: Damien Dempsey
* Best Irish New Act: [[Future Kings of Spain]]

| valign="top" width="*" | 

* Hope for 2004: [[Republic Of Loose]]
* Industry Award: [[Dave Fanning]]
* Lifetime Achievement Award: [[The Dubliners]]
* Best Female Singer: [[Beyoncé Knowles|Beyoncé]]
* Best Male Singer: [[Justin Timberlake]]
* Best Group: [[The Darkness]]
* Best Album: ''[[Elephant (album)|Elephant]]'' ([[The White Stripes]])
* Best Live Performance: [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]] - [[Slane Concert#2003|Slane 2003]]
* Humanitarian Award: [[Stanislaus Kennedy|Sister Stanislaus Kennedy]] aka 'Sister Stan'
|}
----

=== 2005 awards ===
:''For 2005 nominees, see [http://www.rte.ie/arts/2005/0111/meteormusicawards.html here]. For 2005 photos, see [http://www.showbizireland.com/news/february05/28-snoop01.shtml here].''

The 2005 event was hosted by [[comedian]] [[Ed Byrne]] at the [[Point Theatre]] on Thursday [[February 24]] [[2005]]. A total of sixteen awards were presented at the ceremony. Among the performees were [[Westlife]], [[Snow Patrol]], [[Aslan (rock band)|Aslan]], [[The Thrills]], [[Bell X1 (band)|Bell X1]] and [[The Devlins]]. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0475056/|title="2005 Meteors"|date=2005-02-24|accessdate=2007-12-16|publisher=[[Internet Movie Database|iMDb]]}}</ref> [[Snow Patrol]] won two awards (Best Irish Band and Best Irish Album for ''[[Final Straw]]''), whilst [[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]] also picked up two awards (Best International Band and Best International Album for ''[[Franz Ferdinand (album)|Franz Ferdinand]]''). [[Paddy Casey]] and [[Juliet Turner]] were named Best Irish Male and Best Irish Female. [[The Chalets]] won Best New Band.
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.tcm.ie/breakingnews/2005/02/25/story190986.asp|title="Snow Patrol win two gongs at Meteor Music Awards"|date=2005-02-25|accessdate=2007-12-16|publisher=[[BreakingNews.ie]]}}</ref>

==== Winners ====
{| border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="3" width="100%"
|- 
| valign="top" width="*" | 
* Best Irish Male: [[Paddy Casey]]
* Best Irish Female: [[Juliet Turner]]
* Best Irish Band: [[Snow Patrol]]
* Best Folk/Trad: [[Planxty]]
* Best DJ: [[Ray D'Arcy]]
* Best Irish Album: ''[[Final Straw]]'' ([[Snow Patrol]])
* Hope for 2005: [[Angel of Mons]]
* Best Pop: [[Westlife]]
* Humanitarian Award: [[Adi Roche]]
| valign="top" width="*" | 
* Best Newcomer: [[The Chalets]]
* Industry Award: [[John Hughes (Irish musician)|John Hughes]]
* Lifetime Achievement: [[Aslan (rock band)|Aslan]]
* Best International Group: [[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]]
* Best International Male: [[Morrissey]]
* Best International Female: [[PJ Harvey]]
* Best International Album: ''[[Franz Ferdinand (album)|Franz Ferdinand]]'' ([[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]])
* Best Visiting Live Performance: [[The Killers (band)|The Killers]]
|}
----

=== 2006 awards ===
:''For 2006 nominees, see [http://www.rte.ie/arts/2005/1123/meteorawards.html here]. For 2006 photos, see [http://www.showbizireland.com/news/february06/07-meteors02.shtml here].''
The [[2006]] Meteor Music Awards took place in the [[Point Theatre|Point Depot]] in [[Dublin]] on [[February 2]]. The event was then aired on [[RTÉ Two]] on at 21:00 on Sunday [[February 5]]. Among the performees on the night were [[The Darkness]], [[Damien Dempsey]], [[Bell X1 (band)|Bell X1]], [[Gemma Hayes]] and [[Republic of Loose]]. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.eircom.net/html/meteor/awards2006/|title="The 2006 Meteor Awards - Exclusive Highlights"|date=2006-02-03|accessdate=2007-12-14|publisher=[[eircom]]}}</ref> A total of seventeen awards were presented at the ceremony. [[U2]] were the big winners at the 2006 awards, picking up three gongs, Best Irish Band, Best Irish Album for ''[[How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb]]'' and Best Live Performance for their 2005 [[Croke Park]] shows. [[Bass guitar|Bassist]] [[Adam Clayton]] picked up the awards. The four international awards were divided between [[Kanye West]] (Best International Male), [[Gwen Stefani]] (Best International Female) and [[Kaiser Chiefs]] (Best International Band and Best International Album for ''[[Employment (album)|Employment]]''). [[The Pogues]] were presented with the Lifetime Achievement Award whilst [[Today FM]]'s [[Ray D'Arcy]] was named Best Irish DJ for the second consecutive year. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rte.ie/arts/2006/0203/meteormusicawards.html|title="Three wins for U2 at Meteor Awards"|date=2006-02-03|accessdate=2007-12-14|publisher=[[Radio Telefís Éireann|RTÉ]]}}</ref> After the awards [[Louis Walsh]] was caught red-handed in an embarrassing situation with [[Kerry Katona]] when he gripped her from behind and did something naughty and rude. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.showbizireland.com/news/february06/07-meteors02.shtml|title="The Meteors Go Mental..."|date=2006-02-07|accessdate=2008-01-22|publisher=[[ShowBiz Ireland]]}}</ref>

==== Winners ====
{| border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="3" width="100%"
|- 
| valign="top" width="*" | 

'''Voting categories'''
*Best Irish DJ - [[Ray D'Arcy]]
*Best Irish Band - [[U2]]
*Best Irish Male - [[Damien Dempsey]]
*Best Irish Female - [[Gemma Hayes]]
*Best Irish Pop Act - [[Westlife]]
*Best Live Performance - [[U2]] ([[Croke Park]] 2005)

| valign="top" width="*" | 

'''Non-voting categories'''
*Best International Group - [[Kaiser Chiefs]]
*Best International Male - [[Kanye West]]
*Best International Female - [[Gwen Stefani]]
*Best International Album - ''[[Employment (album)|Employment]]'' ([[Kaiser Chiefs]])
*Best Folk/Traditional - [[John Spillane]]
*Best Irish Album - ''[[How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb]]'' ([[U2]])
*Best Irish New Act - [[Humanzi (band)|Humanzi]]

| valign="top" width="*" | 

'''Other awards'''
*Hope For 2006 - [[Laura Izibor]]
*Lifetime Achievement Award - [[The Pogues]]
*Humanitarian Award - [[Father Peter McVerry]]
*Industry Award - [[Bill Whelan]]
|}
----

=== 2007 awards ===
[[Image:0000b69a0c8r.jpg|right]]
The 2007 awards took place on Thursday [[February 1]]. They were presented by television personalities [[Podge and Rodge]] and comedian [[Deirdre O'Kane]], who donned a showgirl outfit to open the awards ceremony. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ireland.com/newspaper/breaking/2007/0201/breaking89.htm|title="Snow Patrol win four Meteor awards"|date=2007-02-01|accessdate=2007-12-14|publisher=''[[The Irish Times]]''}}</ref> It was later broadcast on [[RTÉ Two]] on Sunday, [[4 February]] at 21:00.

[[Image:Batch 119.jpg|left|thumb|150px|[[Ricky Wilson]] of [[Kaiser Chiefs]] performs at the 2007 awards.]]

There were performances on the night from [[Westlife]] with [[Ronan Keating]], "The Dance", [[Kaiser Chiefs]] (who were first on stage to perform their single "[[Ruby (song)|Ruby]]"), [[Director (band)|Director]] (performing "[[Reconnect (song)|Reconnect]]"), [[Pussy Cat Dolls]], [[Amy Winehouse]], [[The Feeling]], [[The Blizzards]] (performing single "[[Fantasy (The Blizzards song)|Fantasy]]") and [[The Immediate]] (performing "A Ghost in this House").

[[Image:Batch 142.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mike Moloney of [[Director (band)|Director]] performs at the 2007 awards.]]

==== Winners ====
[[Snow Patrol]] were the big winners at the 2007 awards. They fought off competition from [[The Divine Comedy (band)|The Divine Comedy]], [[The Frames]] and [[Humanzi (band)|Humanzi]] to claim the Best Irish Band accolade. They won three other awards Best Live Performance, Best Irish Album (for ''[[Eyes Open (album)|Eyes Open]]'') and the Most Downloaded Irish Song Award.

The first awards presented were Best Irish Male, Best Irish Female and Best Irish Pop Act.

Best Irish Male winner was [[Damien Dempsey]], who beat other nominees [[David Kitt]], [[Van Morrison]], [[Mundy]], [[Fionn Regan]] and [[Duke Special]]. He was presented with his award by [[Miss Ireland]], [[Sarah Morrissey]] and comedian [[PJ Gallagher]], star of television show ''[[Naked Camera]]''.
[[Image:Batch 147.jpg|left|thumb|200px|[[Gary Lightbody]] of [[Snow Patrol]] accepts an award at the 2007 ceremony.]]
Best Irish Female winner was [[Luan Parle]], who beat the likes of [[Moya Brennan]] and [[Eleanor McEvoy]]. She was presented with her award by the two stars of RTÉ "comedy" ''[[Dan and Becs]]''. In her speech, she revealed it was also her birthday.

[[Westlife]] won the Best Irish Pop Act for the seventh year in a row, beating Best Irish Female winner [[Luan Parle]].

[[Today FM]]'s [[Ray D'Arcy]] won the Best DJ award for the third time in a row.

[[Director (band)|Director]]'s acclaimed single "[[Reconnect (song)|Reconnect]]" was largely responsible for them winning the Best New Irish Act accolade.

[[Dublin]] band [[Royseven]] won the Hope for 2007 Award.

Best International Band went to [[Scissor Sisters]], whilst the Best International Album was won by [[Arctic Monkeys]] for ''[[Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not]]''.

[[RTÉ 2fm|2fm]] DJ [[Larry Gogan]] was presented with the Industry Award at the event. It was presented in recognition of the veteran's contribution to the Irish music scene and his support of up-and-coming acts.

The Lifetime Achievement Award went to [[Clannad]], who also performed on the night.
[[Image:Meteor 2008 Logo.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Meteor Awards 2008 logo]]
----

=== 2008 awards ===
:''For news on some of the 2008 nominees, see [http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/music-gigs/news/article3221118.ece here].''

The Meteor Ireland Music Awards 2008 were held in the [[RDS Simmonscourt]] on Friday, [[February 15]] [[2008]]... <ref>{{cite web|url=http://meteormusicawards.meteor.ie/page1770421.aspx|title="The Meteors are on the way…"|date=2007-12-14|accessdate=2007-12-14|publisher=meteormusicawards.meteor.ie}}</ref> [[Dara Ó Briain]] hosted the awards for the first time since [[2004]]... <ref>{{cite web|url=http://meteormusicawards.meteor.ie/page1770177.aspx|title="Dara Ó Briain to host MIMA '08…"|date=2007-12-05|accessdate=2007-12-14|publisher=meteormusicawards.meteor.ie}}</ref> [[Duke Special]] and [[Cathy Davey]] won the Best Irish Male and Best Irish Female Awards respectively, whilst [[Aslan (rock band)|Aslan]] won the Best Irish Band Award and [[Paddy Casey]]'s ''[[Addicted to Company]]'' won Best Irish Album. For the eighth consecutive year [[Westlife]] walked away with the Best Irish Pop Act accolade. [[Ham Sandwich]] were presented with the Hope for 2008 Meteor Award by [[RTÉ 2fm|2fm]] DJ [[Rick O'Shea]]. [[The Blizzards]] won Best Irish Live Performance for their gig at [[Oxegen 2007]], whilst [[Muse (band)|Muse]] picked up the award for Best International Live Performance, also at [[Oxegen 2007]]. The Most Downloaded Song was [[Mundy]] and [[Sharon Shannon]]'s "[[Galway Girl]]". <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ireland.com/newspaper/breaking/2008/0216/breaking5.htm|title="Meteor eight in a row for Westlife…"|date=2008-02-15|accessdate=2008-02-15|publisher=[[Breaking News.ie]]}}</ref> [[The Saw Doctors]] were presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award and performed at the event also. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rte.ie/arts/2008/0111/sawdoctors.html|title="Saw Doctors to be honoured at Meteors"|date=2008-01-11|accessdate=2008-01-11|publisher=[[Radio Telefís Éireann|RTÉ]]}}</ref> Other performers included [[Boyzone]], <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.ie/entertainment/music/sinead-cuts-loose-with-new-band-1271809.html|title="Sinead cuts Loose with new band…"|date=2008-01-23|accessdate=2008-02-01|publisher=''[[Irish Independent]]''}}</ref> [[The Coronas]], [[Cathy Davey]], [[Westlife]], [[Shayne Ward]], [[Tom Baxter]], [[Paddy Casey]] and [[Scouting for Girls]], as well as exclusive duets between [[Sinéad O'Connor]] and [[Mick Pyro]] of [[Republic of Loose]], <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/atl/news_specific154988.shtml|title="Loose to Duet with Sinead"|date=2008-01-22|accessdate=2008-01-27|publisher=[[BBC Northern Ireland]]}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishexaminer.com/breaking/entertainment/index.aspx?jp=mheyojojmhoj|title="O'Connor duet to light up Meteor Awards"|date=2008-01-22|accessdate=2008-01-22|publisher=''[[Irish Examiner]]''}}</ref> who performed the [[Curtis Mayfield]] song, "[[We People Who Are Darker Than Blue]]" and [[Gary Lightbody]] and [[Lisa Hannigan]] who performed, live for the first time, "Some Surprise" from ''[[The Cake Sale]]'' charity album. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/atl/news_specific155521.shtml|title="Gary Lightbody Surprise"|date=2008-01-24|accessdate=2008-01-27|publisher=[[BBC Northern Ireland]]}}</ref>

==== Nominees ====
:''Winners are in'' '''bold.'''

'''Voting categories''' (Irish)
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''Male''' || '''[[Paddy Casey]]''' || [[Damien Dempsey]] || [[Duke Special]] || [[Glen Hansard]] || [[David Geraghty]] || [[Declan O'Rourke]]
|-
| '''Female''' || [[Andrea Corr]] || '''[[Cathy Davey]]''' || [[Maria Doyle Kennedy]] || [[Róisín Murphy]] || [[Sinéad O'Connor]] || [[Dolores O'Riordan]]
|-
| '''Band''' || [[Ash (band)|Ash]] || '''[[Aslan (rock band)|Aslan]]''' || [[Fight Like Apes]] || [[Delorentos]] || [[The Flaws]] || [[Future Kings of Spain]]
|-
| '''Album''' || '''''[[Addicted to Company]]''''' || ''[[Tales of Silversleeve]]'' || ''[[In Love with Detail]]'' || ''[[Achieving Vagueness]]'' || ''[[Nervousystem (album)|Nervousystem]]'' || ''[[Kill Your Darlings]]''
|-
| '''Live Performance''' || [[Bell X1 (band)|Bell X1]] ([[Malahide Castle]]) || '''[[The Blizzards]] ([[Oxegen 2007]])''' || [[Duke Special]] ([[Vicar Street]]) || [[Fight Like Apes]] ([[Whelan's]]) || [[Future Kings of Spain]] (The Village) || [[Damien Rice]] ([[Marlay Park]])
|-
| '''Pop Act''' || [[Bell X1 (band)|Bell X1]] || [[The Blizzards]] || [[The Coronas]] || [[Brian McFadden]] || [[Róisín Murphy]] || '''[[Westlife]]'''
|-
| '''National DJ''' || [[Ray D'Arcy]] || [[Ian Dempsey]] || [[Tom Dunne]] || [[Dave Fanning]] || '''[[Ray Foley]]''' || [[Rick O'Shea]]
|-
| '''Regional DJ''' || Pete Casey || Keith Cunningham || Leigh Doyle || Joe & Keith || Mark Noble || Jon Richards
|-
| '''Hope for...''' || '''2008''' || [[Leanne Harte]] || [[Owen Brady]] || [[The Kinetiks]] || [[We Should Be Dead]] || '''[[Ham Sandwich]]'''
|-
|}

'''Non-voting categories''' (Mostly international)
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''Male''' || [[Richard Hawley]] || [[Bruce Springsteen]] || [[Timbaland]] || [[Justin Timberlake]] || [[Rufus Wainwright]] || [[Kanye West]]
|-
| '''Female''' || [[Björk]] || [[PJ Harvey]] || [[Kylie Minogue]] || [[Kate Nash]] || [[Rihanna]] || [[Amy Winehouse]]
|-
| '''Band''' || [[Arcade Fire]] || [[The Killers (band)|The Killers]] || [[Kings of Leon]] || [[Radiohead]] || [[The Shins]] || [[Take That]]
|-
| '''Album''' || ''[[Neon Bible]]'' || ''[[Boxer (album)|Boxer]]'' || ''[[White Chalk]]'' || ''[[Sound of Silver]]'' || ''[[Raising Sand]]'' || ''[[In Rainbows]]''
|-
| '''Live Performance''' || [[Arcade Fire]] ([[Olympia Theatre|Olympia]]) || [[Björk]] ([[Electric Picnic#2007 festival|Electric Picnic 07]]) || '''[[Muse (band)|Muse]] ([[Oxegen 2007]])''' || [[The Police]] ([[Croke Park]]) || [[Bruce Springsteen]] ([[Point Theatre|The Point]]) || [[Justin Timberlake]] ([[RDS Arena]])
|-
| '''Irish folk traditional''' || '''[[Damien Dempsey]]''' || [[Tommy Fleming]] || [[Kíla]] || [[Moving Hearts]] || [[Majella Murphy]] || [[Sharon Shannon]]
|-
|}

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* '''[http://meteormusicawards.meteor.ie/?u=m/ Official Meteor Awards site]'''
* [http://www.mcd.ie MCD, Promoters of the Meteors]
* [http://www.meteor.ie/misc/MIMA.html List of winners through the years]
* [http://home.eircom.net/html/meteor/awards2006/ Highlights of 2006 Awards, sponsored by eircom]
* [http://www.showbizireland.com/news/march02/06-u284.shtml ShowBiz Ireland Photos (2002 Awards)]

[[Category:Irish music awards]]
[[Category:Podge and Rodge|2007 Meteor Awards]]
[[Category:Awards established in 2001]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Missachtung des Gerichts

2008-02-15T06:22:01Z

Cahk: /* Provincial Courts */ add ref link

{{worldview}}

'''Contempt of court''' is a court ruling which, in the context of a court trial or hearing, deems an individual as being in [[contempt]] of the court, its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt", or a person "held in contempt", it is the highest remedy of a judge to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which excessively or in a wanton manner disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a [[court]], showing disrespect for the [[judge]], disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[fine]] or [[prison|jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.

In civil cases involving relations between private citizens, the intended victim of the act of contempt is usually the party for whose benefit the ruling was implemented, rather than the court itself.

A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt. These are (1) existence of a lawful order, (2) the contemnor's knowledge of the order, (3) the contemnor's ability to comply, and (4) the contemnor's failure to comply.

==Canada==
Criminal offences are found within the Criminal Code of Canada or other federal/provincial laws, with the exception that contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.<ref> [http://www.courts.gov.bc.ca/legal_compendium/Chapter22.asp A Compendium of Law and Judges]</ref>

Contempt of Court includes the following behaviours:
* fails to maintain a respectful attitude, remain silent or refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding
* refuses or neglects to obey a subpoena
* wilfully disobeys a process or order of the Court
* interfere with the orderly administration of justice or to impair the authority or dignity of the Court
* officer of the Court fails to perform his or her duties
* sheriff or bailiff and does not execute a writ forthwith or does not make a return thereof

===Federal Courts===
''This section applies only to [[Federal Court of Appeal]] and [[Federal Court (Canada)|Federal Court]].''

Under Federal Court Rules, section 472, a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved. <ref> [http://reports.fja.gc.ca/regles/partie12.html Federal Court Rules Chapter 12]</ref>

If it's a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person be imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order, fine, or be ordered to do or refrain from doing any act as considered by the judge.

===Tax Court of Canada===
Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of ''Tax Court of Canada Act'', a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.

===Provincial Courts===
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in [[British Columbia|BC]], [[Justice of Peace]] can only issue summon to the offender for Contempt, for which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done at the face of the Justice.<ref> [http://www.qp.gov.bc.ca/statreg/stat/P/96379_01.htm#section31 Provincial Court Act Jurisdiction of justice]</ref>

==United Kingdom==

In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[Crime|criminal]] or [[civil]] offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years.

Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behavior toward the judge while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behavior observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual affected by a court order may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.

===Criminal contempt of court===

The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).

[[Magistrates' Court]]s are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the court may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to [[Pound sterling|GB£]]2500, or do both.

It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."

===Strict liability contempt===

Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney-General]] has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===

In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[bench warrant]] is issued, authorizing the [[tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" - i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment - is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American [[jurisprudence]], acts of contempt are divided into two types.

"Direct" contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae''), and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice, and after giving the person the opportunity to respond, may impose the sanction immediately.

"Indirect" contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court, and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt, and to present evidence in rebuttal.

Contempt of court in a civil suit is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court itself.

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[Burden of proof|reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the [[sheriff]] or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The contemnor is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional [[due process of law|due process]] is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Books about Contempt of Court==
*Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).

==See also==

*[[Contempt of Congress]] - in the United States, the same crime but against the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] or a [[state legislature (United States)|state legislature]].
*[[Contempt of Parliament]] - a similar concept to Contempt of Congress, but a power of [[Parliament]]
*[[Perjury]] - lying to the court is a separate criminal offence in most jurisdictions, but is analogous to contempt in many ways.
*[[Perverting the course of justice]] and [[Obstruction of justice]] - A criminal offence where a person seeks to subvert court proceedings or official investigations.

==External links==
UK [[Crown Prosecution Service]] (CPS) – [http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section12/chapter_g.html Guidence on contempt of court]

[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]

[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]
[[ur:توہین عدالت]]
[[zh:藐視法庭]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Missachtung des Gerichts

2008-02-15T06:14:01Z

Cahk: /* Federal Courts */

{{worldview}}

'''Contempt of court''' is a court ruling which, in the context of a court trial or hearing, deems an individual as being in [[contempt]] of the court, its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt", or a person "held in contempt", it is the highest remedy of a judge to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which excessively or in a wanton manner disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a [[court]], showing disrespect for the [[judge]], disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[fine]] or [[prison|jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.

In civil cases involving relations between private citizens, the intended victim of the act of contempt is usually the party for whose benefit the ruling was implemented, rather than the court itself.

A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt. These are (1) existence of a lawful order, (2) the contemnor's knowledge of the order, (3) the contemnor's ability to comply, and (4) the contemnor's failure to comply.

==Canada==
Criminal offences are found within the Criminal Code of Canada or other federal/provincial laws, with the exception that contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.<ref> [http://www.courts.gov.bc.ca/legal_compendium/Chapter22.asp A Compendium of Law and Judges]</ref>

Contempt of Court includes the following behaviours:
* fails to maintain a respectful attitude, remain silent or refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding
* refuses or neglects to obey a subpoena
* wilfully disobeys a process or order of the Court
* interfere with the orderly administration of justice or to impair the authority or dignity of the Court
* officer of the Court fails to perform his or her duties
* sheriff or bailiff and does not execute a writ forthwith or does not make a return thereof

===Federal Courts===
''This section applies only to [[Federal Court of Appeal]] and [[Federal Court (Canada)|Federal Court]].''

Under Federal Court Rules, section 472, a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved. <ref> [http://reports.fja.gc.ca/regles/partie12.html Federal Court Rules Chapter 12]</ref>

If it's a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person be imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order, fine, or be ordered to do or refrain from doing any act as considered by the judge.

===Tax Court of Canada===
Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of ''Tax Court of Canada Act'', a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.

===Provincial Courts===
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in [[British Columbia|BC]], [[Justice of Peace]] can only issue appearance notice to the offender for Contempt, for which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done at the face of the Justice.

==United Kingdom==

In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[Crime|criminal]] or [[civil]] offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years.

Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behavior toward the judge while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behavior observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual affected by a court order may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.

===Criminal contempt of court===

The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).

[[Magistrates' Court]]s are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the court may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to [[Pound sterling|GB£]]2500, or do both.

It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."

===Strict liability contempt===

Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney-General]] has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===

In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[bench warrant]] is issued, authorizing the [[tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" - i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment - is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American [[jurisprudence]], acts of contempt are divided into two types.

"Direct" contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae''), and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice, and after giving the person the opportunity to respond, may impose the sanction immediately.

"Indirect" contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court, and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt, and to present evidence in rebuttal.

Contempt of court in a civil suit is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court itself.

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[Burden of proof|reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the [[sheriff]] or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The contemnor is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional [[due process of law|due process]] is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Books about Contempt of Court==
*Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).

==See also==

*[[Contempt of Congress]] - in the United States, the same crime but against the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] or a [[state legislature (United States)|state legislature]].
*[[Contempt of Parliament]] - a similar concept to Contempt of Congress, but a power of [[Parliament]]
*[[Perjury]] - lying to the court is a separate criminal offence in most jurisdictions, but is analogous to contempt in many ways.
*[[Perverting the course of justice]] and [[Obstruction of justice]] - A criminal offence where a person seeks to subvert court proceedings or official investigations.

==External links==
UK [[Crown Prosecution Service]] (CPS) – [http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section12/chapter_g.html Guidence on contempt of court]

[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]

[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]
[[ur:توہین عدالت]]
[[zh:藐視法庭]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Missachtung des Gerichts

2008-02-15T03:34:53Z

Cahk: added reflist

{{worldview}}

'''Contempt of court''' is a court ruling which, in the context of a court trial or hearing, deems an individual as being in [[contempt]] of the court, its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt", or a person "held in contempt", it is the highest remedy of a judge to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which excessively or in a wanton manner disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a [[court]], showing disrespect for the [[judge]], disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[fine]] or [[prison|jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.

In civil cases involving relations between private citizens, the intended victim of the act of contempt is usually the party for whose benefit the ruling was implemented, rather than the court itself.

A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt. These are (1) existence of a lawful order, (2) the contemnor's knowledge of the order, (3) the contemnor's ability to comply, and (4) the contemnor's failure to comply.

==Canada==
Criminal offences are found within the Criminal Code of Canada or other federal/provincial laws, with the exception that contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.<ref> [http://www.courts.gov.bc.ca/legal_compendium/Chapter22.asp A Compendium of Law and Judges]</ref>

Contempt of Court includes the following behaviours:
* fails to maintain a respectful attitude, remain silent or refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding
* refuses or neglects to obey a subpoena
* wilfully disobeys a process or order of the Court
* interfere with the orderly administration of justice or to impair the authority or dignity of the Court
* officer of the Court fails to perform his or her duties
* sheriff or bailiff and does not execute a writ forthwith or does not make a return thereof

===Federal Courts===
''This section applies only to [[Federal Court of Appeal]] and [[Federal Court (Canada)]].''

Under Federal Court Rules, section 472, a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved. <ref> [http://reports.fja.gc.ca/regles/partie12.html Federal Court Rules Chapter 12]</ref>

If it's a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person be imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order, fine, or be ordered to do or refrain from doing any act as considered by the judge.

===Tax Court of Canada===
Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of ''Tax Court of Canada Act'', a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.

===Provincial Courts===
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in [[British Columbia|BC]], [[Justice of Peace]] can only issue appearance notice to the offender for Contempt, for which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done at the face of the Justice.

==United Kingdom==

In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[Crime|criminal]] or [[civil]] offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years.

Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behavior toward the judge while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behavior observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual affected by a court order may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.

===Criminal contempt of court===

The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).

[[Magistrates' Court]]s are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the court may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to [[Pound sterling|GB£]]2500, or do both.

It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."

===Strict liability contempt===

Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney-General]] has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===

In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[bench warrant]] is issued, authorizing the [[tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" - i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment - is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American [[jurisprudence]], acts of contempt are divided into two types.

"Direct" contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae''), and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice, and after giving the person the opportunity to respond, may impose the sanction immediately.

"Indirect" contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court, and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt, and to present evidence in rebuttal.

Contempt of court in a civil suit is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court itself.

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[Burden of proof|reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the [[sheriff]] or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The contemnor is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional [[due process of law|due process]] is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Books about Contempt of Court==
*Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).

==See also==

*[[Contempt of Congress]] - in the United States, the same crime but against the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] or a [[state legislature (United States)|state legislature]].
*[[Contempt of Parliament]] - a similar concept to Contempt of Congress, but a power of [[Parliament]]
*[[Perjury]] - lying to the court is a separate criminal offence in most jurisdictions, but is analogous to contempt in many ways.
*[[Perverting the course of justice]] and [[Obstruction of justice]] - A criminal offence where a person seeks to subvert court proceedings or official investigations.

==External links==
UK [[Crown Prosecution Service]] (CPS) – [http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section12/chapter_g.html Guidence on contempt of court]

[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]

[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]
[[ur:توہین عدالت]]
[[zh:藐視法庭]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Missachtung des Gerichts

2008-02-15T03:31:46Z

Cahk:

{{worldview}}

'''Contempt of court''' is a court ruling which, in the context of a court trial or hearing, deems an individual as being in [[contempt]] of the court, its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt", or a person "held in contempt", it is the highest remedy of a judge to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which excessively or in a wanton manner disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a [[court]], showing disrespect for the [[judge]], disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[fine]] or [[prison|jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.

In civil cases involving relations between private citizens, the intended victim of the act of contempt is usually the party for whose benefit the ruling was implemented, rather than the court itself.

A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt. These are (1) existence of a lawful order, (2) the contemnor's knowledge of the order, (3) the contemnor's ability to comply, and (4) the contemnor's failure to comply.

==Canada==
Criminal offences are found within the Criminal Code of Canada or other federal/provincial laws, with the exception that contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.<ref> [http://www.courts.gov.bc.ca/legal_compendium/Chapter22.asp A Compendium of Law and Judges]</ref>

Contempt of Court includes the following behaviours:
* fails to maintain a respectful attitude, remain silent or refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding
* refuses or neglects to obey a subpoena
* wilfully disobeys a process or order of the Court
* interfere with the orderly administration of justice or to impair the authority or dignity of the Court
* officer of the Court fails to perform his or her duties
* sheriff or bailiff and does not execute a writ forthwith or does not make a return thereof

===Federal Courts===
''This section applies only to [[Federal Court of Appeal]] and [[Federal Court (Canada)]].''

Under Federal Court Rules, section 472, a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved. <ref> [http://reports.fja.gc.ca/regles/partie12.html Federal Court Rules Chapter 12]</ref>

If it's a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person be imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order, fine, or be ordered to do or refrain from doing any act as considered by the judge.

===Tax Court of Canada===
Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of ''Tax Court of Canada Act'', a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.

===Provincial Courts===
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in [[British Columbia|BC]], [[Justice of Peace]] can only issue appearance notice to the offender for Contempt, for which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done at the face of the Justice.

==United Kingdom==

In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[Crime|criminal]] or [[civil]] offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years.

Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behavior toward the judge while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behavior observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual affected by a court order may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.

===Criminal contempt of court===

The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).

[[Magistrates' Court]]s are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the court may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to [[Pound sterling|GB£]]2500, or do both.

It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."

===Strict liability contempt===

Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney-General]] has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===

In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[bench warrant]] is issued, authorizing the [[tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" - i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment - is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American [[jurisprudence]], acts of contempt are divided into two types.

"Direct" contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae''), and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice, and after giving the person the opportunity to respond, may impose the sanction immediately.

"Indirect" contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court, and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt, and to present evidence in rebuttal.

Contempt of court in a civil suit is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court itself.

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[Burden of proof|reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the [[sheriff]] or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The contemnor is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional [[due process of law|due process]] is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

==Books about Contempt of Court==
*Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).

==See also==

*[[Contempt of Congress]] - in the United States, the same crime but against the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] or a [[state legislature (United States)|state legislature]].
*[[Contempt of Parliament]] - a similar concept to Contempt of Congress, but a power of [[Parliament]]
*[[Perjury]] - lying to the court is a separate criminal offence in most jurisdictions, but is analogous to contempt in many ways.
*[[Perverting the course of justice]] and [[Obstruction of justice]] - A criminal offence where a person seeks to subvert court proceedings or official investigations.

==External links==
UK [[Crown Prosecution Service]] (CPS) – [http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section12/chapter_g.html Guidence on contempt of court]

[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]

[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]
[[ur:توہین عدالت]]
[[zh:藐視法庭]]

Mind the gap

2008-01-16T07:01:02Z

Cahk: /* The phrase worldwide */ KCR no longer exist

{{external links}}
{{other uses}}

[[Image:Mindthegap.png|thumb|A "Mind the gap" sticker onboard a [[KCR EMU SP1900]] in Hong Kong's KCR stock]]
'''"Mind the gap"''' is a warning to [[train]] passengers to remind them of the sometimes significant gap between the train door and the [[station platform]]. It was first introduced in 1969 by the [[London Underground]] [[rapid transit]] system.

Some station platforms on the London Underground are curved. Since the [[railroad car|cars]] are straight, the distance from the platform to the car at certain points is greater than normal, and the phrase "MIND THE GAP" is painted on the edge of such platforms. A recorded announcement is also played whenever a train arrives at a station, consisting of "Mind the gap" repeated several times, followed by "Stand clear of the doors, please," and "This train is now ready to depart".

The recording is also used where platforms are of a nonstandard height. Deep-level tube trains have a floor height around 20 cm less than [[Tunnel#Construction|cut-and-cover]] line trains. Where these trains share platforms, for example some [[Piccadilly Line]] (deep level) and [[District Line]] (cut-and-cover) stations, the platform is built as a compromise between the two. The "Mind the gap" warning is used in this situation as well.

The [[Central Line]] platforms at [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]] and the [[Bakerloo Line]] platforms at [[Piccadilly Circus tube station|Piccadilly Circus]] are two of the more notable examples of platforms where "Mind the gap" is played. The "Mind the gap" markings on the platform edge usually line up with the doors on the cars when the train comes to a stop. This can be useful to know for catching trains from busier stations such as [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]].

While the message is often played on some lines over the platform's PA system, it is becoming more common for the message to be played as part of the in-carriage arrival message ("Please mind the gap between the train and the platform.")

==Origin of the phrase==
{{Video|filename=Mind the gap.ogg|description=Mind the gap, [[Paddington Station]]|title=Mind the gap}}
The phrase "Mind the gap" was coined in around 1968 for a planned automated announcement, after it had become impractical for drivers and station attendants to frequently warn passengers about the gap between train and platform. The Underground management chose what was then a new technology, [[digital recording]], in order to be able to save the announcement using [[solid state (electronics)|solid state]] equipment that would have no moving parts. As [[Computer memory|storage]] capacity was highly expensive, the phrase had to be relatively short. A short warning would also be easier to fit in writing on the platform.

The recording equipment was supplied by [[AEG]] [[Telefunken]]. According to the ''[[Independent on Sunday]]'', sound engineer Peter Lodge (who owned a company called Redan Recorders in Bayswater), working with a Scottish Telefunken engineer, initially recorded a professional actor reading "Mind the gap" and "Please stand clear of the doors", but the actor insisted on performance [[royalties]] and the phrases had to be re-recorded. In the event, Lodge read the phrases to line up the recording equipment for level and those recordings were chosen for use. [http://www.gradewinner.com/p/articles/mi_qn4159/is_200312/ai_n12746493]

While Lodge's recording is still in use nowadays, some Underground lines use other recordings. One was recorded by Manchester-based voice artist [[Emma Clarke]]. Other announcements, used on the Piccadilly line, are voiced by the actor [[Tim Bentinck]], who portrays David Archer in ''[[The Archers]]''.

== The phrase worldwide ==
[[Image:Mind-the-gap-toronto.jpg|thumb|"Mind the gap" sign at a [[Toronto subway and RT|Toronto subway]] station.]]

"Mind the gap" is also used as a warning by other transit systems, notably the [[Toronto Transit Commission]], which has "Mind the gap" signs [http://www.toronto.ca/ttc/ea_subway.htm] posted prominently in all stations, even though almost none of the platforms on the system are curved. ( There is a slight curve on the north side of the platform at [[Union (TTC)|Union Station]]). The phrase is also used in the automated announcements on board trains running on the [[North East MRT Line|North East Line]] of the [[Singapore]] [[Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)|Mass Rapid Transit]] (MRT) service, operated by [[SBS Transit]]. On board automated announcements on the trains running on the other two lines operated by [[SMRT]] did not include the phrase until 2006. In [[Hong Kong]], the phrase is used by the [[MTR]] in announcements and on signs.

The phrase can also be heard in the Athens Metro System.

The equivalent sentence exists in other languages, for example in French it is occasionally written on signals on the platforms in the [[Paris]] [[Métro]].

However, most new rapid transit systems avoid building stations on curves for the reasons described above.
[[Image:Metro North gap sign.jpg|left|200px|thumb|"Watch the gap" variant used on [[Metro-North Railroad|Metro-North]].]]
The [[New York City]]-area [[commuter rail]]roads [[Metro-North Railroad|Metro-North]] and the [[Long Island Rail Road]] make wide use of the variant "Watch the gap" on their trains and station platforms, particularly [[Croton-Harmon (Metro-North station)|Croton-Harmon]]. Due to recent news reports of people falling through the gap, a warning is now played at every station and automated announcements on board the trains on LIRR and MNRR.

The phrase is also frequently used metaphorically, meaning to mind the difference between what is real and what is not.

== Sydney ==
Two stations with sharp radius curves are:
* [[Wollstonecraft railway station, Sydney|Wollstonecraft]] - 200m radius
* [[Waverton railway station, Sydney|Waverton]] - 400m radius

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.emmaclarke.com/voiceover-demos/london-underground Emma Clarke with demos of her LU announcements]
*[http://www.emmaclarke.com/fun/mind-the-gap/spoof-london-underground-announcements Emma Clarke with spoof LU announcements]
*[http://www.variety.com/review/VE1117932635.html?categoryid=31&cs=1 "Mind the Gap" film]
*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2007/09/09/sm_sanditoksvig.xml "Daily Telegraph" article by Sandi Toksvig which mentions "Mind the Gap"] - accessed Sep 2007

[[Category:English phrases]]
[[Category:London Underground]]
[[Category:London words]]

[[fr:Mind the gap]]
[[ko:Mind the gap]]
[[it:Mind the gap]]

Environment and Climate Change Canada

2007-12-01T02:09:11Z

Cahk: /* Enforcement */

{{Infobox Canadian government departments
|department=Environment
|french=Environnement
|logo=FIP Environment Canada.PNG
|current_minister=John Baird
|secretary=Mark Warawa
|established=1971
|responsibilities=Meteorological Service of Canada

Parks Canada

Canadian Ice Service

Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

Water Survey of Canada

National Water Research Institute

National Pollutant Release Inventory
|employees= ~6,000 [http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=ECBC00D9-1]
|website=http://www.ec.gc.ca
}}
'''Environment Canada (EC)''', legally incorporated as the '''Department of the Environment''' under the ''Department of the Environment Act'' ( R.S., 1985, c. E-10 ), is the [[Ministry (government department)|department]] of the [[Government of Canada]] with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and conservation of wildlife.

Environment Canada is the lead department within the federal government when it comes to cleaning up hazardous waste and [[oil spill]]s. The department is also responsible for [[meteorology]] as well as research and education on [[climate change]], as well as international environmental issues (e.g., Canada-USA air issues).

Responsibility for environmental management in [[Canada]] is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments. For example, provincial governments have primary authority for permitting industrial waste discharges (e.g., to the air) while the federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country (e.g. [[benzene]]). Environment Canada provides stewardship of the [[Environmental Choice Program]], which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of (GEN) [[Global Ecolabelling Network]].

Environment Canada is currently (2005-present) undergoing a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making, and to standardize policy implementation.

[[John Baird]] is the current [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Minister of the Environment]] (2007-).

==Division==

Environment Canada is divided into several geographic regions:

* [[Atlantic_Canada|Atlantic]] ([[Maritimes]] and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]])
* [[Quebec]]
* [[National Capital Region (Canada)|National Capital]]
* [[Ontario]]
* Prairie-Northern ([[Nunavut]], [[Northwest_Territories|NWT]] and [[Canadian_prairies|Prairies]])
* Pacific-[[Yukon]] ([[British_Columbia|BC]] and [[Yukon]])

The department has several organizations which carry out specific tasks:

* [[Meteorological Service of Canada]] (for [[weather forecasting]])
** [[Weatheradio Canada]], a national system of emergency weather broadcast transmitters
* [[Canadian Wildlife Service]]
* [[Parks Canada]] which manages the [[Canadian National Parks]] system.
* Canadian Ice Service
* Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency
* [[Water Survey of Canada]]
* National Water Research Institute
* [[National Pollutant Release Inventory]] (NPRI)

==Enforcement==
[[Image:ECBadge.gif|right]]

Environment Canada Enforcement Branch is responsible for ensuring compliance with the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'' and pollution provisions of the ''Fisheries Act'' and corresponding regulations.

The [[Governor-in-Council]] appoints Enforcement Officers and pursuant to section 217(3) of the ''Canadian Environmental Protection Act'', enforcement officers of Environment Canada have all the powers of [[peace officer]]s.

More information: [http://www.ec.gc.ca/ele-ale/default.asp?lang=En EC Enforcement Branch]

==Related legislation==
*[[Canada National Parks Act]]
*Canada Water Act
*Canada Wildlife Act
*[[Canadian Environmental Protection Act]] (1999)
*[[Department of the Environment Act (Canada)|Department of the Environment Act]]
*Environment Week Act, Canadian
*International River Improvements Act
*Lac Seul Conservation Act
*Lake of the Woods Control Board Act
*Manganese-Based Fuel Additives Act
*Migratory Birds Convention Act
*National Wildlife Week Act
*Species at Risk Act (2002)
*Weather Modification Information Act
*Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Inter-provincial Trade Act

==External links==

*[http://www.ec.gc.ca Environment Canada]
*[http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca Meteorological Service of Canada]
*[http://www.pc.gc.ca Parks Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/introec/orgs_e.htm Select programs and services of Environment Canada]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroRegs/ENG/Default.cfm Related acts and regulations]
*[http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm National Pollutant Release Inventory]

{{Template:Government Departments of Canada}}

[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Environment Canada]]
[[Category:Environment ministries]]
[[Category:Regulators of biotechnology products]]
[[Category:Environmental protection agencies]]

[[es:Environment Canada]]
[[fr:Environnement Canada]]