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2011-03-14T18:42:27Z

C1010: /* Participating countries */

{{Refimprove|date=June 2009}}
[[File:GenIVRoadmap.jpg|right|480px|Nuclear Energy Systems Deployable no later than 2030 and offering significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, and economics]]
'''Generation IV reactors''' (Gen IV) are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched. Most of these designs are generally not expected to be available for commercial construction before 2030, with the exception of a version of the Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) called the [[Next Generation Nuclear Plant]] (NGNP). The NGNP is to be completed by 2021. Current reactors in operation around the world are generally considered second- or third-generation systems, with most of the first-generation systems having been retired some time ago. Research into these reactor types was officially started by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals. The primary goals being to improve [[nuclear safety]], improve proliferation resistance, minimize waste and natural resource utilization, and to decrease the cost to build and run such plants.

The reactors are intended for use in [[nuclear power plant]]s to produce [[nuclear power]] from [[nuclear fuel]].

== Reactor types ==
Many reactor types were considered initially; however, the list was downsized to focus on the most promising technologies and those that could most likely meet the goals of the Gen IV initiative. Three systems are nominally [[thermal reactor]]s and three are [[fast reactor]]s. The VHTR is also being researched for potentially providing high quality process heat for hydrogen production. The fast reactors offer the possibility of burning actinides to further reduce waste and of being able to breed more fuel than they consume. These systems offer significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, economics, proliferation resistance and physical protection.

=== Thermal reactors ===
==== Very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) ====
[[File:Very_High_Temperature_Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR)]]
{{Main|Very high temperature reactor}}
The '''very high temperature reactor''' concept uses a [[graphite]]-moderated core with a once-through [[uranium]] fuel cycle, using helium or molten salt as the [[Very_high_temperature_reactor#Coolant|coolant]]. This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1,000 °C. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a [[pebble bed reactor]] design. The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or [[hydrogen]] production via the thermochemical [[Sulfur-iodine cycle|iodine-sulfur]] process. It would also be [[Passive nuclear safety|passively safe]].

The planned construction of the first VHTR, the South African PBMR (pebble bed modular reactor), lost government funding in February, 2010.<ref>[http://www.powergenworldwide.com/index/display/articledisplay/6322207443/articles/power-engineering-international/volume-18/Issue_3/regulars/world-news/INTERNATIONAL.html South Africa to stop funding Pebble Bed nuclear reactor]</ref> A pronounced increase of costs and concerns about possible unexpected technical problems had discouraged potential investors and customers.

==== Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR) ====
[[File:Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)]]
{{Main|Supercritical water reactor}}
The '''supercritical water reactor''' (SCWR)<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a concept that uses [[supercritical fluid|supercritical water]] as the working fluid. SCWRs are basically [[light water reactor]]s (LWR) operating at higher pressure and temperatures with a direct, once-through cycle. As most commonly envisioned, it would operate on a direct cycle, much like a Boiling Water Reactor ([[BWR]]), but since it uses supercritical water (not to be confused with [[Critical mass (nuclear)|critical mass]]) as the working fluid, would have only one phase present, like the Pressurized Water Reactor ([[Pressurized water reactor|PWR]]). It could operate at much higher temperatures than both current PWRs and BWRs.

Supercritical water-cooled reactors (SCWRs) are promising advanced nuclear systems because of their high [[thermal efficiency]] (i.e., about 45% vs. about 33% efficiency for current LWRs) and considerable plant simplification.

The main mission of the SCWR is generation of low-cost [[electricity]]. It is built upon two proven technologies, LWRs, which are the most commonly deployed power generating reactors in the world, and supercritical [[fossil fuel]] fired [[boiler]]s, a large number of which are also in use around the world. The SCWR concept is being investigated by 32 organizations in 13 countries.

==== Molten-salt reactor (MSR) ====
[[File:Molten Salt Reactor.svg|right|thumb|Molten Salt Reactor (MSR)]]
{{Main|Molten salt reactor}}
A '''molten salt reactor'''<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a type of [[nuclear reactor]] where the [[coolant]] is a molten salt. There have been many designs put forward for this type of reactor and a few prototypes built. The early concepts and many current ones had the [[nuclear fuel]] dissolved in the molten [[fluoride]] salt as [[uranium]] tetrafluoride (UF<sub>4</sub>), the fluid would reach [[Critical mass (nuclear)|criticality]] by flowing into a [[graphite]] core which would also serve as the [[neutron moderator|moderator]]. Many current concepts rely on fuel that is dispersed in a graphite matrix with the molten salt providing low pressure, high temperature cooling.

=== Fast reactors ===
==== Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) ====
[[File:Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR)]]
{{Main|Gas cooled fast reactor}}
The '''gas-cooled fast reactor''' (GFR)<ref name="Roadmap"/> system features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed [[Nuclear fuel cycle|fuel cycle]] for efficient conversion of [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and management of [[actinide]]s. The reactor is [[helium]]-cooled, with an outlet temperature of 850 °C and using a direct [[Brayton cycle]] [[gas turbine]] for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are being considered for their potential to operate at very high temperatures and to ensure an excellent retention of [[Nuclear fission|fission]] products: composite [[ceramic]] fuel, advanced fuel particles, or ceramic clad elements of actinide compounds. Core configurations are being considered based on pin- or plate-based fuel assemblies or prismatic blocks.

==== Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) ====
[[File:Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)]]
{{Main|Sodium-cooled fast reactor}}
{{seealso|Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station|Monju Nuclear Power Plant|Phénix|BN-600 reactor}}
The SFR<ref name="Roadmap"/> is a project that builds on two closely related existing projects, the [[LMFBR|liquid metal fast breeder reactor]] and the [[Integral Fast Reactor]].

The goals are to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by [[breeder reactor|breeding]] plutonium and eliminating the need for [[transuranic]] isotopes ever to leave the site. The reactor design uses an unmoderated core running on [[fast neutron]]s, designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). In addition to the benefits of removing the long [[half-life]] transuranics from the waste cycle, the SFR fuel expands when the reactor overheats, and the chain reaction automatically slows down. In this manner, it is passively safe.

The [[Integral Fast Reactor]] or IFR is a design for a nuclear reactor with a specialized [[nuclear fuel cycle]]. A prototype of the reactor was built, but the project was cancelled before it could be copied elsewhere.

The SFR reactor concept is cooled by liquid [[sodium]] and fueled by a metallic alloy of [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]]. The fuel is contained in steel cladding with liquid sodium filling in the space between the clad elements which make up the fuel assembly. One of the design challenges of an SFR are the risks of handling sodium, which reacts explosively if it comes into contact with water. However, the use of liquid metal instead of water as coolant allows the system to work at atmospheric pressure, reducing the risk of leakage.

==== Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) ====
[[File:Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor Schemata.svg|right|thumb|Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR)]]
{{Main|Lead cooled fast reactor}}
The '''lead-cooled fast reactor'''<ref name="Roadmap">{{cite journal| year=2002 | title=A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems | last=US DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee |volume=GIF-002-00|url=http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/documents/gen_iv_roadmap.pdf}}</ref> features a fast-neutron-spectrum [[lead]] or [[lead]]/[[bismuth]] [[eutectic]] ([[Lead-bismuth eutectic|LBE]]) liquid-metal-cooled reactor with a closed [[Nuclear fuel cycle|fuel cycle]]. Options include a range of plant ratings, including a "battery" of 50 to 150 MW of electricity that features a very long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300 to 400 MW, and a large monolithic plant option at 1,200 MW. (The term ''battery'' refers to the long-life, factory-fabricated core, not to any provision for electrochemical energy conversion.) The fuel is metal or nitride-based containing [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and [[transuranic]]s. The LFR is cooled by natural [[convection]] with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550 °C, possibly ranging up to 800 °C with advanced materials. The higher temperature enables the production of hydrogen by thermochemical processes.

== Advantages and disadvantages==
Relative to current nuclear power plant technology, the claimed benefits for 4th generation reactors include:<ref>{{cite web |title=4th Generation Nuclear Power |url=http://www.ossfoundation.us/projects/energy/nuclear}}</ref>
* Nuclear waste that lasts decades instead of millennia.
* 100-300 times more energy yield from the same amount of nuclear fuel.
* The ability to consume existing nuclear waste in the production of electricity.
* Improved operating safety

One disadvantage of any new reactor technology is that safety risks may be greater initially as reactor operators have little experience with the new design. Nuclear engineer David Lochbaum has explained that almost all serious nuclear accidents have occurred with what was at the time the most recent technology. He argues that "the problem with new reactors and accidents is twofold: scenarios arise that are impossible to plan for in simulations; and humans make mistakes".<ref name=safe/> As one director of a U.S. research laboratory put it, "fabrication, construction, operation, and maintenance of new reactors will face a steep learning curve: advanced technologies will have a heightened risk of accidents and mistakes. The technology may be proven, but people are not".<ref name=safe>[[Benjamin K. Sovacool]]. A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia, ''Journal of Contemporary Asia'', Vol. 40, No. 3, August 2010, p. 381.</ref>

== Participating countries ==
* {{ARG}} http://www.cnea.gov.ar/ (Spanish-only web site)
* {{CAN}} http://www.aecl.ca/
* {{CHN}} http://www.caea.gov.cn/n602669/n2231600/n2272156/n2272415/167948.html
* {{EU}} http://www.euronuclear.org/info/generation-IV.htm
* {{FRA}} http://www.cea.fr/ (French-only web site)
* {{JPN}} http://www.jaeri.go.jp/
* {{KOR}} http://www.most.go.kr/index.html (Korean-only web site)
* {{RUS}} http://www.minatom.ru/en/
* {{RSA}} http://www.eskom.co.za/live/index.php
* {{SUI}} http://www.psi.ch/index_e.shtml
* {{UK}} http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/sources/nuclear/technology/fission/page17924.html
* {{USA}} http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/neGenIV1.html

The nine GIF founding members were joined by Switzerland in 2002, Euratom in 2003 and most recently by China and Russia at the end of 2006.<ref>{{cite web | author=[[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique]]|title= Future nuclear systems| url=http://nucleaire.cea.fr/fr/nucleaire_futur/pu_schema1ch2.htm}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Nuclear reactor]]
* [[Nuclear material]]
* [[Nuclear physics]]
* [[List of reactor types]]
* [[Generation II reactor]]
* [[Generation III reactor]]
* [[Integral Fast Reactor]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://inlportal.inl.gov/portal/server.pt?open=514&objID=1361&parentname=CommunityPage&parentid=10&mode=2&in_hi_userid=200&cached=true Article from Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen. IV reactors.]
* [http://www.gen-4.org/ Generation IV International Forum (GIF)]
* [http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/neGenIV1.html U.S. Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology]
* [http://www.engr.utk.edu/nuclear/colloquia/slides/Gen%20IV%20U-Tenn%20Presentation.pdf Gen IV presentation]
* [http://www.ecology.at/ecology/files/pr577_1.pdf Science or Fiction - Is there a Future for Nuclear?] (Nov. 2007) - A publication from the Austrian [[Ecology Institute (Austria)|Ecology Institute]] about 'Generation IV' and Fusion reactors.

{{Nuclear Technology}}

[[Category:Nuclear power reactor types]]
[[Category:Idaho National Laboratory]]

[[de:Generation IV International Forum]]
[[fa:راکتور نسل ۴]]
[[fr:Forum International Génération IV]]
[[ko:4세대 원자로]]
[[it:Reattore nucleare di IV generazione]]
[[nl:Vierde generatie kernreactors]]
[[pt:Reatores Nucleares de Quarta Geração]]
[[fi:Reaktorisukupolvet]]
[[sv:Fjärde generationens reaktor]]

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