Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

LGBT-Migration

2014-12-24T13:08:15Z

Bodiadub: /* References */

[[File:Athens Pride 2009 - 31.jpg|thumb|Athens Pride Parade 2009]]
'''Queer migration''' is the movement of [[lesbian]], [[gay]], [[bisexual]], [[transgender]], and [[queer]] ([[LGBTQ]]) people around the world and domestically, often to escape [[discrimination]] or ill treatment due to their [[sexuality]]. Globally, many LGBTQ people attempt to leave discriminatory regions in search of more tolerant ones.
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==LGBT discrimination and tolerance by region==

===Australia===
In the early 1900s, homosexuality was also used as a valid reason for deportation in Australia.<ref name=bashford> Bashford, A. Howard, S. 2004. Immigration and Health: Law and Regulation in Australia, 1901-1958. Health & History, Vol. 6,(1). 97-112.</ref> The nation specifically allowed for homosexual immigration in the 1980s.<ref name=seekingasylum>Immigration Equality, "Seeking Asylum." Accessed October 20, 2013. http://immigrationequality.org/issues/asylum/seeking-asylum/.</ref>

===North America===
In the beginning of the 20th century, homosexuality was considered a mental illness and used to bar homosexuals from immigrating into the United States, and Canada.<ref name=bashford/> Canada allowed for homosexual immigration in 1991.<ref name=seekingasylum/>

====The United States====
In the United States, the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]] became the first policy to explicitly prevent “sexual deviates” from entering the country, and it also required the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]] (INS) to deport these individuals.<ref>Pickert, Jeremiah. "Immigration for Queer Couples: A Comparative Analysis Explaining the United States’ Restrictive Approach ." A Worldwide Student Journal of Politics. http://lilt.ilstu.edu/critique/fall2012docs/pickert-post1.pdf (accessed October 20, 2013).</ref>

The [[Lavender Scare]] of the anti-communist 1950’s America created additional persecution of homosexuals and a spirit of fear among people with same-sex attraction. After the war, a "Pervert Elimination Campaign" was initiated in Washington D.C. by the U.S. Park Police. D.C. parks witnessed a number of sex charge arrests of gay men, many of whom subsequently lost their jobs. <ref> Johnson, David K. The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government. 2004.</ref>

The United States military excluded homosexuals until 2011, and proposed that they were unfit for service. The law commonly known as “[[Don’t ask, don’t tell]]” allowed LGB people to serve as long as they kept their sexuality hidden. The Obama administration allowed LGB people to serve openly in the military. <ref>Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell (DADT)," accessed November 04, 2013, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1553878/Dont-Ask-Dont-Tell.</ref>

====Mexico====
In Mexico, between 2002 and 2007 roughly 1000 people -- mostly gay men -- were recorded as murdered for homosexual acts. That statistic makes [[Mexico]] the country with the second-highest rate of homophobic crimes in the world (after Brazil).<ref>AFP (10 May 2007). "En cinco años han sido asesinadas 1.000 personas por homofobia en México" (in Spanish). Enkidu.</ref><ref>EFE (19 May 2006). "ONGs denuncian que México es el segundo país con más crímenes por homofobia" (in Spanish). Enkidu.</ref> Only 16 women were established to have been murdered because of homosexuality between 1995 and 2004.<ref> EFE (15 May 2007). "El 94 por ciento de los gays y lesbianas se sienten discriminados en México" (in Spanish). Enkidu. Retrieved 16 December 2007.</ref>

A UAM study found that the most frequent types of discrimination were "not hiring for a job," "threats of extortion and detention by police," and "abuse of employees."<ref>Notimex (13 June 2007). "La población homosexual sufre violencia y exclusión en México según una investigación de la UAM" (in Spanish). Enkidu. Retrieved 15 December 2007.</ref>

===Europe===
[[File:Burning of Sodomites.jpg|thumb|The knight of Hohenberg burned with his servant for sodomy, Zurich 1482.]]
Greeks, Romans, and most Mediterranean cultures glorified homosexuality in ancient times, and prior to the 7th century Europe had no secular laws against it.<ref>Evans, Len. "Gay Chronicles from the Beginning of Time to the End of World War II." WebCite. http://www.webcitation.org/5knsbJ2KF (accessed September 30, 2013).</ref>

Beginning in the 16th and 17th centuries, Europe considered all homosexuality equivalent to the biblical sin of sodomy, punishable by death.<ref name=Timeline>"Timeline of UK LGBT History - LGBT History UK." UK LGBT History Project Wiki. http://www.lgbthistoryuk.org/wiki/index.php?title=Timeline_of_UK_LGBT_History (accessed September 30, 2013).</ref> Later during the [[Holocaust]], homosexuals were rounded up and murdered alongside Jews.

The [[Buggery Act of 1533]] and the [[Laws in Wales Act]] of 1542, punished gay sex with death by hanging in England and Wales.<ref name=Timeline/>

Under the rule of [[Joseph Stalin]], Russia outlawed male homosexuality in 1933 and made the offense punishable by 5 years of hard labor in prison. This was not repealed until 1993.<ref>Russia: Update to RUS13194 of 16 February 1993 on the treatment of homosexuals.</ref><ref>http://www.savanne.ch/tusovka/en/pilot/homosexuality-russia.html</ref>

More than half of the 80 countries that continue to outlaw homosexuality were once British colonies.<ref>ILGA: 2009 Report on State Sponsored Homophobia (2009).</ref> It is theorized that, during 19th century colonial rule, many of the British anti-gay policies that were enacted still retain influence in these former colonies.<ref>Hepple, Joshua. "Will Sexual Minorities Ever Be Equal? The Repercussions of British Colonial "Sodomy" Laws." Equal Rights Review. (2012): 52. http://www.equalrightstrust.org/ertdocumentbank/ERR8_Joshua_Hepple.pdf (accessed October 23, 2013).</ref>

===Africa===
Many African countries punish homosexuality with the death sentence, like [[Mauritania]], [[Sudan]], and northern [[Nigeria]], where lesbians and gays are sometimes stoned to death. Institutional sexual persecution is also rampant in [[Cameroon]], [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Uganda]], and [[Gambia]]. [[Zimbabwe]] banned homosexual acts in 1995.<ref>"Confronting homophobia in South Africa", University of Cambridge, 27 September 2011]</ref><ref>Epprecht, Marc (2004). Hungochani: the history of a dissident sexuality in southern Africa. Montreal. p. 180.</ref><ref name=Uganda>Human Rights First, "Uganda." Accessed October 23, 2013. http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/our-work/fighting-discrimination/uganda/.</ref>

====Uganda====
In Uganda “touching a person with homosexual intent” results in a life sentence in prison, and actions that are perceived to promote homosexuality carry a seven-year sentence – these actions include advocating for gay human rights, belonging to a gay organization, and advocating for safe homosexual sex.<ref name=Uganda/><ref>Wasswa, Henry. Aljazeera, "Uganda's 'Kill the Gays' bill spreads fear." Last modified January 3, 2013. Accessed October 23, 2013.</ref>

====South Africa====
[[Corrective rape]], the rape of LGBT people in order to “correct” their “pathologies”, is a well-known phenomenon in [[South Africa]].<ref>Bartle, E. E. (2000). "Lesbians And Hate Crimes". Journal of Poverty (pdf).></Bartle, E. E. (2000). "Lesbians And Hate Crimes". Journal of Poverty (pdf).</ref> This can be especially harmful, considering the high instance of [[HIV/AIDS]] in South Africa.<ref>Mieses, Alexa. GMHC Treatment Issues, "Gender inequality and corrective rape of women who have sex with women." Last modified December 2009. Accessed October 23, 2013.</ref> [[File:Chinese homoerotic print Hua Ying Chin Chen.jpg|thumb|"Hua Ying Chin Chen” homoerotic print, China, Ming dynasty (1368–1644)]]

===Asia===
====North Korea====
The North Korean government proposes that gay culture is caused by the vices of capitalist societies.<ref>Global Gayz. "Gay North Korea News & Reports 2005". Archived from the original on 2005-10-18.. Retrieved on May 5, 2006.</ref> Homosexuality can be punished by up to 2 years in prison.<ref>Spartacus International Gay Guide, page 1217. Bruno Gmunder Verlag, 2007.</ref>

====China====
Bisexual behavior was considered normal behavior in Ancient China.<ref>Crompton, Louis, Homosexuality and Civilization, Harvard University, 2003.</ref>

Following interactions with the West, China began to view homosexuality as a mental illness in the late [[Qing Dynasty]].<ref>Kang, Wenqing. Obsession: male same-sex relations in China, 1900-1950, Hong Kong University Press. Page 3.</ref> It was outlawed in 1740.<ref>Francoeur, Robert T.; Noonan, Raymond J. (2004). The Continuum complete international encyclopedia of sexuality. The Continuum International Publishing Group, Inc.</ref> Later, in the [[Republic of China]], homosexuality was not illegal but it was vigorously policed as such.<ref>"History of Chinese homosexuality". Shanghai Star. 2004-04-01. Retrieved July 3, 2009.</ref>

===Middle East===
====Israel====
Israel allows lesbians and gays in their military, which first occurred in 1993. Additionally discrimination against lesbians and gays is specifically prohibited.<ref>Greenberg, Joel (2002-10-16). "Tel Aviv Journal; Once Taboo, a Gay Israeli Treads the Halls of Power". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-07.</ref><ref>Belkin, Aaron; Levitt, Melissa (Summer 2001). "Homosexuality and the Israel Defense Forces: Did Lifting the Gay Ban Undermine Military Performance?". Armed Forces & Society 27 (4): 541–566. ISSN 0095-327X.</ref> The Israeli government also gives funding to LGBT organizations and the prime minister has publicly condemned LGBT hate crimes.<ref name=segal>Segal, Mark. The Bilerico Project, "Israel, LGBT People & Equality Forum." Last modified March 28, 2012. Accessed November 5, 2013.</ref> LBGT immigrants who were legally married in other countries are legally recognized in Israel. <ref name=segal/>

====Saudi Arabia====
In [[Saudi Arabia]], homosexuality carries a maximum punishment of public execution when the activity is deemed to engage in LGBT social movements, but other punishments include forced sex changes, fines, imprisonments, and whipping.<ref>Whitaker, Brian (18 March 2005). "Arrests at Saudi ’gay wedding’".The Observer (London). "Saudi executions are not systematically reported, and</ref>

====Afghanistan====
Under the influence of the [[Taliban]], men accused of sodomy were sometimes killed by having a wall toppled over them. In February 1998, three men accused of sodomy were taken to the base of a mud and brick wall, which was then toppled over onto them by a tank. A similar death sentence for two men occurred in the March of 1998. Taliban leader, Mullah Mohammed Hassan, was reported to say, "Our religious scholars are not agreed on the right kind of punishment for homosexuality. Some say we should take these sinners to a high roof and throw them down, while others say we should dig a hole beside a wall, bury them, then push the wall down on top of them."<ref>"Pakistan wipes out half of Quetta Shura". The News International. Archived from the original on 2010-03-04. "According to well-informed diplomatic circles in Islamabad, the decision-makers in the powerful Pakistani establishment seem to have concluded in view of the ever-growing nexus between the Pakistani and the Afghan Taliban that they are now one and the same and the Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and the Quetta Shura Taliban (QST) could no more be treated as two separate Jihadi entities."</ref> Prior to Taliban rule, the supposedly "Islamic" punishment of having walls toppled onto homosexuals was not precedented.<ref name=rashid>Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Islam, Oil and the New Great Game in Central Asia. 2002. http://books.google.com/books?id=kIBgqHWq658C&pg=PA115&lpg=PA115&dq=taliban homosexuality punishment&source=bl&ots=jXsUDL1kkV&sig=nR3Kjr0hthYKbP1yO1KwLVUELuI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3354Uo6HMYq-sQTQ1IGwBg&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg</ref>

After the fall of the Taliban, homosexuality became punishable by fines and prison sentences.<ref name=rashid/>

====United Arab Emirates====
In 2006, 11 gay men at a private party were given 5 years in prison each for admitting to be gay and organizing a cross-dressing party.<ref> Ireland, Doug. Direland, "[http://direland.typepad.com/direland/2006/02/26_men_imprison.html 26 Men Imprisoned 5 Years Each for Being Gay in United Arab Emirates.]" Last modified February 11, 2006. Accessed October 23, 2013.</ref>
The two main youthful crimes from ages 14-18 within the population of Arab youth that are located in the Gulf States are petty theft and homosexual acts. In these countries, youth over the age of 16 are tried as adults, so these homosexual actions may cause severe and dire punishment within the legal system. <ref>Booth, Marilyn. "Enduring Ideals and Pressures to Change." The world's youth: Adolescence in eight regions of the globe (2002): 207.</ref>

====Iraq====
In [[Baghdad]] in 2009 a characteristic assortment of anti-gay crimes were committed. The Iraqi militia began torturing male homosexuals in ways that usually resulted in death. The Iraqi LGBT group suffered 63 cases of torture within its members. Murders of LGBT people were called for by anonymous individuals.<ref> IGLHRC, "Iraq: Torture, Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment of LGBT People." Accessed October 23, 2013. http://iglhrc.wordpress.com/2009/04/20/iraq-torture-cruel-inhuman-and-degrading-treatment-of-lgbt-people/.</ref>

====Iran====
In Iran a voluntary militia, the [[Basij]], functions partially as a "morality police." Among other things, the Basij has been known to find and persecute LGBT people.<ref>Iran's Basij Force -- The Mainstay Of Domestic Security, By Hossein Aryan, RFERL, December 07, 2008.</ref>

===Internationally===
In September of 2013, countries of the U.N. declared to protect LGBT rights, counter global [[homophobia]], and support educational campaigns for the advancement of LGBT rights.<ref>UN News Centre, "At UN meeting, countries commit to protect gay rights, combat discrimination." Last modified September 26, 2013. Accessed October 23, 2013. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=46036&Cr=lesbian&Cr1</ref>

In 1991 The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) declassified homosexuality as a mental illness.<ref>World Health Organization, "The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders ." Accessed October 23, 2013. http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/bluebook.pdf.</ref>

==LGBT discrimination and tolerance in religion==
{{See|Religion and homosexuality}}

===The Orthodox Church===
In 2013, the [[Assembly of Canonical Orthodox Bishops of North and Central America]] held that "marriage consists in the union of a man and a woman."<ref> Assembly of Canonical Orthodox Bishops of North and Central America, "2013 Assembly Statement on Marriage and Sexuality." Last modified 2013. Accessed October 23, 2013. http://assemblyofbishops.org/about/documents/2013-assembly-statement-on-marriage-and-sexuality.</ref> The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] has consistently condemned homosexuality as a sin that damages the soul, despite dissent from Church leaders.<ref>Kazhdan, A. P (1991). The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>Ferguson, Everett; Michael P McHugh, Frederick W Norris (1997). Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. Garland reference library of the humanities ; v. 1839 (2nd ed.). New York: Garland Pub.</ref>
[[File:Anti gay San Francisco.jpg|thumb|Religious protestors in San Francisco]]

===Christianity and the Bible===
The [[Old Testament]] is often interpreted to condemn homosexuality and homosexual acts, and the [[Catholic Church]] traditionally rejected same-sex behavior and considered it against nature. The Catholic community has politically campaigned against LGBT rights. <ref>Ratzinger J., et al. 1995. Part Three Life in Christ. In: Catechism of the Catholic Church. 1540 Broadway, New York, New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc. p. 625.</ref> In 2013 Pope Francis said, in reference to celibate gay men entering the priesthood, "Who am I to judge?" <ref>Goodstein, Laurie. NY Times, "Pope Says Church Is ‘Obsessed’ With Gays, Abortion and Birth Control." Last modified September 19, 2013. Accessed November 5, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/20/world/europe/pope-bluntly-faults-churchs-focus-on-gays-and-abortion.html?_r=0.</ref>

===Islam===
{{See|Islam and homosexuality}}

Islamic Shari'ah law stems from the Qur'an and Muhammad's Sunnah. They are often seen as the laws of Allah, and under this law, homosexuality is a crime and a punishable sin against God.

The Qur'an (7:80-84) is translated, "...For ye practice your lusts on men in preference to women: ye are indeed a people transgressing beyond bounds.... And we rained down on them a shower (of brimstone)." Muslim scholars have sometimes interpreted the "rain of stones" to mean that homosexuals should be stoned.<ref name=guide>TheReligionofPeace.com Guide to Understanding Islam, "Homosexuality." Accessed November 4, 2013. http://www.thereligionofpeace.com/Quran/026-homosexuality.htm.</ref>

Additionally, a Yusuf Ali translation of the Qur'an goes, "If two men among you are guilty of lewdness, punish them both. If they repent and amend, Leave them alone." <ref name=guide/>

===The Radical Faeries===
The Radical Faeries is an international religion and social movement that began in the 1970s and strives to redefine the way lesbians and gays are perceived.<ref> Thompson, Mark (21 January 2003), "Remembering Harry", The Advocate (Here Publishing), retrieved 2008-10-17</ref><ref> "Who Are the Radical Faeries?." Accessed October 25, 2013. http://eniac.yak.net/shaggy/faerieinf.html.</ref>

==Current trends of immigration==
Prominent countries known for substantial LGBTQ emigration include Iran, Iraq, Jamaica, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Mexico, and Brazil.<ref>Batha, Emma. Thomson Reuters Foundation, "Asylum System Humiliates Gays." Accessed October 20, 2013. http://www.trust.org/item/20130426183832-eil0p/.</ref><ref>Dan, Bilefsky. "Gays Seeking Asylum in U.S. Encounter a New Hurdle." NY Times, January 28, 2011.</ref><ref name=Mayton>Mayton, Joseph. LGBT Rights, "Gay, Muslim, and Seeking Asylum." Last modified June 18, 2013. Accessed October 20, 2013.</ref>

LBGTQ immigrants are seen frequently to immigrate to Canada, Britain, and the United States.<ref name=Mayton/> In 1994, U.S. immigration law recognized sexual persecution as grounds for seeking asylum. U.S. President Barack Obama ordered federal agencies to provide asylum for persecuted LBGTQ persons.<ref>''US News and World Reports'': [http://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/washington-whispers/2011/12/06/obama-offers-asylum-to-overseas-gays Obama Offers Asylum to Overseas Gays.] December 6, 2011.</ref> Only Norway, Iceland, Denmark, and Switzerland have enacted immigration equality allowing for partner sponsorship.<ref>Wilets, James. 2008. “Immigration: To Admit or Deny? A Comparative Perspective on Immigration Law for Same-Sex Couples: How the United States Compares to Other Industrialized Democracies.” Nova Law Review 32:327-356.</ref>

The number of LGBTQ people seeking asylum into the United States is not currently known.
[[File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - PRIDE PARADE IN JERUSALEM.jpg|thumb|Pride Parade in Jerusalum]]

===Middle Eastern LGBT Migration to Israel===
{{See|Islam and homosexuality}}

Compared to its Middle Eastern neighbors, Israel has more LGBT-supportive policies, and it accepts LGBT asylum applicants. Israel ratified the UN Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees in 1951, which theoretically gives protection or asylum to anyone with a "well-founded fear of being persecuted" and forbids the deportation of refugees to the country where their lives were initially threatened. This policy has not been explicitly followed by Israel, but Palestinian LGBT immigrants have been accepted into Israeli LGBT communities, where previous legal LGBT marriages are officially recognized, though gay marriage is not legal in Israel. <ref> Esser, Caroline. Washington Note, "Israel's Treatment of Gay Palestinian Asylum Seekers." Last modified June 06, 2011. Accessed November 5, 2013. http://washingtonnote.com/israels_treatme/.</ref> As a result, Middle Eastern migration of LGBT people to Israel has been seen.

Tel Aviv was dubbed the “gay capital of the Middle East” by Out Magazine in 2010.<ref>Schaefer, Brian. Haaretz, "The White City at the end of the rainbow." Last modified March 23, 2013. Accessed November 5, 2013. http://www.haaretz.com/news/features/exodus-to-tel-aviv/the-white-city-at-the-end-of-the-rainbow.premium-1.511446.</ref>

===Irish LGBTQ Migration to London===
Irish people have been known to migrate to England and especially to London where they typically try to find employment. More recently, London has seen an immigration of Irish LGBT people who are hoping to find a more accepting social environment. Urban areas and large international cities are often seen as tolerant and sexually diverse, and many already contain established queer communities.<ref name=flood>Ryan-Flood, Roisin (2009). Sexuality, Citizenship and Migration: the Irish Queer Diaspora in London: Full Research Report ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-2612. Swindon: ESRC</ref>

Irish LGBT immigrants often experience vulnerability in the absence of family networks, which is exacerbated in the context of homophobia and sexual discrimination. Legal protection against sexual discrimination in employment was only introduced in the UK in 2003. Even when legislative provisions and support are in place, homophobia continues to make life and the process of migration difficult for queer migrants.<ref name=flood/>

===Obstacles for Queer Asylum Seekers and Immigrants===
In the United States, judges and immigration officials are requiring that homosexuality must be socially visible in order for sexual persecution to be a viable complaint. Additionally, homosexuality is considered and required to be a permanent and inherent characteristic by U.S. immigration officials.<ref>Gay Lesbian Equality Network. 2011. “Immigration Provisions in Ireland.” Retrieved from http://www.glen.ie/attachments/b71882f9-c67f-4ad7-84ed-03e50ecd8e5a.PDF.</ref>

In the Czech Republic, “proof” of homosexuality is required from gay asylum seekers. This is determined using genital cuffs that monitor arousal as the potential refugees watch pornography.<ref>Dan, Bilefsky. "Gays Seeking Asylum in U.S. Encounter a New Hurdle." NY Times, January 28, 2011.</ref>

===Legalization of LGBTQ Marriage===
[[File:Same-sex-marriage-taiwan.jpg|thumb|Legally unrecognized lesbian marriage in Taiwan]]
In the United States, only heterosexual bi-national couples are provided sponsorship benefits when they marry. These benefits include qualifying for permanent resident status and gaining employment. Conversely, same-sex couples are required to either maintain a constant long-distance relationship or split up.<ref>Carraher, Timothy. 2009. “Some Suggestions for the UAFA: A Bill for Same-Sex Binational Couples.” Northwestern Journal of Law & Social Policy. 4:149-170</ref>

Some countries allow benefits for bi-national same-sex couples when one of them is a citizen. These countries include, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, the United Kingdom, Canada, Belgium, Israel, South Africa, Brazil, the Netherlands, Spain, France, Denmark, Finland, New Zealand, Portugal, Germany, Switzerland, Australia, and Ireland.<ref>Farber, Sara. 2010. “Presidential Promises and the Uniting American Families Act: Bringing Same-Sex Immigration Rights to the United States.” Boston College Third World Law Journal. 30:329-358.</ref><ref>Gay Lesbian Equality Network. 2011. “Immigration Provisions in Ireland.” Retrieved from http://www.glen.ie/attachments/b71882f9-c67f-4ad7-84ed-03e50ecd8e5a.PDF.</ref>

The United States currently has seventeen states where same-sex marriage is legally recognized: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, and Washington. The country's capital, Washington D.C., also legalizes same-sex marriage. Additionally, several countries have legalized it, namely: the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada, South Africa, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Iceland, Argentina, Denmark, New Zealand, Uruguay, Brazil, France, certain parts of the United Kingdom and Mexico. <ref>Immigration Legal Resource Center, "Marriage Equality in Immigration Law: Immigration Benefits for Same-Sex Married Couples ." Last modified 2013. Accessed October 24, 2013. http://www.ilrc.org/files/documents/marriage_equality_in_immigration_law_-_immigration_benefits_for_same-sex_married_couples.pdf.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Homophobia]]
* [[Corrective rape]]
* [[LGBT rights by country or territory]]

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

[[Category:LGBT rights]]
[[Category:LGBT and the economy]]

LGBT-Migration

2014-12-24T13:05:27Z

Bodiadub: /* References */

[[File:Athens Pride 2009 - 31.jpg|thumb|Athens Pride Parade 2009]]
'''Queer migration''' is the movement of [[lesbian]], [[gay]], [[bisexual]], [[transgender]], and [[queer]] ([[LGBTQ]]) people around the world and domestically, often to escape [[discrimination]] or ill treatment due to their [[sexuality]]. Globally, many LGBTQ people attempt to leave discriminatory regions in search of more tolerant ones.
{{TOC limit|3}}

==LGBT discrimination and tolerance by region==

===Australia===
In the early 1900s, homosexuality was also used as a valid reason for deportation in Australia.<ref name=bashford> Bashford, A. Howard, S. 2004. Immigration and Health: Law and Regulation in Australia, 1901-1958. Health & History, Vol. 6,(1). 97-112.</ref> The nation specifically allowed for homosexual immigration in the 1980s.<ref name=seekingasylum>Immigration Equality, "Seeking Asylum." Accessed October 20, 2013. http://immigrationequality.org/issues/asylum/seeking-asylum/.</ref>

===North America===
In the beginning of the 20th century, homosexuality was considered a mental illness and used to bar homosexuals from immigrating into the United States, and Canada.<ref name=bashford/> Canada allowed for homosexual immigration in 1991.<ref name=seekingasylum/>

====The United States====
In the United States, the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]] became the first policy to explicitly prevent “sexual deviates” from entering the country, and it also required the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]] (INS) to deport these individuals.<ref>Pickert, Jeremiah. "Immigration for Queer Couples: A Comparative Analysis Explaining the United States’ Restrictive Approach ." A Worldwide Student Journal of Politics. http://lilt.ilstu.edu/critique/fall2012docs/pickert-post1.pdf (accessed October 20, 2013).</ref>

The [[Lavender Scare]] of the anti-communist 1950’s America created additional persecution of homosexuals and a spirit of fear among people with same-sex attraction. After the war, a "Pervert Elimination Campaign" was initiated in Washington D.C. by the U.S. Park Police. D.C. parks witnessed a number of sex charge arrests of gay men, many of whom subsequently lost their jobs. <ref> Johnson, David K. The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government. 2004.</ref>

The United States military excluded homosexuals until 2011, and proposed that they were unfit for service. The law commonly known as “[[Don’t ask, don’t tell]]” allowed LGB people to serve as long as they kept their sexuality hidden. The Obama administration allowed LGB people to serve openly in the military. <ref>Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell (DADT)," accessed November 04, 2013, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1553878/Dont-Ask-Dont-Tell.</ref>

====Mexico====
In Mexico, between 2002 and 2007 roughly 1000 people -- mostly gay men -- were recorded as murdered for homosexual acts. That statistic makes [[Mexico]] the country with the second-highest rate of homophobic crimes in the world (after Brazil).<ref>AFP (10 May 2007). "En cinco años han sido asesinadas 1.000 personas por homofobia en México" (in Spanish). Enkidu.</ref><ref>EFE (19 May 2006). "ONGs denuncian que México es el segundo país con más crímenes por homofobia" (in Spanish). Enkidu.</ref> Only 16 women were established to have been murdered because of homosexuality between 1995 and 2004.<ref> EFE (15 May 2007). "El 94 por ciento de los gays y lesbianas se sienten discriminados en México" (in Spanish). Enkidu. Retrieved 16 December 2007.</ref>

A UAM study found that the most frequent types of discrimination were "not hiring for a job," "threats of extortion and detention by police," and "abuse of employees."<ref>Notimex (13 June 2007). "La población homosexual sufre violencia y exclusión en México según una investigación de la UAM" (in Spanish). Enkidu. Retrieved 15 December 2007.</ref>

===Europe===
[[File:Burning of Sodomites.jpg|thumb|The knight of Hohenberg burned with his servant for sodomy, Zurich 1482.]]
Greeks, Romans, and most Mediterranean cultures glorified homosexuality in ancient times, and prior to the 7th century Europe had no secular laws against it.<ref>Evans, Len. "Gay Chronicles from the Beginning of Time to the End of World War II." WebCite. http://www.webcitation.org/5knsbJ2KF (accessed September 30, 2013).</ref>

Beginning in the 16th and 17th centuries, Europe considered all homosexuality equivalent to the biblical sin of sodomy, punishable by death.<ref name=Timeline>"Timeline of UK LGBT History - LGBT History UK." UK LGBT History Project Wiki. http://www.lgbthistoryuk.org/wiki/index.php?title=Timeline_of_UK_LGBT_History (accessed September 30, 2013).</ref> Later during the [[Holocaust]], homosexuals were rounded up and murdered alongside Jews.

The [[Buggery Act of 1533]] and the [[Laws in Wales Act]] of 1542, punished gay sex with death by hanging in England and Wales.<ref name=Timeline/>

Under the rule of [[Joseph Stalin]], Russia outlawed male homosexuality in 1933 and made the offense punishable by 5 years of hard labor in prison. This was not repealed until 1993.<ref>Russia: Update to RUS13194 of 16 February 1993 on the treatment of homosexuals.</ref><ref>http://www.savanne.ch/tusovka/en/pilot/homosexuality-russia.html</ref>

More than half of the 80 countries that continue to outlaw homosexuality were once British colonies.<ref>ILGA: 2009 Report on State Sponsored Homophobia (2009).</ref> It is theorized that, during 19th century colonial rule, many of the British anti-gay policies that were enacted still retain influence in these former colonies.<ref>Hepple, Joshua. "Will Sexual Minorities Ever Be Equal? The Repercussions of British Colonial "Sodomy" Laws." Equal Rights Review. (2012): 52. http://www.equalrightstrust.org/ertdocumentbank/ERR8_Joshua_Hepple.pdf (accessed October 23, 2013).</ref>

===Africa===
Many African countries punish homosexuality with the death sentence, like [[Mauritania]], [[Sudan]], and northern [[Nigeria]], where lesbians and gays are sometimes stoned to death. Institutional sexual persecution is also rampant in [[Cameroon]], [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Uganda]], and [[Gambia]]. [[Zimbabwe]] banned homosexual acts in 1995.<ref>"Confronting homophobia in South Africa", University of Cambridge, 27 September 2011]</ref><ref>Epprecht, Marc (2004). Hungochani: the history of a dissident sexuality in southern Africa. Montreal. p. 180.</ref><ref name=Uganda>Human Rights First, "Uganda." Accessed October 23, 2013. http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/our-work/fighting-discrimination/uganda/.</ref>

====Uganda====
In Uganda “touching a person with homosexual intent” results in a life sentence in prison, and actions that are perceived to promote homosexuality carry a seven-year sentence – these actions include advocating for gay human rights, belonging to a gay organization, and advocating for safe homosexual sex.<ref name=Uganda/><ref>Wasswa, Henry. Aljazeera, "Uganda's 'Kill the Gays' bill spreads fear." Last modified January 3, 2013. Accessed October 23, 2013.</ref>

====South Africa====
[[Corrective rape]], the rape of LGBT people in order to “correct” their “pathologies”, is a well-known phenomenon in [[South Africa]].<ref>Bartle, E. E. (2000). "Lesbians And Hate Crimes". Journal of Poverty (pdf).></Bartle, E. E. (2000). "Lesbians And Hate Crimes". Journal of Poverty (pdf).</ref> This can be especially harmful, considering the high instance of [[HIV/AIDS]] in South Africa.<ref>Mieses, Alexa. GMHC Treatment Issues, "Gender inequality and corrective rape of women who have sex with women." Last modified December 2009. Accessed October 23, 2013.</ref> [[File:Chinese homoerotic print Hua Ying Chin Chen.jpg|thumb|"Hua Ying Chin Chen” homoerotic print, China, Ming dynasty (1368–1644)]]

===Asia===
====North Korea====
The North Korean government proposes that gay culture is caused by the vices of capitalist societies.<ref>Global Gayz. "Gay North Korea News & Reports 2005". Archived from the original on 2005-10-18.. Retrieved on May 5, 2006.</ref> Homosexuality can be punished by up to 2 years in prison.<ref>Spartacus International Gay Guide, page 1217. Bruno Gmunder Verlag, 2007.</ref>

====China====
Bisexual behavior was considered normal behavior in Ancient China.<ref>Crompton, Louis, Homosexuality and Civilization, Harvard University, 2003.</ref>

Following interactions with the West, China began to view homosexuality as a mental illness in the late [[Qing Dynasty]].<ref>Kang, Wenqing. Obsession: male same-sex relations in China, 1900-1950, Hong Kong University Press. Page 3.</ref> It was outlawed in 1740.<ref>Francoeur, Robert T.; Noonan, Raymond J. (2004). The Continuum complete international encyclopedia of sexuality. The Continuum International Publishing Group, Inc.</ref> Later, in the [[Republic of China]], homosexuality was not illegal but it was vigorously policed as such.<ref>"History of Chinese homosexuality". Shanghai Star. 2004-04-01. Retrieved July 3, 2009.</ref>

===Middle East===
====Israel====
Israel allows lesbians and gays in their military, which first occurred in 1993. Additionally discrimination against lesbians and gays is specifically prohibited.<ref>Greenberg, Joel (2002-10-16). "Tel Aviv Journal; Once Taboo, a Gay Israeli Treads the Halls of Power". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-07.</ref><ref>Belkin, Aaron; Levitt, Melissa (Summer 2001). "Homosexuality and the Israel Defense Forces: Did Lifting the Gay Ban Undermine Military Performance?". Armed Forces & Society 27 (4): 541–566. ISSN 0095-327X.</ref> The Israeli government also gives funding to LGBT organizations and the prime minister has publicly condemned LGBT hate crimes.<ref name=segal>Segal, Mark. The Bilerico Project, "Israel, LGBT People & Equality Forum." Last modified March 28, 2012. Accessed November 5, 2013.</ref> LBGT immigrants who were legally married in other countries are legally recognized in Israel. <ref name=segal/>

====Saudi Arabia====
In [[Saudi Arabia]], homosexuality carries a maximum punishment of public execution when the activity is deemed to engage in LGBT social movements, but other punishments include forced sex changes, fines, imprisonments, and whipping.<ref>Whitaker, Brian (18 March 2005). "Arrests at Saudi ’gay wedding’".The Observer (London). "Saudi executions are not systematically reported, and</ref>

====Afghanistan====
Under the influence of the [[Taliban]], men accused of sodomy were sometimes killed by having a wall toppled over them. In February 1998, three men accused of sodomy were taken to the base of a mud and brick wall, which was then toppled over onto them by a tank. A similar death sentence for two men occurred in the March of 1998. Taliban leader, Mullah Mohammed Hassan, was reported to say, "Our religious scholars are not agreed on the right kind of punishment for homosexuality. Some say we should take these sinners to a high roof and throw them down, while others say we should dig a hole beside a wall, bury them, then push the wall down on top of them."<ref>"Pakistan wipes out half of Quetta Shura". The News International. Archived from the original on 2010-03-04. "According to well-informed diplomatic circles in Islamabad, the decision-makers in the powerful Pakistani establishment seem to have concluded in view of the ever-growing nexus between the Pakistani and the Afghan Taliban that they are now one and the same and the Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and the Quetta Shura Taliban (QST) could no more be treated as two separate Jihadi entities."</ref> Prior to Taliban rule, the supposedly "Islamic" punishment of having walls toppled onto homosexuals was not precedented.<ref name=rashid>Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Islam, Oil and the New Great Game in Central Asia. 2002. http://books.google.com/books?id=kIBgqHWq658C&pg=PA115&lpg=PA115&dq=taliban homosexuality punishment&source=bl&ots=jXsUDL1kkV&sig=nR3Kjr0hthYKbP1yO1KwLVUELuI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3354Uo6HMYq-sQTQ1IGwBg&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg</ref>

After the fall of the Taliban, homosexuality became punishable by fines and prison sentences.<ref name=rashid/>

====United Arab Emirates====
In 2006, 11 gay men at a private party were given 5 years in prison each for admitting to be gay and organizing a cross-dressing party.<ref> Ireland, Doug. Direland, "[http://direland.typepad.com/direland/2006/02/26_men_imprison.html 26 Men Imprisoned 5 Years Each for Being Gay in United Arab Emirates.]" Last modified February 11, 2006. Accessed October 23, 2013.</ref>
The two main youthful crimes from ages 14-18 within the population of Arab youth that are located in the Gulf States are petty theft and homosexual acts. In these countries, youth over the age of 16 are tried as adults, so these homosexual actions may cause severe and dire punishment within the legal system. <ref>Booth, Marilyn. "Enduring Ideals and Pressures to Change." The world's youth: Adolescence in eight regions of the globe (2002): 207.</ref>

====Iraq====
In [[Baghdad]] in 2009 a characteristic assortment of anti-gay crimes were committed. The Iraqi militia began torturing male homosexuals in ways that usually resulted in death. The Iraqi LGBT group suffered 63 cases of torture within its members. Murders of LGBT people were called for by anonymous individuals.<ref> IGLHRC, "Iraq: Torture, Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment of LGBT People." Accessed October 23, 2013. http://iglhrc.wordpress.com/2009/04/20/iraq-torture-cruel-inhuman-and-degrading-treatment-of-lgbt-people/.</ref>

====Iran====
In Iran a voluntary militia, the [[Basij]], functions partially as a "morality police." Among other things, the Basij has been known to find and persecute LGBT people.<ref>Iran's Basij Force -- The Mainstay Of Domestic Security, By Hossein Aryan, RFERL, December 07, 2008.</ref>

===Internationally===
In September of 2013, countries of the U.N. declared to protect LGBT rights, counter global [[homophobia]], and support educational campaigns for the advancement of LGBT rights.<ref>UN News Centre, "At UN meeting, countries commit to protect gay rights, combat discrimination." Last modified September 26, 2013. Accessed October 23, 2013. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=46036&Cr=lesbian&Cr1</ref>

In 1991 The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) declassified homosexuality as a mental illness.<ref>World Health Organization, "The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders ." Accessed October 23, 2013. http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/bluebook.pdf.</ref>

==LGBT discrimination and tolerance in religion==
{{See|Religion and homosexuality}}

===The Orthodox Church===
In 2013, the [[Assembly of Canonical Orthodox Bishops of North and Central America]] held that "marriage consists in the union of a man and a woman."<ref> Assembly of Canonical Orthodox Bishops of North and Central America, "2013 Assembly Statement on Marriage and Sexuality." Last modified 2013. Accessed October 23, 2013. http://assemblyofbishops.org/about/documents/2013-assembly-statement-on-marriage-and-sexuality.</ref> The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] has consistently condemned homosexuality as a sin that damages the soul, despite dissent from Church leaders.<ref>Kazhdan, A. P (1991). The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>Ferguson, Everett; Michael P McHugh, Frederick W Norris (1997). Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. Garland reference library of the humanities ; v. 1839 (2nd ed.). New York: Garland Pub.</ref>
[[File:Anti gay San Francisco.jpg|thumb|Religious protestors in San Francisco]]

===Christianity and the Bible===
The [[Old Testament]] is often interpreted to condemn homosexuality and homosexual acts, and the [[Catholic Church]] traditionally rejected same-sex behavior and considered it against nature. The Catholic community has politically campaigned against LGBT rights. <ref>Ratzinger J., et al. 1995. Part Three Life in Christ. In: Catechism of the Catholic Church. 1540 Broadway, New York, New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc. p. 625.</ref> In 2013 Pope Francis said, in reference to celibate gay men entering the priesthood, "Who am I to judge?" <ref>Goodstein, Laurie. NY Times, "Pope Says Church Is ‘Obsessed’ With Gays, Abortion and Birth Control." Last modified September 19, 2013. Accessed November 5, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/20/world/europe/pope-bluntly-faults-churchs-focus-on-gays-and-abortion.html?_r=0.</ref>

===Islam===
{{See|Islam and homosexuality}}

Islamic Shari'ah law stems from the Qur'an and Muhammad's Sunnah. They are often seen as the laws of Allah, and under this law, homosexuality is a crime and a punishable sin against God.

The Qur'an (7:80-84) is translated, "...For ye practice your lusts on men in preference to women: ye are indeed a people transgressing beyond bounds.... And we rained down on them a shower (of brimstone)." Muslim scholars have sometimes interpreted the "rain of stones" to mean that homosexuals should be stoned.<ref name=guide>TheReligionofPeace.com Guide to Understanding Islam, "Homosexuality." Accessed November 4, 2013. http://www.thereligionofpeace.com/Quran/026-homosexuality.htm.</ref>

Additionally, a Yusuf Ali translation of the Qur'an goes, "If two men among you are guilty of lewdness, punish them both. If they repent and amend, Leave them alone." <ref name=guide/>

===The Radical Faeries===
The Radical Faeries is an international religion and social movement that began in the 1970s and strives to redefine the way lesbians and gays are perceived.<ref> Thompson, Mark (21 January 2003), "Remembering Harry", The Advocate (Here Publishing), retrieved 2008-10-17</ref><ref> "Who Are the Radical Faeries?." Accessed October 25, 2013. http://eniac.yak.net/shaggy/faerieinf.html.</ref>

==Current trends of immigration==
Prominent countries known for substantial LGBTQ emigration include Iran, Iraq, Jamaica, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Mexico, and Brazil.<ref>Batha, Emma. Thomson Reuters Foundation, "Asylum System Humiliates Gays." Accessed October 20, 2013. http://www.trust.org/item/20130426183832-eil0p/.</ref><ref>Dan, Bilefsky. "Gays Seeking Asylum in U.S. Encounter a New Hurdle." NY Times, January 28, 2011.</ref><ref name=Mayton>Mayton, Joseph. LGBT Rights, "Gay, Muslim, and Seeking Asylum." Last modified June 18, 2013. Accessed October 20, 2013.</ref>

LBGTQ immigrants are seen frequently to immigrate to Canada, Britain, and the United States.<ref name=Mayton/> In 1994, U.S. immigration law recognized sexual persecution as grounds for seeking asylum. U.S. President Barack Obama ordered federal agencies to provide asylum for persecuted LBGTQ persons.<ref>''US News and World Reports'': [http://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/washington-whispers/2011/12/06/obama-offers-asylum-to-overseas-gays Obama Offers Asylum to Overseas Gays.] December 6, 2011.</ref> Only Norway, Iceland, Denmark, and Switzerland have enacted immigration equality allowing for partner sponsorship.<ref>Wilets, James. 2008. “Immigration: To Admit or Deny? A Comparative Perspective on Immigration Law for Same-Sex Couples: How the United States Compares to Other Industrialized Democracies.” Nova Law Review 32:327-356.</ref>

The number of LGBTQ people seeking asylum into the United States is not currently known.
[[File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - PRIDE PARADE IN JERUSALEM.jpg|thumb|Pride Parade in Jerusalum]]

===Middle Eastern LGBT Migration to Israel===
{{See|Islam and homosexuality}}

Compared to its Middle Eastern neighbors, Israel has more LGBT-supportive policies, and it accepts LGBT asylum applicants. Israel ratified the UN Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees in 1951, which theoretically gives protection or asylum to anyone with a "well-founded fear of being persecuted" and forbids the deportation of refugees to the country where their lives were initially threatened. This policy has not been explicitly followed by Israel, but Palestinian LGBT immigrants have been accepted into Israeli LGBT communities, where previous legal LGBT marriages are officially recognized, though gay marriage is not legal in Israel. <ref> Esser, Caroline. Washington Note, "Israel's Treatment of Gay Palestinian Asylum Seekers." Last modified June 06, 2011. Accessed November 5, 2013. http://washingtonnote.com/israels_treatme/.</ref> As a result, Middle Eastern migration of LGBT people to Israel has been seen.

Tel Aviv was dubbed the “gay capital of the Middle East” by Out Magazine in 2010.<ref>Schaefer, Brian. Haaretz, "The White City at the end of the rainbow." Last modified March 23, 2013. Accessed November 5, 2013. http://www.haaretz.com/news/features/exodus-to-tel-aviv/the-white-city-at-the-end-of-the-rainbow.premium-1.511446.</ref>

===Irish LGBTQ Migration to London===
Irish people have been known to migrate to England and especially to London where they typically try to find employment. More recently, London has seen an immigration of Irish LGBT people who are hoping to find a more accepting social environment. Urban areas and large international cities are often seen as tolerant and sexually diverse, and many already contain established queer communities.<ref name=flood>Ryan-Flood, Roisin (2009). Sexuality, Citizenship and Migration: the Irish Queer Diaspora in London: Full Research Report ESRC End of Award Report, RES-000-22-2612. Swindon: ESRC</ref>

Irish LGBT immigrants often experience vulnerability in the absence of family networks, which is exacerbated in the context of homophobia and sexual discrimination. Legal protection against sexual discrimination in employment was only introduced in the UK in 2003. Even when legislative provisions and support are in place, homophobia continues to make life and the process of migration difficult for queer migrants.<ref name=flood/>

===Obstacles for Queer Asylum Seekers and Immigrants===
In the United States, judges and immigration officials are requiring that homosexuality must be socially visible in order for sexual persecution to be a viable complaint. Additionally, homosexuality is considered and required to be a permanent and inherent characteristic by U.S. immigration officials.<ref>Gay Lesbian Equality Network. 2011. “Immigration Provisions in Ireland.” Retrieved from http://www.glen.ie/attachments/b71882f9-c67f-4ad7-84ed-03e50ecd8e5a.PDF.</ref>

In the Czech Republic, “proof” of homosexuality is required from gay asylum seekers. This is determined using genital cuffs that monitor arousal as the potential refugees watch pornography.<ref>Dan, Bilefsky. "Gays Seeking Asylum in U.S. Encounter a New Hurdle." NY Times, January 28, 2011.</ref>

===Legalization of LGBTQ Marriage===
[[File:Same-sex-marriage-taiwan.jpg|thumb|Legally unrecognized lesbian marriage in Taiwan]]
In the United States, only heterosexual bi-national couples are provided sponsorship benefits when they marry. These benefits include qualifying for permanent resident status and gaining employment. Conversely, same-sex couples are required to either maintain a constant long-distance relationship or split up.<ref>Carraher, Timothy. 2009. “Some Suggestions for the UAFA: A Bill for Same-Sex Binational Couples.” Northwestern Journal of Law & Social Policy. 4:149-170</ref>

Some countries allow benefits for bi-national same-sex couples when one of them is a citizen. These countries include, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, the United Kingdom, Canada, Belgium, Israel, South Africa, Brazil, the Netherlands, Spain, France, Denmark, Finland, New Zealand, Portugal, Germany, Switzerland, Australia, and Ireland.<ref>Farber, Sara. 2010. “Presidential Promises and the Uniting American Families Act: Bringing Same-Sex Immigration Rights to the United States.” Boston College Third World Law Journal. 30:329-358.</ref><ref>Gay Lesbian Equality Network. 2011. “Immigration Provisions in Ireland.” Retrieved from http://www.glen.ie/attachments/b71882f9-c67f-4ad7-84ed-03e50ecd8e5a.PDF.</ref>

The United States currently has seventeen states where same-sex marriage is legally recognized: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, and Washington. The country's capital, Washington D.C., also legalizes same-sex marriage. Additionally, several countries have legalized it, namely: the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada, South Africa, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Iceland, Argentina, Denmark, New Zealand, Uruguay, Brazil, France, certain parts of the United Kingdom and Mexico. <ref>Immigration Legal Resource Center, "Marriage Equality in Immigration Law: Immigration Benefits for Same-Sex Married Couples ." Last modified 2013. Accessed October 24, 2013. http://www.ilrc.org/files/documents/marriage_equality_in_immigration_law_-_immigration_benefits_for_same-sex_married_couples.pdf.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Homophobia]]
* [[Corrective rape]]
* [[LGBT rights by country or territory]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:LGBT rights]]
[[Category:LGBT and the economy]]