Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Upjohn (Unternehmen)

2017-10-26T15:42:41Z

BinaryPhoton: changed superscript to subscript

{{other uses}}
{{Infobox company
| name = The Upjohn Company
| logo = File:Upjohn logo.gif
| image =
| image_caption =
| fate = Merged with [[Pharmacia]] to form [[Pharmacia & Upjohn]]
| traded_as =
| foundation = {{Start date and age|1886}}
| industry = [[Pharmaceutical industry|Pharmaceutical]]
| location = [[Michigan]], United States of America
| area_served =
| key_people =
| products =
| revenue =
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| assets =
| equity =
| num_employees =
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| footnotes =
}}
[[File:Upjohn's Friable Pills.jpg|thumb|Logo of Upjohn Pill & Granule, later The Upjohn Company]]
'''The Upjohn Company''' was a pharmaceutical manufacturing firm founded in 1886 in [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]] by [[William E. Upjohn|Dr. William E. Upjohn]], an 1875 graduate of the [[University of Michigan]] medical school. The company was originally formed to make ''friable pills'', which were specifically designed to be easily digested.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070928141332/http://www.kpl.gov/collections/LocalHistory/AllAbout/biography/Upjohn.aspx Kalamazoo Public Library - Local History - William E. Upjohn: Person of the Century 1853 - 1932 (Internet Archive)]</ref> These could be "reduced to a powder under the thumb", a strong marketing argument at the time.

In 1995, Upjohn merged with [[Pharmacia]] AB, to form [[Pharmacia & Upjohn]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060507201538/http://informagen.com/Resource_Informagen/report.php?mrn=112 Resource Informagen (Internet Archive)]</ref>

==Chemistry==
[[Image:Unicap Upjohn.jpg|thumb|right|120px|Unicap, a [[multivitamin]] produced by Upjohn.]]
Upjohn developed a process for the large scale production of [[cortisone]]. The oxygen atom at the 11 position in this steroid is an absolute requirement for biological activity. There are however no known natural sources for starting materials that contain that feature. The only method for preparing this drug prior to 1952 was a lengthy synthesis starting from [[cholic acid]] isolated from bile. In 1952 two Upjohn biochemists, Dury Peterson and Herb Murray announced that they were able to introduce this crucial oxygen atom by fermentation of the steroid [[progesterone]] with a common mold of the genus [[Rhizopus]]. Over the next several years a group of chemists headed by John Hogg developed a process for preparing cortisone from the soybean sterol [[stigmasterol]]. The microbiological oxygenation is a key step in this process.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0039-128X(92)90013-Y |title=Steroids, the steroid community, and Upjohn in perspective: A profile of innovation |year=1992 |last1=Hogg |first1=John A. |journal=Steroids |volume=57 |issue=12 |pages=593–616 |pmid=1481225}}</ref>

Subsequently, Upjohn together with [[Schering AG|Schering]] biochemically converted cortisone into the more potent [[steroid]] [[prednisone]] by a bacterial fermentation<ref>http://www.prednisonesideeffects.org/prednisone-half-life-is-a-good-medicine/{{full citation needed|date=November 2012}}</ref><ref>http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?id=3735{{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}</ref> In [[Chemistry|chemical research]], the company is best known for the development of the [[Upjohn dihydroxylation]] by V. VanRheenen, R. C. Kelly and D. Y. Cha in 1976.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0040-4039(00)78093-2 |title=An improved catalytic OsO<sub>4</sub> oxidation of olefins to cis-1,2-glycols using tertiary amine oxides as the oxidant |year=1976 |last1=Vanrheenen |first1=V. |last2=Kelly |first2=R.C. |last3=Cha |first3=D.Y. |journal=Tetrahedron Letters |volume=17 |issue=23 |pages=1973–6}})</ref> Upjohn's most well-known drugs before the acquisition by Pfizer were [[Alprazolam|Xanax]], [[Triazolam|Halcion]], [[Ibuprofen|Motrin]], [[Lincomycin|Lincocin]], and [[Minoxidil|Rogaine]].

==See also==
*[[W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research]]

==References==

{{Reflist}}
* ''Upjohn Co. v. United States'' (449 U.S. 383) (1981)

== External links ==
* [http://www.upjohn.net Memories of The Upjohn Company]
* http://www.michmarkers.com/startup.asp?startpage=S0582.htm
{{Pharmaceutical companies of the United States}}

[[Category:Companies based in Kalamazoo, Michigan]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1886]]
[[Category:Defunct pharmaceutical companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Pfizer]]
[[Category:Life sciences industry]]

Rudolf Schrödinger

2016-08-13T16:39:12Z

BinaryPhoton: Put hard to find journal reference ao it is easy to search for

'''Rudolf Joseph Carl Schrödinger''' (* [[27. Januar]] [[1857]] in [[Wien]]; † [[24. Dezember]] [[1919]] ebenda) war ein österreichischer Unternehmer und Botaniker.
Sein [[Autorenkürzel der Botaniker und Mykologen|botanisches Autorenkürzel]] lautet „{{Person|Schrödinger}}“.

Sein Vater war der Kommerzialrat Josef Schrödinger (1827–1888), Gesellschafter der Wachs- und Ledertuchfabrik Gebrüder Groll, in deren Familie er eingeheiratet hatte. Schrödinger studierte an der [[Technische Universität Wien|Technischen Hochschule Wien]] Chemie bei [[Alexander Bauer (Chemiker)|Alexander Bauer]], dessen Tochter Georgie Bauer er 1888 heiratete. Hauptberuflich war er Gesellschafter in der Familienfirma, die 1917 schließen musste, was ihn in finanzielle Schwierigkeiten brachte.

Daneben befasste er sich mit Botanik und studierte 1904 bis 1907 Botanik an der [[Universität Wien]]. 1913 wurde er Generalsekretär und 1917 Vizepräsident der [[Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft|Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft]]. Er veröffentlichte über die Morphologie der [[Hahnenfußgewächse]].

Rudolf Schrödinger war auch Hobby-Maler. Er war der Vater von [[Erwin Schrödinger]].

== Schriften ==
* Das Laubblatt der Ranunculaceen, Eine organgeschichtliche Studie, Abhandlungen der K. K. Zool-Botan. Gesellschaft in Wien 1914
* Der Blütenbau der zygomorphen Ranunculaceen und seine Bedeutung für die Stammesgeschichte der Helleboreen, Abhandlungen der K. K. Zool-Botan. Gesellschaft in Wien 1909

== Weblinks ==
* {{ÖBL|11|235||Schrödinger Rudolf|F. Hillbrand-Grill}}
* {{IPNI|Schrödinger}}

{{Normdaten|TYP=p|GND=128273631|VIAF=40423973}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Schrodinger, Rudolf}}
[[Kategorie:Botaniker (19. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Botaniker (20. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Unternehmer (Wien)]]
[[Kategorie:Unternehmer (Österreich-Ungarn)]]
[[Kategorie:Person (Cisleithanien)]]
[[Kategorie:Österreicher]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1857]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1919]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Schrödinger, Rudolf
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Schrödinger, Rudolf Joseph Carl (vollständiger Name)
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=österreichischer Unternehmer und Botaniker
|GEBURTSDATUM=27. Januar 1857
|GEBURTSORT=[[Wien]]
|STERBEDATUM=24. Dezember 1919
|STERBEORT=[[Wien]]
}}

Rudolf Schrödinger

2016-08-12T17:06:32Z

BinaryPhoton: Fixed typos after looking at original papers at the Biodiversity Library

'''Rudolf Joseph Carl Schrödinger''' (* [[27. Januar]] [[1857]] in [[Wien]]; † [[24. Dezember]] [[1919]] ebenda) war ein österreichischer Unternehmer und Botaniker.
Sein [[Autorenkürzel der Botaniker und Mykologen|botanisches Autorenkürzel]] lautet „{{Person|Schrödinger}}“.

Sein Vater war der Kommerzialrat Josef Schrödinger (1827–1888), Gesellschafter der Wachs- und Ledertuchfabrik Gebrüder Groll, in deren Familie er eingeheiratet hatte. Schrödinger studierte an der [[Technische Universität Wien|Technischen Hochschule Wien]] Chemie bei [[Alexander Bauer (Chemiker)|Alexander Bauer]], dessen Tochter Georgie Bauer er 1888 heiratete. Hauptberuflich war er Gesellschafter in der Familienfirma, die 1917 schließen musste, was ihn in finanzielle Schwierigkeiten brachte.

Daneben befasste er sich mit Botanik und studierte 1904 bis 1907 Botanik an der [[Universität Wien]]. 1913 wurde er Generalsekretär und 1917 Vizepräsident der [[Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft|Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft]]. Er veröffentlichte über die Morphologie der [[Hahnenfußgewächse]].

Rudolf Schrödinger war auch Hobby-Maler. Er war der Vater von [[Erwin Schrödinger]].

== Schriften ==
* Das Laubblatt der Ranunculaceen, Eine organgeschichtliche Studie, Abh. k.u.k. Zoolog.-Botan. Gesellschaft 1914
* Der Blütenbau der zygomorphen Ranunculaceen und seine Bedeutung für die Stammesgeschichte der Helleboren, Abh. k.u.k. Zoolog.-Botan. Gesellschaft 1909

== Weblinks ==
* {{ÖBL|11|235||Schrödinger Rudolf|F. Hillbrand-Grill}}
* {{IPNI|Schrödinger}}

{{Normdaten|TYP=p|GND=128273631|VIAF=40423973}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Schrodinger, Rudolf}}
[[Kategorie:Botaniker (19. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Botaniker (20. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Unternehmer (Wien)]]
[[Kategorie:Unternehmer (Österreich-Ungarn)]]
[[Kategorie:Person (Cisleithanien)]]
[[Kategorie:Österreicher]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1857]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1919]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Schrödinger, Rudolf
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Schrödinger, Rudolf Joseph Carl (vollständiger Name)
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=österreichischer Unternehmer und Botaniker
|GEBURTSDATUM=27. Januar 1857
|GEBURTSORT=[[Wien]]
|STERBEDATUM=24. Dezember 1919
|STERBEORT=[[Wien]]
}}

Opticks

2016-04-20T21:58:37Z

BinaryPhoton: Added: Newton's name did not appear on the title page of the first edition.

{{about|the book by Newton|the computer program|Opticks (software)}}
{{distinguish|Optics}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}
{{Italic title}}
[[File:Opticks.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The first, 1704, edition of ''Opticks: or, a treatise of the reflexions, refractions, inflexions and colours of light.'']]
[[File:Newton Opticks titlepage.jpg|right|250px|thumb|A 1730 fourth edition]]
'''''Opticks''''' is a book by English natural philosopher [[Isaac Newton]] that was published in English in 1704.<ref name=Opticks>{{cite book|last=Newton|first=Isaac|author-link=Isaac Newton |title=Opticks: or, a treatise of the reflexions, refractions, inflexions and colours of light. Also two treatises of the species and magnitude of curvilinear figures.|date=1998|publisher=Octavo|location=Palo Alto, Calif.|isbn=1-891788-04-3|edition=Octavo |others=Commentary by Nicholas Humez}} (''Opticks'' was originally published in 1704).</ref> (A scholarly [[Latin]] translation appeared in 1706.) The book analyzes the fundamental nature of light by means of the [[refraction]] of light with prisms and lenses, the [[diffraction]] of light by closely spaced sheets of glass, and the behaviour of color mixtures with spectral lights or [[pigment]] powders. It is considered one of the great works of science in history. ''Opticks'' was Newton's second major book on [[physical science]]. Newton's name did not appear on the title page of the first edition of ''Opticks''.

==Overview==
The publication of ''Opticks'' represented a major contribution to science, different from but in some ways rivalling the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]''. ''Opticks'' is largely a record of experiments and the [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]]s made from them, covering a wide range of topics in what was later to be known as [[physical optics]].<ref name=Opticks/> That is, this work is not a [[geometry|geometric]] discussion of [[catoptrics]] or [[dioptrics]], the traditional subjects of [[Reflection (physics)|reflection]] of light by [[mirror]]s of different shapes and the exploration of how light is "bent" as it passes from one [[medium (optics)|medium]], such as air, into another, such as water or glass. Rather, the ''Opticks'' is a study of the nature of light and colour and the various phenomena of [[diffraction]], which Newton called the "inflexion" of light.

In this book Newton sets forth in full his experiments, first reported to the Royal Society of London in 1672,<ref>{{cite web|last=Newton|first=Isaac|title=Hydrostatics, Optics, Sound and Heat|url=http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03970/|accessdate=10 January 2012}}</ref> on [[Dispersion (optics)|dispersion]], or the separation of light into a [[spectrum]] of its component colours. He demonstrates how the appearance of color arises from selective [[Absorption (optics)|absorption]], reflection, or [[Transmittance|transmission]] of the various component parts of the incident light.

The major significance of Newton's work is that it overturned the dogma, attributed to [[Aristotle]] or [[Theophrastus]] and accepted by scholars in Newton's time, that "pure" light (such as the light attributed to the Sun) is fundamentally white or colourless, and is altered into color by mixture with darkness caused by interactions with matter. Newton showed just the opposite was true: light is composed of different spectral hues (he describes seven — red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet), and all colours, including white, are formed by various mixtures of these hues. He demonstrates that color arises from a physical property of light — each hue is refracted at a characteristic angle by a prism or lens — but he clearly states that color is a sensation within the mind and not an inherent property of material objects or of light itself. For example, he demonstrates that a red violet (magenta) color can be mixed by overlapping the red and violet ends of two spectra, although this color does not appear in the spectrum and therefore is not a "color of light". By connecting the red and violet ends of the spectrum, he organised all colours as a [[color circle]] that both quantitatively predicts color mixtures and qualitatively describes the perceived similarity among hues.

==''Opticks'' and the ''Principia''==
''Opticks'' differs in many respects from the ''Principia''. It was first published in English rather than in the [[Latin]] used by European philosophers, contributing to the development of a vernacular science literature. This marks a significant transition in the history of the English Language. With Britain's growing confidence and world influence, due at least in part to people like Newton, the English language was rapidly becoming the language of science and business. The book is a model of popular science exposition: although Newton's English is somewhat dated—he shows a fondness for lengthy sentences with much embedded qualifications—the book can still be easily understood by a modern reader. In contrast, few readers of Newton's time found the ''Principia'' accessible or even comprehensible. His formal but flexible style shows colloquialisms and metaphorical word choice.

Unlike the ''Principia'', ''Opticks'' is not developed using the geometric convention of [[proposition]]s proved by deduction from either previous propositions, [[Lemma (mathematics)|lemma]]s or [[first principle]]s (or [[axiom]]s). Instead, axioms define the meaning of technical terms or fundamental properties of matter and light, and the stated propositions are demonstrated by means of specific, carefully described experiments. The first sentence of the book declares ''My Design in this Book is not to explain the Properties of Light by Hypotheses, but to propose and prove them by Reason and Experiments.'' In an ''Experimentum crucis'' or "critical experiment" (Book I, Part II, Theorem ii), Newton showed that the color of light corresponded to its "degree of refrangibility" (angle of refraction), and that this angle cannot be changed by additional reflection or refraction or by passing the light through a coloured filter.

The work is a ''[[vade mecum]]'' of the experimenter's art, displaying in many examples how to use observation to propose factual generalisations about the physical world and then exclude competing explanations by specific experimental tests. However, unlike the ''Principia'', which vowed ''Non fingo hypotheses'' or "I make no hypotheses" outside the deductive method, the ''Opticks'' develops conjectures about light that go beyond the experimental evidence: for example, that the physical behaviour of light was due its [[Corpuscular theory of light|"corpuscular" nature as small particles]], or that perceived colours were harmonically proportioned like the tones of a diatonic musical scale.

==The Queries==
:''See main: [[The Queries]]''
''Opticks'' concludes with a set of "Queries." In the first edition, these were sixteen such Queries; that number was increased in the Latin edition, published in 1706, and then in the revised English edition, published in 1717/18. The first set of Queries were brief, but the later ones became short essays, filling many pages. In the fourth edition of 1730, there were 31 Queries, and it was the famous "31st Query" that, over the next two hundred years, stimulated a great deal of speculation and development on theories of [[chemical affinity]].

These Queries, especially the later ones, deal with a wide range of physical phenomena, far transcending any narrow interpretation of the subject matter of "optics." They concern the nature and transmission of heat; the possible cause of gravity; electrical phenomena; the nature of [[chemical reaction|chemical action]]; the way in which God created matter in "the Beginning;" the proper way to do science; and even the [[ethics|ethical]] conduct of human beings. These Queries are not really questions in the ordinary sense. They are almost all posed in the negative, as [[rhetorical question]]s. That is, Newton does not ask whether light "is" or "may be" a "body." Rather, he declares: "Is not Light a Body?" Not only does this form indicate that Newton had an answer, but that it may go on for many pages. Clearly, as [[Stephen Hales]] (a firm Newtonian of the early eighteenth century) declared, this was Newton's mode of explaining "by Query."

==Reception==
The ''Opticks'' was widely read and debated in England and on the Continent. The early presentation of the work to the Royal Society stimulated a bitter dispute between Newton and Robert Hooke over the [[Corpuscular theory of light|"corpuscular" or particle theory of light]], which prompted Newton to postpone publication of the work until after Hooke's death in 1703. On the Continent, and in France in particular, both the ''Principia'' and the ''Opticks'' were initially rejected by many natural philosophers, who continued to defend Cartesian natural philosophy and the Aristotelian version of color, and claimed to find Newton's prism experiments difficult to replicate. Indeed, the Aristotelian theory of the fundamental nature of white light was defended into the 19th century, for example by the German writer [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] in his ''Farbenlehre''.

Newtonian science became a central issue in the assault waged by the [[philosophes]] in the [[Age of Enlightenment]] against a [[natural philosophy]] based on the authority of ancient Greek or Roman naturalists or on deductive reasoning from first principles (the method advocated by French philosopher [[René Descartes]]), rather than on the application of mathematical reasoning to experience or experiment. [[Voltaire]] popularised Newtonian science, including the content of the both the ''Principia'' and the ''Opticks'', in his ''Elements de la philosophie de Newton'' (1738), and after about 1750 the combination of the experimental methods exemplified by the ''Opticks'' and the mathematical methods exemplified by the ''Principia'' were established as a unified and comprehensive model of [[Newtonianism|Newtonian]] science. Some of the primary adepts in this new philosophy were such prominent figures as [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier]], and [[James Black (scientist)|James Black]].

Subsequent to Newton, much has been amended. Young and Fresnel combined Newton's particle theory with Huygens' wave theory to show that colour is the visible manifestation of light's wavelength. Science also slowly came to realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics. The German poet, Goethe, with his epic diatribe [[Theory of Colours]] could not shake the Newtonian foundation - but "one hole Goethe did find in Newton's armour.. Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible. He therefore thought that the object-glasses of telescopes must for ever remain imperfect, achromatism and refraction being incompatible. This inference was proved by [[John Dollond|
Dollond]] to be wrong." (John Tyndall, 1880<ref>Popular Science Monthly/Volume 17/July 1880)http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_17/July_1880/Goethe's_Farbenlehre:_Theory_of_Colors_II</ref>)

==See also==
{{Wikipedia books|Isaac Newton}}
* Color
* [[Color theory]]
* [[Prism (optics)]]
* [[Theory of Colours (book)]]
* [[Book of Optics]] (Ibn al-Haytham)
* [[Elements of the Philosophy of Newton]] (Voltaire)
* [[Multiple-prism dispersion theory]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*Burnley, David ''The History of the English Language: A Source Book'' 2nd Edition, 2000, Pearson Education Limited.

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
{{commons category|Opticks (book)}}
Full and free online editions of Newton's Opticks
* [http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/nwtopt/index.html Rarebookroom, First edition]
* [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3362k Gallica, First edition]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=GnAFAAAAQAAJ Google Books, Fourth edition]
* [https://archive.org/details/Optics_285 Internet Archive, Dover reprint, Fourth edition]
* [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03970/ Cambridge University Digital Library, Papers on Hydrostatics, Optics, Sound and Heat] – Manuscript papers by Isaac Newton containing draft of "Opticks"
* {{librivox book | title=Opticks | author=Sir Isaac NEWTON}}

{{Isaac Newton}}

[[Category:1704 books]]
[[Category:English non-fiction literature]]
[[Category:Books by Isaac Newton]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:1704 in science]]
[[Category:Mathematics books]]
[[Category:Physics books]]

Weber-Elektrodynamik

2015-05-31T11:55:13Z

BinaryPhoton: This paper discusses the element mercury not the Perihelion of Mercury

{{Electromagnetism|cTopic=[[Classical electromagnetism|Electrodynamics]]}}

'''Weber electrodynamics''' is an alternative to [[Maxwell's Equations|Maxwell electrodynamics]] developed by [[Wilhelm Eduard Weber]]. In this theory, [[Coulomb's Law]] becomes velocity dependent. The theory is widely rejected and ignored by contemporary physicists, and is not even mentioned in mainstream textbooks on [[classical electromagnetism]].

==Mathematical Description==

According to Weber electrodynamics, the force (F) acting simultaneously on point charges <math>q_1</math> and <math>q_2</math>, is given by

<math> \mathbf{F} = \frac{q_1 q_2 \mathbf{\hat{r}}}{4 \pi \epsilon_0 r^2}\left(1-\frac{\dot{r}^2}{2 c^2}+\frac{r\ddot{r}}{c^2}\right) </math>

where <math>\mathbf{r}</math> is the vector connecting <math>q_1</math> and <math>q_2</math>, the dots over <math>r</math> denote time [[derivative]]s and <math>c</math> is the [[speed of light]]. In the limit that speeds and accelerations are small (i.e. <math>\dot{r}\ll c</math>), this reduces to the usual Coulomb's law.<ref name=assis>{{cite journal|last=Assis|first=AKT|author2=HT Silva |title=Comparison between Weber’s electrodynamics and classical electrodynamics|journal=Pramana - journal of physics|date=September 2000|volume=55|issue=3|pages=393–404|doi=10.1007/s12043-000-0069-2}}</ref>

This can be derived from the [[potential energy]]

<math> U_{Web} = \frac{q_1 q_2}{4 \pi \epsilon_0 r}\left(1-\frac{\dot{r}^2}{2 c^2}\right) </math>

This can be contrasted with the approximate potential energy from Maxwellian electrodynamics (where <math>v_1</math> and <math>v_2</math> are the velocities of <math>q_1</math> and <math>q_2</math>, respectively):<ref name=assis/>

<math> U_{Max} =\frac{q_1 q_2}{4 \pi \epsilon_0 r}\left(1-\frac{\mathbf{v_1}\cdot\mathbf{v_2}+(\mathbf{v_1}\cdot\mathbf{\hat{r}})(\mathbf{v_2}\cdot\mathbf{\hat{r}})}{2 c^2}\right) </math>

(This only includes terms up to order <math>(v/c)^2</math> and therefore neglects relativistic and retardation effects; see [[Darwin Lagrangian]].)

Using these expressions, the regular form of [[Ampere's law]] and [[Faraday's law of induction|Faraday's law]] can be derived. Importantly, this theory does not predict an expression like the [[Biot–Savart law]] and testing differences between Ampere's law and the Biot–Savart law is one way to test Weber electrodynamics.<ref name=AssisPLA>{{cite journal|last=Assis|first=AKT|author2=JJ Caluzi |title=A limitation of Weber's law|journal=Physics Letters A|year=1991|volume=160|issue=1|pages=25–30|bibcode = 1991PhLA..160...25A |doi = 10.1016/0375-9601(91)90200-R }}</ref>

==Newton's third law in Maxwell and Weber electrodynamics==
In [[Maxwell's equations|Maxwell electrodynamics]], [[Newton's third law]] does not hold for particles. Instead, particles exert forces on electromagnetic fields, and fields exert forces on particles, but particles do not ''directly'' exert forces on other particles. Therefore, two nearby particles need not experience equal and opposite forces. Related to this, Maxwell electrodynamics predicts that the laws of [[conservation of momentum]] and [[conservation of angular momentum]] are valid ''only'' if the momentum of particles ''and'' the momentum of surrounding electromagnetic fields are taken into account. The total momentum of all particles is not necessarily conserved, because the particles may transfer some of their momentum to electromagnetic fields or vice versa. The well-known phenomenon of [[radiation pressure]] proves that electromagnetic waves are indeed able to "push" on matter. See [[Maxwell stress tensor]] and [[Poynting vector]] for further details.

The Weber force law is quite different: All particles, regardless of size and mass, will exactly follow [[Newton's third law]]. Therefore, Weber electrodynamics, unlike Maxwell electrodynamics, has conservation of ''particle'' momentum and conservation of ''particle'' angular momentum.

==Predictions==
Weber dynamics has been used to explain various phenomena such as wires exploding when exposed to high [[Electric current|current]]s.<ref name=Wesley>{{cite journal|last=Wesley|first=JP|title=Weber electrodynamics, part I. general theory, steady current effects|journal=Foundations of Physics Letters|year=1990|volume=3|issue=5|pages=443–469|doi=10.1007/BF00665929|bibcode = 1990FoPhL...3..443W }}</ref>

==Limitations==

Despite various efforts, a velocity and/or acceleration dependent correction to Coulomb's law has never been [[Tests of electromagnetism|observed]], as described in the next section. Moreover, [[Helmholtz]] observed that Weber electrodynamics predicted that under certain configurations charges can act as if they had negative [[inertial mass]], which has also never been observed. (Some scientists have, however, disputed Helmholtz's argument.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=JJ Caluzi|author2=AKT Assis|title=A critical analysis of Helmholtz's argument against Weber's electrodynamics|journal=Foundations of physics|year=1997|volume=27|issue=10|pages=1445–1452 |doi = 10.1007/BF02551521 }}</ref>)

==Experimental tests==

===Velocity Dependent Tests===
[[Velocity]] and [[acceleration]] dependent corrections to Maxwell's equations arise in Weber electrodynamics. The strongest limits on a new velocity dependent term come from evacuating gasses from containers and observing whether the [[electrons]] become [[Electric charge|charge]]d. However, because the electrons used to set these limits are [[atom|Coulomb bound]], [[renormalization]] effects may cancel the velocity dependent corrections. Other searches have spun current-carrying [[solenoids]], observed metals as they cooled, and used [[superconductors]] to obtain a large drift velocity.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lemon|first=DK|author2=WF Edwards |author3=CS Kenyon |title=Electric potentials associated with steady currents in superconducting coils|journal=Physics Letters A|year=1992|volume=162|issue=2|pages=105–114|bibcode = 1992PhLA..162..105L |doi = 10.1016/0375-9601(92)90985-U }}</ref> None of these searches have observed any discrepancy from Coulomb's law. Observing the charge of [[particle beams]] provides weaker bounds, but tests the velocity dependent corrections to Maxwell's equations for particles with higher velocities.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Walz|first=DR|author2=HR Noyes |title=Calorimetric test of special relativity|journal=Physical Review A|date=April 1984|volume=29|issue=1|pages=2110–2114|bibcode = 1984PhRvA..29.2110W |doi = 10.1103/PhysRevA.29.2110 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bartlett|first=DF|author2=BFL Ward |title=Is an electron's charge independent of its velocity?|journal=Physical Review D|date=15 December 1997|volume=16|issue=12|pages=3453–3458|doi=10.1103/physrevd.16.3453}}</ref>

===Acceleration Dependent Tests===
Test charges inside a spherical conducting shell will experience different behaviors depending on the force law the test charge is subject to.<ref name=Junginger>{{cite journal|last=Junginger|first=JE|author2=ZD Popovic |title=An experimental investigation of the influence of an electrostatic potential on electron mass as predicted by Weber’s force law|journal=Can. J. Phys.|year=2004|volume=82|pages=731–735|doi=10.1139/p04-046|bibcode = 2004CaJPh..82..731J }}</ref> By measuring the [[oscillation frequency]] of a [[neon lamp]] inside a spherical conductor biased to a high voltage, this can be tested. Again, no significant deviations from the Maxwell theory have been observed.

===Relation to quantum electrodynamics===
[[Quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) is perhaps the most stringently tested theory in physics, with highly nontrivial predictions verified to an accuracy better than 10 parts per billion: See [[precision tests of QED]]. Since Maxwell's equations can be derived as the classical limit of the equations of QED,<ref>Peskin, M.; Schroeder, D. (1995). An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory. Westview Press. ISBN 0-201-50397-2. Section 4.1.</ref> it follows that ''if'' QED is correct (as is widely believed by mainstream physicists), then Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law are correct too.

Although it is has been demonstrated that, in certain aspects, the Weber force formula is consistent with Maxwell’s equations and the Lorentz force,<ref>{{cite journal |authors=E.T. Kinzer and J. Fukai |title=Weber's force and Maxwell's equations |journal=Found. Phys. Lett. |volume=9 |page=457 |year=1996 |doi=10.1007/BF02190049}}</ref> they are not exactly equivalent—and more specifically, they make various contradictory predictions<ref name=assis/><ref name=AssisPLA/><ref name=Wesley/><ref name=Junginger/> as described above. Therefore they cannot both be correct.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Electrodynamics]]
[[Category:Electromagnetism]]