Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Russell Kun

2022-09-29T22:04:32Z

Aridd: Russell Kun ist nicht Russ Kun : Sie sind zwei andere Menschen.

'''ACHTUNG : Dieser Information is falsch. Russell Effaney Kun ist nicht der Präsident ; [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russ_Kun Russ Joseph Kun] ist der Präsident. Sie sind zwei andere Menschen.'''

'''Russell Effaney Kun''' ist ein [[nauru]]ischer [[Politiker]] und früherer [[Gewichtheber]]. Er ist der Neffe von [[Ruben Kun]]. Er ist seit dem 28. September Präsident von Nauru und ersetzt [[Lionel Aingimea]].<ref>{{Internetquelle |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/475656/pacific-news-in-brief-for-september-28 |titel=Pacific news in brief for September 28 |datum=2022-09-28 |abruf=2022-09-28 |sprache=en-NZ}}</ref>

Bei den letzten Parlamentswahlen am 3. Mai 2003 wurde er für den Wahlkreis [[Ubenide]] in das [[Nauruisches Parlament|Nauruische Parlament]] gewählt. Kun war unter [[Ludwig Scotty]] Justizminister in dessen erster Amtsperiode und kehrte unter [[René Harris]] im Februar 2004 in dieses Amt zurück. Auch nach der Präsidentschaftsübernahme durch Scotty blieb Kun vorerst Justizminister und war auch Parlamentssprecher.

Scotty suspendierte ihn im Oktober 2004 jedoch von diesem Amt. Kun befürchtete durch diese Suspendierung und der Auflösung des Parlaments politisch anarchische Zustände mit Scotty als einzigen Regierenden. Bei den Neuwahlen am 23. Oktober 2004 verlor Kun seinen Sitz im Parlament. Im November 2004 verlangte er nachträglich mit rechtlichen Mitteln sein Honorar, welches ihm als Parlamentssprecher noch zustände. Staatsangestellte werden jedoch schon seit Jahren nur teilweise oder gar nicht mehr bezahlt.

2006 wurde vom Parlament ein Bericht zu Unregelmäßigkeiten beim Verkauf von Reisepässen zwischen 1997 und 2000 veröffentlicht, bei dem sich mutmaßlich auch Kun, damaliger Justizminister, unrechtmäßig bereichert haben soll. Kun lebt heute auf den [[Marshallinseln]], wo er als [[Pflichtverteidiger]] arbeitet. Kun gehört zu den öffentlichen Befürwortern der [[Pacific Solution]].

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />
* http://www.paclii.org/nr/legis/num_act/pca2004157/
* https://www.smh.com.au/world/emergency-declared-as-nauruan-parliament-sacked-20041001-gdjua0.html

{{SORTIERUNG:Kun, Russell}}
[[Kategorie:Gewichtheber (Nauru)]]
[[Kategorie:Justizminister (Nauru)]]
[[Kategorie:Abgeordneter (Nauru)]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren im 20. Jahrhundert]]
[[Kategorie:Nauruer]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]
[[Kategorie:Amtierendes Staatsoberhaupt]]
[[Kategorie:Amtierender Regierungschef]]
[[Kategorie:Präsident (Nauru)]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Kun, Russell
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Kun, Russell Effaney (vollständiger Name)
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=nauruischer Politiker und Gewichtheber
|GEBURTSDATUM=20. Jahrhundert
|GEBURTSORT=
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

Rebecca Long-Bailey

2020-01-03T10:05:09Z

Aridd: Es ist "Long Bailey" (nicht Long-Bailey) in ihre Internetseite und in die Seite Parlaments.

[[Datei:Official portrait of Rebecca Long Bailey crop 2.jpg|mini|Rebecca Long-Bailey (Juni 2017)]]
'''Rebecca Long Bailey''' (* [[22. September]] [[1979]] in [[Stretford]], [[Trafford]]) ist eine [[Vereinigtes Königreich|britische]] [[Politikerin]] und Abgeordnete im [[House of Commons]]. Sie vertritt dort seit den [[Britische Unterhauswahl 2015|Britischen Unterhauswahlen 2015]] den Wahlbezirk ''Salford and Eccles'' und gehört der [[Labour Party]] an.

Long Bailey wurde als Tochter [[Irland|irischer]] Eltern geboren.<ref>{{Internetquelle |autor=Neal Keeling |url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/rebecca-long-bailey-replace-hazel-7296137 |titel=High-flying solicitor is in the running to stand for Hazel Blears seat |datum=2014-06-20 |abruf=2019-10-31}}</ref> An der [[Manchester Metropolitan University]] studierte sie [[Politikwissenschaft|Politikwissenschaften]] und [[Soziologie]]. Danach arbeitete sie als [[Solicitor]] für verschiedene Anwaltskanzleien, darunter [[Pinsent Masons]].<ref>{{Internetquelle |url=https://www.legalfutures.co.uk/latest-news/labours-legal-leaders-join-shadow-cabinet-rebellion |titel=Labour's legal leaders join Shadow Cabinet rebellion |datum=2016-06-26 |abruf=2019-10-31 |sprache=en-GB}}</ref>

2015 wurde sie ins Parlament gewählt. Sie erhielt 49,4 % der Wählerstimmen.<ref>{{Literatur |Titel=Salford & Eccles parliamentary constituency - Election 2017 |Online=https://www.bbc.com/news/politics/constituencies/E14000911 |Abruf=2019-10-31}}</ref> Bei der [[Britische Unterhauswahl 2017|Unterhauswahl 2017]] konnte sie ihr Wahlergebnis auf 65,6 % der Stimmen steigern. Von Juni 2016 bis Februar 2017 war sie als ''Shadow Chief Secretary to the Treasury'' tätig.<ref>{{Literatur |Titel=Corbyn unveils new team after walkouts |Datum=2016-06-27 |Online=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-36632956 |Abruf=2019-10-31}}</ref> Seit Februar 2017 amtiert Long Bailey als Schattenministerin für Wirtschaft, Energie und Industrielle Strategien (''Shadow Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy'').

Nach Ansicht der Medien gilt sie als inoffizielle Nachfolgerin von [[Jeremy Corbyn]] und diesem als nahestehend.<ref>{{Literatur |Titel=Rebecca Long-Bailey: Corbyn loyalist seen as heir apparent |Datum=2019-06-28 |ISSN=0140-0460 |Online=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/rebecca-long-bailey-corbyn-loyalist-seen-as-heir-apparent-pnjs2tk8m |Abruf=2019-10-31}}</ref><ref>{{Internetquelle |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/politics/row-as-jeremy-corbyn-s-heir-rebecca-longbailey-gets-role-picking-london-mps-a4259601.html |titel=Row as Corbyn’s ‘heir’ Long-Bailey gets role picking London MPs |datum=2019-10-11 |abruf=2019-10-31 |sprache=en}}</ref> Im Oktober 2019 rief sie diesen dennoch zum Rücktritt auf, sollte er die anstehenden [[Britische Unterhauswahl 2019|Wahlen]] verlieren.<ref>{{Internetquelle |url=https://inews.co.uk/news/politics/key-corbyn-ally-backs-calls-step-down-labour-lose-another-election-813074 |titel=Growing calls for Jeremy Corbyn to step down if Labour loses election |abruf=2019-10-31 |sprache=en}}</ref>

== Weblinks ==
{{Commonscat|Rebecca Long-Bailey}}

* [http://www.rebeccalongbailey.com/ Website]
* [https://www.parliament.uk/biographies/commons/rebecca-long-bailey/4396 Profil auf der Internetseite des britischen Parlaments]
* [https://hansard.parliament.uk/search/MemberContributions?memberId=4396 Wortmeldungen im Parlament]

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Long Bailey, Rebecca}}
[[Kategorie:Abgeordneter des House of Commons (Vereinigtes Königreich)]]
[[Kategorie:Labour-Mitglied]]
[[Kategorie:Politiker (21. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Brite]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1979]]
[[Kategorie:Frau]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Long Bailey, Rebecca
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=britische Politikerin, Abgeordnete im Unterhaus
|GEBURTSDATUM=22. September 1979
|GEBURTSORT=[[Stretford]], [[Trafford]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

Rebecca Long-Bailey

2020-01-03T10:03:42Z

Aridd: Aridd verschob die Seite Rebecca Long-Bailey nach Rebecca Long Bailey: Es ist "Long Bailey" (nicht Long-Bailey) in ihre Internetseite und in die Seite Parlaments.

[[Datei:Official portrait of Rebecca Long Bailey crop 2.jpg|mini|Rebecca Long-Bailey (Juni 2017)]]
'''Rebecca Long-Bailey''' (* [[22. September]] [[1979]] in [[Stretford]], [[Trafford]]) ist eine [[Vereinigtes Königreich|britische]] [[Politikerin]] und Abgeordnete im [[House of Commons]]. Sie vertritt dort seit den [[Britische Unterhauswahl 2015|Britischen Unterhauswahlen 2015]] den Wahlbezirk ''Salford and Eccles'' und gehört der [[Labour Party]] an.

Long-Bailey wurde als Tochter [[Irland|irischer]] Eltern geboren.<ref>{{Internetquelle |autor=Neal Keeling |url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/rebecca-long-bailey-replace-hazel-7296137 |titel=High-flying solicitor is in the running to stand for Hazel Blears seat |datum=2014-06-20 |abruf=2019-10-31}}</ref> An der [[Manchester Metropolitan University]] studierte sie [[Politikwissenschaft|Politikwissenschaften]] und [[Soziologie]]. Danach arbeitete sie als [[Solicitor]] für verschiedene Anwaltskanzleien, darunter [[Pinsent Masons]].<ref>{{Internetquelle |url=https://www.legalfutures.co.uk/latest-news/labours-legal-leaders-join-shadow-cabinet-rebellion |titel=Labour's legal leaders join Shadow Cabinet rebellion |datum=2016-06-26 |abruf=2019-10-31 |sprache=en-GB}}</ref>

2015 wurde sie ins Parlament gewählt. Sie erhielt 49,4 % der Wählerstimmen.<ref>{{Literatur |Titel=Salford & Eccles parliamentary constituency - Election 2017 |Online=https://www.bbc.com/news/politics/constituencies/E14000911 |Abruf=2019-10-31}}</ref> Bei der [[Britische Unterhauswahl 2017|Unterhauswahl 2017]] konnte sie ihr Wahlergebnis auf 65,6 % der Stimmen steigern. Von Juni 2016 bis Februar 2017 war sie als ''Shadow Chief Secretary to the Treasury'' tätig.<ref>{{Literatur |Titel=Corbyn unveils new team after walkouts |Datum=2016-06-27 |Online=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-36632956 |Abruf=2019-10-31}}</ref> Seit Februar 2017 amtiert Long-Bailey als Schattenministerin für Wirtschaft, Energie und Industrielle Strategien (''Shadow Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy'').

Nach Ansicht der Medien gilt sie als inoffizielle Nachfolgerin von [[Jeremy Corbyn]] und diesem als nahestehend.<ref>{{Literatur |Titel=Rebecca Long-Bailey: Corbyn loyalist seen as heir apparent |Datum=2019-06-28 |ISSN=0140-0460 |Online=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/rebecca-long-bailey-corbyn-loyalist-seen-as-heir-apparent-pnjs2tk8m |Abruf=2019-10-31}}</ref><ref>{{Internetquelle |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/politics/row-as-jeremy-corbyn-s-heir-rebecca-longbailey-gets-role-picking-london-mps-a4259601.html |titel=Row as Corbyn’s ‘heir’ Long-Bailey gets role picking London MPs |datum=2019-10-11 |abruf=2019-10-31 |sprache=en}}</ref> Im Oktober 2019 rief sie diesen dennoch zum Rücktritt auf, sollte er die anstehenden [[Britische Unterhauswahl 2019|Wahlen]] verlieren.<ref>{{Internetquelle |url=https://inews.co.uk/news/politics/key-corbyn-ally-backs-calls-step-down-labour-lose-another-election-813074 |titel=Growing calls for Jeremy Corbyn to step down if Labour loses election |abruf=2019-10-31 |sprache=en}}</ref>

== Weblinks ==
{{Commonscat}}

* [http://www.rebeccalongbailey.com/ Website]
* [https://www.parliament.uk/biographies/commons/rebecca-long-bailey/4396 Profil auf der Internetseite des britischen Parlaments]
* [https://hansard.parliament.uk/search/MemberContributions?memberId=4396 Wortmeldungen im Parlament]

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Long-Bailey, Rebecca}}
[[Kategorie:Abgeordneter des House of Commons (Vereinigtes Königreich)]]
[[Kategorie:Labour-Mitglied]]
[[Kategorie:Politiker (21. Jahrhundert)]]
[[Kategorie:Brite]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1979]]
[[Kategorie:Frau]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Long-Bailey, Rebecca
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=britische Politikerin, Abgeordnete im Unterhaus
|GEBURTSDATUM=22. September 1979
|GEBURTSORT=[[Stretford]], [[Trafford]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

FijiFirst

2019-08-26T11:14:50Z

Aridd: "Klassischer Liberalismus" ist nicht wirklich wahr for dieser Partei. Und "Nationalismus" ist problematisch. Bitte sehen Sie hier: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:FijiFirst#Ideology_and_positioning .

{{Infobox Partei
| Infoboxbreite = "27em"
| Partei = FijiFirst
| Parteilogo =
| Parteiführer = [[Frank Bainimarama]]
| Parteivorsitzender =
| Bundesvorstand =
| Bild Parteivorsitz = [[Datei:Frank Bainimarama November 2014.jpg|150px|Frank Bainimarama]]
| Generalsekretär = Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum
| Stellvertretender Vorsitzender =
| Sprecher =
| Bundesgeschäftsführer =
| Landesgeschäftsführer =
| Hauptgeschäftsführer =
| Bundesschatzmeister =
| Landesschatzmeister =
| Schatzmeister =
| Ehrenvorsitzender =
| Entstehung =
| Gründung = 31. März 2014
| Gründungsort =
| Auflösung =
| Auflösungsgrund =
| Neue_Partei =
| Hauptsitz = [[Suva]], {{FJI}}
| Jugendorganisation =
| Zeitung =
| Stiftung =
| Ausrichtung =
| Farben = {{Farbindex|00BFFF|Blau}}
| Parlamentsmandate =
| Sitze1-Titel = [[Parlament von Fidschi]]
| Sitze1 = {{Infobox Partei/Mandate|27|51|#00BFFF}}
| Landtagsmandate =
| Zuschüsse =
| Mitglieder =
| Mindestalter =
| Durchschnittsalter =
| Frauenanteil =
| International =
| EP-Mandate =
| Europa =
| EU-Parlament =
| Website = [http://fijifirst.com fijifirst.com]
}}
'''FijiFirst''' ist eine [[Mitte-rechts]] Partei in [[Fidschi]]. Die Partei setzt sich dafür ein, dass die Bevölkerungsgruppen von Fidschi – die indigenen [[Fidschianer|iTaukei]], die Indischstämmigen und die [[Rotuma (Fidschi)|Rotumanen]] – gleichermaßen als „Fidschianer“ gelten.

== Geschichte ==
FijiFirst ist am 31. März 2014 von Interim-Premierminister [[Frank Bainimarama]] gegründet worden. Die Partei hat seit der [[Parlamentswahl in Fidschi 2014|2014]] eine absolute Mehrheit im [[Parlament von Fidschi]] und stellt seit dem 22. September 2014 den [[Liste der Premierminister von Fidschi|Premierminister]].

== Wahlergebnisse ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|- style="background-color: #eee;"
! Jahr ||data-sort-type="text" |Wahl || Stimmen || Stimmenanteil || Sitze
|-
| 2014 ||data-sort-value="Parlamentswahl 2014"|{{FJI|#}} [[Parlamentswahl in Fidschi 2014|Parlamentswahl 2014]] || align=center | 293.714 || align=center | 59,17 % ||data-sort-value="2"|{{Infobox Partei/Mandate|32|50|#00BFFF}}
|-
| 2018 ||data-sort-value="Parlamentswahl 2018"|{{FJI|#}} [[Parlamentswahl in Fidschi 2018|Parlamentswahl 2018]] || align=center | 227.241 || align=center | 50,02 % ||data-sort-value="2"|{{Infobox Partei/Mandate|27|51|#00BFFF}}
|}

== Weblinks ==
* [http://fijifirst.com Offizielle Webseite der FijiFirst Party]


<references />

[[Kategorie:Partei (Fidschi)]]
[[Kategorie:Gegründet 2014]]

Speaker

2019-03-10T10:44:59Z

Aridd: Es kommt ersten mal aus England (und dann Vereinigten Königreich), nicht aus USA.

{{Dieser Artikel|behandelt den Vorsitzenden einer legislativen Versammlung. Für andere Bedeutungen siehe [[Speaker (Begriffsklärung)]].}}

Als '''{{lang|en|Speaker}}''' ({{deS|''Sprecher''}}) wird in vielen [[Englische Sprache|englischsprachigen]] Gebieten der Vorsitzende eines legislativen Gremiums bezeichnet, zumeist [[Repräsentantenhaus]] genannt.

== Vereinigtes Königreich ==
Im [[Vereinigtes Königreich|Vereinigten Königreich]] ist der {{lang|en|Speaker}} der Vorsitzende des Unterhauses ''([[House of Commons (Großbritannien)|{{lang|en|House of Commons}}]])''. Der {{lang|en|Speaker}} wird von jedem neu gewählten Parlament neu bestimmt und bleibt dann für alle Sitzungen der Parlamentsperiode im Amt. Der {{lang|en|Speaker}} sitzt auf einem thronartigen Gestühl über den [[Abgeordneter|Abgeordneten]].<ref name="UK_Office_and_Role_of_Speaker" /> Vor ihm liegt das ''{{lang|en|Mace}}'', ein vergoldetes [[Zepter]], als Zeichen seiner Amtswürde.

Der {{lang|en|Speaker}} verhält sich stets neutral und spricht nur, wenn er etwas zum geschäftsmäßigen Ablauf der Sitzungen zu sagen hat, wie zum Beispiel bei Unruhen im Parlamentssaal die anwesenden Politiker zur Ordnung zu rufen, siehe [[Naming (parlamentarische Prozedur)]].<ref name="UK_Office_and_Role_of_Speaker" /> Ist der {{lang|en|Speaker}} verhindert, vertritt ihn der ''{{lang|en|Chairman of Committees}}'' (auch ''{{lang|en|Deputy Speaker}}''). Das Amt lässt sich in Ansätzen mit dem Amt des [[Bundestagspräsident]]en vergleichen.

''{{lang|en|Sir Thomas Hungerford}}'' führte 1377 als erster den Titel ''{{lang|en|Mr. Speaker}}''. Das Amt selbst besteht seit 1258, als sich {{lang|en|[[Peter de Montfort]]}} im in [[Oxford]] tagenden ''{{lang|en|Mad Parliament}}'' durchsetzte. Das Amt wurde mit ''{{lang|en|parlour}}'' oder ''{{lang|en|prolocutor}}'' bezeichnet. Eine Aufgabe des {{lang|en|Speaker}} bestand seinerzeit darin, über ihn die direkte Anrede der Gegenseite vermeiden zu können. Hierdurch konnten [[Ehrenhändel]] ([[Duell]]) umgangen werden. Als Zeichen der Hochachtung vor der Würde des {{lang|en|Speakers}} treten in seinem Wahlkreis, sofern er sich wieder um einen Sitz im Unterhaus bewirbt, keine anderen Kandidaten an.

Am 22. Juni 2009 wurde der Konservative {{lang|en|[[John Bercow]]}} als Nachfolger des zurückgetretenen [[Labour Party|{{lang|en|Labour}}]]-Abgeordneten [[Michael Martin, Baron Martin of Springburn|{{lang|en|Michael Martin}}]] zum {{lang|en|Speaker}} gewählt. 2010 wurde er im Amt bestätigt und am 18. Mai 2015 wurde er ohne Gegenstimmen erneut gewählt.<ref name="Guardian_2015_05_18" />

== Vereinigte Staaten ==
[[Datei:Seal of the Speaker of the US House of Representatives.svg|miniatur|Das Siegel des {{lang|en|Speaker of the House}}]]
In den Vereinigten Staaten trägt der [[Sprecher des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten|Vorsitzende (Sprecher) des Repräsentantenhauses]] offiziell den Titel des Speaker ''({{lang|en|Speaker of the House}})''. Das Amt des Sprechers wird durch die [[Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten]] definiert, die 1789 in Kraft trat. Der Sprecher wird durch das Repräsentantenhaus gewählt und ist dessen ranghöchster Vertreter. Obwohl es nicht von der Verfassung verlangt wird, war der Sprecher aus praktischen Gründen bisher immer ein Abgeordneter der Mehrheitspartei und hatte somit den höchsten Rang innerhalb der Fraktion seiner Partei inne. Der Sprecher sitzt zumeist nicht direkt den Debatten vor, sondern delegiert diese Aufgabe an andere Abgeordnete. Da der {{lang|en|Speaker}} ebenfalls einer von 435 regulär gewählten Abgeordneten ist, hat er einen [[Kongresswahlbezirk|Wahlbezirk]] zu vertreten. Gehört der {{lang|en|Speaker}} einer anderen Partei als der [[Präsident der Vereinigten Staaten|Präsident]] an, kann er [[de facto]] die Rolle des [[Oppositionsführer]]s einnehmen.

Auch in den [[State Legislature|Parlamenten]] der [[Bundesstaat der Vereinigten Staaten|US-Bundesstaaten]] werden Vorsitzende des Unterhauses als ''{{lang|en|Speaker}}'' bezeichnet. Je nach Bundesstaat heißen die Parlamentskammern Repräsentantenhaus ''(House of Representatives)'' oder ''{{lang|en|State Assembly}}''. Entsprechend wird der Vorsitzende als ''{{lang|en|Speaker of the House}}'' oder ''{{lang|en|Speaker of the Assembly}}'' bezeichnet. Wie auf Bundesebene handelt es sich im Regelfall um einen Abgeordneten der Mehrheitspartei. Ist der {{lang|en|Speaker}} nicht Mitglied der Partei des [[Gouverneur (Vereinigte Staaten)|Gouverneurs]], kann er ebenfalls de facto die Rolle des Oppositionsführers einnehmen.

Sprecher sowohl auf Bundes- und bundesstaatlicher Ebene werden im Regelfall mit ''{{lang|en|Mister Speaker}}'' oder ''{{lang|en|Madam Speaker}}'' angesprochen.

== Neuseeland ==
Das [[Repräsentantenhaus (Neuseeland)|{{lang|en|House of Representatives}}]] besteht in [[Neuseeland]] seit 1852, die Rolle des {{lang|en|Speaker}} wurde aber erst 1856 nach britischem Vorbild eingerichtet. Erster {{lang|en|Speaker}} seinerzeit war der erst 41-jährige Sir [[Charles Clifford (Politiker)|{{lang|en|Charles Clifford}}]]. Er gilt bis heute als der jüngste {{lang|en|Speaker}} den Neuseeland je hatte.<ref name="NZP_Biographies_Speakers" />

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Parlamentspräsident]]

== Weblinks ==
* {{Internetquelle | url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/mps-and-lords/principal/speaker/ | titel={{lang|en|The Speaker}} | hrsg={{lang|en|parliament.uk}} | zugriff=2018-03-21 | sprache=en}}

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references>
<ref name="UK_Office_and_Role_of_Speaker">
{{Internetquelle | url=https://www.parliament.uk/business/commons/the-speaker/the-role-of-the-speaker/role-of-the-speaker/ | titel={{lang|en|Office and Role of Speaker}} | hrsg={{lang|en|parliament.uk}} | zugriff=2018-03-21 | sprache=en}}
</ref>
<ref name="Guardian_2015_05_18">
{{Internetquelle | autor={{lang|en|Rowena Mason}} | url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/may/18/john-bercow-re-elected-commons-speaker-politics | titel={{lang|en|John Bercow re-elected as Speaker}} | hrsg={{lang|en|The Guardian}} | datum=2015-05-18 | zugriff=2016-07-09 | sprache=en}}
</ref>
<ref name="NZP_Biographies_Speakers">
{{Internetquelle | url=https://www.parliament.nz/media/2269/biographies-of-all-speakers.pdf | titel={{lang|en|Biographies of Former and Current Speakers of the New Zealand House of Representatives}} | hrsg={{lang|en|New Zealand Parliament}} | zugriff=2018-03-21 | sprache=en | format=PDF 294 kB}}
</ref>
</references>

[[Kategorie:Politik (Vereinigtes Königreich)]]
[[Kategorie:Parlamentspräsident| Speaker]]

[[en:Speaker (politics)]]
[[sv:Talman]]

Benutzerin:IvaBerlin/Tina Browne

2018-06-08T20:20:07Z

Aridd:

{{Infobox Biographie2}}

'''Tina Pupuke Browne''' est une avocate et femme politique des [[îles Cook]].

== Biographie ==
Après une licence de Droit à l'[[université de Canterbury]] en Nouvelle-Zélande en 1979, elle est admise au [[barreau]] de Nouvelle-Zélande en 1980. Elle retourne aux îles Cook en 1981 et travaille initialement pour la ''Crown Law Office'' (bureau qui combine les fonctions de conseil juridique auprès du gouvernement, de représentation du gouvernement en cours d'appel, et de procureur public). Spécialisée en droit [[foncier]], elle rejoint ensuite un cabinet d'avocats privé. Elle est l'une des trois membres de la Commission des lois, qui examine les lois adoptées par le [[Parlement des îles Cook|Parlement]]<ref>{{en}} [http://www.browneharvey.co.ck/people.html "Our Principals & Associates: TINA PUPUKE BROWNE LLB"], Browne Harvey & Associates PC</ref>{{,}}<ref name="netball">{{en}} [http://netball.org/inside-inf/board-of-directors "Board of Directors"], [[Fédération internationale de netball]]</ref>.

Elle devient présidente du [[Parti démocrate (Îles Cook)|Parti démocrate]] (centre-droit libéral) en avril 2017. [[William "Smiley" Heather|William Heather]] demeure le chef du parti au Parlement, et le chef de l'opposition parlementaire, Tina Browne n'étant pas députée. Mais c'est elle qui mène le parti aux [[Élections législatives de 2018 aux îles Cook|élections législatives de juin 2018]]<ref>{{en}} [http://www.cookislandsnews.com/item/63985-browne-new-leader-of-the-demo-party "Browne new leader of the Demo Party"], ''Cook Islands News'', 13 avril 2017</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{en}} [http://www.cookislandsnews.com/national/politics/item/64793-smiley-steps-back-into-old-role "‘Smiley’ steps back into old role"], Cook Islands News, 16 juin 2017</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{en}} [https://www.radionz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/2018648149/democrats-hoping-for-change-in-cook-islands-election "Democrats hoping for change in Cook Islands election"], Radio New Zealand, 7 juin 2018</ref>.

Elle est par ailleurs présidente de la [[Fédération océanienne de netball]], et membre [[océanie]]nne du bureau de direction de la [[Fédération internationale de netball]]<ref name="netball" />.

== Notes et références ==
{{références}}

{{Portail|politique|Îles Cook}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Browne, Tina}}
[[Catégorie:Personnalité politique des îles Cook]]

Benutzerin:IvaBerlin/Tina Browne

2018-06-08T12:46:16Z

Aridd: Nouvelle page : '''Tina Pupuke Browne''' est une avocate femme politique des îles Cook. ==Biographie== Après une licence de Droit à l'université de Canterbury en Nouvelle-Zélande en...

'''Tina Pupuke Browne''' est une avocate femme politique des [[îles Cook]].

==Biographie==
Après une licence de Droit à l'[[université de Canterbury]] en Nouvelle-Zélande en 1979, elle est admise au [[barreau]] de Nouvelle-Zélande en 1980. Elle retourne aux îles Cook en 1981 et travaille initialement pour la ''Crown Law Office'' (bureau qui combine les fonctions de conseil juridique auprès du gouvernement, de représentation du gouvernement en cours d'appel, et de procureur public). Spécialisée en droit [[foncier]], elle rejoint ensuite un cabinet d'avocats privé. Elle est l'une des trois membres de la Commission des lois, qui examine les lois adoptées par le [[Parlement des îles Cook|Parlement]]<ref>{{en}} [http://www.browneharvey.co.ck/people.html "Our Principals & Associates: TINA PUPUKE BROWNE LLB"], Browne Harvey & Associates PC</ref>{{,}}<ref name="netball">{{en}} [http://netball.org/inside-inf/board-of-directors "Board of Directors"], [[Fédération internationale de netball]]</ref>.

Elle devient présidente du [[Parti démocrate (Îles Cook)|Parti démocrate]] (centre-droit libéral) en avril 2017. [[William "Smiley" Heather|William Heather]] demeure le chef du parti au Parlement, et le chef de l'opposition parlementaire, Tina Browne n'étant pas députée. Mais c'est elle qui mène le parti aux [[Élections législatives de 2018 aux îles Cook|élections législatives de juin 2018]]<ref>{{en}} [http://www.cookislandsnews.com/item/63985-browne-new-leader-of-the-demo-party "Browne new leader of the Demo Party"], ''Cook Islands News'', 13 avril 2017</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{en}} [http://www.cookislandsnews.com/national/politics/item/64793-smiley-steps-back-into-old-role "‘Smiley’ steps back into old role"], Cook Islands News, 16 juin 2017</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{en}} [https://www.radionz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/2018648149/democrats-hoping-for-change-in-cook-islands-election "Democrats hoping for change in Cook Islands election"], Radio New Zealand, 7 juin 2018</ref>.

Elle est par ailleurs présidente de la [[Fédération océanienne de netball]], et membre [[océanie]]nne du bureau de direction de la [[Fédération internationale de netball]]<ref name="netball" />.

==Références==
{{références}}

{{Portail|politique|Îles Cook}}

[[Catégorie:Personnalité politique des îles Cook]]

Politische Farbe

2017-08-29T10:49:02Z

Aridd: /* Großbritannien und Nordirland */ Plaid Cymru ist nich gelb, sonder grün.

{{Belege fehlen}}
Eine '''politische Farbe''' ist eine [[Kennfarbe]], die eine bestimmte politische Ausrichtung und damit eine politische Partei (als Parteifarbe) oder Bewegung repräsentieren soll. Auf internationaler Ebene verwenden Parteien mit ähnlichen Ideologien oft dieselben Farben.

== Farben in Deutschland ==
In [[Deutschland]] werden die folgenden Farben von den großen Parteien benutzt<ref>http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/MOYAJC,2,0,Farben_als_Wegweiser_in_der_Politik.html</ref>:

=== Rot ===
[[Datei:SPD logo.svg|100px|miniatur]]
[[Datei:Die Linke (12269757633).jpg|100px|miniatur]]
Die Farbe [[Rot]] ist schon seit langer Zeit ein Zeichen für Anspruch auf [[Herrschaft]]. Sie wurde zum ersten Mal als Zeichen der [[Emanzipation]] auf den Mützen der [[Jakobiner]] während der [[Französische Revolution|französischen Revolution]] im 19. Jahrhundert benutzt. Arbeiter der Seidenindustrie demonstrierten in roten Farben bei den Arbeiteraufständen von Lyon. In Deutschland fand die rote Flagge im Revolutionsjahr 1848 zum ersten Mal Gebrauch, wurde jedoch mit der Zeit von der [[Deutschlandflagge|Schwarz-Rot-Goldene Flagge]] als Emanzipationssymbol abgelöst. Seit 1863 war Rot die Farbe des [[Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein|Allgemeinen Deutschen Arbeitervereins]] und später Traditionsfarbe der [[Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands|Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands]]. Während des Verbotes der SPD gingen staatliche Behörden gegen rote Fahnen und Banner strafrechtlich vor. Nach dem [[Erster Weltkrieg|Ersten Weltkrieg]] benutzte die SPD die Farbe rot nur noch intern, da der aufflammende [[Kommunismus]], von dem sich die SPD distanzierte, mit dieser Farbe in Verbindung gebracht wurde. In der vom [[Kommunismus]] geprägten [[Deutsche Demokratische Republik|DDR]] gehörten rote Banner zum Alltag. Aufgrund dessen wurde die Farbe Rot in der [[Deutschland|Bundesrepublik]], auch wegen der nationalsozialistischen Vergangenheit, nur noch dezent eingesetzt. Derzeit gebrauchen [[die Linke]] und die SPD bevorzugt die Farbe Rot für ihre Außendarstellung. Die [[Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands|CDU]] benutzt die Farbe Rot für ihren Schriftzug, der laut Marketinganalysen zu einem festen Markenzeichen geworden ist.

=== Schwarz ===
In der Vergangenheit hatte die Farbe [[Schwarz]] mehrere politische Bedeutungen. So war der schwarze Stern zu Beginn der Neuzeit Symbol für den [[Anarchismus]]. Ebenso nutzten Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts faschistische Bewegungen in Italien schwarze Hemden als einheitliches Symbol. In der heutigen Zeit versteht man in Deutschland unter den „Schwarzen“ die [[Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands]] beziehungsweise deren Sympathisanten. Die Farbe Schwarz wurde nicht von der CDU selbst bestimmt sondern von politischen Gegnern zugewiesen. Auch die [[Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern|CSU]] wird oft in der Fraktionsgemeinschaft gemeinsam mit der CDU Schwarz dargestellt. Da der [[Konservatismus]] aus dem christlichen Milieu stammte und so mit Priestern, die die Farbe Schwarz trugen, in Verbindung gebracht wurde, etablierte sich die Farbe. Aus diesem Grund benutze die CDU schwarz für ihre Außendarstellung nur noch selten. Die Jugendorganisation der Partei, die [[Junge Union]] (JU), begann jedoch 2004 ein Markenzeichen aus der Farbe Schwarz aufzubauen, indem sie eine große Kampagne mit dem Slogan „Black is beautiful“ starteten. Die Farbe Schwarz steht neben Trauer und Depressionen auch für Stärke und Kraft, jenen beiden Eigenschaften, mit denen sich die Christdemokratische Partei Deutschlands identifizieren möchte.

=== Gelb ===
[[Datei:Logo der Freien Demokraten.svg|100px|mini|Logo der Freien Demokraten]]
Die Farbe [[Gelb]] wurde früher in Europa, im Gegensatz zu anderen Kulturen, mit sozial Randständigen und Geächteten in Verbindung gebracht. Zum Beispiel mussten Prostituierte ein gelbes Kopftuch tragen oder Frauen mit unehelichen Kindern gelbe Kleidung. Auch der [[Judenstern]] war in Gelb gehalten. Während des Kaiserreiches und der [[Weimarer Republik]] galt die Farbe Gelb in Deutschland als „Farbe der [[Verrat|Verräter]]“.<ref>Eva Heller: ''Wie Farben wirken. Farbpsychologie, Farbsymbolik, kreative Farbgestaltung.'' Reinbek bei Hamburg 2004, S. 141. ISBN 978-3499619601</ref> Die sogenannten Werksgemeinschaften wurden mit dieser Farbe diskreditiert (vgl. [[Volksgemeinschaft#Im Deutschen Kaiserreich]]).<ref>Arnold Rabbow: ''dtv-Lexikon politischer Symbole'' in: ''Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung.''</ref>

Bereits im 19. Jahrhundert war Gelb oder Gold (''siehe [[Schwarz-Rot-Gold]]'') als Farbe des [[Liberalismus]] etabliert. In Deutschland wird sie seit der [[Landtagswahl in Baden-Württemberg 1972]] politisch von der [[Freie Demokratische Partei|Freien Demokratischen Partei]] (Freie Demokraten, FDP) als Parteifarbe genutzt.<ref>[http://www.bpb.de/apuz/29753/farben-als-wegweiser-in-der-politik?p=all ''Farben als Wegweiser in der Politik.''] Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (BPB), abgerufen am 23. Oktober 2016</ref>

=== Braun ===
In der [[Weimarer Republik]] verwendete die nationalsozialistische SA [[Sturmabteilung#Uniformierung|braune Hemden]]. Das Symbol [[Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei|NSDAP]] enthielt die Farben Schwarz, Weiß und Rot. Rechtsextreme Parteien in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland wie [[Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands|NPD]], [[Deutsche Volksunion|DVU]] und [[Die Republikaner|Republikaner]] verwendeten meistens selbst kein braun, werden aber aus historischen Gründen dennoch mit der Farbe braun assoziiert.

=== Grün ===
[[Datei:Bündnis 90 - Die Grünen Logo.svg|100px|miniatur]]
In Deutschland wird die Farbe [[Grün]] der Partei [[Bündnis 90/Die Grünen]] zugeordnet. Zurückzuführen ist dies auf die Assoziation der Farbe Grün mit der [[Natur]] und Vegetation. Sie ist ebenfalls ein [[Symbol]] der [[Freiheit]]. Kaum eine andere Partei setzt so intensiv und langfristig auf ihre Traditionsfarbe wie „Die Grünen“.

=== Orange ===
[[Datei:Piratenpartei Deutschland Logo.svg|100px|miniatur]]
Die Farbe [[Orange (Farbe)|Orange]] ist historisch weitgehend unbelastet. Als „native“ Parteifarbe hat z.B. die [[Ökologisch-Demokratische Partei]] Orange gewählt. Die Farbe tritt aber erst seit einiger Zeit auf der politischen Ebene stärker in den Vordergrund. So führte die CDU die Farbe Orange als Leitfarbe während der [[Europawahl 2004]] ein. Die Farbe etablierte sich, sodass beispielsweise die Fahnen vor dem Konrad-Adenauer-Haus seit längerer Zeit in Orange wehen. Sie soll Urlaub, Sonne und Energie symbolisieren und eignet sich laut eigenen Aussagen sehr als weitere Leitfarbe neben Schwarz.

Neben der CDU wird die Farbe Orange zunehmend mit der [[Piratenpartei Deutschland]] in Verbindung gebracht. Das Logo der Partei enthält zu großem Teil diese Farbe.

Keine offizielle Farbe haben die Freien Wähler. Teilweise wird jedoch auf kommunaler Ebene oder durch einzelne Vertreter ihrer politischen Gruppen auf Orange als Unterscheidungsmerkmal verwiesen, vgl. [[Bundesverband Freie Wähler Deutschland#Namen, Logos und Farben]].

=== Blau ===
[[Datei:Alternative-fuer-Deutschland-Logo-2013.svg|rechts|100px|rahmenlos|mini]]
Die Farbe [[Blau]], die als die beliebteste Farbe Deutschlands gilt, wird der CSU und seit 2013 der [[Alternative für Deutschland]] zugeordnet. Auch beim [[Gesamtdeutscher Block/Bund der Heimatvertriebenen und Entrechteten|Gesamtdeutsche Block/Bund der Heimatvertriebenen und Entrechteten]] (Dunkelblau), dem [[Südschleswigscher Wählerverband|Südschleswigschen Wählerverband]] (blau-gelb) und der [[Statt Partei]] galt bzw. gilt Blau als Grundfarbe.

In anderen europäischen Ländern wird diese Farbe fast ausschließlich von [[Liberalismus|liberalen Parteien]] benutzt. Von der [[EU|Europäischen Union]] und den [[UNO|Vereinten Nationen]] findet Blau Verwendung in der Außendarstellung der jeweiligen Institutionen. So sind die EU-Flagge und das Symbol der UN in Blau gehalten, da sie neben Weiß als Farbe des Friedens gilt.{{Absatz|links}}

=== Violett ===
[[Violett]] ist im deutschen Parteienspektrum weitgehend unbeachtet. Die Kleinpartei [[Die Violetten – für spirituelle Politik]] führt die Farbe im Namen. Als „spirituelle“ Farbe hat Violett eine lange Tradition als christliche [[liturgische Farbe]]. Auch in der internationalen Frauenbewegung wird die Farbe traditionell oft verwendet, allerdings bisher nicht in der deutschen Parteienlandschaft.

== Farben der Parteien in anderen Ländern ==
{{lückenhaft|Aufgrund eines Reverts: Für [[Allianz der Liberalen und Demokraten für Europa]] gibt es keinen passenden Länderabschnitt, wahrscheinlich fehlt noch ein Abschnitt zur Europäischen Union.}}

=== Australien ===
* [[Australian Democrats]]: orange
* [[Australian Greens]]: grün
* [[Australian Labor Party]]: rot
* [[Liberal Party of Australia]]: blau
* [[National Party of Australia|National Party]]: grün, gold
* [[One Nation Party]]: blau, gelb

=== Belgien ===
* [[Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten]]: marineblau, gold
* [[Socialistische Partij Anders]]: rot und schwarz
* [[Sociaal-Liberale Partij|SPIRIT]]: lila
* [[Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams]]: orange
* [[Parti Socialiste (Belgien)|Parti Socialiste]]: rot
* [[Vlaams Belang]]: gelb und schwarz
* [[Mouvement Réformateur]]: blau, gelb und magenta
* [[Centre Démocrate Humaniste]]: braunrot und orangerot
* [[Neu-Flämische Allianz]]: schwarz und gold
* [[Ecolo]] und [[Agalev]]: grün
* [[Front National (Belgien)|Front National]]: schwarz, gelb, rot
* [[Vivant]]: gold und marinegrün

=== Dänemark ===
* [[Enhedslisten – de rød-grønne]]: rot und grün
* [[Det Konservative Folkeparti]]: grün
* [[Liberal Alliance]]: orange
* [[Det Radikale Venstre]]: magenta und blau
* [[Socialdemokraterne]]: rot
* [[Socialistisk Folkeparti]]: rot
* [[Venstre (Dänemark)|Venstre]]: blau

=== Finnland ===
* [[Finnische Zentrumspartei]]: grün
* [[Finlands Socialdemokratiska Parti]]: rot
* [[Grüner Bund]]: grün
* [[Finnische Christdemokraten]]: blau und orange
* [[Schwedische Volkspartei (Finnland)|Schwedische Volkspartei]]: rot und gelb
* [[Vänsterförbundet]]: rot

=== Frankreich ===
* [[Union pour un Mouvement Populaire]]: blau
* [[Parti socialiste (Frankreich)|Parti socialiste]]: rosa
* [[Front National]]: dunkelblau
* [[Parti radical de gauche]]: blau, gelb
* [[Les Verts]] (De Grüna): grün
* [[Union pour la Démocratie Française]]: orange, hellblau
* [[Mouvement démocrate]]: orange
* [[Parti communiste français]]: rot
* [[Lutte Ouvrière]]: dunkelrot
* [[Ligue communiste révolutionnaire]]: dunkelrot
* [[Mouvement national républicain]]: dunkelblau
* [[Parti des travailleurs (Frankreich)|Parti des travailleurs]]: dunkelrot
* [[Debout la République]]: lila, blau

=== Griechenland ===
* [[Synaspismos Rizospastikis Aristeras]] (Syriza): rot
* [[Nea Dimokratia]] (ND): blau
* [[Anexartiti Ellines]]: hellblau
* [[To Potami]]: rot, blau
* [[Panellinio Sosialistiko Kinima]] (Pasok): grün
* [[Kinima Dimokraton Sosialiston]]: rot, grün
* [[Laikos Orthodoxos Synagermos]] (LaOS): blau, weiß
* [[Kommunistische Partei Griechenlands]]: rot
* [[Ökologen/Grüne]]: grün
* [[Piratenpartei Griechenlands]]: orange

=== Großbritannien und Nordirland ===
* [[British National Party]]: rot, weiß und blau
* [[Co-operative Party]]: blau (partiet kampanjar dock inte skilt från Labour)
* [[Green Party of England and Wales]]: grün
* [[Conservative Party]]: blau
* [[Communist Party of Britain]]: rot
* [[Labour Party]]: rot
* [[Liberal Democrats]]: gelb, bernsteingelb
* [[Plaid Cymru]]: grün
* [[Respect – The Unity Coalition]]: grün und rot
* [[Scottish National Party]] : gelb
* [[UK Independence Party]]: lila und gold

=== Indien ===
* Kommunisten ([[Communist Party of India|CPI]], [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]): rot
* [[Hindunationalism|Hindunationalisten]] ([[Bharatiya Janata Party]], [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh|RSS]], [[Shiv Sena]]): safrangelb
* [[Indian National Congress]] ([[Nationalist Congress Party|NCP]], [[Nationalist Trinamool Congress|NTC]]): orange-weiß-grün
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party]], [[Republican Party of India]]: blau
* [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]]: grün
* [[Janata Dal (Secular)]]: grün
* [[Telugu Desam Party]]: gelb
* [[Jammu and Kashmir National Conference]]: rot
* [[Telangana Rashtra Samithi]]: rosa
* [[Gorkha National Liberation Front]]: grün
* [[Indigenous Nationalist Party of Twipra]]: grün-weiß

=== Italien ===
* Kommunisten und Sozialisten ([[Rifondazione Comunista]], [[Partito dei Comunisti Italiani]]): rot
* Faschisten (historisch, [[Fiamma Tricolore|Movimento Sociale-Fiamma Tricolore]]): schwarz
* Katholische Partei: weiß (außerdem rot)
* [[Forza Italia]]: hellblau
* Sozialdemokraten ([[Partito Democratico]]): weiß, rot und grün
* [[Lega Nord]] (Autonomen) und [[Federazione dei Verdi]] (Umweltschützer): grün

=== Kanada ===
* [[Bloc Québécois]]: hellblau
* [[Canadian Action Party]]: blau, rot
* [[Canadian Alliance]] (numera nedlagt): grün, blau
* [[Christian Heritage Party of Canada|Christian Heritage Party]]: lila
* [[Communist Party of Canada|Communist Party]]: rot
* [[Konservative Partei Kanadas|Conservative Party]]: blau, rot
* [[Grüne Partei Kanadas|Green Party]]: grün
* [[Liberale Partei Kanadas|Liberal Party]]: rot
* [[Libertarian Party of Canada|Libertarian Party]]: grün, weiß
* [[Marijuana Party of Canada|Marijuana Party]]: braun, grün
* [[Marxist-Leninist Party of Canada|Marxist-Leninist Party]]: violett
* [[Neue Demokratische Partei|New Democratic Party]]: orange, grün
* [[Progressive Canadian Party]]: blau, rot
* [[Progressiv-konservative Partei Kanadas]] (numera nedlagt): blau und rot

=== Kroatien ===
* [[Istrische Demokratische Versammlung]]: grün
* [[Socijaldemokratska partija Hrvatske]]: rot
* [[Kroatische Bauernpartei]]: grün
* [[Kroatische Demokratische Union]]: blau
* [[Kroatische Volkspartei – Liberaldemokraten]]: rot, weiß und blau
* [[Kroatische Rentnerpartei]]: rot, weiß, blau
* [[Kroatische Partei des Rechts]]: rot, weiß, blau
* [[Kroatische Sozial-Liberale Partei]]: blau

=== Luxemburg ===
* [[Chrëschtlech Sozial Vollekspartei|Christlich Soziale Volkspartei]]: orange (bis etwa zur Jahrhundertwende Schwarz<ref>[https://csv.lu/eis-partei/wee-mir-sinn/parti_historique/ ''Geschicht: Schatten- und Sonnenseiten: die Wahlen 1999 und 2004.''] Parteiwebsite, Version im Google-Cache vom 16. August 2014</ref>)
* [[Lëtzebuerger Sozialistesch Aarbechterpartei|Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei]]: rot
* [[Demokratesch Partei|Demokratische Partei]]: blau
* [[Déi Gréng]]: grün
* [[Alternativ Demokratesch Reformpartei]]: rot, weiß, blau

=== Mexiko ===
* [[Partido Revolucionario Institucional]]: rot, weiß und grün
* [[Partido de la Revolución Democrática]] (Partei der demokratischen Revolution): gelb und schwarz
* [[Partido Acción Nacional (Mexiko)|Partido Acción Nacional]]: blau und weiß
* [[Partido del Trabajo]] (Arbeiterpartei): rot
* [[Partido Verde Ecologista de México]]: grün
* [[Convergencia|Partido Convergencia para la Democracia]]: orange und blau

=== Neuseeland ===
* [[ACT New Zealand|ACT]]: gelb, blau
* [[Alliance (Neuseeland)|Alliance]]: grün, rot
* [[Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand|Green Party]]: grün
* [[Maori Party]]: rot, schwarz
* [[New Zealand Labour Party|Labour Party]]: rot
* [[Jim Anderton’s Progressive|Progressive Party]]: rot, grau
* [[New Zealand National Party|National Party]]: blau
* [[New Zealand First]]: schwarz, weiß
* [[United Future New Zealand|United Future]]: lila, grün

=== Niederlande ===
* [[Christen Democratisch Appèl]]: grün, orange
* [[ChristenUnie]]: hellblau
* [[Democraten 66]]: hellgrün
* [[GroenLinks]]: grün, rot
* [[Partij van de Arbeid]]: rot
* [[Partij voor de Dieren]]: dunkelgrün
* [[Socialistische Partij]]: rot
* [[Staatkundig Gereformeerde Partij]]: orange, blau
* [[Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie]]: dunkelblau

=== Norwegen ===
* [[Arbeiderpartiet]]: rot
* [[Fremskrittspartiet]]: rot/weiß/dunkelblau
* [[Høyre]]: blau
* [[Kristelig Folkeparti]]: gelb
* [[Miljøpartiet De Grønne]]: grün
* [[Rødt]]: rot
* [[Senterpartiet]]: grün
* [[Sosialistisk Venstreparti]]: rot/grün
* [[Venstre (Norwegen)|Venstre]]: grün

=== Österreich ===
* [[Bündnis Zukunft Österreich|BZÖ]]: orange
* [[Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs|FPÖ]]: blau
* [[Die Grünen – Die Grüne Alternative|Die Grünen]]: grün
* [[Österreichische Volkspartei|ÖVP]]: schwarz (historisch: bis 1934 [[Christlichsoziale Partei (Österreich)|CS]])
* [[Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs|SPÖ]]: rot (historisch: bis 1934 [[Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs|SDAP]])
* [[Liberales Forum]]: gelb (hellblau)
* [[NEOS – Das Neue Österreich und Liberales Forum]]: rosa
* [[Team Stronach]]: gelb
* [[Piratenpartei Österreichs]]: violett
* [[Kommunistische Partei Österreichs|KPÖ]]: rot

=== Polen ===
* [[Bürgerplattform]]: blau und orange
* [[Recht und Gerechtigkeit]]: dunkelblau
* [[Polnische Bauernpartei]]: grün

=== Portugal ===
* [[Bloco de Esquerda]]: rot, schwarz
* [[Partido da Nova Democracia]]: rot, blau
* [[Partido Ecologista Os Verdes]]: grün
* [[Partido Comunista Português]]: rot
* [[Partido Nacional Renovador]]: blau, rot, schwarz
* [[Centro Democrático e Social – Partido Popular|Partido Popular]]: blau
* [[Partido Social Democrata|Partido Social-Democrata]]: orange
* [[Partido Socialista]]: rosa

=== Republik Irland ===
* [[Fianna Fáil]]: grün, orange
* [[Fine Gael]]: blau, grün
* [[Comhaontas Glas|Green Party/Comhaontas Glas]]: gold, hellgrün
* [[Labour Party (Irland)|Labour Party]]: rot
* [[Progressive Democrats]]: blau
* [[Sinn Féin]]: grün
* [[Socialist Party (Irland)|Socialist Party]]: rot, schwarz

=== Republik Mazedonien ===
* [[Innere Mazedonische Revolutionäre Organisation – Demokratische Partei für Mazedonische Nationale Einheit]]: rot, gelb, schwarz
* [[Socijaldemokratski Sojuz na Makedonija]]: blau, gelb, rot

=== Rumänien ===
* [[Partidul Social Democrat]]: rot
* [[Partidul Național Liberal]]: gelb, blau
* [[Partidul Democrat Liberal]]: orange
* [[Partidul România Mare]]: blau, gelb, rot
* [[Demokratische Union der Ungarn in Rumänien]]: grün, rot

=== Schweden ===
* [[Allianz (Schweden)|Allians för Sverige]]: orange
* [[Centerpartiet]]: grün
* [[Feministiskt initiativ]]: rosa
* [[Folkpartiet liberalerna]]: blau und orange
* [[Liberala partiet]]: gelb
* [[Kristdemokraterna]]: blau und weiß
* [[Moderata samlingspartiet]]: blau
* [[Miljöpartiet de Gröna]]: grün
* [[Junilistan]]: orange
* [[Piratpartiet]]: lila
* [[Sverigedemokraterna]]: blau und gelb
* [[Sveriges socialdemokratiska arbetareparti]]: rot
* [[Vänsterpartiet]]: rot

=== Schweiz ===
* [[Evangelische Volkspartei]]: blau und gelb
* [[FDP.Die Liberalen]]: dunkelblau, gelb
* [[Grüne Partei der Schweiz]]: grün
* [[Grünliberale Partei]]: grün
* [[Christlichdemokratische Volkspartei]]: orange
* [[Schweizerische Volkspartei]]: dunkelgrün
* [[Sozialdemokratische Partei der Schweiz|Sozialdemokratische Partei]]: rot
* [[Bürgerlich-Demokratische Partei]]: schwarz und gelb

=== Spanien ===
* [[Partido Popular (Spanien)|Partido Popular]]: blau, orange
* [[Partido Socialista Obrero Español]] (PSOE): rot
* [[Podemos]]: lila
* [[Eusko Alderdi Jeltzalea-Partido Nacionalista Vasco]]: rot, grün
* [[Bloque Nacionalista Galego]]: rot, himmelblau
* [[Izquierda Unida]]: grün
* [[Coalición Canaria]]: gelb, blau
* [[Convergència i Unió]]: marinblau
* [[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya]]: schwarz, orange
* [[Unión Progreso y Democracia]]: magenta
* [[Podemos]]: violett
* [[Ciudadanos]]: orange

=== Türkei ===
* [[Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi]]: rot
* [[Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi]]: orange
* [[Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi]]: rot
* [[Halkların Demokratik Partisi]]: lila
* [[Demokratik Sol Parti]]: blau

=== Ukraine ===
* [[Partei der Regionen]]: blau
* [[Blok Juliji Tymoschenko]]: weiß und rot
* [[Kommunistische Partei der Ukraine]]: rot
* [[Blok Lytwyna]]: gelb
* [[Sozialistische Partei der Ukraine]]: rosa
* [[Blok Nascha Ukrajina – Narodna samooborona]]: orange

=== USA ===
* [[Constitution Party]]: rot, weiß und blau
* [[Demokratische Partei (Vereinigte Staaten)|Demokratische Partei]]: blau
* [[Green Party (Vereinigte Staaten)|Green Party]]: Keine offizielle Farbe
* [[Kommunistische Partei (Vereinigte Staaten)|Kommunistische Partei]], [[Sozialistische Partei der USA|Socialist Party]], [[Socialist Workers Party (Vereinigte Staaten)|Socialist Workers Party]]: rot
* [[Progressive Party (1924)]]: grün
* [[Libertarian Party]]: Keine offizielle Farbe
* [[Reform Party of the United States of America|Reform Party]]: rot und blau
* [[Republikanische Partei]]: rot

=== Volksrepublik China ===
* [[Kommunistische Partei Chinas]]: rot

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Schwarz#Politik|Schwarz – Politik]]
* [[Rot#Politik|Rot – Politik]]

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/MOYAJC,2,0,Farben_als_Wegweiser_in_der_Politik.html bpb.de - Farben als Wegweiser in der Politik]

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

[[Kategorie:Politisches Symbol|*]]
[[Kategorie:Flaggenkunde]]

Commonwealth Realm

2017-03-22T11:18:06Z

Aridd: /* Übersicht */ Die Generalgouverneurin von Neuseeland ist Patsy Reddy, seit 2016.

[[Datei:Commonwealth realms map.svg|mini|hochkant=2|{{legend|#0000CD|Heutige Commonwealth realms.}}{{legend|#8B0000|Ehemalige Commonwealth realms.}}]]
Ein '''{{lang|en|Commonwealth Realm}}''' [{{IPA|rɛlm}}] ({{enS|''Commonwealth realm''}} etwa ‚Commonwealth-[[Königreich]]‘) ist ein [[Souveränität|souveräner]] Mitgliedstaat des {{lang|en|[[Commonwealth of Nations]]}}, der mit der britischen Krone in [[Personalunion]] verbunden ist.

Derzeitige Inhaberin der britischen Krone ist Königin [[Elisabeth II.]] In jedem der 16 Länder setzt die Monarchin staatsrechtliche Akte in ihrem Recht als Königin des jeweiligen Landes, die {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realms}} sind also lediglich durch Personalunion miteinander verbunden.

Die derzeitigen {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realms}} sind (in alphabetischer Reihenfolge) [[Antigua und Barbuda]], [[Australien]], die [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Grenada]], [[Jamaika]], [[Kanada]], [[Neuseeland]], [[Papua-Neuguinea]], die [[Salomonen]], [[St. Kitts und Nevis]], [[St. Lucia]], [[St. Vincent und die Grenadinen]], [[Tuvalu]] und das [[Vereinigtes Königreich|Vereinigte Königreich]].

Die {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realms}} sind nicht mit dem {{lang|en|Commonwealth of Nations}} an sich gleichzusetzen. Unter den derzeitigen Mitgliedsstaaten des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}} sind nur 16 {{lang|en|Realms}}, dagegen 33 Republiken ({{lang|en|[[Commonwealth of Nations]]}}) und fünf konstitutionelle Monarchien anderer Dynastien. Innerhalb des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}} gibt es keinen Unterschied zwischen den {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realms}} und den übrigen Mitgliedern. Allerdings können nur Bürger der Realms von der britischen Krone in den Adelsstand erhoben werden.

== Geschichte ==
Derzeit (Stand Juli 2015) gibt es 16 {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realms}}. 14 davon und die ehemaligen Realms sind ehemalige britische Kolonien, die sich zu selbständigen Staaten entwickelt haben. Die beiden einzigen Ausnahmen sind natürlich das Vereinigte Königreich als ehemaliges [[Mutterland]] des Britischen Imperiums sowie Papua-Neuguinea, das seine Unabhängigkeit nicht direkt von Großbritannien, sondern 1975 von Australien erhalten hat (Nordost-Neuguinea war erst eine deutsche Kolonie, die aber zu Beginn des Ersten Weltkriegs von Australien besetzt und später vom Völkerbund als treuhänderisch zu verwaltendes Mandat an dieses übergeben wurde, während Papua aus einem britischen Protektorat hervorging, das schon 1902 an Australien übertragen worden war).

=== Die ersten Dominions ===
Die Möglichkeit, eine britische Kolonie in ein neues Königreich umzuwandeln, wurde erstmals in den 1860er Jahren erwogen, als der Vorschlag aufkam, die [[Kanadische Konföderation]] in Königreich Kanada umzubenennen. Diese Idee stieß aber sowohl im britischen Kolonialministerium als auch in den Vereinigten Staaten auf Widerstand, und so wurde der sich selbst verwaltende Staatenbund 1867 {{lang|en|[[Geschichte Kanadas#Dominion|Dominion of Canada]]}} genannt.

In der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts erlangten weitere britische Kolonien die Selbstverwaltung. Bei der [[Reichskonferenz]] 1907 bestand der kanadische Premierminister [[Wilfrid Laurier]] auf einer Formulierung, die den Unterschied zwischen den Kron- und den selbstverwalteten Kolonien hervorhob. Daraufhin wurde der Begriff {{lang|en|[[Dominion]]}} für alle selbstverwaltete Kolonien benutzt, also Australien, Neuseeland, [[Kolonie Neufundland|Neufundland]], die [[Kapkolonie]], [[Natal (Provinz)|Natal]] und [[Transvaal]]. Bereits 1910 schlossen sich die Kapkolonie, Natal und Transvaal mit der [[Oranjefluss-Kolonie]] zur [[Südafrikanische Union|Südafrikanischen Union]] zusammen, die ebenfalls Dominionstatus erhielt. 1921 kam der [[Irischer Freistaat|Irische Freistaat]] hinzu, der den Dominionstatus aber nur widerwillig im Frieden mit dem Vereinigten Königreich angenommen hatte.

Obwohl sich die Dominions selbst verwalteten, unterlag ihre Gesetzgebung zumindest theoretisch nach wie vor dem britischen Parlament; der Monarch des Vereinigten Königreichs regierte über sie als Teil eines imperialen Herrschaftsbereichs, und die britische Regierung wurde in jedem Dominion von einem Generalgouverneur vertreten. Das Vereinigte Königreich blieb verantwortlich für die Außen- und Verteidigungspolitik der Länder. In der Praxis zerfiel dieses einheitliche System aber weiter. Die internationale Bedeutung der Dominions stieg im Zuge des Ersten Weltkriegs, sie unterschrieben den [[Friedensvertrag von Versailles]] eigenständig und erlangten zusammen mit [[Indien]] einen Sitz im [[Völkerbund]]. 1920 tauschte Kanada mit den Vereinigten Staaten Gesandte aus, und drei Jahre später unterzeichnete es ein Abkommen im eigenen Namen. 1925 lehnten es die Dominions ab, sich an die britische Unterschrift unter die [[Verträge von Locarno]] zu binden.

=== Der Balfour-Bericht ===
Im [[Balfour-Bericht]] von 1926 fand dieser souveräne Status der Dominions dann Anerkennung. Wörtlich hieß es zur Rolle des Vereinigten Königreichs und der Dominions:

{{Zitat-en|lang=en
|They are autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations.
|Übersetzung=Sie sind autonome Gemeinschaften innerhalb des Britischen Weltreichs, gleichberechtigt, in keiner Weise in irgendeiner Hinsicht der Innen- und Außenpolitik einander untergeordnet, dennoch vereinigt durch eine gemeinsame Untertanentreue zur Krone und freiwillig zusammengeschlossen als Mitglieder des Britischen {{lang|en|Commonwealth of Nations}}.}}

Infolge des Berichts bauten die Regierungen der Dominions getrennte und direkte Beziehungen mit dem Königshaus auf, der Generalgouverneur wurde zum persönlichen Vertreter des Monarchen. Daraufhin wurde 1927 der {{lang|en|Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act}} verabschiedet, der zum einen die Trennung des Irischen Freistaates manifestierte und nach dem zum anderen der König als König jedes einzelnen Staates und nicht mehr als britischer König in jedem einzelnen Staat regierte.

=== Das Statut von Westminster ===
Endgültig umgesetzt wurde der Balfour-Bericht dann mit dem [[Statut von Westminster (1931)|Statut von Westminster]] von 1931. Mit diesem erhielten die Dominions Kanada, Australien, Neuseeland, Südafrikanische Union, Irischer Freistaat und Neufundland gesetzgeberische Unabhängigkeit, auch wenn einige wenige Rechte, wie etwa bestimmte Verfassungsänderungen und auf Anfrage die Übernahme der Regierungsgeschäfte, beim britischen Parlament verblieben. In Australien, Neuseeland und Neufundland musste das Statut vom dortigen Parlament noch ratifiziert werden, was in Australien erst 1942 und in Neuseeland erst 1947 geschah. In Neufundland wurde das Statut nie ratifiziert, das dortige Dominion wurde 1934 wieder in eine Kolonie umgewandelt und schloss sich 1949 Kanada an. Im selben Jahr klärte sich auch der [[Irland (1937–1949)|Status des Irischen Freistaats]], der spätestens ab diesem Zeitpunkt eine von der britischen Monarchie unabhängige Republik bildete.

=== Der Zerfall Britisch-Indiens ===
Den nächsten Schritt zur Errichtung der {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realms}} stellte der Zerfall [[Britisch-Indien]]s dar. Die Möglichkeit, dass eine Kolonie Unabhängigkeit erlangen konnte, ohne überhaupt im {{lang|en|Commonwealth}} zu verbleiben, wurde erstmals in der {{lang|en|Cripps Declaration}} 1942 anerkannt. Die Entscheidung [[Burma]]s 1948, eine eigenständige Republik außerhalb des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}} zu werden, stieß entsprechend auf keinen Widerstand. Indien, [[Pakistan]] und schließlich die Kronkolonie [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]] wurden hingegen Dominions. Mit der {{lang|en|London Declaration}} 1949 wurde schließlich eine Formel gefunden, unter der auch Republiken, so sie es denn wünschten, im {{lang|en|Commonwealth}} verbleiben konnten.

=== Commonwealth Realms ===
Die ehemaligen Kolonien, sowohl die Republiken als auch die Staaten, die weiterhin Monarchien in Personalunion waren, waren nun untereinander und gegenüber dem Vereinigten Königreich vollkommen gleichgestellt. Um dies zum Ausdruck zu bringen, wurde der {{lang|en|British Commonwealth}} in ''{{lang|en|Commonwealth of Nations}}'' umbenannt, und die Dominions wurden zunächst schlicht als ''{{lang|en|Commonwealth countries}}'' bezeichnet. Der letzte Schritt stellte dann die Bezeichnung der Dominions als ''{{lang|en|Commonwealth Realms}}'' dar. Er wurde eingeleitet durch die britische Bekanntmachung der Thronbesteigung von Elisabeth II. 1952. In dieser wurde sie als Königin dieses Reichs (d. h. Großbritanniens und Nordirlands) und ihrer anderen Reiche und Territorien bezeichnet. Dabei ersetzte die Formulierung „andere Reiche und Territorien“ den älteren Ausdruck „Britische Übersee-Dominions“. Gleichzeitig wurde sie als erster britischer Monarch als Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}} bezeichnet. Der Begriff {{lang|en|Realm}} leitet sich dabei vom [[Altfranzösische Sprache|altfranzösischen]] ''reaume'' (heutiges Französisch: ''royaume'' = Königreich) ab. 1953 wurde schließlich in allen bisherigen Dominions ein {{lang|en|Royal Style and Titles Act}} erlassen, der das Konzept der Unabhängigkeit und Gleichrangigkeit der {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realms}} zum Ausdruck brachte. Diesem Konzept wurde auch bei der Unabhängigkeit weiterer Staaten gefolgt.

Die meisten übrigen {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realms}} erhielten ihre Unabhängigkeit im Rahmen des {{lang|en|Wind of Change}} in Afrika und des Zerfalls der [[Westindische Föderation|Westindischen Föderation]] in den 1960er Jahren. Mit der Unabhängigkeit Papua-Neuguineas von Australien 1975 wurde auch dieser Staat zum {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realm}}.

=== Republiken im Commonwealth ===
Einige ehemalige {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realms}} sind mittlerweile eigenständige Republiken im {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}. Als erstes erhielt Indien mit der oben bereits erwähnten {{lang|en|London Declaration}} diesen Status, 1956 wurde Pakistan erste [[Islamische Republik]], 1960 wurde [[Ghana]] Republik, bis in die 1970er Jahre folgten [[Tanganjika]], [[Nigeria]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenia]], [[Malawi]], [[Gambia]] und [[Sierra Leone]]. Auch [[Guyana]] folgte diesem Weg 1970, ebenso wie vier Jahre später [[Malta]] und weitere zwei Jahre später [[Trinidad und Tobago]].

[[Südafrika]] wurde 1961 nach einem Referendum Republik und trat aus, ist seit 1994 wieder Mitglied des Commonwealth of Nations, jedoch kein Realm mehr.

In [[Fidschi]] kam es 1987 zu einem Militärputsch und dem Ende der konstitutionellen Monarchie, in dessen Folge das Land auch aus dem [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] ausgeschlossen wurde. 1997 wurde das Land wieder aufgenommen, am 1. September 2009 jedoch wieder suspendiert.<ref name="Fiji_Key_Facts">{{Internetquelle | url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/YearbookHomeInternal.asp?NodeID=138476 | titel={{lang|en|Fiji Key Facts}} | hrsg={{lang|en|Commonwealth Secretariat}} | zugriff=2015-12-25 | archiv-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905063718/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/YearbookHomeInternal.asp?NodeID=138476 | archiv-datum= 2013-09-05| sprache=en | format=HTML | kommentar=Originalwebseite nicht mehr verfügbar}}</ref>
Seit dem Militärputsch 1987 ist das Land eine Republik, der [[Großer Häuptlingsrat|Große Häuptlingsrat]] erkennt Königin Elisabeth II. zwar als obersten Häuptling an, sie ist aber trotzdem nicht das Staatsoberhaupt und Fidschi damit kein {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realm}}.

Als aktuell letztes Land sagte sich 1992 [[Mauritius]] von der Krone los.

== Verfassungsrechtliche Besonderheiten ==
=== Staatsoberhaupt ===
In jedem {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realm}} ist Königin Elisabeth II. das Staatsoberhaupt als Königin dieses Landes. Dementsprechend führt sie auch in jedem Land einen eigenen Titel. Dieser setzt sich immer aus ihrem Vornamen, der Regentennummer, dem Zusatz „[[Gottesgnadentum|von Gottes Gnaden]]“ ({{lang|en|''by the Grace of God''}}; mit Ausnahme Papua-Neuguineas) und dem Titel „Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}“ {{lang|en|''(Head of the Commonwealth)''}} zusammen.

Unterschiede gibt es in der Titulatur: Zum Teil wird sie als „des jeweiligen Landes und ihrer anderen Reiche und Territorien Königin“ {{lang|en|''(of country X and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen)''}}, zum Teil als „Königin des jeweiligen Landes und ihrer anderen Reiche und Territorien“ {{lang|en|''(Queen of country X and of Her other Realms and Territories)''}} bezeichnet. Grenada und Kanada verweisen explizit darauf, dass Elisabeth II. neben der Königin des eigenen Landes auch die des Vereinigten Königreichs ist. Außerdem führt Elisabeth II. im Vereinigten Königreich, Kanada und Neuseeland den Titel [[Fidei Defensor|Verteidigerin des Glaubens]] {{lang|en|''(Defender of the Faith)''}}. Geringfügige Unterschiede gibt es auch in der Interpunktion.

Eine Ausnahme bilden die zum Königreich von Neuseeland gehörenden Cookinseln. Auch hier ist Elisabeth II. als {{lang|en|''Queen in her right of New Zealand''}} (etwa: „in ihrem Recht als Königin von Neuseeland“) das Staatsoberhaupt; Änderungen in der Thronnachfolge müssen aber nochmals vom Parlament der Cookinseln und in einem Referendum ratifiziert werden.<ref name="Cook Islands Constitution">{{Webarchiv | url=http://www.mfem.gov.ck/Assets/CI%20Laws/Constitution%20Reprint%20Plain%2021%2012%2004.pdf | wayback=20081014205006 | text=Cook Islands Constitution}} Ministry of Finance and Economic Management – Originallink auf PDF-Datei nicht mehr verfügbar, Link auf WaybackMachine vom 14. Oktober 2008</ref>

=== Flaggen ===
Ein weiteres Zeichen der Unabhängigkeit der {{lang|en|Commonwealth Realms}} untereinander und vom Vereinigten Königreich sind die sehr unterschiedlich gestalteten {{lang|en|[[Royal Standard]]s}}. Dies ist die offizielle Flagge Königin Elisabeths II. in ihrer Funktion als Staatsoberhaupt des jeweiligen Staates. Allerdings führen lediglich Australien, Barbados, Jamaika, Kanada, Neuseeland und das Vereinigte Königreich eine solche Standarte (eigentlich eine Wappenflagge). Mit Ausnahme der Standarte des Vereinigten Königreichs ist allen {{lang|en|Royal Standards}} aber das rosenumrandete gekrönte goldene '''E''' auf blauem Grund gemein, wie es auf der persönlichen Flagge Elisabeths zu sehen ist. Eine weitere Besonderheit im Vereinigten Königreich ist der eigene {{lang|en|Royal Standard}} für den Teilstaat [[Schottland]].

=== Übersicht ===
{| class="wikitable zebra"
|- class=hintergrundfarbe6
!Name
!{{lang|en|Commonwealth Realm}} seit
!Royal Standard
!Titel der Königin
!Übersetzung
!Vertreter
!Standarte
|-
|{{ATG}}
|1. November 1981 (Unabhängigkeit)
|keine
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Antigua and Barbuda and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden, Königin von Antigua und Barbuda und von ihren anderen Reichen und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneur [[Rodney Williams|Sir Rodney Williams]]
|
|-
|{{AUS}}{{FN|(1)}}
|9. Oktober 1942 (Ratifizierung des [[Statut von Westminster (1931)|Statuts von Westminster]])
|[[Datei:Royal Standard of Australia.svg|60px|{{lang|en|Royal Standard}} der Königin von Australien]]
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God Queen of Australia and Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}<ref name="Australia Royal Style and Titles Act 1973">[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/cth14ii_doc_1973.pdf Royal Style and Titles Act 1973] (PDF; 10 kB)</ref>
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden Königin von Australien und von ihren anderen Reichen und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneur [[Peter Cosgrove]]{{FN|(1)}}
|[[Datei:Flag of the Governor-General of Australia.svg|60px|Flagge des australischen Generalgouverneurs]]
|-
|{{BHS}}
|10. Juli 1973 (Unabhängigkeit)
|keine
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God Queen of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden Königin des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}} der Bahamas und ihrer anderen Reiche und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneurin [[Marguerite Pindling]]
|
|-
|{{BRB}}
|30. November 1966 (Unabhängigkeit)
|[[Datei:Royal Standard of Barbados.svg|60px|{{lang|en|Royal Standard}} der Königin von Barbados]]
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Barbados and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden, Königin von Barbados und von ihren anderen Reichen und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneur [[Elliot Belgrave|Sir Elliot Belgrave]]
|[[Datei:Flag of Governor-General of Barbados.jpg|60px|Flagge des Generalgouverneurs von Barbados]]
|-
|{{BLZ}}
|21. September 1981 (Unabhängigkeit)
|keine
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Belize and of Her Other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden, Königin von Belize und von ihren anderen Reichen und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneur [[Colville Young|Sir Colville Young]]
|[[Datei:Flag of the Governor-General of Belize.svg|60px|Flagge des Generalgouverneurs von Belize]]
|-
|{{GRD}}
|7. Februar 1974 (Unabhängigkeit)
|keine
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Grenada and Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden, Königin des Vereinigten Königreiches von Großbritannien und Nordirland und Grenadas und ihrer anderen Reiche und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneurin [[Cécile La Grenade|Dame Cécile La Grenade]]
|
|-
|{{JAM}}
|6. August 1962 (Unabhängigkeit)
|[[Datei:Royal Standard of Jamaica.svg|60px|rand|{{lang|en|Royal Standard}} der Königin von Jamaika]]
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of Jamaica and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth}}
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden Jamaikas und ihrer anderen Reiche und Territorien Königin, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneur [[Patrick Allen (Politiker)|Sir Patrick Allen]]
|[[Datei:Flag of the Governor-General of Jamaica.svg|60px|Flagge des Generalgouverneurs von Jamaika]]
|-
|{{CAN}}{{FN|(1)}}
|11. Dezember 1931 ([[Statut von Westminster (1931)|Statut von Westminster]])
|[[Datei:Royal Standard of Canada.svg|60px|rand|{{lang|en|Royal Standard}} der Königin von Kanada]]
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, Canada and Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith}}<ref name="Canada Royal Style and Titles Act">{{Internetquelle | url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/R-12/page-1.html | titel={{lang|en|Royal Style and Titles Act}} | hrsg={{lang|en|Justice Laws Website}} | zugriff=2015-12-25 | sprache=en | format=HTML}}</ref> {{lang|fr|Elizabeth Deux, par la grâce de Dieu, Reine du Royaume-Uni, du Canada et de ses autres royaumes et territoires, Chef du Commonwealth, Défendeur de la Foi}}<ref name="Canada Loi sur les titres royaux">{{Internetquelle | url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/fra/lois/R-12/page-1.html | titel={{lang|en|Loi sur les titres royaux}} | hrsg={{lang|en|Site Web de la législation (Justice)}} | zugriff=2015-12-25 | sprache=fr | format=HTML}}</ref>
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden des Vereinigten Königreichs, Kanadas und ihrer anderen Reiche und Territorien Königin, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}, Verteidigerin des Glaubens Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden, Königin des Vereinigten Königreichs, Kanadas und ihrer anderen Königreiche und Territorien, Oberhaupt des Commonwealth, Verteidiger des Glaubens
|Generalgouverneur [[David Johnston]]{{FN|(1)}}
|[[Datei:Flag of the Governor-General of Canada.svg|60px|Flagge des kanadischen Generalgouverneurs]]
|-
|{{NZL}}{{FN|(2)}}
|25. November 1947 (Ratifizierung des [[Statut von Westminster (1931)|Statuts von Westminster]])
|[[Datei:Royal Standard of New Zealand.svg|60px|{{lang|en|Royal Standard}} der Königin von Neuseeland]]
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God Queen of New Zealand and Her Other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith}}<ref name="New Zealand Royal Titles Act 1974">{{Internetquelle | url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1974/0001/latest/DLM411814.html?search=ad_act__Royal+Titles+Act____25_ac%40bn%40rn%40dn%40apub%40aloc%40apri%40apro%40aimp%40bgov%40bloc%40bpri%40bmem%40rpub%40rimp_ac%40ainf%40anif%40bcur%40rinf%40rnif_a_aw_se&p=1 | titel={{lang|en|Royal Titles Act 1974}} | werk={{lang|en|New Zealand Legislation}} | hrsg={{lang|en|Parliamentary Counsel Office}} | zugriff=2015-12-25 | sprache=en | format=HTML}}</ref>
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden Königin von Neuseeland und ihren anderen Reichen und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}, Verteidigerin des Glaubens
|Generalgouverneurin [[Patsy Reddy|Dame Patsy Reddy]] 
|[[Datei:Flag of the Governor-General of New Zealand.svg|60px|Flagge des neuseeländischen Generalgouverneurs]]
|-
|{{PNG}}
|16. September 1975 (Unabhängigkeit)
|keine
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth II, Queen of Papua New Guinea and Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}<ref name="Papua-Neuguinea Constitution">{{Internetquelle | url=http://www.igr.gov.pg/constitution.pdf | titel={{lang|en|Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea}} | archiv-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316233029/http://www.igr.gov.pg/constitution.pdf | archiv-datum=2014-03-16 | zugriff=2015-12-25 | sprache=en | format=PDF 1,8 MB}}</ref>
|Elisabeth II., Königin von Papua-Neuguinea und ihren anderen Reichen und Territorien, Haupt des Commonwealth
|Generalgouverneur [[Bob Dadae]]
|
|-
|{{SLB}}
|7. Juli 1978 (Unabhängigkeit)
|keine
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of the Solomon Islands and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden, Königin der Salomonen und ihrer anderen Reiche und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneur [[Frank Kabui|Sir Frank Kabui]]
|
|-
|{{KNA}}
|19. September 1983 (Unabhängigkeit)
|keine
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Saint Christopher and Nevis and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden, Königin von St. Christopher und Nevis und von ihren anderen Reichen und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneur [[Edmund Lawrence|Sir Edmund Lawrence]]
|
|-
|{{LCA}}
|22. Februar 1979 (Unabhängigkeit)
|keine
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Saint Lucia and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden, Königin von St. Lucia und von ihren anderen Reichen und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneurin [[Pearlette Louisy|Dame Pearlette Louisy]]
|
|-
|{{VCT}}
|27. Oktober 1979 (Unabhängigkeit)
|keine
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden, Königin von St. Vincent und den Grenadinen und von ihren anderen Reichen und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneur [[Frederick Ballantyne|Sir Frederick Ballantyne]]
|
|-
|{{TUV}}
|1. Oktober 1978 (Unabhängigkeit)
|keine
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Tuvalu and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth}}
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden, Königin von Tuvalu und von ihren anderen Reichen und Territorien, Haupt des {{lang|en|Commonwealth}}
|Generalgouverneur [[Iakoba Italeli|Sir Iakoba Italeli]]
|[[Datei:Flag of the Governor-General of Tuvalu.svg|60px|Flagge des tuvaluischen Generalgouverneurs]]
|-
|{{GBR}}
|
|[[Datei:Royal Standard of the United Kingdom.svg|60px|{{lang|en|Royal Standard}} für den Gebrauch im Vereinigten Königreich (mit Ausnahme von Schottland)]] bzw. [[Datei:Royal Standard of the United Kingdom (in Scotland).svg|60px|{{lang|en|Royal Standard}} für den Gebrauch in Schottland]]
|{{lang|en|Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith}} {{lang|cy|Elizabeth yr Ail, trwy Ras Duw, o Deyrnas Unedig Prydain Fawr a Gogledd Iwerddon a'i Theyrnasoedd a'i Thiriogaethau eraill, Brenhines, Pennaeth y Gymanwlad, Amddiffynnydd y Ffydd}} ([[Walisische Sprache|Walisisch]])
|Elisabeth II., von Gottes Gnaden Königin des Vereinigten Königreichs von Großbritannien und Nordirland und ihrer anderen Reiche und Territorien, Haupt des Commonwealth, Verteidigerin des Glaubens
|([[Staatsrat (Vereinigtes Königreich)|Staatsräte]])
|
|}

: {{FNZ|(1)|Im [[Bundesstaat (Föderaler Staat)|bundesstaatlich]] verfassten Australien und Kanada ist die Königin nicht nur Oberhaupt der jeweiligen Föderation, sondern zugleich auch jedes einzelnen Teilstaates; folglich werden in jedem Bundesstaat (Australien) bzw. jeder Provinz (Kanada) zusätzliche Gouverneure als Repräsentanten der Monarchin ernannt.}}
: {{FNZ|(2)|Das ''Realm of New Zealand'' besteht aus [[Neuseeland]], den [[Cookinseln]], [[Niue]] und [[Tokelau]] (sowie aus neuseeländischer Sicht dem von Neuseeland beanspruchten [[Ross-Nebengebiet]]). Der Vertreter des Monarchen auf den Cookinseln ist der [[Generalgouverneur von Neuseeland]].<ref>[http://www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/public/1983/0225/latest/DLM90805.html Letters Patent Constituting the Office of Governor-General of New Zealand] New Zealand Legislation (abgerufen am 26. Mai 2010)</ref> In der neuseeländischen Landessprache [[Maorische Sprache|Maori]] hat Elisabeth II. keinen offiziellen Titel, sie wird allgemein jedoch als ''Kotuku'' bezeichnet.<ref name="royal.gov.uk">[http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page4914.asp www.royal.gov.uk]</ref> ''Hauptartikel:'' [[Liste der neuseeländischen Monarchen]]}}

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Britische Monarchie]]
* [[Kanadische Monarchie]]

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

[[Kategorie:Commonwealth Realm| ]]
[[Kategorie:Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Kategorie:Völkerrecht]]
[[Kategorie:Personalunion]]

Peter Kenilorea

2016-02-29T11:46:55Z

Aridd: RNZI schreibt, er ist am 25. Februar (nicht 24.) gestorben.

Sir '''Peter Kenilorea''' [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]] (* [[23. Mai]] [[1943]] in [[Takataka]] auf [[Malaita]], [[Salomonen]]; † [[25. Februar]] [[2016]]<ref>[http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/297476/solomons-first-pm-sir-peter-kenilorea-dies Solomons first PM Sir Peter Kenilorea dies]</ref>) war zweimal [[Liste der Premierminister der Salomonen|Premierminister der Salomonen]].

Kenilorea wurde als [[Lehrer]] der ''South Seas Evangelical Church'' ausgebildet. Als junger Mann half er bei der Gründung der United Party der Salomonen. Er wurde ''chief minister'' im Jahre 1976 und half bei der Unabhängigkeit von [[Vereinigtes Königreich|Großbritannien]] im Jahre 1978. Er wurde [[Premierminister]] bis 1981 und dann erneut von 1984 bis 1986. Von 1988 bis 1989 und von 1990 bis 1993 war er [[Außenminister]] der Salomonen. Er war auch danach weiter in der Politik aktiv; zuletzt war er Sprecher des Parlaments und Vorsitzender der Kommission zur Friedenskontrolle für Malaita Island, nachdem im Jahr 2000 dort Unruhen ausgebrochen waren. Im Jahr 2004 gab es einen Versuch, ihn zum [[Generalgouverneur]] zu wählen, aber er erhielt nur 8 von 41 Stimmen.

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references/>

{{Navigationsleiste Premierminister der Salomonen}}

{{Normdaten|TYP=p|GND=137075413|VIAF=267654179}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Kenilorea, Peter}}
[[Kategorie:Premierminister (Salomonen)]]
[[Kategorie:Außenminister (Salomonen)]]
[[Kategorie:Knight Commander des Order of the British Empire]]
[[Kategorie:Salomoner]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1943]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 2016]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Kenilorea, Peter
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=salomonischer Politiker, Premierminister der Salomonen
|GEBURTSDATUM=23. Mai 1943
|GEBURTSORT=[[Takataka]] auf [[Malaita]], [[Salomonen]]
|STERBEDATUM=24. Februar 2016
|STERBEORT=
}}

Joni Madraiwiwi

2016-02-20T15:07:22Z

Aridd: /* Career after the Vice-Presidency */ internal link

{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
'''[[Ratu]] Joni Madraiwiwi, Lord Madraiwiwi Tangatatonga''' (born 1957) is a Fijian lawyer, politician and was the [[Vice-President of Fiji]] from 2004 to 2006. He was sworn in on 10 January 2005, following his nomination by [[President of Fiji|President]], [[Josefa Iloilo|Ratu Josefa Iloilo]] and his subsequent approval by the [[Great Council of Chiefs]] on 15 December 2004. He was appointed to complete the unexpired term of his predecessor, [[Jope Seniloli|Ratu Jope Seniloli]], who had resigned in disgrace on 29 November 2004 in the wake of his convictions for [[treason]] concerning his role in the [[2000 Fijian coup d'état|Fiji coup of 2000]]. Ratu Madraiwiwi's first priority was to restore dignity and respect to the Vice-Presidential office.

Madraiwiwi was dismissed from office on 5 December 2006 by the [[Republic of Fiji Military Forces|Military]] Commander, [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]], who seized power in a [[2006 Fijian coup d'état|military coup]]. He was forcibly evicted from his official residence and from his office on the night of 6 December.<ref>[http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2006/12/07/07fijilive02.html]</ref> He announced in the second week of January 2007 that he was "on leave" and intended to resume private practice as a lawyer, at [[Howards (law firm)|Howards]] law firm.<ref>[http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=55288]</ref>

== Career ==

Ratu Madraiwiwi has a [[LLB|Law]] degree from the [[University of Adelaide]], Australia, and a master's degree in Law from [[McGill University]], Canada. After working for the Attorney-General from 1983 to 1991, he went on to serve as a permanent arbitrator until 1997, when he was appointed as a judge of the [[High Court of Fiji|High Court]]. He resigned from the bench in 2000 in protest against the [[2000 Fijian coup d'état|coup d'état]] that saw the elected government toppled, the [[1997 Constitution of Fiji|constitution]] abrogated, and the judiciary reorganised by decree. Thereafter, he practised law privately as a partner of [[Howards (law firm)|Howards]], besides serving as a director of [[Fiji Times|Fiji Times Limited]] (the nation's leading newspaper) and as a trustee of the [[Fijian Trust Fund]]. He is also a human rights commissioner and former chairman of the [[Citizens Constitutional Forum (Fiji)|Citizens Constitutional Forum]], a pro-democracy and human rights organisation. Rewa high chief [[Jone Mataitini|Ro Jone Mataitini]] said the chiefs unanimously supported Ratu Madraiwiwi because of his extensive knowledge of the law and because of his great rapport with other racial and religious groups. In this regard, he was regarded as a compromise between those who insisted on reserving the Vice-Presidency for a high chief, and those (including [[Epeli Ganilau|Ratu Epeli Ganilau]], the former [[Chairman of the Great Council of Chiefs|Chairman]] of the [[Great Council of Chiefs]]), who believed it was time for a non-[[Fijians|Fijian]], to be appointed to the post as a gesture of goodwill to the [[Indians in Fiji|Indo-Fijian]] and other minorities.

[[Fiji Labour Party]] leader and former Prime Minister [[Mahendra Chaudhry]] welcomed Ratu Madraiwiwi's appointment. ''"Ratu Joni is an eminent scholar who served Fiji with distinction in the last 20 years holding high offices. He is fully conversant with the affairs of the State and he will certainly restore dignity and decorum to the high office,"'' Chaudhry said.

Tribal and regional factors played a part in the appointment. Fiji's tribes each belong to one of three confederacies – [[Kubuna]], [[Burebasaga]], and [[Tovata]]. One member of the Great Council of Chiefs explained to the media that they had understood that as President Iloilo is from Burebasaga and his predecessor, [[Kamisese Mara|Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara]] was from Tovata, the current Vice-President should be from Kubuna. Installed as the [[Roko Tui Bau]] on 11 November 1995, Ratu Madraiwiwi is one of the highest chiefs of the Kubuna Confederacy.

The [[1997 Constitution of Fiji|Constitution of Fiji]] assigns a purely ceremonial role to the Vice-President, apart from the power to exercise the functions of the Presidency should the President be unable to perform his duties. With the 84-year-old President Iloilo suffering from ill health, the appointment to the Vice-Presidency of a respected individual who could assume the Presidency in the event of an emergency was regarded as a priority.

== Career after the Vice-Presidency ==
In 2008, when a [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Solomon Islands)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] was established in the [[Solomon Islands]], in the aftermath of ethnic conflict, it was to have five commissioners, including two foreign nationals. Madraiwiwi was asked, and accepted, to serve as one of the two foreign commissioners. The Commission noted that he brought "strong international human rights experience to the TRC".<ref>[http://solomonislands-trc.com/faqs.html Truth and Reconciliation Commission Solomon Islands]</ref>

In January 2010, [[King of Tonga|King]] [[George Tupou V]] elevated him to the [[Life Peerage]] in the [[Tonga|Kingdom of Tonga]], with the title of '''Lord Madraiwiwi Tangatatonga'''.<ref>[http://www.mic.gov.to/press-releases/1977-ratu-joni-madraiwiwi-to-the-life-peerage-with-the-noble-title-of-lord-madraiwiwi-tangatatonga.html "Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi appointed Lord Madraiwiwi Tangatonga"], government of Tonga, 4 January 2010</ref>
Ratu Joni is now [[Chief Justice of Nauru]] following the resignation of former Chief Justice, Geoffrey Eames QC.<ref>http://www.tongadailynews.to/?p=7738</ref>

== Opinions ==
[[Image:madraiwiwifatiaki.jpg|frame|left|Ratu Joni (left) being sworn in as Vice-President by [[Chief Justice of Fiji|Chief Justice]] [[Daniel Fatiaki]] (man in the wig)]]
Madraiwiwi is noted for his outspoken calls for political and cultural moderation, and for his efforts to encourage people to come up with creative and practical solutions to issues that have caused tension in Fijian society.

=== Ethnic tensions and human rights ===

Madraiwiwi says that ethnic Fijians really have nothing to fear from the large Indo-Fijian population, as native ownership of most of the land is enshrined in the [[1997 Constitution of Fiji|Constitution]]. Madraiwiwi has called for a national discussion on adopting an inclusive label for all Fijian citizens. He pointed out that the ''Fijian'' label is very often taken to mean the Fijian ethnic group, rather than the citizenry as a whole. ''"While I personally have no problem with the term Fijian, I recognise many others in my community are not,"'' he said in a speech to the [[Lautoka]] [[Rotary Club]] on 14 March 2005. ''"But let us not leave it there. Let us find other options,"'' he proposed.

Addressing the [[Fiji Law Society]] convention at [[Warwick Hotel]] on Fiji's [[Coral Coast, Fiji|Coral Coast]] on 2 July 2005, Madraiwiwi said that the feeling of insecurity felt by many indigenous Fijians would disappear when more of them became better educated. He said that most members of his ethnic community did not trust the [[1997 Constitution of Fiji|Constitution]] or the rule of law sufficiently, as both instruments could be impugned by whatever government was in power – an attitude that needed to be changed. His people needed to understand, he said, that the rule of law was not an alien Western concept, but one that was, in fact, rooted as much in Fijian as in Western traditions.

At an education workshop in [[Suva]] on 13 July, Madraiwiwi said it was a mistake to view indigenous rights as superior to human rights in general. He said that the [[ILO Convention 169]] (the Convention concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries) clearly stated that indigenous rights were not separate from human rights and could not be asserted at their expense. Articles referring to a self-contained system of governance for indigenous peoples were, he said, for traditional and cultural matters, and did ''"not legitimise or authorise indigenous supremacy."''

Madraiwiwi also rejected arguments by some politicians that when the United Kingdom granted independence to Fiji in 1970, they should have handed power back to the [[Ratu|chiefs]], calling this position legally untenable. ''"To say that power should have been returned to the Fijian chiefs is to ignore what occurred between 1874 and 1970,"'' Madraiwiwi said. He said there was a legal continuity from the chiefs, through British [[British Empire|colonial]] rule, to the modern Fijian state. Universal rules, he said, required Fijians to temper their indigenous rights with the fundamental human rights enjoyed by other communities, though he admitted that many found that difficult to accept. ''"It is an unpalatable truth for Fijians because it flies in the face of everything they have been brought up to believe and conditioned to accept,"'' he said. Madraiwiwi said tensions often arose because fundamental rights were collective, while indigenous rights were individual in character.

He reiterated this position in his closing address to the '''Roundtable on Human Rights, Indigenous Rights, and Nationalism''', organised by the [[Fiji Human Rights Commission]] at [[Suva]]'s [[Holiday Inn (Suva)|Holiday Inn]] on 23 July. He insisted that indigenous rights and fundamental rights are mutually dependent and neither can exist without the other.

In a message to cadets at [[Xavier College (Ba, Fiji)|Xavier College]] in [[Ba (town)|Ba]] on 27 July, Madraiwiwi said that the cycle of blame trapped Fiji islanders into racially polarised politics. He said that Fiji was the richer for its ethnic and cultural diversity, and commended the cadet corps for having overcome ethnic divisions to operate as a cohesive whole.

=== Relationship between church and state ===

In the same Lautoka speech, Madraiwiwi opposed calls for the establishment of a Christian state in Fiji, saying that it would hinder a "correct relationship" between the overwhelmingly Christian [[Fijians|ethnic Fijians]] and the mainly [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Muslim]] [[Indians in Fiji|Indo-Fijian]] community. He expressed concern that the growth of newer [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist]] denominations at the expense of the long-dominant [[Methodism|Methodist]] Church ''"evoked a less tolerant dimension to the work of some Christian churches."'' Madraiwiwi has since reiterated that proposals to establish a Christian state ignore the potential for division and conflict. Speaking at the ''Religion and Governance Forum'' in Suva on 17 May 2005, he said the proposal had its roots in the initial conversion of chiefs to Christianity and in the [[Deed of Cession (Fiji)|Deed of Cession]], in which the chiefs ceded sovereignty to the United Kingdom in 1874, but considered that in a multi-faith country like Fiji, it would not be wise to establish any one faith. In an earlier address to a [[Hindu]] gathering on 28 March, Madraiwiwi had criticised government politicians for couching pronouncements in purely Christian terms. ''"When national leaders address the people of Fiji in specifically Christian terms, whatever the occasion, nearly half of our people are excluded,"'' he said. ''"When prayer in mixed company is uttered in terms of a purely Christian God, we unintentionally omit and diminish others present of different faiths. When we use Christian symbolism to promote reconciliation, forgiveness and unity, we discount the contribution and equally rich traditions extant in other faiths and cultural traditions."''

Madraiwiwi has also said that churches have failed to do enough to confront serious social problems, including rape, [[incest]], and other violent crimes, and has called on Christian leaders to set an example for the people to follow by practising what they preach. Speaking in the [[Lau Islands]] on 12 May 2005, he pointed to the late Lauan chief and former Fijian President, Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, as a one ''"who not only went to church but lived the life of a Christian,"'' and called on religious leaders to do likewise. Later, speaking at the '''Religion and Governance Forum''' in [[Suva]] on 18 May, he said that there have been cases of churches making unreasonable demands on parishioners in terms of time and natural resources, which have led to ''"a significant erosion on family values"''. He also called on churches to address the problem of excessive [[yaqona]] drinking, which he said was a major social problem. He expressed concern that the [[Methodist]] Church, to which approximately two-thirds of indigenous Fijians belong, had not addressed these issues at their recent conference, but conceded that as Fijian cultural conditioning aims for consensus rather than frank debates, raising such matters could cause divisions.

On 13 May 2005, [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] [[Archbishop]] [[Petero Mataca]] said he agreed that churches had a role to play in reducing crime, but said that they should not be seen as solely to blame for the problem.

=== Views on Fiji's chiefly system ===

Madraiwiwi has also spoken of the need for chiefs to be accessible to their people and to listen to them. ''"It will be impossible to achieve this if the elders and chiefs have their own way and are too proud of their chiefly status to not bring themselves down to the people,"'' Madraiwiwi told the [[Lau Islands|Lau]] Provincial Council on 11 May 2005.

In an address to the [[Pacific Regional Workshop on Leadership Development]] in [[Lami, Fiji|Lami]] on 9 July, Madraiwiwi said that the chiefly system in Fiji and other Pacific Island nations would have to adapt to modern realities. Traditional leadership remained significant, he said, but its role was diminishing. He said that British [[British Empire|colonisation]] had reinforced the chiefly system and in fact fossilised it. Historically, there had been some flexibility, as chiefs had to earn their positions through military prowess, but British protection had given the chiefs an unprecedented ''"reach and depth"'', he said. Christianity, too, had buttressed the system. The church and the chiefly system had become intertwined and mutually reinforced each other, not always to society's benefit. The changing realities of the modern world, however, meant that traditional leaders would have to share the leadership of the country with others. He also said that chiefs and church leaders would have to recognise that tradition did not always sit easily with human rights, and that sensitivity was needed to defuse the inevitable tension between the church and tradition on one hand and human rights on the other.

At the [[Fiji Medical Association]] conference on 1 September, Madraiwiwi said that the days when chiefs, religious ministers, and state officials expected to be treated with deference were gone, and he welcomed the change. He also called on doctors to adopt a higher public profile, as by virtue of their training, skills, and income level, they held a position that required them to provide leadership to the community. ''"The world outside medicine is yours as well,"'' he said. ''"Remedying ailments and illness is not the sum total of your existence. You are also citizens of this country and need to be seen in that role."''

Madraiwiwi has also maintained that democracy has not yet completely settled down in Fiji. Opening the conference of the [[Commonwealth Parliamentary Association]] in [[Nadi]] on 6 September 2005, he said that Fiji had yet to fully recognise and appreciate the concepts of human rights and the rule of law. Despite constitutional guarantees, certain aspects of democracy were somewhat tenuous, he considered. Ethnic tensions exacerbated the problem, he said. Indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians had competing priorities that would need to be addressed in a manner fair to all, he said. ''"All our communities have to make the effort to reach out to each other rather than waiting passively for gestures that may never be made,"'' Madraiwiwi declared. He added a note of caution, however: ''"Social integration cannot be forced and not proceed at the pace that the community considers uncomfortable."'' He was optimistic about the overall state of race relations, but thought that more needed to be done: ''"Relationships between our ethnic communities are generally good but we need to continue weaving connections to the point where they are interwoven and unbreakable,"'' he said.

In the same speech, Madraiwiwi praised the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. ''"The strength of Commonwealth lies in its diversity and it to be mindful of bearing economic, social, political and cultural systems which comprise its membership,"'' he said. '''Its commonality lies in its connection to humanity, in the main it has provided an invariable forum whose members to open and continue meaningful issues of concern."''

=== Economic and environmental views ===

On 7 July 2005, Madraiwiwi called on his fellow-chiefs to consider how to maximise the effectiveness of income generated through tourist facilities built on natively owned land. Opening the Tourism Forum at the [[Sheraton Resort (Fiji)|Sheraton Resort]], he said that the annual profit, now more than [[Fijian dollar|F$]]30 million, should be invested to spearhead [[Fijians|native Fijian]] participation in the industry. He also called on leaders to take a more "bipartisan" approach to national issues, saying that as a small country with limited resources, Fiji could ill afford ''"endless debates about ethnicity and identity."'' He spoke of the need to break new ground. ''"We need to move forward and beyond the point where we endlessly pursue the demons bequeathed us by our history,"'' Madraiwiwi said.

Addressing a [[Greenpeace]] meeting in [[Suva]] on 10 July to commemorate the 20th anniversary of [[sinking of the Rainbow Warrior|the bombing of]] the ''[[Rainbow Warrior (1978)|Rainbow Warrior]]'' by French [[DGSE]] agents in 1985, Madraiwiwi said that while nuclear testing, the issue at the time of the ''Rainbow Warrior'''s destruction, was a thing of the past, the region was still faced with major environmental challenges. ''"Back then the issue of the day was nuclear testing, now we are faced with problems such as climate change, overfishing, deforestation, shipments of radioactive materials through Pacific waters and nuclear proliferation,"'' he said. ''"We need to remain vigilant so that we won't become victims again."'' A former Greenpeace board member, Madraiwiwi called on the environmental lobby to remember that ''"the actions of a few with commitment, can alter the course of world history."''

The Vice-President has also called for a crusade against corruption, and for streamlining of the [[Public Service Commission (Fiji)|Public Service Commission]]'s disciplinary laws to prevent delays in fighting corruption, which only foster further abuse. ''"Combating it will take courage, determination and perseverance. The most effective means of doing it is by creating a climate not receptive to corruption,"'' Madraiwiwi said at the launch of the [[Transparency International Fiji]] book in Suva on 9 December 2005.

=== Views on homosexuality ===

On 31 August 2005, Madraiwiwi became the first high-ranking office-holder in Fiji to call for homosexuality to be legalised. Speaking at the opening of the [[Fiji Medical Association]] conference in [[Suva]], he said that while he acknowledged the abhorrence of many great religions towards homosexuality, he thought that what sexual acts people do in private is no business of the state. ''"Whatever one's views about it, those who choose to practise that lifestyle in private surely have a right to do so,"'' he said. Madraiwiwi's comments flew in the face of pressure from the [[Methodist Church|Methodist]] and other churches, as well as some Hindu and Muslim organisations, to close the loopholes in the law which allowed a Fijian citizen and a foreigner who had been convicted of homosexual acts to walk free in late August. Madraiwiwi's endorsement of legalised homosexuality also ran contrary to assertions from Prime Minister [[Laisenia Qarase]] that so long as he remained in office, homosexuality would remain illegal.

=== Views on Fiji's national identity ===

Speaking at the launch of [[Fiji Week, 2005|Fiji Week celebrations]] on 7 October 2005, Madraiwiwi called on the nation to face up to questions about its fundamental identity. Such issues involved finding an inclusive adjective of nationality, the term "Fijian" being widely thought of as an ethnic term and its use by non-indigenous persons sometimes resented. The choice of a national language, and the question about whether to keep or change the flag, should also be addressed, he said. It would not do any good to avoid facing such questions, he said, because resolving them was essential to fostering true reconciliation and unity in the nation.

=== Poppy Drive speech ===

At the launch of the [[Poppy Drive]] on 21 October, Madraiwiwi called on returned servicemen to lay aside old resentments. The general refusal of Indo-Fijians to contribute to the war effort in [[World War II]] caused widespread resentment among indigenous Fijians, which has not entirely abated. Madraiwiwi considered, however, that they had shown bravery in their own way, enduring mistreatment ''"with fortitude and grace"'' at the hands of their colonial masters, to whom ''"they had little reason to be grateful."'' He also challenged people to consider the question of how the economy could have survived had the Indo-Fijians left Fiji for the war. ''"Who would have planted the cane, run the mills and funded the colony if they had gone to battle?"'' he asked.

In the same address, the Vice-President said that only those who had experienced the horrors of war could truly appreciate the value of freedom. A generation had grown up taking freedom for granted, he said, but owed a debt of gratitude that could never be repaid to those who had paid the price with their blood. He also said that people have become bolder in asserting their rights, but cautioned that that is one of the causes of wars.

=== Thoughts on the Fijian electoral system ===

* ''See main articles: [[Electoral system of Fiji]]; Voting system of Fiji.''

On 3 November 2005, Madraiwiwi expressed reservations about the so-called Alternative Vote, which incorporates elements of [[Instant-runoff voting|instant run-off voting]] and [[electoral fusion]], which has been used in Fiji for the past two elections. The system allows political parties and candidates to combine their votes in a constituency according to a prearranged ranking of "preferences." Although voters may customise the ranking, few did so at the last two elections, and many were reportedly unaware that a vote cast for the party of their choice might end up being transferred to a party they might have no wish to support. Madraiwiwi said that in practice, voting for a party meant voting for any other party to which that party had agreed to transfer its "preferences." He considered that this compromised the voter's freedom of choice, and that in retrospect, it might have been better to retain the [[first past the post]] system that was formerly used.

At a workshop organised by the [[Citizens Constitutional Forum]] in [[Suva]], Madraiwiwi endorsed calls for [[electoral reform]] on 9 February 2006. Madraiwiwi, who was the chief guest at the forum, called for a reduction in the number of [[communal constituencies]] (elected on ethnic rolls, almost two-thirds of the present [[House of Representatives of Fiji|House of Representatives]]) and a corresponding increase in the number of [[open constituencies]] (elected by universal suffrage). Communal voting reinforced the ethnic faultline that characterised [[elections in Fiji]], he said, and steps should be taken to move away from it.

The Vice-President also reiterated his earlier reservations about the Fijian electoral system. It was not well understood by less literate sections of the population, he said, and though its purpose was to encourage coalition-building, it was open to manipulation and a simpler voting system, which would be fair and neutral, should be considered, the [[Fiji Live]] and [[Fiji Village]] news services reported him as saying. He proposed [[proportional representation]] for as an option which would reflect the composition of the Fijian electorate. The [[1997 Constitution of Fiji|constitutional]] requirement for multi-party coalitions, which has never been implemented strictly as stipulated, should also be reconsidered, he said.

In a rare display of unity, both [[Tomasi Vakatora]] of the predominantly indigenous [[Grand Coalition for Fiji|Grand Coalition Initiative Group]] and [[Krishna Datt]] of the mainly Indo-Fijian [[Fiji Labour Party]] both rejected the Vice-President's calls for proportional representation, saying they were satisfied with the present electoral system.

Madraiwiwi also expressed concern about how the high level of [[Indians in Fiji|Indo-Fijian]] emigration could create electoral disparity, affecting the election results in marginal open constituencies.

=== Critique of ethnic politics ===

In his opening address to the [[Pacific Islands Political Studies Association]] ([[PIPSA]]) conference on 24 November 2005, Madraiwiwi described race relations as "a work in progress." He lamented the ethnic faultline that defines Fijian politics, a situation reinforced, he said, by what political parties thought the electorate wanted. The electoral system, in which almost two-thirds of the seats in the [[House of Representatives of Fiji|House of Representatives]] are chosen by voters registered on closed ethnic rolls, further reinforced this divide, he maintained. The result was that people retreated into their "ethnic fortresses" and viewed one another with suspicion.

Madraiwiwi spoke of the need to build personal relationships on the basis of trust, across ethnic lines. ''"We must begin to trust each other if this country is to progress the way we want it to. But before that we have to lay the preparatory work to engender that trust by building relationships every day,"'' he declared.

One factor gave the Vice-President cause for optimism. The [[Fijians|indigenous]] population was growing somewhat faster than that of the nation as a whole, which he thought would gradually allay their fears of marginalisation and could lead to their being less fearful about being led by someone of a different ethnic group.

=== Views on the place of the Fijian language ===

* ''See main article: [[National language debate in Fiji]].''

Addressing the 72nd annual meeting of the [[Fijian Teachers Association]] in [[Suva]] on 9 January 2006, Madraiwiwi added his own voice to calls for the [[Fijian language]] to be made a compulsory subject in all primary schools. His parents' generation had emphasised prioritising English on the assumption that Fijian could be learned later, but this had resulted in a generation knowing little Fijian, and unless the language was made compulsory at all levels of primary education, it would be lost to the next generation, Madraiwiwi said.

== Achievements ==
In his capacity of Acting President, Madraiwiwi succeeded in brokering a truce on 16 January 2006 between Prime Minister [[Laisenia Qarase]] and [[Republic of Fiji Military Forces|Military]] Commander [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]], [[2005–06 Fijian political crisis|whose long-running feud]] had raised fears of civil unrest or a military coup. Under Madraiwiwi's mediation, each side made some concessions to the other, and observers were cautiously optimistic that Fiji had been pulled back from the brink. Although the truce eventually broke down, it postponed the coup that eventually took place on 5 December.

== Personal life ==
Ratu Madraiwiwi is the eldest son of Doctor [[J.A.R. Dovi|Ratu Jione Atonio Rabici Doviverata]], who preceded him as Roko Tui Bau. His mother, [[Adi (title)|Adi]] [[Losalini Raravuya Uluiviti]] was from the chiefly Tui [[Nairai]] family, in Fiji's [[Lomaiviti Province|Lomaiviti]] province. She was one of the first women to become a member of Fiji's [[Legislative Council of Fiji|Legislative Council]] and subsequently a [[House of Representatives of Fiji|Member of Parliament]].

Ratu Madraiwiwi is a grandson of [[Joni Madraiwiwi I|Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi]] (1859–1920), a [[Bau Island|Bauan]] chief, and a great-great grandson of [[Seru Epenisa Cakobau|Ratu Seru Epenisa Cakobau]] (1815–1883), the Fijian [[Head of State of Fiji|monarch]] who unified the nation under his leadership before ceding the islands to the United Kingdom in 1874. He is also a nephew of [[Lala Sukuna|Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna]] (1888–1958), who forged embryonic institutions for what would become the independent nation of Fiji, although he did not live to see it. On 5 December 1998, he married [[Adi Lusi Tuivanuavou]], also known as [[Lusiana Paluvavau Qolikoro|Adi Lusiana Paluvavau Qolikoro]], on [[Bau Island]] in Fiji.

==External links==
* [http://www.usp.ac.fj/journ/docs/news/wansolnews/wansol1508013.html Fiji's 2001 Elections: Our Country at the Crossroads] – 2001 Parkinson Memorial Lecture Series, 15 August 2001.
* [http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0409/S00253.htm Ethnic Tensions and the Rule of Law] – Siwatibau Memorial Lecture, [[Honiara]], [[Solomon Islands]], 24 September 2004.
* [http://www.fiji.gov.fj/publish/printer_4326.shtml Speech to Lautoka Rotary Club] (14 March 2005).
* [http://www.usp.ac.fj/index.php/1092/ As you enter] (a poem by Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi)

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Wikiquotepar|Joni Madraiwiwi}}{{Wikisource author}}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box | title=[[Vice-President of Fiji|Vice-President]] of [[Fiji]] | before=[[Jope Seniloli|Ratu Jope Seniloli]] | after=Vacant | years=2004–2006}}
{{succession box | title=[[Roko Tui Bau]] | before=[[J.A.R. Dovi|Ratu Dr. Jione Atonio Rabici Doviverata]] | after=Current Incumbent| years=1995–present}}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Madraiwiwi, Ratu Joni}}
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:Fijian chiefs]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Tongan nobles]]
[[Category:Tui Kaba]]
[[Category:Vice-Presidents of Fiji]]
[[Category:Fijian judges on the courts of Nauru]]
[[Category:University of Adelaide alumni]]
[[Category:McGill University alumni]]
[[Category:Politicians from Bau (island)]]

Rimeta Beniamina

2016-02-14T10:57:20Z

Aridd:

{{ébauche|personnalité politique|Kiribati}}

'''Rimeta Beniamina''' est un homme politique [[Kiribati|gilbertin]].

Ayant obtenu une licence de Sciences appliquées au ''Australian Maritime College'' en [[Tasmanie]] et un diplôme en pêcheries tropicales à l'[[Université du Pacifique sud]], il intégra l'administration publique aux Kiribati, travaillant dans la surveillance de bateaux de pêche étrangers opérant dans les eaux gilbertines, et la délivrance de licences aux propriétaires de ces bateaux<ref name="anu 2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD" />.

Il fit son entrée en politique en étant élu député de la circonscription de [[Nikunau]] lors des [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2002|élections législatives de 2002]], prenant la suite de son père, le Vice-Président de la République [[Beniamina Tinga]]<ref name="Ind" />, « homme politique de longue date qui ne pouvait participer à l’élection en raison de sa santé ». Il conserva le siège aux [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2003|élections anticipées de 2003]], provoquées par la chute du gouvernement, puis lors des [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2007|élections de 2007]]<ref name="anu 2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD" />. En août 2010, à la suite de la fusion des partis [[Maneaban Te Mauri]] (Protégeons le Maneaba) et [[Kiribati Tabomoa]], il prit la tête de la Coalition unie ([[Karikirakean Tei-Kiribati]]) qui en résulta, et fut reconnu comme chef de l'[[Opposition officielle]] au gouvernement du Président [[Anote Tong]]<ref>{{en}} [http://www.parliament.gov.ki/content/political-parties "Political parties"], Parlement des Kiribati</ref>. En décembre 2010, il institua une [[motion de confiance]] à l'encontre du gouvernement, l'accusant notamment d'une mauvaise gestion de l'économie ; la motion fut rejetée par vingt-quatre voix contre dix-neuf, avec trois abstentions<ref>{{en}} [http://lists.spc.int/pipermail/ppapd-fpocc_lists.spc.int/2010-December/000724.html "Kiribati - No Confidence Motion Defeated"], Communauté du Pacifique sud</ref>.

Réélu député lors des [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2011|élections législatives d'octobre 2011]], il visa la [[Président des Kiribati|présidence de la République]]. Le Dr. [[Tetaua Taitai]] étant choisi comme candidat du Karikirakean Tei-Kiribati, Beniamina rejoignit le parti [[Maurin Kiribati]], dont il fut désigné candidat pour l'[[Élection présidentielle gilbertine de 2011|élection présidentielle]]<ref name="Ind">{{en}} [http://www.thekiribatiindependent.co.nz/p.php?q=%2Farticle%2Fparliament "Three candidates to run for presidency"], ''Kiribati Independent'', 25 novembre 2011</ref>. Il termina troisième et dernier, recueillant 22,8 % des suffrages<ref>{{en}} [http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=65522 "Kiribati’s Tong beats challengers to win third term"], Radio New Zealand International, 13 janvier 2012</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{gil}} [http://www.kiribationlinecommunity.com/forum/topics/results-of-the-2012-presidential-election-in-kiribati?xg_source=activity "Results of the 2012 Presidential Election in Kiribati"], Kiribati Online Community, 13 janvier 2012</ref>.

Il rejoint ensuite la majorité parlementaire du président [[Anote Tong]], qui le nomme ministre des Communications, des Transports et du Tourisme. Il est également vice-président de la commission parlementaire sur les questions de changement climatique, l'une des priorités du gouvernement Tong. Il conserve son siège lors des [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2015-2016|élections législatives]] de janvier 2016, sous l'étiquette du parti [[Boutokaan te koaua]], le parti du gouvernement sortant. Il est choisi par le Parlement pour être à nouveau candidat à l'[[Élection présidentielle gilbertine de 2016|élection présidentielle de mars 2016]], sous les couleurs cette fois du BTK<ref>{{en}} [http://www.pina.com.fj/?p=pacnews&m=read&o=137621543756b436f87e95c78211d5 "Kiribati Parliament elects news Speaker and candidates for the Presidential election next month"], PINA, 4 février 2016</ref>.

== Références ==
<references>
<ref name="anu 2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD">{{en}} [http://www.cdi.anu.edu.au/.asia_pacific_region/2008-09/D_P/2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD_VLA/2008_12_10thPacPD_PARTICIPANTS_BIOS.pdf "Mr Rimeta Beniamina MP"], Centre for Democratic Institutions, Université nationale australienne, p.4</ref>
</references>

{{Portail|politique|Kiribati}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Beniamina, Rimeta}}
[[Catégorie:Personnalité politique gilbertine]]

Tuvalu National Library and Archives

2014-08-26T12:15:50Z

Aridd: Undid revision 622676645 by 144.120.8.67 (talk)

{{Infobox Government agency
|agency_name = Tuvalu National Library and Archives
|logo =
|logo_width =
|logo_caption =
|seal =
|seal_width =
|seal_caption =
|formed =
|preceding1 =
|dissolved =
|superseding =
|jurisdiction = [[Tuvalu]]
|headquarters = [[Funafuti]]
|collection = the cultural, social and political heritage of Tuvalu
|employees =
|budget =
|chief1_name = Ane Teilauea
|chief1_position = National Librarian and Archivist
|parent_agency = Ministry of Education and Culture
|child1_agency =
|website =
|footnotes =
}}
{{coord|8|31|S|179|03|E|display=title}}
The '''Tuvalu National Library and Archives''' (TNLA) is the [[national library]] of [[Tuvalu]]. It is located in [[Funafuti]].<ref>[http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/endangeredarchives/2009/03/saving-the-endangered-records-of-tuvalu.html "Tuvalu National Archives major project"], [[British Library]]</ref><ref name="International Council on Archives">[http://www.ica.org/?lid=191&user=3203 International Council on Archives]</ref>

==Role and facilities==
The TNLA holds "vital documentation on the cultural, social and political heritage of Tuvalu", including surviving records from the [[Gilbert and Ellice Islands|colonial]] administration, as well as Tuvalu government archives.<ref name="bl.uk">[http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/endangeredarchives/2009/03/saving-the-endangered-records-of-tuvalu.html "Tuvalu National Archives major project"], British Library</ref>

The library's archives have been described as "comparatively well housed" but "endangered [...] through frequent and heavy use and [...] through risk of being washed away in a cyclone-prone area. Environmental and handling damage is occurring to key customary records". This has resulted in the Tuvalu National Archives preservation pilot project (EAP005) and Tuvalu National Archives major project of 2005, projects of the [[British Library]] and the Pacific Manuscripts Bureau of the [[ANU Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies]], [[Australian National University]] to [[microfilm]] and digitally copy the archives.<ref name="bl.uk"/><ref>[http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/pambu/pambu/Pambu20%2005Dec.pdf "Report on PMB fieldwork in Tuvalu and Niue, Sep-Oct 2005"], ''Pacific Manuscripts Bureau Newsletter'', series 5, n°20, December 2005</ref>

==National Librarian and Archivist==
Ane Teilauea is the Librarian and Archivist.<ref name="International Council on Archives"/><ref name="bl.uk"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
* [[List of national libraries]]
* [[List of national archives]]

==External links==
* [http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/pambu/ Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, ANU College of Asia & the Pacific]
* [http://www.bl.uk/popups/tuvalunlalge.html Image of the National Library building], on the [[British Library]] website
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/gosha_krzystkiewicz/4519116501/ Image of the National Library building]

[[Category:National libraries|Tuvalu]]
[[Category:Libraries in Tuvalu]]
[[Category:Research libraries]]
[[Category:Funafuti]]
[[Category:Tuvalu]]

Gambia bei den Commonwealth Games

2014-06-29T15:03:42Z

Aridd: Gambia ist nicht mehr im Commonwealth (seit 2013), und wird nicht am Edimburg kommen.

<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:125px;">
<center><div align="center" style="border:1px solid #ccc; width:30px; height:22px;"></div></center>
[[Datei:Flag of The Gambia.svg|100px|border|Flagge Gambias]]
<div style="border-style:none; font-size:36px; line-height:36px;">Gambia</div>
</div>
</div>

Seit 1970 hat [[Gambia]] zu jedem der Spiele der [[Commonwealth Games]], mit Ausnahme der [[Commonwealth Games 1986|Spiele 1986]], die boykottiert wurden, ein Team entsandt. Die einzige Medaille, die ein gambisches Team errungen hatte, war 1970 die Bronze-Medaille für den Wettbewerb im [[Hochsprung]].

== Medaillenbilanz ==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Games
|width=60 bgcolor=gold | '''Gold'''
|width=60 bgcolor=silver | '''Silber'''
|width=60 bgcolor=cc9966| '''Bronze'''
|width=60| '''gesamt'''
|-
|align=left| [[British Commonwealth Games 1970|Edinburgh 1970]] || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1
|-
|align=left| [[British Commonwealth Games 1974|Christchurch 1974]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
|align=left| [[Commonwealth Games 1978|Edmonton 1978]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
|align=left| [[Commonwealth Games 1982|Brisbane 1982]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
|align=left| [[Commonwealth Games 1986|Edinburgh 1986]] || - || - || - || -
|-
|align=left| [[Commonwealth Games 1990|Auckland 1990]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
|align=left| [[Commonwealth Games 1994|Victoria 1994]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
|align=left| [[Commonwealth Games 1998|Kuala Lumpur 1998]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
|align=left| [[Commonwealth Games 2002|Manchester 2002]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
|align=left| [[Commonwealth Games 2006|Melbourne 2006]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
|align=left| [[Commonwealth Games 2010|Delhi 2010]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
!| gesamt || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1
|}

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.thecgf.com/countries/country_index.asp?linkresults=1 Official results by country]

[[Kategorie:Sport (Gambia)]]
[[Kategorie:Commonwealth Games]]

Supreme Court of Nauru

2013-05-21T22:46:37Z

Aridd: Thanks for the list, but you'll need to provide a source for that information.

{{Politics of Nauru}}

The '''Supreme Court of Nauru''' is the [[supreme court|highest judicial court]] of the [[Nauru|Republic of Nauru]].

==Constitutional establishment==

It is established by part V of the [[Constitution of Nauru|Constitution]], adopted upon Nauru's independence from [[Australia]] in 1968. Art. 48 of the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court as "a superior [[court of record]]", with jurisdiction prescribed constitutionally and by law. Art.49 stipulates that the [[Chief Justice of Nauru|Chief Justice]] is appointed by the [[President of Nauru|President]] and sits with other justices, likewise appointed by the President, whose number is to be determined by law. Only [[barrister]]s and [[solicitor]]s who have been practising for at least five years may be appointed to the Supreme Court. Articles 50 and 51 prescribe that a Supreme Court judge vacates his or her office upon attaining the age of 65 (unless that age limit be amended by legislation), or upon being removed for incapacity or misconduct by a motion adopted by at least two thirds of members of [[Parliament of Nauru|Parliament]], or upon tending his or her resignation to the President. Art.54 stipulates that "[t]he Supreme Court shall, to the exclusion of any other court, have original jurisdiction to determine any question arising under or involving the interpretation or effect of any provision of th[e] Constitution"; art.55 prescribes that [[Cabinet of Nauru|Cabinet]] "may refer questions on Constitution to the Supreme Court", and that "the Supreme Court shall pronounce in open court its opinion on the question".<ref name="Constitution of Nauru">[http://www.paclii.org/nr/legis/num_act/con256/ Constitution of Nauru]</ref> Thus the Supreme Court is empowered to deliver an [[advisory opinion]], albeit only upon questions referred to it by Cabinet.<ref>Barry Connell CJ., ''[http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/2004/3.html Constitutional Reference; In re Dual Nationality and Other Questions]'' (2004), Supreme Court of Nauru</ref>

==Jurisdiction==

The Supreme Court has both [[original jurisdiction|original]] and [[appellate jurisdiction]]. The Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute notes that the Supreme Court "has unlimited original civil jurisdiction and although the ''Courts Act'' [1972] does not so specify it is assumed that it has original criminal jurisdiction".<ref name="Nauru Courts System Information">[http://www.paclii.org/nr/courts.html "Nauru Courts System Information"], Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute</ref> Additionally, as per the ''Appeals Act'' 1972, the Supreme Court hears [[appeal]]s from the [[District Court of Nauru|District Court]] in both [[criminal law|criminal]] and [[Civil law (common law)|civil cases]], on questions of fact or law.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/legis/num_act/aa197284/ Appeals Act] 1972</ref> The [[Family Court of Nauru|Family Court]], however, functions separately, and no appeal is possible from this court to the Supreme Court.<ref name="Nauru Courts System Information"/>

Despite its name, the Supreme Court is not the highest court of appeal in most cases. Its judgements on constitutional matters are final, but any other case may be appealed further to the [[Appellate Court of Nauru|Appellate Court]].<ref>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/nauru.htm "Nauru: Courts & Judgments"], United States Department of State</ref> In addition, art.57 of the Constitution stipulates that "Parliament may provide that an appeal lies as prescribed by law from a judgment, decree, order or sentence of the Supreme Court to a court of another country".<ref name="Constitution of Nauru"/> This provision was implemented in an agreement between Nauru and Australia in 1976, providing for appeals from the Supreme Court of Nauru to the [[High Court of Australia]] in both criminal and civil cases, with certain exceptions; in particular, no case pertaining to the Constitution of Nauru may be decided by the Australian court.<ref>[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ncaa1976254/sch1.html Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Republic of Nauru relating to Appeals to the High Court of Australia from the Supreme Court of Nauru], 1976</ref>

As [[Law of Nauru|Nauruan law]] is derived from the [[Law of England and Wales|English]] and [[Law of Australia|Australian]] [[common law]] system, [[precedent]]s set by the Supreme Court are integrated to national law, and the Supreme Court's interpretation of the law binds lower courts. Such precedents are, however, superseded by [[statute law]].<ref>[http://www.naurugov.nr/parliament/projects/consolidation/index.html "Consolidation of Legislation Project"], [[Parliament of Nauru]]</ref>

==Cases==

The Supreme Court heard its first case, ''Detamaigo v Demaure'', in April 1969. The case consisted in an "appeal against a decision of the [[Nauru Lands Committee]] as to the persons beneficially entitled to the personality of the estate of a deceased Nauruan". In a very brief ruling, Chief Justice Thompson struck out the appeal, on the grounds that "this Court has no jurisdiction to entertain appeals from the Nauru Lands Committee's determinations in respect of personalty", as such jurisdiction was not specifically provided by the Nauru Lands Committee Ordinance 1956.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/1969/5.html Detamaigo v Demaure], Supreme Court of Nauru, 1969</ref>

The first constitutional case to reach the Supreme Court was ''Jeremiah v Nauru Local Government Council'', decided in March 1971, on petition to the Supreme Court. The petitioner, Jeremiah, was a Nauruan man who wished to marry a non-Nauruan woman. The Nauru Local Government Council, whose consent was required for any lawful marriage between a Nauruan and a non-Nauruan (as per the Births, Deaths and Marriages Ordinance 1957), refused to grant consent, without providing a reason. Jeremiah argued this was a violation of article 3 of the Constitution, which provides that "every person in Nauru is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual". Chief Justice Thompson, however, ruled that the constitutional meaning of "fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual" was to be restricted to the rights and freedoms explicitly established by the Constitution. Thus, no constitutional right to marry existed.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/1971/5.html In re the Constitution, Jeremiah v Nauru Local Government Council], Supreme Court of Nauru, 1971</ref>

In October 2010, the Supreme Court ruled on its most recent constitutional case, ''In the Matter of the Constitution and in the Matter of the Dissolution of the Eighteenth Parliament'', to determine whether the dissolution of a deadlocked Parliament and the ensuing proclamation of a [[state of emergency]] by President [[Marcus Stephen]] were constitutionally valid. The case had been brought by members of the parliamentary Opposition. Justice [[John von Doussa]] ruled in favour of the President, stating that art.77 of the Constitution gave the President full latitude to determine whether a state of emergency should be declared.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/2010/16.html In the Matter of the Constitution and in the Matter of the Dissolution of the Eighteenth Parliament], Supreme Court of Nauru, 2010</ref>

==Current justices==
The current [[Chief Justice of Nauru]] is [[Sir]] [[Geoffrey Eames]] [[Member of the Order of Australia|AM]] [[Queen's Counsel|QC]], appointed in December 2010. The Court currently has one other judge, Justice [[John von Doussa]], appointed in September 2010. Both were appointed by President [[Marcus Stephen]].<ref name="RNZI_57969">{{cite news |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=57969 |title=Nauru appoints new Chief Justice |date=December 31, 2010 |work=[[Radio New Zealand International]] |accessdate=November 15, 2011}}</ref>

==List of Chief Justices{{cn}}==
[[Ian Tompson]]

1968 – 1984

[[H. Gilbert]]

1984

[[B. J. McK. Kerr]] (acting)

1984 – 1985

[[Sir]] [[Gaven Donne]] [[KBE]]

1985 – 2001

[[Barry Connell]]

2001 – 2006

[[Robin Millhouse]] [[QC]]

2006 – 2010

[[Sir]] [[Geoffrey Eames]] [[Member of the Order of Australia | AM]] [[QC]]

2010 – Incumbent

==External links==
* [http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/ Selected case law of the Supreme Court], Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute

==See also==
* [[Constitution of Nauru]]
* [[Law of Nauru]]
* [[Chief Justice of Nauru]]
* [[District Court of Nauru]]
* [[Family Court of Nauru]]
* [[Appellate Court of Nauru]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Oceania topic|Supreme Court of|title=Supreme Courts of Oceania |countries_only=yes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Supreme Court Of Nauru}}
[[Category:National supreme courts|Nauru]]
[[Category:1968 establishments]]
[[Category:Politics of Nauru]]

Sommer-Paralympics 2012/Teilnehmer (Guinea-Bissau)

2012-09-09T10:06:44Z

Aridd:

{{Paralympics Teilnehmer|Flag of Guinea-Bissau.svg|GBS}}
{{Paralympics Medaillen|0|0|0}}
[[Guinea-Bissau]] entsendet zu den [[Sommer-Paralympics 2012|Paralympischen Sommerspielen 2012]] in [[London]] zwei Sportler – eine Frau und ein Mann.<ref>[http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/athletes/country=guinea-bissau/index.htmx Guinea-Bissau All Athletes; abgerufen am 2. September 2012] london2012.com/paralympics</ref>:


== Teilnehmer nach Sportart ==
{|class= "wikitable" style="font-size:95%" style="width:60em"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Athleten !! rowspan="2" | Wettbewerb !! colspan="2" | Vorlauf / Vorkampf !! colspan="2" | Halbfinale !! colspan="2" | Finale !! rowspan="2" | Rang
|-
! Zeit / Weite !! Rang !! Zeit / Weite !! Rang !! Zeit / Weite !! Rang
|-
| colspan="9" align="left" | '''Frauen'''
|-
| [[Ussumane Cande]]
| 100 m T46
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center" colspan="2"| –
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
|-
| [[Ussumane Cande]]
| 400 m T46
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center" colspan="2"| –
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
|-
|-
| colspan="9" align="left" | '''Männer'''
|-
|-
| [[Cesar Lopes Cardoso]]
| 400 m T46
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center" colspan="2"| –
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|}

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

{{Navigationsleiste Teilnehmer Sommer-Paralympics 2012}}

[[Kategorie:Teilnehmer bei den Sommer-Paralympics 2012|Guinea-Bissau]]
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[[en:Guinea-Bissau at the 2012 Summer Paralympics]]

Jean-Marc Ayrault

2012-05-15T16:31:23Z

Aridd: Source pour date & lieu de naissance.

[[Datei:Jean-Marc Ayrault - mars 2012.jpg|miniatur|hochkant|Jean-Marc Ayrault im März 2012]]
'''Jean-Marc Ayrault''' (* [[25. Januar]] [[1950]] in [[Maulévrier]], Département [[Maine-et-Loire]]<ref>[http://www.lemonde.fr/election-presidentielle-2012/article/2012/05/15/jean-marc-ayrault-le-reformiste-decomplexe_1701320_1471069.html "Jean-Marc Ayrault, le "réformiste décomplexé""], ''Le Monde'', 15. Mai 2012</ref>) ist ein französischer Politiker ([[Parti socialiste (Frankreich)|PS]]) und seit dem 15. Mai 2012 unter Präsident [[François Hollande]] [[Liste der Premierminister von Frankreich|Premierminister]] der [[Frankreich|Französischen Republik]].

Er ist außerdem seit 1989 Bürgermeister von [[Nantes]] und war von 1986 bis 2012 Abgeordneter und von 1997 bis 2012 Fraktionsvorsitzender (frz. ''président'') der ''groupe socialiste'' in der [[Nationalversammlung (Frankreich)|französischen Nationalversammlung]].

== Leben ==
Er studierte an der [[Universität Nantes]] und 1969/1970 ein Semester an der [[Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg|Universität Würzburg]]<ref>[http://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/franzoesischer-premieranwaerter-ayrault-wer-hollande-die-deutschen-erklaert-1.1351331 Joseph Hanimann: ''Wer Hollande die Deutschen erklärt.'' sueddeutsche.de vom 8. Mai 2012], abgerufen am 12. Mai 2012</ref> und war von 1973 bis zu seiner Wahl zum Abgeordneten 1986 Deutschlehrer in [[Saint-Herblain]], [[Loire-Atlantique]].<ref>[http://www.nantes.fr/site/nantesfr/jean-marc-ayrault Biografie auf der Seite der Stadtverwaltung von Nantes], abgerufen am 12. Mai 2012</ref> Dort amtierte er auch von 1977 bis 1989 als Bürgermeister.

1989 war das Bürgermeisteramt der Stadt Nantes ein erreichbares Ziel für die PS. Der bisherige Amtsinhaber von der [[Rassemblement pour la République|RPR]] stellte sich nicht zur Wiederwahl. Ayrault wurde formell im Dezember 1988 Kandidat in Nantes. Seine Wahlkampagne war geprägt vom hohen Besuch: Sowohl [[François Mitterrand]] als auch Premierminister [[Michel Rocard]] sowie [[Jacques Chirac]] (Staatspräsident 1997–2007) kamen nach Nantes. Am 12. März wurde Ayrault im ersten Wahlgang mit 50,19 % der Stimmen gewählt (sein Gegenkandidat Daniel Augereau erhielt 40 %). 1995, 2001 und 2008 wurde er wiedergewählt.

Nach dem Sieg von François Hollande in den französischen Präsidentschaftswahlen am 6. Mai 2012 war Ayrault neben [[Martine Aubry]] im Gespräch als zukünftiger [[Premierminister von Frankreich|Premierminister]]<ref>[http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/frankreich-hybride-statt-hybris-11746714.html Michaela Wiegel: ''Hybrid statt Hybris.'', faz.net vom 10. Mai 2012], abgerufen am 12. Mai 2012</ref> nach einem womöglichen Sieg der präsidentiellen Mehrheit auch bei den [[Französische Parlamentswahlen 2012|Parlamentswahlen im Juni 2012]].

[[Mathieu von Rohr]] ([[Der Spiegel|SPIEGEL]] in Paris) schrieb dazu:

{{Zitat|Von dieser Wahl hängt viel ab. Wenn er die Parteichefin [[Martine Aubry]] wählt, seine Gegnerin bei den parteiinternen Vorwahlen, entscheidet er sich für einen linken Kurs. Wählt er den Fraktionschef Jean-Marc Ayrault ist das ein Zeichen für eine eher technokratische Regierung - und es wäre eine Geste Deutschland gegenüber. Denn Ayrault spricht Deutsch und hat gute Verbindungen zur SPD.<ref>spiegel.de: [http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/wahlen-in-frankreich-praesident-hollande-tritt-mitterands-erbe-an-a-831687.html Unsicher auf der Bastille]</ref> }}

Am Tag der Amtseinführung von Hollande, dem 15. Mai 2012, ernannte dieser Ayrault zum [[Liste der Premierminister von Frankreich|Premierminister]]. Mit der Annahme des Amtes endete seine Mitgliedschaft in der Nationalversammlung.

Jean-Marc Ayrault ist seit September 1971<ref>Besson, ''JMA'', S. 85.</ref> verheiratet mit Brigitte Terrien, ebenfalls aus Maulévrier. Sie studierte ''Lettres modernes'' und ist seit 1974 Französisch-Lehrerin. Von 1982 bis 2001 war sie [[Generalrat (Frankreich)|Generalrätin]] des [[Kanton Saint-Herblain-Ouest-Indre|Kantons Saint-Herblain-Ouest-Indre]]. Sie haben zwei Töchter.

== Mandate und Funktionen ==

* 14. März 1977 – 12. März 1989: Bürgermeister von Saint-Herblain, Loire-Atlantique
* 1976–1982: ''Conseiller général'' des Départment Loire-Atlantique
* 2. April 1986 – 15. Mai 2012: Abgeordneter für das Départment Loire-Atlantique in der Nationalversammlung
* 1997–2007: Fraktionsvorsitzender der ''Groupe socialiste'' in der Nationalversammlung
* Seit dem 18. März 1989: Bürgermeister von [[Nantes]]
* seit 2002: Vorsitzender des Kommunalverbandes ''Nantes Métropole''
* Seit 15. Mai 2012: französischer Premierminister

== Literatur ==
* ''Who's Who in France.''
* Philippe Goulliaud: ''Jean-Marc Ayrault, la rançon de l'expérience.'' In: ''[[Le Figaro]].'' 26. Juni 2007.
* Alain Besson: ''Jean-Marc Ayrault. Une ambition nantaise...'' Editions Coiffard, Nantes 2004, ISBN 2-910366-49-9.

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.jmayrault.fr/ Website von Jean-Marc Ayrault] (frz.)
* [http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/13/tribun/fiches_id/328.asp Informationen zum Politiker auf der Seite des Parlaments (frz.)]
* zeit.de 7. mai 2012: [http://www.zeit.de/politik/ausland/2012-05/frankreich-machtuebergabe Frankreichs Sozialisten eilen zum Machtwechsel]

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

{{NaviBlock
|Navigationsleiste Premierminister Frankreichs 5. Republik
|Navigationsleiste Kabinett Ayrault
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{{SORTIERUNG:Ayrault, Jean-Marc}}
[[Kategorie:Amtierender Regierungschef]]
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[[Kategorie:PS-Mitglied (Frankreich)]]
[[Kategorie:Franzose]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1950]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

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|GEBURTSORT=[[Maulévrier]], Département [[Maine-et-Loire]]
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[[br:Jean-Marc Ayrault]]
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[[it:Jean-Marc Ayrault]]
[[la:Ioannes Marcus Ayrault]]
[[nl:Jean-Marc Ayrault]]
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[[sv:Jean-Marc Ayrault]]

Proteste gegen SOPA und PIPA

2012-01-21T15:43:30Z

Aridd:

{{selfref|For the [[Wikipedia:Community|community]] proposal that led to the English Wikipedia blackout, see [[WP:SOPA]].}}
[[File:History Wikipedia English SOPA 2012 Blackout2.jpg|thumb|370px|A screenshot of the [[English Wikipedia]] landing page, symbolically its only page during the January 18 blackout]]

A series of coordinated protests against two pieces of proposed legislation in the [[United States Congress]]—the [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA)—occurred on January 18, 2012. Some websites, including [[Reddit]] and the [[English Wikipedia]], locked down their content entirely, redirecting users to a message of opposition against the proposed legislation. Websites of other organizations, such as [[Google]], [[Mozilla]] and [[Flickr]], featured protests against the acts, but kept some or all of their content available. In addition to the online protests, there were physical demonstrations in several U.S. cities, including New York City, San Francisco and Seattle. The protests were reported by news organizations around the world.

Supporters of the acts argued that legislation was needed to protect content producers such as musicians and filmmakers from [[copyright infringement]] (colloquially known as piracy) on websites based outside of the United States. Representative [[Lamar S. Smith]], who introduced the SOPA bill, argued that "[t]he Stop Online Piracy Act helps stop the flow of revenue to rogue websites and ensures that the profits from American innovations go to American innovators."<ref>[http://judiciary.house.gov/news/HR%203261%20Introduced.html Press Resources]; Commitee on the Judiciary; October 26, 2011</ref> Opponents argued that provisions in SOPA and PIPA could undermine online freedom of speech, and that there were insufficient safeguards in place to protect search engines and sites with user-generated content. Wikipedia co-founder [[Jimmy Wales]] said that "if you want to combat piracy then measures that ask search engines to delist things or DNS services that block things are the wrong approach."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16604990|title=Viewpoints: Sites go offline in US piracy laws protest|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=January 20, 2012|date=January 18, 2012}}</ref>

On the weekend prior to the action, the White House stated that it would "not support legislation that reduces freedom of expression, increases cybersecurity risk, or undermines the dynamic, innovative global internet."<ref name=whitehouse/> On the day of protests, some politicians that had previously supported the bills expressed concerns with the proposals in their existing form, while others withdrew their support entirely. Some media outlets were critical of the pressure placed upon supporters of the bills; the ''[[Boston Herald]]'' described the service withdrawals as evidence of "how very powerful these cyber-bullies can be."<ref name=heraldresponse/> ''[[The New York Times]]'', however, characterized the omnibus protest as "''A Political Coming of Age for the Tech Industry.''"<ref name="nytimes1">http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/18/technology/web-wide-protest-over-two-antipiracy-bills.html?scp=11&sq=SOPA&st=cse</ref> By January 20, the political environment regarding both bills had shifted significantly. The bills were removed from further voting, to be revised to take into consideration the issues raised by the technology companies.<ref name="NYT-20120120">{{cite news |last=Weisman|first=Jonathan|title=After an Online Firestorm, Congress Shelves Antipiracy Bills
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/21/technology/senate-postpones-piracy-vote.html|date=January 20, 2012 |publisher=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=January 20, 2012}}</ref>
[[Image:Ja + nl.PNG|thumb|270px|Main pages of the [[Japanese Wikipedia]] and the [[Dutch Wikipedia]] on January 18, expressing support for the English Wikipedia protest.]]

==Background==
{{Main|PROTECT IP Act|Stop Online Piracy Act}}
The [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA) are bills that were introduced into the [[United States House of Representatives]] and the [[United States Senate]] in the last quarter of 2011. The two bills, through different means, were designed to provide legal mechanisms for copyright holders, such as music and movie studios, to combat [[copyright infringment|digital piracy]] that occurs on non-United States websites. Both bills are extensions of the earlier [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] (DMCA) that enabled content producers to issue "take down" notices to [[Internet Service Providers]] (ISPs) and websites to remove infringing content. While the DMCA has been considered effective for patrolling of websites within the United States, the DMCA fails to address infringement from foreign websites.<ref name="cnnmoney">{{cite news | url = http://money.cnn.com/2012/01/17/technology/sopa_explained/ | title= SOPA explained: What it is and why it matters | publisher = [[CNNMoney]] | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | first = Julianne | last = Pepitone }}</ref> Part of the language of the bills when originally proposed would allow for copyright owners to issue complaints to ISPs and other major websites, like [[Google]] or [[Bing]], requiring them to remove the hostnames of infringing sites from their [[Domain name registry]] (DNS) and to delist the link entries in search engines which link to those sites.

[[File:Wikipediablackout.png|center|thumb|780px|Banner announcing the imminent blackout of the English Wikipedia.]] Many of the companies and organizations supporting the proposed legislation are content producers, such as the [[Motion Picture Association of America]], the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] and the [[Entertainment Software Association]], and identified the need to have such laws to combat revenue losses associated with the copyright infringement from these foreign websites. However, some lawmakers and many technology and Internet firms and associations have expressed concerns that two bills' languages are too broad, and the concept of domain name blocking and search engine removal would amount to [[censorship]] of the Internet without due process. A common criticism of the bill addresses broad and unclear language, such as what entails "deliberate actions to avoid confirming a high probability" for a website. Google's policy director, Bob Boorstin, stated that a site like [[YouTube]] supporting user-generated content "would just go dark immediately" to comply with the legislation.<ref name="cnnmoney"/> An alternative bill, the [[Online Protection and Enforcement of Digital Trade Act]] (OPEN), has been proposed by Representative [[Darrell Issa]] and Senator [[Ron Wyden]], with support of technology companies; this bill places enforcement of copyright-infringing websites to the [[United States International Trade Commission]] instead of the Justice department, and would target the financial resources of these websites.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://thehill.com/blogs/hillicon-valley/technology/204975-issa-introduces-piracy-alternative | title = Issa pushes alternative anti-piracy bill | publisher = [[The Hill]] | first = Brendan | last = Sasso | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 18, 2012 }}</ref>

In December 2011, SOPA was brought to the [[U.S. House Judiciary Committee]] to begin the process of marking up the bill prior to introduction to the House floor.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/246093/house_panel_to_move_forward_on_stop_online_piracy_act.html | title = House Panel to Move Forward on Stop Online Piracy Act | first = Grant | last = Gross | date = 12 December 2011 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | work = [[PC World (magazine)|PC World]] }}</ref> During this time, numerous websites began displaying banners and messages promoting their readerships to contact Congress to stop the progress of the bill, stating that their sites would be "blacked out" should the bill pass as a law. The markup session, in which several proposed amendments to address the concerns of technology companies were defeated, was eventually put on hold prior to the end of the year, to be restarted once Congress came back in session. Several technology websites began proposing the idea of an "Internet blackout" on the same day to protest SOPA and PIPA to occur before SOPA would be voted on on the House floor as a means of further protest.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2080066/Top-web-firms-set-impose-blackout-protest-Big-Brother-online-piracy-bill.html?ito=feeds-newsxml | title = Top web firms set to impose a blackout in protest against 'Big Brother' online piracy bill | first = Hugo | last = Guy | date = 30 December 2011 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | work = [[Daily Mail]] }}</ref> [[Reddit]] was the first major site to announce an "Internet blackout" on January 18, 2012, and several other sites shortly followed, coordinating actions on that day.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://venturebeat.com/2012/01/10/reddit-blackout-sopa-pipa/ | title = Reddit goes black Jan. 18 to protest SOPA & PIPA — Who else will join? | first = Tom | last = Cheredar | date = January 10, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 }}</ref> Though Senator [[Patrick Leahy]], the main sponsor for SOPA, had stated that they would remove the controversial DNS provisions prior to the blackout date, sites continued to plan the demonstration.<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2012/01/leahy-pipa-amendment/ | title = Leahy Offers to Remove Net-Altering DNS Redirects in Anti-Piracy Bill | work = [[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] | date = January 12, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | first = David | last = Kravets }}</ref>

==Protests of January 18, 2012==
===Wikimedia community===
[[File:Wikimedia Foundation SOPA War Room Meeting 1-17-2012-1-9.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Sue Gardner]] of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], discussing the [[English Wikipedia]] blackout on the evening of January 17, 2012]]
[[File:Wikimedia Foundation Wikipedia Blackout SOPA January 18, 2012.theora.ogv|thumb|right|300px|The staff at the Wikimedia Foundation the moment the blackout happened]]
On December 10, 2011, [[Wikipedia]] founder [[Jimmy Wales]] drew attention to concerns over SOPA, which he described as a "much worse law" than the notorious ''[[DDL intercettazioni]]'' (Wiretapping Bill)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.camera.it/Camera/view/doc_viewer_full?url=http%3A//www.camera.it/_dati/leg16/lavori/stampati/pdf/16PDL0038530.pdf&back_to=http%3A//www.camera.it/126%3FPDL%3D1415-B%26leg%3D16%26tab%3D2%26stralcio%3D%26navette%3D |title=Camera dei Deputati: disegno di legge N. 1415-B |language=Italian |accessdate=October 4, 2011 |work=[http://www.camera.it/ Camera dei Deputati]}}</ref> in Italy some months earlier, which was being fast-tracked through [[Congress]] under a "misleading title". He stated he was attending high level meetings on this, and wanted to gauge the sense of the [[Wikipedia community|English Wikipedia community]] on the issue, and specifically on the question of a blackout similar to [[Italian Wikipedia blackout|that held successfully]] in October 2011 by [[Italian Wikipedia]] editors over the proposed media censorship law in that country:<ref name=atlantic-jimmy>{{cite news|last=Rosen|first=Rebecca|title=Wikipedia Considers Black Out to Protest Anti-Piracy Law|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/12/wikipedia-considers-black-out-to-protest-anti-piracy-law/249922/|accessdate=2012-01-20|newspaper=[[Atlantic Wire]]|date=2011-12-13}}</ref>

: I thought this would be a good time to take a quick reading of the community feeling on this issue ..... To be clear, this is NOT a vote on whether or not to have a strike. This is merely a straw poll to indicate overall interest. If this poll is firmly "opposed" then I'll know that now. But even if this poll is firmly in "support" we'd obviously go through a much longer process to get some kind of consensus around parameters, triggers, and timing.

Following initial informal discussions which resulted in a positive response, a formal consultation titled "SOPA Initiative" was opened by the community to consider specific proposals and preferred options. These included matters such as location (United States only or worldwide), and whether content should be disabled completely or still accessible after a click-through page. Eventually, the discussion led to a decision strongly in favor of a 24 hour global blackout of the site on January 18, disabling normal reading and editing functions, affirmed by a vote in which about 90% of 1,800 voting editors favored the action.<ref name="cnn wales">{{cite news | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/17/tech/web/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-qa/index.html | title = Why Wikipedia is going down at midnight | first = John | last =Sutter | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | publisher = CNN }}</ref> The blocking action was purposely not complete; users could access Wikipedia content from the mobile interface or mirror sites, or if they disabled [[Javascript]] or other web browser functions.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.extremetech.com/computing/114233-surviving-the-wikipedia-blackout-mirrors-caches-alternatives-apps-and-more| title= Surviving the Wikipedia blackout: Mirrors, caches, alternatives, apps, and more| first = Sebastian | last = Anthony | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 | work = [[ExtremeTech]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first = Emily | last = Steel | accessdate = January 17, 2012 | url = http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2012/01/17/need-wikipedia-wednesday-heres-how-to-access-it/ | title = Need Wikipedia Wednesday? Here’s How to Access It | work = [[The Wall Street Journal]] | date = January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_Wikipedia_anti-SOPA_blackout/Technical_FAQ&oldid=3270637 | title = Wikipedia anti-SOPA blackout/Technical FAQ | publisher = [[Wikimedia Foundation]] | accessdate=January 20, 2012 | date=January 18, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.extremetech.com/computing/114233-surviving-the-wikipedia-blackout-mirrors-caches-alternatives-apps-and-more| title= Surviving the Wikipedia blackout: Mirrors, caches, alternatives, apps, and more| first = Sebastian | last = Anthony | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 18, 2012 | work = [[ExtremeTech]] }}</ref>

[[File:Wikipedia Blackout Over.png|thumb|300px|Image of the screen shown after the blackout]]
The vote formally affected English Wikipedia only; other language editions and Wikimedia projects were left free to decide whether to hold their own protests given the potential worldwide impact of the legislation, with technical support on offer from the Foundation.<ref name="cnn wales"/> The editor communities of at least 30 other [[Wikimedia Foundation#projects|sister projects]] chose to do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:SOPA_initiative/Actions_by_other_communities|title=Wikipedia:SOPA initiative/Actions by other communities|publisher=English Wikipedia|accessdate=January 20, 2012}}</ref>

On January 17, 2012, Jimmy Wales affirmed the results of the community's decision and that the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], which hosts the English Wikipedia website, would support the community's decision. He called for a "public uprising" against the proposed legislation, which critics fear would threaten free speech. He added that factors such as funding or donations had not been part of the community's considerations, but the matter had arisen as a "a principled stand" from the community, and that in his view "our best long-term prospect for Wikipedia in terms of our survival ... depends on us being principled".<ref name="jimmy-17 jan">{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/why-i-want-to-bring-down-the-internet--for-a-day-6290703.html|title=Why I want to bring down the internet – for a day|first=Jerome|last=Taylor|accessdate=January 17, 2012|date=January 17, 2012|work=The Independent}}</ref> He commented on editors' reasons for the decision:<ref name="jimmy-17 jan" />

: Free speech includes the right to not speak. We are a community of volunteers. We have written this thing that we believe to be a gift to the world. We don't charge people for it. It's freely available to anybody who wants to (use it). We are a charity. And I think it's important for people to realize that the ability of our community to come together and give this kind of gift to the world depends on a certain legal infrastructure that makes it possible for people to share knowledge freely -- that the First Amendment is incredibly important in terms of the creation of this kind of thing.

Wikimedia Executive Director [[Sue Gardner]] posted an announcement of the Foundation's support for the blackout proposal on Wikimedia's blog. The post received over 7000 responses from the general public within the first 24 hours of its posting.<ref>[http://blog.wikimedia.org/2012/01/16/wikipedias-community-calls-for-anti-sopa-blackout-january-18/ Wikipedia’s community calls for anti-SOPA blackout January 18] ''[[Wikimedia Foundation]]'' Accessed: January 17, 2012</ref> On January 16, Wikimedia founder [[Jimmy Wales]] and Wikimedia Foundation Executive Director [[Sue Gardner]] announced the blackout after conducting a 72-hour poll of the editing community. The blackout ran for 24 hours starting at 05:00 UTC ([[midnight]] [[Eastern Time Zone|Eastern Standard Time]]) on January 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news.com.au/technology/wedsites-blackout-in-sopa-anti-piracy-protest/story-e6frfro0-1226248013015|title=Websites blackout in SOPA anti-piracy protest|work=News.com.au|accessdate=January 19, 2012|date=January 19, 2012}}</ref>

Despite the support of those polled for the action, a small number of Wikipedia editors blacked out their own user profile pages or resigned their administrative positions in protest of the blackout; one editor stated his "main concern is that it puts the organization in the role of advocacy, and that's a slippery slope".<ref>{{cite news | url = http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/wikipedia-editors-question-sites-planned-blackout-15381673 | title = Wikipedia Editors Question Site's Planned Blackout | first = Peter | last = Svensson | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012 | agency = Associated Press }}</ref>

===Other websites===
[[File:Navajo SOPA.png|thumb|right|300px|The Navajo Wikipedia instituted a soft- or click-through blackout in solidarity. Here a redaction swath merely roves the opening screen.]]

More than 115,000 websites participated in the protest.<ref>Wortham, Jenna (January 19, 2012). [http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/20/technology/public-outcry-over-antipiracy-bills-began-as-grass-roots-grumbling.html?pagewanted=1&ref=technology "Public outcry over antipiracy bills began as grassroots grumbling"]. ''New York Times''. Retrieved January 21, 2012.</ref> [[Google]] announced their intention to join the blackout by altering their logo for US visitors for the day, almost entirely obscuring it with an interactive black redaction swath. Clicking through the specially designed logo took readers to an informational page about the bills, and the opportunity to sign a petition to be sent to Congress stating their concerns.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57360291/google-plans-to-use-home-page-to-protest-sopa/ | title = Google plans to use home page to protest SOPA | first = Greg | last = Sandoval | first2 = Declan | last2= McCullagh | publisher = [[CNet]] | date = January 17, 2012 | accessdate =January 17, 2012}}</ref>

The [[Mozilla Foundation]] altered the default start page of their [[Firefox]] web browser, blacking it out and providing links with more information on the SOPA/PIPA bills and the opposition to them, and to allow users to email their Congressional representatives.<ref name="mozilla">{{cite web | url = http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57362433-93/mozilla-reaches-40-million-people-in-anti-sopa-campaign/ | title = Mozilla reaches 40 million people in anti-SOPA campaign | publisher = [[CNet]] | first = Dana | last = Kerr | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate = January 20, 2019 }}</ref>

''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'' magazine's online site used Javascript to place black bars on most of the text on their page, as if the text was redacted, outside of their key article regarding SOPA/PIPA; readers could remove the bars with a mouse click.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/technology/2012/01/sopa-blackout-wikipedia-google-wired-join-protest-against-internet-censorship/ | title = SOPA Blackout: Wikipedia, Google, Wired Protest ‘Internet Censorship’ | publisher = [[ABC News]] | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 19, 2012 | first = Ned | last = Potter }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2012/01/why-weve-censored-wired-com/ | title = Why We’ve Censored Wired.com | first = Evan | last = Hansen | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 18, 2012 | work = [[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] }}</ref>

The photo-sharing website [[Flickr]] created the ability for a registered user to "censor" an unlimited number (up from an initial limit of ten) of photos as demonstration of how SOPA/PIPA regulation would affect the site; the user-selected photographs were greyed out, and included informational text.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2399029,00.asp | title = Flickr SOPA Protest Lets You Black Out Photos | first = Chloe | last = Albanesius | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 18, 2012 | work = [[PC Magazine]] }}</ref>

Websites that participated in the blackout included [[Craigslist]], [[Boing Boing]], [[A Softer World]], [[Cake Wrecks]], [[Destructoid]], DeckTech.net, [[Free Press (organization)|Free Press]], [[Failblog]], [[Newgrounds]], [[Good (magazine)|Good.is]], [[Good Old Games]], [[Mojang]], [[MoveOn.org]], [[Mozilla]], [[Rate Your Music]], [[Oh No They Didn't]], [[Tucows]], [[What Dat.net]], [[Tumblr]], [[TwitPic]], [[VGMusic]], [[Wikia]], [[Wordpress]], [[xkcd]], [[Galobuzz]] as well as 7,000 other websites including the corporate site of the [[Linux]] distribution [[openSUSE]] and the congressional websites of [[Silicon Valley]] representatives [[Anna Eshoo]] and [[Zoe Lofgren]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.spectator.co.uk/books/blog/7588528/wikiworld.thtml | title = Wiki-world| first = David | last = Blackburn | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate = January 19, 2012 | publisher = [[The Spectator]] }}</ref><ref name=Sopastrike>{{cite web |url=http://sopastrike.com/ |title=Web Goes On Strike |publisher=Sopastrike |accessdate=January 17, 2011}}</ref> [[4chan]] ran a banner and "censored" posts by users on all image boards<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20120118/12072517457/gallery-sopa-blackout-protest-screens.shtml | title=A Gallery Of The SOPA Blackout Protest Screens | accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref>, which could be viewed by hovering over them.

===Physical demonstrations===
[[File:Sopa protests new york city january 18 2012.jpg|thumb|right|SOPA/PIPA protesters in New York City, in coordination with the Internet blackout]]
In addition to the online blackouts, protests in cities such as New York City, San Francisco, and Seattle were held on January 18 to raise awareness of the two bills.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://techcrunch.com/2012/01/19/tctv-hundreds-rally-in-the-streets-of-nyc-to-defend-the-internet/ | title = TCTV: Hundreds Rally In The Streets Of NYC To Defend The Internet | first = Jason | last = Kinkaid | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate = January 19, 2012 | publisher = [[TechCrunch]] }}</ref><ref name="nytimes reaction"/>

== Reaction ==

===World reaction===

====Pre-protest====
The announcement of the blackout was reported worldwide. Media that covered the story included [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC Australia]],<ref name=ABC>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-01-17/wiki-to-go-dark-in-piracy-protest/3778452|title=Wikipedia to go dark in piracy protest|publisher=ABC Australia|accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]],<ref name=CBC>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2012/01/17/wikipedia-dark-protest.html|title=Wikipedia to go dark tonight protesting anti-piracy act|publisher=CBC|accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]],<ref name=BBC>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16590585|title=Wikipedia joins web blackout in Sopa Act protest|publisher=BBC|accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[der Spiegel]]'',<ref name=derspiegel>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/web/0,1518,809499,00.html|title=Wikipedia schaltet ab — aus Protest |publisher=spiegel.de |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[Le Figaro]]'',<ref name=Figaro>{{cite web |url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/hightech/2012/01/17/01007-20120117ARTFIG00609-la-version-anglaise-de-wikipedia-fermee-mercredi.php |title=Google se voile de noir pour protester contre la loi SOPA |publisher=Le Figaro |language=French |date=January 17, 2012 |accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref> ''[[Le Monde]]'',<ref name=lemonde>{{cite web |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/technologies/article/2012/01/17/loi-antipiratage-wikipedia-va-fermer-pendant-24-heures_1630565_651865.html|title=Loi antipiratage : Wikipedia va fermer pendant 24 heures|publisher=lemonde.fr |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[Libération]]'',<ref name=libération>{{cite web |url=http://www.liberation.fr/medias/01012384070-projet-de-loi-sopa-internet-pique-de-greve |title=Projet de loi Sopa : Internet piqué de grève |publisher=liberation.fr |author=Sophian Fanen |accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref>'' [[Fox News]]'',<ref name="fox-news">{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2012/01/17/wikipedia-to-go-dark-for-24-hours-to-protest-anti-piracy-bill/ |title=Wikipedia to go Dark 24 Hours |date=January 17, 2012 |work=Fox News}}</ref> ''[[The Guardian]]'',<ref name=Guardian>{{cite web |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/17/wikipedia-blackout-looms-sopa|title=Wikipedia's blackout looms|publisher=''The Guardian''|last=Sweney|first=Mark|date=January 17, 2012|accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref> Menafn,<ref name=Menafn>{{cite web |url=http://www.menafn.com/qn_news_story.asp?StoryId={3ce5c04e-b13a-4f1b-bcd0-58a3a0f4f17f}&src=RSS |title=Wikipedia to shut down in censorship row |publisher=Menafn.com |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> [[News Limited]],<ref name=NL>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.com.au/technology/wikipedia-may-black-out-wednesday-in-sopa-protest/story-e6frfro0-1226246462274?from=public_rss |title=Wikipedia will black out for a whole day.... Oh, the horror |publisher=News Limited |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> [[Sky News]],<ref name=Sky16150438>{{cite web |url=http://news.sky.com/home/technology/article/16150438 |title=Wikipedia Blackout In Anti-Piracy Law Protest |publisher=Sky News |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Age]]'',<ref name=Age>{{cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/technology/technology-news/antipiracy-protest-triggers-wikipedia-shutdown-20120117-1q3wu.html |title=Anti-piracy protest triggers Wikipedia shutdown |first=Georgia |last=Wilkins |publisher=The Age |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Hindu]]'',<ref name=Hindu2807792>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/internet/article2807792.ece |title=Wikipedia to go dark against U.S. anti-piracy bill |publisher=The Hindu |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'',<ref name=NYT>{{cite web |url=http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/16/wikipedia-plans-to-go-dark-on-wednesday-to-protest-sopa/ |title=Wikipedia to Go Dark on Wednesday to Protest Bills on Web Piracy |first=Jenna |last=Wortham |publisher=The New York Times |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20120117">{{cite news |last=Wortham |first=Jenna |title=Protest on Web Uses Shutdown to Take On Two Piracy Bills |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/18/technology/web-wide-protest-over-two-antipiracy-bills.html |date=January 17, 2012 |publisher=[[NYTimes]] |accessdate=January 17, 2012 }}</ref> ''[[Taipei Times]]'',<ref>{{cite news|title=Wikipedia to be blacked out in anti-piracy bill protest|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2012/01/18/2003523489|accessdate=January 17, 2012|newspaper=[[Taipei Times]]|date=January 18, 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]'',<ref name=WP>{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/wikipedia-blackout-coming-jan-18-says-co-founder-jimmy-wales/2012/01/16/gIQAh2Ke3P_blog.html?wprss= |title=Wikipedia blackout coming Jan. 18, says co-founder Jimmy Wales |first=Melissa |last=Bell |publisher=The Washington Post |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''<ref>{{cite news |url= http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204555904577166741285522030.html |title=Wikipedia Plans Blackout Over Piracy Bill — WSJ.com |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date= January 17, 2012|publisher=[[Dow Jones & Company|Dow Jones]] |location=[[New York, NY|New York]] |issn=0099-9660 |accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> and ''[[The Times of India]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-01-17/internet/30634825_1_sopa-combat-online-piracy-jimmy-wales |title=Wikipedia to shut down for 24 hours |publisher=Articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date= |accessdate=2012-01-20}}</ref>

Several media organizations including ''[[The Washington Post]]'', ''[[The Guardian]]'', and [[NPR]] encouraged a "[[crowdsourcing]] solution for those left searching for answers" during the Wikipedia blackout by inviting users to ask questions on [[Twitter]] using the hashtag #altwiki.<ref>David Beard (January 17, 2012), [http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/wikipedia-blackout-an-altwiki-band-aid/2012/01/17/gIQAWbg25P_blog.html Wikipedia Blackout: An #altwiki Band-Aid] ''[[The Washington Post]]''</ref>

An executive of the [[Motion Picture Association of America]] (MPAA) dubbed the blackout plan an example of the "gimmicks and distortion" that inflamed passions while failing to solve the problem of copyright infringement by "draw[ing] people away from trying to resolve what is a real problem, which is that foreigners continue to steal the hard work of Americans".<ref>James Rainey, (January 16, 2012) [http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-ct-wikipedia-20120117,0,4565597.story Wikipedia to go offline to protest anti-piracy legislation] ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''</ref> Former U.S. Senator and MPAA Director [[Chris Dodd]] stated that the coordinated shutdown was "also an abuse of power given the freedoms these companies enjoy in the marketplace today."<ref>[http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2012/01/dodd-lashes-out-at-sopa-strike.html MPAA's Chris Dodd takes aim at SOPA strike] ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]'' January 17, 2012</ref>

[[Dick Costolo]], CEO of social networking site [[Twitter]], rejected calls for Twitter to join the protest, tweeting that "[c]losing a global business in reaction to single-issue national politics is foolish."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/16/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-slammed-twitter|title=Twitter boss slams Wikipedia's 'silly' Sopa protest|work=The Guardian|accessdate=January 17, 2012|date=January 17, 2012|first=Dominic|last=Rushe}}</ref> Originally, some thought Costolo referred to all of the blackout movements on January 18th, but afterwards clarified that he was referring to a hypothetical blackout of Twitter, and that he was supportive of the Wikipedia blackout itself.<ref>{{cite web|author=Mark Sweney |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2012/jan/17/wikipedia-blackout-looms-sopa |title=Wikipedia's blackout looms |publisher=The Guardian |date= |accessdate=2012-01-20}}</ref>

The sponsor of the bill, Representative [[Lamar S. Smith]], called the blackout a "publicity stunt," stating "it is ironic a website dedicated to providing information is spreading misinformation about the Stop Online Piracy Act."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thehill.com/blogs/hillicon-valley/technology/204629-gop-chairman-wikipedia-blackout-a-publicity-stunt|title=Sponsor of online piracy bill calls Wikipedia blackout a 'publicity stunt'|work=The Hill|accessdate=January 17, 2012|date=January 17, 2012|first=Brendan|last=Sasso}}</ref>

On January 17, 2012, in response to growing concerns over PIPA and SOPA, the White House stated that it "will not support legislation that reduces freedom of expression, increases cybersecurity risk, or undermines the dynamic, innovative global internet."<ref name=whitehouse>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/technology-16574977|title=Rupert Murdoch Sopa attack rebuffed by Google|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=January 17, 2012|date=January 16, 2012}}</ref>

====January 18====
[[File:SOPA protest San Francisco City Hall January 2012.jpg|thumb|left|250px|An anti-SOPA and PIPA demonstration at the [[Civic Center, San Francisco|Civic Center]] in [[San Francisco]], [[California]].]]
The Wikimedia Foundation reported that there were over 162 million visits to the blacked-out version of Wikipedia during the 24-hour period, with at least 4 million uses of the site's front page to look up contact information for their U.S. Congressional representatives.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/technology/protests-of-antipiracy-bills-unite-web.html | title = With Twitter, Blackouts and Demonstrations, Web Flexes Its Muscle | first = Jenna | last = Wortham | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 | publisher = New York Times }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2012/01/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-congressional-representatives.html | title = Wikipedia: SOPA protest led 8 million to look up reps in Congress | first = Deborah | last = Netburn | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate =January 20, 2012 | publisher = Los Angeles Times }}</ref> The usage of Wikipedia's front page increased enormously during the blackout with 17,535,733 page views recorded, compared with 4,873,388 on the previous day.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wikipedia article traffic statistics|url=http://stats.grok.se/en/201201/Main_Page|publisher=stats.grok.se|date=January 19, 2012|accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref> A petition created and linked to by Google recorded over 4.5 million signatures,<ref>{{cite news | url = http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2012/01/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-congressional-representatives.html | title = Wikipedia: SOPA protest led 8 million to look up reps in Congress | first = Deborah | last = Netburn | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate =January 20, 2012 | publisher = Los Angeles Times }}</ref> while the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] reported that more than 1 million email messages were sent to congressmen through their site during the blackout.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/01/thank-you-internet-and-fight-continues | title = Thank You, Internet! And the Fight Continues | first = Corynne | last = McSherry | first2= Julie | last2= Samuels | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 | publisher = [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] }}</ref> [[MSNBC]] reported that over 2.4 million [[Twitter]] messages about SOPA, PIPA, and the blackouts were made during a 16-hour period on January 18; this included [[Facebook]] founder [[Mark Zuckerburg]], who had not used the service since 2009, to encourage his followers to contact their congressmen.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://technolog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/01/19/10190155-twitter-more-than-24-million-sopa-tweets | title = Twitter: More than 2.4 million SOPA tweets | publisher = [[MSNBC]] | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate = January 19, 2012 | first = Athima | last = Chansanchai }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://technolog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/01/18/10182610-sopa-inspires-mark-zuckerbergs-first-tweet-since-2009 | title = SOPA inspires Mark Zuckerberg's first tweet since 2009 | first = Helen A.S. | last = Popkin | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate = January 18, 2012 | publisher = [[MSNBC]]}}</ref> Many internet users took to Twitter to vent their frustration and anger over the blackout.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://techland.time.com/2012/01/19/did-it-work-day-after-results-of-the-sopa-pipa-blackout/?xid=gonewsedit| title= Did It Work? ‘Day After’ Results of the SOPA, PIPA Blackout | publisher= Time Techland, techland.time.com | accessdate= January 19, 2012}}</ref> [[Ron Wyden|Sen. Ron Wyden (D-OR)]], a key opponent of the bills, said that "lawmakers had collected more than 14 million names - more than 10 million of them voters" to protest the legislation.<ref name="NYT-20120120" />

[[Creative America]], one of the groups in favor of the SOPA and PIPA bills, used the blackout to prompt those affected by it to enjoy other forms of entertainment in place of their normal Internet activities; such ads appeared at [[Times Square]] in New York City and on various websites.<ref name="nytimes reaction">{{cite news | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/technology/protests-of-antipiracy-bills-unite-web.html?ref=technology | title = With Twitter, Blackouts and Demonstrations, Web Flexes Its Muscle | work = [[New York Times]] | date = January 19, 2012 | accessdate = January 19, 2012 | first = Jenna | last = Wortham }}</ref>

CTV news in Canada published a "survival guide" for "getting around the blackout" on their national website, citing Wikipedia as the answer to "burning questions such as "Are chinchillas rodents?" and "What does ‘rickrolling' mean?" The guide provided detailed instructions on how to circumvent the ban and access the English Wikipedia during the protest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/TopStories/20120118/wikipedia-blackout-survival-guide-120118/ |title=Getting around the Wikipedia blackout: A survival guide Read more: http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/TopStories/20120118/wikipedia-blackout-survival-guide-120118/#ixzz1k2fIZDDt
|publisher=Ctv.ca |date=2009-11-29 |accessdate=2012-01-20}}</ref> CTV referred to the protest as "a date that will live in ignorance."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/SciTech/20120118/wikipedia-shuts-down-120118/ |title=Wikipedia shuts down |publisher=Ctv.ca |date=2011-12-14 |accessdate=2012-01-20}}</ref>

During the blackout, libraries at several universities used the outage to remind students that the traditional paper encyclopedias were available for research. Students who grew up turning to the internet to look up information were encouraged to visit the library as an alternative source of information.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/story/2012-01-19/wikipedia-blackout-sopa-pipa-library/52681124/1| title= Librarians lure students back during Wikipedia blackout | publisher= USA Today | accessdate= January 19, 2012}}</ref>. On Twitter, a joke hashtag #factswithoutWikipedia trended with users posting humorous fake "facts"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mediabistro.com/galleycat/facts-without-wikipedia-sweeps-twitter_b45576|title=Facts Without Wikipedia Hashtag Sweeps Twitter|publisher=Gallycat|accessdate= January 21,2012}}</ref>.

====Post-protest====
The impact of the coordinated action was generally considered significant. [[Yochai Benkler]] of the [[Berkman Center for Internet & Society]] stated that the January 18 blackout was "a very strong public demonstration to suggest that what historically was seen as a technical system of rules that only influences the content industry has become something more," further adding "You've got millions of citizens who care enough to act. That's not trivial."<ref>{{cite news | url = http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2017274222_sopa19.html | title = Internet's dark day: Anti-piracy bills take a beating | work = [[Seattle Times]] | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 }}</ref> California House member [[Darrell Issa]] called the collective effort an unprecedented means for upsetting a backroom [[lobbying]] effort.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-19/google-protest-of-anti-piracy-bills-upends-traditional-lobbying-process.html | title = Google Protest of Anti-Piracy Bills Upends Traditional Lobbying | first = Eric | last = Engleman | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 | work = [[Bloomberg L.P.]] }}</ref> One [[Silicon Valley]] lobbyist said the content industry had "a lot to learn," noting that they don't have grassroots support: "There are no Facebook pages to call your congressman to support PIPA and SOPA."<ref>{{cite web|author1 = Palmer, Anna|author2 = Allen, Jonathan|date = January 18, 2012|accessdate =January 18, 2012|url = http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0112/71640.html|title = SOPA: Libertarians, tech titans poke old-school GOPers|publisher = [[Politico]]}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'', which framed the netizens' revolt in terms of the new economy versus the old economy,<ref>Weisman, Jonathan (January 18, 2012). [http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/technology/web-protests-piracy-bill-and-2-key-senators-change-course.html?pagewanted=all&src=ISMR_AP_LO_MST_FB "In fight against piracy bills, new economy rises against old"]. ''New York Times''. Retrieved January 21, 2012.</ref> headlined the activism as a "political coming of age for the tech industry."<ref name="nytimes1"/>

Newspaper editorials had mixed views. The ''[[Boston Herald]]'' called the protest a "hissy fit" by "Internet powerhouses" saying, "within hours of the online protest, political supporters of the bill... began dropping like flies, thus proving how very powerful these cyber-bullies can be."<ref name=heraldresponse>[http://www.bostonherald.com/news/opinion/editorials/view/20220119a_halt_to_online_theft/ "A halt to online theft"] ''[[Boston Herald]]'' January 18, 2012</ref> The ''[[New York Times]]'' described the protest as "Noted, but as a Brief Inconvenience"<ref name="NYT-Cohen-20120118">{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Noam |title=Wikipedia Absence Is Noted, but as a Brief Inconvenience |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/business/media/wikipedia-protest-noticed-but-some-yawn.html |date=January 18, 2012 |publisher=[[NYTimes]] |accessdate=January 19, 2012 }}</ref> and, as well, offered an [[Editorial|Opinion]] about the protest and possible accomplishments.<ref "NYT-Op-20120118">{{cite news |author=NYTimes Staff |title=Online Piracy and Political Overreach |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/19/opinion/online-piracy-and-political-overreach.html |date=January 18, 2012 |publisher=[[NYTimes]] |accessdate=January 19, 2012 }}</ref> [[BBC News]] technology writer [[Rory Cellan-Jones]] was of the opinion that the blackout achieved its objectives but possibly at some cost to Wikipedia's reputation.<ref>Rory Cellan-Jones (January 19, 2012), [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16614643 "Wikipedia - after the blackout"] ''[[BBC News]]''</ref> The shutdown also prompted a response from [[cartoon]]ist [[Matt Pritchett|Matt]] (Matthew Pritchett) in the British ''[[Daily Telegraph]]''.<ref>[http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/02113/190112-MATT-web_2113225a.gif Matt cartoon], Daily Telegraph January 19, 2012, accessed January 19, 2012</ref>

MPAA Chairman Dodd admitted that the content industry had lost the public relations battle with the internet industry. saying "[y]ou've got an opponent who has the capacity to reach millions of people with a click of a mouse and there's no fact-checker. They can say whatever they want."<ref>Richard Verrier (21 January 2012), [http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-ct-hollywood-post-sopa-20120121,0,300154.story "Hollywood regroups after losing battle over anti-piracy bills"] ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''</ref> Dodd called for Hollywood and Silicon Valley to work out a compromise on the legislation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/20/technology/dodd-calls-for-hollywood-and-silicon-valley-to-meet.html|title=Dodd Calls for Hollywood and Silicon Valley to Meet|publisher=''The New York Times''|date=January 19, 2012|accessdate=January 20, 2012}}</ref>

=== Impact and aftermath===
During the day of January 18, six senators who had been sponsors of the bills, including [[Marco Rubio]], PIPA's co-sponsor, [[Orrin Hatch]], [[Kelly Ayotte]], [[Roy Blunt]], [[John Boozman]], and [[Mark Kirk]], stated that they would withdraw their support for the bills.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2012/01/18/amidst-sopa-blackout-senate-copyright-bill-loses-a-key-supporter/ | title= Amidst SOPA Blackout, Senate Copyright Bill Loses Key Supporters | first = Andy | last = Greenberg | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 | work = [[Forbes]] }}</ref> Several other congressmen issued statements critical of the current versions of both bills.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.cnet.com/8301-31921_3-57361237-281/protests-lead-to-weakening-support-for-protect-ip-sopa/ | title = Protests lead to weakening support for Protect IP, SOPA | first = Declan | last = McCullagh | first2 = Elinor | last2 = Mills | date = January 18, 2012 | accessdate =January 18, 2012 | publisher = [[CNet]] }}</ref><ref name=BBC16623831>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-16623831 |title=Sopa: US backers end support for anti-piracy bill |publisher=BBC News Online |accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref>

By the following day, eighteen of the 100 senators, including eleven of the original sponsors of the PIPA bill, had announced that they no longer supported PIPA.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.forbes.com/sites/insertcoin/2012/01/19/internet-blackout-causes-18-senators-to-flee-from-pipa|title= Internet Blackout Causes 18 Senators to Flee from PIPA|last1= Tassi|first1= Paul|date= January 19, 2012|work= |publisher= Forbes|accessdate=January 19, 2012}}</ref> An initial floor vote was scheduled for January 24 prior to the Internet blackout, but following these responses, Senator Majority Leader [[Harry Reid]] announced that the vote will be postponed, urging the bill's main sponsor, Senator [[Patrick Leahy]], to work out compromise in the bill "to forge a balance between protecting Americans' intellectual property, and maintaining openness and innovation on the Internet".<ref name="NYT-20120120" /><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-57362675-503544/pipa-vote-postponed-in-the-senate/ | title = PIPA vote postponed in the Senate | first = Stephanie | last = Condon | date = January 20, 2012 | accessdate = January 20, 2012 | publisher = [[CBS News]] }}</ref> Similarly, the House Judiciary Subcommittee chairman, Representative [[Lamar Smith]], announced that further voting on SOPA would be placed on hold "until there is wider agreement on a solution".<ref>{{cite news | first = Stephanie | last = Condon | date = January 20, 2012 | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-57362675-503544/pipa-sopa-put-on-hold-in-wake-of-protests | title = PIPA, SOPA put on hold in wake of protests | publisher = [[CBS News]] | accessdate = January 20, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://money.cnn.com/2012/01/20/technology/SOPA_PIPA_postponed/ | title = SOPA and PIPA postponed indefinitely after protests | first = Julianne | last = Petipone | date = January 20, 2012 | accessdate = January 20, 2012 | publisher = CNN }}</ref> Later, an updated [[New York Times]] news story reported that the two bills were "indefinitely shelved."<ref name="NYT-20120120" />

==== International responses ====
[[World Wide Web]] inventor [[Sir Tim Berners-Lee]] "scathingly" <ref name="Berners-Lee">{{cite news|last=Worth|first=Dan|title=Web inventor Tim Berners-Lee slams SOPA and PIPA legislation|url=http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2139758/web-inventor-tim-berners-lee-slams-sopa-pipa-legislation|accessdate=2012-01-20|newspaper=V3|date=2012-01-18}}</ref> attacked the SOPA and PIPA legislation. Speaking at an industry event in [[Florida]] he praised the protests by major sites for the attention they had drawn, and described the bills as a "grave threat to the openness of the internet" that "had to be stopped":<ref name="Berners-Lee" />

: '''"'''The laws have been put together to allow an industry body to ask the government to turn off a web site and the government can make people turn off the site without trial ... There are times when that could be very powerful and damaging, like before an election and it is crossing a line and we have to protect the internet as an open space, we have to respect it.'''"'''<ref name="Berners-Lee" />

Two days later, [[Vice-President of the European Commission]] and [[European Commissioner for Digital Agenda|European Commissioner for the Digital Agenda]] [[Neelie Kroes]] described the bills as "bad legislation" that would "threaten the basic foundation of the success of the web".<ref name=Kroes>{{cite news|last=Worth|first=Dan|title=European Commission digital chief backs anti-SOPA protests|url=http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2140390/european-commission-digital-chief-backs-anti-sopa-protests|accessdate=http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2140390/european-commission-digital-chief-backs-anti-sopa-protests|newspaper=V3|date=http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2140390/european-commission-digital-chief-backs-anti-sopa-protests}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Internet|Social movements|Politics|}}
* [[Italian Wikipedia blackout|2011 Italian Wikipedia blackout]], also undertaken to oppose a proposed law.
* [[New Zealand Internet blackout]]
* [[Internet activism]]
* [[List of organizations with official stances on the Stop Online Piracy Act]]
{{-}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite web | url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57359773/wikipedia-to-join-web-blackout-protesting-sopa/ | title=Wikipedia to join Web blackout protesting SOPA | publisher=[[CBS News]] | date=January 16, 2012 | accessdate=January 16, 2012 | author=Musil, Steven}}
*{{cite web | url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/entertainmentnewsbuzz/2012/01/most-people-probably-havent-paid-much-attention-to-thehuge-corporations-waging-war-in-washington-over-legislation-designed-to.html | title=Wikipedia blackout to protest SOPA progress in Congress | work=[[Los Angeles Times]] | date=January 16, 2012 | accessdate=January 16, 2012 | author=Rainey, James}}

==External links==
{{Wikinews|Wikipedia, Reddit in 'blackout' against SOPA, PROTECT IP laws}}
* [[wmf:Press releases/English Wikipedia to go dark|Wikimedia Foundation's official statement]] and [[wmf:English Wikipedia anti-SOPA blackout|Wikimedia CEO's statement]].
* [http://www.sopastrike.com SOPA Strike] - Listing of all participating websites for the Internet blackout

{{Wikipedia}}
{{use mdy dates|date=January 2012}}

[[Category:History of Wikipedia]]
[[Category:History of the Internet]]
[[Category:Internet activism]]
[[Category:Internet censorship]]
[[Category:2012 protests]]
[[Category:2012 in the United States]]

[[ar:حجب ويكيبيديا الإنجليزية]]
[[be:Пратэсты супраць SOPA і PIPA, 18 студзеня 2012]]
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[[gl:Apagamento da Wikipedia en inglés]]
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[[ms:Pencegahan siaran Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris]]
[[pt:Blecaute da Wikipédia anglófona em 2012]]
[[ru:Протесты против SOPA и PIPA (18 января 2012)]]
[[ta:ஆங்கில விக்கிப்பீடியா இருட்டடிப்பு]]
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[[zh-yue:英文維基百科閂站事件]]
[[zh:反SOPA和PIPA抗議]]

Rimeta Beniamina

2012-01-14T15:33:16Z

Aridd:

{{ébauche|Kiribati|personne|politique}}

'''Rimeta Beniamina''' est un homme politique [[Kiribati|gilbertin]].

Ayant obtenu une licence de Sciences appliquées au ''Australian Maritime College'' en [[Tasmanie]] et un diplôme en pêcheries tropicales à l'[[Université du Pacifique sud]], il intégra l'administration publique aux Kiribati, travaillant dans la surveillance de bâteaux de pêche étrangers opérant dans les eaux gilbertines, et la délivrance de licences aux propriétaires de ces bâteaux<ref name="anu 2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD" />.

Il fit son entrée en politique en étant élu député de la circonscription de [[Nikunau]] lors des [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2002|élections législatives de 2002]], prenant la suite de son père, le Vice-Président de la République [[Beniamina Tinga]]<ref name="Ind" />, « homme politique de longue date qui ne pouvait participer à l’élection en raison de sa santé ». Il conserva le siège aux [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2003|élections anticipées de 2003]], provoquées par la chute du gouvernement, puis lors des [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2007|élections de 2007]]<ref name="anu 2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD" />. En août 2010, suite à la fusion des partis [[Maneaban Te Mauri]] (Protégeons le Maneaba) et [[Kiribati Tabomoa]], il prit la tête de la Coalition unie ([[Karikirakean Tei-Kiribati]]) qui en résulta, et fut reconnu comme chef de l'[[Opposition officielle]] au gouvernement du Président [[Anote Tong]]<ref>{{en}} [http://www.parliament.gov.ki/content/political-parties "Political parties"], Parlement des Kiribati</ref>. En décembre 2010, il institua une [[motion de confiance]] à l'encontre du gouvernement, l'accusant notamment d'une mauvaise gestion de l'économie ; la motion fut rejetée par vingt-quatre voix contre dix-neuf, avec trois abstentions<ref>{{en}} [http://lists.spc.int/pipermail/ppapd-fpocc_lists.spc.int/2010-December/000724.html "Kiribati - No Confidence Motion Defeated"], Communauté du Pacifique sud</ref>.

Réélu député lors des [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2011|élections législatives d'octobre 2011]], il visa la [[Président des Kiribati|présidence de la République]]. Le Dr. [[Tetaua Taitai]] étant choisi comme candidat du Karikirakean Tei-Kiribati, Beniamina rejoignit le parti [[Maurin Kiribati]], dont il fut désigné candidat pour l'[[Élection présidentielle gilbertine de 2011|élection présidentielle]]<ref name="Ind">{{en}} [http://www.thekiribatiindependent.co.nz/p.php?q=%2Farticle%2Fparliament "Three candidates to run for presidency"], ''Kiribati Independent'', 25 novembre 2011</ref>. Il termina troisième et dernier, recueillant 22,8% des suffrages<ref>{{en}} [http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=65522 "Kiribati’s Tong beats challengers to win third term"], Radio New Zealand International, 13 janvier 2012</ref>{{,}}<ref>{{gil}} [http://www.kiribationlinecommunity.com/forum/topics/results-of-the-2012-presidential-election-in-kiribati?xg_source=activity "Results of the 2012 Presidential Election in Kiribati"], Kiribati Online Community, 13 janvier 2012</ref>.

== Références ==
<references>
<ref name="anu 2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD">{{en}} [http://www.cdi.anu.edu.au/.asia_pacific_region/2008-09/D_P/2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD_VLA/2008_12_10thPacPD_PARTICIPANTS_BIOS.pdf "Mr Rimeta Beniamina MP"], Centre for Democratic Institutions, Université nationale australienne, p.4</ref>
</references>

{{Portail|politique|Kiribati}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Beniamina, Rimeta}}
[[Catégorie:Personnalité politique gilbertine]]

[[en:Rimeta Beniamina]]

Rimeta Beniamina

2011-11-28T08:56:52Z

Aridd:

{{ébauche|Kiribati|personne|politique}}

'''Rimeta Beniamina''' est un homme politique [[Kiribati|gilbertin]].

Ayant obtenu une licence de Sciences appliquées au ''Australian Maritime College'' en [[Tasmanie]] et un diplôme en pêcheries tropicales à l'[[Université du Pacifique sud]], il intégra l'administration publique aux Kiribati, travaillant dans la surveillance de bâteaux de pêche étrangers opérant dans les eaux gilbertines, et la délivrance de licences aux propriétaires de ces bâteaux<ref name="anu 2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD" />.

Il fit son entrée en politique en étant élu député de la circonscription de [[Nikunau]] lors des [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2002|élections législatives de 2002]], prenant la suite de son père, « homme politique de longue date qui ne pouvait participer à l’élection en raison de sa santé ». Il conserva le siège aux [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2003|élections anticipées de 2003]], provoquées par la chute du gouvernement, puis lors des [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2007|élections de 2007]]<ref name="anu 2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD" />. En août 2010, suite à la fusion des partis [[Maneaban Te Mauri]] (Protégeons le Maneaba) et [[Kiribati Tabomoa]], il prit la tête de la Coalition unie ([[Karikirakean Tei-Kiribati]]) qui en résulta, et fut reconnu comme chef de l'[[Opposition officielle]] au gouvernement du Président [[Anote Tong]]<ref>{{en}} [http://www.parliament.gov.ki/content/political-parties "Political parties"], Parlement des Kiribati</ref>. En décembre 2010, il institua une [[motion de confiance]] à l'encontre du gouvernement, l'accusant notamment d'une mauvaise gestion de l'économie ; la motion fut rejetée par vingt-quatre voix contre dix-neuf, avec trois abstentions<ref>{{en}} [http://lists.spc.int/pipermail/ppapd-fpocc_lists.spc.int/2010-December/000724.html "Kiribati - No Confidence Motion Defeated"], Communauté du Pacifique sud</ref>.

Réélu député lors des [[Élections législatives gilbertines de 2011|élections législatives d'octobre 2011]], il visa la [[Président des Kiribati|présidence de la République]]. Le Dr. [[Tetaua Taitai]] étant choisi comme candidat du Karikirakean Tei-Kiribati, Beniamina rejoignit le parti [[Maurin Kiribati]], dont il fut désigné candidat pour l'[[Élection présidentielle gilbertine de 2011|élection présidentielle]]<ref>{{en}} [http://www.thekiribatiindependent.co.nz/p.php?q=%2Farticle%2Fparliament "Three candidates to run for presidency"], ''Kiribati Independent'', 25 novembre 2011</ref>.

== Notes ==

<references>
<ref name="anu 2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD">{{en}} [http://www.cdi.anu.edu.au/.asia_pacific_region/2008-09/D_P/2008_12_PAC_PRO_10thPacPD_VLA/2008_12_10thPacPD_PARTICIPANTS_BIOS.pdf "Mr Rimeta Beniamina MP"], Centre for Democratic Institutions, Université nationale australienne, p.4</ref>
</references>

{{Portail|politique|Kiribati}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Beniamina, Rimeta}}
[[Catégorie:Personnalité politique gilbertine]]

Rimeta Beniamina

2011-09-03T09:41:04Z

Aridd: Nouvelle page : {{ébauche|Kiribati|personne|politique}} '''Rimeta Beniamina''' est un homme politique gilbertin. Ayant obtenu une licence de Sciences appliquées au ''Australian Mari...

Diskussion:Enele Sopoaga

2011-08-28T10:54:56Z

Aridd: AZ: Die Seite wurde neu angelegt: Er ist nicht "nur" ein Diplomat. Er ist ein importaten politischer Mann in Tuvalu ("deputy Prime Minister…

Er ist nicht "nur" ein Diplomat. Er ist ein importaten politischer Mann in Tuvalu ("deputy Prime Minister", "Minister for Foreign Affairs", und dann "Leader of the Opposition"). Sehen sie vielleicht bitte [[:en:Enele Sopoaga|den Artikel im English]]. (Wenn ich könnte, schriebe ich es hier im Deutschen Artikel.) [[Benutzer:Aridd|Aridd]] 12:54, 28. Aug. 2011 (CEST)

Loches

2011-07-31T12:35:35Z

Aridd: /* Verwaltung */

{{Begriffsklärungshinweis}}
{{Infobox Gemeinde in Frankreich
|nomcommune=Loches
|armoiries=Blason ville fr Loches (Indre-et-Loire).svg
|région=[[Centre]]
|département=[[Indre-et-Loire]]
|arrondissement=[[Arrondissement Loches|Loches]]
|canton=[[Kanton Loches|Loches]]
|insee=37132
|cp=37600
|intercomm=
|intercomm_alt=[[Communauté de communes Loches Développement]]
|maire=Jean-Jacques Descamps
|mandat=[[2001]]-[[2008]]
|longitude=00/59/43/E
|latitude=47/07/43/N
|alt moy=78
|alt mini=64
|alt maxi=147
|km²=27.06
|siteweb=[http://www.ville-loches.fr www.ville-loches.fr]
}}
'''Loches''' ist eine [[Frankreich|französische]] Gemeinde mit {{EWZ|FR|37132}} Einwohnern (Stand {{EWD|FR|37132}}) im [[Département]] [[Indre-et-Loire]] in der [[Region (Frankreich)|Region]] [[Centre]]; sie ist Verwaltungssitz des [[Arrondissement]]s [[Arrondissement Loches|Loches]] und des [[Kanton (Frankreich)|Kantons]] [[Kanton Loches|Loches]].

Mit den Gemeinden [[Beaulieu-les-Loches]], [[Ferrière-sur-Beaulieu]] und [[Perrusson]] bildet Loches eine kleine Agglomeration von rund Zehntausend Einwohnern in der Nähe der Stadt [[Tours]], mit der sie durch den TER verbunden ist. Die Einwohner von Loches werden ''Lochois'' bzw. ''Lochoises'' genannt.

== Geographie ==

Loches ist eine kleine mittelalterliche Stadt, die von einem der ältesten [[Donjon]]s Europas überragt wird. Erbauer des Donjons war [[Fulko III. (Anjou)|Fulko III. der Schwarze]], [[Graf von Anjou]].

== Wirtschaft ==

Die lokale Wirtschaft hängt heute stark am [[Tourismus]] – der Ort ist insbesondere bei Briten beliebt, die ihn in Verbindung mit der Geschichte des Königshauses der [[Anjou-Plantagenet]] sehen. In der Vergangenheit basierte die Wirtschaft vor allem auf der [[Champignon]]zucht für [[Paris]], die in ihrer Hochphase bis zu 600 Personen Arbeit gab; dieser Produktionszweig wurde [[1994]] aufgegeben.

[[Image:Loches Marché-aux-Fleurs.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Tour St-Antoine, und [[Schloss Loches]] im Hintergrund.]]
== Verwaltung ==

Bürgermeister:

* [[1983]]-[[1989]]: Jean-Paul Diacre
* [[1989]]-[[1995]]: Christiane Mora
* seit [[1995]]: Jean-Jacques Descamps

== Persönlichkeiten ==

* [[Jacques Villeret]], Schauspieler
* [[Agnès Sorel]], Geliebte Karls VII., wurde in der Kirche Saint-Ours bestattet
* [[Alfred de Vigny]], Schriftsteller, sein Geburtshaus steht in der Rue des Jeux 27
* [[Jacques-Elie Lamblardie]], Ingenieur, Gründer der [[École Polytechnique]]
* [[Louis Delaporte]], Seefahrer, Forscher und Sammler
* [[Marquis de La Fayette]] und [[Marie de Noailles]] besaßen ein Landgut, das von [[Reignac-sur-Indre]] bis [[Saint-Hippolyte (Indre-et-Loire)|Saint-Hippolyte]] reichte. Gemeinsam mit seinem Vetter, dem [[Marquis de Lusignan]], hatte er fünf Besitzungen rund um Loches: das [[Schloss Azay-le-Rideau]], das Schloss La Follaine in [[Azay-sur-Indre]], das Schloss [[Reignac-sur-Indre]], das Schloss Vitray in [[Saint-Hippolyte (Indre-et-Loire)|Saint-Hippolyte]] und das Schloss l'Epinay in [[Dolus-le-Sec]].
* [[Fulko III. (Anjou)|Fulko III. der Schwarze]], dessen Grabmal sich in [[Beaulieu-lès-Loches]] befindet
* [[Emmanuel Lansyer]], Maler
* [[Ludovico Sforza]], Herzog von Mailand, der 1508 in Loches starb
* [[Jean de La Balue]], der in Loches eingekerkerte Kardinal
* [[Philippe de Commynes]], 1487 bis 1489 in Loches gefangen gehalten
* [[Daniel Wilson (Politiker)|Daniel Wilson]], Abgeordneter von Loches ab 1876, und Schwiegersohn des Präsidenten [[Jules Grévy]], starb 1919 in Loches

== Sehenswürdigkeiten ==

Siehe auch [[Schloss Loches]]

[[Datei:Donjon Loches.jpg|thumb|Donjon von Loches]]
* Der '''Donjon''': 36 Meter hoch, viereckiger Grundriss und ausgezeichneter Erhaltungsgrad; wahrscheinlich errichtet von Fulko III. von Anjou im [[11. Jahrhundert]]. Die Festung wurde im [[15. Jahrhundert]] durch [[Ludwig XI.]] in ein königliches Gefängnis umgewandelt. Sie beherbergt die Zellen von Philippe de Commynes, des Kardinals Balue und des Herzogs von Mailand, der sich die Zeit mit Wandmalereien vertrieb. [[1801]] gab [[Napoléon Bonaparte|Napoleon I.]] das Staatsgefängnis an das Département weiter. Bis ins Jahr [[1926]] wurde der Donjon als Gefängnis genutzt. Neben dem Donjon steht noch der ''Tour Louis XI.'' aus der [[Renaissance]], der rein militärischen Zwecken diente.

[[Datei:Logis royal Loches.jpg|thumb|Logis Royal]]
* Das '''Logis Royal''': Errichtet auf einem Bergsporn und von hier aus das Tal der [[Indre (Fluss)|Indre]] dominierend, war das Logis Royal eine der beliebtesten Residenzen der [[Haus Valois|Valois]] während des [[Hundertjähriger Krieg|Hundertjährigen Kriegs]]. Karl VII. ließ Ende des [[14. Jahrhundert]]s einen ersten Bauteil im Militärstil errichten. Seine Nachfolger verlängerten ihn um einen zweiten Flügel mit einer [[Gotik|gotischen]] Fassade im [[Flamboyant (Stilstufe)|Flamboyant]]stil. Drei Frauen haben die Geschichte des Logis Royal geprägt: [[Jeanne d’Arc]], [[Agnès Sorel]] und [[Anne de Bretagne]].

* Das '''Porte Royale''':Einziger Zugang zur [[Zitadelle]]. Es datiert in das [[12. Jahrhundert|12.]] und [[13. Jahrhundert]]. Von hier aus gelangt man zur mittelalterlichen Cité mit Donjon, Logis Royal und Stiftskirche Saint-Ours sowie zum Maison Lansyer und zu den Resten der Befestigungsanlagen. Zum Porte Royale gelangt man durch den Garten des Maison Lansyer.

* Die '''Stiftskirche Saint-Ours''': [[Romanik|Romanisches]] und gotisches Bauwerk aus dem [[11. Jahrhundert|11.]] und 12. Jahrhundert, dessen Stilmix der langen Bauzeit zu verdanken ist. Portal mit Skulpturen von Menschen und Tieren sowie Resten einer farbigen Bemalung, außerdem zwei achtseitige Türme („Dubes“) aus dem Jahr [[1165]]. Hier befindet sich seit April 2005 das Grab Agnes Sorels.

* Das '''Maison Lansyer''': Wohnhaus des Malers [[Emmanuel Lansyer]].

* Die '''Kanzlei (Chancellerie)''' (städtisches Museum) und daneben das '''Maison du Centaure''' mit einem Relief von Herkules und einem Zentauren auf der Fassade.

[[Datei:Loches Tour St Antoine.jpg|150px|thumb|Tour Saint-Antoine]]

* Der '''Tour Saint-Antoine''': Ehemaliger Kirchturm und Glockenturm der Stadt, 52 Meter hoch. Errichtet zwischen [[1529]] und [[1575]], ist er der einzige Renaissance-Glockenturm in der [[Touraine]]. Im Allgemeinen nicht der Öffentlichkeit zugänglich.

* Das '''Porte des Cordeliers''' aus dem [[15. Jahrhundert]] an der Straße nach Spanien. Der Name rührt vom nahe gelegene [[Franziskanische Orden|Franziskaner]]-Konvent (Cordeliers).

* '''Carrière de Vignemont''': Ehemaliger Tuffsteinbruch, der in der Vergangenheit nicht nur als Steinbruch diente, sondern mit seinen Höhlen auch als Aufzuchtstation für Champignons und als Rückzugsgebiet bei Gefahr.

* '''Manoir de Sansac''': Kleines Renaissanceschloss von [[Louis Prévost de Sansac]] mit einer asymmetrischen Fassade. Hier traf König [[Franz I. (Frankreich)|Franz I.]] erstmals Kaiser [[Karl V. (HRR)|Karl V.]]. Das Schloss ist Privatbesitz.

== Städtepartnerschaften ==
* [[Wermelskirchen]] (Deutschland)
* [[St Andrews]] (Schottland)

== Verschiedenes ==

Zwei [[Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio|Caravaggio]] zugeschriebene Bilder wurden in der Kirche Saint-Antoine gefunden: ''Pèlerinage de Notre Seigneur à Emmaüs'' und ''Saint Thomas mettant son doigt en la plaie du Christ''

== Weblinks ==
{{Commonscat|Loches}}
* [http://www.loches-tourainecotesud.com/ Offizielle Website des Office de Tourisme de Loches]
* [http://www.lochesdeveloppement.com/ Communauté de communes du Lochois]
* http://www.recensement.insee.fr/RP99/rp99/satellite.autorisation?nivgeo=C&oldnivgeo=37020&theme=ALL&typeprod=ALL&choix_dept=37&codgeo=37132&oldnivgeo=C&oldcodgeo=37020&c_produit=P_POPA&quelcas=SATGEO&lang=FR Loches auf der Website des [[Insee]]
* [http://www.lochorama.com/ Loches per Mausklick]

[[Kategorie:Ort in Centre]]
[[Kategorie:Unterpräfektur in Frankreich]]

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[[pt:Loches]]
[[ro:Loches]]
[[ru:Лош (коммуна)]]
[[sl:Loches]]
[[uk:Лош]]
[[vi:Loches]]
[[vo:Loches]]
[[war:Loches]]
[[zh:洛什]]

Khagendra Thapa Magar

2011-06-12T11:42:06Z

Aridd: Er ist nicht mehr der kleinste.

[[Datei:Khagendra.png|thumb|upright|Khagendra Thapa Magar]]
'''Khagendra Thapa Magar''' (* [[14. Oktober]] [[1992]]) war einmal, von Oktober 2010 nach Juni 2011, der kleinste Mann der Welt. Seine Größe wurde anlässlich seines 18. Geburtstags gemessen und vom [[Guinness-Buch der Rekorde]] bestätigt.<ref>[http://community.guinnessworldrecords.com/_Guinness-World-Records-confirm-2-ft-241-in-Khagendra-as-the-new-worlds-shortest-man/BLOG/2733789/7691.html ''Guinness World Records confirm 2-ft 2.41-in Khagendra as the new world’s shortest man'']</ref>

Der [[Nepal|Nepalese]] ist 67,08 cm groß und wiegt 5,5 kg. Seit 2006 lebt er in [[Pokhara]]. Bis zu seinem 18. Geburtstag war er der kleinste Teenager der Welt.<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/worldnews/article-1309913/Khagendra-Thapa-Magar-worlds-smallest-man-title-Edward-Nino-Hernandez.html Gavin Allen: ''This could be a short fight: Nepalese teen bids to take world's smallest man title from Colombian dancer Nino''] In: [[Daily Mail]] vom 14. Oktober 2010</ref> Khagendra Thapa Magar übernahm den Rekordhalter-Titel von dem Kolumbianer Edward Nino Hernandez, der 70,21 Zentimeter misst.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/0,1518,723114,00.html ''Kaum größer als das Guinness-Buch''] In: [[Der Spiegel]] vom 14. Oktober 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.blick.ch/life/das-ist-der-kleinste-mann-der-welt-158597 ''Das ist der kleinste Mann der Welt''] In: [[Blick (Zeitung)|Blick]] vom 14. Oktober 2010</ref>

Bei seiner Geburt wog Khagendra Thapa Magar nach Angaben seines Vaters Rup Bahadur Thapa Magar 600 Gramm.<ref>[http://www.focus.de/panorama/vermischtes/guinness-buch-khagendra-thapa-magar-ist-der-kleinste-mann-der-welt_aid_562110.html ''Khagendra Thapa Magar ist der kleinste Mann der Welt''] In: [[Focus]].de vom 14. Oktober 2010</ref> Im Alter von acht Jahren lernte er zu laufen.<ref>[http://www.thehimalayantimes.com/fullNews.php?headline=Little+man+walks+tall+as+world's+shortest+&NewsID=261837 ''Little man walks tall as world's shortest''] In: ''The Himalayan Times'' vom 14. Oktober 2010</ref>
Sein Wachstum setzte aus, als er elf Jahre alt war.<ref>[http://www.stern.de/panorama/der-kleinste-mann-auf-der-erde-khagendra-thapa-magar-der-daeumling-aus-nepal-1613880.html ''Khagendra Thapa Magar, der Däumling aus Nepal''] In: [[Stern (Zeitschrift)|stern.de]] vom 14. Oktober 2010</ref> Ursache für seine geringe Körpergröße ist eine Form des [[Minderwuchs]]es (''primordial dwarfism''), die 2010 bei etwa hundert Menschen bekannt war.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7990767/Worlds-shortest-teenager-tours-New-York.html ''World's shortest teenager tours New York''] In: [[The Guardian]] vom 8. September 2010</ref> Weil seine rechte Körperseite langsamer wuchs als seine linke, ist seine Haltung seitlich gebeugt.<ref>[http://www.aerztezeitung.de/panorama/article/623028/kleinster-mann-welt-baby-nur-handgross.html ''Kleinster Mann der Welt war als Baby nur handgroß''] In: [[Ärzte Zeitung]] vom 7. Oktober 2010</ref>
Sowohl sein Vater als auch seine Mutter Dhana Maya sowie sein jüngerer Bruder sind normal groß gewachsen.<ref>[http://www.welt.de/wissenschaft/article3990501/Der-grosse-Traum-des-kleinsten-Mannes-des-Welt.html Nina Schröder: ''Der große Traum des kleinsten Mannes des Welt''] In: [[Die Welt]] vom 24. Juni 2009</ref>

Heute ist der Philippiner [[Junrey Balawing]] (59,93 cm groß) der kleinste lebender Mann der Welt, seit seinen 18. Geburtstag am 12. Juni 2011.<ref>''[http://www.leparisien.fr/societe/junrey-59-93-cm-est-l-homme-le-plus-petit-du-monde-12-06-2011-1490613.php Junrey, 59,93 cm, est l'homme le plus petit du monde]'', ''Le Parisien'', 12. Juni 2011</ref>

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.ftd.de/lifestyle/:vermischtes-der-kleinste-mann-der-welt/50182624.html Video-Bericht ''Der kleinste Mann der Welt''], [[Financial Times Deutschland]] vom 14. Oktober 2010
== Einzelnachweise ==
<references />

{{SORTIERUNG:Magar, Khagendra Thapa}}
[[Kategorie:Menschlicher Rekord]]
[[Kategorie:Nepalese]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1992]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Magar, Khagendra Thapa
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=nepalesischer Kleinwüchsiger, kleinster Mann der Welt
|GEBURTSDATUM=14. Oktober 1992
|GEBURTSORT=
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[cs:Khágendra Thapa Magar]]
[[da:Khagendra Thapa Magar]]
[[en:Khagendra Thapa Magar]]
[[fi:Khagendra Thapa Magar]]
[[fr:Khagendra Thapa Magar]]
[[it:Khagendra Thapa Magar]]
[[ne:खगेन्द्र थापा मगर]]
[[pt:Khagendra Thapa Matar]]
[[ro:Khagendra Thapa Magar]]
[[ru:Магар, Хагендра Тапа]]

Falealupo

2011-05-08T08:56:57Z

Aridd:

{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Falealupo
|nickname=
|settlement_type=Village & Electoral Constituency
|image_skyline = Falealupo sunset, Samoa.jpg
|image_caption=Falealupo sunset
|image_flag =
|image_seal =
|image_map =Main road in Falealupo village in the afternoon, Savai'i, Samoa.JPG
|mapsize =
|map_caption = Main road in the afternoon, Falealupo Tai
|pushpin_map = Samoa
|pushpin_label_position =
|coordinates_region = WS
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]
|subdivision_name = {{flag|Samoa}}
|subdivision_type1 =District
|subdivision_name1 =[[Vaisigano]]
|leader_title =
|leader_name =
|area_magnitude =
|area_total =
|area_land =
|area_water =
|population_as_of = 2006
|population_note =
|population_total = 943 Constituency
|population_footnotes =
|population_metro =
|population_density =
|timezone =-11
|utc_offset =
|timezone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|latd=13|latm=30|lats=9|latNS=S
|longd=172|longm=47|longs=23|longEW=W
|elevation_m=
|website =
|footnotes = Falealupo-uta (inland) & Falealupo-tai (coast)
}}
[[File:Canopy Falealupo Rainforest, Savaii.JPG|thumb|right|260px|View of Falealupo rainforest canopy walkway and old wooden tower.]]
'''Falealupo''' is a village in [[Samoa]] situated at the west end of [[Savai'i]] island {{convert|20|mi|km}} from the dateline. The village has two main settlements, Falealupo-Uta, situated inland by the main island highway and Falealupo-Tai, situated by the sea. The road to the coastal settlement is about 9 km, most of it unsealed, from the main highway.

Due to its location in the west of the country, and due to the Samoa is just to the east of the [[International Date Line]], Falealupo has been described as "the last village in the world to see the sunset of each day". This may soon change, as the Samoan government plans to move the International Date Line east of the country.<ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/world/south-pacific/4974902/Samoa-moves-into-tomorrow "Samoa moves into tomorrow"], Stuff.co.nz, May 7, 2011</ref>

Families have moved inland for the convenience of living by the main road near public transport, as well as the extensive damage to the coastal village from cyclones in the early 1990s, which left behind old church ruins along the coast. Rock pools, caves, and sandy beaches contribute to the natural beauty of the area. Falealupo-Uta has small shops and facilities for Western Union money transfer while there are [[beach fale]] accommodation and a shop at Falealupo-tai.

The settlement is part of Falealupo Electoral Constituency (''Faipule District'') which forms part of the larger political district of [[Vaisigano]].<ref name=pop>{{cite web
|url=http://www.sbs.gov.ws/Portals/138/PDF/census%20survey/Table%202.%20Population%20byregion,%20faipule%20district%202006.pdf
|work=Samoa Bureau of Statistics
|title=Population and Housing Census Report 2006
|date= July 2008
|accessdate=19 December 2009}}</ref>

Roman Catholic [[Pio Taofinu'u|Cardinal Pio Taofinu'u]] (1923–2006), the first [[Polynesians|Polynesian]] bishop and cardinal, was born in Falealupo and attended the village school.<ref name=pio>{{cite web
|url=http://www.vatican.va/news_services/press/documentazione/documents/cardinali_biografie/cardinali_bio_taofinuu_p_en.html
|work=Holy See Press Office, Vatican
|title=College of Cardinals Biographical Note
|date= 21 January 2006
|accessdate=23 January 2010}}</ref>

==Myths and Legends==
Falealupo is mentioned in different myths and legends in [[Samoan mythology]].

In the sea at the farthest point of the peninsula, the Fafā, an outcropping of volcanic rocks, is said in legend to be the gateway to the underworld [[Pulotu]], where [[aitu]], the spirits of deceased persons, reside.<ref>{{cite book
|url=http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=pG83AAAAIAAJ&dq=Falealupo&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s
|title=Religious and Cosmic Beliefs of Central Polynesia‎
|first=
|last=
|page=156
|year=
|publisher=Cambridge University Press archive
|isbn=100140985X}}</ref>

The ruler of Pulotu is [[Saveasi'uleo]], the father of [[Nafanua]], a goddess of war from Falealupo. Another legend tells that Nafanua's mother is [[Tilafaiga]], who brought the art of [[Pe'a|Samoan tattoo]] with her sister [[Taema]] from Fiti. The village is also associated with the legend of [[Moso]].

==Falealupo Rainforest conservation==
Falealupo land include large tracts of lowland rainforest. Most of Samoa's land is locally village owned under [[customary land]] governed by family ''[[fa'amatai|matai]]'', the chiefly heads of extended families. In 1990 the Samoan government gave the remote village of Falealupo an ultimatum to build a better school or teachers would be removed and their children would not be educated. Education in Samoa is a partnership between villages and the government, and with most of the land under customary ownership, villages provide land and school buildings with the government providing teachers and the curriculum.<ref name=sch>{{cite web
|url=http://www.mesc.gov.ws/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=112&Itemid=82
|work=Samoa Ministry of Education, Sports & Culture
|title=Savai'i Schools
|accessdate=4 July 2010}}</ref> Most of the island's economy is based on subsistence living from plantations and fishing and with no other source of revenue, the villagers sold logging rights to their rainforests. Before the logging could take place, however, [[Seacology]] co-founder and chairman [[Paul Alan Cox|Paul Cox]], an American [[ethnobotanist]] who had lived for many years with his family in the village, discovered that the pristine rainforests surrounding the village of Falealupo were to be logged. Cox worked with the village chiefs and promised to raise the funds for the school in exchange for a covenant protecting the {{convert|30000|acre|km2|sing=on}} rainforest.<ref>{{cite book
|url=http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=noFNSuofi6IC&pg=PT72&dq=Falealupo&lr=#v=onepage&q=Falealupo&f=false
|title=Indigenous ecotourism: sustainable development and management
|first=Heather
|last=Zeppel
|page=58
|series=Volume 3 of Ecotourism (Hardcover)
|year=2006
|publisher=CABI
|isbn=1845931246}}</ref>
[[File:ISS018-E-38788 Nasa Falealupo West Savai'i.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Satellite image of Falealupo at the west end of Savai'i island. ([[NASA]] photo 2009).]]
The Falealupo Rainforest School was constructed, and since that time Seacology has had a close relationship with the village. In recognition of this achievement, in 1997 Cox together with the late High Chief Fuiono Senio won the prestigious [[Goldman Environmental Prize]]. Shortly thereafter, a permanent endowment was created for the Falealupo Rainforest Preserve, using Cox's Prize stipend and matching donations from Nu Skin International and Nature's Way. Also in 1997 the Falealupo Rainforest Canopy Aerial Walkway was dedicated. Seacology funded the walkway in order to help the community generate revenues from eco-tourism. At the ceremony dedication, it was announced that the village would extend the 50-year covenant and promised to protect the rainforest in perpetuity.

In 1988, Cox was bestowed a ''[[fa'amatai|matai]]'' chief title by Falealupo in honour of his work.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.samoaobserver.ws/index.php?view=article&id=3660:falealupo-matai-defend-nafanua&option=com_content&catid=1:latest-news&Itemid=53|work=Samoa Observer|title=Falealupo matai defend Nafanua Cox|date=25 January 2009|accessdate=4 July 2010}}</ref>

In 1999, the village announced that beginning January 1, 2000 monthly tourist revenues from the aerial canopy walkway would be used to fund a modest retirement fund for village elders. In February 2008, the canopy walkway was closed due to rot in the 10m wooden tower leading up to the aerial rope walkway and platforms in a giant [[banyan]] tree. Seacology funded and constructed a new aluminium tower which was completed and opened on 10 June 2010.<ref name=seacology>{{cite web|url=http://www.seacology.org/projects/individualprojects/SAMOA_falealupo2009.htm|work=Seacology Island Projects|title=Samoa, Falealupo village, Savai'i Island|date=June 2010|accessdate=4 July 2010}}</ref>

Entry to the Falealupo rainforest walkway is about 2 km from the main road, on the way to the Falealupo Tai.
[[File:Samoa - Savaii Western tip.JPG|right|170px|thumb|Looking west at the western tip of Savai'i]]

==Member of Parliament==
*[[A'eau Peniamina]], Member of Parliament for Falealupo constituency<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.govt.ws/index_mop.html
|work=Parliament of Samoa
|title=14th Parliament 2006 - 20011, Members of Parliament & Ministers
|accessdate=23 May 2010}}</ref>

== Notable Samoans from Falealupo ==
[[File:Falealupo Beach Fale Accommodation, Savai'i, Samoa, Polynesia.JPG|right|170px|thumb|Falealupo beach fale, local owned tourist accommodation]]
Notable Samoans from Falealupo include;
* [[John Schuster]], a former [[All Black]] ([[rugby union]] national team of [[New Zealand]]).
* [[Leo Lafaiali'i]], a player for [[Manu Samoa]] (rugby union national team of Samoa) and a former [[Auckland Blues]] player.
* [[King Kapisi]], a hip hop artist in New Zealand. The chief title of his family in Falealupo is A'eau. The grave of King Kapisi's great grandfather Aeau Fa'aloaga is behind the new church in Falealupo-tai. In 1999, King Kapisi filmed his music video ''Reverse Resistance'' at Falealupo as well as [[Fagamalo]], [[Safotu]] and at the [[Alofaaga Blowholes|Taga blowholes]] in Savaii. The opening shot in the video starts at the old church ruin in Falealupo (now the new church) and the closing shot is a sunset at Falealupo beach with children from his family. The song became the first hip hop song to win the prestigious [[APRA Awards|APRA Silver Scroll Award]] in [[New Zealand]].

==See also==
*[[List of protected areas of Samoa]]
*[[Central Savai'i Rainforest]], largest continuous patch of rainforest in [[Polynesia]]
*[[Samoan plant names]], includes scientific names and many used in traditional medicine
*[[Prostratin]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.seacology.org/projects/individualprojects/SAMOA_falealupo1993.htm Seacology Falealupo Project] [[Seacology]]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gn6Y0I0qvBM Watch King Kapisi music video filmed in Falealupo]

{{coord|13|30|S|172|48|W|region:WS_type:city|display=title}}

{{Vaisigano}}

[[Category:Populated places in Samoa]]

[[la:Falealupo]]

Joni Madraiwiwi

2011-02-26T09:57:43Z

Aridd: Added "career after the Vice-Presidency": commission on the Solomons' TRC, + elevation to life peerage in Tonga

'''[[Ratu]] Joni Madraiwiwi''' (born 1957) is a Fijian lawyer, politician and was the [[Vice-President of Fiji|Vice-President]] of [[Fiji]] from 2004 to 2006. He was sworn in on 10 January 2005, following his nomination by [[List of Presidents of Fiji|President]], [[Josefa Iloilo|Ratu Josefa Iloilo]] and his subsequent approval by the [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]] on 15 December 2004. He was appointed to complete the unexpired term of his predecessor, [[Jope Seniloli|Ratu Jope Seniloli]], who had resigned in disgrace on 29 November 2004 in the wake of his convictions for [[treason]] concerning his role in the [[Fiji coup of 2000]]. Ratu Madraiwiwi's first priority was to restore dignity and respect to the Vice-Presidential office.

Madraiwiwi was dismissed from office on 5 December 2006 by the [[Military of Fiji|Military]] Commander, [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]], who seized power in a [[2006 Fijian coup d'état|military coup]]. He was forcibly evicted from his official residence and from his office on the night of 6 December. [http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2006/12/07/07fijilive02.html] He announced in the second week of January 2007 that he was "on leave" and intended to resume private practice as a lawyer, at [[Howards (law firm)|Howards]] law firm. [http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=55288]

== Career ==

Ratu Madraiwiwi has a [[LLB|Law]] degree from the [[University of Adelaide]], [[Australia]], and a [[Masters degree]] in Law from [[McGill University]], [[Canada]]. After working for the Attorney-General from 1983 to 1991, he went on to serve as a permanent arbitrator until 1997, when he was appointed as a judge of the [[High Court (Fiji)|High Court]]. He resigned from the bench in 2000 in protest against the [[Fiji coup of 2000|coup d'état]] that saw the elected government toppled, the [[Constitution of Fiji|constitution]] abrogated, and the judiciary reorganized by decree. Thereafter, he practiced law privately as a partner of [[Howards (law firm)|Howards]], besides serving as a director of [[Fiji Times|Fiji Times Limited]] (the nation's leading newspaper) and as a trustee of the [[Fijian Trust Fund]]. He is also a human rights commissioner and former chairman of the [[Citizens Constitutional Forum (Fiji)|Citizens Constitutional Forum]], a pro-democracy and human rights organization. Rewa high chief [[Jone Mataitini|Ro Jone Mataitini]] said the chiefs unanimously supported Ratu Madraiwiwi because of his extensive knowledge of the law and because of his great rapport with other racial and religious groups. In this regard, he was regarded as a compromise between those who insisted on reserving the Vice-Presidency for a high chief, and those (including [[Epeli Ganilau|Ratu Epeli Ganilau]], the former [[List of Chairmen of the Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Chairman]] of the [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]]), who believed it was time for a non-[[Fijian people|Fijian]], to be appointed to the post as a gesture of goodwill to the [[Indo-Fijian]] and other minorities.

[[Fiji Labour Party]] leader and former [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]] [[Mahendra Chaudhry]] welcomed Ratu Madraiwiwi's appointment. ''"Ratu Joni is an eminent scholar who served Fiji with distinction in the last 20 years holding high offices. He is fully conversant with the affairs of the State and he will certainly restore dignity and decorum to the high office,"'' Chaudhry said.

Tribal and regional factors played a part in the appointment. Fiji's tribes each belong to one of three confederacies - [[Kubuna Confederacy|Kubuna]], [[Burebasaga Confederacy|Burebasaga]], and [[Tovata Confederacy|Tovata]]. One member of the Great Council of Chiefs explained to the media that they had understood that as President Iloilo is from Burebasaga and his predecessor, [[Kamisese Mara|Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara]] was from Tovata, the current Vice-President should be from Kubuna. Installed as the [[Roko Tui Bau]] on 11 November 1995, Ratu Madraiwiwi is one of the highest chiefs of the Kubuna Confederacy.

The [[Constitution of Fiji]] assigns a purely ceremonial role to the Vice-President, apart from the power to exercise the functions of the Presidency should the President be unable to perform his duties. With the 84-year-old President Iloilo suffering from ill health, the appointment to the Vice-Presidency of a respected individual who could assume the Presidency in the event of an emergency was regarded as a priority.

== Career after the Vice-Presidency ==
In 2008, when a [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Solomon Islands)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] was established in the [[Solomon Islands]], in the aftermath of ethnic conflict, it was to have five commissioners, including two foreign nationals. Madraiwiwi was asked, and accepted, to serve as one of the two foreign commissioners. The Commission noted that he brought "strong international human rights experience to the TRC".<ref>[http://solomonislands-trc.com/faqs.html Truth and Reconciliation Commission Solomon Islands]</ref>

In January 2010, [[King of Tonga|King]] [[George Tupou V]] elevated him to the [[Life Peerage]] in the [[Tonga|Kingdom of Tonga]], with the title of '''Lord Madraiwiwi Tangatatonga'''.<ref>[http://www.mic.gov.to/press-releases/1977-ratu-joni-madraiwiwi-to-the-life-peerage-with-the-noble-title-of-lord-madraiwiwi-tangatatonga.html "Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi appointed Lord Madraiwiwi Tangatonga"], government of Tonga, January 4, 2010</ref>

== Opinions ==
[[Image:madraiwiwifatiaki.jpg|frame|left|Ratu Joni (left) being sworn in as Vice President by [[Chief Justice (Fiji)|Chief Justice]] [[Daniel Fatiaki]] (man in the wig)]]
Madraiwiwi is noted for his outspoken calls for political and cultural moderation, and for his efforts to encourage people to come up with creative and practical solutions to issues that have caused tension in Fijian society.

=== Ethnic tensions and human rights ===

Madraiwiwi says that ethnic Fijians really have nothing to fear from the large Indo-Fijian population, as native ownership of most of the land is enshrined in the [[Constitution of Fiji|Constitution]]. Madraiwiwi has called for a national discussion on adopting an inclusive label for all Fijian citizens. He pointed out that the ''Fijian'' label is very often taken to mean the Fijian ethnic group, rather than the citizenry as a whole. ''"While I personally have no problem with the term Fijian, I recognise many others in my community are not,"'' he said in a speech to the [[Lautoka]] [[Rotary Club]] on 14 March 2005. ''"But let us not leave it there. Let us find other options,"'' he proposed.

Addressing the [[Fiji Law Society]] convention at [[Warwick Hotel]] on Fiji's [[Coral Coast]] on 2 July 2005, Madraiwiwi said that the feeling of insecurity felt by many indigenous Fijians would disappear when more of them became better educated. He said that most members of his ethnic community did not trust the [[Constitution of Fiji|Constitution]] or the rule of law sufficiently, as both instruments could be impugned by whatever government was in power - an attitude that needed to be changed. His people needed to understand, he said, that the rule of law was not an alien Western concept, but one that was, in fact, rooted as much in Fijian as in Western traditions.

At an education workshop in [[Suva]] on 13 July, Madraiwiwi said it was a mistake to view indigenous rights as superior to human rights in general. He said that the [[ILO Convention 169]] (the Convention concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries) clearly stated that indigenous rights were not separate from human rights and could not be asserted at their expense. Articles referring to a self-contained system of governance for indigenous peoples were, he said, for traditional and cultural matters, and did ''"not legitimize or authorize indigenous supremacy."''

Madraiwiwi also rejected arguments by some politicians that when the [[United Kingdom]] granted independence to Fiji in 1970, they should have handed power back to the [[Ratu|chiefs]], calling this position legally untenable. ''"To say that power should have been returned to the Fijian chiefs is to ignore what occurred between 1874 and 1970,"'' Madraiwiwi said. He said there was a legal continuity from the chiefs, through British [[British Empire|colonial]] rule, to the modern Fijian state. Universal rules, he said, required Fijians to temper their indigenous rights with the fundamental human rights enjoyed by other communities, though he admitted that many found that difficult to accept. ''"It is an unpalatable truth for Fijians because it flies in the face of everything they have been brought up to believe and conditioned to accept,"'' he said. Madraiwiwi said tensions often arose because fundamental rights were collective, while indigenous rights were individual in character.

He reiterated this position in his closing address to the '''Roundtable on Human Rights, Indigenous Rights, and Nationalism''', organized by the [[Fiji Human Rights Commission]] at [[Suva]]'s [[Holiday Inn (Suva)|Holiday Inn]] on 23 July. He insisted that indigenous rights and fundamental rights are mutually dependent and neither can exist without the other.

In a message to cadets at [[Xavier College (Ba, Fiji)|Xavier College]] in [[Ba Town|Ba]] on 27 July, Madraiwiwi said that the cycle of blame trapped Fiji islanders into racially polarized politics. He said that Fiji was the richer for its ethnic and cultural diversity, and commended the cadet corps for having overcome ethnic divisions to operate as a cohesive whole.

=== Relationship between church and state ===

In the same Lautoka speech, Madraiwiwi opposed calls for the establishment of a Christian state in Fiji, saying that it would hinder a "correct relationship" between the overwhelmingly Christian [[Fijian people|ethnic Fijians]] and the mainly [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Muslim]] [[Indo-Fijian]] community. He expressed concern that the growth of newer [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist]] denominations at the expense of the long-dominant [[Methodism|Methodist]] Church ''"evoked a less tolerant dimension to the work of some Christian churches."'' Madraiwiwi has since reiterated that proposals to establish a Christian state ignore the potential for division and conflict. Speaking at the ''Religion and Governance Forum'' in Suva on 17 May 2005, he said the proposal had its roots in the initial conversion of chiefs to Christianity and in the [[Deed of Cession (Fiji)|Deed of Cession]], in which the chiefs ceded sovereignty to the [[United Kingdom]] in 1874, but considered that in a multi-faith country like Fiji, it would not be wise to establish any one faith. In an earlier address to a [[Hindu]] gathering on 28 March, Madraiwiwi had criticized government politicians for couching pronouncements in purely Christian terms. ''"When national leaders address the people of Fiji in specifically Christian terms, whatever the occasion, nearly half of our people are excluded,"'' he said. ''"When prayer in mixed company is uttered in terms of a purely Christian God, we unintentionally omit and diminish others present of different faiths. When we use Christian symbolism to promote reconciliation, forgiveness and unity, we discount the contribution and equally rich traditions extant in other faiths and cultural traditions."''

Madraiwiwi has also said that churches have failed to do enough to confront serious social problems, including [[rape]], [[incest]], and other violent crimes, and has called on Christian leaders to set an example for the people to follow by practicing what they preach. Speaking in the [[Lau Islands]] on 12 May 2005, he pointed to the late Lauan chief and former Fijian President, Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, as a one ''"who not only went to church but lived the life of a Christian,"'' and called on religious leaders to do likewise. Later, speaking at the '''Religion and Governance Forum''' in [[Suva]] on 18 May, he said that there have been cases of churches making unreasonable demands on parishioners in terms of time and natural resources, which have led to ''"a significant erosion on family values"''. He also called on churches to address the problem of excessive [[yaqona]] drinking, which he said was a major social problem. He expressed concern that the [[Methodist]] Church, to which approximately two thirds of indigenous Fijians belong, had not addressed these issues at their recent conference, but conceded that as Fijian cultural conditioning aims for consensus rather than frank debates, raising such matters could cause divisions.

On 13 May 2005, [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] [[Archbishop]] [[Petero Mataca]] said he agreed that churches had a role to play in reducing crime, but said that they should not be seen as solely to blame for the problem.

=== Views on Fiji's chiefly system ===

Madraiwiwi has also spoken of the need for chiefs to be accessible to their people and to listen to them. ''"It will be impossible to achieve this if the elders and chiefs have their own way and are too proud of their chiefly status to not bring themselves down to the people,"'' Madraiwiwi told the [[Lau Islands|Lau]] Provincial Council on 11 May 2005.

In an address to the [[Pacific Regional Workshop on Leadership Development]] in [[Lami, Fiji|Lami]] on 9 July, Madraiwiwi said that the chiefly system in Fiji and other Pacific Island nations would have to adapt to modern realities. Traditional leadership remained significant, he said, but its role was diminishing. He said that [[United Kingdom|British]] [[British Empire|colonisation]] had reinforced the chiefly system and in fact fossilized it. Historically, there had been some flexibility, as chiefs had to earn their positions through military prowess, but British protection had given the chiefs an unprecedented ''"reach and depth"'', he said. Christianity, too, had buttressed the system. The church and the chiefly system had become intertwined and mutually reinforced each other, not always to society's benefit. The changing realities of the modern world, however, meant that traditional leaders would have to share the leadership of the country with others. He also said that chiefs and church leaders would have to recognize that tradition did not always sit easily with human rights, and that sensitivity was needed to defuse the inevitable tension between the church and tradition on one hand and human rights on the other.

At the [[Fiji Medical Association]] conference on 1 September, Madraiwiwi said that the days when chiefs, religious ministers, and state officials expected to be treated with deference were gone, and he welcomed the change. He also called on doctors to adopt a higher public profile, as by virtue of their training, skills, and income level, they held a position that required them to provide leadership to the community. ''"The world outside medicine is yours as well,"'' he said. ''"Remedying ailments and illness is not the sum total of your existence. You are also citizens of this country and need to be seen in that role."''

Madraiwiwi has also maintained that democracy has not yet completely settled down in Fiji. Opening the conference of the [[Commonwealth Parliamentary Association]] in [[Nadi]] on 6 September 2005, he said that Fiji had yet to fully recognize and appreciate the concepts of human rights and the rule of law. Despite constitutional guarantees, certain aspects of democracy were somewhat tenuous, he considered. Ethnic tensions exacerbated the problem, he said. Indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians had competing priorities that would need to be addressed in a manner fair to all, he said. ''"All our communities have to make the effort to reach out to each other rather than waiting passively for gestures that may never be made,"'' Madraiwiwi declared. He added a note of caution, however: ''"Social integration cannot be forced and not proceed at the pace that the community considers uncomfortable."'' He was optimistic about the overall state of race relations, but thought that more needed to be done: ''"Relationships between our ethnic communities are generally good but we need to continue weaving connections to the point where they are interwoven and unbreakable,"'' he said.

In the same speech, Madraiwiwi praised the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. ''"The strength of Commonwealth lies in its diversity and it to be mindful of bearing economic, social, political and cultural systems which comprise its membership,"'' he said. '''Its commonality lies in its connection to humanity, in the main it has provided an invariable forum whose members to open and continue meaningful issues of concern."''

=== Economic and environmental views ===

On 7 July 2005, Madraiwiwi called on his fellow-chiefs to consider how to maximize the effectiveness of income generated through tourist facilities built on natively owned land. Opening the Tourism Forum at the [[Sheraton Resort (Fiji)|Sheraton Resort]], he said that the annual profit, now more than [[Fijian dollar|F$]]30 million, should be invested to spearhead [[Fijian people|native Fijian]] participation in the industry. He also called on leaders to take a more "bipartisan" approach to national issues, saying that as a small country with limited resources, Fiji could ill afford ''"endless debates about ethnicity and identity."'' He spoke of the need to break new ground. ''"We need to move forward and beyond the point where we endlessly pursue the demons bequeathed us by our history,"'' Madraiwiwi said.

Addressing a [[Greenpeace]] meeting in [[Suva]] on 10 July to commemorate the 20th anniversary of [[sinking of the Rainbow Warrior|the bombing of]] the ''[[Rainbow Warrior (1978)|Rainbow Warrior]]'' by [[France|French]] [[DGSE]] agents in 1985, Madraiwiwi said that while nuclear testing, the issue at the time of the ''Rainbow Warrior'''s destruction, was a thing of the past, the region was still faced with major environmental challenges. ''"Back then the issue of the day was nuclear testing, now we are faced with problems such as climate change, overfishing, deforestation, shipments of radioactive materials through Pacific waters and nuclear proliferation,"'' he said. ''"We need to remain vigilant so that we won't become victims again."'' A former Greenpeace board member, Madraiwiwi called on the environmental lobby to remember that ''"the actions of a few with commitment, can alter the course of world history."''

The Vice-President has also called for a crusade against corruption, and for streamlining of the [[Public Service Commission (Fiji)|Public Service Commission]]'s disciplinary laws in order to prevent delays in fighting corruption, which only foster further abuse. ''"Combating it will take courage, determination and perseverance. The most effective means of doing it is by creating a climate not receptive to corruption,"'' Madraiwiwi said at the launch of the [[Transparency International Fiji]] book in Suva on 9 December 2005.

=== Views on homosexuality ===

On 31 August 2005, Madraiwiwi became the first high-ranking office-holder in Fiji to call for [[homosexuality]] to be legalised. Speaking at the opening of the [[Fiji Medical Association]] conference in [[Suva]], he said that while he acknowledged the abhorrence of many great religions towards homosexuality, he thought that what sexual acts people do in private is no business of the state. ''"Whatever one's views about it, those who choose to practise that lifestyle in private surely have a right to do so,"'' he said. Madraiwiwi's comments flew in the face of pressure from the [[Methodist Church|Methodist]] and other churches, as well as some Hindu and Muslim organizations, to close the loopholes in the law which allowed a Fijian citizen and a foreigner who had been convicted of homosexual acts to walk free in late August. Madraiwiwi's endorsement of legalised homosexuality also ran contrary to assertions from Prime Minister [[Laisenia Qarase]] that so long as he remained in office, homosexuality would remain illegal.

=== Views on Fiji's national identity ===

Speaking at the launch of [[Fiji Week, 2005|Fiji Week celebrations]] on 7 October 2005, Madraiwiwi called on the nation to face up to questions about its fundamental identity. Such issues involved finding an inclusive adjective of nationality, the term "Fijian" being widely thought of as an ethnic term and its use by non-indigenous persons sometimes resented. The choice of a national language, and the question about whether to keep or change the flag, should also be addressed, he said. It would not do any good to avoid facing such questions, he said, because resolving them was essential to fostering true reconciliation and unity in the nation.

=== Poppy Drive speech ===

At the launch of the [[Poppy Drive]] on 21 October, Madraiwiwi called on returned servicemen to lay aside old resentments. The general refusal of Indo-Fijians to contribute to the war effort in [[World War II]] caused widespread resentment among indigenous Fijians, which has not entirely abated. Madraiwiwi considered, however, that they had shown bravery in their own way, enduring mistreatment ''"with fortitude and grace"'' at the hands of their colonial masters, to whom ''"they had little reason to be grateful."'' He also challenged people to consider the question of how the economy could have survived had the Indo-Fijians left Fiji for the war. ''"Who would have planted the cane, run the mills and funded the colony if they had gone to battle?"'' he asked.

In the same address, the Vice-President said that only those who had experienced the horrors of war could truly appreciate the value of freedom. A generation had grown up taking freedom for granted, he said, but owed a debt of gratitude that could never be repaid to those who had paid the price with their blood. He also said that people have become bolder in asserting their rights, but cautioned that that is one of the causes of wars.

=== Thoughts on the Fijian electoral system ===

* ''See main articles: [[Electoral system of Fiji]]; [[Voting system of Fiji]].''

On 3 November 2005, Madraiwiwi expressed reservations about the so-called Alternative Vote, which incorporates elements of [[instant run-off voting]] and [[electoral fusion]], which has been used in Fiji for the past two elections. The system allows political parties and candidates to combine their votes in a constituency according to a prearranged ranking of "preferences." Although voters may customize the ranking, few did so at the last two elections, and many were reportedly unaware that a vote cast for the party of their choice might end up being transferred to a party they might have no wish to support. Madraiwiwi said that in practice, voting for a party meant voting for any other party to which that party had agreed to transfer its "preferences." He considered that this compromised the voter's freedom of choice, and that in retrospect, it might have been better to retain the [[first past the post]] system that was formerly used.

At a workshop organized by the [[Citizens Constitutional Forum]] in [[Suva]], Madraiwiwi endorsed calls for [[electoral reform]] on 9 February 2006. Madraiwiwi, who was the chief guest at the forum, called for a reduction in the number of [[Communal Constituencies (Fiji)|communal constituencies]] (elected on ethnic rolls, almost two-thirds of the present [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]]) and a corresponding increase in the number of [[Open Constituencies (Fiji)|open constituencies]] (elected by universal suffrage). Communal voting reinforced the ethnic faultline that characterized [[elections in Fiji]], he said, and steps should be taken to move away from it.

The Vice-President also reiterated his earlier reservations about the Fijian electoral system. It was not well understood by less literate sections of the population, he said, and though its purpose was to encourage coalition-building, it was open to manipulation and a simpler voting system, which would be fair and neutral, should be considered, the [[Fiji Live]] and [[Fiji Village]] news services reported him as saying. He proposed [[proportional representation]] for as an option which would reflect the composition of the Fijian electorate. The [[Constitution of Fiji|constitutional]] requirement for multi-party coalitions, which has never been implemented strictly as stipulated, should also be reconsidered, he said.

In a rare display of unity, both [[Tomasi Vakatora]] of the predominantly indigenous [[Grand Coalition Initiative Group (Fiji)|Grand Coalition Initiative Group]] and [[Krishna Datt]] of the mainly Indo-Fijian [[Fiji Labour Party]] both rejected the Vice-President's calls for proportional representation, saying they were satisfied with the present electoral system.

Madraiwiwi also expressed concern about how the high level of [[Indo-Fijian]] emigration could create electoral disparity, affecting the election results in marginal open constituencies.

=== Critique of ethnic politics ===

In his opening address to the [[Pacific Islands Political Studies Association]] ([[PIPSA]]) conference on 24 November 2005, Madraiwiwi described race relations as "a work in progress." He lamented the ethnic faultline that defines Fijian politics, a situation reinforced, he said, by what political parties thought the electorate wanted. The electoral system, in which almost two-thirds of the seats in the [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] are chosen by voters registered on closed ethnic rolls, further reinforced this divide, he maintained. The result was that people retreated into their "ethnic fortresses" and viewed one another with suspicion.

Madraiwiwi spoke of the need to build personal relationships on the basis of trust, across ethnic lines. ''"We must begin to trust each other if this country is to progress the way we want it to. But before that we have to lay the preparatory work to engender that trust by building relationships every day,"'' he declared.

One factor gave the Vice-President cause for optimism. The [[Fijian people|indigenous]] population was growing somewhat faster than that of the nation as a whole, which he thought would gradually allay their fears of marginalisation and could lead to their being less fearful about being led by someone of a different ethnic group.

=== Views on the place of the Fijian language ===

* ''See main article: [[National language debate in Fiji]].''

Addressing the 72nd annual meeting of the [[Fijian Teachers Association]] in [[Suva]] on 9 January 2006, Madraiwiwi added his own voice to calls for the [[Fijian language]] to be made a scompulsory subject in all primary schools. His parents' generation had emphasized prioritizing English on the assumption that Fijian could be learned later, but this had resulted in a generation knowing little Fijian, and unless the language was made compulsory at all levels of primary education, it would be lost to the next generation, Madraiwiwi said.

== Achievements ==

In his capacity of Acting President, Madraiwiwi succeeded in brokering a truce on 16 January 2006 between [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]] [[Laisenia Qarase]] and [[Military of Fiji|Military]] Commander [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]], [[Fiji crisis of 2005-2006|whose long-running feud]] had raised fears of civil unrest or a military coup. Under Madraiwiwi's mediation, each side made some concessions to the other, and observers were cautiously optimistic that Fiji had been pulled back from the brink. Although the truce eventually broke down, it postponed the coup that eventually took place on 5 December.

== Personal life ==
Ratu Madraiwiwi is the eldest son of Doctor [[Jione Doviverata|Ratu Jione Atonio Rabici Doviverata]], who preceded him as Roko Tui Bau. His mother, [[Adi (title)|Adi]] [[Losalini Raravuya Uluiviti]] was a lady of rank from [[Nairai]], in Fiji's [[Lomaiviti]] province. She was one of the first women to become a member of Fiji's [[Legislative Council (Fiji)|Legislative Council]] and subsequently a [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|Member of Parliament]].

Ratu Madraiwiwi is a grandson of [[Joni Madraiwiwi I|Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi]] (1859–1920), a [[Bau Island|Bauan]] chief, and a great-great grandson of [[Seru Epenisa Cakobau|Ratu Seru Epenisa Cakobau]] (1815–1883), the Fijian [[List of Fijian Heads of State|monarch]] who unified the nation under his leadership before ceding the islands to the [[United Kingdom]] in 1874. He is also a nephew of [[Lala Sukuna|Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna]] (1888–1958), who forged embryonic institutions for what would become the independent nation of Fiji, although he did not live to see it. On 5 December 1998, he married [[Adi Lusi Tuivanuavou]], also known as [[Lusiana Paluvavau Qolikoro|Adi Lusiana Paluvavau Qolikoro]], on [[Bau Island]] in Fiji.

==External links==
* [http://www.usp.ac.fj/journ/docs/news/wansolnews/wansol1508013.html Fiji's 2001 Elections: Our Country at the Crossroads] - 2001 Parkinson Memorial Lecture Series, 15 August 2001.
* [http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0409/S00253.htm Ethnic Tensions and the Rule of Law] - Siwatibau Memorial Lecture, [[Honiara]], [[Solomon Islands]], 24 September 2004.
* [http://www.fiji.gov.fj/publish/printer_4326.shtml Speech to Lautoka Rotary Club] (14 March 2005).
* [http://www.usp.ac.fj/index.php/1092/ As you enter] (a poem by Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi)

== References ==
{{reflist}}
 

{{Wikiquotepar|Joni Madraiwiwi}}{{Wikisource author}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Vice-Presidents of Fiji|Vice-President]] of [[Fiji]] | before=[[Jope Seniloli|Ratu Jope Seniloli]] | after=Vacant | years=2004–2006}}
{{succession box | title=[[Roko Tui Bau]] | before=[[Jone Atonio Rabici Doviverata|Ratu Dr. J. A. R. Doviverata]] | after=Current Incumbent| years=1995–Present}}
{{end box}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Madraiwiwi, Ratu Joni
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1957
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Madraiwiwi, Ratu Joni}}
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Fijian chiefs]]
[[Category:Vice-Presidents of Fiji]]
[[Category:Fijian judges]]
[[Category:Fijian politicians]]
[[Category:Tailevu people]]
[[Category:Tui Kaba]]

[[pl:Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi]]

Supreme Court of Nauru

2011-01-22T15:00:52Z

Aridd: /* Constitutional establishment */ Clarifying.

{{Politics of Nauru}}

The '''Supreme Court of Nauru''' is the [[supreme court|highest judicial court]] of the [[Nauru|Republic of Nauru]].

==Constitutional establishment==

It is established by part V of the [[Constitution of Nauru|Constitution]], adopted upon Nauru's independence from [[Australia]] in 1968. Art. 48 of the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court as "a superior [[court of record]]", with jurisdiction prescribed constitutionally and by law. Art.49 stipulates that the [[Chief Justice of Nauru|Chief Justice]] is appointed by the [[President of Nauru|President]] and sits with other justices, likewise appointed by the President, whose number is to be determined by law. Only [[barrister]]s and [[solicitor]]s who have been practicing for at least five years may be appointed to the Supreme Court. Articles 50 and 51 prescribe that a Supreme Court judge vacates his or her office upon attaining the age of 65 (unless that age limit be amended by legislation), or upon being removed for incapacity or misconduct by a motion adopted by at least two thirds of members of [[Parliament of Nauru|Parliament]], or upon tending his or her resignation to the President. Art.54 stipulates that "[t]he Supreme Court shall, to the exclusion of any other court, have original jurisdiction to determine any question arising under or involving the interpretation or effect of any provision of th[e] Constitution"; art.55 prescribes that [[Cabinet of Nauru|Cabinet]] "may refer questions on Constitution to the Supreme Court", and that "the Supreme Court shall pronounce in open court its opinion on the question".<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/legis/num_act/con256/ Constitution of Nauru]</ref> Thus the Supreme Court is empowered to deliver an [[advisory opinion]], albeit only upon questions referred to it by Cabinet.<ref>Barry Connell CJ., ''[http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/2004/3.html Constitutional Reference; In re Dual Nationality and Other Questions]'' (2004), [[Supreme Court of Nauru]]</ref>

==Jurisdiction==

The Supreme Court has both [[original jurisdiction|original]] and [[appellate jurisdiction]]. The Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute notes that the Supreme Court "has unlimited original civil jurisdiction and although the ''Courts Act'' [1972] does not so specify it is assumed that it has original criminal jurisdiction".<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/courts.html "Nauru Courts System Information"], Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute</ref> Additionally, as per the ''Appeals Act'' 1972, the Supreme Court hears [[appeal]]s from the [[District Court of Nauru|District Court]] in both [[criminal law|criminal]] and [[Civil law (common law)|civil cases]], on questions of fact or law.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/legis/num_act/aa197284/ Appeals Act] 1972</ref> The [[Family Court of Nauru|Family Court]], however, functions seperately, and no appeal is possible from this court to the Supreme Court.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/courts.html "Nauru Courts System Information"], Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute</ref>

Despite its name, the Supreme Court is not the highest court of appeal in most cases. Its judgements on constitutional matters are final, but any other case may be appealed further to the [[Appellate Court of Nauru|Appellate Court]].<ref>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/nauru.htm "Nauru: Courts & Judgments"], United States Department of State</ref> In addition, art.57 of the Constitution stipulates that "Parliament may provide that an appeal lies as prescribed by law from a judgment, decree, order or sentence of the Supreme Court to a court of another country".<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/legis/num_act/con256/ Constitution of Nauru]</ref> This provision was implemented in an agreement between Nauru and Australia in 1976, providing for appeals from the Supreme Court of Nauru to the [[High Court of Australia]] in both criminal and civil cases, with certain exceptions; in particular, no case pertaining to the Constitution of Nauru may be decided by the Australian court.<ref>[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ncaa1976254/sch1.html Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Republic of Nauru relating to Appeals to the High Court of Australia from the Supreme Court of Nauru], 1976</ref>

As [[Law of Nauru|Nauruan law]] is derived from the [[Law of England and Wales|English]] and [[Law of Australia|Australian]] [[common law]] system, [[precedent]]s set by the Supreme Court are integrated to national law, and the Supreme Court's interpretation of the law binds lower courts. Such precedents are, however, superceded by [[statute law]].<ref>[http://www.naurugov.nr/parliament/projects/consolidation/index.html "Consolidation of Legislation Project"], [[Parliament of Nauru]]</ref>

==Cases==

The Supreme Court heard its first case, ''Detamaigo v Demaure'', in April 1969. The case consisted in an "appeal against a decision of the [[Nauru Lands Committee]] as to the persons beneficially entitled to the personality of the estate of a deceased Nauruan". In a very brief ruling, Chief Justice Thompson struck out the appeal, on the grounds that "this Court has no jurisdiction to entertain appeals from the Nauru Lands Committee's determinations in respect of personalty", as such jurisdiction was not specifically provided by the Nauru Lands Committee Ordinance 1956.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/1969/5.html Detamaigo v Demaure], Supreme Court of Nauru, 1969</ref>

The first constitutional case to reach the Supreme Court was ''Jeremiah v Nauru Local Government Council'', decided in March 1971, on petition to the Supreme Court. The petitioner, Jeremiah, was a Nauruan man who wished to marry a non-Nauruan woman. The Nauru Local Government Council, whose consent was required for any lawful marriage between a Nauruan and a non-Nauruan (as per the Births, Deaths and Marriages Ordinance 1957), refused to grant consent, without providing a reason. Jeremiah argued this was a violation of article 3 of the Constitution, which provides that "every person in Nauru is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual". Chief Justice Thompson, however, ruled that the constitutional meaning of "fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual" was to be restricted to the rights and freedoms explicitly established by the Constitution. Thus, no constitutional right to marry existed.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/1971/5.html In re the Constitution, Jeremiah v Nauru Local Government Council], Supreme Court of Nauru, 1971</ref>

In October 2010, the Supreme Court ruled on its most recent constitutional case, ''In the Matter of the Constitution and in the Matter of the Dissolution of the Eighteenth Parliament'', to determine whether the dissolution of a deadlocked Parliament and the ensuing proclamation of a [[state of emergency]] by President [[Marcus Stephen]] were constitutionally valid. The case had been brought by members of the parliamentary Opposition. Justice [[John von Doussa]] ruled in favour of the President, stating that art.77 of the Constitution gave the President full latitude to determine whether a state of emergency should be declared.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/2010/16.html In the Matter of the Constitution and in the Matter of the Dissolution of the Eighteenth Parliament], Supreme Court of Nauru, 2010</ref>

==Current justices==
The current [[Chief Justice of Nauru]] is [[Geoffrey Eames]] [[Queen's Counsel|QC]], appointed in December 2010. The Court currently has one other judge, Justice [[John von Doussa]], appointed in September 2010. Both were appointed by President [[Marcus Stephen]].<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=57969 "Nauru appoints new Chief Justice"], Radio New Zealand International, December 31, 2010</ref>

==External link==
* [http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/ Selected case law of the Supreme Court], Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute

==See also==
* [[Constitution of Nauru]]
* [[Law of Nauru]]
* [[Chief Justice of Nauru]]
* [[District Court of Nauru]]
* [[Family Court of Nauru]]
* [[Appellate Court of Nauru]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Oceania topic|Supreme Court of|title=Supreme Courts of Oceania |countries_only=yes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Supreme Court Of Nauru}}
[[Category:National supreme courts|Nauru]]
[[Category:1968 establishments]]
[[Category:Politics of Nauru]]

Supreme Court of Nauru

2011-01-21T19:11:07Z

Aridd: ←Created page with '{{Politics of Nauru}} The '''Supreme Court of Nauru''' is the highest judicial court of the Republic of Nauru. ==Constitutional estab...'

{{Politics of Nauru}}

The '''Supreme Court of Nauru''' is the [[supreme court|highest judicial court]] of the [[Nauru|Republic of Nauru]].

==Constitutional establishment==

It is established by part V of the [[Constitution of Nauru|Constitution]], adopted upon Nauru's independence from [[Australia]] in 1968. Art. 48 of the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court as "a superior [[court of record]]", with jurisdiction prescribed constitutionally and by law. Art.49 stipulates that the [[Chief Justice of Nauru|Chief Justice]] is appointed by the [[President of Nauru|President]] and sits with other justices, likewise appointed by the President, whose number is to be determined by law. Only [[barrister]]s and [[solicitor]]s who have been practicing for at least five years may be appointed to the Supreme Court. Articles 50 and 51 prescribe that a Supreme Court judge vacates his or her office upon attaining the age of 65 (unless that age limit be amended by legislation), or upon being removed for incapacity or misconduct by a motion adopted by at least two thirds of members of [[Parliament of Nauru|Parliament]], or upon tending his or her resignation to the President. Art.54 stipulates that "[t]he Supreme Court shall, to the exclusion of any other court, have original jurisdiction to determine any question arising under or involving the interpretation or effect of any provision of th[e] Constitution"; art.55 prescribes that [[Cabinet of Nauru|Cabinet]] "may refer questions on Constitution to the Supreme Court", and that "the Supreme Court shall pronounce in open court its opinion on the question".<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/legis/num_act/con256/ Constitution of Nauru]</ref>

==Jurisdiction==

The Supreme Court has both [[original jurisdiction|original]] and [[appellate jurisdiction]]. The Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute notes that the Supreme Court "has unlimited original civil jurisdiction and although the ''Courts Act'' [1972] does not so specify it is assumed that it has original criminal jurisdiction".<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/courts.html "Nauru Courts System Information"], Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute</ref> Additionally, as per the ''Appeals Act'' 1972, the Supreme Court hears [[appeal]]s from the [[District Court of Nauru|District Court]] in both [[criminal law|criminal]] and [[Civil law (common law)|civil cases]], on questions of fact or law.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/legis/num_act/aa197284/ Appeals Act] 1972</ref> The [[Family Court of Nauru|Family Court]], however, functions seperately, and no appeal is possible from this court to the Supreme Court.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/courts.html "Nauru Courts System Information"], Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute</ref>

Despite its name, the Supreme Court is not the highest court of appeal in most cases. Its judgements on constitutional matters are final, but any other case may be appealed further to the [[Appellate Court of Nauru|Appellate Court]].<ref>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/nauru.htm "Nauru: Courts & Judgments"], United States Department of State</ref> In addition, art.57 of the Constitution stipulates that "Parliament may provide that an appeal lies as prescribed by law from a judgment, decree, order or sentence of the Supreme Court to a court of another country".<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/legis/num_act/con256/ Constitution of Nauru]</ref> This provision was implemented in an agreement between Nauru and Australia in 1976, providing for appeals from the Supreme Court of Nauru to the [[High Court of Australia]] in both criminal and civil cases, with certain exceptions; in particular, no case pertaining to the Constitution of Nauru may be decided by the Australian court.<ref>[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ncaa1976254/sch1.html Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Republic of Nauru relating to Appeals to the High Court of Australia from the Supreme Court of Nauru], 1976</ref>

As [[Law of Nauru|Nauruan law]] is derived from the [[Law of England and Wales|English]] and [[Law of Australia|Australian]] [[common law]] system, [[precedent]]s set by the Supreme Court are integrated to national law, and the Supreme Court's interpretation of the law binds lower courts. Such precedents are, however, superceded by [[statute law]].<ref>[http://www.naurugov.nr/parliament/projects/consolidation/index.html "Consolidation of Legislation Project"], [[Parliament of Nauru]]</ref>

==Cases==

The Supreme Court heard its first case, ''Detamaigo v Demaure'', in April 1969. The case consisted in an "appeal against a decision of the [[Nauru Lands Committee]] as to the persons beneficially entitled to the personality of the estate of a deceased Nauruan". In a very brief ruling, Chief Justice Thompson struck out the appeal, on the grounds that "this Court has no jurisdiction to entertain appeals from the Nauru Lands Committee's determinations in respect of personalty", as such jurisdiction was not specifically provided by the Nauru Lands Committee Ordinance 1956.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/1969/5.html Detamaigo v Demaure], Supreme Court of Nauru, 1969</ref>

The first constitutional case to reach the Supreme Court was ''Jeremiah v Nauru Local Government Council'', decided in March 1971, on petition to the Supreme Court. The petitioner, Jeremiah, was a Nauruan man who wished to marry a non-Nauruan woman. The Nauru Local Government Council, whose consent was required for any lawful marriage between a Nauruan and a non-Nauruan (as per the Births, Deaths and Marriages Ordinance 1957), refused to grant consent, without providing a reason. Jeremiah argued this was a violation of article 3 of the Constitution, which provides that "every person in Nauru is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual". Chief Justice Thompson, however, ruled that the constitutional meaning of "fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual" was to be restricted to the rights and freedoms explicitly established by the Constitution. Thus, no constitutional right to marry existed.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/1971/5.html In re the Constitution, Jeremiah v Nauru Local Government Council], Supreme Court of Nauru, 1971</ref>

In October 2010, the Supreme Court ruled on its most recent constitutional case, ''In the Matter of the Constitution and in the Matter of the Dissolution of the Eighteenth Parliament'', to determine whether the dissolution of a deadlocked Parliament and the ensuing proclamation of a [[state of emergency]] by President [[Marcus Stephen]] were constitutionally valid. The case had been brought by members of the parliamentary Opposition. Justice [[John von Doussa]] ruled in favour of the President, stating that art.77 of the Constitution gave the President full latitude to determine whether a state of emergency should be declared.<ref>[http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/2010/16.html In the Matter of the Constitution and in the Matter of the Dissolution of the Eighteenth Parliament], Supreme Court of Nauru, 2010</ref>

==Current justices==
The current [[Chief Justice of Nauru]] is [[Geoffrey Eames]] [[Queen's Counsel|QC]], appointed in December 2010. The Court currently has one other judge, Justice [[John von Doussa]], appointed in September 2010. Both were appointed by President [[Marcus Stephen]].<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=57969 "Nauru appoints new Chief Justice"], Radio New Zealand International, December 31, 2010</ref>

==External link==
* [http://www.paclii.org/nr/cases/NRSC/ Selected case law of the Supreme Court], Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute

==See also==
* [[Constitution of Nauru]]
* [[Law of Nauru]]
* [[Chief Justice of Nauru]]
* [[District Court of Nauru]]
* [[Family Court of Nauru]]
* [[Appellate Court of Nauru]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Oceania topic|Supreme Court of|title=Supreme Courts of Oceania |countries_only=yes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Supreme Court Of Nauru}}
[[Category:National supreme courts|Nauru]]
[[Category:1968 establishments]]
[[Category:Politics of Nauru]]

Salou Djibo

2010-02-20T10:55:14Z

Aridd: See talk page regarding his military rank. Please do not add unsourced information.

{{Current related|article|2010 Nigerien coup d'état attempt|date=February 2010}}
{{Infobox Officeholder
|name = Salou Djibo
|office = [[President of Niger|President of the Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy of Niger]]
|term_start = 18 February 2010
|term_end =
|predecessor = [[Tandja Mamadou]]
|successor =
|birth_date = 1960 or 1961
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|party = [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]]

| nickname =
| allegiance = [[Niger]]
| branch = [[Niger Army]]
| serviceyears =
| rank = [[Chef d'escadron]]
| battles =
| awards =
}}

[[Chef d'escadron]] [[Salou Djibo]] (born 1960 or 1961) is a [[Niger]]ien military officer. Following the [[2010 Niger coup d'état|military coup on 18 February 2010]], he became head of the [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]] and thus ''de facto'' leader of Niger.<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100219-est-tete-coup-detat-sont-putschistes "Un Conseil militaire prend le pouvoir au Niger"], [[Radio France International]], February 19, 2010</ref><ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lematin.ch/flash-info/monde/niger-chef-escadron-salou-djibo-president-csrd "Niger : le chef d'escadron Salou Djibo, "président" du CSRD"], [[Agence France Presse]], February 19, 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5h14_iexxU58f8laXUHC7MTdF-36w "Niger junta names leader after coup"], [[Press Association|UK Press Association]], February 19, 2010</ref>

==Background and earlier career==

Salou Djibo is 49 years old and is of [[Zarma people|Zarma]] ancestry. He was commander of the garrison at Niger's capital [[Niamey]]. He trained in [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Morocco]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]] and has served in [[United Nations]] [[peacekeeping]] forces in Côte d'Ivoire and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lepoint.fr/actualites/2010-02-19/retour-au-calme-au-niger-au-lendemain-du-coup-d-etat/1037/0/425846 "Retour au calme au Niger au lendemain du coup d'Etat"], [[Le Point]]/[[Reuters]], February 19, 2010</ref>

===Senior military commander===

Before the coup, Djibo was commander of "military zone 1", including the Niamey, Dosso and Tillaberi regions and controlled 40% of the nation's military arsenal.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523573.stm Niger's military coup is condemned by France and Africa], BBC </ref>

==Professed aims of February 2010 coup==

His [[military government]] has announced it intends to make Niger a model of democracy and good governance.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523196.stm "Military coup ousts Niger president Mamadou Tandja"], [[British Broadcasting Corporation]], February 19, 2010</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Tandja Mamadou]]|as=President of Niger}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Heads of State of Niger|President of the Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy of Niger]]|years=2010–present}}
{{s-inc}}
{{s-end}}

{{NigerPresidents}}
{{Niger-politician-stub}}
{{Africa-mil-bio-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Djibo, Salou}}

[[Category:21st-century national presidents in Africa]]
[[Category:Current national leaders]]
[[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Nigerien military personnel]]
[[Category:Presidents of Niger]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

[[de:Salou Djibo]]
[[fr:Salou Djibo]]
[[pl:Salou Djibo]]
[[ru:Джибо, Салу]]

Salou Djibo

2010-02-20T08:18:17Z

Aridd: +{{cn}} for new rank

{{Current related|article|2010 Nigerien coup d'état attempt|date=February 2010}}
{{Infobox Officeholder
|name = Salou Djibo
|office = [[President of Niger|President of the Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy of Niger]]
|term_start = 18 February 2010
|term_end =
|predecessor = [[Tandja Mamadou]]
|successor =
|birth_date = 1960 or 1961
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|party = [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]]

| nickname =
| allegiance = [[Niger]]
| branch = [[Niger Army]]
| serviceyears =
| rank = Former [[Chef d'escadron]] (major) now General{{cn}}
| battles =
| awards =
}}

[[Chef d'escadron]] [[Salou Djibo]] (born 1960 or 1961) is a [[Niger]]ien military officer. Following the [[2010 Niger coup d'état|military coup on 18 February 2010]], he became head of the [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]] and thus ''de facto'' leader of Niger.<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100219-est-tete-coup-detat-sont-putschistes "Un Conseil militaire prend le pouvoir au Niger"], [[Radio France International]], February 19, 2010</ref><ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lematin.ch/flash-info/monde/niger-chef-escadron-salou-djibo-president-csrd "Niger : le chef d'escadron Salou Djibo, "président" du CSRD"], [[Agence France Presse]], February 19, 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5h14_iexxU58f8laXUHC7MTdF-36w "Niger junta names leader after coup"], [[Press Association|UK Press Association]], February 19, 2010</ref>

==Background and earlier career==

Salou Djibo is 49 years old and is of [[Zarma people|Zarma]] ancestry. He was commander of the garrison at Niger's capital [[Niamey]]. He trained in [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Morocco]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]] and has served in [[United Nations]] [[peacekeeping]] forces in Côte d'Ivoire and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lepoint.fr/actualites/2010-02-19/retour-au-calme-au-niger-au-lendemain-du-coup-d-etat/1037/0/425846 "Retour au calme au Niger au lendemain du coup d'Etat"], [[Le Point]]/[[Reuters]], February 19, 2010</ref>

===Senior military commander===

Before the coup, Djibo was commander of "military zone 1", including the Niamey, Dosso and Tillaberi regions and controlled 40% of the nation's military arsenal.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523573.stm Niger's military coup is condemned by France and Africa], BBC </ref>

==Professed aims of February 2010 coup==

His [[military government]] has announced it intends to make Niger a model of democracy and good governance.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523196.stm "Military coup ousts Niger president Mamadou Tandja"], [[British Broadcasting Corporation]], February 19, 2010</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Tandja Mamadou]]|as=President of Niger}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Heads of State of Niger|President of the Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy of Niger]]|years=2010–present}}
{{s-inc}}
{{s-end}}

{{NigerPresidents}}
{{Niger-politician-stub}}
{{Africa-mil-bio-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Djibo, Salou}}

[[Category:21st-century national presidents in Africa]]
[[Category:Current national leaders]]
[[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Nigerien military personnel]]
[[Category:Presidents of Niger]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

[[de:Salou Djibo]]
[[fr:Salou Djibo]]
[[pl:Salou Djibo]]
[[ru:Джибо, Салу]]

Oberster Rat für die Wiederherstellung der Demokratie

2010-02-20T08:14:11Z

Aridd: Rv nonsense

{{Politics of Niger}}
The '''Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Conseil suprême pour la Restauration de la Démocratie'', or '''CSRD'''), led by [[Salou Djibo]]<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100219-est-tete-coup-detat-sont-putschistes "Un Conseil militaire prend le pouvoir au Niger"], [[Radio France International]], February 19, 2010</ref><ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lematin.ch/flash-info/monde/niger-chef-escadron-salou-djibo-president-csrd "Niger : le chef d'escadron Salou Djibo, "président" du CSRD"], [[Agence France Presse]], February 19, 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5h14_iexxU58f8laXUHC7MTdF-36w "Niger junta names leader after coup"], [[Press Association|UK Press Association]], February 19, 2010</ref>, is a [[military junta]] that [[2010 Niger coup d'état|staged a coup]] in [[Niger]] on 18 February 2010. The CSRD has stated that its objective is to make Niger an example of "democracy and good governance."<ref name=BBC>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/africa/8523196.stm</ref>

==Members==
*Col. [[Salou Djibo]], Chairman
*Col. [[Djibrilla Hima Hamidou]], had been spokesman in the 1999 coup, also head of Niger football association
*Col. [[Goukoye Abdul Karimou]], junta spokesman
*Col. [[Adamou Harouna]], aide-de-camp of 1999 coup leader Maj. Daouda Mallam Wanke.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523573.stm Niger's military coup is condemned by France and Africa], BBC</ref>

==Coup events==

The CSRD has suspended Niger's constitution and dissolved all state institutions. It has placed President [[Mamadou Tandja]] in captivity at a military barracks (18th February 2010).<ref name=BBC/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{portal|Niger|Flag of Niger.svg}}
{{Niger-stub}}

[[Category:2010 in Niger]]
[[es:Consejo Supremo para la Restauración de la Democracia]]
[[fr:Conseil suprême pour la Restauration de la Démocratie]]

Oberster Rat für die Wiederherstellung der Demokratie

2010-02-19T15:27:42Z

Aridd: rv vandalism

{{Politics of Niger}}
The '''Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Conseil suprême pour la Restauration de la Démocratie'', or '''CSRD'''), led by [[Salou Djibo]]<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100219-est-tete-coup-detat-sont-putschistes "Un Conseil militaire prend le pouvoir au Niger"], [[Radio France International]], February 19, 2010</ref><ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lematin.ch/flash-info/monde/niger-chef-escadron-salou-djibo-president-csrd "Niger : le chef d'escadron Salou Djibo, "président" du CSRD"], [[Agence France Presse]], February 19, 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5h14_iexxU58f8laXUHC7MTdF-36w "Niger junta names leader after coup"], [[Press Association|UK Press Association]], February 19, 2010</ref>, is a [[military junta]] that [[2010 Niger coup d'état|staged a coup]] in [[Niger]] on 18th February 2010. The CSRD has stated that its objective is to make Niger an example of "democracy and good governance."<ref name=BBC>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/africa/8523196.stm</ref>

==Members==
*Col. [[Salou Djibo]], Chairman
*Col. [[Djibrilla Hima Hamidou]], had been spokesman in the 1999 coup, also head of Niger football
*Col. [[Goukoye Abdul Karimou]], junta spokesman
*Col. [[Adamou Harouna]], aide-de-camp of 1999 coup leader Maj. Daouda Mallam Wanke.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523573.stm Niger's military coup is condemned by France and Africa], BBC</ref>

==Coup events==

The CSRD has suspended Niger's constitution and dissolved all state institutions. It has placed President [[Mamadou Tandja]] in captivity at a military barracks (18th February 2010).<ref name=BBC/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{portal|Niger|Flag of Niger.svg}}
{{Niger-stub}}

[[Category:2010 in Niger]]
[[es:Consejo Supremo para la Restauración de la Democracia]]
[[fr:Conseil suprême pour la Restauration de la Démocratie]]

Oberster Rat für die Wiederherstellung der Demokratie

2010-02-19T09:25:09Z

Aridd:

{{portal|Niger|Flag of Niger.svg}}

The '''Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Conseil suprême pour la Restauration de la Démocratie'', or '''CSRD'''), led by [[Salou Djibo]]<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100219-est-tete-coup-detat-sont-putschistes "Un Conseil militaire prend le pouvoir au Niger"], [[Radio France International]], February 19, 2010</ref> <ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lematin.ch/flash-info/monde/niger-chef-escadron-salou-djibo-president-csrd "Niger : le chef d'escadron Salou Djibo, "président" du CSRD"], [[Agence France Presse]], February 19, 2010</ref> <ref>[http://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5h14_iexxU58f8laXUHC7MTdF-36w "Niger junta names leader after coup"], [[Press Association|UK Press Association]], February 19, 2010</ref>, is a [[military junta]] that [[2010 Niger coup d'état|staged a coup]] in [[Niger]] on 18th February 2010. The CSRD has stated that its objective is to "make Niger an example of democracy and good governance."<ref name=BBC>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/africa/8523196.stm</ref>

==Coup events==

The CSRD has suspended Niger's constitution and dissolved all state institutions. It has placed President [[Mamadou Tandja]] in captivity at a military barracks (18th February 2010).<ref name=BBC/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Niger-stub}}

[[Category:2010 in Niger]]
[[es:Consejo Supremo para la Restauración de la Democracia]]
[[fr:Conseil suprême pour la Restauration de la Démocratie]]

Salou Djibo

2010-02-19T09:23:16Z

Aridd: + succession box

{{Current related|article|2010 Nigerien coup d'état attempt|date=February 2010}}

{{Infobox Officeholder
|name = Salou Djibo
|office = [[President of Niger]] De facto
|term_start = 18 February 2010
|term_end =
|predecessor = [[Tandja Mamadou]]
|successor =
|birth_date =
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|spouse =
|party = [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]]
}}

[[Chef d'escadron]] [[Salou Djibo]] is a [[Niger]]ien military officer. Following the [[2010 Niger coup d'état|military coup on February 18, 2010]], he became head of the [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]], and thus ''de facto'' leader of Niger.<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100219-est-tete-coup-detat-sont-putschistes "Un Conseil militaire prend le pouvoir au Niger"], [[Radio France International]], February 19, 2010</ref> <ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lematin.ch/flash-info/monde/niger-chef-escadron-salou-djibo-president-csrd "Niger : le chef d'escadron Salou Djibo, "président" du CSRD"], [[Agence France Presse]], February 19, 2010</ref> <ref>[http://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5h14_iexxU58f8laXUHC7MTdF-36w "Niger junta names leader after coup"], [[Press Association|UK Press Association]], February 19, 2010</ref>

His military government has announced it intends to make Niger a model of democracy and good governance.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523196.stm "Military coup ousts Niger president Mamadou Tandja"], [[British Broadcasting Corporation]], February 19, 2010</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
 

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Tandja Mamadou]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Heads of State of Niger|Head of State of Niger]] (''de facto'')|years=2010-present}}
{{s-inc}}
{{s-end}}

{{NigerPresidents}}
{{Niger-politician-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Djibo, Salou}}

[[Category:21st-century national presidents in Africa]]
[[Category:Current national leaders]]
[[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Nigerien military personnel]]
[[Category:Presidents of Niger]]

[[fr:Salou Djibo]]

Salou Djibo

2010-02-19T09:18:29Z

Aridd:

{{Current related|article|2010 Nigerien coup d'état attempt|date=February 2010}}

{{Infobox Officeholder
|name = Salou Djibo
|office = [[President of Niger]] De facto
|term_start = 18 February 2010
|term_end =
|predecessor = [[Tandja Mamadou]]
|successor =
|birth_date =
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|spouse =
|party = [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]]
}}

[[Chef d'escadron]] [[Salou Djibo]] is a [[Niger]]ien military officer. Following the [[2010 Niger coup d'état|military coup on February 18, 2010]], he became head of the [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]], and thus ''de facto'' leader of Niger.<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100219-est-tete-coup-detat-sont-putschistes "Un Conseil militaire prend le pouvoir au Niger"], [[Radio France International]], February 19, 2010</ref> <ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lematin.ch/flash-info/monde/niger-chef-escadron-salou-djibo-president-csrd "Niger : le chef d'escadron Salou Djibo, "président" du CSRD"], [[Agence France Presse]], February 19, 2010</ref> <ref>[http://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5h14_iexxU58f8laXUHC7MTdF-36w "Niger junta names leader after coup"], [[Press Association|UK Press Association]], February 19, 2010</ref>

His military government has announced it intends to make Niger a model of democracy and good governance.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523196.stm "Military coup ousts Niger president Mamadou Tandja"], [[British Broadcasting Corporation]], February 19, 2010</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
 

{{NigerPresidents}}
{{Niger-politician-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Djibo, Salou}}

[[Category:21st-century national presidents in Africa]]
[[Category:Current national leaders]]
[[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Nigerien military personnel]]
[[Category:Presidents of Niger]]

[[fr:Salou Djibo]]

Salou Djibo

2010-02-19T09:07:15Z

Aridd: + new source in English. (Wikipedia is faster than the UKPA! :p)

{{Current related|article|2010 Nigerien coup d'état attempt|date=February 2010}}

{{Infobox Officeholder
|name = Salou Djibo
|office = [[President of Niger]] De facto
|term_start = 18 February 2010
|term_end =
|predecessor = [[Tandja Mamadou]]
|successor =
|birth_date =
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|spouse =
|party = [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]]
}}

[[Chef d'escadron]] [[Salou Djibo]] is a [[Niger]]ien military officer. Following the [[2010 Niger coup d'état|military coup on February 18, 2010]], he became head of the [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]], and thus ''de facto'' leader of Niger.<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100219-est-tete-coup-detat-sont-putschistes "Un Conseil militaire prend le pouvoir au Niger"], [[Radio France International]], February 19, 2010</ref> <ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lematin.ch/flash-info/monde/niger-chef-escadron-salou-djibo-president-csrd "Niger : le chef d'escadron Salou Djibo, "président" du CSRD"], [[Agence France Presse]], February 19, 2010</ref> <ref>[http://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5h14_iexxU58f8laXUHC7MTdF-36w "Niger junta names leader after coup"], [[Press Association|UK Press Association]], February 19, 2010</ref>

His military government has announced it intends to make Niger a model of democracy and good governance.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523196.stm "Military coup ousts Niger president Mamadou Tandja"], [[British Broadcasting Corporation]], February 19, 2010</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
 

{{NigerPresidents}}
{{Niger-politician-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Djibo, Salou}}

[[Category:21st-century national presidents in Africa]]
[[Category:Current national leaders]]
[[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Military by country]]
[[Category:Military in Africa]]
[[Category:Nigerien military personnel]]
[[Category:Presidents of Niger]]

[[fr:Salou Djibo]]

Salou Djibo

2010-02-19T08:55:29Z

Aridd: + infobox

{{Current related|article|2010 Nigerien coup d'état attempt|date=February 2010}}

{{Infobox Officeholder
|name = Salou Djibo
|office = [[President of Niger]] De facto
|term_start = 18 February 2010
|term_end =
|predecessor = [[Tandja Mamadou]]
|successor =
|birth_date =
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|spouse =
|party = [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]]
}}

[[Chef d'escadron]] [[Salou Djibo]] is a [[Niger]]ien military officer. Following the [[2010 Niger coup d'état|military coup on February 18, 2010]], he became head of the [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]], and thus ''de facto'' leader of Niger.<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100219-est-tete-coup-detat-sont-putschistes "Un Conseil militaire prend le pouvoir au Niger"], [[Radio France International]], February 19, 2010</ref> <ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lematin.ch/flash-info/monde/niger-chef-escadron-salou-djibo-president-csrd "Niger : le chef d'escadron Salou Djibo, "président" du CSRD"], [[Agence France Presse]], February 19, 2010</ref>

His military government has announced it intends to make Niger a model of democracy and good governance.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523196.stm "Military coup ousts Niger president Mamadou Tandja"], [[British Broadcasting Corporation]], February 19, 2010</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
 

{{NigerPresidents}}
{{Niger-politician-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Djibo, Salou}}

[[Category:21st-century national presidents in Africa]]
[[Category:Current national leaders]]
[[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Military by country]]
[[Category:Military in Africa]]
[[Category:Nigerien military personnel]]
[[Category:Presidents of Niger]]

[[fr:Salou Djibo]]

Salou Djibo

2010-02-19T08:53:50Z

Aridd: ←Created page with '{{Current related|article|2010 Nigerien coup d'état attempt|date=February 2010}} Chef d'escadron Salou Djibo is a Nigerien military officer. Following...'

{{Current related|article|2010 Nigerien coup d'état attempt|date=February 2010}}

[[Chef d'escadron]] [[Salou Djibo]] is a [[Niger]]ien military officer. Following the [[2010 Niger coup d'état|military coup on February 18, 2010]], he became head of the [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]], and thus ''de facto'' leader of Niger.<ref>{{fr}} [http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100219-est-tete-coup-detat-sont-putschistes "Un Conseil militaire prend le pouvoir au Niger"], [[Radio France International]], February 19, 2010</ref> <ref>{{fr}} [http://www.lematin.ch/flash-info/monde/niger-chef-escadron-salou-djibo-president-csrd "Niger : le chef d'escadron Salou Djibo, "président" du CSRD"], [[Agence France Presse]], February 19, 2010</ref>

His military government has announced it intends to make Niger a model of democracy and good governance.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523196.stm "Military coup ousts Niger president Mamadou Tandja"], [[British Broadcasting Corporation]], February 19, 2010</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
 

{{NigerPresidents}}
{{Niger-politician-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Djibo, Salou}}

[[Category:21st-century national presidents in Africa]]
[[Category:Current national leaders]]
[[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Military by country]]
[[Category:Military in Africa]]
[[Category:Nigerien military personnel]]
[[Category:Presidents of Niger]]

[[fr:Salou Djibo]]

Oberster Rat für die Wiederherstellung der Demokratie

2010-02-19T08:00:54Z

Aridd: Created French version stub.

{{portal|Niger|Flag of Niger.svg}}

The '''Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy''' (or '''CSRD'''), led by [[Adamou Harouna]]<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20100218/ap_on_re_af/af_niger</ref>, is a [[military junta]] that [[2010 Niger coup d'état|staged a coup]] in [[Niger]] on 18th February 2010. The CSRD has stated that its objective is to "make Niger an example of democracy and good governance."<ref name=BBC>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/africa/8523196.stm</ref>

==Coup events==

The CSRD has suspended Niger's constitution and dissolved all state institutions. It has placed President [[Mamadou Tandja]] in captivity at a military barracks (18th February 2010).<ref name=BBC/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Niger-stub}}

[[Category:2010 in Niger]]
[[es:Consejo Supremo para la Restauración de la Democracia]]
[[fr:Conseil suprême pour la Restauration de la Démocratie]]

Tuvalu National Library and Archives

2009-07-17T22:31:31Z

Aridd: moved National Library and Archives of Tuvalu to Tuvalu National Library and Archives

The '''Tuvalu National Library and Archives''' (TNLA) is the [[national library]] of [[Tuvalu]]. It is located in [[Funafuti]].<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/about/policies/endangeredarch/2006/rovery.html "Tuvalu National Archives major project"], [[British Library]]</ref> <ref>[http://www.ica.org/en/member/natonal_library_and_archives,_tuvalu International Council on Archives]</ref>

The TNLA holds "vital documentation on the cultural, social and political heritage of Tuvalu", including surviving records from the [[Gilbert and Ellice Islands|colonial]] administration, as well as Tuvalu government archives.<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/about/policies/endangeredarch/2006/rovery.html "Tuvalu National Archives major project"], British Library</ref>

The Library's archives have been described as "comparatively well housed" but "endangered [...] through frequent and heavy use and [...] through risk of being washed away in a cyclone-prone area. Environmental and handling damage is occurring to key customary records". This has resulted in a project to [[microfilm]] and digitally copy the archives.<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/about/policies/endangeredarch/2006/rovery.html "Tuvalu National Archives major project"], British Library</ref> <ref>[http://rspas.anu.edu.au/pambu/newsletters/Pambu20%2005Dec.htm "Report on PMB fieldwork in Tuvalu and Niue, Sep-Oct 2005"], ''Pacific Manuscripts Bureau Newsletter'', series 5, n°20, December 2005</ref>

Mila Tulimanu, of the Ministry of Education and Culture<ref>[http://www.archivenet.gov.au/archives/PARBICA/MembersOnly/MemberDirectory/PARBICA%20Membership%20Directory%20September%202007.doc Pacific Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives]</ref>, serves as National Librarian and Archivist.<ref>[http://www.ica.org/en/member/natonal_library_and_archives,_tuvalu International Council on Archives]</ref> <ref>[http://www.bl.uk/about/policies/endangeredarch/2006/rovery.html "Tuvalu National Archives major project"], British Library</ref>

==External link==
* [http://www.bl.uk/popups/tuvalunlalge.html Image of the National Library building], on the [[British Library]] website

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:National libraries|Tuvalu]]
[[Category:Libraries in Tuvalu]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Tuvalu]]
[[Category:Research libraries]]

Tuvalu National Library and Archives

2009-07-17T22:30:23Z

Aridd: ←Created page with 'The '''Tuvalu National Library and Archives''' (TNLA) is the national library of Tuvalu. It is located in Funafuti.<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/about/policies...'

Benutzerin Diskussion:Mme Mim/alt

2009-07-06T13:52:43Z

Aridd: /* Aborigines */

{{Archivübersicht|
*[[/Archiv|Archiv]]
}}

== Bathurst War ==
Es gibt einen Bathurst-War, ein Bathurst Massaker im Artikel [[Liste der Massaker der Aborigines ]] und [[Wiradjuri-War]] und im Artikel [[Windradyne]] nochmal. Ich komme nicht weiter, was stimmt nun???-- [[Benutzer:Roll-Stone|Roll-Stone]] 10:33, 26. Apr. 2009 (CEST)
:muss ich mal meine Nase reinstecken. [[Benutzer:Schomynv|schomynv]] 02:00, 28. Apr. 2009 (CEST)
::beim schnellen Googeln in Books: der Wiradjuri-War war von 1838 bis 1840 und ist ein anderer Konfolikt als das Bathurst-Massaker an den Bell-Falls von 1824. Einen Bathurst War habe ich nicht gefunden. Insgesamt scheint es in der Gegend aber einen andauernden Konflikt gegeben zu haben. Wenn ich wieder Zeit habe: versprochen! [[Benutzer:Schomynv|schomynv]] 02:32, 28. Apr. 2009 (CEST)

Ist soweit nun geklärt.--[[Benutzer:Roll-Stone|Roll-Stone]] 13:39, 31. Mai 2009 (CEST)

:Ich vergaß: Als Bathurst Wars wird wohl die Zeit definiert seit dem 14. August 1824 als der Governor Brisbane das Kriegsrecht ausrief und es zur Eskalation im September und November kam. Siehe hier [http://books.google.com/books?id=DLz6LJBgYHcC&pg=PA51&dq=1884+battle+mountain&ei=O16iSZG-K5ykkQSlyMmNAg#PPA5,M1]. Es gibt weitere Begriffe dafür. Ich habe Bathurst Wars als Unterabschnitt beim [[Windradyne]]-Artikel verlinkt. Es gibt noch weitere Begriffe. Schau mal bitte bei Windradyne drüber. Gruß--[[Benutzer:Roll-Stone|Roll-Stone]] 12:30, 2. Jun. 2009 (CEST)

== Pearl Gibbs ==

Hallo! Interessante Aborigine-Frau, möglichweise die erste frauenbewegte. Wenn Du Deine Brötchen wieder verdient hast: Übersetzung lohnt sich und ist in der Zeltbotschaft verlinkt. Hat aber Zeit. Zeltbotschaft war in Schon gewusst.-- [[Benutzer:Roll-Stone|Roll-Stone]] 00:02, 30. Apr. 2009 (CEST)

Hast Du noch Zeit die interessante Dame nach good old germany zu bringen - ist doch nur ein kurzer Text. Hoffe, dass sonst alles bei Dir klar geht und wünsche frohe Pfingsten und wie Du weißt... an Pfingsten waren die Geschenke immer am geringsten .. (frei nach Kindergedichten von B.Brecht. Gruß--[[Benutzer:Roll-Stone|Roll-Stone]] 13:39, 31. Mai 2009
(CEST)

::ja, werde ich noch machen, nur nicht heute und morgen und.. Aber dann. Komisch, dass Pfingsten ist, merke ich hier gar nicht. Wir haben dafuer naechsten Montag frei wegen Queen's birthday.
::Ich habe mit Freude die Artikel ueber das diverse Buschgemuese gelesen (und mit Aerger den LA gesehen). Du bringst Oz wirklich vorwaerts! Ich schmoekere weiterhin mit, an manchen Tagen mehr, an anderen gar nicht. Talk soon [[Benutzer:Schomynv|schomynv]] 11:42, 3. Jun. 2009 (CEST)

:::Tja, bei Vitamin C-Mangel auf zu den Aussis ;-). Möglicherweise gibt es noch mehr Überraschung beim bush tucker. Ich habe vom Gemüse keine Ahnung und hab einfach dreixGemüse versucht aus der en.Wp zu übersetzen, obwohl ich kein Vegetarier bin. Jetzt mümmelt das Gemüse, eins als LA und zwei als QS bei den Bios rum. Das qualifizierte Biologenportal macht schon was draus. Mal sehen, was die rauskriegen, ob die Tomate ne Tomate oder was ganz anderes ist und dann noch die Buschbanane, die keine Banane ist. Die Buschpflaume war ne echte Überraschung. Das stopf ich mal in geringer Menge in mich rein, kann man im Internet bestellen - teuer! Das hätte Dir bei Deiner Grippeattacke möglicherweise geholfen. Aber wem sag ich das, der im med. Bereich tätig ist. Die Buschbohnen gibt es auch noch, die hab ich mal durchgegoogelt, aber da lass ich die Finger von. Da gibt es wenig Infos. Die spielt wohl in Abo-Kunst ne gewisse Rolle. Hast irgendwo einen Aussi-Gemüsefan, der fachlich mehr bei WP in dieser Richtung machen könnte oder ne Idee wie man einen Fachbiologen anzapfen kann? Auf zu neuen Taten!--[[Benutzer:Roll-Stone|Roll-Stone]] 12:37, 3. Jun. 2009 (CEST)

::::Kannst Du die Übersetzung der Dame bitte noch machen ??? Beste Grüße und vielen Dank für Deine Nachsichtungen! --[[Benutzer:Roll-Stone|Roll-Stone]] 12:21, 4. Jul. 2009 (CEST)
:::::seufz...ja, wenn ich mal Lust habe... (Wikipedia zahlt einfach zu wenig als dass es bei mir um was anderes als um Lust gehen koennte) ist ja nicht so, dass was anbrennt, wenn sie nicht in de:WP steht. Wenn es Dir eilt, dann wirst Du es selber machen muessen, wenn es Dir nicht eilt, wird es schon mal kommen. Ich brauche nur eine Geschaeftsreise mit langweiligen Abend im Hotel und ohne Internetanschluss. Gruss [[Benutzer:Schomynv|schomynv]] 04:05, 5. Jul. 2009 (CEST)

Stöhn... Die Dame schimmelt schon auf Deiner Benutzer-Übersetzungswerkstatt-Import-Seite. Der Text ist ganz kurz und das machst Du locker in 10 Minuten, ich brauche wesentlich länger. Ich bin bei meiner Rundreise zurück zur Politik wieder auf sie gestoßen und sie ist interessant. Wenn Du sie nicht mehr übersetzen willst, musst Du sie halt bei Dir löschen und ich glaube auch auf der irgendeiner Importseite. Aber bei letzterem bin ich unsicher. Gruß an den homo ökonomikus australisensis;-)--[[Benutzer:Roll-Stone|Roll-Stone]] 10:12, 5. Jul. 2009 (CEST)

:Du Optimist; es waren 42 Minuten... der Schimmel hat mich ueberzeugt; mir Bits und Bytes in Gruen vorzustellen war zu lustig. Gruss [[Benutzer:Schomynv|schomynv]] 11:09, 5. Jul. 2009 (CEST)

::Na also, dann hast Du nun ein Guthaben von 32 Minuten für einen Artikelwunsch bei mir. In good old Germany leuchtet die Sonne und Gruß um die halbe Welt--[[Benutzer:Roll-Stone|Roll-Stone]] 11:18, 5. Jul. 2009 (CEST)

== [[Aborigines]] ==

Nice! Beim Lesen dachte ich spontan an [[Yothu Yindi]] und [[Rabbit-Proof Fence]] resp. [[Long Walk Home]], und siehe da, auch das ist ge-covered. Danke auch fuer Deine Durchsicht der [[Luftangriffe auf das Ruhrgebiet]]. :) [[Benutzer:Dr-Victor-von-Doom|DVvD]] 02:46, 21. Mai 2009 (CEST)
:pleasure, werde es mir bei Gelgenheit noch einmal vornehmen. (Im Momnet hat eine Grippe meine Gehirnfunktion komplett lahmgelegt.) Die ganze Kunst und Kultur stammt uebrigens aus der Feder von [[Benutzzer:Roll-Stone]]; er wird sich sicher freuen, das zu lesen! [[Benutzer:Schomynv|schomynv]] 22:56, 25. Mai 2009 (CEST)
::Hoffentlich kein Swine-Flu? :|[[Benutzer:Dr-Victor-von-Doom|DVvD]] 04:47, 4. Jun. 2009 (CEST)

Guten Abend. Sie haben mir im franzosichen Wikipedia geschrieben, um der Aborigines. Was könnte ich für ihnen tun? And now I'll switch to English. ;) I got your message, and I'd be pleased to help in any way I can. Is there anything specific I could do? [[Benutzer:Aridd|Aridd]] 15:52, 6. Jul. 2009 (CEST)

Astrid Lulling

2009-06-06T12:45:23Z

Aridd: Created French version stub.

{{Cleanup|date=June 2007}}
'''Astrid Lulling''' (born [[11 June]] [[1929]] in [[Schifflange]]) is a politician in [[Luxembourg]], and a [[Member of the European Parliament]] (1965-1974 and since 1989) for the [[Christian Social People's Party]], part of the [[European People's Party]].

== Current positions held ==
* Vice-Chair, the [[ACP-EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly]]

* Member, Quaestor, [[Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs]]
* Member, Quaestor, [[Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality]]

* Substitute, [[Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development]]
* Substitute, Delegation for relations with the countries of [[Central America]]

== Curriculum vitae ==

:* Studied political economy at the [[University of Saarbrücken]] (1953-1955).

:* Secretary and editor of the Lëtzebuerger Arbechter-Verband (1949-1963).

:* Worked for the Miners and Metalworkers Contact Office with the [[European Coal and Steel Community|ECSC]], Luxembourg (1950-1958).

:* Chairwoman of Socialist Women, [[Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party]] (1963-1971).

:* Member of the [[Social Democratic Party (Luxembourg)|Social Democratic Party]] (PSD) executive committee (1971-1982).

:* Member and Vice-Chairwoman of the Luxembourg-Centre section of the PCS (1984-2004).

:* Member of the National Christian Social Women's Committee (since 1984).

:* Secretary-General of the Unions of Agricultural Workers and of Food Industry Workers, at the European Community Trade Union Secretariat in Brussels (1963-1971).

:* Member of [[Schifflange communal council]] (1970-2000).

:* Mayor of [[Schifflange]] (1970-1985).

:* Chairwoman of the PSD parliamentary group in the [[Chamber of Deputies of Luxembourg|Chamber of Deputies]] (1974-1979).

:* Member of the Bureau of the Chamber of Deputies (1984-1988).

:* Member of the Consumers' Consultative Committee, European Commission (1974-1982).

:* [[Member of the European Parliament]] (1965-1974 and since 1989).

==Decorations==
:* Commander of the [[Order of Merit of the Republic]] ([[Italy]])
:* Grand Officer of the [[Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg]] ([[Luxembourg]])
:* Grand Officer of the [[Order of the Oak Crown]] ([[Luxembourg]])

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Luxembourg}}
:* [http://www.astridlulling.com AstridLulling.com - the official site]
:* [http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Astrid+Lulling Astrid Lulling TV - TV Shows with Astrid Lulling on Google Video]
:* [http://www.luxdico.com Luxdico.com - luxembourgish dictionary. Patronage: Astrid Lulling]
:* [http://news.ft.com/cms/s/72087e7e-e3af-11da-a015-0000779e2340.html Strasbourg loses allure as 'shuttle democracy' host - Astrid Lulling in the Financial Times (5/15/05)]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lulling, Astrid}}
[[Category:MEPs representing the Luxembourg constituency serving 2004-2009]]
[[Category:MEPs representing the Luxembourg constituency serving before 2004]]
[[Category:Luxembourg Chamber of Deputies members]]
[[Category:Councillors in Schifflange]]
[[Category:Politicians from the Christian Social People's Party]]
[[Category:Politicians from the Social Democratic Party (Luxembourg)]]
[[Category:Politicians from the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party]]
[[Category:Luxembourgian women in politics]]
[[Category:Order of the Oak Crown recipients]]
[[Category:1929 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Schifflange]]

{{MEP-stub}}
{{Luxembourg-politician-stub}}

[[fr:Astrid Lulling]]
[[lb:Astrid Lulling]]
[[nl:Astrid Lulling]]
[[ro:Astrid Lulling]]

Tangaroa Tangaroa

2009-05-30T14:40:53Z

Aridd: internal link

Sir '''Tangaroa Tangaroa''', born in 1920 or 1921<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=46844 "Funeral planned for Cooks leader Sir Tangaroa"], Radio New Zealand International, May 30, 2009</ref>, was a [[Cook Islands]] [[politician]].

He was elected to the country's [[Parliament_of_the_Cook_Islands#History|first Legislative Assembly]], and subsequently served as member for [[Penrhyn]] in the [[Parliament of the Cook Islands]]. A member of the [[Democratic Party (Cook Islands)|Democratic Party]], he served in [[Cook Islands Cabinet|Cabinet]] in the late 1970s.<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=46844 "Funeral planned for Cooks leader Sir Tangaroa"], Radio New Zealand International, May 30, 2009</ref>

In 1985, he was the first Cook Islander to be appointed [[Queen's Representative]]. He held the position until 1990.<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=46844 "Funeral planned for Cooks leader Sir Tangaroa"], Radio New Zealand International, May 30, 2009</ref>

The Cook Islands government website points out that he "has the distinction of being the only Cook Islander to have been [[knighthood|knighted]] by Queen [[Elizabeth II]] at [[Buckingham Palace]]".<ref>[http://www.cook-islands.gov.ck/view_release.php?release_id=413 "Ariki speech highlights special links"], Cook Islands government website, December 1, 2003</ref>

Sir Tangaroa died in [[New Zealand]] in late May 2009. He will receive a [[state funeral]] on [[Rarotonga]].<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=46844 "Funeral planned for Cooks leader Sir Tangaroa"], Radio New Zealand International, May 30, 2009</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1920s births]]
[[Category:2009 deaths]]
[[Category:Cook Island politicians]]
[[Category:Members of the Cook Islands Parliament]]

{{CookIslands-politician-stub}}

Tangaroa Tangaroa

2009-05-30T09:37:35Z

Aridd: ←Created page with 'Sir '''Tangaroa Tangaroa''', born in 1920 or 1921<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=46844 "Funeral planned for Cooks leader Sir Tangaroa"], Radio N…'

Sir '''Tangaroa Tangaroa''', born in 1920 or 1921<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=46844 "Funeral planned for Cooks leader Sir Tangaroa"], Radio New Zealand International, May 30, 2009</ref>, was a [[Cook Islands]] [[politician]].

He was elected to the country's [[Parliament_of_the_Cook_Islands#History|first Legislative Assembly]], and subsequently served as member for [[Penrhyn]] in the [[Parliament of the Cook Islands]]. A member of the [[Democratic Party (Cook Islands)|Democratic Party]], he served in [[Cook Islands Cabinet|Cabinet]] in the late 1970s.<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=46844 "Funeral planned for Cooks leader Sir Tangaroa"], Radio New Zealand International, May 30, 2009</ref>

In 1985, he was the first Cook Islander to be appointed [[Queen's Representative]]. He held the position until 1990.<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=46844 "Funeral planned for Cooks leader Sir Tangaroa"], Radio New Zealand International, May 30, 2009</ref>

The Cook Islands government website points out that he "has the distinction of being the only Cook Islander to have been knighted by Queen [[Elizabeth II]] at [[Buckingham Palace]]".<ref>[http://www.cook-islands.gov.ck/view_release.php?release_id=413 "Ariki speech highlights special links"], Cook Islands government website, December 1, 2003</ref>

Sir Tangaroa died in [[New Zealand]] in late May 2009. He will receive a [[state funeral]] on [[Rarotonga]].<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=46844 "Funeral planned for Cooks leader Sir Tangaroa"], Radio New Zealand International, May 30, 2009</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1920s births]]
[[Category:2009 deaths]]
[[Category:Cook Island politicians]]
[[Category:Members of the Cook Islands Parliament]]

{{CookIslands-politician-stub}}

Unterschwelliger Reiz

2009-05-28T08:06:17Z

Aridd: /* Instances */ Removing unsourced claim which might be deemed slanderous, as per policy.

{{Hidden messages}}

A '''subliminal message''' is a signal or message embedded in another medium, designed to pass below the normal limits of the human [[mind]]'s perception. These messages are unrecognizable by the [[conscious]] mind, but in certain situations can affect the [[subconscious]] mind and can negatively or positively influence subsequent later thoughts, behaviors, actions, attitudes, belief systems and value systems. The term ''subliminal'' means "beneath a [[limen]]" ([[sensory threshold]]). This is from the Latin words ''sub'', meaning under, and ''limen'', meaning threshold.

== Origin ==
[[E. W. Scripture]] published ''[[The New Psychology]]'' in 1898, which described the basic principles of subliminal messages.<ref name="straightdope">{{cite web|title=The Straight Dope: Does subliminal advertising work?|publisher=[[The Straight Dope]]|url=http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_187.html|accessdate=2006-08-11}}</ref>

In 1900, Knight Dunlap, an American professor of [[psychology]], flashed an "imperceptible shadow" to subjects while showing them a [[Müller-Lyer illusion]] containing two lines with pointed arrows at both ends which create an [[illusion]] of different lengths. Dunlap claimed that the shadow influenced his subjects subliminally in their judgment of the lengths of the lines.

Although these results were not verified in a scientific study, American psychologist [[Harry Levi Hollingworth]] reported in an advertising [[textbook]] that such subliminal messages could be used by advertisers.<ref name="persuasion">{{cite news|work=[[Skeptical Inquirer]]|date=Spring 1992|publisher=[[Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]]|title=The Cargo-Cult Science of Subliminal Persuasion|pages=260-272|last=Pratkanis|first=Anthony R.|url=http://www.csicop.org/si/9204/subliminal-persuasion.html|accessdate=2006-08-11}}</ref>

== Further developments ==
During World War II, the [[tachistoscope]], an instrument which projects pictures for an extremely brief period, was used to train soldiers to recognize enemy airplanes.<ref name="straightdope" /> Today the tachistoscope is used to increase reading speed or to test sight.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=tachistoscope tachistoscope - Definitions from Dictionary.com]</ref>

In 1957, market researcher [[James Vicary]] claimed that quickly flashing messages on a movie screen, in Fort Lee, New Jersey, had influenced people to purchase more food and drinks. Vicary coined the term ''subliminal advertising'' and formed the Subliminal Projection Company based on a six-week test. Vicary claimed that during the presentation of the movie [[Picnic (film)|Picnic]] he used a tachistoscope to project the words "Drink [[Coca-Cola]]" and "Hungry? Eat popcorn" for 1/3000 of a second at five-second intervals. Vicary asserted that during the test, sales of popcorn and Coke in that New Jersey theater increased 57.8 percent and 18.1 percent respectively.<ref name="straightdope" /><ref name="snopes">{{cite web|title=Urban Legends Reference Pages: Business (Subliminal Advertising)|publisher=The [[Urban Legends Reference Pages]]|url=http://www.snopes.com/business/hidden/popcorn.asp|accessdate=2006-08-11}}</ref>

It was later revealed, however, that Vicary lied about the experiment. He admitted to falsifying the results, and an identical experiment conducted by [[Dr. Henry Link]] showed no increase in cola or popcorn sales. This has led people to believe that Vicary actually did not conduct his experiment at all.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/business/hidden/popcorn.asp Urban Legends Reference Pages: Subliminal Advertising]</ref>

Vicary's claims were promoted in [[Vance Packard]]'s book ''The Hidden Persuaders'',<ref name="lantos">{{cite web |last=Lantos |first=Geoffrey P. |title=The Absolute Threshold Level and Subliminal Messages |publisher=[[Stonehill College]] |url=http://faculty.stonehill.edu/glantos/Lantos1/PDF_Folder/BA344_PDF/Exercise%2046.pdf|format=[[PDF]] |accessdate=2007-03-01}}</ref> and led to a public outcry, and to many [[conspiracy theories]] of governments and cults using the technique to their advantage.{{cite web |title=Subliminal messages in movies and media |url=http://www.chokingonpopcorn.com/popcorn/?p=391 |accessdate=2008-05-21}}{{Fact|date=March 2007}} The practice of subliminal advertising was subsequently banned in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]],<ref name="persuasion" /> and by American networks and the [[National Association of Broadcasters]] in 1958.<ref name="snopes" />

But in 1958, Vicary conducted a television test in which he flashed the message "telephone now" hundreds of times during a [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] program, and found no increase in telephone calls. In 1962, Vicary admitted that he fabricated his claim, the story itself being a marketing ploy.<ref>Boese, Alex (2002). ''The Museum of Hoaxes: A Collection of Pranks, Stunts, Deceptions, and Other Wonderful Stories Contrived for the Public from the Middle Ages to the New Millennium'', [[E. P. Dutton]], ISBN 0-525-94678-0. pages. 137-38.</ref> Efforts to replicate the results of Vicary's reports have never resulted in success.<ref name="straightdope" />

In 1973, commercials in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] for the game ''[[Husker Du? (game)|Hūsker Dū?]]'' flashed the message "Get it".<ref name="lantos" /> During the same year, [[Wilson Bryan Key]]'s book ''[[Wilson Bryan Key#Bibliography|Subliminal Seduction]]'' claimed that subliminal techniques were widely used in advertising.<ref name="snopes" /> Public concern was sufficient to cause the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] to hold hearings in 1974. The hearings resulted in an FCC policy statement stating that subliminal advertising was "contrary to the public interest" and "intended to be deceptive".<ref name="snopes" /> Subliminal advertising was also banned in Canada following the broadcasting of Hūsker Dū? ads there.<ref name="straightdope" />

A study conducted by the [[United Nations]] concluded that "the cultural implications of subliminal indoctrination is a major threat to human rights throughout the world."<ref>{{cite book |last= Hammarskjol |first=Dag |title= 31st Session, 7 October 1974, E/Cn.4/1142/Add 2. |publisher=United Nations Human Rights Commission |year=1974}}</ref>

In 1985, Dr. Joe Stuessy testified to the [[United States Senate]] at the [[Parents Music Resource Center]] hearings that:
<blockquote>
The message of a piece of [[heavy metal music]]] may also be covert or subliminal. Sometimes subaudible tracks are mixed in underneath other, louder tracks. These are heard by the subconscious but not the conscious mind. Sometimes the messages are audible but are backwards, called [[backmasking]]. There is disagreement among experts regarding the effectiveness of subliminals. We need more research on that.<ref>U.S. Senate, page 118.</ref>
</blockquote>
Stuessy's written testimony stated that:
<blockquote>
Some messages are presented to the listener backwards. While listening to a normal forward message (usually nonsensical), one is simultaneously being treated to a back-wards message. Some experts believe that while the conscious mind is trying to absorb the forward lyric, the subconscious is working overtime to decipher the backwards message.<ref>U.S. Senate, page 125.</ref>
</blockquote>

== Effectiveness ==
=== Visual ===
Used in advertising to create familiarity with new products, subliminal messages make familiarity into a preference for the new products. Dr. [[Johan Karremans]] suggests that subliminal messages have an effect when the messages are goal-relevant.<ref>Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2006</ref> Karremans did a study assessing whether subliminal priming of a brand name of a drink would affect a person’s choice of drink, and whether this effect is caused by the individual’s feelings of being thirsty.

His study sought to ascertain whether or not subliminally priming or preparing the participant with text or an image without being aware of it would make the partaker more familiar with the product. Half of his participants were subliminally primed with [[Lipton]] Ice ("Lipton Ice" was repeatedly flashed on a computer screen for 24 milliseconds), while the other half was primed with a control that did not consist of a brand. In his study he found that subliminally priming a brand name of a drink (Lipton Ice) made those who were thirsty want the Lipton Ice. Those who were not thirsty, however, were not influenced by the subliminal message since their goal was not to quench their thirst.<ref> Karremans, J. (2006). Beyond vicary’s fantasies: the impact of subliminal priming and brand choice [Electronic Version]. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 792-798 </ref>

Subconscious stimulus by single words is well known to be modestly effective in changing human behavior or emotions. This is evident by a pictorial advertisement that portrays four different types of rum. The phrase "U Buy" was embedded somewhere, backwards in the picture. A study (Key, 1973)<ref>Key, W. B. (1973). Subliminal seduction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</ref> was done to test the effectiveness of the alcohol ad. Before the study, participants were able to try to identify any hidden message in the ad, none found any. In the end, the study showed 80% of the subjects unconsciously perceived the backward message, meaning they showed a preference for that particular rum.
Though many things can be perceived from subliminal messages, only a couple words or a single image of unconscious signals can be internalized. As only a word or image can be effectively perceived, the simpler features of that image or word will cause a change in behavior (i.e., beef is related to hunger). This was demonstrated by Byrne in 1959. The word "[[beef]]" was flashed for several, five millisecond intervals during a sixteen-minute movie to experimental subjects, while nothing was flashed to controlled subjects. Neither the experimental nor controlled subjects reported for a higher preference for beef sandwiches when given a list of five different foods, but the experimental subjects did rate themselves as hungrier than the controlled subjects when given a survey <ref>Byrne, D. (1959). "The effect of a subliminal food stimulus on verbal responses." Journal of Applied Psychology. 43 (no.4), 249-251.</ref> If the subjects were flashed a whole sentence, the words would not be perceived and no effect would be expected.

In 2007, to mark the 50th anniversary of James Vicary's original experiment, it was recreated at the International Brand Marketing Conference MARKA 2007<ref>[http://www.markaconference.com/lang_id2/index.html Marka conference.com]</ref>. As part of the "Hypnosis, subconscious triggers and branding" presentation 1,400 delegates watched part the opening credits of the film PICNIC that was used in the original experiment. They were exposed to 30 subliminal cuts over a 90 second period. When asked to choose one of two brands 81% of the delegates picked the brand suggested by the subliminal cuts.

Studies in 2004 and 2006 showed that subliminal exposure to images of frightened faces or faces of people from another race will increase the activity of the [[amygdala]] in the brain and also increase [[Galvanic skin response|skin conductance]].<ref>{{Cite journal
| volume = 27
| issue = 8
| pages = 652–661
| last = Williams
| first = Leanne M.
| coauthors = Belinda J. Liddell, Andrew H. Kemp, Richard A. Bryant, Russell A. Meares, Anthony S. Peduto, Evian Gordon
| title = Amygdala-prefrontal dissociation of subliminal and supraliminal fear
| journal = Human Brain Mapping
| accessdate = 2008-01-16
| year = 2006
| doi = 10.1002/hbm.20208
}}</ref>
<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/12/041208231237.htm Brain Activity Reflects Complexity Of Responses To Other-race Faces], ''Science Daily'', 14 December 2004</ref>

In 2007, it was shown that subliminal exposure to the [[Israeli flag]] had a moderating effect on the political opinions and voting behaviors of Israeli volunteers. This effect was not present when a jumbled picture of the flag was subliminally shown.<ref>Hassin, Ferguson, Shidlovski, Gross (2007). [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/50/19757 Subliminal exposure to national flags affects political thought and behavior]. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA'', vol. 104, no. 50</ref>

=== Audio ===
[[Image:Sox Satanic Subliminals.png|thumb|right|200px|The [[manpage]] for the popular sound program [[SoX]] pokes fun at subliminal messages. The description of the "reverse" option says "Included for finding satanic subliminals."]]
[[Backmasking]], an audio technique in which sounds are recorded backwards onto a track that is meant to be played forwards, produces messages that sound like gibberish to the conscious mind. [[Gary Greenwald]], a [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist Christian]] preacher, claims that these messages can be heard subliminally, and can induce listeners towards, in the case of [[rock music]], sex and [[Drug abuse|drug use]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Psychological Sketches|editors=John R. Vokey and Scott W. Allen|edition=6th edition|year=2002|publisher=Psyence Ink|location=Lethbridge, Alberta|chapter=Subliminal Messages|pages=223–246|last=Vokey|first=John R.|url=http://people.uleth.ca/~vokey/pdf/Submess.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2006-07-05}}</ref> However, this is not generally accepted as fact.<ref>{{cite web|title=Backmasking on records: Real, or hoax?|last=Robinson|first=B.A.|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_cul5.htm|accessdate=2006-07-04}}</ref>

Following the 1950s subliminal message panic, many businesses have sprung up purporting to offer helpful subliminal audio tapes that supposedly improve the health of the listener. However, there is no evidence for the therapeutic effectiveness of such tapes.<ref>{{cite news|work=[[Skeptical Inquirer]]|date=Spring 1992|publisher=[[Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]]|title=Subliminal Perception: Facts and Fallacies|pages=273-81|last=Moore|first=Timothy E.|url=http://www.csicop.org/si/9204/subliminal-perception.html|accessdate=2006-08-11}}</ref>

Campaigners have suggested subliminal messages appear in music. In 1985, two young men - James Vance and Raymond Belknap, attempted suicide. At the time of the shootings, Belknap died instantly. Vance was severely injured and survived. Their families were convinced it was because of a British rock band, [[Judas Priest#Subliminal message trial|Judas Priest]]. The families claimed subliminal messages told listeners to "do it" in the song "''Better by You, Better Than Me''". The case was taken to court and the families sought more than US$6 million in damages. The judge, Jerry Carr Whitehead said that freedom of speech protections would not apply to subliminal messages. He said he was not convinced the hidden messages actually existed on the album, but left the argument to attorneys<ref>http://www.totse.com/en/ego/can_you_dance_to_it/jud-prst.html</ref>. The suit was eventually dismissed. In turn, he ruled it probably would not have been perceived without the "power of suggestion" or the young men would not have done it unless they really intended to. <ref>Vance, J., et al. v. Judas Priest et al., No. 86-5844, 2nd Dist. Ct. Nev. (August, 24 1990)</ref>

Another well known incident with subliminal message happened a few months after Judas Priest's acquittal, Michael Waller, the son of a Georgia minister, shot himself in the head while listening to Ozzy Osbourne's record Suicide Solution. His parents claimed that subliminal messages may have influenced his actions. The judge in that trial granted the summary judgment because the plaintiffs could not show that there was any subliminal material on the record. He noted, however, that if the plaintiffs had shown that subliminal content was present, the messages would not have received protection under the First Amendment because subliminal messages are, in principle, false, misleading or extremely limited in their social value (Waller v. Osbourne 1991). Justice Whitehead's ruling in the Judas Priest trial was cited to support his position<ref>http://www.csicop.org/si/9611/judas_priest.html</ref>.

The most extensive study of therapeutic effects from audiotapes was conducted to see if the self-esteem audiotapes would raise self-esteem. 237 volunteers were provided with tapes of three manufacturers and completed post tests after one month of use. The study showed clearly that subliminal audiotapes made to boost self-esteem did not produce effects associated with subliminal content within one month’s use.<ref> Eskenazi, J., & Greenwald, A.G., Pratkanis, A.R. (1990). What you expect is what you believe (but not necessarily what you get): On the ineffectiveness of subliminal self-help audiotapes. Unpublished manuscript. University of California. Santa Cruz.</ref>

== Instances ==
In [[1978]], [[Wichita, Kansas]] TV station [[KAKE-TV]] received special permission from the police to place a subliminal message in a report on the [[BTK Killer]] (Bind, Torture, Kill) in an effort to get him to turn himself in. The subliminal message included the text "Now call the chief," as well as a pair of glasses. The glasses were included because when BTK murdered Nancy Fox, there was a pair of glasses lying upside down on her dresser; police felt that seeing the glasses might stir up remorse in the killer. The attempt was unsuccessful, and police reported no increased volume of calls afterward. <ref>[http://www.kake.com/home/headlines/1251737.html BTK Back]</ref>

During the [[2000 U.S. presidential campaign]], a [[television]] ad [[advertising campaign|campaigning]] for [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] candidate [[George W. Bush]] showed words (and parts thereof) scaling from the foreground to the background on a television screen. When the word <tt>[[Bureaucrat|BUREAUCRATS]]</tt> flashed on the screen, one frame showed only the last part, <tt>RATS</tt>.<ref>Crowley, Candy. "[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/09/12/bush.ad/ Bush says 'RATS' ad not meant as subliminal message]" CNN.com, 2000-9-12. Retrieved on [[December 16]], [[2006]]</ref><ref>[http://www.bushwatch.com/rats.htm Smoking Pistols: George "Rat Ad" Bush and the Subliminal Kid]</ref> The FCC looked into the matter,<ref>[http://www.fcc.gov/Speeches/Furchtgott_Roth/2000/sphfr011.html 9/19/00 Speech by Commissioner Harold Furchtgott-Roth: The FCC's Investigation of "Subliminal Techniques:"]</ref> but no penalties were ever assessed in the case.{{Fact|date=March 2007}}

In the British [[alternative comedy]] show ''[[The Young Ones (TV series)|The Young Ones]]'', a number of subliminal images were present in the original and most repeated broadcasts of the second series. Images included a gull coming into land, a tree frog jumping through the air, a man gurning{{Vague|gurning? what is that?|date=February 2009}}, and the end credits of the movie ''[[Carry On Cowboy]]''. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} These were included to mock the then-occurring matter of subliminal messages in television. Although they may fall foul of the FCC guidelines, these images ''do'' appear in the U.S. boxset DVD ''Every Stoopid Episode''.

[[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]] famously used subliminal messages to display a half-frame of the last episode of [[Brass Eye]], stating "Grade is a cunt" in reference to [[Michael Grade]], the [[Channel 4]] executive responsible for the heavy editing of Morris's show <ref>[[Brasseye|Brasseye Wiki]]</ref>.

[[Shaun Micallef]]'s Australian 'Micallef P(r)ogram(me)' shows contained strange subliminal messages that can be seen on the DVDs. As they are of random, humorous statements, questions, etc, they are not regarded as advertising. They were usually images of politicians, as is the case with his more recent [[Newstopia]].

In Warner Brothers' 1943 animated film "Wise Quacking Duck", Daffy Duck spins a statue which is holding a shield. For one frame the words "BUY BONDS" are visible on the shield.

The [[December 16]], [[1973]] episode of ''[[Columbo (TV series)|Columbo]]'' titled "Double Exposure", is based on subliminal messaging: it is used by the murderer, Dr. Bart Keppler, a motivational research specialist, played by [[Robert Culp]], to lure his victim out of his seat during the viewing of a promotional film and by Lt. Columbo to bring Keppler back to the crime scene and incriminate him. Lt. Columbo is shown how subliminal cuts work in a scene mirroring [[James Vicary]]'s experiment.<ref>[http://movies2.nytimes.com/gst/movies/movie.html?v_id=130155 Error - - New York Times]</ref><ref>[http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byform/mailing-lists/amia-l/2005/12/msg00182.html Re: [AMIA-L] Reply: "Sherlock Jr."]</ref>

The horror film [[the Exorcist]] is well-known for its frightening yet effective use of subliminal images throughout the film, depicting a white-faced demon named [[Captain Howdy]]. This image is shown in the character Father Karras's nightmare, where it flashes across the screen for a few seconds before fading away.

A [[McDonald's]] logo appeared for one frame during the [[Food Network]]'s ''[[Iron Chef America]]'' series on [[2007-01-27]], leading to claims that this was an instance of subliminal advertising. The Food Network replied that it was simply a glitch.<ref>{{cite web |title=It was a glitch, not a subliminal ad, for McDonald's on Food Network |publisher=''[[Canadian Press]]'' |date=[[2007-01-25]] |url=http://www.cbc.ca/cp/media/070125/X01259AU.html |accessdate=2007-03-11}}</ref>

In Formula One racing, the paint scheme of many cars would carry messages intended to look as if they were of banned tobacco products in many Grands Prix where [[tobacco advertising]] was banned, though many of these were jokes on the part of the teams (for example, [[Jordan Grand Prix]] ran [[Benson and Hedges]] sponsorship as "Bitten and Hisses" with a snake-skin design on their cars). A similar procedure was used by NASCAR driver [[Jeff Burton]] after the [[AT&T Mobility]] advertising was banned by a court order in 2007, and by Penske Championship Racing in NASCAR (where Cellco Partnership is prohibited) and the IRL (Marlboro). In both instances, a distinctive design where the banned company's identity (the Verizon "V" and the Marlboro chevron) were integrated into the car's design.

On [[November 7]], [[2007]], [[Network Ten]] [[Australia]]'s broadcast of the [[Australian Recording Industry Association|ARIA]] Awards was called out for using subliminal advertising in an exposé by the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). <ref>[http://video.msn.com/video.aspx?mkt=en-AU&brand=ninemsn&vid=8f347951-dbf5-48eb-9a24-7c35870c6552 Subliminal advertising. - ninemsn Video]</ref>

In June-July [[2007]], [[Sprite (soft drink)|Sprite]] used a type of obvious subliminal message, involving yellow (lemon) and green (lime) objects such as cars. The objects would then be shown inconspicuously in the same setting, while showing the word "lymon" (combining the words lime and lemon) on screen for a second at a time. They called this "Sub'''lymon'''al Advertising." The previous year, Sprite used a similar advertising campaign, but this time it was tied in to ''[[Lost Experience]]'', an [[alternate reality game]].

In ''[[Brainiac: Science Abuse]]'', there is an experiment carried out to see if viewers would react to subliminal messages. One was shown during an experiment to discover which substance provides the best skid; the message appeared when a brainiac hit a bale of hay. The second message appeared across a T-Shirt of a brainiac saying 'Call your mum', and the third said 'scratch your nose' when a sound wave hit the Brainiac logo. At the end of the show, people were shown in a theatre watching that episode. The test showed that the messages barely impacted the audience. The subliminal content in this episode was legal, as its presence was announced at the beginning and end of the episode.

In Week 11 of ''[[The Apprentice: Martha Stewart]]'' in which candidates have to create an ad for the Delta's former low-cost commercial airlines [[Song (airline)|Song]], the team Matchstick used a 1/48th of a frame image at the bottom-right corner with the Song Airlines logo.

== Allegations ==
Some groups have made claims that subliminal messages can be found in various forms of popular entertainment, such as the supposed use of "backward messages" in rock and roll songs.

Many of these purported messages are Satanic; for example, if the [[Led Zeppelin]] song "[[Stairway to Heaven]]" is played backwards, lyrics including "Oh here's to my sweet Satan" can supposedly be made out. However, it has been proved that it simply sounded that way because of Robert Plant's voice, as somebody sang the extract from the song which had aroused controversy, and backmasked it. It sounded, quite simply, like nonsense, suggesting the message was unintentional.<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iduFTKST8PQ YouTube - Led Zeppelin : Greatest Secret]</ref>

When Queen's "[[Another One Bites the Dust]]" is played backwards some listeners perceive a message about [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]]: "Stop to smoke marijuana", or "It's fun to smoke marijuana".<ref>www.albinoblacksheep.com/flash/queen.php</ref>

These two messages have not been confirmed by the artists (and denied by some band members), and have not been proven to exist by fully respected sources.

In February 2007, it was discovered that 87 [[Konami]] slot machines in Ontario ([[Ontario Lottery and Gaming|OLG]]) casinos displayed a brief winning hand image before the game would begin. Government officials worried that the image subliminally persuaded gamblers to continue gambling; the company claimed that the image was a coding error. The machines were removed pending a fix by Konami.<ref>[http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=9012094 Agency asks slot-machine maker to halt subliminal messages]</ref>

== Fictional references ==
While their ultimate efficacy is somewhat controversial, subliminal messages have a long history in television shows, movies, and novels.

Governments are often depicted as employing subliminal messages in propaganda. The novel "FREEZE FRAME" by B. David Warner depicts the election of a corrupt president candidate using subliminal advertising to sway the votes in his favor. The movie ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (film)|Josie and the Pussycats]]'' described a long lasting plot whereby the U.S. government was controlling [[trends]] by inserting subliminal messages in [[popular music]]. Furthermore, towards the end of the film, a government agent shuts down the operation, saying that subliminal advertising works better in films. The words "Josie and the Pussycats is the best movie ever" are then spoken rapidly in [[voice-over]] and displayed quickly on screen, with the words "Join the Army" in smaller letters below it. And in the 2005 science fiction movie ''[[Serenity (film)|Serenity]]'', the Alliance uses subliminal messages broadly disseminated in commercials and other video to cause River Tam to go berserk. It only works on River because she was subjected to Alliance training and conditioning.

Many references deal specifically with the military. [[New Kids on the Blecch|An episode]] of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' involved Bart and his friends joining a boy band, the Party Posse. While watching a video for the Party Posse, Lisa notices the phrase "Yvan Eht Nioj" being repeated continuously by belly-dancers. She plays the video in reverse and finds that it means "Join the Navy". Also, an [[Uncle Sam]] "I Want You" poster can be seen in the video frame by frame. The joke was that the United States sends subliminal messages in order to recruit people. In addition, the art of "superliminal messages" was demonstrated to Lisa; a Navy representative leans out a window, sees [[Lenny Leonard]] and [[Carl Carlson]], and shouts "Hey you! Join the Navy!" And in an episode of ''[[Malcolm in the Middle]]'' titled "Reese joins the Army (2)", one of the [[Drill instructor|drill sergeants]] comments about the other's restored confidence in the Army "I guess the subliminal advertising's working after all." his fellow drill sergeant then matter-of-factly states "the army doesn't use subliminal ads" and then the pair slowly turn and look at each other. Not too different from the joke in ''The Simpsons'' episode mentioned above, this episode was a joking reference to the low military recruiting numbers in [[2004]] suggesting that the [[Military of the United States|U.S. military]] uses such things in a tactic of desperation. And in an episode of ''[[Babylon 5]]'', during a scene which represents a public service announcement for [[Psi Corps]], the words "TRUST THE CORPS" and "THE CORPS IS YOUR FRIEND" appear on screen for four frames. J. Michael Straczynski wanted the audience to recognize the subliminal message; "I had my staff find out what constitutes subliminal material--and it's two frames per second, which is illegal, you can't do things at that speed--so I went four frames per second".<ref>{{cite book |last=Killick |first=Jane |title=Babylon 5: The Coming of Shadows |publisher=The Ballantine Publishing Group |year=1997 |pages=131}}</ref>

An early episode of the ''[[X-Files]]'' deals with a small town plagued by killings where the perpetrators are influenced by messages appearing on ATMs and other electronic devices. Mulder refers to the use of subliminal messages in several instances. The ''[[Family Guy]]'' episode ''[[Mr. Griffin Goes to Washington]]'' jokes about subliminal messages for smoking in television. It shows an old black and white TV show whose dialogue is repeatedly interrupted by a suited man stating "Smoke" and later "Are you smoking yet?" in a monotone voice. Later in the episode, when Peter is arguing with his bosses about smoking, the same man interrupts while saying "Smoke."

The advertising element is mocked in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s [[Discworld]] novel [[Moving Pictures (novel)|Moving Pictures]], when, to please a [[sponsor (commercial)|sponsor]], a movie producer inserts a still image lasting several minutes of a serving of [[spare ribs]]. The producer reasoned that if showing just a few frames would have a positive impact, showing it for several minutes would have a huge effect.

Subliminal psychological influence is also referenced frequently by the British [[mentalist]] [[Derren Brown]] who alleges their use as the basis of many of his effects. Often, these claims are just decoys to divert attention from the real workings of his effects<ref name="ssingh">{{citation |title= I'll bet £1,000 that Derren can't read my mind |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/connected/main.jhtml?xml=/connected/2003/06/10/ecfmagic.xml |date=[[June 10]], [[2003]] |periodical=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |accessdate=2008-03-12 |last=Singh |first=Simon }}</ref>.

In the episode "With Fans Like These..." of the animated TV show "Kappa Mikey" Lily and Gonard threaten Guano made the public do their bidding by using subliminal messages in a fish stick commercial.

The television show [[Chuck (TV series)|Chuck]] has a plot which is based around subliminal encoding. The main character receives an e-mail in which thousands and thousands of pictures flash right before his eyes, resulting in an ability to 'mind flash' on certain things, for example a ring or a picture of someone.

In an episode of ''[[The IT Crowd]]'', Douglas attempts to seduce Jen by putting a quick flash of his photo into a presentation.

== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
{{reflist|2}}
* Dixon, N. F. (1971). Subliminal Perception: The nature of a controversy, McGraw-Hill, New York.
* Greeenwald, Anthony W. (1992). New Look 3: Unconscious Cognition Reclaimed, American Psychologist, 47.
* Holender, D. (1986). Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9, 1-23.
* Merikle, P. M., and M. Daneman (1998). Psychological Investigations of Unconscious Perception, [[Journal of Consciousness Studies]].
* Watanabe, Sasaki, Nanez (2001). Perceptual learning without perception. Nature, 413, 844-848.
* Seitz and Watanabe (2003). Is subliminal learning really passive. Nature, 422, 36.
* [[United States Senate]] (1985). [http://www.joesapt.net/superlink/shrg99-529/ Record Labeling: Hearing before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation]. United States Senate, Ninety-ninth Congress, First Session on Contents of Music and the Lyrics of Records (September 19, 1985). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

=== Further reading ===
* Boese, Alex (2006). ''Hippo Eats Dwarf: A Field Guide to Hoaxes and Other B.S.'''', Harcourt, Inc., ISBN 0-15-603083-7, 193-95

== External links ==
*[http://www.stayfreemagazine.org/archives/22/subliminal-advertising.html Subliminal Seduction: How Did the Uproar over Subliminal Advertising Affect the Advertising Industry?]
*[http://www.csicop.org/si/9611/judas_priest.html Scientific Consensus and Expert Testimony: Lessons from the Judas Priest Trial]
*[http://www.ukhh.com/features/articles/sonic_branding/index.html Article on subliminal brand references in hip hop lyrics.]
*[http://www.chargedaudio.com/resources/Subliminal_Messaging_Behaviour.htmll Article on Whether Subliminal Messaging Can Correct Negative Behaviour]
*[http://www.sprudio.net/silent.html Description on Subliminal and the mind power.]
*[http://www.subliminalsales.com Example of how subliminal messages are backmasked in music (live demo).]
*[http://www.subliminalpersuasion.co.uk/Newsletter1.html Article on subliminal persuasion & mass mind control used in advertising & politics]

[[Category:Consciousness studies]]
[[Category:Perception]]
[[Category:Popular psychology]]
[[Category:Advertising techniques]]
[[Category:Propaganda techniques]]
[[Category:Human communication]]
[[Category:Urban legends]]
[[Category:Mind control]]

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Diskussion:Moriori

2009-05-15T12:21:24Z

Aridd: Neuer Abschnitt /* Unsourced statement */

== Schönfärberei ==
Angesichts der bekannten Fakten über das Maori-Genozid an den Moriori einschl. Kannibalismus im Jahr 1835 (100 Überlebende aus einer Bevölkerung von etwa 2.000) ist dieser Beitrag eine politisch korrekte Lachnummer, nach dem Motto: die künftigen Maori-Opfer der Briten können doch kein Genozid begangen haben an Jäger-Sammlern (Moriori), da Genozid nur seitens Westler vorkommt. Siehe lieber den Beitrag auf englisch.

== Unsourced statement ==

Hallo. Entshuldigung, aber ich spreche nur ein bitsschen Deutch. Deshalb wird ich hier English schrieben. Dieses Artikel hat: "Anderen Hypothesen zufolge kamen sie etwa gleichzeitig zu den Māori in Neuseeland an und nahmen unmittelbar das Siedlungsgebiet der – damals unbewohnten – Chathams ein." Where is the source for this? It's generally accepted by historians today that there were no Moriori before a group of Maori established the Chatham Islands settlement around the fifteen century, and evolved into a new people known as the Moriori. If there is a credible hypothesis to the contrary, in a ''recent'' (post-Michael King) publication, it would need to be sourced. [[Benutzer:Aridd|Aridd]] 14:21, 15. Mai 2009 (CEST)

Moriori

2009-05-15T12:15:42Z

Aridd:

Die '''Moriori''' sind ein [[Polynesien|polynesisches]] Volk, das auf den neuseeländischen [[Chatham-Inseln]] lebt.

Die historischen Wurzeln der Moriori liegen weitgehend im Dunkeln. Möglicherweise handelt es sich um die erste Welle polynesischer Siedler auf den [[Neuseeland|neuseeländischen]] Hauptinseln. Von späteren Besiedlungswellen wurden sie nach [[15. Jahrhundert]] auf die Chatham-Inseln verdrängt, wo sie, isoliert von den Polynesiern auf der neuseeländischen Nord- und Südinsel, (den [[Māori]]), eine eigenständige Kultur und Sprache entwickelten, sodass man sie als von den Māori unterscheidbares, eigenständiges Volk betrachten kann.<ref>Clark, Ross (1994). "Moriori and Maori: The Linguistic Evidence" ''In'' Sutton, Douglas G. (Ed.) (1994), ''The Origins of the First New Zealanders''. Auckland: Auckland University Press. pp. 123–135</ref> <ref>King, Michael (2000 [1989]). ''Moriori: A People Rediscovered''. Viking. ISBN ISBN 0-14-010391-0.</ref> <ref>[http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/IdeasOfMaoriOrigins/5/en K. R. Howe. 'Ideas of Māori origins'], Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, Oct. 28, 2008</ref> Anderen Hypothesen zufolge kamen sie etwa gleichzeitig zu den Māori in Neuseeland an und nahmen unmittelbar das Siedlungsgebiet der – damals unbewohnten – Chathams ein.

Die Maximal-Population der Moriori im Zeitverlauf wird auf circa 2000 Personen geschätzt. Damit waren die Chathams früher dichter besiedelt als heute.

Mit Ankunft der Europäer Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts ging die Kopfzahl ständig zurück. 1835 landeten Māori auf den Inseln, um diese für sich zu beanspruchen. Viele Moriori wurden hierbei gefangen genommen oder getötet.
Der letzte echte Moriori [[Tame Horomona Rehe]] beziehungsweise Tommy Solomon wurde am 7. Mai 1884 geboren und starb am 19. März 1933.

Heute gibt es etwa 945 Moriori.<ref>[http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/Moriori/6/en Denise Davis and Māui Solomon. "Moriori"], Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand (New Zealand Ministry of Culture and Heritage), Oct. 28, 2008</ref>

== Quellen ==
<references />

[[Kategorie:Ethnie in Australien und Ozeanien]]
[[Kategorie:Geschichte Neuseelands]]

[[el:Μοριορί]]
[[en:Moriori]]
[[fi:Moriorit]]
[[fr:Moriori]]
[[it:Moriori]]
[[ja:モリオリ人]]
[[ru:Мориори]]

William Charles Wentworth

2009-04-22T15:46:36Z

Aridd: /* Life */

[[Image:Williamwentworth.jpg|thumb|200px|William Wentworth]]
{{dablink|For the member Australian House of Representatives 1949–1977, see [[William Wentworth (Australian politician)]]}}
'''William Charles Wentworth''' (13 August 1790 – 20 March 1872) was an Australian poet, explorer, journalist and politician, and one of the leading figures of early colonial [[New South Wales]]. He was the first native-born Australian to achieve a reputation overseas, and a leading advocate for self-government for the Australian colonies.

== Life ==

Wentworth was born at sea, at least five weeks premature, shortly before arriving at [[Norfolk Island]], a penal settlement in the [[Tasman Sea]], where his parents [[D'Arcy Wentworth]] and Catherine Crowley (who were not married) were being transported from Britain. Strictly speaking D'Arcy Wentworth, a surgeon, was not a convict, since although he was accused of [[highwayman|highway robbery]] he accepted transportation in order to avoid conviction. He was a descendant of the Anglo-Irish [[Earl of Roscommon]]. <ref>''Dictionary of Literary Biography'', Volume 230: Australian Literature, 1788-1914. A Bruccoli Clark Layman Book. Edited by Selina Samuels, University of New South Wales. The Gale Group, 2000. pp. 420-424.</ref> Catherine Crowley was a convict, an Irish teenager who was transported for stealing clothing.

In 1796 young Wentworth arrived in Sydney, then a squalid prison settlement, with his parents. The family lived at [[Parramatta, New South Wales|Parramatta]], where his father became a prosperous landowner. In 1803 he was sent to England, where he was educated at a school in London. He returned to Sydney in 1810, where he was appointed acting Provost-Marshall by [[Governor of New South Wales|Governor]] [[Lachlan Macquarie]], and given a land grant of {{convert|1750|acre|km2|0}}<ref name=ADB>{{cite web |url=http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020531b.htm |title=Wentworth, William Charles (1790 - 1872) |accessdate=2007-08-14 |author=Michael Persse |work=[[Australian Dictionary of Biography]], Volume 2 |publisher=[[Melbourne University Press|MUP]] |year=1967 |pages=pp 582-589}}</ref> on the [[Nepean River]].

In 1813 Wentworth, along with [[Gregory Blaxland]] and [[William Lawson]], led the expedition which found a route across the [[Blue Mountains (Australia)|Blue Mountains]] west of Sydney and opened up the grazing lands of inland New South Wales. The town of [[Wentworth Falls]] in the Blue Mountains commemorates his role in the expedition. As a reward he was granted another {{convert|1000|acre|km2}}<ref name="ADB"/>. He then combined farming with [[sandalwood]] trading in the South Pacific, where the captain of the ship died at [[Rarotonga]] and Wentworth safely brought the ship back to Sydney<ref name="ADB"/>. He returned to England in 1816. There he was admitted to the bar, travelled in Europe, and studied at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]].

In 1819 Wentworth published the first book written by an Australian: ''A Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of the Colony of New South Wales and Its Dependent Settlements in Van Diemen's Land, With a Particular Enumeration of the Advantages Which These Colonies Offer for Emigration and Their Superiority in Many Respects Over Those Possessed by the United States of America''<ref name="ADB"/>, in which he advocated an elected assembly for New South Wales, trial by jury and settlement of Australia by free emigrants rather than convicts.

Wentworth successfully completed his legal studies by 1822 and was [[called to the bar]]. In 1823 he published an epic poem ''Australasia'', which contains lines now famous in Australia<ref>Frank Welsh, ''Great Southern Land: A New History of Australia'', Penguin Books, 2005, p.27 (ISBN 0-140-29132-6)</ref>:

:''And, O Britannia!... may this — thy last-born infant — then arise,
:''To glad thy heart, and greet thy parent eyes;
:''And Australasia float, with flag unfurl’d,
:''A new Britannia in another world!

Wentworth returned to Sydney in 1824, accompanied by [[Robert Wardell]]<ref name=DAB>{{cite web |url=http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/0-dict-biogWe-Wy.html#wentworth1 |title=Wentworth, William Charles |accessdate=2007-08-14 |editor=[[Percival Serle]] |work=[[Dictionary of Australian Biography]] |publisher=Angus & Robertson |year=1949}}</ref>. D'Arcy Wentworth died in 1827 and William inherited his property, becoming one of the wealthiest men in the colony. He bought land in eastern Sydney and built a mansion, Vaucluse House, from which the modern suburb takes its name. But because his parents had never married, and his mother had been a convict, he could not become a member of Sydney's "respectable" class, known as "the exclusives." Embittered by this rejection, he placed himself at the head of the "emancipist" party, which sought equal rights and status for ex-convicts and their descendants. In 1825 he married Sarah Cox, with whom he had ten children. He fathered at least one other child out of wedlock with Jamima Eagar, the estranged wife of [[Edward Eagar]][http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LC20050407051].

A wild but gifted orator and a vitriolic journalist, Wentworth became the colony's leading political figure of the 1820s and '30s, calling for representative government, the abolition of transportation, freedom of the press and trial by jury. He became a bitter enemy of Governor [[Ralph Darling]] and the exclusives, led by the wealthy grazier [[John Macarthur (wool pioneer)|John Macarthur]] and his friends. Wentworth became Vice-President of the Australian Patriotic Association and founded a newspaper, ''The Australian'', the colony's first privately owned paper, to champion his causes. (This paper has no connection with the current ''[[The Australian|Australian]]'', which was established by [[Rupert Murdoch]] in 1964.)

By 1840, however, the political climate in New South Wales had changed. With the abolition of transportation and the establishment of an elected [[New South Wales Legislative Council|Legislative Council]], the dominant issue became the campaign to break the grip of the [[squatter (pastoral)]] class over the colony's lands, and on this issue Wentworth sided with his fellow landowners against the democratic party, who wanted to break up the squatters' runs for small farmers. He was elected to the Council in 1843 and soon became the leader of the conservative party, opposed to the liberals led by [[Charles Cowper]]. This led to a reconciliation with MacArthur and the exclusives.

In 1853 Wentworth chaired the committee to draft a new constitution for New South Wales, which was to receive full responsible self-government from Britain. His draft provided for a powerful unelected Legislative Council and an elected [[New South Wales Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] with high property qualifications for voting and membership. He also suggested the establishment of a colonial [[peerage]] drawn from the landowning class. This draft aroused the bitter opposition of the democrats and radicals such as [[Daniel Deniehy]], who ridiculed Wentworth's plans for what he called a "[[bunyip]] aristocracy."

The draft constitution was substantially changed to make it more democratic, although the Legislative Council remained unelected. With the establishment of responsible government in 1856 Wentworth retired from the Council and settled in England. He refused several offers of honours, and was a member of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] in the 1860s. He died in England, but at his request his body was returned to Sydney for burial. His family has remained prominent in Sydney society, and his great-grandson [[William Wentworth (Australian politician)|William Wentworth IV]] was a [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] member of Parliament 1949-77.

==Namesakes==
The towns of [[Wentworth, New South Wales|Wentworth]] and [[Wentworth Falls, New South Wales|Wentworth Falls]], the federal [[Division of Wentworth]], an electorate in Sydney's Eastern Suburbs, the [[Wentworth Falls (waterfall)|Wentworth Falls]] waterfall, and [[Wentworth Avenue, Canberra|Wentworth Avenue]] which runs through the suburb of [[Kingston, Australian Capital Territory|Kingston]] in [[Canberra]], are named after him.

==Works==
* ''A Statistical Account of the British Settlements in Australasia'' (1819)

* ''Journal of an expedition, across the Blue Mountains, 11 May-6 June 1813'', 1813

* ''Australasia: a poem written for the Chancellor's Medal at the Cambridge commencement, July 1823'', London: G. and W.B. Whittaker, 1823

==Sources==
* [[Bernard Barton|Barton]], ''The Poets and Prose Writers of New South Wales'' (Sydney, 1866)
* Rusden, ''History of Australia'' (London, 1883)
== References ==
* Ritchie, John (1997). ''The Wentworths: Father and Son.'' The Miegunyah Press at Melbourne University Press. ISBN 0 522 84751 X.
<references/>

== External links ==
{{Wikisource|Australasia}}
* [http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp04762 Portrait of William Charles Wentworth (bronze medallion)] in the [[National Portrait Gallery, London]]
* [http://enc.slq.qld.gov.au/logicrouter/servlet/LogicRouter?PAGE=object&OUTPUTXSL=object_enc36ui.xslt&pm_RC=PICTQLD&pm_OI=35902&pm_GT=Y&pm_IAC=Y&api_1=GET_OBJECT_XML&num_result=0 Portrait of William Charles Wentworth (copy print)] digitised and held by the [[State Library of Queensland]]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/dynasties/txt/s982411.htm The Wentworth family]
* [http://www.atmitchell.com/journeys/history/exploration/crossing.cfm/lawson/lawson/lawson.cfm Crossing the Blue Mountains - State Library of NSW]
* [http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/members.nsf/1fb6ebed995667c2ca256ea100825164/a665527a1d6b466aca256cb5007c0037!OpenDocument Biography in archives of NSW State Parliament]
* {{gutenberg author| id=William+Charles+Wentworth | name=William Charles Wentworth}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wentworth, William}}
[[Category:1790 births]]
[[Category:1872 deaths]]
[[Category:Australian explorers]]
[[Category:Explorers of Australia]]
[[Category:Members of the New South Wales Legislative Council]]

Menschenrechte in Russland

2009-02-11T17:25:32Z

Aridd: /* External links */ Review by UN's UPR

{{Politics of Russia}}
{{see also|Human rights in the Soviet Union}}

The rights and liberties of the citizens of the [[Russian Federation]] are granted by Chapter 2 of the [[Constitution of the Russian Federation|Constitution]] adopted in 1993.<ref name="constitution">
{{cite book
|title= The Constitution of the Russian Federation
|url= http://www.russianembassy.org/RUSSIA/CONSTIT/
|language= English translation
|publisher= Embassy of the Russian Federation
|location= Washington, D.C.
|accessdate= 2008-03-16
}}
</ref> Russia is a signatory to the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and has also ratified a number of other [[international human rights instruments]], including the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]], [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] (fully) and the [[European Convention of Human Rights]] (with [[Territorial scope of European Convention on Human Rights|reservations]]). These international law instruments take precedence over national legislation according to Chapter 1, Article 15 of the Constitution.<ref name="constitution"/>

After his visits to the Russian Federation in 2004, [[Alvaro Gil-Robles]], the first [[Commissioner for Human Rights]] of the [[Council of Europe]], said that "''the fledgling Russian democracy is still, of course, far from perfect, but its existence and its successes cannot be denied.''"<ref name="Alvaro">{{cite web
|url=https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=846655
|title=Report by Mr. Alvaro Gil-Robles on his Visits to the Russian Federation
|publisher=[[Council of Europe]], [[Commissioner for Human Rights]]
|date=2005-04-20
|accessdate=2008-03-16
}}</ref>

In recent years [[Vladimir Lukin]], current [[Ombudsman]] of the [[Russian Federation]], has invariably characterized the [[human rights]] situation in Russia as unsatisfactory. However, according to Lukin, this is not discouraging, because building a lawful state and civil society in such a complex country as Russia is a hard and long process.<ref name="Lukin2006">
{{cite web
|url=http://ombudsman.gov.ru/doc/ezdoc/06text_eng.doc
|title=The Report of the Commissioner for Human Rights in the Russian Federation for the Year 2006
|last= Lukin |first= Vladimir |format=MS Word |year=2007 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
[http://ombudsman.gov.ru/doc/ezdoc/06.shtml Russian language version].</ref>

However, [[Andrey Illarionov]], former senior economic policy adviser to President [[Vladimir Putin]], now working for the [[Cato Institute]], claimed in January 2007 that freedom in Russia has deteriorated dramatically since 2000 and that the year 2006 "was an extraordinary one in a sense of destruction of all types and all elements of freedom."<ref name="cceia.org">[http://www.cceia.org/resources/transcripts/5422.html Freedom in the World 2007: Is Freedom Under Threat?] Peter Ackerman, Andrei Illarionov, Jennifer L. Windsor, Joanne J. Myers, [[January 30]][[2007]].</ref>

[[Freedom House]] considered Russia partially free with scores of 5 on both [[political rights]] and [[civil liberties]] (1 being most free, 7 least free) in 2002-2004 and not free with 6 on political rights and 5 on civil liberties in 2005-2007 according to the [[Freedom in the World]] reports.<ref>[http://freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=15 Freedom in the World:] The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties.</ref> In [[2006]] [[The Economist]] published a democracy rating, putting Russia at 102nd place among 167 countries and defining it as a "hybrid regime with a trend towards curtailment of media and other civil liberties."<ref name="Democracy"> [http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/DEMOCRACY_INDEX_2007_v3.pdf Index of democracy by Economist Intelligence Unit] </ref> Russia occupies 120th place of 157 countries in the [[Index of Economic Freedom]], composed by [[Heritage Foundation]].{{Fact|date=June 2007}}

Andrey Illarionov claimed that the [[rule of law]] has ceased to exist in Russia and that litigants are now forced to apply not to the Russian courts, but to the [[European Court of Human Rights]].<ref name="cceia.org"/> The court has indeed become overwhelmed with cases from Russia. As of [[June 1]][[2007]], 22.5% of its pending cases were directed against the Russian Federation.<ref>[http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D240083A-5243-422F-9C5C-DC6A3173246F/0/Pending_casesGraph.pdf ECHR. Pending cases. 01.06.2007]</ref> In 2006 there were 151 admissible applications against Russia (out of 1634 for all the countries), while in 2005 - 110 (of 1036), in 2004 - 64 (of 830), in 2003 - 15 (of 753), in 2002 - 12 (of 578).<ref>[http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/69564084-9825-430B-9150-A9137DD22737/0/Survey_2006.pdf ECHR. Survey of activities. 2006]</ref><ref>[http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/461D3893-D3B7-4ED9-AC59-8BD9CA328E14/0/SurveyofActivities2004.pdf ECHR. Survey of activities. 2004]</ref><ref>[http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/4753F3E8-3AD0-42C5-B294-0F2A68507FC0/0/2005_SURVEY__COURT_.pdf ECHR. Survey of activities. 2005]</ref>

According to international human rights organizations as well as domestic press, violations of human rights in Russia<ref name="amnesty2003_rights">
{{cite book
|url= http://www.amnesty.org/russia/pdfs/justice-report-eng.pdf
|title= Rough Justice: The law and human rights in the Russian Federation
|format= PDF |year= 2003 |isbn= 0-86210-338-X
|publisher= [[Amnesty International]]
|accessdate= 2008-03-16
}}</ref> include widespread and systematic [[torture]] of persons in custody by police,<ref name="amnesty_torture">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.amnesty.org/russia/torture.html
|title=Torture and ill-treatment
|publisher=[[Amnesty International]] |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref><ref name="hrw4">
[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/11/13/russia14557.htm UN Committee against Torture Must Get Commitments From Russia to Stop Torture]
</ref> [[dedovshchina]] in Russian Army, neglect and cruelty in Russian [[orphanages]],<ref name="hrw7">
[http://hrw.org/reports98/russia2/ Cruelty and neglect in Russian orphanages]
</ref> violations of [[children's rights]].<ref name="amnesty_children">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.amnesty.org/russia/children.html
|title=Children's rights
|publisher=[[Amnesty International]] |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> According to [[Amnesty International]] there is [[discrimination]], [[racism]], and [[murder]]s of members of [[ethnic minorities]].<ref name="amnesty_minorities">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.amnesty.org/russia/minorities.html |title=Ethnic minorities under attack
|publisher=[[Amnesty International]] |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref><ref name="amnesty2003_racism">
{{cite book
|url=http://www.amnesty.org/russia/pdfs/racism_report.pdf
|title='Dokumenty!': Discrimination on grounds of race in the Russian Federation
|format= PDF |year= 2003 |isbn= 0-86210-322-3
|publisher= [[Amnesty International]] |accessdate= 2008-03-16
}}</ref> Since 1992 at least 47 journalists have been killed.<ref name="cpj-kills">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.cpj.org/deadly/
|title=Journalists killed: Statisistics and Background
|publisher=[[Committee to Protect Journalists]]
|accessdate=2008-03-16
}} (As of January 15, 2008).
</ref>

The situation in the Russian republic of [[Chechnya]], ravaged by war, has been especially worrying. During the [[Second Chechen War]], started in September 1999, there were [[summary execution]]s and "disappearances" of civilians in Chechnya.<ref name="hrw1">[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/10/13/russia14384.htm Russia Condemned for Chechnya Killings] </ref><ref name="amnesty_chechnya">{{cite web |url=http://www.amnesty.org/russia/chechnya.html |title=Chechnya – human rights under attack |publisher=[[Amnesty International]] |accessdate=2008-03-16}}</ref><ref name="hrw3">[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/07/27/russia13864.htm Russia Condemned for 'Disappearance' of Chechen]</ref> According to the ombudsman of the [[Chechen Republic]], [[Nurdi Nukhazhiyev]], as of March 2007 the most complex and painful problem is finding over 2700 abducted and forcefully held citizens; analysis of the complaints of citizens of Chechnya shows that social problems ever more often come to the foreground; two years ago complaints mostly concerned violations of the right to life.<ref name="Nurdi">[http://www.strana.ru/stories/02/01/22/2386/308150.html Interview with Nurdi Nukhazhiyev by Khamzat Chitigov] for Strana.Ru.</ref>

The Federal Law of [[10 January]][[2006]] changed the orders affecting registration and operation of [[nongovernmental organizations]] (NGOs) in Russia.<ref name="Lukin2006"/><ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/08/opinion/edgvosdev.php Russia's NGOs: It's not so simple] by N. K. Gvozdev</ref><ref name="nongov">
{{cite news
|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/19/AR2006101900831.html
|title=Russia Halts Activities of Many Groups From Abroad
|first=Peter |last=Finn
|work=[[The Washington Post]]
|date=2006-10-19 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> The [[Russian-Chechen Friendship Society]] was closed.<ref name="hrw5"> [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/10/13/russia14391.htm Court Orders Closure of Russian-Chechen Friendship Society]</ref>

There are cases of attacks on demonstrators organized by local authorities.<ref name="hrw6">[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/10/18/russia14418.htm Supporters of Anna Politkovskaia Attacked at Ingushetia Demonstration]</ref> High concern was caused by murders of opposition lawmakers and journalists [[Anna Politkovskaya]],<ref name="Anna">
{{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5416218.stm
|title=Chechen war reporter found dead
|work=[[BBC News]]
|date=2006-10-07 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> [[Yuri Schekochikhin]],<ref name="Yuri">
{{cite news
|url=http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/82n/n82n-s05.shtml
|title=Agent unknown
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2006-10-30 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> [[Galina Starovoitova]],<ref name="amnesty_galina">
{{cite web
|url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engEUR460401998
|title=Amnesty International condemns the political murder of Russian human rights advocate Galina Starovoitova
|publisher=[[Amnesty International]]
|accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> [[Sergei Yushenkov]],<ref name="Sergei">
{{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2957823.stm
|title=Yushenkov: A Russian idealist
|work=[[BBC News]]
|date=2003-04-17 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> as well as imprisonments of [[human rights defender]]s, scientists, and journalists like [[Trepashkin]],<ref name="Trepashkin">
{{cite web
|url=http://eng.trepashkin.ru/
|title=Trepashkin case
|accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> [[Igor Sutyagin]],<ref name="Sytyagin">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/russia/4.htm
|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]
|work=Human Rights Situation in Chechnya
|title=Case study: Igor Sutiagin
|accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> and [[Valentin Danilov]].<ref name="Danilov">
{{cite web
|url=http://shr.aaas.org/aaashran/alert.php?a_id=290
|title=Physicist Found Guilty
|work=AAAS Human Rights Action Network
|publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]
|date=2004-11-12 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}</ref>

==Judicial and penal system==
{{main|Judiciary of Russia}}
The judiciary is a subject to manipulation by political authorities according to [[Amnesty International]].<ref name="amnesty2003_rights"/><ref name="amnesty2002_denial">
{{cite book
|url= http://www.amnesty.org/russia/pdfs/russia_report.pdf
|title= The Russian Federation: Denial of Justice
|format= PDF |year= 2002 |isbn= 0-86210-318-5
|publisher= [[Amnesty International]]
|accessdate= 2008-03-16
}}
</ref> According to Constitution of Russia, top judges are [appointed] by the Federation Council, following nomination by the President of Russia.<ref>
{{cite book
|title= The Constitution of the Russian Federation
|chapter= Chapter 7. Judiciary, Article 128
|chapterurl= http://www.democracy.ru/english/library/laws/constitution_eng/page6.html#P540_70966
|language= English translation
|publisher= Democracy.Ru
|accessdate= 2008-03-16
}}
</ref> [[Anna Politkovskaya]] described in her book [[Putin's Russia]] stories of judges who did not follow "orders from the above" and were assaulted or removed from their positions.<ref name="Politkovskaya"> [http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1843430509 Politkovskaya, Anna (2004) ''Putin's Russia''] </ref> Former judge [[Olga Kudeshkina]] wrote an open letter in 2005 in which she criticized the chairman of the [[Moscow city court]] O. Egorova for "''recommending'' judges to make ''right'' decisions" which allegedly caused more than 80 judges in Moscow to retire in the period from 2002 to 2005.<ref name="Kudeshkina">
{{cite news
|url=http://2005.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2005/18n/n18n-s42.shtml
|title=Open letter to President Putin
|first=Olga |last=Kudeshkina
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2005-03-09 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

In the 1990s, Russia's prison system was widely reported by media and human rights groups as troubled. There were large case backlogs and trial delays, resulting in lengthy pre-trial detention. Prison conditions were viewed as well below international standards.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[Tuberculosis]] was a serious, pervasive problem.<ref name="amnesty_torture"/> Human rights groups estimated that about 11,000 inmates and prison detainees die annually, most because of overcrowding, disease, and lack of medical care.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} A media report dated 2006 points to a campaign of prison reform that has resulted in apparent improvements in conditions.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article670530.ece?token=null&offset=0 After the Gulag: conjugal visits, computers...and a hint of violence - Times Online]</ref> The [[Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation]] has been working to reform Russia's prisons since 1997, in concert with reform efforts by the national government.<ref>[http://www.sdc-seco.ru/en/Home/Projects/Governance/Prison_Reform_Project SDC in Russia - Prison Reform Project]</ref>

The rule of law has made rather limited inroads in the criminal justice since the Soviet time, especially in the deep provinces.<ref>Pomorski, Stanislaw (2001) [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0967-067X(01)00017-4 Justice in Siberia: a case study of a lower criminal court in the city of Krasnoyarsk]. ''[[Communist and Post-Communist Studies]]'' 34.4, 447-478.</ref> The courts generally follow the non-acquittals policy; in 2004 [[acquittal]]s constituted only 0.7 percent of all judgments. Judges are dependent on administrators, bidding prosecutorial offices in turn. The work of [[public prosecutor]]s varies from poor to dismal. Lawyers are mostly court appointed and low paid. There was a rapid deterioration of the situation characterized by abuse of the criminal process, harassment and persecution of defense bar members in politically sensitive cases in recent years. The principles of adversariness and equality of the parties to criminal proceedings are not observed.<ref>Pomorski, Stanislaw (2006). [http://www.springerlink.com/content/w76x3474r7856754/fulltext.pdf Modern Russian criminal procedure: The adversarial principle and guilty plea]. ''[[Criminal Law Forum]]'' 17.2, 129-148.</ref>

In 1996, President [[Boris Yeltsin]] pronounced a [[moratorium]] on the [[capital punishment in Russia|death penalty in Russia]]. However, the Russian government still violates many promises it made upon entering the [[Council of Europe]].<ref name="amnesty2002_denial"/> Citizens who appeal to [[European Court of Human Rights]] are often prosecuted by Russian authorities, according to the allegations of Politkovskaya<ref name="Prosecution">
{{cite news
|url=http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/48n/n48n-s01.shtml
|title=It is forbidden even to speak about the Strasbourg Court
|first=Anna |last=Politkovskaya
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2006-06-29 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

==Torture and abuse==
The [[Constitution of Russia]] forbids arbitrary detention, [[torture]] and ill-treatment. Chapter2, Article 21 of the constitution states, "No one may be subjected to torture, violence or any other harsh or humiliating treatment or punishment."<ref name="amnesty_brief">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/EUR46/014/2006
|title=Russian Federation Preliminary briefing to the UN Committee against Torture
|publisher=[[Amnesty International]]
|date=2006-04-01 |accessdate= 2008-03-16
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
|title= The Constitution of the Russian Federation
|chapter= Chapter 2. Judiciary, Article 21
|chapterurl= http://www.democracy.ru/english/library/laws/constitution_eng/page2.html#P75_9894
|language= English translation
|publisher= Democracy.Ru
|accessdate= 2008-03-16
}}
</ref> However Russian police are regularly observed practicing torture - including beatings, electric shocks, rape, asphyxiation - in interrogating arrested suspects.<ref name="amnesty_torture"/><ref name="amnesty2003_rights"/><ref name="hrw4"/><ref name="amnesty_torture2">{{cite web |url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/EUR46/004/1997 |title=Torture in Russia |date=1997-04-03 |publisher=[[Amnesty International]]|accessdate= 2008-03-16}}</ref> In 2000, human rights Ombudsman [[Oleg Mironov]] estimated that 50% of prisoners with whom he spoke claimed to have been tortured. [[Amnesty International]] reported that Russian military forces in [[Chechnya]] rape and torture local women with [[electric shock]]s, when electric wires are connected to the straps of their bra on their chest.<ref name="amnesty_brief"/>

In the most extreme cases, hundreds of innocent people from the street were arbitrary arrested, beaten, tortured, and raped by special police forces. Such incidents took place not only in Chechnya, but also in Russian towns of Blagoveshensk, Bezetsk, Nefteyugansk, and others.<ref name="Marat1">
{{cite news
|url=http://2005.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2005/01n/n01n-s00.shtml
|title=The entire city was beaten
|first=Marat |last=Hayrullin
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2005-01-10 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref><ref name="Marat2">
{{cite news
|url=http://2005.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2005/19n/n19n-s00.shtml
|title=A profession: to mop up the Motherland
|first=Marat |last=Hayrullin
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2005-03-17 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref><ref name="Marat3">
{{cite news
|url=http://2005.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2005/30n/n30n-s15.shtml
|title=Welcome to Fairytale
|first=Marat |last=Hayrullin
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2005-04-25 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

On 2007 Radio Svoboda ("Radio Freedom", part of [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]) reported that an unofficial movement "Russia the Beaten" was created in Moscow by human rights activists and journalists who "suffered from beatings in numerous Russian cities".<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.svoboda.org/ll/soc/0705/ll.073005-1.asp
|title=«Россия избитая» требует отставки министра внутренних дел
|publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|Radio Svoboda]]
|language=Russian |date=2005-07-30 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>
Torture and humiliation are also widespread in Russian army (see also ''[[dedovshchina]]'').<ref name="dedov"> [http://hrw.org/reports/2004/russia1004/6.htm The Consequences of Dedovshchina], [[Human Rights Watch]] report, 2004 </ref> Many young men are killed or commit suicide every year because of it.<ref name="Ismailov">
{{cite news
|url=http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/51n/n51n-s11.shtml
|title=Terrible Dedovshchina in General Staff
|first=Vjacheslav |last=Ismailov
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2005-04-25 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> It is reported that some young male conscripts are forced to work as prostitutes for "outside clients".<ref>[http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2007/03/09d16e9f-0374-4ca2-84f6-88b9b6f2d0e1.html Conscript's Prostitution Claims Shed Light On Hazing] [[Radio Free Europe]] March 21, [[2007]]</ref> [[Union of the Committees of Soldiers' Mothers of Russia]] works to protect rights of young soldiers.

==Crime==
In the 1990s, the growth of organized crime (''see'' [[Russian mafia]] and [[Russian oligarchs]]) and the fragmentation of law enforcement agencies in Russia coincided with a sharp rise in violence against business figures, administrative and state officials, and other public figures.<ref>Tanya Frisby, "The Rise of Organised Crime in Russia: Its Roots and Social Significance," ''[[Europe-Asia Studies]]'', 50, 1, 1998, p. 35.</ref> President [[Vladimir Putin]] inherited these problems when he took office, and during his election campaign in 2000, the new president won popular support by stressing the need to restore law and order and to bring the rule of law to Russia as the only way of restoring confidence in the country's economy.<ref>
{{cite news
|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0312/p06s02-woeu.html
|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]
|title=A vote for democracy, Putin-style
|first=Scott |last=Peterson
|date=2004-03-12 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

According to data by [[Demoscope Weekly]], the Russian homicide rate showed a rise from the level of 15 murders per 100,000 people in 1991, to 32.5 in 1994. Then it fell to 22.5 in 1998, followed by a rise to a maximum rate of 30.5 in 2002, and then a fall to 20 murders per 100,000 people in 2006.<ref>[http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2007/0281/barom03.php Russian demographic barometer] by Ekaterina Shcherbakova at [http://demoscope.ru Demoscope Weekly], issue of 19 March - 7 April 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/cri_mur_percap-crime-murders-per-capita World statistics of murders per capita], by NationMaster.Com</ref> 

With a prison population rate of 532 per 100,000 population, Russia is tied with [[Bermuda]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Belarus]] and second only to the [[United States]] (2005 data).<ref>[http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/rel/icps/world-prison-population-list-2005.pdf World Prison Population List 2005] </ref>

Criminology studies show that for the first five years since 2000 compared with the average for 1992 to 1999, the rate of robberies is up by 38.2% and the rate of [[drug-related crime]]s is higher by 71.7%.<ref name="Inozemtsev"> [http://www.themoscowtimes.com/stories/2006/12/22/006.html Big Costs and Little Security] - by Vladislav Inozemtsev, Moscow Times, December 22, 2006. </ref>

==Politically-motivated prosecutions==
===Espionage cases===
During the Soviet period, scientists encountered substantial administrative barriers when working with foreign colleagues {{Fact|date=July 2008}}. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, which coincided with a decrease in government funding of science, many scientists broadened their contacts with foreign laboratories. A point to note is that administrative norms of secrecy in Russia are still more strict than those accepted in the West.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://lenta.ru/articles/2006/03/24/spy/
|publisher= [[Rambler (portal)|Rambler]]
|work= [[Lenta.Ru]]
|author=Alexei Napylov
|title=Утраченные секреты горения
|language= Russian
|quote=According to 'Independent military survey', in the U.S. only 2-3% of scientific information considering national defence is secret, while in Russia only 2-3% of that is not secret.
|accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

There were several cases when the [[FSB (Russia)|FSB]] accused scientists of alleged revealing state secretes to foreign nationals, while the defendants and their colleagues claimed that the information or technology was based on already published and declassified sources. Even though the cases often garnered public reaction, the cases themselves were in most cases held in closed chambers, with no press coverage or public oversight.

The scientists in question are:
* [[Igor Sutyagin]] (sentenced to 15 years).<ref name="Sytyagin"/>
* Physicist [[Valentin Danilov]] (sentenced to 14 years).<ref name="Danilov"/>
* Physical chemist [[Oleg Korobeinichev]] (held under a written pledge not to leave city from 2006.<ref name="Korob">[http://www.mosnews.com/news/2006/03/23/korobeinichev.shtml Russian Scientist Charged With Disclosing State Secret]</ref> In May 2007 the case against him was closed by FSB for "absence of body of crime". In July 2007 prosecutors publicly apologized to Korobeinichev <ref>[http://www.online-translator.com/url/tran_url.asp?lang=en&url=http%3A%2F%2Flenta.ru%2Fnews%2F2007%2F07%2F31%2Fkorobeinichev%2F&direction=re&template=General&cp1=NO&cp2=NO&autotranslate=on&transliterate=on&psubmit2.x=50&psubmit2.y=23 Prosecutors of Novosibirsk refused to make public apologies to the scientist], July 2007, computer translation from Russian</ref> for "the image of spy").
* Academician [[Oskar Kaibyshev]] (given a 6-year suspended sentence and a fine of $130,000).<ref name="Kaibyshev"> [http://www.themoscowtimes.com/stories/2006/08/09/001.html Oskar Kaibyshev convicted]</ref><ref>[http://www.concatenation.org/news/news9~06.html Science Fiction News], September 2006</ref>

Ecologist and journalist [[Alexander Nikitin]], who worked with the [[Bellona Foundation]], was likewise accused of espionage. He published material exposing hazards posed by the Russian Navy's nuclear fleet. He was acquitted in 1999 after spending several years in prison (his case was sent for re-investigation 13 times while he remained in prison). Other cases of prosecution are the cases of investigative journalist and ecologist [[Grigory Pasko]], sentenced to three years' imprisonment and later released under a general amnesty,<ref name="Pasko1">
[http://www.index.org.ru/mayday/pasko_a.html Grigory Pasko site]</ref><ref name="Pasko">[http://193.71.199.52/en/international/russia/envirorights/pasko/24748.html The Pasko case]</ref> Vladimir Petrenko who described dangers posed by military chemical warfare stockpiles and was held in pretrial confinement for seven months, and Nikolay Shchur, chairman of the Snezhinskiy Ecological Fund who was held in pretrial confinement for six months.<ref name="Counter"> [http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/russia/fsb-cases.htm Counterintelligence Cases]- by GlobalSecurity.org</ref>

===Other cases===
[[Viktor Orekhov]], a former [[KGB]] captain who assisted Soviet dissidents and was sentenced to eight years of prison in the Soviet era, was sentenced in 1995 to three years of prison for alleged possession of a pistol and magazines. After one year he was released and left the country.<ref>[http://www.evartist.narod.ru/text1/81.htm#з_10 Service, part III] by V. Voronov (in Russian)</ref>

[[Vil Mirzayanov]] was prosecuted for a 1992 article in which he has claimed that Russia was working on chemical [[weapons of mass destruction]], but won the case and later emigrated to the United States<ref>[http://sutyagin.ru/pressa/031117.html Details of national counterintelligence] (in Russian) by Vladimir Voronov.</ref>

[[Vladimir Kazantsev]] who disclosed illegal purchases of eavesdropping devices from foreign firms was arrested in August 1995, and released at the end of the year, however the case was not closed.<ref name="Counter"/><ref>[http://www.themoscowtimes.com/stories/2006/07/28/011.html Researchers Throw Up Their Arms]</ref> Investigator [[Mikhail Trepashkin]] was sentenced in May 2004 to four years of prison.<ref name="Trepashkin"/>

Journalist Vladimir Rakhmankov in [[January 9]] [[2006]] was sentenced for alleged defamation of the President in his article "Putin as phallic symbol of Russia" to fine of 20,000 [[roubles]] (about [http://www.cbr.ru/currency_base/DD_print.asp?date_req1=27/12/2005&date_req2=14/01/2006&VAL_NM_RQ=R01235 695 USD]).<ref>[http://www.cursiv.ru/news/ News of site] cursiv.ru (in Russian)</ref><ref name="Vladimir"> [http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/6/DF7B2E15-2F9F-4A8B-AAF0-A7622F0D33F7.html Russia: 'Phallic' Case Threatens Internet Freedom]</ref>

Political dissidents from the former Soviet republics, such as [[authoritarian]] [[Tajikistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]], are often arrested by the [[FSB (Russia)|FSB]] and extradited to these countries for prosecution, despite the protests from international human rights organizations.<ref name="Rakhmonov">
{{cite news
|url=http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/51n/n51n-s12.shtml
|title=ЧАЙКА ЗАЛЕТИТ В ЕВРОПЕЙСКИЙ СУД?
|first=Irina |last=Borogan
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2006-10-07 |accessdate = 2008-03-16
}}
</ref><ref name="Podrabinek">
{{cite news
|url=http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/82n/n82n-s11.shtml
|title=FSB serves to Islam
|first=Aleksander |last=Podrabinek
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2006-10-30 |accessdate = 2008-03-16
}}
</ref> The special security services of [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Azerbaidjan]] also kidnap people in Russian territory, with the implicit approval of the [[FSB (Russia)|FSB]].<ref name="Soldatov">
{{cite news
|url=http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/14n/n14n-s18.shtml
|title=Special services of former Soviet republics in Russian territory
|first=Andrei |last=Soldatov
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2006-02-27 |accessdate = 2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

Many people were also illegally detained to prevent them from demonstrating during the G8 Summit in 2006.<ref name="Saratov">
{{cite news
|url=http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/54n/n54n-s34.shtml
|title=Surveying all oppositioners in the city of Saratov
|first=Nadezda |last=Andreevav
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2006-07-20 |accessdate = 2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

==Suspicious killings==
{{see also|List of journalists killed in Russia}}
Some Russian opposition lawmakers and investigative journalists are suspected to be assassinated while investigating corruption and alleged crimes conducted by state authorities or [[FSB (Russia)|FSB]]: [[Sergei Yushenkov]], ‎[[Yuri Shchekochikhin]], [[Alexander Litvinenko]], [[Galina Starovoitova]], [[Anna Politkovskaya]], [[Paul Klebnikov]].<ref name="Yuri"/><ref name="Sergei"/>

==Situation in Chechnya==
{{main|Second Chechen War crimes and terrorism}}

The Russian Government's policies in [[Chechnya]] are a cause for international concern.<ref name="amnesty_chechnya"/><ref name="hrw3"/> It has been reported that Russian military forces have abducted, tortured, and killed numerous civilians in Chechnya,<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/chechnya/unchr-chechnya-02.htm
|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]
|work=Human Rights Situation in Chechnya
|title=Abuses by Russian forces
|date=2003-04-07 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> but Chechen separatists have also committed abuses,<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/chechnya/unchr-chechnya-03.htm
|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]
|work=Human Rights Situation in Chechnya
|title=Abuses by Chechen forces
|date=2003-04-07 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> such as abducting people for ransom.<ref>[http://www.hrvc.net/news2004/6-1-04.html Five people abducted in Chechnya]</ref> Human rights groups are very critical of cases of people disappearing in the custody of Russian officials. Systematic illegal arrests and torture conducted by the armed forces under the command of [[Ramzan Kadyrov]] and Federal Ministry of Interior have also been reported.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/chechnya1106/
|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]
|title=Widespread Torture in the Chechen Republic
|date=2006-11-13 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}</ref> There are reports about repressions, information blockade, and atmosphere of fear and despair in Chechnya.<ref>
{{cite news
|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n13/neis01_.html
|work=[[London Review of Books]]
|title=Diary |first=Anna |last=Neistat
|date=2006-07-06 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}</ref>

As claimed in 2005 [http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/N-Caucas/atmstr/ report] by [[Memorial (society)|Memorial]], there is a system of "conveyor of violence" in [[Chechen Republic]] (as well as in neighbouring [[Ingushetiya]]) when a person suspected in crimes connected with activity of separatists squads, is unlawfully detained by members of security agencies, and then disappears. After a while part of detainees is found in centers of preliminary detention (while some allegedly disappear forever), and then he is tortured to confess to a crime or/and to slander somebody else. According to [[Memorial (society)|Memorial]], psychological pressure is also in use.<ref>[http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/N-Caucas/atmstr/G5.htm Fabrication of criminal cases (at example of the case of Vladovskikh)], chapter of 2005 report by [[Memorial]].</ref> Known Russian journalist [[Anna Politkovskaya]] compared this system with [[Gulag]] and claimed the number of several hundred cases.<ref name="Stalin"> [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/31/AR2006033101584.html Stalinism Forever - by Anna Politkovskaya - The Washington Post] </ref>


A number of journalists were killed in Chechnya or supposedly for reporting on the conflict.<ref name="cpj-kills"/><ref name="Todayintheuk"> [http://todayintheuk.blogspot.com/ Today In The UK - Journalists killed in Chechnya] </ref> List of names includes less and more famous: [[Cynthia Elbaum]], [[Vladimir Zhitarenko]], [[Nina Yefimova]], [[Jochen Piest]], [http://www.rorypecktrust.org/benefic/kerimov.htm Farkhad Kerimov], [http://www.cpj.org/attacks95/att95europe.html Natalya Alyakina], [http://www.cpj.org/deadly/1995_list.html Shamkhan Kagirov], [[Viktor Pimenov]], [[Nadezhda Chaikova]], [[Supian Ependiyev]], [[Ramzan Mezhidov]] and [[Shamil Gigayev]], [http://www.library.cjes.ru/online/?a=con&b_id=1&c_id=267 Vladimir Yatsina], [http://www.cpj.org/news/2001/killed_release_01.html Aleksandr Yefremov], [[Roddy Scott]], [[Paul Klebnikov]], [http://www.jamestown.org/publications_details.php?volume_id=409&issue_id=3394&article_id=2369984 Magomedzagid Varisov], and [[Anna Politkovskaya]].<ref>
{{cite news
|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/russia/article/0,,1890838,00.html
|title=Obituary: Anna Politkovskaya
|first=David |last=Hearst
|work=[[The Guardian]]
|date=2006-10-09 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

==Governmental organizations==
Efforts to institutionalize official human rights bodies have been mixed. In 1996, human rights activist [[Sergey Kovalev]] resigned as chairman of the Presidential Human Rights Commission to protest the government's record, particularly the war in Chechnya. Parliament in 1997 passed a law establishing a "human rights ombudsman," a position that is provided for in Russia's constitution and is required of members of the Council of Europe, to which Russia was admitted in February 1996. The Duma finally selected Duma deputy Oleg Mironov in May 1998. A member of the [[Communist Party]], Mironov resigned from both the Party and the [[Duma]] after the vote, citing the law's stipulation that the Ombudsman be nonpartisan. Because of his party affiliation, and because Mironov had no evident expertise in the field of human rights, his appointment was widely criticized at the time by human rights activists. International human rights groups operate freely in Russia, although the government has hindered the movements and access to information of some individuals investigating the war in Chechnya.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Some German politicians see things differently; [[Gerhard Schröder]], the former German chancellor, explained to all the Western states that Putin is a "flawless democrat".<ref name="kontakt">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.kontakt.erstebankgroup.net/report/stories/Issue02_07_Was+soll+ich+fuerchten_dt+en/en
|title=What should I be afraid of?
|first=Jewgenija
|last=Albaz
|coauthors= Interviewed by Eduard Steiner
|work=Kontakt |publisher=Erste Bank Group
|date=2007-04 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

==Non-governmental organizations==
The lower house of the [[Duma|Russian parliament]] passed a bill by 370-18 requiring local branches of foreign [[non-governmental organizations]] (NGOs) to re-register as Russian organizations subject to Russian jurisdiction, and thus stricter financial and legal restrictions. The bill gives Russian officials oversight of local finances and activities. The bill has been highly criticized by [[Human Rights Watch]], [[Memorial (society)|Memorial organization]], and the [http://www.indem.ru/en/index.shtml INDEM Foundation] for its possible effects on international monitoring of the status of human rights in Russia.<ref>
{{cite news
|url= http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/23/international/europe/23cnd-russia.html
|title= Russia Moves to Increase Control Over Charities and Other Groups
|first= Steven Lee |last= Myers
|work=[[The New York Times]]
|date=2005-11-23 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> In October 2006 the activities of many foreign non-governmental organizations were suspended using this law; officials said that "the suspensions resulted simply from the failure of private groups to meet the law's requirements, not from a political decision on the part of the state. The groups would be allowed to resume work once their registrations are completed."<ref name="nongov"/> Another crackdown followed in 2007.<ref>
{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/europe/crackdown-on-ngos-pushes-600-charities-out-of-russia-462525.html
|title=Crackdown on NGOs pushes 600 charities out of Russia
|first=Alastair |last=Gee
|work=[[The Independent]]
|date=2007-08-22 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

[[Image:RussiaPressFreedom2006.png|350px|thumb|Press freedom in the Russian regions as of 2006 Green: Quite free Orange: Not quite free Red: unfree Grey: No data (Free regions were not found) Source: Glasnost Defense Foundation]]

==Freedom of religion==
The [[Constitution of Russian Federation]] provides for freedom of religion and the equality of all religions before the law as well as the separation of church and state.  As Vladimir Lukin had stressed in his 2005 Ombudsman's report, "the Russian state has achieved significant progress in the observance of religious freedom and lawful activity of religious associations, overcoming a heritage of totalitarianism, domination of a single ideology and party dictatorship".<ref name="Lukin2005">
{{cite web
|url=http://ombudsman.gov.ru/doc/ezdoc/05text_eng.doc
|title=The Report of the Commissioner for Human Rights in the Russian Federation for the Year 2005
|last= Lukin |first= Vladimir |format=MS Word |year=2006 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}

[http://ombudsman.gov.ru/doc/ezdoc/05.shtml Russian language version].
</ref>

Russia is a multi-ethnic country with a large majority of [[Orthodox Christians]] (61%), high proportion of [[Muslims]] (12%), 1% of [[Jews]], about 1% of [[Catholics]], and so on. According to [[Alvaro Gil-Robles]], relations between the representatives of the different religious communities are generally harmonious.<ref name="Alvaro"/> 

Gil-Robles emphasized the amount of state support provided by both federal and regional authorities for the different religious communities, and stressed the example of the [[Republic of Tatarstan]] as "veritable cultural and religious melting pot".<ref name="Alvaro"/>  Along with that, Catholics are not always heeded as well as other religions by federal and local authorities.<ref name="Alvaro"/> 

Vladimir Lukin noted in 2005, that citizens of Russia rarely experience violation of freedom of conscience (guaranteed by the article 28 of the Constitution).<ref name="Lukin2005"/>  So, the Commissioner's Office annually accepts from 200 to 250 complaints dealing with the violation of this right, usually from groups of worshipers, who represent various confessions: Orthodox (but not belonging to the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Moscow patriarchy]]), Old-believers, Muslim, [[Protestant]] and others.<ref name="Lukin2005"/> 

The different problem arises with concern of citizens' right to association (article 30 of the Constitution).<ref name="Lukin2005"/>  As Vladimir Lukin noted, although quantity of the registered religious organizations constantly grows (22144 in 2005), an increasing number of religious organization fail to achieve legal recognition: e.g. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]], and others.<ref name="Lukin2005"/> 

The influx of missionaries over the past several years has led to pressure by groups in Russia, specifically nationalists and the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], to limit the activities of these "nontraditional" religious groups.{{Fact|date=August 2007}} In response, the Duma passed a new, restrictive, and potentially discriminatory law in October 1997. The law is very complex, with many ambiguous and contradictory provisions. The law's most controversial provisions separates religious "groups" and "organizations" and introduces a 15-year rule, which allows groups that have existed for 15 years or longer to obtain accredited status. According to Russian priest and [[dissident]] [[Gleb Yakunin]], new religion law "heavily favors the Russian Orthodox Church at the expense of all other religions, including Judaism, Catholicism, and Protestantism.", and it is "a step backward in Russia's process of democratization".<ref>
{{cite web
|title=Father Gleb Yakunin: Religion Law Is a Step Backward for Russia
|url=http://www.fsumonitor.com/stories/rellawyak.shtml
|work=FSUMonitor
|publisher=[[Union of Councils for Jews in the Former Soviet Union]]
|accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

The claim to guarantee "the exclusion of any legal, administrative and fiscal discrimination against so-called non-traditional confessions" was adopted by [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe|PACE]] in June 2005.<ref name="PACE_1455">[http://assembly.coe.int//main.asp?link=http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc05/EDOC10568.htm Resolution 1455] of [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe|PACE]], June 2005.</ref>

[[Anna Politkovskaya]] described cases of prosecution and even murders of Muslims by Russia's law enforcement bodies at the North Caucasus.<ref name="muslim1">
{{cite news
|url=http://2005.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2005/18n/n18n-s10.shtml
|title=One can pray. But not too often
|first=Anna |last=Politkovskaya
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2005-03-14 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref><ref name="muslim2">
{{cite news
|url=http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/51n/n51n-s29.shtml
|title=A man who was killed 'just in case'
|first=Anna |last=Politkovskaya
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2006-07-10 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> However, there are plenty of Muslims in higher government, Duma, and business.<ref> [http://www.kremlin.ru www.kremlin.ru], [http://www.gov.ru www.gov.ru], [http://www.rspp.ru www.rspp.ru]</ref>

==Press freedom==
:''See also [[Media freedom in Russia]]''
[[Reporters Without Borders]] put Russia at 147th place in the World Press Freedom Index (from a list of 168 countries).<ref name="freedom"> [http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=639 Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2006]</ref> According to the [[Committee to Protect Journalists]], 47 journalists have been killed in Russia for their professional activity, since 1992 (as of January 15, 2008). Thirty were killed during President [[Boris Yeltsin]]'s reign, and the rest were killed under the former president [[Vladimir Putin]].<ref name="cpj-kills"/><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.cpj.org/attacks07/europe07/rus07.html
|work= Attacks on the Press in 2007 |title=Russia
|publisher=[[Committee to Protect Journalists]]
|accessdate=2008-03-16
|quote=Fourteen journalists have been slain in direct relation to their work during Putin’s tenure, making Russia the world's third-deadliest nation for the press.
}}
</ref> According to the [[Glasnost Defence Foundation]], there were 8 cases of suspicious deaths of journalists in 2007, as well as 75 assaults on journalists, and 11 attacks on editorial offices.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.gdf.ru/digest/digest/digest363e.shtml
|publisher=[[Glasnost Defense Foundation]]
|title=Digest No. 363
|date=2007-12-27 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> In 2006, the figures were 9 deaths, 69 assaults, and 12 attacks on offices.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.gdf.ru/digest/digest/digest312e.shtml
|publisher=[[Glasnost Defense Foundation]]
|title=Digest No. 312
|date=2007-01-09 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> In 2005, the list of all cases included 7 deaths, 63 assaults, 12 attacks on editorial offices, 23 incidents of censorship, 42 criminal prosecutions, 11 illegal layoffs, 47 cases of detention by [[militsiya]], 382 lawsuits, 233 cases of obstruction, 23 closings of editorial offices, 10 evictions, 28 confiscations of printed production, 23 cases of stopping broadcasting, 38 refusals to distribute or print production, 25 acts of intimidation, and 344 other violations of Russian journalist's rights.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.gdf.ru/digest/digest/digest261e.shtml
|publisher=[[Glasnost Defense Foundation]]
|title=Digest No. 261
|date=2006-01-10 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

Russian journalist [[Anna Politkovskaya]], famous for her criticisms of Russia's actions in [[Chechnya]], and the pro-Kremlin Chechya government, was assassinated in Moscow. Former KGB officer [[Oleg Gordievsky]] believes that the murders of writers [[Yuri Shchekochikhin]] (author of ''[http://www.yabloko.ru/Publ/Raby/rab.html Slaves of KGB]''), [[Anna Politkovskaya]], and [[Aleksander Litvinenko]] show that the [[FSB (Russia)|FSB]] has returned to the practice of political assassinations,<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.svobodanews.ru/Transcript/2006/11/20/20061120204213113.html
|title=Бывший резидент КГБ Олег Гордиевский не сомневается в причастности к отравлению Литвиненко российских спецслужб
|publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|Radio Svoboda]]
|language=Russian |date=2006-11-20 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> practised in the past by the Thirteenth [[KGB]] Department.<ref name="Andrew">[[Christopher Andrew]], [[Vasili Mitrokhin]], ''The [[Mitrokhin Archive]]: The KGB in Europe and the West'', Gardners Books (2000), ISBN 0-14-028487-7</ref>

Opposition journalist [[Yevgenia Albats]] in interview with [[Eduard Steiner]] has claimed: "Today the directors of the television channels and the newspapers are invited every Thursday into the Kremlin office of the deputy head of administration, [[Vladislav Surkov]] to learn what news should be presented, and where. Journalists are bought with enormous salaries."<ref name="kontakt"/>

==Freedom of assembly==
:''See [[Freedom of assembly in Russia]]''

==Ethnic minorities==
:''See also: [[Ethnic groups in Russia]]
Russian Federation is a multi-national state with over 170 ethnic groups designated as nationalities, population of these groups varying enormously, from millions in case of e.g. Russians and Tatars to under ten thousand in the case of Nenets and Samis.<ref name="Alvaro"/>  Among [[Federal subjects of Russia|83 subjects]] which constitute the [[Russian Federation]], there are 21 national republics (meant to be home to a specific ethnic minority), 5 autonomous okrugs (usually with substantial or predominant ethnic minority) and an [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast|autonomous oblast]]. However, as Commissioner for Human Rights of the [[Council of Europe]] [[Gil-Robles]] noted in 2004 report, whether or not the region in "national", all the citizens have equal rights and no one is privileged or discriminated on account of their ethnic affiliation.<ref name="Alvaro"/> 

As Gil-Robles noted, although co-operation and good relations are still generally the rule in most of regions, tensions do arise, whose origins vary. Their sources include problems related to peoples that suffered Stalinists repressions, social and economic problems provoking tensions between different communities, and the situation in Chechnya and the associated terrorist attacks with resulting hostility towards people from the Caucasus and Central Asia, which takes the form of discrimination and overt racism towards the groups in question.<ref name="Alvaro"/> 

Committee of Ministers of Council of Europe<ref>The Committee of Ministers of Council of Europe builds its work in Russia on the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]], European document, ratified by Russia in 1998.</ref> in May 2007 issued concern that Russia still hasn't adopted comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation, and the existing anti-discrimination provisions are seldom used in spite of reported cases of discrimination.<ref name="National_COE">[http://www.coe.int/t/e/human_rights/minorities/2._framework_convention_(monitoring)/2._monitoring_mechanism/6._resolutions_of_the_committee_of_ministers/1._country-specific_resolutions/2._second_cycle/PDF_2nd_CM_Res_RussianFederation_eng.pdf Resolution on the implementation of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities], Committee of Ministers of Council of Europe, May 2, 2007</ref>

As Gil-Robles has noted in 2004, minorities are generally represented on local and regional authorities, and participate actively in public affairs. Gil-Robles emphasized the degree of co-operation and understanding between the various nationalities living in the same area, as well as the role of regional and local authorities in ethnic dialogue and development.<ref name="Alvaro"/>  Along with that, Committee of Ministers in 2007 noted certain setbacks in minority participation in public life, including the abrogation of federal provisions for quotas for indigenous people in regional legislatures.<ref name="National_COE"/>

Although the Constitution of the Russian Federation recognises Russian as the official language, the individual republics may declare one or more official languages. Most of subjects have at least two — Russian and the language of the "eponymous" nationality.<ref name="Alvaro"/>  As Ministers noted in 2007, there is a lively minority language scene in most subjects of the federation, with more than 1,350 newspapers and magazines, 300 TV channels and 250 radio stations in over 50 minority languages. Moreover, new legislation allows usage of minority languages in federal radio and TV broadcasting.<ref name="National_COE"/>

In 2007, there were 6,260 schools which provided teaching in altogether 38 minority languages, and over 75 minority languages were taught as a discipline in 10,404 schools. Ministers of Council of Europe has noted efforts to improve the supply of minority language textbooks and teachers, as well as greater availability of minority language teaching. However, as Ministers has noted, there remain shortcomings in the access to education of persons belonging to certain minorities.<ref name="National_COE"/>

There are more than 2,000 national minorities' public associations and 560 national cultural autonomies, however the Committee of Ministers has noted that in many regions amount of state support for the preservation and development of minority cultures is still inadequate.<ref name="National_COE"/> Alvaro Gil-Robles noted in 2004, that there's a significant difference between "eponymous" ethnic groups and nationalities without their own national territory, as resources of the last are relatively limited.<ref name="Alvaro"/> 

Russia is also home of a particular category of minority peoples, i.e. small indigenous peoples of the North and Far East, who maintain very traditional lifestyles, often in a hazardous climatic environment, while adapting to the modern world.<ref name="Alvaro"/>  After the fall of the Soviet Union Russian Federation passed legislation to protect rights of small northern indigenous peoples.<ref name="Alvaro"/>  Gil-Robles has noted agreements between indigenous representatives and oil companies, which are to compensate potential damages on peoples habitats due to oil exploration.<ref name="Alvaro"/>  As Committee of Ministers of Council of Europe noted in 2007, despite some initiatives for development, the social and economic situation of numerically small indigenous peoples was affected by recent legislative amendments at the federal level, removing some positive measures as regards their access to land and other natural resources.<ref name="National_COE"/>

Alvaro Gil-Robles noted in 2004, that like many European countries, Russian Federation is also host to many foreigners, who when concentrated in a particular area make up so-called new minorities, who experience troubles e.g. with medical treatment due to absence of registration. Those who are registered encounter other integration problems because of language barriers.<ref name="Alvaro"/> 

Committee of Ministers has noted in 2007 that despite efforts to improve access to residency registration and citizenship for national minorities, still those measures haven't regularised the situation of all the persons concerned.<ref name="National_COE"/>

==Foreigners and migrants==
On October 2002 the Russian Federation has introduced new legislation on legal rights of foreigners, designed to control immigration and clarify foreigners' rights. Despite this legal achievement, as of 2004, numerous foreign communities in Russia faced difficulties in practice (according to [[Alvaro Gil-Robles]]).<ref name="Alvaro"/> 

As of 2007, almost 8 million migrants are officially registered in Russia [http://www.fms.gov.ru/press/publications/news_detail.php?ID=9792], while some 5-7 million migrants do not have legal status. [http://www.fms.gov.ru/press/publications/news_detail.php?ID=9420]

Most of foreigners arriving in Russia are seeking for job. In many cases they have no preliminary contracts or other agreements with a local employer. A typical problem is the illegal status of many foreigners (i.e., they are not registered and have no identity papers), what deprives them of any social assistance (as of 2004) and often leads to their exploitation by the employer. Despite that, foreigner workers still benefit, what with seeming reluctance of regional authorities to solve the problem forms a sort of ''modus vivendi''.<ref name="Alvaro"/>  As Gil-Robles noted, it's easy to imagine that illegal status of many foreigners creates grounds for corruption.  Illegal immigrants, even if they have spent several years in Russia may be arrested at any moment and placed in detention centres for illegal immigrants for further expulsion. As of 2004, living conditions in detention centers are very bad, and expulsion process lacks of funding, what may extend detention of immigrants for months or even years.<ref name="Alvaro"/>  Along with that, Gil-Robles detected a firm political commitment to find a satisfactory solution among authorities he spoke with.<ref name="Alvaro"/> 

There's a special case of former Soviet citizens. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, 1991 Nationality Law recognised all former Soviet citizens permanently resident in the Russian Federation as Russian citizens. However, people born in Russia who weren't on the Russian territory when the law came into force, as well as some people born in the Soviet Union who lived in Russia but weren't formally domiciled there weren't granted Russian citizenship. When at December 31, 2003 former Soviet passports became invalid, those people overnight become foreigners, although many of them considered Russia their home. The majority were even deprived of retirement benefits and medical assistance. Their morale has also been seriously affected since they feel rejected.<ref name="Alvaro"/> 

Another special case are [[Meskhetian Turks]]. Victims of both Stalin deportation from South Georgia and 1989 pogroms in the [[Fergana valley]] in Uzbekistan, some of them were eventually dispersed in Russia. While in most regions of Russia Meskhetian Turks were automatically granted Russian citizenship, in [[Krasnodar Krai]] some 15,000 Meskhetian Turks were deprived of any legal status since 1991.<ref name="Alvaro"/>  Unfortunately, even measures taken by Alvaro Gil-Robles in 2004 didn't make Krasnodar authorities to change their position; Vladimir Lukin in the 2005 report called it "campaign initiated by local authorities against certain ethnic groups".<ref name="Lukin2005"/>  The way out for a significant number of Meskhetian Turks in the Krasnodar Krai became resettlement in the United States.<ref>[http://www.churchworldservice.org/Immigration/archives/2005/09/74.html Meskhetian Turk resettlement: the view from Krasnodar Krai], September 19, 2005</ref> As Vladimir Lukin noted in 2005, there was similar problem with 5.5 thousand [[Yazidi]]s who before the disintegration of the USSR moved to the Krasnodar Krai from [[Armenia]]. Only one thousand of them were granted citizenship, the others could not be legalized.<ref name="Lukin2005"/> 

In 2006 Russian Federation after initiative proposed by [[Vladimir Putin]] adopted legislation which in order to "protect interests of native population of Russia" provided significant restrictions  on presence of foreigners on Russian wholesale and retail markets.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.kremlin.ru/eng/speeches/2006/10/05/1156_type82913_112091.shtml
|title=Opening Address at the Session of the Council for the Implementation of Priority National Projects and Demographic Policy
|first=Vladimir |last=Putin
|publisher=President of Russia |date= 2006-10-05 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061012235857/http://www.kremlin.ru/eng/speeches/2006/10/05/1156_type82913_112091.shtml
|archivedate=2006-10-12
|quote=I charge the heads of the regions of the Russian Federation to take additional measures to improve trade in the wholesale and retail markets with a view to protect the interests of Russian producers and population, the native Russian population.
}} [http://www.kremlin.ru/appears/2006/10/05/1910_type63374type63378type82634_112066.shtml Russian language version].

</ref>

There was a short campaign of frequently arbitrary and illegal [[2006 deportation of Georgians from Russia|detention and expulsion of ethnic Georgians]] on charges of visa violations and a crackdown on Georgian-owned or Georgian-themed businesses and organizations in 2006, as a part of [[2006 Georgian-Russian espionage controversy]].<ref>[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2007/09/30/russia16977.htm Russia Targets Georgians for Expulsion]. The [[Human Rights Watch]]. [[October 1]], [[2007]].</ref>

''[[Newsweek]]'' reported that "[In 2005] some 300,000 people were fined for immigration violations in Moscow alone. [In 2006], according to [[Civil Assistance]], numbers are many times higher."<ref>
{{cite news
|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/44421
|work=[[Newsweek]]
|title=State of Hate
|first=Owen |last=Matthews |coauthors=Anna Nemtsova
|date=2006-11-06 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

==Racism and xenophobia==
{{main|Racism in modern Russia}}
{{seealso|Russia for Russians}}
As Alvaro Gil-Robles noted in 2004, the main communities targeted by xenophobia are the Jewish community, groups originating from the Caucasus, migrants and foreigners, and sexual minorities.<ref name="Alvaro"/> 

In his 2006 report, Vladimir Lukin has noted rise of nationalistic and xenophobic sentiments in Russia, as well as more frequent cases of violence and mass riots on the grounds of racial, nationalistic or religious intolerance.<ref name="Lukin2006"/><ref name="amnesty2003_racism"/><ref name="Xenophobia"> [http://www.voanews.com/english/2006-11-14-voa35.cfm Xenophobia in Russia Becoming Dangerously Common] </ref>

Human rights activists point out that 44 people were murdered and close to 500 assaulted on racial grounds in 2006.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.svobodanews.ru/Article/2006/12/26/20061226200516160.html
|title=Год нетерпимости: 500 пострадавших, 44 убитых
|publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|Radio Svoboda]]
|language=Russian |date=2006-12-26 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>. According to official sources, there are 150 "extremist groups" with over 5000 members in Russia.<ref name="amnesty_racismxeno">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/EUR46/018/2006
|title=Russian Federation: Racism and xenophobia rife in Russian society
|publisher=[[Amnesty International]]
|date=2006-05-04 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe has noted in 2007, that high-level representatives of the federal administration have publicly endorsed the fight against racism and intolerance, and a number of programmes have been adopted to implement these objectives. This has been accompanied by an increase in the number of convictions aimed at inciting national, racial or religious hatred. However, there has been an alarming increase in the number of racially motivated violent assaults in the Russian Federation in four years, yet many law enforcement officials still often appear reluctant to acknowledge racial or nationalist motivation in these crimes. Hate speech has become more common in the media and in political discourse. The situation of persons originating in the Northern Caucasus is particularly disturbing.<ref name="National_COE"/> 

Vladimir Lukin noted that inactivity of the law enforcement bodies may cause severe consequences, like September 2006 inter-ethnic riot in town [[Kondopoga]] of the [[Republic of Karelia]]. Lukin noted provocative role of the so-called [[Movement Against Illegal Immigration]]. As the result of the Kondopoga events, all heads of the "enforcement bloc" of the republic were fired from their positions, several criminal cases were opened.<ref name="Lukin2006"/> 

According to nationwide opinion poll carried by [[VCIOM]] in 2006, 44% of respondents consider Russia "a common house of many nations" where all must have equal rights, 36% think that "Russians should have more rights since they constitute the majority of the population", 15% think "Russia must be the state of Russian people".   However the question is also what exactly does the term "Russian" denote. For 39% of respondents Russians are all who grew and were brought up in Russia's traditions; for 23% Russians are those who works for the good of Russia; 15% respondents think that only Russians by blood may be called Russians; for 12% Russians are all for who Russian language is native, for 7% Russians are adepts of Russian [[Christian Orthodox]] tradition.<ref>[http://wciom.ru/novosti-analitika/press-vypuski/press-vypusk/single/3772.html "Russia for Russians or for all?"] (in Russian), press release by [[VCIOM]]</ref>

According to statistics published by [[Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs]], in 2007 in Russia foreign citizens and people without citizenship has committed 50,1 thousand crimes, while the number of crimes committed against this social group was 15985. [http://www.mvd.ru/stats/10000033/10000147/5194/]

==LGBT rights==
:''See [[LGBT rights in Russia]]''

==Psychiatric institutions==
There are numerous cases when people "inconvenient" for Russian authorities are imprisoned in psychiatric institutions during the last years.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/08/13/wasylum113.xml |title=Labelled mad for daring to criticise the Kremlin |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |author=Adrian Blomfield |date=2007-08-14 |accessdate=2008-03-16}}</ref><ref name="Crazy"> [http://fairuse.100webcustomers.com/fuj/latimes47.htm Speak Out? Are You Crazy?] - by Kim Murphy, Los Angeles Times, May 30, 2006 </ref><ref name="Dissent1"> [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/29/AR2006092901592_pf.html In Russia, Psychiatry Is Again a Tool Against Dissent] - by Peter Finn, Washington Post, September 30, 2006</ref><ref name="Dissent2"> [http://www.aapsonline.org/nod/newsofday339.php Psychiatry used as a tool against dissent] - by Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, October 2, 2006 </ref>

Little has changed in the [[Moscow Serbsky Institute]] where many prominent Soviet dissidents had been incarcerated after having been diagnosed with [[sluggishly progressing schizophrenia]]. This Institute conducts more than 2,500 court-ordered evaluations per year. When war criminal [[Yuri Budanov]] was tested there in 2002, the panel conducting the inquiry was led by Tamara Pechernikova, who had condemned the poet [[Natalya Gorbanevskaya]] in the past. Budanov was found not guilty by reason of "temporary insanity". After public outrage, he was found sane by another panel that included Georgi Morozov, the former Serbsky director who had declared many dissidents insane in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="Budanov"> [http://www.chechentimes.org/en/comments/?id=10108 Psychiatry’s painful past resurfaces] - from Washington Post 2002</ref> Serbsky Institute also made an expertise of mass poisoning of hundreds of Chechen school children by an unknown chemical substance of strong and prolonged action, which rendered them completely incapable for many months.<ref name="illness">
{{cite news
|url=http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/92n/n92n-s10.shtml
|title=A mysterious illness moves along the roads and makes frequent stops in schools
|first=Marina |last=Litvinovich
|work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=Russian
|date=2006-12-04 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> The panel found that the disease was caused simply by "psycho-emotional tension".<ref name="Chechen1"> [http://www.jamestown.org/publications_details.php?volume_id=416&issue_id=3672 What made Chechen schoolchildren ill?] - The Jamestown Foundation, March 30, 2006 </ref><ref name="Chechen2"> [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/03/19/MNGVJHOKJE1.DTL War-related stress suspected in sick Chechen girls] - by Kim Murphy, Los Angeles Times, March 19, 2006</ref>

==Disabled and children's rights==
Currently, the estimated [[orphan]] population in Russia is 2 million and the [[street children]] is 4 million.<ref name="Chretien"> [http://www.spcm.org/Journal/spip.php?article4786 Children of Russia - abused, abandoned, forgotten] - report by Le Journal Chretien </ref> According to an earlier [[Human Rights Watch]] report in 1998,<ref name="hrw7"/> "Russian children are abandoned to the state at a rate of 113,000 a year for the past two years, up dramatically from 67,286 in 1992." "Of a total of more than 600,000 children classified as being “without parental care,” as many as one-third reside in institutions, while the rest are placed with a variety of [[Legal guardian|guardians]]." "From the moment the state assumes their care, [[orphan]]s in Russia—of whom 95 percent still have a living parent—are exposed to shocking levels of [[cruelty]] and [[neglect]]." Once officially labelled as [[Mental retardation|retarded]], Russian orphans are "warehoused for life in psychoneurological internaty. In addition to receiving little to no education in such internaty, these orphans may be restrained in cloth sacks, tethered by a limb to furniture, denied stimulation, and sometimes left to lie half-naked in their own filth. Bedridden children aged five to seventeen are confined to understaffed lying-down rooms as in the baby houses, and in some cases are neglected to the point of death." Life and death of disabled children in the State institutions was described by writer Ruben Galiego.<ref name="Galiego"> Ruben Galliego and Marian Schwartz (Translator) ''White on Black'' Harcourt 2006 ISBN 0-15-101227-X </ref><ref>[http://www.vor.ru/culture/cultarch278_eng.html#2 Ruben Galliego wins Booker Russia Prize]. </ref>
Still, the recent adoption law made it more difficult to adopt Russian children from abroad.

==Human trafficking==
{{main|Trafficking in human beings}}

The end of communism and collapse of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia has contributed to an increase in human trafficking, with the majority of victims being women forced into prostitution.<ref>
{{cite web
|title=Trafficking in human beings
|url=http://www.coe.int/T/E/Com/Files/Themes/trafficking/
|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]
|accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3979725.stm
|title=A modern slave's brutal odyssey
|work=[[BBC News]]
|date=2004-11-03 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref> Russia is a country of origin for persons, primarily women and children, trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation. Russia is also a destination and transit country for persons trafficked for sexual and labour exploitation from regional and neighbouring countries into Russia and beyond. Russia accounted for one-quarter of the 1,235 identified victims reported in 2003 trafficked to Germany. The Russian government has shown some commitment to combat trafficking but has been criticised for failing to develop effective measures in law enforcement and victim protection.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2005/46616.htm
|title=Trafficking in Persons Report
|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]]
|date=2005-06-03 |accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url= http://www.catwinternational.org/factbook/Russia.php
|publisher=Coalition Against Trafficking of Women
|title=Russia
|work=The Factbook on Global Sexual Exploitation
|accessdate=2008-03-16
}}
</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Human rights|Arrest.svg}}
{{Portal|Russia|Nuvola Russian flag.svg}}
*[[Human rights in the Soviet Union]]
*[[Human rights in Europe]]
*[[Politics of Russia]]
*[[International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights]]
*[[Moscow Helsinki Group]]
*[[International human rights instruments]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* Emma Gilligan. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QlJNt_10xxAC Defending human rights in Russia: Sergei Kovalyov, dissident and human rights commissioner, 1969-2003].'' RoutledgeCurzon. 2004. ISBN 0-415-32369-X.
* Pamela A. Jordan. ''Defending Rights in Russia: Lawyers, the State, And Legal Reform in the Post-Soviet Era.'' University of British Columbia Press. 2006. ISBN 0-7748-1163-3.
* Andrew Meier. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JSN2xljp9P8C Black Earth: A Journey through Russia After the Fall].'' Norton. 2005. ISBN 0-393-32641-1.
* [[Anna Politkovskaya]]. ''[[Putin's Russia]].'' Harvill. 2004. ISBN 0-805-07930-0.
* Archana Pyati. ''[http://www.humanrightsfirst.com/defenders/pdf/new-dis-russia-021605.pdf The New Dissidents: Human Rights Defenders and Counterterrorism in Russia].'' Human Rights First. 2005. ISBN 0-9753150-0-5. [http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/defenders/hrd_russia/hrd_russia_02.htm About the author].
* [[David Satter]]. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=i-t6jle71ToC Darkness at Dawn: The Rise of the Russian Criminal State].'' Yale University Press. 2003. ISBN 0-300-09892-8.
* Jonathan Weiler. ''[http://www.rienner.com/viewbook.cfm?BOOKID=1405 Human Rights in Russia: A Darker Side of Reform]''. Lynne Rienner Publishers 2004. ISBN 1-58826-279-0.

===FSB, terror===
* [[Yevgenia Albats]]. ''The State Within a State: The KGB and its Hold on Russia - Past, Present, and Future.'' Farrar Straus Giroux. 1994. ISBN 0-374-18104-7.
* [[Yuri Felshtinsky]] and [[Alexander Litvinenko]]. ''Blowing up Russia: Terror from within.'' S.P.I. Books. 2002. ISBN 1-56171-938-2.

===Chechnya===
* [[Khassan Baiev]] and Ruth Daniloff. ''The Oath: A Surgeon Under Fire.'' Walker. 2004. ISBN 0-8027-1404-8.
* Anna Politkovskaya. ''A Dirty War: A Russian reporter in Chechnya.'' Harvill. 2001. ISBN 1-860-46897-7.
* Anna Politkovskaya. ''[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/16135.ctl A Small Corner of Hell: Dispatches from Chechnya].'' University of Chicago Press. 2003. ISBN 0-226-67432-0.

==External links==
{{Div col}}
* [http://thereport.amnesty.org/eng/Regions/Europe-and-Central-Asia/Russian-Federation Report 2007: Russian Federation] - report by [[Amnesty International]].
* [http://ombudsman.gov.ru/ Commissioner for Human Rights of the Russian Federation] - Office of Ombudsman [[Vladimir Lukin]]. English translations of some reports are in the [http://ombudsman.gov.ru/doc/ezdoc/ index].
* [https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=846655 Report by Mr. Alvaro Gil-Robles on his Visits to the Russian Federation] - Published by the [[Council of Europe]], [[Commissioner for Human Rights]], 2005-04-20.
* [http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Countries/ENACARegion/Pages/RUIndex.aspx OHCHR: Russian Federation] - from the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights]]
*[http://www.un.org/webcast/unhrc/archive.asp?go=090204 Review of the Russian Federation] by the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]]'s [[United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council#Universal_Periodic_Review|Universal Periodic Review]], February 4, 2009
* [http://www.unrussia.ru/en/ U.N. Team in the Russian Federation]
* [http://www.unrussia.ru/en/News.aspx?id=211 Statement by U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights] - the statement of [[Louise Arbour]] after her visit to Russia, including Chechnya, 2006-02-24.
* [http://www.pytkam.net/ Committee Against Torture] - in Nizhny Novgorod.
* [http://hrw.org/doc?t=europe&c=russia Human Rights Watch: Russia]
* [http://hrw.org/reports/2005/russia0605/ Human Rights Watch: Positively Abandoned] - Discrimination against HIV-Positive Mothers and their Children, June 2005.
* [http://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2006/issue1/0106p27.htm HIV/AIDS and Human Rights in Russia] - U.N. Chronicle, 2006.
* [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/212/ IFEX: Russia] - from the [[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]].
* [http://www.freemedia.at/cms/ipi/watchlist_detail.html?country=KW0078 IPI Watch List: Russia] - from the [[International Press Institute]].
* [http://www.fsumonitor.com/ FSUMonitor.com] - published by the [[Union of Councils for Jews in the Former Soviet Union]].
* [http://www.rferl.org/reports/FullReport.aspx?report=574 RFE/RL: Russia Report] - published by [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]].
* [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/ Human Rights Country Reports] - published by the [[U.S. Department of State]]
* [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/ International Religious Freedom Reports] - published by the [[U.S. Department of State]]
* [http://www.hrvc.net/ Human Rights Violations in Chechnya] - last updated in 2006.
* [http://www.therussiasite.org/soc/hr/hr.html Human Rights in Russia] - links.
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{{Human rights in Europe}}
{{Asia in topic|Human rights in}}

[[Category:Human rights in Russia]]
[[Category:Politics of Russia]]

[[ru:Права человека в России]]
[[fi:Ihmisoikeudet Venäjällä]]