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Morris Hillquit

2014-04-01T04:40:13Z

Apeloverage: /* Early years */

{{Infobox person
|name=Morris Hillquit
|birth_name=Moishe Hillkowitz
|image=[[Image:Morris Hillquit NYWTS.jpg|thumb|center|Morris Hillquit (1869-1933), American Socialist lawyer and politician.]]
|birth_date={{birth date|1869|8|1}}
|birth_place=[[Riga]], [[Latvia]]
|death_date={{death date and age|1933|10|8|1869|8|1}}
|death_place=[[New York City]], [[New York]]
|occupation=[[Lawyer]], [[political candidate]]
}}

'''Morris Hillquit''' (1869–1933) was a founder and leader of the [[Socialist Party of America]] and prominent labor lawyer in [[New York City]]'s [[Lower East Side]] during the early 20th century. In November 1917 running on an anti-war platform, Hillquit garnered more than 100,000 votes as the Socialist candidate for [[Mayor of New York City]].

==Biography==
{{American socialism |expanded=People}}
===Early years===

The future Morris Hillquit was born Moishe Hillkowitz in [[Riga]], [[Latvia]], on August 1, 1869, the second son of German-speaking ethnic [[Jew]]ish factory owners.<ref>Norma Fain Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit: A Political History of an American Jewish Socialist.'' Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979; page 3. ISBN 0-313-20526-4.</ref> From the time he was 13, young Moishe attended a non-Jewish secular school, the Russian language Alexander gymnasium.<ref>Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' p. 4.</ref> At the age of 15, in 1884, Moishe's father, Benjamin Hillkowitz, lost his factory in Riga and decided to leave for America to improve the family's financial situation.<ref name="Pratt, Morris Hillquit, p. 5">Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' p. 5.</ref> In 1886, Benjamin sent for the rest of the family and they emigrated to the United States, settling in New York City.<ref name="Pratt, Morris Hillquit, p. 5"/> The family remained poor in the new world, living in a tenement in a predominately Jewish area of the [[lower East Side]].<ref name="Pratt, Morris Hillquit, p. 6">Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' p. 6.</ref> In this period Moishe worked various short-term jobs in the New York city textile industry and as a picture frame maker in a factory.<ref name="Pratt, Morris Hillquit, p. 6"/>

Hillquit's biographer Norma Fain Pratt remarks that Moishe was quickly drawn to the socialist movement in America:
<blockquote>
Almost as soon as he settled in New York, Hillquit was drawn into East Side Jewish radical circles. He was then a small (5'4"), slightly built, frail adolescent with dark hair, dark oval-shaped eyes, and a gentle charming manner. He was immediately attracted to other young Jewish immigrants, mostly former students, now shop workers, who considered themselves intellectuals — a new radical ''intelligentsia''.... For the most part their radicalism was rooted in their experiences in the European socialist and anarchist movements. But emigration and economic hardships in the United States also contributed to their further radicalization. As foreigners in America they were situated far enough outside the society to observe its failings. As frustrated but literate people, they were ambitious enough to participate in it. These young intellectuals were interested in finding alternatives to their present circumstances; their solution was to transform them.<ref>Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' pp. 6–7.</ref>
</blockquote>

On his 18th birthday in August 1887, the future Hillquit joined the [[Socialist Labor Party|Socialist Labor Party of America]], brought into the ranks by a fellow garment worker and Russian language socialist newspaper editor, Louis Miller. Moishe became a member of Section New York's Branch 17, a Russian-speaking unit established by Jewish émigrés from [[tsar]]ist [[Russia]] not long before his joining.<ref>Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' pp. 8–9.</ref>

Within a year or so of joining the SLP, biographer Pratt notes, Moishe Hillkowitz became one of the party's leading crusaders against anarchism, publishing a lengthy article "Sotzializm un anarchizm" in the'' Arbeter Zeitung'' [Workers' News], a Yiddish newspaper that he helped to establish. Hillkowitz contrasted the individualism of anarchism with the communalism of socialism in this piece.<ref>Hillkowitz, "Sotzializm un anarchizm," ''Arbeter zeitung,'' April 8, 1890. Cited in Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' p. 11.</ref> During this time the 19-year-old Hillkowitz worked as the business manager of the ''Arbeter zeitung,'' a paper which was jointly founded with [[Abraham Cahan]], Louis Miller, and [[Morris Winchevsky]] in an effort to speak to the city's Yiddish-speaking immigrant working class about socialism in their own idiom.<ref>Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' pp. 14–15.</ref> Hillkowitz, ironically, was not fluent in Yiddish, having been raised with the German and Russian languages.<ref>Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' p. 16.</ref>

He helped to found the United Hebrew Trades, a garment workers' union formed in 1888, while writing for the ''Arbeiter Zeitung. He graduated from [[New York University Law School]] in 1893.<ref name=WWNY>Lewis Randolph Hamersly (ed.), ''Who's Who in New York: A Biographical Dictionary of Prominent Citizens of New York City and State.'' Seventh Edition, 1917–1918. New York: Who's Who Publications, 1918; pg. 520.</ref> He was admitted to the [[New York State Bar Association]] in November of that same year.<ref name=WWNY />

===Hillquit in the early socialist movement===

[[Image:Hillquit-morris-2.jpg|right|thumb|Along with orator Eugene Debs and Congressman Victor L. Berger, Hillquit was one of the most recognized public faces of the Socialist Party.]]
Hillquit led the departure of a dissident faction from [[Daniel De Leon]]'s Socialist Labor Party in 1899 and was a delegate to the group's convention at [[Rochester, New York]] in 1900.<ref name=WWNY /> He was a strong supporter of unity with the Chicago-based [[Social Democratic Party (United States)|Social Democratic Party]] of [[Victor Berger]] and [[Eugene V. Debs]]. In August 1901 the two groups managed to bury their differences and come together to form the [[Socialist Party of America]] (SPA) at a convention in [[Indianapolis]] which Hillquit also attended.<ref name=WWNY />

Morris Hillquit remained one of the paramount political leaders of the Socialist Party for the rest of his life.

Hillquit was a pioneer historian of the American radical movement, publishing a broad scholarly survey in 1903 entitled ''History of Socialism in the United States.'' The book would be issued in five English-language editions during Hillquit's lifetime and would be translated into a number of the primary languages of the American socialist movement, including German, Russian, [[Yiddish]], Finnish, and Polish.<ref>For specifics of these editions, see WorldCat: German: OCLC 657001222; Russian: OCLC 11042488; Yiddish: OCLC 145440240; Finnish: 8527848; Polish: OCLC 33412186.</ref>

In 1904, Hillquit attended the [[International Socialist Congress, Amsterdam 1904|International Socialist Congress]] at Amsterdam and was involved in moving the proposed Anti-Immigration Resolution, which opposed any legislation which forbade or hindered the immigration of foreign working men, some of which were forced by misery to migrate. However, following "further consideration of the fact that workingmen of backward races (Chinese, Negroes, etc.) are often imported by capitalists to keep down the native workingmen by means of cheap labour, which constitutes a willing object of exploitation, lives in an ill-concealed state of slavery" as something which should be combatted by [[Social Democracy]] "with all its energy."<ref>''Flashlights of the Amsterdam Congress'', by [[Daniel De Leon]], New York Labour News Company, New York, 1904</ref>

Hillquit ran for [[US Congress]] on the Socialist ticket in the New York 9th Congressional District in 1906 and 1908.<ref>F. Gerald Ham with Carole Sue Warmbrodt (eds.), ''The Morris Hillquit Papers: Guide to a Microfilm Edition.'' Madison, WI: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1969; pg. 10.</ref> In the latter campaign, Hillquit garnered 21.23% of the vote in a losing effort against a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] incumbent.<ref>Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' p. 96.</ref>

===Battle with syndicalist left wing===

After this campaign, Hillquit turned his attention to inner-party affairs. This brought him into conflict with the SPA's [[syndicalism|syndicalist]] Left Wing. His biographer notes at least four serious points of departure between Hillquit and the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] wing of the party: (1) a disbelief in the stability and efficacy of industrial unions; (2) A distaste for the strike-oriented tactics of the IWW as opposed to collective bargaining; (3) A belief in the separation of functions between the political and labor wings of the workers' movement, as opposed to the IWW's desire to make industrial organization primary; and (4) The [[Political radicalism|radical]] tone of IWW propaganda, which Hillquit believed served to alienate much of society from the socialist movement and marginalize the left.<ref>Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' pp. 99–100.</ref> His biographer declares that
<blockquote>
"His leadership fanned the fires of Party disagreement and although [Hillquit] was not alone in causing the break in 1913 with an important segment of its left wing, he certainly made a major contribution towards this unfortunate rupture."<ref>Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' p. 99.</ref>
</blockquote>

In 1911, IWW leader [[Bill Haywood|William "Big Bill" Haywood]] was elected to the National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party, on which Hillquit also served. The syndicalist and the electoral socialist squared off in a lively public debate in New York City's Cooper Union on Jan. 11, 1912. Haywood declared that Hillquit and the socialists ought to try "a little sabotage in the right place at the proper time" and attacked Hillquit for having abandoned the class struggle by helping the New York garment workers negotiate an industrial agreement with their employers. Hillquit replied that he had no new message rather than to reiterate a belief in a two-sided workers movement, with separate and equal political and trade union arms. "A mere change of structural forms would not revolutionize the American labor movement as claimed by our extreme industrialists," he declared.<ref>Hillquit, "What shall the Attitude of the SP Be Toward the Economic Organization of the Workers?" (Haywood Debate) in Hillquit Papers; quoted in Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' p. 106.</ref>

Hillquit's battle against the syndicalist left of the party continued at the 1912 National Convention, held in May in Indianapolis. Hillquit's biographer notes that
<blockquote>
"As chairman of the Committee on Constitution he more than likely authored the amendment to the Party's Article II, Section 6, which provided for the expulsion from the Party of 'any member of the party who opposes political action or advocates crime, sabotage, or other methods of violence as a weapon of the working class to aid in its emancipation....'" He voiced his justification for this anti-sabotage amendment by reassuring the convention that 'if there is one thing in this country that can now check or disrupt the Socialist movement, it is not the capitalist class; it is not the Catholic Church; it is our own injudicious friends from within.'"<ref>Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' p. 108.</ref>
</blockquote>

The issue of "syndicalism vs. socialism" was bitterly fought over the next two years, consummated by "Big Bill" Haywood's recall from the SP's NEC and the departure of a broad section of the left wing from the organization. The radical wing never forgave Hillquit for his anti-IWW orientation of these years and made him a major whipping boy in the big split that was to come.

===The war years===
As a staunch [[internationalism (politics)|internationalist]] and [[antimilitarism|antimilitarist]], Hillquit represented the ideological center of the Socialist Party during the years of [[World War I]], which controlled the organization in coalition with the more pragmatist right wing exemplified by such locally-oriented leaders, politicians, and journalists as [[Victor Berger]], [[Daniel Hoan]], [[John Spargo]], and [[Charles Edward Russell]]. He was elected to the SP's governing National Executive Committee on multiple occasions and was a frequent speaker at national conventions of the party. Due to his foreign birth, however, Hillquit was not constitutionally eligible to serve as [[President]] or [[Vice President]] of the United States and was thus never a candidate of the party for national office.

Hillquit was a principal co-author of the resolution against the [[World_War_I#Entry_of_the_United_States|United States' entry into World War I]] which was passed overwhelmingly both by an emergency Socialist Party convention held just after the April 6th, 1917, U.S. declaration of war and by a subsequent membership referendum.<ref>[http://www.workers.org/marcy/cd/sambol/bolwar/bolwar15.htm War proclamation and program adopted at the National Convention of the Socialist Party of the United States, St. Louis, Mo., April 1917] accessed June 18, 2008. Available in print as "St. Louis Manifesto of the Socialist Party 1917" in ''Socialism in America from the Shakers to the Third International: a documentary history'', edited by Albert Fried, New York: [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] Anchor edition, 1970; page 521. See also chapters IV and V of David Shannon's ''Socialist Party of America'', especially pages 93–98.</ref> Despite official repression, popular patriotic pressure and vigilante action against the SP of A's organization, members and press, Hillquit never wavered on the issue of intervention, staunchly backing Debs, Berger, [[Kate Richards O'Hare]] and other socialists charged under the [[Espionage Act]] for opposing the war effort.

[[Image:Maurer-hillquit-london-1916.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Jim Maurer, Morris Hillquit, and Meyer London after their Jan. 1916 meeting with Woodrow Wilson]]
On January 26, 1916, Hillquit was part of a three person delegation to [[Woodrow Wilson|President Wilson]] to advocate part of the Socialist Party's peace program, which proposed that "the President of the United States convoke a congress of neutral nations, which shall offer mediation to the belligerents and remain in permanent session until the termination of the war." A resolution to this effect had been offered in the House of Representatives by the SP's lone Congressman, [[Meyer London]] of New York, and Wilson received Hillquit, London, and socialist trade unionist [[James H. Maurer]] at the [[White House]], along with various other delegations. Hillquit later recalled that Wilson was at first "inclined to give us a short and perfunctory hearing" but as the Socialists made their case to him, the session "developed into a serious and confidential conversation." Wilson told the group that he had already considered a similar plan but chose not to put it into effect because he was not sure of its reception by other neutral nations. "The fact is," Wilson claimed, "that the United States is the only important country that may be said to be neutral and disinterested. Practically all other neutral countries are in one way or another tied up with some belligerent power and dependent on it."<ref>Morris Hillquit, ''Loose Leaves from a Busy Life,'' New York: Macmillan, 1934; pg. 161.</ref>

Beginning in June 1917, Hillquit served as chief defense lawyer in a series of high profile cases on behalf of various socialist magazines and newspapers. The Wilson administration, headed in the matter by [[United States Postmaster General|Postmaster General]] [[Albert Burleson]], began to systematically ban specific issues or entire publications from the mail, or to force publications into financial peril by denying them access to low cost periodical rates. Hillquit argued cases on behalf of a number of important radical publications, including [[Max Eastman|Max Eastman's]] radical artistic and literary magazine, ''[[The Masses]];'' the two socialist dailies — the ''[[New York Call]]'' and the ''[[Milwaukee Leader]];'' the SP's official weekly, ''The American Socialist;'' the popular monthly ''[[Pearson's Magazine]];'' and the Yiddish language ''[[Jewish Daily Forward]].'' In each of these cases, Hillquit argued that the socialist press was truly "American" and that a socialist definition of "patriotism" included the freedoms of press and speech and the right to criticize in a democratic society.<ref>Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' p. 139.</ref> Hillquit was unsuccessful in winning access to the mails for the papers he represented, but he did manage to keep the proprietors of ''The Masses'' out of prison.

In the summer of 1917, with nationalism and pro-war sentiment sweeping the nation, Hillquit [[New York City mayoral election, 1917|ran for Mayor of New York City]]. Hillquit's campaign was based on an anti-war platform and commitment to economical public services and drew the diverse support both of committed socialists, pacifists and other anti-war activists, and pro-war liberals endorsing his campaign as a protest against the government's "sedition" policy, which effectively served to curb freedoms of speech and press.<ref name="Pratt, p. 129">Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit,'' p. 129.</ref> Hillquit seems to have been largely immune from attack by the Socialist Party's left wing or other radicals during this high-profile campaign,<ref name="Pratt, p. 129"/> which ended with Hillquit collecting an impressive 22% of the citywide vote. This campaign, combined with the ongoing electoral success of Congressman [[Meyer London]] (elected as a Socialist in 1914, 1916, and 1920) marked the high point for Socialist Party politics in New York City.

As a member of the SP's National Executive Committee Hillquit worked closely with National Secretary [[Adolph Germer]] and [[James Oneal]] to defend the party from what in modern parlance might be described as an "unfriendly takeover" by its [[revolutionary socialist]] left wing. However, due to ill health Hillquit did not participate in the pivotal [[1919 Emergency National Convention]] at Chicago which formalized the split of the left wing from the Socialist Party to form the [[Communist Labor Party of America]] and the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party of America]]. Instead, Hillquit was ensconced in a sanitorium in upstate New York, recovering from another bout of [[tuberculosis]], and was informed about the events of the convention after the fact.

===The 1920s and after===
[[File:Hillquit-Morris-240725.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Morris Hillquit in July 1924.]]
In 1920 Hillquit served as the lead attorney in the unsuccessful defense of the five democratically-elected Socialist assemblymen expelled from the [[New York State Assembly]]. Hillquit's efforts to see Assemblymen [[Samuel Orr|Orr]], [[August Claessens|Claessens]], [[Louis Waldman|Waldman]], [[Sam Dewitt|DeWitt]], and [[Charles Solomon (politician)|Solomon]] restored to office was ultimately unsuccessful.

From 1922 through the election of 1924, Hillquit was a leading advocate of Socialist Party participation in the [[Conference for Progressive Political Action]] (CPPA).

As a celebrated leader of American Marxism and [[Jewish assimilation|acculturated]] Jew, Hillquit never became closely associated with the specifically Jewish [[Jewish left|left wing]], but he played a role in the Jewish trade union movement, being for a time the lawyer of the [[International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union|ILGWU]]. He also never became a Jewish nationalist of any kind; quite the contrary, he was ideologically disposed against it, but in 1926 he confessed, "[[Zionism]] makes a strong emotional appeal to me, chiefly as a manifestation of awakening national self respect of the Jewish people." He quickly added however that Zionism, like all other national movements, must guard itself against the dangers of degeneration into [[jingoism]]—"If it ever developed in that direction, it will forfeit all claims to Socialist sympathy."<ref>Ezra Mendelsohn, ''[http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=g72diKsztnQC&pg=PA90&lpg=PA90&dq=%22Morris+Hillquit%22+%22Zionism%22&source=bl&ots=Lq5lyRdfNN&sig=DwFrYP2gCMjmtym9MLbpsVbpXvo&hl=en&ei=8NprTI3kHoiiuAO-w6ke&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22Morris%20Hillquit%22%20%22Zionism%22&f=false On Modern Jewish Politics]'', p.90</ref>

In 1932, shortly before his death from tuberculosis, Hillquit received over one-eighth of the vote in [[New York City mayoral elections#1932|his second campaign]] for Mayor of New York City. This proved to be Hillquit's final electoral run; during his life, he had been twice a candidate for [[Mayor of New York City]] and on five times a nominee for [[United States Congress|Congress]].

===Death and legacy===

Morris Hillquit died of tuberculosis "a few minutes past midnight on October 8th" of 1933.<ref>"Millions Mourn Hillquit: World-Famous Socialist Leader Dies After Long Illness," ''The New Leader,'' vol. 16, no. 16 (Oct. 14, 1932), pg. 1. As ''The New Leader'' was the newspaper of record of the American Socialist movement in 1933, this information should be regarded as precise. Note, however, that some sources have Hillquit's date of death as "October 7, 1933."</ref> He was 64 years old at the time of his death.

Hillquit was first and foremost an orator, delivering a torrent of public talks on socialist themes to various audiences throughout his life. In his memoirs, Hillquit conservatively estimates the total number of such speeches to have been "at least 2,000."<ref>Hillquit, ''Loose Leaves from a Busy Life,'' p. 80.</ref> He often appeared in public debates taking up the socialist banner. He wrote frequently for popular magazines and the party press but fairly infrequently for publication in leaflet or pamphlet form. Despite the fact that Hillquit was not a prolific pamphleteer, he did author of a number of substantial books, including a serious academic history of socialism, ''History of Socialism in the United States'' (1903, revised 1910 — translated into both Russian and German); works of popularization, such as ''Socialism in Theory and Practice'' (1909) and ''Socialism Summed Up'' (1912); a short theoretical piece, ''From Marx to Lenin'' (1921); as well as a posthumously published memoir, ''Loose Leaves from a Busy Life'' (1934).

Hillquit's papers are housed at the [[State Historical Society of Wisconsin]] at [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] and are available on microfilm.

One of the buildings of the [[East River Housing Corporation]], a [[housing cooperative]] started by the [[International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union]] in [[Cooperative Village]] on the Lower East Side, was named in Hillquit's honor.

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

==Works==

===Books and pamphlets===
* [http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022571701 ''History of Socialism in the United States.''] [1903] New York: Funk & Wagnalls, Revised and Expanded (5th) edition, 1910.
* [http://archive.org/details/RecentProgressOfTheSocialistAndLaborMovementsInTheUnitedStates_151 ''Recent Progress of the Socialist and Labor Movements in the United States: Report of Morris Hillquit, Representative of the Socialist Party at the International Socialist Bureau, to the International Socialist Congress, Held at Stuttgart, Germany, August 18, 1907.''] Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1907.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/socialismintheo01hillgoog ''Socialism in Theory and Practice.''] New York: Macmillan, 1909.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032589420 ''Socialism Summed Up.''] New York: H.K. Fly, 1912.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/socialismpromise00hilliala ''Socialism: Promise or Menace?''] With [[John A. Ryan]]. New York: Macmillan, 1914. —Debate with Father John Ryan, a leading [[Social justice#Catholic social teaching|Catholic social justice]] theorist.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/doubleedgeoflabo00hilliala ''The Double Edge of Labor's Sword,''] With [[Samuel Gompers]] and [[Max S. Hayes]]. Chicago: Socialist Party, National Office, 1914.
* ''The Immediate Issue.'' New York: The Socialist, 1919.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/socialismontria00hillgoog ''Socialism on Trial.''] New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1920.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/frommarxtolenin00hillgoog ''From Marx to Lenin.''] New York: Hanford Press, 1921.
* ''Loose Leaves from a Busy Life.'' New York: Macmillan, 1934. —Posthumously-published memoirs.

===Articles and leaflets===

* "The Soldier of the Revolution," ''The Comrade'' (New York), vol. 1, no. 1 (October 1901), pp. 16–18. —Short biography of [[Wilhelm Liebknecht]].
* [http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1905/0506-hillquit-moderation.pdf "Moderation, Comrades!"] ''The Socialist'' [Toledo, Ohio], whole no. 241 (May 6, 1905), pg. 5.
* "The Labor Movement Here and Abroad." Chicago: National Office, Socialist Party, 1911.
* "The Civic Federation and Labor." Chicago: National Office, Socialist Party, 1911.
* "Who are the Peacemakers?" With William Harrison Short. Chicago: National Office, Socialist Party, 1911.
* "Government by the Few." Chicago: National Office, Socialist Party, 1911.
* [http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1915/0501-hillquit-collapse.pdf "The 'Collapse' of the International,"] ''The American Socialist'' [Chicago], v. 1, no. 42, whole no. 130 (May 1, 1915), pg. 3.
* "America's Possible Contribution to a Constructive Peace," ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,'' vol. 61 (Sept. 1915), pp. 239–242. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1013019 In JSTOR].
* [http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0407-hillquit-convkeynote.pdf "Keynote Address to the 1917 Emergency National Convention of the Socialist Party,"] ''The World'' [Oakland, CA], whole no. 578 (April 20, 1917), pg. 6.
* [http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0426-hillquit-astotreason.pdf "As to Treason,"] ''New York Call,'' vol. 10, no. 116 (April 26, 1917), pg. 6.
* [http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0519-hillquit-scheidemann.pdf "Out-Scheidemanning Scheidemann,"] ''New York Call,'' vol. 10, no. 139 (May 19, 1917), pg. 2.
* [https://archive.org/details/TheRightOfCriticism "The Right of Criticism: Address in Defense of ''The Call'' Before Assistant Postmaster General Dockery, Washington, DC -- October 15, 1917."] ''The New York Call,'' vol. 10, no. 294 (Oct. 21, 1917), pp. 8, 5.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/TheSocialistTaskAndOutlook "The Socialist Task and Outlook,"] ''New York Call,'' vol. 10, no. 141 (May 21, 1919), pg. 8. —So-called "Clear the Decks" article.
* [http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1919/1107-hillquit-socrussia.pdf "Socialist Russia Against the Capitalist World,"] ''New York Call,'' vol. 12, no. 312 (Nov. 7, 1919), pg. 8.
* [http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1920/1015-hillquit-radicalism.pdf "Radicalism in America,"] ''The Socialist World'' [Chicago], vol. 1, no. 4 (Oct. 15, 1920), pp. 18–19.
* "Moscow and London," ''The Socialist World'' [Chicago], vol. 4, no. 7 (July 1923), pp. 6–7.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/StoryOfTheBritishLaborParty ''The Story of the British Labor Party.''] Chicago: Socialist Party, n.d. [1923]. First published in ''The Socialist World'' [Chicago], vol. 4, no. 9 (September 1923), pp. 3–4.
* "Ferdinand Lassalle (A May Day Reflection)," ''The Socialist World'' [Chicago], vol. 6, no. 5 (May 1925), pp. 9–10.
* [http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1926/1023-hillquit-tributetodebs.pdf "A Tribute to Debs,"] ''The New Leader'' [New York], Oct. 23, 1926, pg. 1.
* "Marxism Essentially Evolutionary," ''Current History,'' vol. 29, October 1928.

==Further reading==

* Melech Epstein, ''Profiles of Eleven: Profiles of Eleven Men Who Guided the Destiny of an Immigrant Society and Stimulated Social Consciousness Among the American People.'' Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1965.
* Anthony V. Esposito, ''The Ideology of the Socialist Party of America, 1901–1917.'' New York: Garland Publishing, 1997.
* Richard W. Fox, "The Paradox of 'Progressive' Socialism: The Case of Morris Hillquit, 1901-1914," ''American Quarterly,'' vol. 26, no. 2 (May 1974), pp. 127–140. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2712231 In JSTOR].
* Frederick C. Giffin, "Morris Hillquit and the War Issue in the New York Mayoralty Campaign of 1917," ''International Social Science Review,'' vol. 74, no. 3-4 (1999), pp. 115-128. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/41887008 In JSTOR]
* Robert Hyfler, ''Prophets of the Left: American Socialist Thought in the Twentieth Century.'' Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1984.
* [[Irving Howe]], ''World of Our Fathers.'' New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976.
* Morris Iversen, ''Morris Hillquit: American Social Democrat.'' PhD dissertation. Iowa State University, 1951.
* Mark E. Kann, "Challenging Lockean Liberalism in America: The Case of Debs and Hillquit," ''Political Theory,'' vol. 8, no. 2 (May 1980), pp. 203–222. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/190795 In JSTOR].
* Ira Kipnis, ''The American Socialist Movement, 1897–1912.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1952.
* Sally M. Miller, "Americans and the Second International," ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,'' vol. 120, no. 5 (Oct. 15, 1976), pp. 372–387, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/986268 In JSTOR].
* Norma Fain Pratt, ''Morris Hillquit: A Political History of an American Jewish Socialist.'' Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979.
* Howard Quint, ''The Forging of American Socialism: Origins of the Modern Movement.'' Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1953; 2nd edition (with minor revisions) Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill, 1964.
* Nick Salvatore, ''Eugene V. Debs: Citizen and Socialist'', Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1982.
* David A. Shannon, ''The Socialist Party of America: A History.'' New York: Macmillan, 1950.
* Socialist Party of America, [http://www.archive.org/details/TheCityForThePeopleMunicipalPlatformOfTheSocialistPartyMayoralty ''The City for the People! Municipal Platform of the Socialist Party, Mayoralty Election, 1932: For Mayor, Morris Hillquit.''] New York: Socialist Party, 1932.
* Zosa Szajkowski, "The Jews and New York City's Mayoralty Election of 1917," ''Jewish Social Studies,'' vol. 32, no. 4 (Oct. 1970), pp. 286–306. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4466612 In JSTOR].
* [[James Weinstein (author)|James Weinstein]], ''The Decline of Socialism in America, 1912–1925 '' New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967.
* David Rolland Wright, ''The Speaking of Morris Hillquit in Opposition to World War I.'' PhD dissertation. Ohio University, 1971.

{{Authority control|VIAF=62354260}}

{{Persondata 
|NAME=Hillquit, Morris
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Founder of the [[Socialist Party of America]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=August 1, 1869
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Riga]], [[Latvia]]
|DATE OF DEATH=October 8, 1933
|PLACE OF DEATH=New York City< New York
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hillquit, Morris}}
[[Category:1869 births]]
[[Category:1933 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Riga]]
[[Category:Latvian Jews]]
[[Category:Imperial Russian Jews]]
[[Category:People from New York City]]
[[Category:Imperial Russian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:American Marxists]]
[[Category:Members of the Socialist Labor Party of America]]
[[Category:Members of the Socialist Party of America]]
[[Category:Socialist Party of America politicians]]
[[Category:Politicians from New York City]]
[[Category:New York lawyers]]
[[Category:Members of the Executive of the Labour and Socialist International]]
[[Category:Jewish socialists]]
[[Category:Political party founders]]
[[Category:Jewish American politicians]]
[[Category:American newspaper founders]]
[[Category:Yiddish-language writers]]
[[Category:Deaths from tuberculosis]]
[[Category:American anti-war activists]]

E. Hoffmann Price

2012-02-27T03:01:07Z

Apeloverage: /* Biography */

{{Infobox writer
|name = Edgar Hoffmann Trooper Price
|image =
|imagesize = 150px |
|caption =
|pseudonym = E. Hoffman Price, Hamlin Daly
|birth_date = {{birth date|1898|7|3|mf=y}}
|birth_place = [[Fowler, California|Fowler]], [[California]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1988|6|18|1898|7|3|mf=y}}
|death_place = [[Redwood City, California|Redwood City]], [[California]]
|occupation = Author
|genre = [[Fantasy]]
|movement =
|magnum_opus =
|debut_works =
|influences =
|influenced =
|website =
}}
'''Edgar Hoffmann Trooper Price''' (July 3, 1898 – June 18, 1988) was an American writer of popular fiction for the [[pulp magazine]] marketplace. He collaborated with [[H. P. Lovecraft]] on "[[Through the Gates of the Silver Key]]".

==Biography==
Price was born at [[Fowler, California]].

Originally intending to be a career soldier, Price graduated from the [[United States Military Academy]] at [[West Point]]; he served in the [[American Expeditionary Force]] in [[World War I]], and with the American military in [[Mexico]] and the [[Philippines]]. He was a champion fencer and boxer, an amateur [[oriental studies|Orientalist]], and a student of the [[Arabic language]]; science-fiction author [[Jack Williamson]], in his 1984 autobiography ''Wonder's Child'', called E. Hoffmann Price a "real live soldier of fortune."

In his literary career, Hoffmann Price produced fiction for a wide range of publications, from ''[[Argosy (magazine)|Argosy]]'' to ''[[Terror Tales]]'', from ''Speed Detective'' to ''Spicy Mystery Stories.'' Yet he was most readily identified as a ''[[Weird Tales]]'' writer, one of the group who wrote regularly for editor [[Farnsworth Wright]], a group that included Lovecraft, [[Robert E. Howard]], and [[Clark Ashton Smith]]. Price published 24 solo stories in "the Unique Magazine" between 1925 and 1950, plus three collaborations with [[Otis Adelbert Kline]], and his works with Lovecraft, noted above.

Some of Price's stories aroused controversy; "The Stranger from Kurdistan" (1925), a story which featured a dialogue between [[Christ]] and [[Satan]], was criticised by some readers as blasphemous,but proved popular with ''Weird Tales'' readers. "The Infidel's Daughter" (1927), a [[satire]] on the [[Ku Klux Klan]], also angered some Southern readers, but Wright defended the story.<ref>See ''The Weird Tales Story'', by Robert Weinberg, 1977.</ref>

Price worked in a range of popular genres, including science fiction, horror, crime, and fantasy; but he was best known for adventure stories with Oriental settings and atmosphere. Unsurprisingly, Price also contributed to Farnsworth Wright's short-lived but fondly-remembered ''[[Oriental Stories|The Magic Carpet]]'' (1930–34), along with Kline, Howard, Smith, and other ''Weird Tales'' regulars.

Like many other pulp-fiction writers, Price could not support himself and his family on his income from literature; living in [[New Orleans]] in the 1930s, he worked for a time for the [[Union Carbide|Union Carbide Corporation]]. Nonetheless he managed to travel widely and maintain friendships with many other pulp writers, including Kline and [[Edmond Hamilton]]. On a trip to Texas in the mid-1930s, Price was the only pulp writer to meet [[Robert E. Howard]] face to face. He was also the only man known to have met Howard and also [[H.P. Lovecraft]] and [[Clark Ashton Smith]] (the great 'Triumvirate' of ''Weird Tales'' writers) in person. Over the course of his long life, Price left significant reminiscences of many significant figures in pulp fiction, Howard, Lovecraft, and Hamilton among them.

Late in life, Price experienced a major literary resurgence; in the 1970s and '80s he issued a series of SF, fantasy, and adventure novels, published in paperback; ''The Devil Wives of Li Fong'' (1979) is one noteworthy example. He also had published two anthologies of his pulp stories during hs lifetime--''[[Strange Gateways]]'' and ''[[Far Lands, Other Days]]''.

Price was one of the first speakers at San Francisco's [[Maltese Falcon Society]] in 1981.

He received the [[World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement|World Fantasy Lifetime Achievement Award]] in 1984.<ref>{{cite web|author=World Fantasy Convention|title=Award Winners and Nominees|url=http://www.worldfantasy.org/awards/awardslist.html/|accessdate= 04 Feb 2011}}</ref> A collection of his literary memoirs, ''Book of the Dead: Friends of Yesteryear, Fictioneers & Others'', was published posthumously in 2001. His writing friends and colleagues included [[Richard L. Tierney]], [[H.P. Lovecraft]], [[August Derleth]], [[Jack Williamson]], [[Edmond Hamilton]], [[Robert E. Howard]], [[Clark Ashton Smith]], [[Henry Kuttner]], [[Seabury Quinn]], [[Otis Adelbert Kline]], [[Ralph Milne Farley]], [[Robert Spencer Carr]], and [[Farnsworth Wright]] among others.

Price was a [[Buddhist]] and a supporter of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]].<ref>"Price, E(dgar) Hoffmann", in ''Encyclopedia of Fantasy ''by [[John Clute]] and [[John Grant]].</ref>

He died at [[Redwood City, California]], in 1988.

==H.P. Lovecraft==

Price's relationship with H. P. Lovecraft did not get off to an auspicious start; in a 1927 letter, Lovecraft remarked that his story "[[The Strange High House in the Mist]]" was, after "grave consultation with E. Hoffman Price", rejected by ''Weird Tales''' Wright "as not sufficiently clear for the acute minds of his highly intelligent readers".<ref>H. P. Lovecraft, letter to Donald Wandrei, August 2, 1927; cited in Joshi and Schultz, p. 212.</ref>

But when Lovecraft visited New Orleans in June 1932, Howard telegraphed Price to alert him to the visitor's presence, and the two writers spent much of the following week together. The legend is not true that Price took Lovecraft to a New Orleans brothel, where he was amused to find that several of the employees there were fans of his work; the story, apocryphal or not, was first told about [[Seabury Quinn]].<ref>Joshi and Schultz, p. 212.</ref>

The two writers did seem to hit it off, beginning a correspondence that continued until Lovecraft's death. They even proposed at one time forming a writing team whose output would, "conservatively estimated, run to a million words a month", in Lovecraft's whimsical prediction. The joint pseudonym proposed for this ambitious collaboration—Etienne Marmaduke de Marigny—was used in slightly altered form for the name of a character in the one story that Lovecraft and Price did collaborate on, "Through the Gates of the Silver Key".<ref>Carter, pp. 94-95.</ref>

That story had its origins in Price's enthusiasm for an earlier Lovecraft tale. "One of my favorite HPL stories was, and still is, '[[The Silver Key]]'," Price wrote in a 1944 memoir. "In telling him of the pleasure I had had in rereading it, I suggested a sequel to account for [[protagonist]] [[Randolph Carter]]'s doings after his disappearance."<ref>E. Hoffman Price, ''The Acolyte'', 1944; cited in Carter, p. 93.</ref> After convincing an apparently reluctant Lovecraft to agree to collaborate on such a sequel, Price wrote a 6,000-word draft in August 1932; in April 1933, Lovecraft produced a 14,000-word version that left unchanged, by Price's estimate, "fewer than fifty of my original words,"<ref>Carter, p. 93.</ref> though ''[[An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia]]'' reports that Lovecraft "kept as many of Price's conceptions as possible, as well as some of his language."<ref name="Joshi and Schultz, p. 213">Joshi and Schultz, p. 213.</ref>

In any case, Price was pleased with the result, writing that Lovecraft "was right of course in discarding all but the basic outline. I could only marvel that he had made so much of my inadequate and bungling start."<ref>Carter, p. 94.</ref> The story appeared under both authors' bylines in the July 1934 issue of ''Weird Tales''; Price's draft was published as "The Lord of Illusion" in ''[[Crypt of Cthulhu]]'' No. 10 in 1982.

Price visited Lovecraft in Providence in the summer of 1933; when he and a mutual friend showed up at Lovecraft's house with a six-pack of beer, the teetotaling Lovecraft is said to have remarked, "And what are you going to do with so ''much'' of it?"<ref name="Joshi and Schultz, p. 213"/>

==Bibliography==
===Science fiction===
*''Operation Misfit'' (1980)
*''Operation Longlife'' (1983)
*''Operation Exile'' (1985)
*''Operation Isis'' (1986)

===Fantasy===
*''The Devil Wives of Li Fong'' (1979)
*''The Jade Enchantress'' (1982)

===Collections===
*''[[Strange Gateways]]'' (1967)
*''[[Far Lands, Other Days]]'' (1975)
*''Three Cliff Cragin Stories'' (1987)
*''Satan's Daughter and Other Tales from the Pulps'' (2004)
*''Valley of the Tall Gods and Other Tales from the Pulps'' (2006)

===Nonfiction===
*''The Weird Tales Story'' (1999)
*''[[Book of the Dead (memoir)|Book of the Dead: Friends of Yesteryear, Fictioneers and Others]]'' (2001)

==References==
*S. T. Joshi and David Schultz, ''An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia'', Hippocampus Press (New York), 2004.
*Lin Carter, ''Lovecraft: A Look Behind the Cthulhu Mythos'', Ballantine Books (New York), 1974.

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{isfdb name|id=E._Hoffmann_Price|name=E. Hoffmann Price}}

{{World Fantasy Award Life Achievement}}

{{Persondata
|NAME= Price, E. Hoffman
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=
|DATE OF BIRTH= July 3, 1898
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Fowler, California|Fowler]], [[California]]
|DATE OF DEATH=June 18, 1988
|PLACE OF DEATH= [[Redwood City, California|Redwood City]], [[California]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Price, E. Hoffman}}
[[Category:1898 births|Price, E. Hoffmann]]
[[Category:1988 deaths|Price, E. Hoffmann]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Price, E. Hoffmann]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Price, E. Hoffmann]]
[[Category:American novelists|Price, E. Hoffmann]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Price, E. Hoffmann]]
[[Category:Cthulhu Mythos writers]]
[[Category:American Buddhists]]
[[Category:World Fantasy Award winning authors]]

[[fr:E. Hoffmann Price]]
[[it:Edgar Hoffmann Price]]
[[ja:E・ホフマン・プライス]]
[[pl:E. Hoffmann Price]]

Germanische SS

2012-02-10T14:09:29Z

Apeloverage: /* Duties */

{{Infobox Government agency
|agency_name = Germanic-SS
|nativename =
|nativename_a =
|nativename_r =
|logo =Flag Schutzstaffel.svg
|logo_width = 100px
|logo_caption = The Germanic-SS were the foreign branches of the [[Allgemeine-SS]].
|seal =
|seal_width =
|seal_caption =
|picture = Bundesarchiv Bild 121-1979, Niederlande, Friedrich Wimmer, SS-Angehörige.jpg
|picture_width = 300px
|picture_caption = Dutch Allgemeine-SS officers in [[The Hague]] in June 1940.
|formed = September, 1939
|preceding1 =
|preceding2 =
|dissolved = May 8, 1945
|superseding =
|jurisdiction = {{Flagicon|Germany|Nazi}} [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] [[Occupied Europe]]
|headquarters = [[SS-Hauptamt]], [[Niederkirchnerstraße|Prinz-Albrecht-Straße]], [[Berlin]]
|latd=52 |latm=30 |lats=26 |latNS=N
|longd=13 |longm= 22|longs=57 |longEW= E
|region_code =
|employees = ~35,000 c.1943
|budget =
|minister1_name = [[Reichsführer-SS]] [[Heinrich Himmler]]
|minister1_pfo = (1939-1945)
|minister2_name =
|minister2_pfo =
|chief1_name =
|chief1_position =
|chief2_name =
|chief2_position =
|agency_type =
|parent_agency = [[Image:Flag Schutzstaffel.svg|23px]] [[Schutzstaffel]]
|child1_agency =
|child2_agency =
|child3_agency =
|child4_agency=
|website =
|footnotes =
}}
The '''Germanic SS''' ({{Lang-de|Germanische-SS}}) was the collective name given to [[SS]] groups which arose in [[Occupied Europe]] between 1939 and 1945.

The units were modeled on the ''[[Allgemeine-SS]]'' in [[Nazi Germany]]. The Germanic-SS were not raised as military units like the [[Waffen-SS]], although many Germanic SS members did join the [[Waffen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts|foreign combat divisions]] in the [[Second World War]].

==Duties==
The purpose of the Germanic SS was to enforce [[Nazism|Nazi]] racial doctrine and [[anti-Semitic]] ideals. They typically served as local security police augmenting units of the [[Gestapo]], [[Sicherheitsdienst]], and other main departments of the [[Reichss

==Germanic-SS Organizations==
[[Image:Standaard Nederlandsche SS.svg|thumb|200px|left|The flag of the Dutch SS.]]
The following countries raised active Germanic-SS detachments:
* [[Netherlands]]: ''[[Germaansche SS in Nederland]]'' (before 1942: ''Nederlandsche SS'')
* [[Flanders]] ([[Belgium]]): ''[[Germaansche SS in Vlaanderen]]'' (before 1942: ''Algemeene-SS Vlaanderen'')
* [[Norway]]: ''Germanske SS Norge''{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}} (before 1942: ''Norges SS'')
* [[Denmark]]: ''[[Schalburg Corps]]''

An underground Nazi organization also existed in Switzerland, known as the ''Germanische SS Schweiz''. It had very few members and was considered merely a splinter Nazi group by Swiss authorities.

France did not maintain a Germanic-SS group but the police forces, and the [[paramilitary]] [[Milice]] of the [[Vichy France|Vichy Government]] assisted local [[SS]] police and security services.

The [[British Free Corps]] ({{Lang-de|Britisches Freikorps}}), which was classed as a division of the [[Waffen-SS]] Foreign Legions, was not a Germanic-SS group. The BFC never saw action; it was used mainly for [[propaganda]] purposes by the [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda|Nazi Ministry of Information]].

==Post war==
After [[World War II]], many Germanic SS members were tried by their respective countries as traitors. Independent war crimes trials (outside the jurisdiction of the [[Nuremberg Trials]]) were conducted in several European countries, such as the [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]] and [[Denmark]].

==Germanic-SS ranks==
The Germanic SS maintained an insignia system based on the [[ranks and insignia of the Schutzstaffel]]. The various names of the ranks were slightly modified depending upon the particular country in which they were used.

The following is a comparison of regular SS and Germanic-SS rank titles.

{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;"
|align="center" rowspan="2"| '''[[Ranks and insignia of the Schutzstaffel|Equivalent SS Rank]]'''
|align="center"| '''Netherlands'''
|align="center"| '''Norway'''
|align="center"| '''Denmark'''
|align="center"| '''SS Insignia'''
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Obergruppenführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Oppergroepsleider
|align="center"| ----
|align="center"| ----
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Obergruppenführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Gruppenführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Groepsleider
|align="center"| Stabsleder
|align="center"| ----
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Gruppenführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Brigadeführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Brigadeleider
|align="center"| SS-brigadefører
|align="center"| ----
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Brigadeführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Oberführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Opperleider
|align="center"| SS-nestbrigadefører
|align="center"| ----
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Oberführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Standartenführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Standaardleider
|align="center"| SS-standartfører
|align="center"| Oberst
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Standartenführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Obersturmbannführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Opperstormbanleider
|align="center"| SS-neststandartfører
|align="center"| Oberstløjtnant
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Obersturmbannführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Sturmbannführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Stormbanleider
|align="center"| SS-stormbannfører
|align="center"| Major
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Sturmbannführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Hauptsturmführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Hoofdstormleider
|align="center"| SS-høvedsmann
|align="center"| Kaptajn
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Hauptsturmführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Obersturmführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Opperstormleider
|align="center"| SS-stormfører
|align="center"| Overløjtnant
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Obersturmführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Untersturmführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Onderstormleider
|align="center"| SS-neststormfører
|align="center"| Løjtnant
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Untersturmführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Sturmscharführer]]
|align="center"| ----
|align="center"| ----
|align="center"| Fændrik
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Sturmscharführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Hauptscharführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Hoofdschaarleider
|align="center"| SS-troppfører
|align="center"| Stabsvagtmester
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Hauptscharführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Oberscharführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Opperschaarleider
|align="center"| SS-nesttroppfører
|align="center"| Obervagtmester
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Oberscharführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Scharführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Schaarleider
|align="center"| SS-lagfører
|align="center"| Vagtmester
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Scharführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Unterscharführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Onderschaarleider
|align="center"| SS-nestlagfører
|align="center"| Obertropsfører
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Unterscharführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Rottenführer]]
|align="center"| SS-Rottenleider
|align="center"| SS-rodefører
|align="center"| ----
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Rottenführer Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Sturmmann]]
|align="center"| SS-Stormman
|align="center"| SS-stormmann
|align="center"| Tropsfører
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Sturmmann Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Mann (military rank)|Mann]]
|align="center"| SS-Man
|align="center"| SS-mann
|align="center"| Schalburgmand
|align="center"| [[Image:SS-Oberschütze Collar Rank.svg|55px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| SS-[[Anwärter]]
|align="center"| SS-Maat
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"| '''No Insignia'''
|-
|}

==See also==
*[[Schutzmannschaft]]
*[[Jonas Lie (government minister)]]
*[[Meinoud Rost van Tonningen]]
*[[Christian Frederik von Schalburg]]
*[[Greater Germanic Reich]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Germanic-Ss}}
{{SS organizations}}
[[Category:Nazi SS]]

[[it:SS Germaniche]]
[[nl:Germaansche SS]]
[[no:Germanske-SS]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Missachtung des Gerichts

2011-08-02T11:19:24Z

Apeloverage: /* News Media */

{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Refimprove|date=September 2010}}
'''Contempt of court''' is a [[court order]] which, in the context of a court [[Trial (law)|trial]] or [[Hearing (law)|hearing]], declares a person or organization to have disobeyed or been disrespectful of the [[court]]'s authority. Often referred to simply as "contempt," such as a person "held in contempt," it is the [[judge]]'s strongest power to impose [[sanctions (law)|sanctions]] for acts which disrupt the court's normal process.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behaviour, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a [[fair trial]]. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or [[jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Judges in [[common law]] systems usually have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems. The client or person must be proven to be guilty before he/she will be punished.

In civil cases involving disputes between private citizens, the behaviour resulting in the ruling is often directed at one of the parties involved rather than at the court directly.

A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt:

* Existence of a lawful order
* The contemnor's knowledge of the order
* The contemnor's ability to comply
* The contemnor's failure to comply

==Australia==
In [[Australia]] a judge may impose a fine or jail. The latter is usually until such time as a person has performed a sincere act of contrition (i.e., purging the offense) or the order is no longer deemed necessary to the carriage of justice.<ref>[http://www.thenewsmanual.net/Resources/medialaw_in_australia_03.html]</ref>

==Canada==
Criminal offences are found within the [[Criminal Code of Canada]] or other federal/provincial laws, with the exception that contempt of court is the only remaining [[common law offence]] in Canada.<ref>[http://www.courts.gov.bc.ca/legal_compendium/Chapter22.asp A Compendium of Law and Judges]</ref>

Contempt of Court includes the following behaviours:
* Fails to maintain a respectful attitude, remain silent or refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding
* Refuses or neglects to obey a subpoena
* Willfully disobeys a process or order of the Court
* Interfere with the orderly administration of justice or to impair the authority or dignity of the Court
* Officer of the Court fails to perform his or her duties
* Sheriff and/or bailiff does not execute a writ forthwith or does not make a return thereof

===Federal Courts in Canada===
''This section applies only to [[Federal Court of Appeal]] and [[Federal Court (Canada)|Federal Court]].''

Under Federal Court Rules, section 472, a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved.<ref>[http://reports.fja.gc.ca/regles/partie12.html Federal Court Rules Chapter 12]</ref>

If it's a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person being imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order or fine.

===Tax Court of Canada===
Under [[Tax Court of Canada]] Rules of ''Tax Court of Canada Act'', a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.

===Provincial Courts===
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in [[British Columbia|BC]], [[Justice of Peace]] can only issue summon to the offender for Contempt, for which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done at the face of the Justice.<ref>[http://www.qp.gov.bc.ca/statreg/stat/P/96379_01.htm#section31 Provincial Court Act Jurisdiction of justice]</ref>

==Hong Kong==
Judges from the [[Court of Final Appeal (Hong Kong)|Court of Final Appeal]], [[High Court (Hong Kong)|High Court]], [[District Court (Hong Kong)|District Courts]] along with members from the various tribunals and Coroner's Court all have the power to impose immediate punishments for contempt in the face of the court, derived from legislation or through [[common law]]:

* Insult a judge or justice, witness or [[officers of the court]]
* Interrupts the proceedings of the Court
* Interfere with the course of justice
* Misbehaves in court (i.e. use of [[mobile phone]] or recording devices without permission)
* [[Juror]] who leaves without permission of the court during proceedings
* Disobeying a judgment or court order
* Breach of undertaking
* Breach of a duty imposed upon a solicitor by rules of court

The use of insulting or threatening language in the [[magistrates' court (Hong Kong)|magistrates' courts]] or against a magistrate is in breach of HK Laws. Chap 227 ''Magistrates Ordinance'' Section 99 which states the magistrate can 'summarily sentence the offender to a fine at level 3 and to imprisonment for 6 months.

In addition, certain appeal boards are given the statutory authority for contempt by them (i.e. Residential Care Home, Hotel and Guesthouse Accommodation, Air Pollution Control, etc). For contempt in front of these boards, the chairperson will certify the act of contempt to the [[Court of First Instance (Hong Kong)|Court of First Instance]] who will then proceed with a hearing and determine the punishment.

==England==
In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[Crime|criminal]] or [[Civil law (common law)|civil]] offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years.

Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behaviour toward the judge or magistrates while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behaviour observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.

===Criminal contempt of court===
The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under the [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]].

[[Magistrates' Court]]s are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the judge or [[Justice of the peace|JP]] may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to [[Pound sterling|GBP]] £2,500, or do both.

It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."

===Strict liability contempt===
Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===
In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[bench warrant]] is issued, authorizing the [[tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice"—i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment—is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claimant of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American [[jurisprudence]], acts of contempt are divided into two types.

# '''Direct contempt''' is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae'') and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice. After giving the person the opportunity to respond, the judge may impose the sanction immediately.
# '''Indirect contempt''' occurs outside the immediate presence of the court and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt and to present evidence in rebuttal.

Contempt of court in a [[civil suit]] is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court.

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[Legal burden of proof|reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the [[Sheriffs in the United States|sheriff]] or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The imposed party is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional [[due process of law|due process]] is not required. The [[Legal burden of proof|burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

In civil contempt cases there is no [[Proportionality (law)|principle of proportionality]]. In ''[[Chadwick v. Janecka]]'' (3d Cir. 2002), a U.S. court of appeals held that [[H. Beatty Chadwick]] could be held indefinitely under federal law, for his failure to produce US$ 2.5 mill. as state court ordered in a civil trial. Chadwick had been imprisoned for nine years at that time and continued to be held in prison until 2009, when a state court set him free after 14 years, making him the longest person imprisoned on a contempt charge to date.

===News Media===
Because of the broad protections of the [[First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States|First Amendment]], with extremely limited exceptions, unless the media outlet is a party to the case, a media outlet cannot be found in contempt of court for reporting about a case because a court cannot order the media in general not to report on a case or forbid it from reporting facts discovered publicly.<ref>''[[Nebraska Press Assn. v. Stuart]]'', [[case citation|427 U.S. 539]] (1976)</ref> Newspapers cannot be closed because of their content.<ref>''[[Near v. Minnesota]]'', 283 U.S. 697 (1931)</ref>
Contempt of court is rarely enforcable against an individual, and will never attach prior to a conviction as there are two doors in American law with which to challenge a judges order on merits. The first is the front door and by appealing to a higher court. The second is by directly disobeyeing the order on merits. Many are jailed by order of a judge alone which is in and of itself criminal as a bill of attainder. It is the state's burden to establish its orders within both its jurisdiction and valid law. Either may be challenged prior to or following any order, judgment or opinion. It is the right of the individual then to challenge the action and take it to a jury to scrutinize the validity of the action as a matter of right. Any order lacking the authority of law and jurisdiction is void and may be challenged as such.
Blacks 6th ed, p 1067 The state or condition of being void; w/o legal effect or stats. Also, the act which produces such effect. see void. Jury in criminal cases posses de facto power of "nullification, to acquit defendant regardless of strength of evidence against him. Cargil v St 255 ga 616 340 SE2 891, 914
Our Founders by the sixth and seventh amendment have stripped the power of the sword from the judiciary and placed it in the hands of a jury of peers. A right to be exercised any time that one may question the actions of his government officials and lay the law down in front of them.
"Since the day the ink dried on the Bill of Rights, "[t]he right of an American citizen to criticize public officials and policies . . . is 'the central meaning of the First Amendment.'" Glasson v. City of Louisville, 518 F.2d 899, 904 (6th Cir. 1975)
Contempt of court is a direct challenge in law to the dignity of the bench. The court is meerly the record. When the charge fails, the dignity is lost

==In use today==
Contempt of court is essentially seen as a form of disturbance that may impede the functionality of the court. The judge may impose fines and or jail time upon any person committing contempt of court. The person is usually let out upon his agreement to fulfill the wishes of the court.<ref>Hill, G. (2008). Contempt of Court. Retrieved April 12, 2008 from , Law.dictionary.com Web site: [http://dictionary.law.com/default2.asp?typed=contempt&type=1&submit1.x=0&submit1.y=0&submit1=Look+up]</ref> Civil contempt can involve acts of omission. The judge will make use of warnings in most any situation that may lead to a person being charged with contempt. It is relatively rare that a person is charged for contempt without first receiving at least one warning from the judge.<ref>Hill, G. (2008). Contempt of Court. Retrieved April 12, 2008 from , Law.dictionary.com Web site:
[http://dictionary.law.com/default2.asp?typed=contempt&type=1&submit1.x=0&submit1.y=0&submit1=Look+up]</ref> Constructive contempt, also called consequential contempt is when a person fails to fulfill the will of the court as it applies to outside obligations of the person. In most cases, constructive contempt is considered to be in the realm of civil contempt because of its passive nature.

Indirect contempt is something that is associated with civil and constructive contempt and involves a failure to follow court orders. Criminal contempt includes anything that could be called a disturbance such as repeatedly talking out of turn, bringing forth previously banned evidence, or harassment of any other party in the courtroom.<ref>Hill, G. (2008). Contempt of Court. Retrieved April 12, 2008 from , Law.dictionary.com Web site: [http://dictionary.law.com/default2.asp?typed=contempt&type=1&submit1.x=0&submit1.y=0&submit1=Look+up]</ref> Direct contempt is an unacceptable act in the presence of the judge (in facie curiae), and generally begins with a warning, and may be accompanied by an immediate imposition of punishment. [[Yawning]] in some cases can be considered contempt of court.<ref>{{citation|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2005/apr/20/local/me-yawn20|title=Sleepy Juror Gets Rude Awakening|author=Liu, Caitlin|date=April 20, 2005|publisher=Los Angeles Times}}</ref>

Contempt of court has a significant impact on journalism in the form of restrictions on court reporting which are set out in statute in the UK.<ref>[http://journalism.winchester.ac.uk Media Law Web, Winchester University,UK (2009)Web site]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Contempt of Congress]]
*[[Contempt of Parliament]]
*[[Contumacy]]
*[[Judicial discretion]]
*[[Perjury]]
*[[Perverting the course of justice]]
*[[Obstruction of justice]]
*[[Offence of scandalizing the court in Singapore]]

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}

==Literature==
*Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wiktionary|contempt of court}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Contempt Of Court}}
[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law (common law)]]
[[Category:Legal procedure]]

[[de:Ordnungsmittel]]
[[mr:न्यायालयाचा अवमान]]
[[ja:法廷侮辱罪]]
[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]
[[pt:Contempt of court]]
[[ur:توہین عدالت]]
[[zh:藐視法庭]]

Sleep Paralysis

2011-07-24T15:25:11Z

Apeloverage: /* Folklore */

[[Image:John Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare.JPG|thumb|280px|''[[The Nightmare]]'', by [[Henry Fuseli]] (1781) is thought to be one of the classic depictions of sleep paralysis perceived as a [[demon]]ic visitation.]]

'''Sleep paralysis''' is [[paralysis]] associated with sleep that may occur in healthy persons or may be associated with [[narcolepsy]], [[cataplexy]], and [[hypnagogic hallucinations]]. The [[pathophysiology]] of this condition is closely related to the normal [[hypotonia]] that occurs during [[Rapid eye movement sleep|REM sleep]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hishikawa |first=Y. |last2=Shimizu |first2=T. |title=Physiology of REM sleep, cataplexy, and sleep paralysis |journal=Adv Neurol |year=1995 |volume=67 |pages=245–271 |pmid=8848973 }}</ref> When considered to be a disease, isolated sleep paralysis is classified as [[Medical Subject Headings|MeSH]] D020188.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2007/MB_cgi?field=uid&term=D020188 |title=D020188 }}</ref> Some evidence suggests that it can also, in some cases, be a symptom of [[migraine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dreaminglucid.com/articlejc.html |title=Scared Stiff - Sleep Paralysis: An Interview with Jorge Conesa, PhD. |first=Lucy |last=Gillis |year=2001 |work=The Lucid Dream Exchange }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.migraine-aura.org/content/e27891/e27265/e42285/e42290/e55289/e58636/index_en.html |title=Sleep paralysis |date=23 January 2008 |first=Klaus |last=Podoll |first2=Markus |last2=Dahlem |first3=Sofia |last3=Greene }}</ref>

==Symptoms and characteristics==
Physiologically, sleep paralysis is closely related to [[REM atonia]], the paralysis that occurs as a natural part of [[Rapid eye movement sleep|REM (rapid eye movement) sleep]]. Sleep paralysis occurs either when falling asleep, or when awakening. When it occurs upon falling asleep, the person remains aware while the body shuts down for REM sleep, and it is called [[hypnagogic]] or predormital sleep paralysis. When it occurs upon awakening, the person becomes aware before the REM cycle is complete, and it is called [[hypnopompic]] or postdormital.<ref>http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/guide/sleep-paralysis</ref> The paralysis can last from several seconds to several minutes "by which the individual may experience panic symptoms".<ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007 p. 380">Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis. p. 380</ref> (described below) As the correlation with REM sleep suggests, the paralysis is not entirely complete; use of EOG traces shows that eye movement is still possible during such episodes.<ref>Hearne, K. (1990) The Dream Machine: Lucid dreams and how to control them, p18. ISBN 0-85030-906-9</ref> When there is an absence of narcolepsy, sleep paralysis is referred to as isolated sleep paralysis (ISP).<ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007">Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis</ref>

In addition, the paralysis may be accompanied by terrifying [[hallucinations]] ([[hypnopompic]] or [[Hypnagogia|hypnagogic]]) and an acute sense of danger.<ref>Hersen Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis</ref> Sleep paralysis is particularly frightening to the individual because of the vividness of such hallucinations.<ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007"/> The hallucinatory element to sleep paralysis makes it even more likely that someone will interpret the experience as a dream, since completely fanciful or dream-like objects may appear in the room alongside one's normal vision. Some scientists have proposed this condition as an explanation for [[alien abduction]]s and [[ghost]]ly encounters.<ref name="pmid15881271">{{cite journal |author=McNally RJ, Clancy SA. |title=Sleep Paralysis, Sexual Abuse, and Space Alien Abduction |journal=Transcultural Psychiatry |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=113–122 |year=2005|pmid=15881271 |doi=10.1177/1363461505050715}}</ref> A study by [[Susan Blackmore]] and [[Marcus Cox]] (the Blackmore-Cox study) of the [[University of the West of England]] supports the suggestion that reports of alien abductions are related to sleep paralysis rather than to [[temporal lobe]] lability.<ref name="ejufoas">{{cite journal | last = Blackmore | first = Susan | authorlink = Susan Blackmore | coauthors = Marcus Cox | title = Alien Abductions, Sleep Paralysis and the Temporal Lobe | journal = European Journal of UFO and Abduction Studies | volume = | issue = 1 | pages = 113–118 | publisher = | location = | date = | url = http://72.14.235.132/search?q=cache:oDUW-O3VERkJ:www.susanblackmore.co.uk/Articles/ejufoas00.html+%22Alien+Abductions,+Sleep+Paralysis+and+the+Temporal+Lobe%22&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au&client=firefox-a | doi = | id = | accessdate = 2008-07-26}}</ref> Some authors have warned of the possible misconnection between child sexual abuse (CSA) and hypnagogic/pompic phenomena and have noted that some clients after having described such an event to a fortune teller or psychic that the psychic may have suggested CSA.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Murphy |first=G. |last2=Egan |first2=J. |year=2010 |title=Sleep paralysis and hallucinations: What clinicians need to know |journal=Irish Psychologist |volume=36 |issue= |pages=95–98 |doi= }}</ref><ref>http://www.lenus.ie/hse/bitstream/10147/111896/1/IPMarch2010.pdf</ref>

==Possible causes==
{{Expand section|examples of causal [[neurophysiological]] factors|date=December 2010}}
In surveys from Canada, China, England, Japan and Nigeria, 20% to 60% of individuals reported having experienced sleep paralysis at least once in their lifetime.<ref name="Blackmore, Susan J. 2002 pp. 45-59">{{cite journal |last=Blackmore |first=Susan J. |last2=Parker |first2=Jennifer J. |year=2002 |title=Comparing the Content of Sleep Paralysis and Dream Reports |journal=Dreaming |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=45–59 |doi=10.1023/A:1013894522583 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Spanos |first=N. P. |last2=McNulty |first2=S. A. |last3=DuBreuil |first3=S. C. |last4=Pires |first4=M. |year=1995 |title=The frequency and correlates of sleep paralysis in a university sample |journal=Journal of Research in Personality |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=285–305 |doi=10.1006/jrpe.1995.1017 }}</ref> A study conducted by Sedaghat-Hamedani F. et al. has investigated the prevalence of sleep paralysis among Iranian medical students. 24.1% of students reported experiencing sleep paralysis at least once in their lifetime. The same result was reported among Japanese, Nigerian, Kuwaiti, Sudanese and American students.<ref>{{cite conference |last=Sedaghat-Hamedani |first=F. |last2=Kayvanpour |first2=E. |last3=Rezai |first3=A. |year=2004 |title=Prevalence of sleep paralysis and other symptoms of narcolepsy in Iranian medical students |conference=3rd scientific conference for GCC Medical Students }}</ref>

Many people who commonly enter sleep paralysis also suffer from [[narcolepsy]].<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 12211324 | last1 = Friedman | author-separator =, | first1 = S | author-name-separator= | last2 = Paradis | first2 = C | title = Panic disorder in African-Americans: symptomatology and isolated sleep paralysis. | journal = Culture, medicine and psychiatry| volume=26 | issue=2 | year=2002 | month=June | pages=179–98 | doi = 10.1023/A:1016307515418}}</ref>

Some reports read that various factors increase the likelihood of both paralysis and hallucinations. These include:
* Sleeping in a face upwards or [[supine position]]
* Increased stress
* Sudden environmental/lifestyle changes
* A [[lucid dream]] that immediately precedes the episode.
* Excessive consumption of alcohol coupled with lack of adequate sleep.<ref>{{cite web| author= J. A. Cheyne | url=http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/prevent.html | title= Preventing and Coping with Sleep Paralysis | accessdate=17 July 2006}} (reference for all six factors that increase likelihood of paralysis/hallucinations)</ref>

In ''The Terror That Comes in the Night'', folklorist and behavioral scientist David J. Hufford argues that sleep paralysis is related to an anomalous experience known in Newfoundland as "the Old Hag." According to Hufford, the Old Hag is "an experience with stable contents which is widespread, dramatic, realistic, and bizarre," and elements of the phenomenon cannot be fully explained either by psychology or culture. His works have explored the connection between the Old Hag and parapsychology in what he labels the "experience-centered approach" to hauntings.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hufford |first=D. J. |title=The terror that comes in the night: an experience-centered study of supernatural assault traditions |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1982 |isbn=0812278518 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hufford |first=D. J. |chapter=An experience-centered approach to hauntings |editor1-last=Houran |editor1-first=James |editor2-last=Lange |editor2-first=Rense |title=Hauntings and Poltergeists: Multidisciplinary Perspectives |location=London |publisher=McFarland |year=2001 |isbn=0786409843 }}</ref>

==Treatment==
Treatment starts with patient education about sleep stages and about the muscle atonia that is typically associated with REM sleep. It is recommended that patients be evaluated for [[narcolepsy]] if symptoms persist.<ref>Wills L, Garcia J. Parasomnias: Epidemiology and Management. CNS Drugs [serial online]. December 2002;16(12):803-810.</ref>

==Related phenomena==
Many perceptions associated with sleep paralysis (visceral buzzing, loud sounds, excited mental state,<ref>"The Projection of the Astral Body", 1968, Sylvan Muldoon and Hereward Carrington: p71</ref> presences, and the paralysis itself) also constitute a common phase in the early progression of episodes referred to as [[out of body experience]]s.<ref>http://www.susanblackmore.co.uk/Conferences/SPR99.html "OBEs and Sleep Paralysis", Susan Blackmore</ref> Mental focus varies between the two conditions; paralysis sufferers tend to fixate on reestablishing operation of the body, whereas subjects of out-of-body episodes are more occupied by perceived non-equivalence with the body.

==Folklore==
The original definition of sleep paralysis was codified by [[Dr. Samuel Johnson]] in his ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' as "nightmare," a term that evolved into our modern definition. Such sleep paralysis was widely considered to be the work of [[demon]]s and more specifically [[incubus (demon)|incubi]], which were thought to sit on the chests of sleepers. In [[Old English language|Old English]] the name for these beings was ''mare'' or ''mære'' (from a [[proto-Germanic language|proto-Germanic]] ''*marōn'', cf. [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] ''[[mara (folklore)|mara]]''), hence comes the ''mare'' part in ''nightmare''. The word might be etymologically cognate to Hellenic ''Marōn'' (in the [[Odyssey]]) and [[Sanskrit]] ''[[Mara (demon)|Māra]]''.

In [[Swedish people|Swedish]] folklore, sleep paralysis is caused by a Mare, a supernatural creature related to the [[werewolf]]. The Mare is a damned woman, who is cursed and her body is carried mysteriously during sleep and without her noticing. In this state, she visits villagers to sit on their rib cages while they are asleep, causing them to experience nightmares. An upcoming Swedish film, [[Marianne (2011 film)|Marianne]], examines the folklore surrounding sleep paralysis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://translate.google.com.au/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=http://lesgivresdlabobine.wordpress.com/2010/12/13/entretien-avec-le-realisateur-filip-tegstedt-a-propos-de-marianne/&ei=BLVqTaK9D4nQceTO_Y0M&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEAQ7gEwBg|title=Interview with director Filip Tegstedt, about Marianne |first=Aurore|last=Bjursell|date=13 December 2010|accessdate=13 May 2011}}</ref>

Folk belief in Newfoundland, South Carolina and Georgia describe the negative figure of the [[Hag]] who leaves her physical body at night, and sits on the chest of her victim. The victim usually wakes with a feeling of terror, has difficulty breathing because of a perceived heavy invisible weight on his or her chest, and is unable to move i.e., experiences sleep paralysis. This nightmare experience is described as being "hag-ridden" in the [[Gullah]] lore. The "Old Hag" was a nightmare spirit in British and also Anglophone North American folklore.

In [[Fiji]] the experience is interpreted as "kana tevoro" being 'eaten' or possessed by a demon. In many cases the 'demon' can be the spirit of a recently dead relative who has come back for some unfinished business, or has come to communicate some important news to the living. Often persons sleeping near the afflicted person say "kania, kania" (eat! eat!) in an attempt to prolong the possession for a chance to converse with the dead relative or spirit and seek answers as to why he/she has come back. The person waking up from the experience is often asked to immediately curse or chase the spirit of the dead relative, which sometimes involves literally speaking to the spirit telling him/her to go away or using expletives.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

In Nigeria, "ISP appears to be far more common and recurrent among people of African descent than among whites or Nigerian Africans",<ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007 p. 380"/> and is often referred to within African communities as "the Devil on your back."<ref name="Mattek, 2005 Memoirs p. 34">Mattek, (2005) Memoirs p. 34</ref><ref name="Katherine Roberts">{{cite web|url=http://www.louisianafolklife.org/LT/Articles_Essays/main_misc_cauchemar.html|title=Contemporary Cauchemar: Experience, Belief, Prevention|work=Folklife in Louisiana|author=Katherine Roberts|publisher=The Louisiana Folklife Program}}</ref><ref name="pmid6737506">{{cite journal |author=Bell CC, Shakoor B, Thompson B, Dew D, Hughley E, Mays R, Shorter-Gooden K |title=Prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis in black subjects |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=76 |issue=5 |pages=501–508 |year=1984 |pmid=6737506 |pmc=2561758}}</ref>

In [[Turkey]] and in many of islamic beliefs, Sleep Paralysis is called "[[Karabasan]]" which is very similar to the classic story of a demon visiting a person in sleep. Basically an islamic demon [(most commonly people say it is a [[Djinn]] ([[Cin]] in [[Turkish language|Turkish]])] comes to one's room, holds him down hardly enough to not allow any kind of movement, starts to strangle the person and actually many people say that they hear the voice of the djinn or satan. To get rid of the demonic creature, one needs to pray to God ([[Allah]] in islamic beliefs) with certain lines from [[Quran]]. If one does not pray soon enough, it is said that the demonic creature will kill the person by strangling. Some women actually believe the creature raped them through this process due to waking up with pain around the area of their genitalia and with a feeling of a headache.

Various forms of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and [[spiritual possession]] were also advanced as causes. In nineteenth century [[Europe]], the vagaries of diet were thought to be responsible. For example, in [[Charles Dickens]]'s ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'', [[Ebenezer Scrooge]] attributes the [[ghost]] he sees to "... an undigested bit of beef, a blot of mustard, a crumb of cheese, a fragment of an underdone potato..." In a similar vein, the ''[[Household Cyclopedia]]'' (1881) offers the following advice about nightmares:

:"Great attention is to be paid to regularity and choice of diet. Intemperance of every kind is hurtful, but nothing is more productive of this disease than drinking bad wine. Of eatables those which are most prejudicial are all fat and greasy meats and pastry... Moderate exercise contributes in a superior degree to promote the digestion of food and prevent flatulence; those, however, who are necessarily confined to a sedentary occupation, should particularly avoid applying themselves to study or bodily labor immediately after eating... Going to bed before the usual hour is a frequent cause of night-mare, as it either occasions the patient to sleep too long or to lie long awake in the night. Passing a whole night or part of a night without rest likewise gives birth to the disease, as it occasions the patient, on the succeeding night, to sleep too soundly. Indulging in sleep too late in the morning, is an almost certain method to bring on the paroxysm, and the more frequently it returns, the greater strength it acquires; the propensity to sleep at this time is almost irresistible."<ref>[http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/medicine.html#nightmare The Household Cyclopedia - Medicine]</ref>

==Around the world==
{{No footnotes|section|date=May 2009}}
Complete references to many cultures are given in [[Sleep paralysis#References|the References section]]



=== East Asia ===
* In [[Chinese culture]], sleep paralysis is widely known as "鬼壓身/鬼压身" ([[pinyin]]: guǐ yā shēn) or "鬼壓床/鬼压床" ([[pinyin]]: guǐ yā chuáng), which literally translate into "ghost pressing on body" or "ghost pressing on bed." A more modern term is "夢魘/梦魇" ([[pinyin]]: mèng yǎn).
* In [[Japanese language|Japanese]] culture, sleep paralysis is referred to as ''kanashibari'' ([[:ja:金縛り|金縛り]], literally "bound or fastened in metal," from "kane" (metal) and "shibaru" (to bind, to tie, to fasten). This term is occasionally used by English speaking authors to refer to the phenomenon both in academic papers and in [[popular psychology|pop psych]] literature.<ref name="shibaru">{{Cite journal |title=High prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis: kanashibari phenomenon in Japan |last=Fukuda |first=K. |last2=Miyasita |first2=A. |last3=Inugami |first3=M. |last4=Ishihara |first4=K. |journal=Sleep |year=1987 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=279–286 |doi= |pmid=3629091 }}</ref>
* In [[Korean culture]], sleep paralysis is called ''gawee nulim'' ({{Ko-hhrm|hangul=[[:ko:가위눌림|가위눌림]]}}), literally meaning "being pressed down by a scissor". It is often associated with a superstitious belief that a ghost or spirit is lying on top of or pressing down on the sufferer.
* In [[Mongolian culture]], nightmares in general as well as sleep paralysis is referred to by the verb-phrase ''khar darakh'' (written kara darahu), meaning "to be pressed by the Black" or "when the Dark presses". "Kara" means black and may refer to the dark side personified. "Kharin buu" means shaman of the Black (shamans of the dark side only survive in far-northern [[Mongolia]]), while "tsaghaan zugiin buu" means shaman of the white direction (referring to shamans who only invoke the benevolent spirits). Compare 'karabasan' (the dark presser) in Turkish, which may date from pre-Islamic times when the Turks had the same religion and mythology as the Mongols. See [[Mythology of the Turkic and Mongolian peoples]] and [[Tengriism]].

=== South-East Asia ===
* In Cambodian, Laotian, and Thai culture, sleep paralysis is called ''phǐǐ am'' and ''khmout sukkhot''. It is described as an event in which the person is sleeping and dreams that one or more ghostly figures are nearby or even holding him or her down. The sufferer usually thinks that he or she is awake but unable to move or make any noises. This is not to be confused with ''pee khao'' and ''khmout jool'', ghost possession.
* In [[Hmong people|Hmong]] culture, sleep paralysis is understood to be caused by a nocturnal pressing spirit, "dab tsog." ''Dab tsog'' attacks "sleepers" by sitting on their chests, sometimes attempting to strangle them. Some believe that ''dab tsog'' is responsible for [[Sudden unexpected death syndrome|Sudden Unexpected Nocturnal Death Syndrome]] (SUNDS), which claimed the lives of over 100 Southeast Asian immigrants in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Adler (2011) offers a biocultural perspective on sleep paralysis and the sudden deaths. She suggests that an interplay between the Brugada syndrome (a genetic cardiac disorder) and the traditional meaning of a ''dab tsog'' attack are at the heart of the sudden deaths.<ref>{{cite book |last=Adler |first=Shelley R. |year=2011 |title=Sleep Paralysis: Night-mares, Nocebos, and the Mind-Body Connection |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=9780813548852 }}</ref>
* In Vietnamese culture, sleep paralysis is referred to as "ma đè", meaning "held down by a ghost" or "bóng đè", meaning "held down by a shadow".
* In [[Culture of the Philippines|Philippine culture]], "bangungut", or [[sudden unexplained death syndrome]], has traditionally been attributed to nightmares.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Munger|first=Ronald G.|coauthors=Elizabeth A. Booton|year=1998|title=Bangungut in Manila: sudden and unexplained death in sleep of adult Filipinos|journal=[[International Journal of Epidemiology]]|volume=27|issue=4|pages=677–684 |doi=10.1093/ije/27.4.677|pmid=9758125}}</ref> People who have claimed to survive such nightmares have reported experiencing the symptoms of sleep paralysis.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}
*In New Guinea, people refer to this phenomenon as "Suk Ninmyo", believed to originate from sacred trees that use human essence to sustain its life. The trees are said to feed on human essence during night as to not disturb the human's daily life, but sometimes people wake unnaturally during the feeding, resulting in the paralysis.
* In Malay of Malay Peninsula, sleep paralysis is known as 'kena tindih' (or 'ketindihan' in Indonesia), which means "being pressed".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sleepclinicjakarta.tblog.com/post/1969898557 |title=Klinik Gangguan Tidur }}</ref> Incidents are commonly considered to be the work of a malign agency; occurring in what are explained as blind spots in the field of vision, they are reported as demonic figures.

=== South Asia ===
* In [[Pakistan]], sleep paralysis is considered to be an encounter with [[Shaitan]] ([[Urdu language|Urdu]]: شيطان ) ([[Satan]]), [[evil]] [[jinn]]s or [[demon]]s who have taken over one's body. Like [[Iran]], this [[ghoul]] is known as 'bakhtak' ([[Urdu language|Urdu]]: بختک). It is also assumed that it is caused by the [[black magic]] performed by [[enemy|enemies]] and [[jealous]] persons. People, especially children and young girls, wear [[Ta'wiz]] ([[Urdu language|Urdu]]: تعویز) ([[Amulet]]) to ward of [[evil eye]]. [[Spell (paranormal)|Spells]], [[incantation]]s and [[curse]]s could also result in [[ghoul]]s [[haunting]] a person. Some homes and places are also [[Haunting|haunted]] by [[evil]] [[ghost]]s, [[satan]]ic or other [[supernatural]] beings and they could [[Haunting|haunt]] people living there especially during the night. [[Muslim]] holy persons ([[Imam]]s, [[Maulvi]]s, [[Sufi]]s, [[Mullah]]s, [[Fakir|Faqirs]]) perform [[exorcism]] on individuals who are [[Demonic possession|possessed]]. The homes, houses, buildings and grounds are [[Blessing|blessed]] and [[Consecration|consecrated]] by [[Mullah]]s or [[Imam]]s by reciting [[Qur'an]] and [[Adhan]] ([[Urdu language|Urdu]]: أَذَان), the [[Islam]]ic call to [[Salah|prayer]], recited by the [[muezzin]].
* In Tamil Nadu and Sri Lankan Tamil culture, this particular phenomenon is referred to as 'Amuku Be' or 'Amuku Pei' meaning "the ghost that forces one down".
* In Nepal, especially [[Newa people|Newari]] culture it is also known as 'Khyaak' a ghost-like figure believed to reside in the darkness under the staircases of a house.

=== Middle-East, Western and Central Asia ===
* In [[Arabic]] Culture, sleep paralysis is often referred to as 'Kaboos' ({{lang-ar|كابوس}}), literally "presser" or 'Ja-thoom' ({{lang-ar|جاثوم}}) literally "What sits heavily on something", though the term 'Kaboos' is also used to refer to any form of bad dreams. In folklore across Arab countries, the 'Kaboos' is believed to be a ''[[Shaitan|shayṭān]]'' or a ''[[ifrit|‘ifrīt]]'' which sits, heavily, on people's chests.
* In [[Turkey|Turkish]] culture, sleep paralysis is often referred to as "karabasan" ("The dark presser/assailer"). It is believed to be a creature that attacks people in their sleep, pressing on their chest and stealing their breath. However, folk legends do not provide a reason why the devil or ifrit does that.
* In [[Persian people|Persian]] culture it is known as 'bakhtak' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: بختک), which is a ghost-like spear chucker creature that sits on the dreamer's chest, making breathing hard for him/her.

=== Africa ===
* In African culture, isolated sleep paralysis is commonly referred to as "the witch riding your back".<ref name="Mattek, 2005 Memoirs p. 34"/><ref name="Katherine Roberts"/>
*Several studies have shown that African-Americans may be predisposed to isolated sleep paralysis also known as "the witch is riding you" or "the haint is riding you".<ref name="pmid6737506"/> In addition, other studies have shown that African-Americans who have frequent episodes of isolated sleep paralysis, i.e., reporting having one or more sleep paralysis episodes per month coined as "sleep paralysis disorder," were predisposed to having panic attacks.<ref name="pmid3746934">{{cite journal |author=Bell CC, Dixie-Bell DD, Thompson B |title=Further studies on the prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis in black subjects |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=78 |issue=7 |pages=649–659 |year=1986|pmid=3746934 |pmc=2571385}}</ref> This finding has been replicated by other independent researchers.<ref name="pmid15881272">{{cite journal |author=Paradis CM, Friedman S |title=Sleep Paralysis in African Americans with Panic Disorder |journal=Transcultural psychiatry |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=692–694 |year=2006 |pmid=15881272 |isbn=3461505050720 |doi=10.1177/1363461505050720}}</ref><ref name="pmid7982696">{{cite journal |author=Friedman S, Paradis CM, Hatch M |title=Characteristics of African-Americans and white patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia |journal=Hospital and Community Psychiatry |volume=45 |issue=8 |pages=798–803 |year=1994 |pmid=7982696}}</ref>
*Ogun Oru is a traditional explanation for nocturnal disturbances among the Yoruba of Southwest Nigeria; ogun oru (nocturnal warfare) involves an acute night-time disturbance that is culturally attributed to demonic infiltration of the body and psyche during dreaming. Ogun oru is characterized by its occurrence, a female preponderance, the perception of an underlying feud between the sufferer's earthly spouse and a 'spiritual' spouse, and the event of bewitchment through eating while dreaming. The condition is believed to be treatable through Christian prayers or elaborate traditional rituals designed to exorcise the imbibed demonic elements.<ref name="pmid17379609">{{cite journal |author=Aina OF, Famuyiwa OO |title=Ogun Oru: a traditional explanation for nocturnal neuropsychiatric disturbances among the Yoruba of Southwest Nigeria |journal=Transcultural psychiatry |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=44–54 |year=2007 |pmid=17379609 |doi=10.1177/1363461507074968}}</ref>
* In Zimbabwean Shona culture the word Madzikirira is used to refer something really pressing one down. This mostly refers to the spiritual world in which some spirit—especially an evil one—tries to use its victim for some evil purpose. The people believe that witches can only be people of close relations to be effective, and hence a witches often try to use one's spirit to bewitch one's relatives.
* In Ethiopian culture the word 'dukak' is used, which is believed to be an evil spirit that possesses people during their sleep. Some people believe this experience is linked to use of [[Khat]] ('Chat'). Khat users experience sleep paralysis when suddenly quitting chewing [[Khat]] after use for a long time.
* In [[Swahili speaking East Africa]], it is known as 'jinamizi', which refers to a creature sitting on one's chest making it difficult for him/her to breathe. It is attributed to result from a person sleeping on his back. Most people also recall being strangled by this 'creature'. People generally survive these 'attacks'

=== Europe ===
* In [[Hungary|Hungarian]] folk culture sleep paralysis is called "lidércnyomás" ("lidérc pressing") and can be attributed to a number of supernatural entities like "lidérc" (wraith), "boszorkány" (witch), "tündér" (fairy) or "ördögszerető" (demon lover).<ref>[http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02115/html/3-1332.html lidérc], Magyar Néprajzi Lexikon, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1977, ISBN</ref> The word "boszorkány" itself stems from the Turkish root "bas-", meaning "to press".<ref>[http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02115/html/1-925.html boszorkány], Magyar Néprajzi Lexikon, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1977, ISBN</ref>
* In [[Iceland]] folk culture sleep paralysis is generally called having a "[[Mara (folklore)|Mara]]". A goblin or a succubus (since it is generally female) believed to cause nightmares (the origin of the word 'Nightmare' itself is derived from her name). Other European cultures share variants of the same folklore, calling her under different names; Proto-Germanic: ''marōn''; Old English: ''mære''; German: ''Mahr''; Dutch: ''nachtmerrie''; Icelandic, Old Norse, Faroese, and Swedish: ''mara''; Danish: ''mare''; Norwegian: ''mare''; Old Irish: ''morrigain''; Croatian, Serbian, Slovene: ''môra''; Bulgarian, Polish: ''mara''; French: ''cauchemar''; Romanian: ''moroi''; Czech: ''můra''. The origin of the belief itself is much older and goes back to the reconstructed Proto Indo-European root ''mora-'', an incubus, from the root ''mer-'' "to rub away" or "to harm".
* In [[Malta]], folk culture attributes a sleep paralysis incident to an attack by the "Haddiela" who is the wife of the "Hares", an entity in Maltese folk culture that haunts the individual in ways similar to a poltergeist. As believed in folk culture, to rid oneself of the Haddiela, one must place a piece of silverware or a knife under the pillow prior to sleep.
* In [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]], it is believed that sleep paralysis occurs when a ghost-like creature or Demon named Mora, Vrachnas or Varypnas (Greek: Μόρα, Βραχνάς, Βαρυπνάς) tries to steal the victim's speech or sits on the victim's chest causing asphyxiation.

=== Americas ===
* During the [[Salem witch trials]] several people reported nighttime attacks by various alleged witches including [[Bridget Bishop]] that may have been the result of sleep paralysis.<ref>[http://www.justiceatsalem.com/Cooke%20justice%20text%20100109.pdf Justice at Salem] ''William H. Cooke''</ref>
* In Mexico, it is believed that this is caused by the spirit of a dead person. This ghost lies down upon the body of the sleeper, rendering him unable to move. People refer to this as "Subirse el Muerto" (Dead Person on you). {{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}
* In many parts of the Southern United States, the phenomenon is known as a "[[hag]]", and the event is said to often be a sign of an approaching tragedy or accident.
* In [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], it is known as the 'Old Hag'.<ref name="OldHag">{{Cite book|author=Firestone, M.|title=The “Old Hag”: sleep paralysis in Newfoundland|work=The Journal of Psychoanalytic Anthropology|year=1985|chapter=Section 8|pages=47–66}}</ref> In island folklore, the Hag can be summoned to attack a third party, like a curse. In his 1982 book, ''The Terror that Comes in the Night'', David J. Hufford writes that in local culture the way to call the Hag is to recite the Lord's Prayer backwards. It is also common for believers to claim that those who are not wakened from this paralysis will die.
* In contemporary western culture it is believed that the phenomenon of reported [[alien abduction]] is caused by sleep paralysis where the hallucination of aliens has been generated by 20th and 21st century [[science fiction]].<ref>{{ cite web | url=http://www.skepdic.com/sleepparalysis.html |title= Sleep Paralysis|publisher = The Skeptics Dictionary}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Amitriptyline]]
* [[Hypnagogia]]
* [[Hypnopompic]]
* [[Seroquel]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
*Adler, Shelley R. (2011). Sleep Paralysis: Night-mares, Nocebos, and the Mind-Body Connection. New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813548869
* Culhane-Pera, Kathie (2003). Healing by Heart: Clinical and Ethical Case Stories of Hmong Families and Western Providers. Vanderbilt University Press.
*Bower, Bruce (July 9, 2005). "[http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20050709/bob9.asp Night of the Crusher]." ''Science News''.
*{{cite journal | last1 = Conesa | first1 = J. | year = 2000 | title = Geomagnetic, cross-cultural and occupational faces of sleep paralysis: An ecological perspective | url = | journal = Sleep and Hypnosis | volume = 2 | issue = 3| pages = 105–111 }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Conesa | first1 = J. | year = 2002 | title = Isolated Sleep Paralysis and Lucid Dreaming: Ten-year longitudinal case study and related dream frequencies, types, and categories | url = | journal = Sleep and Hypnosis | volume = 4 | issue = 4| pages = 132–143 }}
*Conesa, J. (2003). Sleep Paralysis Signaling (SPS) As A Natural Cueing Method for the Generation and Maintenance of Lucid Dreaming. Presented at The 83rd Annual Convention of the Western Psychological Association, May 1–4, 2003 in Vancouver, BC, Canada.
*Conesa-Sevilla, Jorge (2004). Wrestling With Ghosts: A Personal and Scientific Account of Sleep Paralysis. Pennsylvania: Xlibris/Randomhouse.
*Cooke, William H.. ''[http://www.justiceatsalem.com Justice at Salem: Reexamining the Witch Trials].'' Undertaker Press, Annapolis. 2009 ISBN 1-59594-322-6
*{{cite journal | last1 = The | first1 = Firestone M. | author-separator =, | author-name-separator= | year = 1985 | title = Old Hag": sleep paralysis in Newfoundland | url = | journal = The Journal of Psychoanalytic Anthropology | volume = 8 | issue = | pages = 47–66 }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Fukuda | first1 = K | last2 = Miyasita | first2 = A | last3 = Inugami | first3 = M | last4 = Ishihara | first4 = K. | author-separator =, | author-name-separator= | year = 1987 | title = High prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis: kanashibari phenomenon in Japan | url = | journal = Sleep | volume = 10 | issue = 3| pages = 279–286 | pmid = 3629091 }}
*Hartmann E. The nightmare: the psychology and biology of terrifying dreams. New York:Basic,1984.
*Hufford D.J. The terror that comes in the night: an experience-centered study of supernatural assault traditions. Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982
*{{cite journal | pmid = 8321596 | last1 = Kettlewell | author-separator =, | first1 = N | author-name-separator= | last2 = Lipscomb | first2 = S | last3 = Evans | first3 = E | title = Differences in neuropsychological correlates between normals and those experiencing "Old Hag Attacks" | journal = Perceptual and motor skills| volume=76 | issue=3 Pt 1 | year=1993 | month=June | pages=839–45; discussion 846}}
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF00052448 | last1 = Ness | first1 = RC. | author-separator =, | author-name-separator= | year = 1978 | title = The Old Hag" phenomenon as sleep paralysis: a bicultural interpretation. Culture | url = | journal = Medicine and Psychiatry | volume = 2 | issue = | pages = 15–39 }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Ohayon | first1 = MM | last2 = Zulley | first2 = J | last3 = Guilleminault | first3 = C | last4 = Smirne | first4 = S. | year = 1999 | title = Prevalence and pathologic associations of sleep paralysis in the general population | url = | journal = Neurology | volume = 52 | issue = 6| pages = 1194–1200 | pmid = 10214743 }}
*Sagan, Carl (1997). ''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark''.
* Schneck JM. Sleep paralysis and microsomatognosia with special reference to hypnotherapy. The ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'' 1977; XXV:72-77.
*{{cite journal | last1 = Takeuchi | first1 = T | last2 = Miyasita | first2 = A | last3 = Sasaki | first3 = Y | last4 = Inugami | first4 = M | last5 = Fukuda | first5 = K. | author-separator =, | author-name-separator= | year = 1992 | title = Isolated sleep paralysis elicited by sleep interruption | url = | journal = American Sleep Disorders Association and Sleep Research Society | volume = 15 | issue = | pages = 217–225 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.stanford.edu/~dement/paralysis.html Sleep information and links] from Stanford University
* [http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/S_P.html Sleep Paralysis and Associated Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Experiences] from University of Waterloo
* [http://www.csicop.org/doubtandabout/sleep/ Waking Up to Sleep Paralysis]

{{SleepSeries2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sleep Paralysis}}
[[Category:Sleep physiology]]
[[Category:Sleep disorders]]
[[Category:Neuropsychology]]

[[ar:شلل النوم]]
[[ca:Paràlisi del son]]
[[da:Søvnparalyse]]
[[de:Bewegungsunfähigkeit im Schlaf]]
[[el:Παράλυση ύπνου]]
[[es:Parálisis del sueño]]
[[fa:فلج خواب]]
[[fr:Paralysie du sommeil]]
[[ko:가위눌림]]
[[it:Paralisi nel sonno]]
[[he:שיתוק שינה]]
[[lt:Miego paralyžius]]
[[ms:Kelumpuhan tidur]]
[[nl:Slaapverlamming]]
[[ja:金縛り]]
[[no:Søvnparalyse]]
[[pl:Porażenie przysenne]]
[[pt:Paralisia do sono]]
[[ru:Сонный паралич]]
[[simple:Sleep paralysis]]
[[sr:Paraliza sna]]
[[su:Eureup-eureup]]
[[fi:Unihalvaus]]
[[sv:Sömnparalys]]
[[ta:துயில் வாதம்]]
[[tr:Uyku felci]]
[[uk:Сонний параліч]]
[[vi:Bóng đè]]
[[zh:睡眠瘫痪症]]

Dictionnaire Infernal

2010-10-30T12:23:28Z

Apeloverage:

{{Citecheck|date=April 2007}}
{{Original research|date=September 2007}}

[[Image:180px-Dictionnaireinfernal.jpg|thumb|'''Dictionnaire Infernal''']]

The '''''Dictionnaire Infernal''''' ({{lang-en|Infernal Dictionary}}) is a book on [[demonology]], organised in hellish [[hierarchy|hierarchies]]. It was written by [[Collin de Plancy|Jacques Auguste Simon Collin de Plancy]] and first published in 1818. There were several editions of the book, but perhaps the most famous is the edition of [[1863]], in which sixty-nine illustrations were added to the book. These illustrations are drawings which try to depict the descriptions of the appearance of several demons. Many of these images were later used in [[S. L. MacGregor Mathers]]'s edition of ''[[The Lesser Key of Solomon]]'' though some of the images were removed.

The book was first published in [[1818]] and then divided into two volumes, with six reprints and many changes between 1818 and 1863. This book attempts to provide an account of all the knowledge concerning superstitions and [[demonology]].

A review in 1822 read:
{{cquote|Anecdotes du dix-neuvième siècle ou historiettes inédites, anedoctes récentes, traits et mots peu connus, aventures singulières, citations, rapprochements divers et pièces curieuses, pour servir à l'histoire des mœurs et de l'esprit du siècle où nous vivons comparé aux siècles passés

Anecdotes of the nineteenth century or stories, recent anecdotes, features and little known words, singular adventures, various quotations, compilations and curious pieces, to be used for the history of the customs and the mind of the century in which we live, compared with centuries past.}}

The cover page for the 1826 edition reads:
{{cquote|Dictionnaire infernal ou Bibliothèque Universelle sur les êtres, les personnages, les livres, les faits et les choses, qui tiennent aux apparitions, à la magie, au commerce de l'enfer, aux divinations, aux sciences secrètes, aux grimoires, aux prodiges, aux erreurs et aux préjugés, aux traditions et aux contes populaires, aux superstitions diverses, et généralement à toutes les croyances merveilleuses, surprenantes, mystérieuses et surnaturelles

Infernal Dictionary, or, a Universal Library on the beings, characters, books, deeds, and causes which pertain to the manifestations and magic of trafficking with Hell; divinations, occult sciences, [[grimoire]]s, marvels, errors, prejudices, traditions, folktales, the various superstitions, and generally all manner of marvellous, surprising, mysterious, and supernatural beliefs.}}

Influenced by [[Voltaire]], Collin de Plancy initially did not believe in many superstitions. For example, the book reassures its contemporaries as to the torments of Hell: "To deny that there are sorrows and rewards after death is to deny the existence of God; since God exists, it must be necessarily so. But only God could know the punishments meted out to the guilty, or the place that holds them. All the catalogues made herebefore are only the fruit of a more or less disordered imagination. Theologians should leave to the poets the depiction of Hell, and not themselves seek to frighten minds with hideous paintings and appalling books"(p. 164).<ref name="XLII/KWS 37/Dictionnaire infernal">[http://www.quarante-deux.org/kws/KWS37/KWS3703.html XLII/KWS 37/Dictionnaire infernal]</ref>

But the skepticism of Collin de Plancy grew blurred with time. By the end of 1830 he surely becomes an enthusiastic [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]], to the consternation of his former admirers.

In later years, De Plancy rejected and modified his past works, thoroughly revising his ''Dictionnaire Infernal'' to put it in conformity with the canons of the Roman Catholic Church. This influence is most clearly seen in the sixth and final 1863 edition of the book, which is decorated with many engravings and seeks to affirm the existence of the demons. Collin de Plancy finished his career with a collaboration with the Abbé [[Migne]] to complete a ''Dictionary of the occult sciences or theological Encyclopaedia'', described by some as an authentic work of Roman Catholic doctrine.<ref>[http://lahordenoire.free.fr/lettre_noire.php?art=17 Dictionnaire infernal - Chroniques Livre, Webzine metal extreme La Horde Noire]</ref><ref>[http://atheisme.free.fr/Contributions/Exorcisme.htm#04 Exorcisme catholique<]</ref>

Many articles written in the ''Dictionnaire Infernal'' illustrate the author's vacillation between [[rationalism]], [[faith]] and willingness to believe without evidence. For example, he admits the possible effectiveness of [[chiromancy]], while rejecting [[cartomancy]]: "It is certain that chiromancy, and especially physiognomy, have at least some plausibility: they draw their predictions from signs which relate to features which distinguish and characterize people; of lines which the subjects carry with themselves, which are the work of nature, and that someone can believe significant, since they are unique to each individual. But the cards, merely human artifacts, not knowing either the future, nor the present, nor the past, have nothing of the individuality of the person consulting them. For a thousand different people they will have the same result; and consulted twenty times about the same subject, they will produce twenty contradictory productions"(p. 82).<ref name="XLII/KWS 37/Dictionnaire infernal"/>

==List of demons==
[[Image:Adramelech.jpg|thumb|right|[[Adramelech]]]]
[[Image:Asmodeus.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Asmodai|Asmodee]]]]
[[Image:Astaroth.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Astaroth]]]]
[[Image:Bael.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Baal (demon)|Bael]]]]
[[Image:Dictionnaire Infernal - Behemoth.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Behemoth]]]]
[[Image:Beelzebub.png|thumb|right|150px|[[Beelzebub|Belzebuth]]]]
# [[Eligos|Abigor also known as Eligos]]
# [[Abraxas]]-Abracas
# [[Adramelech]]
# [[Aguares]]
# [[Alastor]]
# [[Alocer]]
# [[Amduscias]]
# [[Amon (demon)|Amon]]
# [[Andras]]
# [[Asmodai|Asmodee]]
# [[Astaroth]]
# [[Azazel]]
# [[Baal (demon)|Bael]]
# [[Balan (demon)|Balan]]
# [[Barbatos]]
# [[Behemoth]]
# [[Belphegor]]
# [[Belzebuth]]
# [[Berith]]
# [[Bhairava]]-Beyrevra
# [[Buer (demon)|Buer]]
# [[Caacrinolaas]]
# [[Cali (demon)|Cali]]
# [[Caym]]
# [[Naberius|Cerbere]]
# Deumus [[Deimos (mythology)|Deimos]]
# [[Eurynome (demon)|Eurynome]]
# [[Flaga (demon)|Flaga]]
# [[Flavros]]
# [[Forcas]]
# [[Furfur]]
# [[Ganga-Gramma]]
# [[Garuda]]
# [[Guayota]]
# [[Gremory|Gomory]]
# [[Aim (demon)|Haborym]]
# [[Ipos|Ipes]]
# [[Lamia (mythology)|Lamia]]
# [[Lechies]]
# [[Leonard (demon)|Leonard]]
# [[Lucifer]]
# [[Malphas]]
# [[Mammon]]
# [[Marchosias]]
# [[Melchom]]
# [[Moloch]]
# [[Nickar]]
# [[Nybbas]]
# [[Orobas]]
# [[Paimon]]
# [[Picollus]]
# [[Pruflas]]/Busas
# [[Rahovart]]
# [[Ribesal]]
# [[Ronove|Ronwe]]
# [[Shax|Scox]]
# [[Stolas]]
# [[Gaap|Tap]]
# [[Torngarsuk]]
# [[Ukobach]]
# [[Valac|Volac]]
# [[Wall (demon)|Wall]]
# [[Xaphan]]
# [[Yan-gant-y-tan]]
# [[Zaebos]]

==Editions==

* Dictionnaire Infernal - ISBN 2-264-02956-0

==References==
<references />

==External links==
{{Commonscat}}
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=ng8JAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA5&dq=intitle:Dictionnaire+intitle:Infernal&lr=&num=100&as_brr=1&ie=ISO-8859-1 Dictionnaire infernal: ou Répertoire universel des êtres, des personnages, 1853] 582 pages - at Google Books PDF download available
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=RtM0AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Dictionnaire+intitle:infernal&lr=&num=100&as_brr=1&ie=ISO-8859-1 Dictionnaire infernal, ou, Recherches et anecdotes, sur les démons, les, 1818] at Google Books, PDF download available
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=rukDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Dictionnaire+intitle:infernal&lr=&num=100&as_brr=1&ie=ISO-8859-1 Dictionnaire infernal, ou Recherches et anecdotes sur les démons, 1844] at Google Books, PDF download available
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=MZ_x8KcxZeMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Dictionnaire+intitle:Sciences+intitle:Occultes&lr=&as_brr=1&ie=ISO-8859-1 Dictionnaire des sciences occultes: ou, Répertoire universel des êtres, des, 1848] at Google Books, PDF download available
* [http://www.deliriumsrealm.com/delirium/mythology/demon_deplancy.asp Deliriums Realm - Dictionnaire Infernal]
* [http://www.bmlisieux.com/galeries/dictinf/dictinf.htm Boards of the edition of 1826 ] on the site of the electronic library of Lisieux

[[Category:1818 books]]
[[Category:Demons]]
[[Category:Demonology]]
[[Category:Occult books]]

[[es:Diccionario infernal]]
[[fr:Dictionnaire infernal]]
[[it:Dictionnaire Infernal]]
[[ja:地獄の辞典]]
[[pt:Dictionnaire Infernal]]
[[zh:地獄辭典]]

Fail Blog

2010-05-12T18:55:09Z

Apeloverage:

{{Infobox Website
| name = Fail Blog
| logo = [[Image:Fail blog.png|120px]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| type = Entertainment
| slogan = Helping you feel better about yourself every day
| location = [[United States]]
| current status = Online
| owner = Pet Holdings Incorporated
| alexa = 1,031<ref>http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/failblog.org</ref>
| launch date = 3 January 2008<ref>http://failblog.org/2008/01/03/classic-baby/</ref>
| url = http://failblog.org/
}}
'''Fail Blog''' (typeset as '''FAIL Blog''') is a comedic [[blog]] website originally created by Leechio in January 2008.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://thelondonpaper.typepad.com/thelondonblog/2008/01/fail-blog-the-b.html | title=The Fail Blog: the best new website around | publisher=''[[thelondonpaper]]'' | date=Jan. 30, 2008 | accessdate=Sept. 9, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=KC&p_theme=kc&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=120610D202889710&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM | title=NSFW: The Fail blog | publisher=''[[The Kansas City Star]]'' | date=Apr. 30, 2008 | accessdate=Sept. 9, 2009}}("This blog has been making people feel better about themselves since January by posting photos of other people's failures.")</ref><ref name="nytimes">{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/09/magazine/09FOB-onlanguage-t.html | title=How Fail Went From Verb to Interjection | publisher=''[[The New York Times]]'' | date=Aug. 7, 2009 | accessdate=Sept. 9, 2009 | first=Ben | last=Zimmer}}</ref> The blog steadily grew in popularity, and in April 2008 was sold to Pet Holdings Inc., owner of [[I Can Has Cheezburger?]].<ref name="slate">{{cite news | url=http://www.slate.com/id/2214241/ | title=I Can Has Internet Millions: The company behind lolcats and Failblog tries to turn memes into money | publisher=''[[Slate_(magazine)|Slate]]'' | date=Mar. 20, 2009 | accessdate=Sept. 9, 2009}}</ref> The site prominently features pictures and videos of someone (or something) failing at something they are supposed to do, or displaying blatant stupidity or incompetence, captioned with the words "[[Failure#Internet memes|fail]]", "epic fail" or "X Fail" (X being the activity that the person failed at), although occasionally there are some cases of "wins". The first "fail" was uploaded to the website on January 3, 2008.<ref>http://failblog.org/2008/01/03/classic-baby/</ref> Since this date, the site has grown rapidly, with the style of the images used on the site growing to become a popular [[internet meme]], and many other smaller sites have spurred after the meme's popularization.<ref name="nytimes"/><ref name="slate"/><ref name="time">{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1916286,00.html | title=Building a Media Empire Around I Can Has Cheezburger | publisher=''[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]'' | date=Aug. 24, 2009 | accessdate=Sept. 9, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/4228051/Accidents-mishaps-and-strange-situations-website-a-hit.html | title=Accidents, mishaps and strange situations website a hit | publisher=''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' | date=Jan. 13, 2009 | accessdate=Sept. 9, 2009 | location=London}}("A website that brings together photos and videos of weird and wacky 'failures' has become a viral internet success.")</ref>

Fail Blog won two [[Webby Awards]] in 2009, for People's Voice in Humor and Weird.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.channelapa.com/2009/06/fail-blog-wins-2009-webby-award.html | title=Fail Blog wins 2009 Webby Award | publisher=''ChannelAPA.com'' | date=Jun. 9, 2009 | accessdate=Sept. 9, 2009}}</ref>

Fail Blog's first book, ''Fail Nation: A Visual Romp Through the World of Epic Fails'' (ISBN 9780061833991), was released on October 6, 2009.<ref>[http://failblog.org/2009/07/21/pre-order-your-copy-of-fail-nation/ Pre-order Your Copy of FAIL Nation], Failblog.org, Jul. 21, 2009, Retrieved Sept. 9, 2009</ref>

==Controversies==
In July 2009, Fail Blog received an email from [[Guinness World Records]] requesting that a Fail Blog entry, regarding the Guinness record webpage for "Most Individuals Killed in A Terrorist Attack" having a "Break this record" link, have the screenshot of the webpage removed because it contained the [[trademark]]ed Guinness World Records [[logo]]. Fail Blog promptly complied with the removal of the image, replacing it by an edited version with all notable references to Guinness record webpage blurred out, and posted an entry on the incident (in an obvious manner of ridicule).<ref>[http://failblog.org/2009/07/13/omg-u-fail-so-hard/ OMG YOU FAIL SO HARD], Failblog.org, Jul. 13, 2009, Retrieved Sept. 9, 2009</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.cnet.com/8301-13952_1-10286349-81.html| title=The 404 381: Where we gotta stay positive| publisher=''[[CNET_Networks|CNET News]]'' | date=July 14, 2009 | accessdate=Sept. 9, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.techcrunch.com/2009/07/13/guinness-world-records-reaches-new-levels-of-fail/| title=Guinness World Records Reaches New Levels Of Fail| publisher=''[[TechCrunch]]'' | date=July 13, 2009 | accessdate=Sept. 9, 2009}}</ref>

Fail Blog has had some issues with the video hosting site [[YouTube]];<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.usnews.com/money/blogs/risky-business/2009/04/01/fail-blog-fail-youtube-suspends-account-of-popular-funny-video-channel.html| title=Fail Blog Fail: Youtube Suspends Account Of Popular Funny Video Channel| publisher=''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' | date=Apr. 1, 2009 | accessdate=Sept. 9, 2009}}</ref> it then began hosting its videos with [[Viddler]].<ref>[http://failblog.org/2009/06/30/mask-demonstration-fail/ Mask Demonstration Fail], Failblog.org, June 30, 2009, Retrieved Sept. 10, 2009 ("We’re currently having issues with Youtube, so we’ve uploaded our videos onto Viddler instead for now while the issue with Youtube is being resolved.")</ref> Its YouTube channel has since been restored, and users can also view videos there, though Fail Blog does not usually link to the YouTube videos anymore within the blog itself.<ref>[http://failblog.org/2009/09/09/wrestling-move-fail/ Wrestling Move Fail], Failblog.org, Sept. 9, 2009, Retrieved Sept. 10, 2009 (Viddler still being used for embeds as of Sept. 9, 2009)</ref> In early October 2009, Fail Blog added links to each of their video posts to versions of the same video hosted in different video hosting sites, including YouTube and MySpace Video.

==See also==
*[[I Can Has Cheezburger?]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.failblog.org/ FAIL Blog]
*[http://www.youtube.com/user/failblog FAIL Blog on YouTube]
*[http://www.facebook.com/FailBlog FAIL Blog on Facebook]
*[http://twitter.com/FAILBlog FAIL Blog on Twitter]
*[http://www.cityweekly.net/utah/blog-3522-failblog-posts-cocky-chronicles-success.html Chronicle Newspaper article]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fail Blog}}
[[Category:Websites]]
[[Category:Web humor]]
[[Category:Photoblogs]]
[[Category:Blogs]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2008]]

Koreanische Mythologie

2009-08-25T22:39:49Z

Apeloverage: removed unreference material, which has been tagged since February.

{{Original research|date=August 2008}}
{{Refimprove|date=June 2006}}
{{Infobox Korean name
|img=Goguryeo moon.jpg
|caption=Moon goddess of [[Goguryeo]]
|hangul=한국의 신화
|hanja=韓國의 神話
|rr=Hangugui sinhwa
|mr=Han'gugŭi sinhwa
|}}

'''Korean mythology''' consists of national legends and folk-tales which come from all over the [[Korean Peninsula]].

The original religion of [[Korea]] was a form of the Eurasian [[shamanism]] and the [[totemism]] of Far [[East Asia]], specifically of the nomadic peoples of present-day [[Manchuria]]. These were strongly colored by the later importations of [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]] from [[China]].

During the early ages, when Buddhism was on the rise, [[Korean shamanism]] was widely discredited in an attempt to establish Buddhism as the state religion. In later years both [[Korean Buddhism]] and shamanism were heavily purged, almost to the point of being lost from the consciousness of the general population.

After the [[Korean War]] in 1953, shamans came to be seen less as religious figures and more as charlatans willing to exploit people for money. Recently, however, there has been a substantial revival movement reclaiming this element of [[Korean culture]].

Although the society is suffused with [[Korean Confucianism|Confucian]] values and customs, roughly half of South Koreans today identify themselves as non-religious, a quarter as [[Christianity|Christians]], and another quarter as [[Buddhism|Buddhists]].

Today, those believing in the indigenous Korean myths as a religion form a minority. Among them are the followers of [[Chondogyo]] and [[Daejonggyo]], who worship [[Dangun]] as a god, in addition to several rural areas where shamanism has managed to survive.

==Cosmology==
Korean creation-mythology,<ref>Author: Park Jesang (박제상), ''Budoji'' (부도지), translated by Kim Eunsu (김은수) (Hanmunhwa [한문화], 2002). ISBN 8986481782.</ref> or cosmology has many variations depending on the source, but can be generally separated into one of the following three categories: the first, totemic/shamanistic creation mythology, the second Taoistic cosmology, and the third, Buddhist-influenced cosmology. These first two are commonly referred to as pre-Buddhist cosmologies)

===Totemic/Shamanistic cosmology===
The totemic and shamanistic traditions are perhaps the most indigenous (i.e. "Korean") of the pre-literate cosmologies in Korea and involve a great deal of reference to local geography, such as mountains, rivers, etc. Ancient Korean totemic and shamanistic legends constitute a part of the larger unwritten oral literature which focused on the local [[Mudang]] (shaman). The Mudang acted both as a story-teller and a shaman, and usually the legends seemed to involve an attempt to justify the powers of the [[Mudang]] or to explain the origin of a certain clan.

Also known as the Mago-Mythology 마고신화(麻姑神話), this is actually one of the lesser-known Korean cosmologies due in part to the rising influence of [[Buddhism]] and [[taoism]] around this period, as well as the imposition of a patriarchal system which desisted the heavily goddess-oriented nature of the legend. The first mention of this cosmology appears to be the [[Budoji]] (부도지), written in 1953.

===The Creation of the World===
At the beginning the world did not exist. A deity named [[Yul-ryeo]] 율려(律呂) and a goddess named [[Mago (goddess)|Mago]] 마고(麻姑) appeared . Yul-ryeo then died. Mago in turn gave birth to two goddesses: Gung-hee 궁희(穹姬) and So-hee 소희(巢姬). They in turn each gave birth to two [[Cheon-in|Men of Heaven]] 천인(天人) and two [[Cheon-nyeo|Women of Heaven]] 천녀(天女).

After the appearance of the [[Heavenly People]], Yul-ryeo 율려 is revived and through her re-birth heaven, earth, and the oceans were created, along with [[Qi|Chi]] (soul) 기(氣), fire 불(火), water 물(水), and earth 흙(土). These four elements in turn mixed and became herbs and plants, birds and animals.

Mago 마고(麻姑) decided to stay with Yul-ryeo, whose body had now become the world, and the Heavenly People ruled all living things from their heavenly fortress named Magoseong 마고성(麻姑城) in honour of the goddess.

===The Coming of Humankind===

There were four Heavenly Men guarding each cardinal direction of the fortress, and they were Cheong-gung 청궁(靑穹), Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹) who were children of Gunghwee, and Hukso 흑소(黑巢), Baekso 백소(白巢)who were children of Sohwee. They in turn married the four Heavenly Women, and gave birth to twelve children, who would become the ancestors of the humans.

These ancestors were pure and were have said to drink from [[Earth's Milk]] 지유(地乳), which came from a spring inside the castle. They could speak without making sounds, and act without seeing and never died. Thus they lived for ten thousand years undisturbed.

Then there came a time when the number of people became too large. There was not enough of Earth's Milk (or "Jiyu") to go around for everyone. Because of this, a man from the line of Baekso 백소(白巢) by the name of [[Jiso]] 지소(支巢) decided to cede his meal of Earth's Milk five times to his neighbours (other versions say that he waited in line but the line was so long he never got his turn). Eventually his hunger grew intolerable, and deciding to kill himself he headed towards a cliff, where he saw a grape vine growing in the edges. Unable to suppress his hunger, he ate the grapes and immediately acquired the five tastes of sourness, bitterness, spiciness, sweetness, and saltiness. This is known as the [[Incident of the Five Tastes]] (오미의 변).

Jiso 지소(支巢) returned to his people and told them of his discovery. Soon however, those who ate from these grapes began to grow teeth. From the teeth spewed a saliva that turned into venom. This was because they had eaten another living thing in order to stay alive.

Soon they were able to see, but were no longer able to hear the heavens. Their skin became coarse, their feet heavy, and they were no longer pure. They gave birth to many animal-resembling children and their lifespans began to shrink.

There eventually came a point when the people of [[Magosung]] 마고성(麻姑城) began blaming Jiso (지소) for the transformation, and he along with his family and all those who had eaten the grapes were forced to leave Magosung 마고성(麻姑城).

As the line of Jiso was leaving, however, Hwang-gung (황궁:黃穹, one of the four guardians and a direct ancestor of the Korean people) tried to encourage them by saying that if they could recover their pure nature, they would be free of their misery.

Upon hearing this, the people became convinced that the only way to become pure once more was to drink from Earth's Milk again. They then stormed the castle and overwhelmed it, razing the fortress to its foundations in order to reveal the source of the spring that had given them Earth's Milk. The spring, however, began to flow in all directions and thereafter the milk turned into inedible earth, leaving not only the original perpetrators but all the former inhabitants of the now destroyed castle to starve.

Soon thereafter there ensued a massive famine, and everyone was reduced to devouring not only grapes, but all sorts of plants and even animals in an attempt to satiate their hunger. Of them only Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹) came forth to Mago 마고(麻姑) and begged her for forgiveness. He swore he would not rest until mankind could recover its pure nature. From her he obtained the [[Three Heavenly Heirlooms]], and great knowledge. He then called together all the people of the earth, taught them agriculture, and gave each clan leader a [[Heavenly Heirloom]] and then sent them off in different directions to people the earth.

===The Settling of the World===

Cheong-gung 청궁(靑穹) went to the East, where he established China.

Baekso 백소(白巢) and his people moved to the West and became the people of Europe and the Middle East.

Heukso 흑소(黑巢) moved to the South, into the region that is now India and Southeast Asia.

===The Establishment of Korea===

Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹) took three thousand followers and they alone went to the harsh North, to a place called Cheonsanju 천산주(天山洲), meaning "land of the heavenly mountain" where the land was cold and dangerous. He had done this on purpose, because he wanted to be purified once more. Upon arrival, Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹) signed an oath swearing that he would recover his purity.

Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹) ruled for a thousand years, using the Heavenly Heirloom, which granted him power over fire and the sun. Hwang-gung eventually achieved his goal of self-purification. To his oldest son Yuin 유인(有因) he gave the [[Heavenly Heirloom]] as a sign of his right to govern the kingdom, whereas to his two younger sons he gave the responsibility of governing over a province each. He then departed to the Heavenly Mountain 천산(天山) where he became a stone that could speak Yul-ryeo's message, constantly reminding men of their path to innocence.

Yuin 유인(有因) ruled for another thousand years. Using the [[Heavenly Heirloom]], he taught his people how to tame fire and cook food. He later left for the Heavenly Mountain as well and gave the heirloom to his a son by the name of Han-in 한인(桓因) [sometimes pronounced "[[Hwanin]]" 환인]. Han-in 한인(桓因) was the last of the heavenly rulers, who used the power of the Heirloom to bring abundant sunlight and good weather. Under the three thousand years of peaceful reign since Hwang-gung 황궁(黃穹), the people eventually lost their animal-like appearance and slowly began recovering their image.

==Collection of pre-Buddhist mythologies==
{{Inappropriate tone|date=December 2007}}
Very little survives of the Pre-Buddhist mythologies, the vast majority of them having been oral literature and a substantial amount of them now forgotten from folklore.

It seems that out of an initial chaos the world was formed and a race of giants set up the stars in the heavens, and separated them from a deepness of water. When their job was finished they fell into an eternal slumber and their bodies became the islands and mountains etc.

===The Sun and the Moon===

In the world before the sun and the moon, only the stars existed.

It was in these early days that there lived siblings: Haesik (해식) the older brother and Dalsun (달순) the younger sister. Their mother was a poor peasant woman who sold rice-cakes for a living.

The mother was returning from the village one day when she was encountered by a tiger perched on a hill demanding a rice-cake in exchange for sparing her life. She gave it to him and the tiger went away, only to appear before her at the next hill; this time demanding two rice cakes. She gave him the cakes, only to find him again on the third hill, this time asking for four rice cakes. When the mother finally ran out of rice cakes to feed him, the tiger threatened to devour her.

The mother pleaded, saying she was the sole mother of two children. Upon hearing this the tiger's hunger grew even more vicious. He devoured the mother and then took on her clothing as a disguise. He then made his way to the house where he knew the children awaited.

At the house the children were worried that their mother was not returning. Haesik suggested they lock the door, when he heard a voice calling them from outside. Dalsun, the younger, thought it was her mother, but Haesik knew the voice was different and sensed that something was not right. The tiger urged them to open the door, but Haesik staunchly refused.

Not giving in, the tiger used some of the powder left from the rice cakes and applied it on the back of his hand, making them look white. When he inserted his fingers through a space in the door, Dalsun became convinced that it was their mother and immediately opened the door. The tiger chased them until the children climbed up to the safety of a tree.

When the tiger found an axe in the house and began chopping down on the tree, Dalsun made a prayer asking the heavens to send down a strong rope if they should be saved and a rotten rope if they were to be damned. A strong rope was sent down, and both siblings climbed up until they reached the heavens.

Seeing this, the tiger made a similar request, but the rope he got was rotten and he fell in a millet field. His blood stained the millet and this is why millet stalk is said to be red.

In heaven, Haesik became the sun (Haennim 햇님) and Dalsun became the moon (Dallim 달님), but later Dalsun complained that she was afraid of the dark. Thus Haesik decided to stand in for her so that Dalsun could become the sun.

==Founding of the nations==
===Founding Myth of Ancient Joseon===

In the heavens lived a god 천제(天帝) by the name of [[Hwanin]] 환인(桓因). Hwanin 환인(桓因) is an alias of [[Indra]].<ref>三國遺事卷第一紀異第一, 昔有桓因謂帝釋也</ref> Hwanin 환인(桓因) is the name on [[Buddhism]] of [[Indra]], this name is widely used in east Asia. Hwanin had a son by the name of [[Hwanung]] 환웅(桓雄). Everyday, Hwanung would peer over the edge of heaven down into the earth and shed tears. When asked why by his father, Hwanung answered that he worried for the fate of the mortals and that he wished to rule them in order to bring peace and justice into their kind. Moved by his devotion, Hwanin allowed him to descend into the world and rule. He gave his son [[Three Heavenly Heirlooms]] 천부삼인(天符三印), along with a group of three thousand servants, and ordered the Three Lords of wind 풍백(風伯), rain 우사(雨師), and clouds 운사(雲師) to follow him.

Hwanung thus descended onto the world. He first arrived at the mountain-top of Mt. Taebaek and there established a city he called [[Shinshi]] 신시(神市), meaning City of the Gods. Hwanung took care of 360 human affairs, including agriculture, life, illness, justice, good and evil, etc. It was during this time that two beasts approached him, wishing to become human.

One of them, a tiger, is now thought to symbolize a tiger-totem clan that vied for power along with the bear, representing the gentler and more civilized bear-clan.

Hwanung gave both of them a handful of [[mugwort]] and twenty cloves or [[garlic]], with which they had to stave off their hunger while remaining inside a dark cave without seeing the sunlight for 100 days. The tiger in his temper, ran away before the ordeal was through, but the bear remained patient and on the twenty-first day turned into a beautiful woman. The woman was given the name [[Ungnyeo]] 웅녀(熊女).

Not long after her transformation, Ungnyeo began to crave a child, but since she has been a beast before she became a woman, no one was willing to wed her. In her sadness she sat beneath a holy tree and prayed for a child everyday. Hwanung, moved by her prayers, took human form for a brief moment and through him she gave birth to a son.

This son is Dangun, forefather of the Korean people.

Dangun established a kingdom he called [[Asadal]] 아사달(阿斯達), meaning "place where the morning sun shines." This name was later changed to Joseon 조선(朝鮮) (Now called [[Ancient Joseon]] to distinguish it from the later [[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon]] kingdom). Legend has it that [[Dangun]] ruled undisturbed for one thousand five hundred years before his kingdom was invaded by the [[Ju Empire]]. He is said to have lived until he was 1,908 years of age—at which point he decided to leave the mortal lands and headed for the quiet of the mountains where he became a divine spirit of the mountain, or [[Sansillyeong]] (산신령).

==Folklore==

[[Image:hyeonmoo.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Depiction of [[Hyeonmu]], Northern Guardian in the tomb of 강서대묘]]

*''The Beast's Cave'' [http://www.mountain.org/education/resources/korea-cave.cfm]
*''The Boy's Sacrifice'' [http://www.mountain.org/education/resources/korea-boy.cfm]
*''Three Sons Under the Stars'' [http://www.mountain.org/education/resources/korea-sons.cfm]
*''The Story Spirits'' [http://www.aaronshep.com/stories/060.html]
*''The White Tiger'' [http://www.storiestogrowby.com/stories/white_tiger_body.html]

Korea has a rich folklore tradition with deep links to [[Korean shamanism]].

===Modern treatments===
Recent achievements in keeping Korean folklore alive have been the 150 part animated TV series, "[[Animentary Korean Folklore]]", telling old tales anew but with traditional 2-D Korean styled animation.

Korean mythology has also given birth to several online role-playing games, most notably [[NexusTK]].

==Legendary Figures==

* Haneul-nim -The Heavenly Emperor, Ruler of Heaven and Earth. ''Contemporary adaptation "God"''
* Okhwang Sangje - the King of Heaven (of Taoism)
* Dal(soon)-nim -The moon, sister of the sun.
* Hae(sik)-nim -The sun, sister of the moon.
* SeOhNyuh - A woman who was routinely harvesting mussels by the sea but was accidentally swept away to the ocean and eventually to Japan on a magically moving rock. The people made her a queen. Before her transport, she had a husband named YeonOrang, who would follow her later.
* YeonOrang - Husband of SeOhNyuh. He too was swept away to Japan on a magical rock. He met his wife there and the two lived happy lives.
* Cheonha Daejanggun -Village Guardian & General under Heaven, husband of Jiha yeojanggun
He is represented as a totem pole with a scary face, constructed in front of a village entrance.
* Jiha yeojanggun - Village Guardian & General under Earth, wife of Cheonha Daejanggun. She is represented as a totem pole with also scary but more feminine face, constructed in front of a village entrance with her husband. She protects the village with her husband.
* Sanshilyeong/Sanshin -The God of The Mountains
* [[Yongwang]] - The benevolent Dragon King of the seas, but not necessarily a dragon (usually an old human).
* [[Hwanin]] - The Heavenly initiator a title of 7 rulers on earth.
* [[Hwanung]] - The son of Heaven & dynasty of rulers in Greater Mongolia.
* [[Ungnyeo]] - The Bear who became a woman & conceived Dangun with Hwanin.
* [[Dangun]] - ''son of Hwanung'' - The first [[Rulers of Korea|Korean king]] of [[Gojoseon]].
* Seon-nyeo - Female Angel in Heaven
* GyuhnU & JigNyuh - They meet on July the 7th at every year by [[lunar calendar]], and their weeping is raining on July the 7th.
* Juhseung Saja - "Emissaries of the Juhseung (meaning 'Other/That World')." Angels of Death. They reap souls and guide them through the dark misty forests into the netherworld. There is no heaven or hell, just a place where the dead go, named "JuhSeung," (means: That World) which is opposite of YiSeung, or Earth. (means: This World)
* [[Jaoji Hwanung of Baedal|Chi Woo]] - A semi-legendary king who defeated the [[Yellow Emperor]] in a ten-year war.
* Pear Blossom - the Korean [[Cinderella]]

==Supernatural beings==

* [[Chollima]]

===Yokwe===
* [[Kumiho]] - A many-tailed fox who can use powerful illusions and curses.
* Bulyeowoo - A fox that is more than 100 years old, and can be disguised as a woman.
* [[Dokkaebi]] ([[goblin]]s) - spirits who keep bats and enjoy mischievous tricks. Most are believed to possess horns and magical powers.

===Gwisin===

(ghost)
* a departed soul in water (물귀신)
* a departed soul of a virgin (처녀귀신)
* a departed soul of an unmarried man (몽달귀신)
* a soul of eggs (달걀귀신)

===Guardians===
* [[Three-legged bird|Three-Legged-Bird]]

The following are synonymous with the Chinese polar guardians:
* [[Azure Dragon (Chinese constellation)|Blue Dragon]] - Tomb guardian of one of the East (right)
* [[White Tiger (Chinese constellation)|White Tiger]] - Tomb guardian of one of the West (left)
* [[Black Tortoise (Chinese constellation)|Black Turtle]] - Tomb guardian of one of the North
* [[Vermilion Bird (Chinese constellation)|Red Phoenix]] - Tomb guardian of one of the South
* [[Fenghuang|Bonghwang]] - Firebird, shared with [[Chinese mythology]]

==See also==
* [[Korean culture]]
* [[Korean literature]]
* [[List of Korea-related topics]]
*[[Cheonyeo gwisin]]
*[[Jeoseungsaja]]
*[[Gumiho]]
*[[Mongdal gwisin]]
*[[Dokkaebi]]
*[[Hwajangsil gwisin]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{citation style}}

==External links==
* [http://english.kbs.co.kr/explore/what/1334186_11794.html Animated KBS TV Series]
* http://www.clickasia.co.kr/about/m1.htm
* http://www.clickasia.co.kr/about/m2.htm
* http://www.clickasia.co.kr/about/m3.htm
* http://www.koreatips.net/english/culture/tale.html
* http://www.clickasia.co.kr/about/0707love.htm
* [http://www.cau.ac.kr/english/research/institutes.html?seq=18 Chung-Ang University Folklore Research Centre]

[[Category:Korean mythology|*]]
[[Category:Korean folklore|*]]

[[fr:Mythologie coréenne]]
[[ko:한국 신화]]
[[id:Mitologi Korea]]
[[ja:朝鮮神話]]
[[no:Koreansk mytologi]]
[[sh:Korejska mitologija]]
[[zh:朝鮮神話]]

Bertell Ollman

2008-02-03T14:49:08Z

Apeloverage: /* Class Struggle Board Game */

'''Bertell Ollman''' (born [[1936]] in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]]) is a professor of politics at [[New York University]]. He teaches both dialectical methodology and socialist theory. He is the author of several academic works relating to [[Marxist]] theory (see 'Works' below).

==''Class Struggle'' Board Game==
Ollman is also the creator of ''[[Class Struggle]]'', a board game based around his Marxist beliefs, and from 1978-1983 was president of Class Struggle, Inc., the company that initially produced and marketed the game. The game was later released by a major board game company, [[Avalon Hill]]. It received publicity due to its unusual and controversial theme[http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/1510]. However it is generally considered to be weak considered purely as a game. For example, its rating on [[BoardGameGeek]] as of February 2008 is 4.3 out of ten[http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/1510].

==Other Noteworthy Events==
In 1978, after being offered and then denied the chairmanship of the Government Department at the [[University of Maryland College Park]], Ollman sued columnists [[Robert Novak]] and [[Rowland Evans]], alleging that a column they authored libeled him, resulting in the rescinding of his offer. His suit was defeated by the [[D.C. Circuit Court]], who held that Novak and Evans' column was protected speech.

In 2001, he won the first Charles McCoy Life Achievement Award from the New Political Science section of the [[American Political Science Association]].

He appeared on "Hannity & Colmes" to face the accusation that as Sean Hannity's professor in the 1980s, he had given him a lower grade for being a conservative and a supporter of Ronald Reagan {{fact}}.

==Works==
* Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (Cambridge U.P., l97l; 2nd ed., l976). This book has gone through thirteen printings, sold close to 30,000 copies, and been translated into Spanish, Italian, and Korean
* Studies in Socialist Pedagogy, co-ed (Monthly Review Press, l978)
* Social and Sexual Revolution: Essays on Marx and Reich (South End Press, l978)
* Class Struggle Is the Name of the Game: True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Wm. Morrow Pub., l983); 2nd expanded ed. entitled Ball Buster? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Soft Skull Press, 2003)
* The Left Academy: Marxist Scholarship on American Campuses, co-ed., vol. I (McGraw Hill, l982)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. II (Praeger Pub., l984)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. III (Praeger Pub., l986)
*The U.S. Constitution: 200 Years of Anti-Federalist, Abolitionist, Feminist, Muckraker, Progressive, and Especially Socialist Criticism, co-ed. (N.Y.U. Press, l990)
* Marxism: an Uncommon Introduction (Stirling Pub., New Delhi, l99l)
* Dialectical Investigations (Routledge, l993) A French translation is forthcoming
* Market Socialism: the Debate Among Socialists, ed. and co-author (Routledge, l998). A Chinese translation appeared in 2000
* Dialectics: the New Frontier, co-ed. (Special Issue of Science and Society, Fall, l998); an expanded version of this issue will soon be published as a book
* How to Take an Exam...and Remake the World (Black Rose Books, Montreal, Spring, 2001)
* BALLBUSTER? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman, 2002 (Soft Skull Press, 2002)
* Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in Marx's Method (Univ. of Illinois Press, 2003). Turkish translation has been completed in February 2007 and a Chinese translation is being prepared.

==External links==
*[http://www.dialecticalmarxism.com/ DIALECTICAL MARXISM The Writings of Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.dialectics.net/ The Dialectic and ideas on alienation by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.bertellollman.com The Dialectic by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/getcase/US/471/1127.html Supreme Court's denial of cert in Ollman v. Evans]
*{{bgg|1510|''Class Struggle''}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ollman, Bertell}}

[[Category:1936 births|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Living people|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American Marxists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American socialists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Marxist writers]]

{{polisci-bio-stub}}

[[ru:Оллман, Бертел]]

Bertell Ollman

2008-02-03T14:47:44Z

Apeloverage: /* Class Struggle Board Game */

'''Bertell Ollman''' (born [[1936]] in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]]) is a professor of politics at [[New York University]]. He teaches both dialectical methodology and socialist theory. He is the author of several academic works relating to [[Marxist]] theory (see 'Works' below).

==''Class Struggle'' Board Game==
Ollman is also the creator of ''[[Class Struggle]]'', a board game based around his Marxist beliefs, and from 1978-1983 was president of Class Struggle, Inc., the company that initially produced and marketed the game. The game was later released by a major board game company, [[Avalon Hill]]. It received publicity due to its unusual and controversial theme[http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/1510]. However it is generally considered to be weak considered purely as a game. For example, its rating on [[BoardGameGeek]] as of February 2008 is 4.3 out of 10[http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/1510].

==Other Noteworthy Events==
In 1978, after being offered and then denied the chairmanship of the Government Department at the [[University of Maryland College Park]], Ollman sued columnists [[Robert Novak]] and [[Rowland Evans]], alleging that a column they authored libeled him, resulting in the rescinding of his offer. His suit was defeated by the [[D.C. Circuit Court]], who held that Novak and Evans' column was protected speech.

In 2001, he won the first Charles McCoy Life Achievement Award from the New Political Science section of the [[American Political Science Association]].

He appeared on "Hannity & Colmes" to face the accusation that as Sean Hannity's professor in the 1980s, he had given him a lower grade for being a conservative and a supporter of Ronald Reagan {{fact}}.

==Works==
* Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (Cambridge U.P., l97l; 2nd ed., l976). This book has gone through thirteen printings, sold close to 30,000 copies, and been translated into Spanish, Italian, and Korean
* Studies in Socialist Pedagogy, co-ed (Monthly Review Press, l978)
* Social and Sexual Revolution: Essays on Marx and Reich (South End Press, l978)
* Class Struggle Is the Name of the Game: True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Wm. Morrow Pub., l983); 2nd expanded ed. entitled Ball Buster? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Soft Skull Press, 2003)
* The Left Academy: Marxist Scholarship on American Campuses, co-ed., vol. I (McGraw Hill, l982)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. II (Praeger Pub., l984)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. III (Praeger Pub., l986)
*The U.S. Constitution: 200 Years of Anti-Federalist, Abolitionist, Feminist, Muckraker, Progressive, and Especially Socialist Criticism, co-ed. (N.Y.U. Press, l990)
* Marxism: an Uncommon Introduction (Stirling Pub., New Delhi, l99l)
* Dialectical Investigations (Routledge, l993) A French translation is forthcoming
* Market Socialism: the Debate Among Socialists, ed. and co-author (Routledge, l998). A Chinese translation appeared in 2000
* Dialectics: the New Frontier, co-ed. (Special Issue of Science and Society, Fall, l998); an expanded version of this issue will soon be published as a book
* How to Take an Exam...and Remake the World (Black Rose Books, Montreal, Spring, 2001)
* BALLBUSTER? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman, 2002 (Soft Skull Press, 2002)
* Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in Marx's Method (Univ. of Illinois Press, 2003). Turkish translation has been completed in February 2007 and a Chinese translation is being prepared.

==External links==
*[http://www.dialecticalmarxism.com/ DIALECTICAL MARXISM The Writings of Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.dialectics.net/ The Dialectic and ideas on alienation by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.bertellollman.com The Dialectic by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/getcase/US/471/1127.html Supreme Court's denial of cert in Ollman v. Evans]
*{{bgg|1510|''Class Struggle''}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ollman, Bertell}}

[[Category:1936 births|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Living people|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American Marxists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American socialists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Marxist writers]]

{{polisci-bio-stub}}

[[ru:Оллман, Бертел]]

Bertell Ollman

2008-02-03T14:46:36Z

Apeloverage: /* Class Struggle Board Game */

'''Bertell Ollman''' (born [[1936]] in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]]) is a professor of politics at [[New York University]]. He teaches both dialectical methodology and socialist theory. He is the author of several academic works relating to [[Marxist]] theory (see 'Works' below).

==''Class Struggle'' Board Game==
Ollman is also the creator of ''[[Class Struggle]]'', a board game based around his Marxist beliefs, and from 1978-1983 was president of Class Struggle, Inc., the company that initially produced and marketed the game. The game was later released by a major board game company, [[Avalon Hill]]. It received publicity due to its unusual and controversial theme[http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/1510]. However it is generally considered to be weak considered purely as a game. For example, its rating on [[boardgamegeek]].com as of February 2008 is 4.3 out of 10[http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/1510].

==Other Noteworthy Events==
In 1978, after being offered and then denied the chairmanship of the Government Department at the [[University of Maryland College Park]], Ollman sued columnists [[Robert Novak]] and [[Rowland Evans]], alleging that a column they authored libeled him, resulting in the rescinding of his offer. His suit was defeated by the [[D.C. Circuit Court]], who held that Novak and Evans' column was protected speech.

In 2001, he won the first Charles McCoy Life Achievement Award from the New Political Science section of the [[American Political Science Association]].

He appeared on "Hannity & Colmes" to face the accusation that as Sean Hannity's professor in the 1980s, he had given him a lower grade for being a conservative and a supporter of Ronald Reagan {{fact}}.

==Works==
* Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (Cambridge U.P., l97l; 2nd ed., l976). This book has gone through thirteen printings, sold close to 30,000 copies, and been translated into Spanish, Italian, and Korean
* Studies in Socialist Pedagogy, co-ed (Monthly Review Press, l978)
* Social and Sexual Revolution: Essays on Marx and Reich (South End Press, l978)
* Class Struggle Is the Name of the Game: True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Wm. Morrow Pub., l983); 2nd expanded ed. entitled Ball Buster? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Soft Skull Press, 2003)
* The Left Academy: Marxist Scholarship on American Campuses, co-ed., vol. I (McGraw Hill, l982)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. II (Praeger Pub., l984)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. III (Praeger Pub., l986)
*The U.S. Constitution: 200 Years of Anti-Federalist, Abolitionist, Feminist, Muckraker, Progressive, and Especially Socialist Criticism, co-ed. (N.Y.U. Press, l990)
* Marxism: an Uncommon Introduction (Stirling Pub., New Delhi, l99l)
* Dialectical Investigations (Routledge, l993) A French translation is forthcoming
* Market Socialism: the Debate Among Socialists, ed. and co-author (Routledge, l998). A Chinese translation appeared in 2000
* Dialectics: the New Frontier, co-ed. (Special Issue of Science and Society, Fall, l998); an expanded version of this issue will soon be published as a book
* How to Take an Exam...and Remake the World (Black Rose Books, Montreal, Spring, 2001)
* BALLBUSTER? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman, 2002 (Soft Skull Press, 2002)
* Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in Marx's Method (Univ. of Illinois Press, 2003). Turkish translation has been completed in February 2007 and a Chinese translation is being prepared.

==External links==
*[http://www.dialecticalmarxism.com/ DIALECTICAL MARXISM The Writings of Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.dialectics.net/ The Dialectic and ideas on alienation by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.bertellollman.com The Dialectic by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/getcase/US/471/1127.html Supreme Court's denial of cert in Ollman v. Evans]
*{{bgg|1510|''Class Struggle''}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ollman, Bertell}}

[[Category:1936 births|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Living people|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American Marxists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American socialists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Marxist writers]]

{{polisci-bio-stub}}

[[ru:Оллман, Бертел]]

Bertell Ollman

2008-02-03T14:40:58Z

Apeloverage:

'''Bertell Ollman''' (born [[1936]] in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]]) is a professor of politics at [[New York University]]. He teaches both dialectical methodology and socialist theory. He is the author of several academic works relating to [[Marxist]] theory (see 'Works' below).

==''Class Struggle'' Board Game==
Ollman is also the creator of ''[[Class Struggle]]'', a board game based around his Marxist beliefs, and from 1978-1983 was president of Class Struggle, Inc., the company that produced and marketed the game. The game was

==Other Noteworthy Events==
In 1978, after being offered and then denied the chairmanship of the Government Department at the [[University of Maryland College Park]], Ollman sued columnists [[Robert Novak]] and [[Rowland Evans]], alleging that a column they authored libeled him, resulting in the rescinding of his offer. His suit was defeated by the [[D.C. Circuit Court]], who held that Novak and Evans' column was protected speech.

In 2001, he won the first Charles McCoy Life Achievement Award from the New Political Science section of the [[American Political Science Association]].

He appeared on "Hannity & Colmes" to face the accusation that as Sean Hannity's professor in the 1980s, he had given him a lower grade for being a conservative and a supporter of Ronald Reagan {{fact}}.

==Works==
* Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (Cambridge U.P., l97l; 2nd ed., l976). This book has gone through thirteen printings, sold close to 30,000 copies, and been translated into Spanish, Italian, and Korean
* Studies in Socialist Pedagogy, co-ed (Monthly Review Press, l978)
* Social and Sexual Revolution: Essays on Marx and Reich (South End Press, l978)
* Class Struggle Is the Name of the Game: True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Wm. Morrow Pub., l983); 2nd expanded ed. entitled Ball Buster? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Soft Skull Press, 2003)
* The Left Academy: Marxist Scholarship on American Campuses, co-ed., vol. I (McGraw Hill, l982)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. II (Praeger Pub., l984)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. III (Praeger Pub., l986)
*The U.S. Constitution: 200 Years of Anti-Federalist, Abolitionist, Feminist, Muckraker, Progressive, and Especially Socialist Criticism, co-ed. (N.Y.U. Press, l990)
* Marxism: an Uncommon Introduction (Stirling Pub., New Delhi, l99l)
* Dialectical Investigations (Routledge, l993) A French translation is forthcoming
* Market Socialism: the Debate Among Socialists, ed. and co-author (Routledge, l998). A Chinese translation appeared in 2000
* Dialectics: the New Frontier, co-ed. (Special Issue of Science and Society, Fall, l998); an expanded version of this issue will soon be published as a book
* How to Take an Exam...and Remake the World (Black Rose Books, Montreal, Spring, 2001)
* BALLBUSTER? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman, 2002 (Soft Skull Press, 2002)
* Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in Marx's Method (Univ. of Illinois Press, 2003). Turkish translation has been completed in February 2007 and a Chinese translation is being prepared.

==External links==
*[http://www.dialecticalmarxism.com/ DIALECTICAL MARXISM The Writings of Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.dialectics.net/ The Dialectic and ideas on alienation by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.bertellollman.com The Dialectic by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/getcase/US/471/1127.html Supreme Court's denial of cert in Ollman v. Evans]
*{{bgg|1510|''Class Struggle''}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ollman, Bertell}}

[[Category:1936 births|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Living people|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American Marxists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American socialists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Marxist writers]]

{{polisci-bio-stub}}

[[ru:Оллман, Бертел]]

Bertell Ollman

2008-02-03T14:24:48Z

Apeloverage:

'''Bertell Ollman''' (b. [[1936]]) is a professor of politics at [[New York University]]. He teaches both dialectical methodology and socialist theory. He has written and edited books including ''Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society'', ''Social and Sexual Revolution: Essays on Marx and Reich'', ''Dialectical Investigations'', ''How to Take an Exam...and Remake the World'', and most recently ''Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in Marx's Method''. He was born in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]].

He is also the creator of ''[[Class Struggle]]'', a board game based around his Marxist beliefs, and from 1978-1983 was president of Class Struggle, Inc., the company that produced and marketed the game. In 1978, after being offered and then denied the chairmanship of the Government Department at the [[University of Maryland College Park]], Ollman sued columnists [[Robert Novak]] and [[Rowland Evans]], alleging that a column they authored libeled him, resulting in the rescinding of his offer. His suit was defeated by the [[D.C. Circuit Court]], who held that Novak and Evans' column was protected speech. In 2001, he won the first Charles McCoy Life Achievement Award from the New Political Science section of the [[American Political Science Association]].

==Works==
* Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (Cambridge U.P., l97l; 2nd ed., l976). This book has gone through thirteen printings, sold close to 30,000 copies, and been translated into Spanish, Italian, and Korean
* Studies in Socialist Pedagogy, co-ed (Monthly Review Press, l978)
* Social and Sexual Revolution: Essays on Marx and Reich (South End Press, l978)
* Class Struggle Is the Name of the Game: True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Wm. Morrow Pub., l983); 2nd expanded ed. entitled Ball Buster? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Soft Skull Press, 2003)
* The Left Academy: Marxist Scholarship on American Campuses, co-ed., vol. I (McGraw Hill, l982)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. II (Praeger Pub., l984)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. III (Praeger Pub., l986)
*The U.S. Constitution: 200 Years of Anti-Federalist, Abolitionist, Feminist, Muckraker, Progressive, and Especially Socialist Criticism, co-ed. (N.Y.U. Press, l990)
* Marxism: an Uncommon Introduction (Stirling Pub., New Delhi, l99l)
* Dialectical Investigations (Routledge, l993) A French translation is forthcoming
* Market Socialism: the Debate Among Socialists, ed. and co-author (Routledge, l998). A Chinese translation appeared in 2000
* Dialectics: the New Frontier, co-ed. (Special Issue of Science and Society, Fall, l998); an expanded version of this issue will soon be published as a book
* How to Take an Exam...and Remake the World (Black Rose Books, Montreal, Spring, 2001)
* BALLBUSTER? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman, 2002 (Soft Skull Press, 2002)
* Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in Marx's Method (Univ. of Illinois Press, 2003). Turkish translation has been completed in February 2007 and a Chinese translation is being prepared.

== Trivia ==

*He appeared on "Hannity & Colmes" to face the accusation that as Sean Hannity's professor in the 1980s, he had given him a lower grade for being a conservative and a supporter of Ronald Reagan.
*In 1991, Bertall Ollman published the following remarks in a journal published by the American Political Science Association, appearing after the USSR had collapsed:

“Paradoxically enough, the objective conditions for socialism in the USSR are now largely present, but because of the unhappy experience with a regime that called itself ‘socialist’ the subjective conditions are absent . . . on the other hand . . . the Soviet Union might be saved by a socialist revolution in the West as our capitalist economy goes into a tailspin.”

==External links==
*[http://www.dialecticalmarxism.com/ DIALECTICAL MARXISM The Writings of Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.dialectics.net/ The Dialectic and ideas on alienation by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.bertellollman.com The Dialectic by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/getcase/US/471/1127.html Supreme Court's denial of cert in Ollman v. Evans]
*{{bgg|1510|''Class Struggle''}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ollman, Bertell}}

[[Category:1936 births|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Living people|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American Marxists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American socialists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Marxist writers]]

{{polisci-bio-stub}}

[[ru:Оллман, Бертел]]

Bertell Ollman

2008-02-03T14:23:29Z

Apeloverage: removed reference to a publication whose internet address is a dead link.

'''Bertell Ollman''' (b. [[1936]]) is a professor of politics at [[New York University]]. He teaches both dialectical methodology and socialist theory. He has written and edited books including ''Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society'', ''Social and Sexual Revolution: Essays on Marx and Reich'', ''Dialectical Investigations'', ''How to Take an Exam...and Remake the World'', and most recently ''Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in Marx's Method''. He was born in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]].

He is also the creator of ''[[Class Struggle]]'', the world's first [[Marxist]] board game, and from 1978-1983 was president of Class Struggle, Inc., the company that produced and marketed the game. In 1978, after being offered and then denied the chairmanship of the Government Department at the [[University of Maryland College Park]], Ollman sued columnists [[Robert Novak]] and [[Rowland Evans]], alleging that a column they authored libeled him, resulting in the rescinding of his offer. His suit was defeated by the [[D.C. Circuit Court]], who held that Novak and Evans' column was protected speech. In 2001, he won the first Charles McCoy Life Achievement Award from the New Political Science section of the [[American Political Science Association]].

==Works==
* Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (Cambridge U.P., l97l; 2nd ed., l976). This book has gone through thirteen printings, sold close to 30,000 copies, and been translated into Spanish, Italian, and Korean
* Studies in Socialist Pedagogy, co-ed (Monthly Review Press, l978)
* Social and Sexual Revolution: Essays on Marx and Reich (South End Press, l978)
* Class Struggle Is the Name of the Game: True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Wm. Morrow Pub., l983); 2nd expanded ed. entitled Ball Buster? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Soft Skull Press, 2003)
* The Left Academy: Marxist Scholarship on American Campuses, co-ed., vol. I (McGraw Hill, l982)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. II (Praeger Pub., l984)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. III (Praeger Pub., l986)
*The U.S. Constitution: 200 Years of Anti-Federalist, Abolitionist, Feminist, Muckraker, Progressive, and Especially Socialist Criticism, co-ed. (N.Y.U. Press, l990)
* Marxism: an Uncommon Introduction (Stirling Pub., New Delhi, l99l)
* Dialectical Investigations (Routledge, l993) A French translation is forthcoming
* Market Socialism: the Debate Among Socialists, ed. and co-author (Routledge, l998). A Chinese translation appeared in 2000
* Dialectics: the New Frontier, co-ed. (Special Issue of Science and Society, Fall, l998); an expanded version of this issue will soon be published as a book
* How to Take an Exam...and Remake the World (Black Rose Books, Montreal, Spring, 2001)
* BALLBUSTER? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman, 2002 (Soft Skull Press, 2002)
* Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in Marx's Method (Univ. of Illinois Press, 2003). Turkish translation has been completed in February 2007 and a Chinese translation is being prepared.

== Trivia ==

*He appeared on "Hannity & Colmes" to face the accusation that as Sean Hannity's professor in the 1980s, he had given him a lower grade for being a conservative and a supporter of Ronald Reagan.
*In 1991, Bertall Ollman published the following remarks in a journal published by the American Political Science Association, appearing after the USSR had collapsed:

“Paradoxically enough, the objective conditions for socialism in the USSR are now largely present, but because of the unhappy experience with a regime that called itself ‘socialist’ the subjective conditions are absent . . . on the other hand . . . the Soviet Union might be saved by a socialist revolution in the West as our capitalist economy goes into a tailspin.”

==External links==
*[http://www.dialecticalmarxism.com/ DIALECTICAL MARXISM The Writings of Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.dialectics.net/ The Dialectic and ideas on alienation by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.bertellollman.com The Dialectic by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/getcase/US/471/1127.html Supreme Court's denial of cert in Ollman v. Evans]
*{{bgg|1510|''Class Struggle''}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ollman, Bertell}}

[[Category:1936 births|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Living people|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American Marxists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American socialists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Marxist writers]]

{{polisci-bio-stub}}

[[ru:Оллман, Бертел]]

Bertell Ollman

2008-02-03T14:18:18Z

Apeloverage: /* External links */

'''Bertell Ollman''' (b. [[1936]]) is a professor of politics at [[New York University]]. He teaches both dialectical methodology and socialist theory. He has written and edited books including ''Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society'', ''Social and Sexual Revolution: Essays on Marx and Reich'', ''Dialectical Investigations'', ''How to Take an Exam...and Remake the World'', and most recently ''Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in Marx's Method''. He was born in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]].

He is also the creator of ''[[Class Struggle]]'', the world's first [[Marxist]] board game, and from 1978-1983 was president of Class Struggle, Inc., the company that produced and marketed the game. In 1978, after being offered and then denied the chairmanship of the Government Department at the [[University of Maryland College Park]], Ollman sued columnists [[Robert Novak]] and [[Rowland Evans]], alleging that a column they authored libeled him, resulting in the rescinding of his offer. His suit was defeated by the [[D.C. Circuit Court]], who held that Novak and Evans' column was protected speech. In 2001, he won the first Charles McCoy Life Achievement Award from the New Political Science section of the [[American Political Science Association]].

==Works==
* Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (Cambridge U.P., l97l; 2nd ed., l976). This book has gone through thirteen printings, sold close to 30,000 copies, and been translated into Spanish, Italian, and Korean
* Studies in Socialist Pedagogy, co-ed (Monthly Review Press, l978)
* Social and Sexual Revolution: Essays on Marx and Reich (South End Press, l978)
* Class Struggle Is the Name of the Game: True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Wm. Morrow Pub., l983); 2nd expanded ed. entitled Ball Buster? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman (Soft Skull Press, 2003)
* The Left Academy: Marxist Scholarship on American Campuses, co-ed., vol. I (McGraw Hill, l982)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. II (Praeger Pub., l984)
* The Left Academy..., co-ed., vol. III (Praeger Pub., l986)
*The U.S. Constitution: 200 Years of Anti-Federalist, Abolitionist, Feminist, Muckraker, Progressive, and Especially Socialist Criticism, co-ed. (N.Y.U. Press, l990)
* Marxism: an Uncommon Introduction (Stirling Pub., New Delhi, l99l)
* Dialectical Investigations (Routledge, l993) A French translation is forthcoming
* Market Socialism: the Debate Among Socialists, ed. and co-author (Routledge, l998). A Chinese translation appeared in 2000
* Dialectics: the New Frontier, co-ed. (Special Issue of Science and Society, Fall, l998); an expanded version of this issue will soon be published as a book
* How to Take an Exam...and Remake the World (Black Rose Books, Montreal, Spring, 2001)
* BALLBUSTER? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman, 2002 (Soft Skull Press, 2002)
* Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in Marx's Method (Univ. of Illinois Press, 2003). Turkish translation has been completed in February 2007 and a Chinese translation is being prepared.
* My Resignation From the Jewish People (www.dialecticalmarxism.com/resignation)

== Trivia ==

*He appeared on "Hannity & Colmes" to face the accusation that as Sean Hannity's professor in the 1980s, he had given him a lower grade for being a conservative and a supporter of Ronald Reagan.
*In 1991, Bertall Ollman published the following remarks in a journal published by the American Political Science Association, appearing after the USSR had collapsed:

“Paradoxically enough, the objective conditions for socialism in the USSR are now largely present, but because of the unhappy experience with a regime that called itself ‘socialist’ the subjective conditions are absent . . . on the other hand . . . the Soviet Union might be saved by a socialist revolution in the West as our capitalist economy goes into a tailspin.”

==External links==
*[http://www.dialecticalmarxism.com/ DIALECTICAL MARXISM The Writings of Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.dialectics.net/ The Dialectic and ideas on alienation by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://www.bertellollman.com The Dialectic by Bertell Ollman]
*[http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/getcase/US/471/1127.html Supreme Court's denial of cert in Ollman v. Evans]
*{{bgg|1510|''Class Struggle''}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ollman, Bertell}}

[[Category:1936 births|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Living people|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American Marxists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:American socialists|Ollman, Bertell]]
[[Category:Marxist writers]]

{{polisci-bio-stub}}

[[ru:Оллман, Бертел]]

Australian League of Rights

2007-06-03T10:26:47Z

Apeloverage: /* Relations With One Nation, Australia First and National Action */

:''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

[[Image:Alorlogo.jpg|250px|right]]

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] founded by [[Eric Butler]] with its basis in the economic theory of [[Social Credit]] expounded by [[C. H. Douglas]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 3</ref>. It describes itself as upholding the virtues of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]]. It is not a [[political party]], but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League's founder Eric Butler died on June 9th 2006, at the age of 90.

==Alleged Anti-Semitism==

The League strongly denies that the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]<ref>http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/ahric/ajhr/V1N1/ajhr1110.html</ref>. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews<ref>Butler, E. (1946) ''The International Jew: The Truth About the Protocols of Zion''</ref>. The League is distinctive for asserting that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' is a genuine Jewish document (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for example describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

==Other Views==

The League describes itself as being based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

==Connections to Other Groups==

===Relations With Neo-Nazi Groups===

The League has been accused of being associated with the now-defunct Australian National Socialist Party.<ref>Harcourt, D. (1972) ''Everyone Wants To Be Fuhrer: National Socialism in Australia and New Zealand'', p. 115)</ref>

===Relations With One Nation, Australians Against Further Immigration, Australia First and National Action===

Former Western Australian Labor MP, founder of the [[Australia First Party]] and later One Nation member Graeme Campbell was associated with the League at the same time as he was a member of One Nation and Australia First. Mr Campbell stated that "Australia First has no association with the League. It's me with the association." [http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2001/s297349.htm]

Treasurer Peter Costello stated that One Nation's policy of a state bank which would issue low-interest loans was directly taken from the ALOR, and that "the League of Rights is driving its policy in relation to banking and money" [http://www.treasurer.gov.au/tsr/content/transcripts/1998/030.asp]

The Australian branch of the B'nai B'rith Anti-Defamation Commission issued a press release that "The Co-founder of Australians Against Further Immigration (AAFI), and One Nation’s Victorian leader Robyn Spencer has addressed numerous League of Rights meetings as well as delivered a speech with League of Rights, Advisory National Director Eric Butler." [http://www.wej.com.au/adc/media/19June.htm]

ALOR is also allegedly associated with [[National Action]]{{fact}}.

===Relations With the National Party===

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a long struggle over several years, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

===Relations With Overseas Groups===

It has been associated with the New Zealand League of Rights, the Canadian League of Rights and through the [[British League of Rights]] also the [[John Birch Society]] and [[Young Americans for Freedom]] in the [[USA]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 170</ref>.

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti-Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right-wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]].

==See also==
*[[Eric Butler]]
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]
**[[Douglas Credit Party]] (Australia)
**[[Social Credit Party (New Zealand)]]
**[[Canadian social credit movement]]

==References==
<references/>

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1960]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2007-06-03T10:24:25Z

Apeloverage: /* Relations With One Nation, Australia First and National Action */

:''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

[[Image:Alorlogo.jpg|250px|right]]

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] founded by [[Eric Butler]] with its basis in the economic theory of [[Social Credit]] expounded by [[C. H. Douglas]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 3</ref>. It describes itself as upholding the virtues of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]]. It is not a [[political party]], but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League's founder Eric Butler died on June 9th 2006, at the age of 90.

==Alleged Anti-Semitism==

The League strongly denies that the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]<ref>http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/ahric/ajhr/V1N1/ajhr1110.html</ref>. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews<ref>Butler, E. (1946) ''The International Jew: The Truth About the Protocols of Zion''</ref>. The League is distinctive for asserting that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' is a genuine Jewish document (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for example describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

==Other Views==

The League describes itself as being based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

==Connections to Other Groups==

===Relations With Neo-Nazi Groups===

The League has been accused of being associated with the now-defunct Australian National Socialist Party.<ref>Harcourt, D. (1972) ''Everyone Wants To Be Fuhrer: National Socialism in Australia and New Zealand'', p. 115)</ref>

===Relations With One Nation, Australia First and National Action===

Former Western Australian Labor MP, founder of the [[Australia First Party]] and later One Nation member Graeme Campbell was associated with the League at the same time as he was a member of One Nation and Australia First. Mr Campbell stated that "Australia First has no association with the League. It's me with the association." [http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2001/s297349.htm]

Treasurer Peter Costello claimed that One Nation's policy of a state bank which would issue low-interest loans was directly taken from the ALOR, and that "the League of Rights is driving its policy in relation to banking and money" [http://www.treasurer.gov.au/tsr/content/transcripts/1998/030.asp]

ALOR is also allegedly associated with [[National Action]]{{fact}}.

===Relations With the National Party===

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a long struggle over several years, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

===Relations With Overseas Groups===

It has been associated with the New Zealand League of Rights, the Canadian League of Rights and through the [[British League of Rights]] also the [[John Birch Society]] and [[Young Americans for Freedom]] in the [[USA]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 170</ref>.

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti-Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right-wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]].

==See also==
*[[Eric Butler]]
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]
**[[Douglas Credit Party]] (Australia)
**[[Social Credit Party (New Zealand)]]
**[[Canadian social credit movement]]

==References==
<references/>

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1960]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2007-06-03T10:20:17Z

Apeloverage: /* Relations With One Nation, Australia First and National Action */

:''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

[[Image:Alorlogo.jpg|250px|right]]

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] founded by [[Eric Butler]] with its basis in the economic theory of [[Social Credit]] expounded by [[C. H. Douglas]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 3</ref>. It describes itself as upholding the virtues of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]]. It is not a [[political party]], but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League's founder Eric Butler died on June 9th 2006, at the age of 90.

==Alleged Anti-Semitism==

The League strongly denies that the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]<ref>http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/ahric/ajhr/V1N1/ajhr1110.html</ref>. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews<ref>Butler, E. (1946) ''The International Jew: The Truth About the Protocols of Zion''</ref>. The League is distinctive for asserting that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' is a genuine Jewish document (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for example describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

==Other Views==

The League describes itself as being based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

==Connections to Other Groups==

===Relations With Neo-Nazi Groups===

The League has been accused of being associated with the now-defunct Australian National Socialist Party.<ref>Harcourt, D. (1972) ''Everyone Wants To Be Fuhrer: National Socialism in Australia and New Zealand'', p. 115)</ref>

===Relations With One Nation, Australia First and National Action===

Former Western Australian Labor MP, founder of the [[Australia First Party]] and later One Nation member Graeme Campbell was associated with the League at the same time as he was a member of One Nation and Australia First. Mr Campbell stated that "Australia First has no association with the League. It's me with the association." [http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2001/s297349.htm]

ALOR is allegedly associated with [[National Action]]{{fact}}.

===Relations With the National Party===

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a long struggle over several years, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

===Relations With Overseas Groups===

It has been associated with the New Zealand League of Rights, the Canadian League of Rights and through the [[British League of Rights]] also the [[John Birch Society]] and [[Young Americans for Freedom]] in the [[USA]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 170</ref>.

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti-Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right-wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]].

==See also==
*[[Eric Butler]]
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]
**[[Douglas Credit Party]] (Australia)
**[[Social Credit Party (New Zealand)]]
**[[Canadian social credit movement]]

==References==
<references/>

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1960]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2007-06-03T10:19:59Z

Apeloverage: /* Relations With Neo-Nazi Groups */

:''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

[[Image:Alorlogo.jpg|250px|right]]

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] founded by [[Eric Butler]] with its basis in the economic theory of [[Social Credit]] expounded by [[C. H. Douglas]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 3</ref>. It describes itself as upholding the virtues of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]]. It is not a [[political party]], but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League's founder Eric Butler died on June 9th 2006, at the age of 90.

==Alleged Anti-Semitism==

The League strongly denies that the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]<ref>http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/ahric/ajhr/V1N1/ajhr1110.html</ref>. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews<ref>Butler, E. (1946) ''The International Jew: The Truth About the Protocols of Zion''</ref>. The League is distinctive for asserting that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' is a genuine Jewish document (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for example describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

==Other Views==

The League describes itself as being based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

==Connections to Other Groups==

===Relations With Neo-Nazi Groups===

The League has been accused of being associated with the now-defunct Australian National Socialist Party.<ref>Harcourt, D. (1972) ''Everyone Wants To Be Fuhrer: National Socialism in Australia and New Zealand'', p. 115)</ref>

===Relations With One Nation, Australia First and National Action===

Former Western Australian Labor MP, founder of the Australia First Party and later One Nation member Graeme Campbell was associated with the League at the same time as he was a member of One Nation and Australia First. Mr Campbell stated that "Australia First has no association with the League. It's me with the association." [http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2001/s297349.htm]

ALOR is allegedly associated with [[National Action]]{{fact}}.

===Relations With the National Party===

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a long struggle over several years, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

===Relations With Overseas Groups===

It has been associated with the New Zealand League of Rights, the Canadian League of Rights and through the [[British League of Rights]] also the [[John Birch Society]] and [[Young Americans for Freedom]] in the [[USA]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 170</ref>.

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti-Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right-wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]].

==See also==
*[[Eric Butler]]
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]
**[[Douglas Credit Party]] (Australia)
**[[Social Credit Party (New Zealand)]]
**[[Canadian social credit movement]]

==References==
<references/>

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1960]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2007-06-03T10:16:01Z

Apeloverage: /* Connections to Other Groups */

:''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

[[Image:Alorlogo.jpg|250px|right]]

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] founded by [[Eric Butler]] with its basis in the economic theory of [[Social Credit]] expounded by [[C. H. Douglas]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 3</ref>. It describes itself as upholding the virtues of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]]. It is not a [[political party]], but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League's founder Eric Butler died on June 9th 2006, at the age of 90.

==Alleged Anti-Semitism==

The League strongly denies that the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]<ref>http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/ahric/ajhr/V1N1/ajhr1110.html</ref>. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews<ref>Butler, E. (1946) ''The International Jew: The Truth About the Protocols of Zion''</ref>. The League is distinctive for asserting that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' is a genuine Jewish document (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for example describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

==Other Views==

The League describes itself as being based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

==Connections to Other Groups==

===Relations With Neo-Nazi Groups===

The League has been accused of being associated with the Australian National Socialist Party.<ref>Harcourt, D. (1972) ''Everyone Wants To Be Fuhrer: National Socialism in Australia and New Zealand'', p. 115)</ref> They also have strong connections to the [[One Nation Party]] and [[National Action]]{{fact}}.

===Relations With the National Party===

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a long struggle over several years, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

===Relations With Overseas Groups===

It has been associated with the New Zealand League of Rights, the Canadian League of Rights and through the [[British League of Rights]] also the [[John Birch Society]] and [[Young Americans for Freedom]] in the [[USA]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 170</ref>.

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti-Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right-wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]].

==See also==
*[[Eric Butler]]
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]
**[[Douglas Credit Party]] (Australia)
**[[Social Credit Party (New Zealand)]]
**[[Canadian social credit movement]]

==References==
<references/>

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1960]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2007-06-03T10:14:58Z

Apeloverage: /* =Relations With the National Party */

:''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

[[Image:Alorlogo.jpg|250px|right]]

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] founded by [[Eric Butler]] with its basis in the economic theory of [[Social Credit]] expounded by [[C. H. Douglas]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 3</ref>. It describes itself as upholding the virtues of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]]. It is not a [[political party]], but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League's founder Eric Butler died on June 9th 2006, at the age of 90.

==Alleged Anti-Semitism==

The League strongly denies that the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]<ref>http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/ahric/ajhr/V1N1/ajhr1110.html</ref>. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews<ref>Butler, E. (1946) ''The International Jew: The Truth About the Protocols of Zion''</ref>. The League is distinctive for asserting that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' is a genuine Jewish document (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for example describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

==Other Views==

The League describes itself as being based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

==Connections to Other Groups==

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti-Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right-wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]], whilst they have also been accused of being associated with the Australian National Socialist Party.<ref>Harcourt, D. (1972) ''Everyone Wants To Be Fuhrer: National Socialism in Australia and New Zealand'', p. 115)</ref> They also have strong connections to the [[One Nation Party]] and [[National Action]]{{fact}}.

===Relations With the National Party===

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a long struggle over several years, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

It has been associated with the New Zealand League of Rights, the Canadian League of Rights and through the [[British League of Rights]] also the [[John Birch Society]] and [[Young Americans for Freedom]] in the [[USA]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 170</ref>.

==See also==
*[[Eric Butler]]
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]
**[[Douglas Credit Party]] (Australia)
**[[Social Credit Party (New Zealand)]]
**[[Canadian social credit movement]]

==References==
<references/>

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1960]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2007-06-03T10:14:42Z

Apeloverage:

:''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

[[Image:Alorlogo.jpg|250px|right]]

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] founded by [[Eric Butler]] with its basis in the economic theory of [[Social Credit]] expounded by [[C. H. Douglas]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 3</ref>. It describes itself as upholding the virtues of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]]. It is not a [[political party]], but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League's founder Eric Butler died on June 9th 2006, at the age of 90.

==Alleged Anti-Semitism==

The League strongly denies that the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]<ref>http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/ahric/ajhr/V1N1/ajhr1110.html</ref>. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews<ref>Butler, E. (1946) ''The International Jew: The Truth About the Protocols of Zion''</ref>. The League is distinctive for asserting that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' is a genuine Jewish document (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for example describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

==Other Views==

The League describes itself as being based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

==Connections to Other Groups==

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti-Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right-wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]], whilst they have also been accused of being associated with the Australian National Socialist Party.<ref>Harcourt, D. (1972) ''Everyone Wants To Be Fuhrer: National Socialism in Australia and New Zealand'', p. 115)</ref> They also have strong connections to the [[One Nation Party]] and [[National Action]]{{fact}}.

===Relations With the National Party==

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a long struggle over several years, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

It has been associated with the New Zealand League of Rights, the Canadian League of Rights and through the [[British League of Rights]] also the [[John Birch Society]] and [[Young Americans for Freedom]] in the [[USA]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 170</ref>.

==See also==
*[[Eric Butler]]
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]
**[[Douglas Credit Party]] (Australia)
**[[Social Credit Party (New Zealand)]]
**[[Canadian social credit movement]]

==References==
<references/>

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1960]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2007-06-03T10:13:12Z

Apeloverage:

:''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

[[Image:Alorlogo.jpg|250px|right]]

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] founded by [[Eric Butler]] with its basis in the economic theory of [[Social Credit]] expounded by [[C. H. Douglas]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 3</ref>. It claims to uphold the virtues of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]]. It is not a [[political party]], but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League's founder Eric Butler died on June 9th 2006, at the age of 90.

==Alleged Anti-Semitism==

The League strongly denies that the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]<ref>http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/ahric/ajhr/V1N1/ajhr1110.html</ref>. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews<ref>Butler, E. (1946) ''The International Jew: The Truth About the Protocols of Zion''</ref>. The League is distinctive for asserting that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' is a genuine Jewish document (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for example describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

==Other Views==

The League describes itself as being based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

==Connections to Other Groups==

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti-Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right-wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]], whilst they have also been accused of being associated with the Australian National Socialist Party.<ref>Harcourt, D. (1972) ''Everyone Wants To Be Fuhrer: National Socialism in Australia and New Zealand'', p. 115)</ref> They also have strong connections to the [[One Nation Party]] and [[National Action]]{{fact}}.

===Relations With the National Party==

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a long struggle over several years, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

It has been associated with the New Zealand League of Rights, the Canadian League of Rights and through the [[British League of Rights]] also the [[John Birch Society]] and [[Young Americans for Freedom]] in the [[USA]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 170</ref>.

==See also==
*[[Eric Butler]]
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]
**[[Douglas Credit Party]] (Australia)
**[[Social Credit Party (New Zealand)]]
**[[Canadian social credit movement]]

==References==
<references/>

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1960]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2007-06-03T10:11:15Z

Apeloverage: NPOV

:''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

[[Image:Alorlogo.jpg|250px|right]]

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] founded by [[Eric Butler]] with its basis in the economic theory of [[Social Credit]] expounded by [[C. H. Douglas]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 3</ref>. It claims to uphold the virtues of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]]. It is not a [[political party]], but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League strongly denies that the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]<ref>http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/ahric/ajhr/V1N1/ajhr1110.html</ref>. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews<ref>Butler, E. (1946) ''The International Jew: The Truth About the Protocols of Zion''</ref>. The League is distinctive for asserting that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' is a genuine Jewish document (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for example describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League describes itself as being based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti-Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right-wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]], whilst they have also been accused of being associated with the Australian National Socialist Party.<ref>Harcourt, D. (1972) ''Everyone Wants To Be Fuhrer: National Socialism in Australia and New Zealand'', p. 115)</ref> They also have strong connections to the [[One Nation Party]] and [[National Action]]{{fact}}.

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a long struggle over several years, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

On Friday June 9th 2006, the League's founder, Eric Butler, died at the age of 90.

It has been associated with the New Zealand League of Rights, the Canadian League of Rights and through the [[British League of Rights]] also the [[John Birch Society]] and [[Young Americans for Freedom]] in the [[USA]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 170</ref>.

==See also==
*[[Eric Butler]]
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]
**[[Douglas Credit Party]] (Australia)
**[[Social Credit Party (New Zealand)]]
**[[Canadian social credit movement]]

==References==
<references/>

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1960]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2007-06-03T10:06:25Z

Apeloverage:

:''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

[[Image:Alorlogo.jpg|250px|right]]

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] founded by [[Eric Butler]] with its basis in the economic theory of [[Social Credit]] expounded by [[C. H. Douglas]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 3</ref>. It claims to uphold the virtues of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]]. It is not a [[political party]], but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League strongly denies that the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]<ref>http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/ahric/ajhr/V1N1/ajhr1110.html</ref>. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews<ref>Butler, E. (1946) ''The International Jew: The Truth About the Protocols of Zion''</ref>. The League is distinctive for asserting that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' is a genuine Jewish document (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for example describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League claims to be based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti-Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right-wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]], whilst they have also been accused of being associated with the Australian National Socialist Party.<ref>Harcourt, D. (1972) ''Everyone Wants To Be Fuhrer: National Socialism in Australia and New Zealand'', p. 115)</ref> They also have strong connections to the [[One Nation Party]] and [[National Action]]{{fact}}.

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a long struggle over several years, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

On Friday June 9th 2006, the League's founder, Eric Butler, died at the age of 90.

It has been associated with the New Zealand League of Rights, the Canadian League of Rights and through the [[British League of Rights]] also the [[John Birch Society]] and [[Young Americans for Freedom]] in the [[USA]]<ref>Campbell, A.A. (1978) ''The Australian League of Rights: a study in political extremism and subversion'', Outback Press, Collingwood, p. 170</ref>.

==See also==
*[[Eric Butler]]
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]
**[[Douglas Credit Party]] (Australia)
**[[Social Credit Party (New Zealand)]]
**[[Canadian social credit movement]]

==References==
<references/>

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1960]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Women of the Ku Klux Klan

2007-03-02T07:44:43Z

Apeloverage: removed material which wasn't on the topic, was uncited, and was apparently editorial.

{{POV}}

The '''WKKK''' or '''Women's Ku Klux Klan''' was one of a number of [[KKK auxiliaries|auxiliaries]] of the [[Ku Klux Klan]]. Analysis of the WKKK is sparse, but some studies estimate the WKKK had over 4 million members by 1925. In Indiana it is estimated 32% of white native-born women were members of the WKKK. Their work was largely promulgated through networks in the Protestant Church, the Y.W.C.A., and a variety of "vice squad organizations".

David Usher writes in numerous searchable online media: "After the 19th amendment was passed, WKKK feminists no longer needed the Klan for political power, and turned their sights towards the use of sexual imagery to control white men too. In the 1920's a congressional investigation found that a woman by the name of Elizabeth Tyler was running the KKK. She assumed control by making allegations of sexual improprieties against the Grand Dragon."

In her book "Women of the Klan" Kathleen L. Blee notes that "gender and sexuality were compelling symbols in the two largest waves of the KKK, those of the 1860s and the 1920s."The early klan emphasized the need to protect the sanctity of "white womanhood". [[Image:Women_of_klan.jpg|thumb|right|150px|]] Black men were profiled as inately violent, abusive and rapists and this encouraged violence and discrimination of black men as portrayed in the [[Rosewood (film)]].

The murder, shootings, lynching and displacement of Blacks in areas surrounding [[Rosewood, Florida]] was precipitated by a false rape allegation by a white woman and a parade and rally of over 100 hooded klansmen in the nearby Klan Stronghold of [[Gainesville, Florida]] under a burning cross and a banner reading, “First and Always Protect Womanhood." <ref> ["Ku Klux Klan in Gainesville Gave New Year Parade", Florida Times Union, 3 January 1923] </ref>. The newly renovated multi-million dollar facility in Gainesville for <ref> [http://www.wst.ufl.edu/] </ref> women's and gender (and [[gay]]) studies, illustrates the inverse relationship between the decline of the Klan and the rise of feminist agendas. Blee's extensive analysis of the WKKK concludes it converged into radical feminist agendas of the 1960's and simply excluded 'black' from the old WKKK [[demogoguery]]. Critics of feminism view [[radical feminist]] [[propaganda]] and legislature such as the [[VAWA]] as fueling similar profiling, sexual symbolism, and encouraging false allegations against all men.

Unsourced critics of Blee's data collection and analysis techniques claim that much of her research was based on often dubious recollections and accuse her of manipulating data to fit her viewpoint. (just as supporters may allege that criticism of her analysis to fit the critic's viewpoint). Many of her interviewees were elderly and related childhood incidents.

While the WKKK also invoked traditions of [[chivalry]] in men to protect women, feminists simultaneously redefined the corresponding role and code of [[honor]] for women. The technique of using lurid and disturbing sexual imagery and often false accusations of sexual offenses was a key element of the WKKK.

==References==

*"Ku Klux Klan in Gainesville Gave New Year Parade", ''Florida Times Union'', 3 January 1923

*''Women of the Klan'', Kathleen L. Blee

Ein-Staat-Lösung

2007-02-12T17:11:10Z

Apeloverage: NPOV

'''''Binational solution''''' is a term most often used in reference to a proposed resolution of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]. It is also known as the '''One-State Solution''', as opposed to the [[Two-state solution|Two-State Solution]].

Proponents of a binational solution to the conflict advocate a common state in historic [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] shared between [[Jew]]ish and [[Arab]] populations. All of the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] would be annexed to [[Israel]], with their [[Palestinian]] Arab inhabitants given citizenship and an equal status to the Jewish and Arab citizens of present-day Israel. The new state would have either secular character, or a dual Jewish-Islamic character, rather than being solely Jewish.

The idea is immensely controversial. It has been around for decades with relatively little impact, but in 2003 the demographic challenge, that is, the potential for a near-term majority Arab population and a minority population of Jews west of the [[Jordan river]] brought the binational proposition back to centre stage.
==Historic development==
===Before 1947===
Binational proposals for a common Jewish-Arab state in Palestine have existed since at least the 1920s. In 1925, the journalist Robert Weltsch established [[Brit Shalom]] (Covenant of Peace) to promote Jewish-Arab understanding in Palestine. Brit Shalom, which functioned until 1933, stood on a platform of creating "a binational state in which the two peoples will enjoy equal rights as befits the two elements shaping the country's destiny, irrespective of which of the two is numerically superior at any given time" (from their first publication ''Our Aspirations'', 1927). It had a few hundred members, mostly European-born intellectuals like [[Martin Buber]]. The general concept of binationalism was to be adopted by other minority [[Zionism|Zionist]] groups, like [[Hashomer Hatzair]] and [[Mapam]], Kedmah Mizracha, the Ichud and the League for Jewish-Arab Rapprochement.

Before 1947, many leading Jewish intellectuals were firmly convinced that a binational state could be formed through partnership. One of the most prominent and forceful early advocates of binationalism was [[Martin Buber]], a renowned Jewish theologian. In 1939, shortly after he emigrated from [[Germany]] to [[British Mandate of Palestine|British-ruled Palestine]], he replied to a letter by [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who thought that "Palestine belongs to the Arabs" and the Jews "should make that country their home where they were born."{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Buber rejected this idea but agreed that there had to be a consensus between Jews and Arabs in Palestine. He believed that Jews and Arabs needed to
"develop the land together without one imposing his will on the other". In 1947, he wrote, "we describe our programme as that of a bi-national state - that is, we aim at a social structure based on the reality of two peoples living together... This is what we need and not a "Jewish state"; for any national state in vast, hostile surroundings could mean pre-meditated national suicide."

[[Hannah Arendt]], known for her analyses of [[totalitarianism]] and [[fascism]], also resisted the extremism that she saw as seizing the Zionist movement in 1947. In an article in the May 1948 issue of [[Commentary Magazine|Commentary]], she wrote,

:"A federated state, finally could be the natural stepping stone for any later, greater federated structure in the Near East and the Mediterranean area...The real goal of the Jews in Palestine is the building up of a Jewish homeland. This goal must never be sacrificed to the pseudo-sovereignty of a Jewish state."

In the 1947 UN Special Committee on Palestine Report of Subcommittee Two, three draft solutions to the Palestine conflict are proposed. The third solution called for a unitary democratic state in [[British Mandate of Palestine]]. Another proposal, the Morrison Grady Plan, is a British proposal presented by [[Herbert Morrison]] in July 1946, calling for federalization under overall British Trusteeship. Ultimately, both solutions failed to win the majority of the UN General Assembly.

After the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]] demonstrated international support for the two-state solution, most of the opposition to the concept of a Jewish state, including binationalisms espoused by Martin Buber and Hannah Arendt, evaporated. During this climate change, Arendt also chronicled the sudden repression of dissent in the Zionist movement. After 1947, the official Zionist policy advocated a "[[Jewish state]]".

===1948 to 1973===
With the establishment of Israel in May 1948, a binational solution became largely moot when much of Israel's native Arab population was displaced in the ensuing conflict. Some aspects of the binational ideal - such as equal political rights for the remaining Arabs - were granted in principle, but this was limited by the Israeli leadership's determination that the country would have a Jewish majority and political leadership. Successive Israeli governments have pursued a policy of encouraging Jewish immigration to Israel, known as ''[[aliyah]]'', which guaranteed the Jewish majority.

On the Arab side, the idea of a binational solution was generally rejected by the Arab national movement, which saw little to gain from it; the Arab leadership were opposed to their people becoming a minority in what they saw as their own country. From their point of view, the huge influx of Jews from Europe and the Middle East represented a gigantic colonisation project, which many saw as being a recreation of the medieval Crusader kingdoms. The [[Crusades]] were (and still are) an event seared on Arab collective memory, as was their outcome - the defeat of the Crusaders by [[Saladin]] and the subsequent expulsion of the European settlers. A binational solution was not, in other words, something that had any precedent in the Arab history of Palestine.

The binational ideal did not disappear altogether during this period, despite its lack of support, and was given a boost following Israel capturing the [[Gaza Strip]] from [[Egypt]] and the [[West Bank]] from [[Jordan]] in the [[Six Day War]] of 1967. Israel's victory over its neighbours was greeted by euphoria within Israel, but some critical Israeli and foreign observers quickly recognised the new territories had potential to pose a major long-term problem.

In the aftermath of the war, there was considerable debate about what to do next. Should the territories be annexed to Israel? In which case, what would be done with the Palestinians? Should they be given citizenship, although that would significantly dilute Israel's Jewish majority? Could they be expelled ''en masse'', although that would come at a terrible cost to Israel's reputation? Should the territories be returned to Arab rule? In which case, how would Israel's security be guaranteed? In the event, the Israel government fudged the question by implementing the controversial policy of [[Jewish settlement]]s in the territories, establishing "facts on the ground" while keeping open the question of the Palestinians' long-term fate.

The dilemma prompted some foreign supporters of Israel, such as the crusading American journalist [[I.F. Stone]], to revive the idea of a binational state. This found little favour in Israel or elsewhere and the binational solution tended to be presented not so much as a potential resolution of the conflict as a disastrous outcome risked by Israeli government policies. As early as 1973, the prospect of a binational state was being used by prominent figures on the Israel left to warn against holding on to the territories. [[Histadrut]] Secretary General I. Ben-Aharon, for instance, warned in a March 1973 article for ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'' that Israel could not have any real control over a binational state and that Israelis should be satisfied with a state already containing a sizable Arab minority — that is, Israel proper.

===1973 to 2002===
The outcome of the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]] prompted a fundamental political rethink among the Palestinian leadership. It was realised that Israel's military strength and, crucially, its alliance with the United States made it unlikely that it could be defeated militarily. In December 1974, [[Yasser Arafat]]'s [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO), then regarded as a terrorist group by the Israeli government, declared that a binational state was the only viable solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The change in policy was met with considerable confusion, as it was official PLO policy to replace Israel with a secular and democratic state with a full right of return for all displaced Palestinians, including the Jews who were living in Palestine before 1948. This would effectively have ended Israel's Jewish majority and, by secularising the state, would have weakened its exclusive Jewish character. In short, a binational state on the PLO's terms would mean a different kind of Israel. This prospect is strongly opposed by various sides in Israeli politics.

Despite this, opposition to binationalism was not absolute. Some of those on the Israel right associated with the settler movement were willing to contemplate a binational state as long as it was established on Zionist terms. Members of [[Menachem Begin]]'s [[Likud]] government in the late 1970s were willing to support the idea if it would ensure formal Israeli sovereignty in the West Bank and Gaza. Begin's chief of staff, [[Eliahu Ben-Elissar]], told the ''[[Washington Post]]'' in November 1979 that "we can live with them and they can live with us. I would prefer they were Israeli citizens, but I am not afraid of a binational state. In any case, it will always be a [[Jewish state]] with a large Arab minority."

In the mean time, there were considerable internal dissent in adopting the one state solution on the Palestinian side. The Oslo Accords in 1993 raised the hope for a two-state solution, even though the Accords are rejected by various factions on the Palestinian side, including the [[Hamas]], the [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]] and the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]. The Oslo Accords were never fully adopted and implemented by both sides. After the [[Second Intifada]] in 2000, many believe that the two-state solution is increasingly losing its appeal.

====Friedlander-Goldscheider demographics study====
In 1980, [[Hebrew University]] professors Dov Friedlander and Calvin Goldscheider published a highly influential study entitled "The Population of Israel," which concluded that - even allowing for a big increase in Jewish immigration - the high birth rate among Arabs would erode the Jewish majority within a few decades. The two [[demography|demographers]] predicted that the total population of Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza strip would be 6.7 million by 1990, and some 10 million by the year 2010. By that time, the Jewish population could be only 45% of the total. Friedlander and Goldscheider warned that maintaining Israeli rule in the territories would ultimately endanger the Jewish majority in Israel. [[Ariel Sharon]], then Agriculture Minister in Begin's government, rejected this conclusion; he claimed that Jews would make up 64% of the population in Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza strip by the year 2000 if Jewish immigration remained at the rate of about 30,000 a year, although he did not cite any sources for this estimate.

The conclusions of the Friedlander-Goldscheider study soon became a hot political issue between Israel's two main parties, [[Likud]] and [[Labour Party (Israel)|Labour]], in the June 1981 parliamentary elections. Both parties opposed withdrawal to the pre-1967 borders or setting up a Palestinian state, and both supported building more Jewish settlements in the territories and maintaining exclusive Israeli control over Jerusalem. However, Labour argued for building settlements only in areas Israel intended to keep, while handing the rest back to Jordan. Likud was strongly critical of this proposal, claiming that the result would be a binational state spelling "the end of the Zionist endeavour." Many on the left of Israeli politics were already warning that without a clean separation from the Palestinians, the outcome would be either a binational state by default (thus ending Israel's Jewish character) or a South African-style "[[Bantustan]]" with a Jewish minority forcibly ruling a disenfranchised Arab majority (thus ending Israel's claims to be a democracy).

In the event, Begin won the election and announced (in May 1982) a formal policy of "extending state sovereignty ... over Judea, Samaria and the Gaza Strip" accompanied by a major expansion of Jewish settlement and the granting of "full autonomy" to the Palestinians.

On the Palestinian side, the Israeli opposition to a binational state led to another change of position which evolved gradually from the late 1970s onwards. The PLO retained its original option of a single secular binational state west of Jordan, but began to take the position that it was prepared to accept a separate Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza in land from which Israel had withdrawn under [[UN Security Council Resolution 242|Security Council Resolution 242]]. Settlements would need to be dismantled and Palestinian refugees allowed to return (to Israel as well as the new Palestine). This new position, formally adopted in December 1988, was overwhelmingly rejected by Israeli public opinion and the main political parties but was subsequently used as the basis of peace discussions in the 1990s.

===2003 to present===
Since 2003, there have been renewed interest on binationalism. For example, in 2003, New York University scholar [[Tony Judt]] wrote an article titled "Israel: The Alternative" in the [[New York Review of Books]]. In the article, Judt deemed the two-state solution as fundamentally doomed and unworkable.

Other leftist journalists from Israel, such as Haim Hanegbi and Daniel Gavron, are also calling the public to face the facts (as they see them) and accept the binational solution. This article has engendered a frenzy media blitz in the UK and US. The New York Review of Books received more than one thousand letters per week on the essay. On the Palestinian side, similar voices are raised. In 1999, [[Edward Said]] wrote in The End of Peace Process: Oslo and After: "The problem is that Palestinian self-determination in a separate state is unworkable." Several high-level [[Fatah]] Palestinian Authority officials have voiced similar rhetorics, including Prime Minister [[Ahmed Qurei]], Hani Al-Masri. “Time is running out for a two-state solution,” Britain’s [[The Guardian]] newspaper quoted [[Yasser Arafat]] as saying in an interview from his West Bank headquarters in 2004. Many political analysts, including [[Omar Barghouti]], believe that the death of Arafat harbingers the bankruptcy of the [[Oslo Accords]] and the [[Two-State Solution]].

Today, the prominent proponents for the one-state solution include Palestinian author [[Ali Abunimah]] [http://electronicintifada.net/bytopic/store/548.shtml *], Palestinian lawyer [[Michael Tarazi]] [http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/sovereign/sover/emerg/2004/1004onetwo.htm *], [[Jeff Halper]] [http://fromoccupiedpalestine.org/node.php?id=772 *], Israeli writer [[Dan Gavron]] [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=4693 *], and American academic Virginia Tilley. They cite the expansion of the Israeli Settler movement, especially in the West Bank, as a compelling rationale for binationalism and the increased unfeasibility of the two-state alternative. They advocate a secular and democratic state while still maintaining a Jewish presence and culture in the region. They concede that this alternative will erode the dream of Jewish supremacy in terms of governance in the long run.

After the 2006 election of the Palestinian parliament, [[Hamas]] claimed the majority of the parliamentary seats. Hamas rejected the [[Two-State Solution]] in principle. Claiming "Palestine is an Islamic [[Waqf]]", Hamas believe that "it is possible for the members of the three religions: Islam, Christianity and Judaism to coexist in safety and security...only under the shadow of Islam."{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Facing the Hamas challenge, in June 2006, Palestinian President [[Mahmoud Abbas]] called for a controversial referendum by Palestinians on whether to proceed with negotiations for a two-state solution with Israel.

==Criticisms==
According to [[Alan Dershowitz]], most moderate Israelis and Arabists alike believe that a binational solution is not only unworkable, but also unwanted. He says that the most obvious problem with the binational solution is that it would destroy the Jewish character of the state of Israel due to the high birth rates among Muslims living in the administered territories. Secondly, the idea that the Muslims and the Israelis could live side by side as equals is a problematic one due to the large economic gap between the two peoples. Critics of the binational solution also cite the ethnic/religious conflicts in the binational states of [[Lebanon]] and the former [[Yugoslavia]] (Dershowitz, 28).

==See also==
* [[Multiculturalism]] - a similar policy adopted by many countries.
* [[Judah Leon Magnes]]
* [[Martin Buber]]
* [[Hannah Arendt]]
* [[Hugo Bergmann]]
* [[Seif Islam Qaddafi proposal]]
* [[Tony Judt]]
* [[Ghada Karmi]]
* [[Two-state solution]]

==References==
* "''Palestine - Divided or United? The Case for a Bi-National Palestine before the United Nations''" by [[M. Reiner]]; [[Herbert Samuel|Lord Samuel]]; [[Ernst Simon|E. Simon]]; [[M. Smilansky]]; [[Judah Leon Magnes]]. [[Ihud]] Jerusalem 1947. Includes submitted written and oral testimony before UNSCOP; IHud's Proposals include: political, immigration, land, development (Reprinted [[Greenwood Press]] Reprint, Westport, CT, 1983, ISBN 0-8371-2617-7)
* [[Dershowitz, Alan|Alan Dershowitz]]. ''[[The Case for Peace: How the Arab-Israeli Conflict Can Be Resolved]]''. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.
* [[Hattis, Susan Lee]]. The Binational Idea in Palestine during Mandatory Times. [[Haifa]]: Shikmona, 1970.
* "''Begin Loyalist Given Inside Track for Dayan's Job''", ''Washington Post'', November 14, 1979
* "''[[The Population of Israel]]''", [[Friedlander D.]] and [[Goldscheider C.]], [[Hebrew University]], 1980
* "''Fifteen Years' Successful Conquest Has Wounded Israel's Soul''", ''Washington Post'', June 6, 1982
* "''Demography in the Land of Israel in the Year 2000''", [[Sofer A.]], [[Haifa University]], 1987
* [[Mendes-Flohr, Paul R.]] ''[[A Land of Two Peoples: Martin Buber on Jews and Arabs]]''. [[Gloucester]], Mass: [[Peter Smith]], 1994.
* "''Jewish and Democratic? A Rejoinder to the "Ethnic Democracy" Debate,''" [[Gavison, R.]], ''[[Israel Studies]]'', March 31, 1999
* [[Dan Leon|Leon, Dan]]. ''[[Binationalism]]: A Bridge over the Chasm''. [[Palestine-Israel Journal]], July 31, 1999.
* [[Virginia Tilley|Tilley, Virginia]]. ''The One-State Solution : A Breakthrough for Peace in the Israeli-Palestinian Deadlock'', [[University of Michigan]] Press, May 2005

==External links==
* [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=383879] Haaretz Special Report "Is the two-state solution in danger?" 2004
* [http://www.onedemocraticstate.org] onedemocraticstate.org - a comprehensive collection of past and current articles on the subject, and related matters
* [http://www.one-state.org] ONE-STATE.org - a web campaign for one-state in Israel/Palestine, Temporarily Unavailable on June 2006
* ''Putting the Pieces Together?'' a [http://bostonreview.net/ndf.html#Binationalism Forum on Binationalism] in [http://bostonreview.net/ The Boston Review] December 2001/January 2002
*{{cite web | author=Alternative Palestinian Agenda| year=| title=Proposal for an Alternative Configuration in Palestine-Israel | work=Alternative Palestinian Agenda | url=http://www.ap-agenda.org/initiative.htm | accessdate=February 26 | accessyear=2006}}
* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16671] The New York Review of Books: Israel: The Alternative by Tony Judt, October 23, 2003
* [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v25/n21/till01_.html] The London Review of Books: The One-State Solution by Virginia Tilley, November 2003
* [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20031103/lazare] The Nation. The One-State Solution by Daniel Lazare, November 3, 2003
* [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=4100] Ha'aretz. No more two-state solution? by Ari Shavit, August 28, 2003

[[Category:Binational solution|*]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian peace efforts]]

[[eo:Dunacia solvo]]
[[fr:État bi-national]]
[[he:פתרון מדינה אחת]]

Maoupa Cedric Maake

2007-01-22T18:17:06Z

Apeloverage:

{{Cleanup|July 2006}}

''Maoupa Cedric Maake'' (also known as the Wemmer Pan Killer) is believed to be the second worst serial killer in the history of South Africa.

He committed at least 27 murders throughout 1996 and 1997.

Maake was arrested in December 1997 and on 6 September 2000 he was convicted of 27 murders, 26 attempted murders, 14 rapes, 41 aggravated robberies and many more less serious offences. He was sentenced to more than 1159 years in prison.

Maake is known as the "Wemmer Pan Killer" because it was this area of Johannesburg that he targeted most of his victims. He also targeted Indian shop owners. It was at first believed that there were two serial killers (one targeting Wemmer Pan and one targeting Indian tailors), but the South African Police Service linked the two sets of murders after Maake signed a lay-buy slip at one of the shops he targeted. This signature linked Maake to both areas.

Cedric Maake was also featured on a 13-part M-Net television series called "Criminal Minds" hosted by Malcolm Gooding.

==See Also==
[[List of serial killers by country]]

Ein-Staat-Lösung

2007-01-09T13:42:22Z

Apeloverage: removed link to a non-existent article.

'''''Binational solution''''' is a term most often used in reference to a proposed resolution of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]. It is also known as the '''One-State Solution''', as opposed to the [[Two-state solution|Two-State Solution]].

Proponents of a binational solution to the conflict advocate a common state in historic [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] shared between [[Jew]]ish and [[Arab]] populations. All of the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] would be annexed to [[Israel]], with their [[Palestinian]] Arab inhabitants given citizenship and an equal status to the Jewish and Arab citizens of present-day Israel. The new state would have a secular character rather than being dominated by [[Judaism]].

The idea is immensely controversial. It has been around for decades with relatively little impact, but in 2003 the demographic challenge, that is, the potential for a near-term majority Arab population and a minority population of Jews west of the [[Jordan river]] brought the binational proposition back to centre stage.

== Binationalism before 1947 ==
Binational proposals for a common Jewish-Arab state in Palestine have existed since at least the 1920s. In 1925, the journalist Robert Weltsch established [[Brit Shalom]] (Covenant of Peace) to promote Jewish-Arab understanding in Palestine. Brit Shalom, which functioned until 1933, stood on a platform of creating "a binational state in which the two peoples will enjoy equal rights as befits the two elements shaping the country's destiny, irrespective of which of the two is numerically superior at any given time" (from their first publication ''Our Aspirations'', 1927). It had a few hundred members, mostly European-born intellectuals like [[Martin Buber]]. The general concept of binationalism was to be adopted by other minority [[Zionism|Zionist]] groups, like [[Hashomer Hatzair]] and [[Mapam]], Kedmah Mizracha, the Ichud and the League for Jewish-Arab Rapprochement.

Before 1947, many leading Jewish intellectuals were firmly convinced that a binational state could be formed through partnership. One of the most prominent and forceful early advocates of binationalism was [[Martin Buber]], a renowned Jewish theologian. In 1939, shortly after he emigrated from [[Germany]] to [[British Mandate of Palestine|British-ruled Palestine]], he replied to a letter by [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who thought that "Palestine belongs to the Arabs" and the Jews "should make that country their home where they were born."{{fact}} Buber rejected this idea but agreed that there had to be a consensus between Jews and Arabs in Palestine. He believed that Jews and Arabs needed to
"develop the land together without one imposing his will on the other". In 1947, he wrote, "we describe our programme as that of a bi-national state - that is, we aim at a social structure based on the reality of two peoples living together... This is what we need and not a "Jewish state"; for any national state in vast, hostile surroundings could mean pre-meditated national suicide."

[[Hannah Arendt]], known for her analyses of [[totalitarianism]] and [[fascism]], also resisted the extremism that she saw as seizing the Zionist movement in 1947. In an article in the May 1948 issue of [[Commentary Magazine|Commentary]], she wrote,

:"A federated state, finally could be the natural stepping stone for any later, greater federated structure in the Near East and the Mediterranean area...The real goal of the Jews in Palestine is the building up of a Jewish homeland. This goal must never be sacrificed to the pseudo-sovereignty of a Jewish state."

In the 1947 UN Special Committee on Palestine Report of Subcommittee Two, three draft solutions to the Palestine conflict are proposed. The third solution called for a unitary democratic state in [[British Mandate of Palestine]]. Another proposal, the Morrison Grady Plan, is a British proposal presented by [[Herbert Morrison]] in July 1946, calling for federalization under overall British Trusteeship. Ultimately, both solutions failed to win the majority of the UN General Assembly.

After the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]] demonstrated international support for the two-state solution, most of the opposition to the concept of a Jewish state, including binationalisms espoused by Martin Buber and Hannah Arendt, evaporated. During this climate change, Arendt also chronicled the sudden repression of dissent in the Zionist movement. After 1947, the official Zionist policy advocated a "[[Jewish state]]".

==Binationalism, 1948-1973==
With the establishment of Israel in May 1948, a binational solution became largely moot when much of Israel's native Arab population was displaced in the ensuing conflict. Some aspects of the binational ideal - such as equal political rights for the remaining Arabs - were granted in principle, but this was limited by the Israeli leadership's determination that the country would have a Jewish majority and political leadership. Successive Israeli governments have pursued a policy of encouraging Jewish immigration to Israel, known as ''[[aliyah]]'', which guaranteed the Jewish majority.

On the Arab side, the idea of a binational solution was generally rejected by the Arab national movement, which saw little to gain from it; the Arab leadership were opposed to their people becoming a minority in what they saw as their own country. From their point of view, the huge influx of Jews from Europe and the Middle East represented a gigantic colonisation project, which many saw as being a recreation of the medieval Crusader kingdoms. The [[Crusades]] were (and still are) an event seared on Arab collective memory, as was their outcome - the defeat of the Crusaders by [[Saladin]] and the subsequent expulsion of the European settlers. A binational solution was not, in other words, something that had any precedent in the Arab history of Palestine.

The binational ideal did not disappear altogether during this period, despite its lack of support, and was given a boost following Israel capturing Gaza from [[Egypt]] and the West Bank from [[Jordan]] in the [[Six Day War]] of 1967. Israel's victory over its neighbours was greeted by euphoria within Israel, but some critical Israeli and foreign observers quickly recognised the new territories had potential to pose a major long-term problem.

In the aftermath of the war, there was considerable debate about what to do next. Should the territories be annexed to Israel? In which case, what would be done with the Palestinians? Should they be given citizenship, although that would significantly dilute Israel's Jewish majority? Could they be expelled ''en masse'', although that would come at a terrible cost to Israel's reputation? Should the territories be returned to Arab rule? In which case, how would Israel's security be guaranteed? In the event, the Israel government fudged the question by implementing the controversial policy of Jewish settlements in the territories, establishing "facts on the ground" while keeping open the question of the Palestinians' long-term fate.

The dilemma prompted some foreign supporters of Israel, such as the crusading American journalist [[I.F. Stone]], to revive the idea of a binational state. This found little favour in Israel or elsewhere and the binational solution tended to be presented not so much as a potential resolution of the conflict as a disastrous outcome risked by Israeli government policies. As early as 1973, the prospect of a binational state was being used by prominent figures on the Israel left to warn against holding on to the territories. [[Histadrut]] Secretary General I. Ben-Aharon, for instance, warned in a March 1973 article for ''The Jerusalem Post'' that Israel could not have any real control over a binational state and that Israelis should be satisfied with a state already containing a sizable Arab minority -- that is, Israel proper.

==Binationalism 1973 - 2002 ==
The outcome of the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]] prompted a fundamental political rethink among the Palestinian leadership. It was realised that Israel's military strength and, crucially, its alliance with the United States made it unlikely that it could be defeated militarily. In December 1974, [[Yasser Arafat]]'s [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO), then regarded as a terrorist group by the Israeli government, declared that a binational state was the only viable solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The change in policy was met with considerable confusion, as it was official PLO policy to replace Israel with a secular and democratic state with a full right of return for all displaced Palestinians, including the Jews who were living in Palestine before 1948. This would effectively have ended Israel's Jewish majority and, by secularising the state, would have weakened its exclusive Jewish character. In short, a binational state on the PLO's terms would mean a different kind of Israel. This prospect is strongly opposed by various sides in Israeli politics.

Despite this, opposition to binationalism was not absolute. Some of those on the Israel right associated with the settler movement were willing to contemplate a binational state as long as it was established on Zionist terms. Members of [[Menachem Begin]]'s [[Likud]] government in the late 1970s were willing to support the idea if it would ensure formal Israeli sovereignty in the West Bank and Gaza. Begin's chief of staff, [[Eliahu Ben-Elissar]], told the ''[[Washington Post]]'' in November 1979 that "we can live with them and they can live with us. I would prefer they were Israeli citizens, but I am not afraid of a binational state. In any case, it will always be a [[Jewish state]] with a large Arab minority."

In the mean time, there were considerable internal dissent in adopting the one state solution on the Palestinian side. The Oslo Accords in 1993 raised the hope for a two-state solution, even though the Accords are rejected by various factions on the Palestinian side, including the [[Hamas]], the [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]] and the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]. The Oslo Accords were never fully adopted and implemented by both sides. After the [[Second Intifada]] in 2000, many believe that the two-state solution is increasingly losing its appeal.

== The Friedlander-Goldscheider study ==
In 1980, [[Hebrew University]] professors Dov Friedlander and Calvin Goldscheider published a highly influential study entitled "The Population of Israel," which concluded that - even allowing for a big increase in Jewish immigration - the high birth rate among Arabs would erode the Jewish majority within a few decades. The two [[demography|demographers]] predicted that the total population of Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza strip would be 6.7 million by 1990, and some 10 million by the year 2010. By that time, the Jewish population could be only 45% of the total. Friedlander and Goldscheider warned that maintaining Israeli rule in the territories would ultimately endanger the Jewish majority in Israel. [[Ariel Sharon]], then Agriculture Minister in Begin's government, rejected this conclusion; he claimed that Jews would make up 64% of the population in Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza strip by the year 2000 if Jewish immigration remained at the rate of about 30,000 a year, although he did not cite any sources for this estimate.

The conclusions of the Friedlander-Goldscheider study soon became a hot political issue between Israel's two main parties, [[Likud]] and [[Labour Party (Israel)|Labour]], in the June 1981 parliamentary elections. Both parties opposed withdrawal to the pre-1967 borders or setting up a Palestinian state, and both supported building more Jewish settlements in the territories and maintaining exclusive Israeli control over Jerusalem. However, Labour argued for building settlements only in areas Israel intended to keep, while handing the rest back to Jordan. Likud was strongly critical of this proposal, claiming that the result would be a binational state spelling "the end of the Zionist endeavour." Many on the left of Israeli politics were already warning that without a clean separation from the Palestinians, the outcome would be either a binational state by default (thus ending Israel's Jewish character) or a South African-style "[[Bantustan]]" with a Jewish minority forcibly ruling a disenfranchised Arab majority (thus ending Israel's claims to be a democracy).

In the event, Begin won the election and announced (in May 1982) a formal policy of "extending state sovereignty ... over Judea, Samaria and the Gaza Strip" accompanied by a major expansion of Jewish settlement and the granting of "full autonomy" to the Palestinians.

On the Palestinian side, the Israeli opposition to a binational state led to another change of position which evolved gradually from the late 1970s onwards. The PLO retained its original option of a single secular binational state west of Jordan, but began to take the position that it was prepared to accept a separate Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza in land from which Israel had withdrawn under [[UN Security Council Resolution 242|Security Council Resolution 242]]. Settlements would need to be dismantled and Palestinian refugees allowed to return (to Israel as well as the new Palestine). This new position, formally adopted in December 1988, was overwhelmingly rejected by Israeli public opinion and the main political parties but was subsequently used as the basis of peace discussions in the 1990s.

== Binationalism since 2003==

Since 2003, there have been renewed interest on binationalism. For example, in 2003, New York University scholar [[Tony Judt]] wrote an article titled "Israel: The Alternative" in the [[New York Review of Books]]. In the article, Judt deemed the two-state solution as fundamentally doomed and unworkable.

Other leftist journalists from Israel, such as Haim Hanegbi and Daniel Gavron, are also calling the public to face the facts and accept the binational solution. This article has engendered a frenzy media blitz in the UK and US. The New York Review of Books received more than one thousand letters per week on the essay. On the Palestinian side, similar voices are raised. In 1999, Edward Said wrote in The End of Peace Process: Oslo and After: "The problem is that Palestinian self-determination in a separate state is unworkable." Several high-level [[Fatah]] Palestinian Authority officials have voiced similar rhetorics, including Prime Minister [[Ahmed Qurei]], Hani Al-Masri. “Time is running out for a two-state solution,” Britain’s [[The Guardian]] newspaper quoted [[Yasser Arafat]] as saying in an interview from his West Bank headquarters in 2004. Many political analysts, including [[Omar Barghouti]], believe that the death of Arafat harbingers the bankruptcy of the [[Oslo Accords]] and the [[Two-State Solution]].

Today, the prominent proponents for the one-state solution include Palestinian lawyer, [[Michael Tarazi]] [http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/sovereign/sover/emerg/2004/1004onetwo.htm *], [[Jeff Halper]] [http://fromoccupiedpalestine.org/node.php?id=772 *], and Israeli writer [[Dan Gavron]] [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=4693 *]. They cite the expansion of the Israeli Settler movement, especially in the West Bank, as a compelling rationale for binationalism and the increased unfeasibility of the two-state alternative. They advocate a secular and democratic state while still maintaining a Jewish presence and culture in the region. They concede that this alternative will erode the dream of Jewish supremacy in terms of governance in the long run.

After the 2006 election of the Palestinian parliament, [[Hamas]] claimed the majority of the parliamentary seats. Hamas rejected the [[Two-State Solution]] in principle. Claiming "Palestine is an Islamic [[Waqf]]", Hamas believe that "it is possible for the members of the three religions: Islam, Christianity and Judaism to coexist in safety and security...only under the shadow of Islam."{{fact}} Facing the Hamas challenge, in June 2006, Palestinian President [[Mahmoud Abbas]] called for a controversial referendum by Palestinians on whether to proceed with negotiations for a two-state solution with Israel.

==Criticisms of the binational solution==

According to [[Alan Dershowitz]], most moderate Israelis and Palestinians alike believe that a binational solution is not only unworkable, but also unwanted. He says that the most obvious problem with the binational solution is that it would destroy the Jewish character of the state of Israel due to the high birth rates among Palestinians living in the occupied territories. Secondly, the idea that the Palestinians and the Israelis could live side by side as equals is a problematic one due to the large economic gap between the two peoples. Critics of the binational solution also cite the ethnic/religious conflicts in the binational states of [[Lebanon]] and the former [[Yugoslavia]] (Dershowitz, 28).

==See also==
* [[Multiculturalism]] - a similar policy adopted by many countries.
* [[Judah Leon Magnes]]
* [[Martin Buber]]
* [[Hannah Arendt]]
* [[Hugo Bergmann]]
* [[Seif Islam Qaddafi proposal]]
* [[Tony Judt]]
* [[Ghada Karmi]]
* [[Two-state solution]]

==References==
* "''Palestine - Divided or United? The Case for a Bi-National Palestine before the United Nations''" by [[M. Reiner]]; [[Herbert Samuel|Lord Samuel]]; [[Ernst Simon|E. Simon]]; [[M. Smilansky]]; [[Judah Leon Magnes]]. [[Ihud]] Jerusalem 1947. Includes submitted written and oral testimony before UNSCOP; IHud's Proposals include: political, immigration, land, development (Reprinted [[Greenwood Press]] Reprint, Westport, CT, 1983, ISBN 0-8371-2617-7)
* [[Dershowitz, Alan|Alan Dershowitz]]. ''The Case for Peace: How the Arab-Israeli Conflict Can Be Resolved''. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.
* [[Hattis, Susan Lee]]. The Binational Idea in Palestine during Mandatory Times. [[Haifa]]: Shikmona, 1970.
* "''Begin Loyalist Given Inside Track for Dayan's Job''", ''Washington Post'', November 14, 1979
* "''[[The Population of Israel]]''", [[Friedlander D.]] and [[Goldscheider C.]], [[Hebrew University]], 1980
* "''Fifteen Years' Successful Conquest Has Wounded Israel's Soul''", ''Washington Post'', June 6, 1982
* "''Demography in the Land of Israel in the Year 2000''", [[Sofer A.]], [[Haifa University]], 1987
* [[Mendes-Flohr, Paul R.]] ''[[A Land of Two Peoples: Martin Buber on Jews and Arabs]]''. [[Gloucester]], Mass: [[Peter Smith]], 1994.
* "''Jewish and Democratic? A Rejoinder to the "Ethnic Democracy" Debate,''" [[Gavison, R.]], ''[[Israel Studies]]'', March 31, 1999
* [[Dan Leon|Leon, Dan]]. ''[[Binationalism]]: A Bridge over the Chasm''. [[Palestine-Israel Journal]], July 31, 1999.
* [[Virginia Tilley|Tilley, Virginia]]. ''The One-State Solution : A Breakthrough for Peace in the Israeli-Palestinian Deadlock'', [[University of Michigan]] Press, May 2005

==External links==
* [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=383879] Haaretz Special Report "Is the two-state solution in danger?" 2004
* [http://www.one-state.org] ONE-STATE.org - a web campaign for one-state in Israel/Palestine, Temporarily Unavailable on June 2006
* ''Putting the Pieces Together?'' a [http://bostonreview.net/ndf.html#Binationalism Forum on Binationalism] in [http://bostonreview.net/ The Boston Review] December 2001/January 2002
*{{cite web | author=Alternative Palestinian Agenda| year=| title=Proposal for an Alternative Configuration in Palestine-Israel | work=Alternative Palestinian Agenda | url=http://www.ap-agenda.org/initiative.htm | accessdate=February 26 | accessyear=2006}}
* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16671] The New York Review of Books: Israel: The Alternative by Tony Judt, October 23, 2003
* [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v25/n21/till01_.html] The London Review of Books: The One-State Solution by Virginia Tilley, November 2003
* [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20031103/lazare] The Nation. The One-State Solution by Daniel Lazare, November 3, 2003
* [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=4100] Ha'aretz. No more two-state solution? by Ari Shavit, August 28, 2003

[[Category:Binational solution|*]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian peace efforts]]

[[eo:Dunacia solvo]]
[[fr:État bi-national]]
[[he:פתרון מדינה אחת]]

Ein-Staat-Lösung

2007-01-09T13:41:39Z

Apeloverage: /* See also */

'''''Binational solution''''' is a term most often used in reference to a proposed resolution of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]. It is also known as the '''One-State Solution''', as opposed to the [[Two-state solution|Two-State Solution]].

Proponents of a binational solution to the conflict advocate a common state in historic [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] shared between [[Jew]]ish and [[Arab]] populations. All of the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] would be annexed to [[Israel]], with their [[Palestinian]] Arab inhabitants given citizenship and an equal status to the Jewish and Arab citizens of present-day Israel. The new state would have a secular character rather than being dominated by [[Judaism]].

The idea is immensely controversial. It has been around for decades with relatively little impact, but in 2003 the demographic challenge, that is, the potential for a near-term majority Arab population and a minority population of Jews west of the [[Jordan river]] brought the binational proposition back to centre stage.

== Binationalism before 1947 ==
Binational proposals for a common Jewish-Arab state in Palestine have existed since at least the 1920s. In 1925, the journalist Robert Weltsch established [[Brit Shalom]] (Covenant of Peace) to promote Jewish-Arab understanding in Palestine. Brit Shalom, which functioned until 1933, stood on a platform of creating "a binational state in which the two peoples will enjoy equal rights as befits the two elements shaping the country's destiny, irrespective of which of the two is numerically superior at any given time" (from their first publication ''Our Aspirations'', 1927). It had a few hundred members, mostly European-born intellectuals like [[Martin Buber]]. The general concept of binationalism was to be adopted by other minority [[Zionism|Zionist]] groups, like [[Hashomer Hatzair]] and [[Mapam]], Kedmah Mizracha, the Ichud and the League for Jewish-Arab Rapprochement.

Before 1947, many leading Jewish intellectuals were firmly convinced that a binational state could be formed through partnership. One of the most prominent and forceful early advocates of binationalism was [[Martin Buber]], a renowned Jewish theologian. In 1939, shortly after he emigrated from [[Germany]] to [[British Mandate of Palestine|British-ruled Palestine]], he replied to a letter by [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who thought that "Palestine belongs to the Arabs" and the Jews "should make that country their home where they were born."{{fact}} Buber rejected this idea but agreed that there had to be a consensus between Jews and Arabs in Palestine. He believed that Jews and Arabs needed to
"develop the land together without one imposing his will on the other". In 1947, he wrote, "we describe our programme as that of a bi-national state - that is, we aim at a social structure based on the reality of two peoples living together... This is what we need and not a "Jewish state"; for any national state in vast, hostile surroundings could mean pre-meditated national suicide."

[[Hannah Arendt]], known for her analyses of [[totalitarianism]] and [[fascism]], also resisted the extremism that she saw as seizing the Zionist movement in 1947. In an article in the May 1948 issue of [[Commentary Magazine|Commentary]], she wrote,

:"A federated state, finally could be the natural stepping stone for any later, greater federated structure in the Near East and the Mediterranean area...The real goal of the Jews in Palestine is the building up of a Jewish homeland. This goal must never be sacrificed to the pseudo-sovereignty of a Jewish state."

In the 1947 UN Special Committee on Palestine Report of Subcommittee Two, three draft solutions to the Palestine conflict are proposed. The third solution called for a unitary democratic state in [[British Mandate of Palestine]]. Another proposal, the Morrison Grady Plan, is a British proposal presented by [[Herbert Morrison]] in July 1946, calling for federalization under overall British Trusteeship. Ultimately, both solutions failed to win the majority of the UN General Assembly.

After the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]] demonstrated international support for the two-state solution, most of the opposition to the concept of a Jewish state, including binationalisms espoused by Martin Buber and Hannah Arendt, evaporated. During this climate change, Arendt also chronicled the sudden repression of dissent in the Zionist movement. After 1947, the official Zionist policy advocated a "[[Jewish state]]".

==Binationalism, 1948-1973==
With the establishment of Israel in May 1948, a binational solution became largely moot when much of Israel's native Arab population was displaced in the ensuing conflict. Some aspects of the binational ideal - such as equal political rights for the remaining Arabs - were granted in principle, but this was limited by the Israeli leadership's determination that the country would have a Jewish majority and political leadership. Successive Israeli governments have pursued a policy of encouraging Jewish immigration to Israel, known as ''[[aliyah]]'', which guaranteed the Jewish majority.

On the Arab side, the idea of a binational solution was generally rejected by the Arab national movement, which saw little to gain from it; the Arab leadership were opposed to their people becoming a minority in what they saw as their own country. From their point of view, the huge influx of Jews from Europe and the Middle East represented a gigantic colonisation project, which many saw as being a recreation of the medieval Crusader kingdoms. The [[Crusades]] were (and still are) an event seared on Arab collective memory, as was their outcome - the defeat of the Crusaders by [[Saladin]] and the subsequent expulsion of the European settlers. A binational solution was not, in other words, something that had any precedent in the Arab history of Palestine.

The binational ideal did not disappear altogether during this period, despite its lack of support, and was given a boost following Israel capturing Gaza from [[Egypt]] and the West Bank from [[Jordan]] in the [[Six Day War]] of 1967. Israel's victory over its neighbours was greeted by euphoria within Israel, but some critical Israeli and foreign observers quickly recognised the new territories had potential to pose a major long-term problem.

In the aftermath of the war, there was considerable debate about what to do next. Should the territories be annexed to Israel? In which case, what would be done with the Palestinians? Should they be given citizenship, although that would significantly dilute Israel's Jewish majority? Could they be expelled ''en masse'', although that would come at a terrible cost to Israel's reputation? Should the territories be returned to Arab rule? In which case, how would Israel's security be guaranteed? In the event, the Israel government fudged the question by implementing the controversial policy of Jewish settlements in the territories, establishing "facts on the ground" while keeping open the question of the Palestinians' long-term fate.

The dilemma prompted some foreign supporters of Israel, such as the crusading American journalist [[I.F. Stone]], to revive the idea of a binational state. This found little favour in Israel or elsewhere and the binational solution tended to be presented not so much as a potential resolution of the conflict as a disastrous outcome risked by Israeli government policies. As early as 1973, the prospect of a binational state was being used by prominent figures on the Israel left to warn against holding on to the territories. [[Histadrut]] Secretary General I. Ben-Aharon, for instance, warned in a March 1973 article for ''The Jerusalem Post'' that Israel could not have any real control over a binational state and that Israelis should be satisfied with a state already containing a sizable Arab minority -- that is, Israel proper.

==Binationalism 1973 - 2002 ==
The outcome of the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]] prompted a fundamental political rethink among the Palestinian leadership. It was realised that Israel's military strength and, crucially, its alliance with the United States made it unlikely that it could be defeated militarily. In December 1974, [[Yasser Arafat]]'s [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO), then regarded as a terrorist group by the Israeli government, declared that a binational state was the only viable solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The change in policy was met with considerable confusion, as it was official PLO policy to replace Israel with a secular and democratic state with a full right of return for all displaced Palestinians, including the Jews who were living in Palestine before 1948. This would effectively have ended Israel's Jewish majority and, by secularising the state, would have weakened its exclusive Jewish character. In short, a binational state on the PLO's terms would mean a different kind of Israel. This prospect is strongly opposed by various sides in Israeli politics.

Despite this, opposition to binationalism was not absolute. Some of those on the Israel right associated with the settler movement were willing to contemplate a binational state as long as it was established on Zionist terms. Members of [[Menachem Begin]]'s [[Likud]] government in the late 1970s were willing to support the idea if it would ensure formal Israeli sovereignty in the West Bank and Gaza. Begin's chief of staff, [[Eliahu Ben-Elissar]], told the ''[[Washington Post]]'' in November 1979 that "we can live with them and they can live with us. I would prefer they were Israeli citizens, but I am not afraid of a binational state. In any case, it will always be a [[Jewish state]] with a large Arab minority."

In the mean time, there were considerable internal dissent in adopting the one state solution on the Palestinian side. The Oslo Accords in 1993 raised the hope for a two-state solution, even though the Accords are rejected by various factions on the Palestinian side, including the [[Hamas]], the [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]] and the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]. The Oslo Accords were never fully adopted and implemented by both sides. After the [[Second Intifada]] in 2000, many believe that the two-state solution is increasingly losing its appeal.

== The Friedlander-Goldscheider study ==
In 1980, [[Hebrew University]] professors Dov Friedlander and Calvin Goldscheider published a highly influential study entitled "The Population of Israel," which concluded that - even allowing for a big increase in Jewish immigration - the high birth rate among Arabs would erode the Jewish majority within a few decades. The two [[demography|demographers]] predicted that the total population of Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza strip would be 6.7 million by 1990, and some 10 million by the year 2010. By that time, the Jewish population could be only 45% of the total. Friedlander and Goldscheider warned that maintaining Israeli rule in the territories would ultimately endanger the Jewish majority in Israel. [[Ariel Sharon]], then Agriculture Minister in Begin's government, rejected this conclusion; he claimed that Jews would make up 64% of the population in Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza strip by the year 2000 if Jewish immigration remained at the rate of about 30,000 a year, although he did not cite any sources for this estimate.

The conclusions of the Friedlander-Goldscheider study soon became a hot political issue between Israel's two main parties, [[Likud]] and [[Labour Party (Israel)|Labour]], in the June 1981 parliamentary elections. Both parties opposed withdrawal to the pre-1967 borders or setting up a Palestinian state, and both supported building more Jewish settlements in the territories and maintaining exclusive Israeli control over Jerusalem. However, Labour argued for building settlements only in areas Israel intended to keep, while handing the rest back to Jordan. Likud was strongly critical of this proposal, claiming that the result would be a binational state spelling "the end of the Zionist endeavour." Many on the left of Israeli politics were already warning that without a clean separation from the Palestinians, the outcome would be either a binational state by default (thus ending Israel's Jewish character) or a South African-style "[[Bantustan]]" with a Jewish minority forcibly ruling a disenfranchised Arab majority (thus ending Israel's claims to be a democracy).

In the event, Begin won the election and announced (in May 1982) a formal policy of "extending state sovereignty ... over Judea, Samaria and the Gaza Strip" accompanied by a major expansion of Jewish settlement and the granting of "full autonomy" to the Palestinians.

On the Palestinian side, the Israeli opposition to a binational state led to another change of position which evolved gradually from the late 1970s onwards. The PLO retained its original option of a single secular binational state west of Jordan, but began to take the position that it was prepared to accept a separate Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza in land from which Israel had withdrawn under [[UN Security Council Resolution 242|Security Council Resolution 242]]. Settlements would need to be dismantled and Palestinian refugees allowed to return (to Israel as well as the new Palestine). This new position, formally adopted in December 1988, was overwhelmingly rejected by Israeli public opinion and the main political parties but was subsequently used as the basis of peace discussions in the 1990s.

== Binationalism since 2003==

Since 2003, there have been renewed interest on binationalism. For example, in 2003, New York University scholar [[Tony Judt]] wrote an article titled "Israel: The Alternative" in the [[New York Review of Books]]. In the article, Judt deemed the two-state solution as fundamentally doomed and unworkable.

Other leftist journalists from Israel, such as Haim Hanegbi and Daniel Gavron, are also calling the public to face the facts and accept the binational solution. This article has engendered a frenzy media blitz in the UK and US. The New York Review of Books received more than one thousand letters per week on the essay. On the Palestinian side, similar voices are raised. In 1999, Edward Said wrote in The End of Peace Process: Oslo and After: "The problem is that Palestinian self-determination in a separate state is unworkable." Several high-level [[Fatah]] Palestinian Authority officials have voiced similar rhetorics, including Prime Minister [[Ahmed Qurei]], Hani Al-Masri. “Time is running out for a two-state solution,” Britain’s [[The Guardian]] newspaper quoted [[Yasser Arafat]] as saying in an interview from his West Bank headquarters in 2004. Many political analysts, including [[Omar Barghouti]], believe that the death of Arafat harbingers the bankruptcy of the [[Oslo Accords]] and the [[Two-State Solution]].

Today, the prominent proponents for the one-state solution include Palestinian lawyer, [[Michael Tarazi]] [http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/sovereign/sover/emerg/2004/1004onetwo.htm *], [[Jeff Halper]] [http://fromoccupiedpalestine.org/node.php?id=772 *], and Israeli writer [[Dan Gavron]] [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=4693 *]. They cite the expansion of the Israeli Settler movement, especially in the West Bank, as a compelling rationale for binationalism and the increased unfeasibility of the two-state alternative. They advocate a secular and democratic state while still maintaining a Jewish presence and culture in the region. They concede that this alternative will erode the dream of Jewish supremacy in terms of governance in the long run.

After the 2006 election of the Palestinian parliament, [[Hamas]] claimed the majority of the parliamentary seats. Hamas rejected the [[Two-State Solution]] in principle. Claiming "Palestine is an Islamic [[Waqf]]", Hamas believe that "it is possible for the members of the three religions: Islam, Christianity and Judaism to coexist in safety and security...only under the shadow of Islam."{{fact}} Facing the Hamas challenge, in June 2006, Palestinian President [[Mahmoud Abbas]] called for a controversial referendum by Palestinians on whether to proceed with negotiations for a two-state solution with Israel.

==Criticisms of the binational solution==

According to [[Alan Dershowitz]], most moderate Israelis and Palestinians alike believe that a binational solution is not only unworkable, but also unwanted. He says that the most obvious problem with the binational solution is that it would destroy the Jewish character of the state of Israel due to the high birth rates among Palestinians living in the occupied territories. Secondly, the idea that the Palestinians and the Israelis could live side by side as equals is a problematic one due to the large economic gap between the two peoples. Critics of the binational solution also cite the ethnic/religious conflicts in the binational states of [[Lebanon]] and the former [[Yugoslavia]] (Dershowitz, 28).

==See also==
* [[Multiculturalism]] - a similar policy adopted by many countries.
* [[Judah Leon Magnes]]
* [[Martin Buber]]
* [[Hannah Arendt]]
* [[Hugo Bergmann]]
* [['ichud|’ichūdh]]
* [[Seif Islam Qaddafi proposal]]
* [[Tony Judt]]
* [[Ghada Karmi]]
* [[Two-state solution]]

==References==
* "''Palestine - Divided or United? The Case for a Bi-National Palestine before the United Nations''" by [[M. Reiner]]; [[Herbert Samuel|Lord Samuel]]; [[Ernst Simon|E. Simon]]; [[M. Smilansky]]; [[Judah Leon Magnes]]. [[Ihud]] Jerusalem 1947. Includes submitted written and oral testimony before UNSCOP; IHud's Proposals include: political, immigration, land, development (Reprinted [[Greenwood Press]] Reprint, Westport, CT, 1983, ISBN 0-8371-2617-7)
* [[Dershowitz, Alan|Alan Dershowitz]]. ''The Case for Peace: How the Arab-Israeli Conflict Can Be Resolved''. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.
* [[Hattis, Susan Lee]]. The Binational Idea in Palestine during Mandatory Times. [[Haifa]]: Shikmona, 1970.
* "''Begin Loyalist Given Inside Track for Dayan's Job''", ''Washington Post'', November 14, 1979
* "''[[The Population of Israel]]''", [[Friedlander D.]] and [[Goldscheider C.]], [[Hebrew University]], 1980
* "''Fifteen Years' Successful Conquest Has Wounded Israel's Soul''", ''Washington Post'', June 6, 1982
* "''Demography in the Land of Israel in the Year 2000''", [[Sofer A.]], [[Haifa University]], 1987
* [[Mendes-Flohr, Paul R.]] ''[[A Land of Two Peoples: Martin Buber on Jews and Arabs]]''. [[Gloucester]], Mass: [[Peter Smith]], 1994.
* "''Jewish and Democratic? A Rejoinder to the "Ethnic Democracy" Debate,''" [[Gavison, R.]], ''[[Israel Studies]]'', March 31, 1999
* [[Dan Leon|Leon, Dan]]. ''[[Binationalism]]: A Bridge over the Chasm''. [[Palestine-Israel Journal]], July 31, 1999.
* [[Virginia Tilley|Tilley, Virginia]]. ''The One-State Solution : A Breakthrough for Peace in the Israeli-Palestinian Deadlock'', [[University of Michigan]] Press, May 2005

==External links==
* [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=383879] Haaretz Special Report "Is the two-state solution in danger?" 2004
* [http://www.one-state.org] ONE-STATE.org - a web campaign for one-state in Israel/Palestine, Temporarily Unavailable on June 2006
* ''Putting the Pieces Together?'' a [http://bostonreview.net/ndf.html#Binationalism Forum on Binationalism] in [http://bostonreview.net/ The Boston Review] December 2001/January 2002
*{{cite web | author=Alternative Palestinian Agenda| year=| title=Proposal for an Alternative Configuration in Palestine-Israel | work=Alternative Palestinian Agenda | url=http://www.ap-agenda.org/initiative.htm | accessdate=February 26 | accessyear=2006}}
* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16671] The New York Review of Books: Israel: The Alternative by Tony Judt, October 23, 2003
* [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v25/n21/till01_.html] The London Review of Books: The One-State Solution by Virginia Tilley, November 2003
* [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20031103/lazare] The Nation. The One-State Solution by Daniel Lazare, November 3, 2003
* [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=4100] Ha'aretz. No more two-state solution? by Ari Shavit, August 28, 2003

[[Category:Binational solution|*]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian peace efforts]]

[[eo:Dunacia solvo]]
[[fr:État bi-national]]
[[he:פתרון מדינה אחת]]

Frank Furedi

2006-12-24T07:49:55Z

Apeloverage: removed dead link.

'''Frank Furedi''' (born 1947 in [[Hungary]]) is professor of [[sociology]] at the [[University of Kent]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]. Under the pseudonym '''Frank Richards''', he was the founder and chairman of the [[Revolutionary Communist Party (Furedi)|Revolutionary Communist Party]] (RCP) of [[Great Britain]], a [[left-wing]] political party which was expelled from the [[International Socialists]] in the 1970s, styling itself as the Revolutionary Opposition. He is the husband of [[Ann Furedi]], the Chief Executive of BPAS, the UK's largest independent [[abortion]] provider.

Furedi's family emigrated from Hungary to [[Canada]] after the failed [[1956 Hungarian Revolution|1956 uprising]]. He has lived in [[Britain]] since the [[1970s]].

The RCP published a newspaper ''The Next Step'' throughout the [[1980s]] and the magazine ''[[Living Marxism]]'' (later relaunched as "''LM''") in the [[1990s]]. Still under Furedi's guidance, the ex-RCP came to concentrate on anti-[[imperialism|imperialist]] and [[anti-statist]] traditions in [[Marxism]].

He is associated with the on-line journal Spiked-online. Furedi maintains that society and universities are undergoing a politically driven dumbing down process which is manifest in society's growing inability to understand and assess the meaning of risk. The rise of the environmental and green movements parallels society's growing obsession with risk which has become a commodity that some organisations are using to further their objectives.

Furedi's academic work was initially devoted to a study of imperialism and race relations– his books on the subject include ''The Mau-Mau war in Perspective'', ''The New Ideology of Imperialism'' and ''The Silent War: Imperialism and the Changing Perception of Race''. In recent years his work has been oriented towards exploring the sociology of risk.

Furedi is frequently quoted in the media as an expert on how some Western societies have become obsessed with risk. He writes regularly for ''[[Spiked (magazine)|Spiked Online]]''. He has also written several books on the subject of risk, offering a counterpoint to the analyses of [[Anthony Giddens]] and [[Ulrich Beck]], including ''Paranoid Parenting'', ''Therapy Culture'', and ''Culture of Fear''.

He wrote an article about risk culture post September 11, one of several publications from the charity [[Global Futures]].

During his LM / RCP days, he addressed meetings and wrote under the pseudonym of Frank Richards.
Frank Furedi is a Distinguished Supporter of the [[British Humanist Association]].

==Bibliography==
===As sole author===
*''[[The Soviet Union Demystified: A Materialist Analysis]]''
*:Junius Publications, [[1986]] (ISBN 0-948392-05-3)
*''[[The Mau Mau War in Perspective]]''
*:James Currey Publishers, [[1989]] (ISBN 0-85255-052-9)
*''[[Mythical Past, Elusive Future: History and Society in an Anxious Age]]''
*:Pluto Press, [[1991]] (ISBN 0-7453-0531-8)
*''[[The New Ideology of Imperialism: Renewing the Moral Imperative]]''
*:Pluto Press, [[1994]] (ISBN 0-7453-0846-5)
*''[[Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third World Nationalism]]''
*:IB Tauris, [[1994]] (ISBN 1-85043-784-X)
*''[[Culture of Fear: Risk Taking and the Morality of Low Expectation]]''
*:Continuum International Publishing Group, [[1997]] (ISBN 0-304-33751-X)
**Revised edition
**:Continuum International Publishing Group, [[2002]] (ISBN 0-8264-7616-3)
*''[[Population and Development: A Critical Introduction]]''
*:Palgrave Macmillan, [[1997]] (ISBN 0-312-17658-9)
*''[[The Silent War: Imperialism and the Changing Perception of Race]]''
*:Pluto Press, [[1998]] (ISBN 0-7453-1303-5)
*''[[Courting Mistrust: The Hidden Growth of a Culture of Litigation in Britain]]''
*:[[Centre for Policy Studies]], [[1999]] (ISBN 1-897969-95-3)
*''[[Paranoid Parenting: Abandon Your Anxieties and Be a Good Parent]]''
*:Allen Lane, [[2001]] (ISBN 0-7139-9488-6)
**Revised edition
**:''Paranoid Parenting: Why Ignoring the Experts May Be Best for Your Child''
**:A Cappella Publishing, [[2002]] (ISBN 1-55652-464-1)
*''[[Therapy Culture: Cultivating Vulnerability in an Uncertain Age]]''
*:[[Routledge]], [[2003]] (ISBN 0-415-32159-X)
*''[[Where Have All the Intellectuals Gone?: Confronting Twenty-First Century Philistinism]]''
*:Continuum International Publishing Group, [[2004]] (ISBN 0-8264-6769-5)
*''[[The Politics of Fear. Beyond Left and Right]]''
*:Continuum International Publishing Group, [[2005]] (ISBN 0-8264-8728-9)

===As coauthor/contributor===
*''Ideology and Superstructure in Historical Materialism''
*:By Franz Jakubowski
*:[[Translation|Translated]] by Anne Booth
*:[[Introduction]] by Frank Furedi
*:Pluto Press, [[1990]] (ISBN 0-7453-0389-7)
*''Emergencies and Disorder in the European Empires After 1945''
*:[[Editing|Edited]] by Robert Holland
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'Creating a breathing space: the political management of colonial emergencies' by Frank Furedi
*:Frank Cass Publishers, [[1994]] (ISBN 0-7146-4109-X)
*''Has History Ended?: Fukuyama, Marx, Modernity''
*:[[Editing|Edited]] by Christopher Bertram and Andrew Chitty
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'The enthronement of low expectations: Fukuyama's ideological compromise for our time' by Frank Furedi
*:Avebury, [[1994]] (ISBN 1-85628-959-1)
*''The Concise International Encyclopedia of Business and Management''
*:[[Editing|Edited]] by Malcolm Warner
*:Entry 'Futurology' by Frank Furedi
*:Thomson Learning, [[1996]] (ISBN 1-86152-114-6)
*''Globalisation and the South''
*:Edited by Caroline Thomas and Peter Wilkin
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'The moral condemnation of the South' by Frank Furedi
*:Palgrave Macmillan, [[1997]] (ISBN 0-312-17564-7)
*''Disconnected: Ageing in an Alien World''
*:By Tracey Brown and Frank Furedi
*:Reconnecting, [[1997]] (ISBN 1-902105-00-1)
*''The International Encyclopedia of Business and Management Handbook of Management Thinking''
*:Edited by Malcolm Warner
*:Entry 'Alvin Toffler' by Frank Furedi
*:Thomson Learning, [[1998]] (ISBN 1-86152-632-6)
*''Environmental Health: Third World Problems, First World Preoccupations''
*:Edited by Roger Bate and Lorraine Mooney
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'A sociology of health panics' by Frank Furedi
*:Butterworth-Heinemann, [[1998]] (ISBN 0-7506-4223-8)
*''Another Country''
*:Edited by Digby Anderson and Michael Mosbacher
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] '"Not people like us": what modern Britons have against country people' by Frank Furedi
*:Social Affairs Unit, [[1999]] (ISBN 0-907631-83-5)
*''Mistaken Identities: The Second Wave of Controversy over 'Political Correctness'''
*:Edited by Scott Davies, Cyril Levitt and Neil McLaughlin
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'The new etiquette' by Frank Furedi
*:Peter Lang Publishing, [[1999]] (ISBN 0-8204-4137-6)
*''Guardians of Empire: The Armed Forces of the Colonial Powers, c1700-1964''
*:Edited by David Killingray and David Omissi
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'The demobilised African soldier and the blow to white prestige' by Frank Furedi
*:Manchester University Press, [[1999]] (ISBN 0-7190-5735-3)
*''The Imaginary Time Bomb: Why an Ageing Population Is Not a Social Problem''
*:By Phil Mullan
*:[[Foreword]] by Frank Furedi
*:IB Tauris, [[1999]] (ISBN 1-86064-778-2)
*''Health Promotion: New Discipline or Multi-Discipline?''
*:Edited by Ricca Edmondson and Cecily Kelleher
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'Reproductive health or population control?' by Frank Furedi
*:Irish Academic Press, [[2000]] (ISBN 0-7165-2711-1)
*''How Claims Spread: Cross-National Diffusion of Social Problems''
*:Edited by Joel Best
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'Bullying: the British contribution to the construction of a social problem' by Frank Furedi
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'The evolution of road rage in Britain and the United States' by Joel Best and Frank Furedi
*:Aldine/Transaction, [[2001]] (ISBN 0-202-30654-2)
*''Rethinking Mixed Race''
*:Edited by David Parker and Miri Song
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'How sociology imagined mixed race' by Frank Furedi
*:Pluto Press, [[2001]] (ISBN 0-7453-1567-4)
*''Democracy and Participation: New Social Movements in Liberal Democracies''
*:Edited by Gary Taylor and Malcolm Todd
*:[[Foreword]] by Frank Furedi
*:Merlin Press, [[2003]] (ISBN 0-85036-538-4)
*''The McDonaldisation of Higher Education''
*:Edited by Dennis Hayes and Robin Wynyard
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'The bureaucratisation of the British university' by Frank Furedi
*:Greenwood Press, [[2002]] (ISBN 0-89789-856-7)
*''Always On, Changing Britain''
*:Edited by Graham Mather
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] [title?] by Frank Furedi
*:European Media Forum, [[2004]] (ISBN 1-903850-14-2)
*''The RoutledgeFalmer Guide to Key Debates in Education''
*:Edited by Dennis Hayes
*:[[Chapter (books)|Chapter]] 'The formalisation of relationships in education' by Frank Furedi
*:RoutledgeFalmer, [[2004]] (ISBN 0-415-33244-3)
==External links==
*[http://www.frankfuredi.com Frank Furedi Official Website]
*[http://www.frankfuredi.com/news/sumoffears-20050806.shtml Interview: The Sum of Our Fears]
*{{sourcewatch|id=Frank_Furedi|page=Frank Furedi}}
*{{sourcewatch|id=LM_group|page=LM group}}
*{{sourcewatch|id=Revolutionary_Communist_Party|page=Revolutionary Communist Party}}
*[http://www.gmwatch.org/profile1.asp?PrId=78 Living Marxism profile], GM Watch
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,341053,00.html Life after Living Marxism: Banning the bans], David Pallister, John Vidal and Kevin Maguire, ''Guardian''
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1102753,00.html Invasion of the Entryists], George Monbiot, ''Guardian''
*[http://www.spiked-online.com/ Spiked Online]
*[http://www.readysteadybook.com/Article.aspx?page=furedi Interview with ReadySteadyBook]

[[Category:1948 births|Furedi, Frank]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Kent|Furedi, Frank]]
[[Category:British humanists|Furedi, Frank]]
[[Category:Hungarian writers|Furedi, Frank]]
[[Category:Living people|Furedi, Frank]]
[[Category:Political writers|Furedi, Frank]]
[[Category:Sociologists|Furedi, Frank]]

Parti Rhinocéros

2006-11-12T08:43:58Z

Apeloverage:

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! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: larger;" | '''Rhinoceros Party of Canada'''
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
| colspan="2" {{Canadian politics/party colours/Rhino}}|
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|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
| colspan="2" {{Canadian politics/party colours/Rhino}}|
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ''{{Infobox Canada Political Party/defunct}} {{Infobox Canada Political Party/fed}} Party''
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
{{Infobox Canada Political Party/defunct/lifespan|
foundation=1963|
dissolution=1993|
}}
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
{{Infobox Canada Political Party/defunct/lifespan/leader|
leader=[[Cornelius the First]]|
president=|
headquarters=|
}}
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
| colspan="2" {{Canadian politics/party colours/Rhino}}|
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
|'''Political ideology'''
| [[satire|satirical]], [[Joke political party|frivolous]], [[animals as electoral candidates]]
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
|'''Colours'''
|
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
| colspan="2" {{Canadian politics/party colours/Rhino}}|
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
|'''Seats'''
| 0
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
|'''Website'''
| none, but see [http://rhino.raindogmedia.com/ Official Rhino comeback website]
|- style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"
| colspan="2" {{Canadian politics/party colours/Rhino}}|
|}

The '''Parti Rhinocéros''', commonly known as the '''Rhinoceros Party''' in [[English language|English]], was a registered political party in [[Canada]] from the 1960s to the 1990s. Operating within the Canadian tradition of political [[satire]], the Rhinoceros Party's basic credo, their so-called primal promise, was "a promise to keep none of our promises." They then promised outlandishly impossible schemes designed to amuse and entertain the voting public.

The Rhinos were started in 1963 by [[Jacques Ferron]], "Éminence de la Grande Corne du parti Rhinoceros". In the 1970s, a group of artists joined the party and created a comedic [[political platform]] to contest the federal election. Ferron (1979), poet [[Gaston Miron]] (1972) and singer [[Michel Rivard]] (1980) ran against [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Pierre Trudeau]] in his [[Montreal]] seat.

The party, which claimed to be the spiritual descendants of Cacareco, a [[Brazil]]ian [[rhinoceros]] who was [[Animals_as_electoral_candidates#Examples|elected member]] of [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]]'s [[city council]] in the 1950s, listed [[Cornelius the First]], a rhinoceros from the [[Granby Zoo]], east of Montreal, as its leader. The party claimed that the rhinoceros was an appropriate symbol for a political party since politicians, by nature, are "thick-skinned, slow-moving, dim-witted, can move fast as hell when in danger, and have large, hairy horns growing out of the middle of their faces."

==Rhinoceros Party platform==

Bryan Gold of the Rhinoceros Party described the party [[political platform|platform]] as two feet high and made of wood. "My platform is the one I'm standing on." A candidate named Ted "not so" Sharp ran in [[Flora MacDonald]]'s [[Ontario]] riding with the campaign slogan "[[Fauna (animals)|Fauna]], not [[flora (plants)|flora]]", promising to give fauna equal representation. Sharp's platform on the controversial abortion issue was clear: "If elected, I promise to never have an [[abortion]]." In the 1984 election the Rhonocerous party ran a candidate named John Turner in the same riding as the leader of the national Liberal Party leader, John Turner, and received an unusually high number of votes. Party member (and singer) Michel Rivard once went on TV (during free air time given to political parties) and stated: "I have but two things to say to you: Celery and Sidewalk. Thank you, good night."

Other platform promises released by the Rhinoceros Party included:
* repealing the law of [[gravity]],
* reducing the speed of light because it's much too fast,
* paving [[Manitoba]] to create the world's largest [[parking lot]],
* providing higher education by building taller schools,
* instituting [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[illiteracy]] as Canada's three official [[language]]s,
* offering to retrain those constituents who want to become illiterate by enrolling them in a state [[education]]al institution,
* tearing down the [[Rocky Mountains]] so that [[Alberta|Albertans]] could see the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] sunset, or moving them one metre west as a make-work project,
* legalising [[pot]]. And pans. And spatulas. And other kitchen utensils,
* building sloping roads and bicycle paths across the country so that Canadians could "coast from coast to coast",
* making all sidewalks out of rubber to prevent inebriated people from hurting themselves when they fall down
* responding to the energy crisis, reducing energy costs for transportation by moving the cities of [[Montréal]] 50km west and [[Toronto]] 50km east,
* abolishing pumping oil out of the ground as that oil is there to keep the earth moving smoothly on its axis and if you withdraw the oil, the whole thing will grind to a halt,
* abolishing the environment because it's too hard to keep clean and it takes up so much space,
* annexing the United States, which would take its place as the third territory, after the [[Yukon]] and the [[Northwest Territories]] ([[Nunavut]] did not yet exist) in Canada's backyard, in order to raise the mean temperature of Canada by one degree Celsius,
* replacing the Canadian Armed Forces with clones of [[Vladislav Tretiak]],
* end crime by abolishing all laws
* making bubble gum the national currency, so that it could be [[inflation|inflated]] or deflated at will,
* breeding a mosquito that would only hatch in January so that "the little buggers will freeze to death",
* turning Montreal's [[Saint Catherine Street]] into the world's longest bowling alley,
* adopting the [[Great Britain|British]] system of driving on the left; this was to be gradually phased in over five years with large trucks first, then buses, eventually including small cars and bicycles last,
* as an energy-saving idea, putting larger wheels on the back of all cars so that they will always be going downhill,
* selling the [[Canadian Senate]] at an antique auction in California,
* putting the national debt on Visa,
* declaring war on [[Belgium]] because a Belgian cartoon character, [[The Adventures of Tintin|Tintin]], killed a rhinoceros in one of the cartoons,
* offering to call off the proposed Belgium-Canada war if Belgium delivered a case of mussels and a case of Belgian beer to Rhinoceros "Hindquarters" in Montréal (the Belgian Embassy in Ottawa ''did'', in fact, do this),
* painting Canada's coastal sea limits so that Canadian fish would know where they were at all times,
* counting the [[Thousand Islands]] to make sure none were missing,
* running [http://www.walnet.org/csis/news/toronto_94/to_life-9408.html Penny Hoar] on a [[safe sex]] platform in Toronto,
* running more than one candidate per riding as an MP's salary is certainly enough to support more than one person,
* exploiting [[acid rain]] as an electrical energy source by placing dissimilar-metal [[electrode]]s in Canadian swimming pools in order to use them as batteries,
* making Canadians stronger by putting [[steroids]] in the water,
* banning lousy Canadian winters,
* moving the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] to [[Saint-Bruno-de-Montarville, Quebec]] to promote tourism,
* putting the [[West Edmonton Mall]] on wheels and rolling it to areas of the country suffering from economic depression,
* turning the [[Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine]] tunnel in Montreal into a free carwash by poking holes in the ceiling,
* transforming the [[Stade_Olympique|Montreal Olympic Stadium]] into a gigantic [[beluga]] aquarium,
* drafting the Queen mother to sew up the hole in the ozone layer
* building giant domes over several conservative neighbourhoods to keep the dinosaurs, both real and political, in.
* annexing Greenland and creating a [[cartel]] with other northern nations in order to sell icebergs to the Saudis; the cartel would be called "Snopec",
* digging a canal from coast to coast, by hand, to reduce unemployment; and then, leveling the Rocky Mountains and using the canal to transport the material east to fill in the Great Lakes, in order to expand Canada's landmass.

The Rhino Party also declared that, should they somehow actually win an election, they would immediately dissolve and force a second election.

A [[British Columbia]] splinter group proposed running a professional [[dominatrix]] for the position of [[party whip]], renaming "British Columbia" to "La La Land", moving the provincial capital, and merging with the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative Party]] so as "not to split the silly vote."

The Rhinoceros Party never succeeded in winning a seat in [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]]. In the [[Canadian federal election, 1984|1984 federal election]], however, the party won the fourth-largest number of votes, after the three main political parties, but ahead of several well-established minor parties. Rhino candidates sometimes came in second in certain [[ridings]], humiliating traditional Canadian parties in the process. In the [[Canadian federal election, 1980|1980 federal election]], for instance, the Rhinoceros party nominated a professional clown/comedian named Sonia "Chatouille" Côté ('chatouille' means tickles in French) in the Laurier riding in Montréal. Côté came in second place, after the successful [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] candidate, but ahead of both other major parties: the third place [[New Democratic Party|New Democrat]], and the fourth-place Progressive Conservative candidate. Chatouille received almost twice as many votes as the PC candidate.

Early in the party's history, when it was mainly composed of French-speaking Québécois, they chose as their official translator a party member who was the only unilingual anglophone party member at the time.

Although not recognized in the United States, former baseball pitcher [[Bill Lee (MLB pitcher)|Bill Lee]] ran for President of the United States in 1988 on the Rhinoceros Party ticket.

==Political successors==

The party abstained from the [[Canadian federal election, 1993|1993 federal election]] while they questioned the constitutionality of new rules that required the party to run candidates in at least 50 ridings at a cost of $1,000 per candidature. On [[September 23]], [[1993]], Canada's [[Chief Electoral Officer (Canada)|Chief Electoral Officer]], [[Jean-Pierre Kingsley]], refused to accept the party's abstention and ordered the removal of the Rhinoceros Party from the Registry of Canadian Political Parties, effectively eliminating them from the Canadian political system.

Kingsley also directed the party's official agent, Charlie (le Concierge) McKenzie, to liquidate all party assets and return any revenues to the Receiver General of Canada. On instructions from the party, McKenzie refused. After two years of threatening letters, Ottawa refused to prosecute McKenzie, who now claims to hold the distinction of being Canada's "least-wanted fugitive".

[[François Gourd]], a prominent Rhino, later started another political movement, the [[entartistes]]. The entartistes attracted attention in the 1990s by planting cream pies in the faces of various Canadian politicians.

Other Rhinoceros Party members founded the [[Parti citron]] (Lemon Party), which attempted to bring a similar perspective to provincial politics in Quebec, with much less success.

Since the party's dissolution, a number of independent election candidates have informally claimed the Rhinoceros Party label even though the party itself no longer existed. There have also been a number of unsuccessful attempts to revive the Rhinos as a legally incorporated political party.

In 2001, Brian "Godzilla" Salmi, who received his nickname because of the [[Godzilla]] suit he wore while campaigning, tried to revive the Rhinoceros Party to contest the [[British Columbia general election, 2001|British Columbia provincial election]]. While they pulled some pranks that earned some media coverage, only two of their candidates (Liar Liar - Vancouver Mt. Pleasant and Helvis - Vancouver Burrard) appeared on the ballots, as the party claimed the $100 candidate registration fee was a financial hardship. Unregistered candidates included [[Geoff Berner]] who received national wire service coverage for promising "cocaine and whores to potential investors." The party disbanded shortly thereafter.

In the late 1990's the newly formed Green Rhino Party ran a single candidate, named ''Luke Warmwater'', in the provincial election. The main election promise was to remove the letter s from [[Parksville]] and turn it into a parking lot for downtown [[Victoria]] (located a few hundred miles south).

More recently, the [[Absolutely Absurd Party]] has attempted to revive the traditions of political satire that the Rhinoceros Party originated. This new group, however, was related to the Rhinos only in spirit.

In 2006, a group set up the [[Neo Rhino Party]] in an attempt to recapture the Rhinoceros Party spirit.

=== Electoral results ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Election
! # of candidates nominated
! # of seats won
! # of total votes
! % of popular vote
|-
! [[Canadian federal election, 1965|1965]]
| <center> 1
| <center> 0
| <center> 321
| <center> 0.00%
|-
! [[Canadian federal election, 1968|1968]]
| <center> 2
| <center> 0
| <center> 5,802
| <center> 0.07%
|-
! [[Canadian federal election, 1972|1972]] (1)
| <center> 1
| <center> 0
| <center> 1,565
| <center> 0.02%
|-
! [[Canadian federal election, 1979|1979]]
| <center> 63
| <center> 0
| <center> 62,601
| <center> 0.55%
|-
! [[Canadian federal election, 1980|1980]]
| <center> 121
| <center> 0
| <center> 110,286
| <center> 1.01%
|-
! [[Canadian federal election, 1984|1984]]
| <center> 88
| <center> 0
| <center> 98,171
| <center> 0.78%
|-
! [[Canadian federal election, 1988|1988]]
| <center> 74
| <center> 0
| <center> 52,173
| <center> 0.40%
|}

'''Note:'''

(1) The Rhinoceros Party ran 12 candidates in the 1972 election, but was not recognized as a registered party by Elections Canada, and therefore its candidates were listed as independents. (Source: ''[[Toronto Star]]'', October 31, 1972.)

==See also==
* [[List of frivolous political parties]]
* [[Independent Rhinoceros candidates, 1997 Canadian federal election]]

== External links ==
* [http://rhino.raindogmedia.com/ Website of a new attempt to revive the Rhinoceros Party]
* [http://north.cbc.ca/regional/servlet/View?filename=yuk-rhinocourt06082004 Yukon Rhino taking election rejection to court]

[[Category:Federal political parties in Canada]]
[[Category:Joke political parties]]

[[fr:Parti Rhinocéros]]
[[pl:Kanadyjska Partia Nosorożców]]
[[Category:1963 establishments]]
[[Category:1993 establishments]]

Keith Windschuttle

2006-08-19T14:56:13Z

Apeloverage:

'''Keith Windschuttle''' (born [[1942]]) is an [[Australia]]n writer who is the author of several books, including ''Unemployment'' (1979) which criticises media treatments of unemployment and advocates a socialist response, ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', a critical analysis of the media from a largely Marxist perspective, ''The Killing of History'' (1994), which is a critique of postmodernism in history, ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'' (2002) which accuses a number of Australian historians of falsifying and inventing the degree of violence in the past, and ''The White Australia Policy'' (2004), which argues that left-wing academic historians have exaggerated the degree of racism in Australian history.

After education at [[Canterbury Boys High School]] (where he was a contemporary of conservative politician [[John Howard]]), Windschuttle was a journalist on newspapers and magazines in Sydney. He completed a BA (first class honours in history) at the [[University of Sydney]] in [[1969]], and an MA (honours in politics) at [[Macquarie University]] in [[1978]]. In [[1973]], he became tutor in Australian history at the [[University of New South Wales]] (UNSW). Between [[1977]] and [[1981]], Windschuttle was lecturer in Australian history and in journalism at the New South Wales Institute of Technology, now [[University of Technology, Sydney]] before returning to UNSW in [[1983]] as lecturer/senior lecturer in social policy. He resigned from UNSW in 1993. Since then he has been publisher of Macleay Press and a regular visiting and guest lecturer on history and [[historiography]] at American universities. In June 2006 he was appointed to the Board of the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC), Australia's non-commercial public broadcaster.

A [[Marxism|Marxist]] until the 1980s, Windschuttle has moved sharply to the right. His personal website [http://www.sydneyline.com] carries advertisements only for his more recent, right-wing books. However, he does not appear to have repudiated his earlier work in general, or to have indicated which parts, if any, he stands by.

This political evolution has continued since the early 1990s. In ''The Killing of History'', Windschuttle defended the of practices and methods of traditional empirical history against postmodernism, and praised left-wing historians such as [[Henry Reynolds]]. He currently argues that although at the time he believed that those 'left-wing' historians whom he praised relied on traditional empirically-oriented approaches, he has subsequently discovered that some did not. Subsequently, he has adopted an overtly polemical position, attacking Reynolds and others and freely mixing political and empirical arguments.
His primary 'political argument', evident in "The Killing of History" and his later work, is that some historians, both on the left and the right of the political spectrum, have manipulated, misrepresented and sometimes fabricated the historical evidence in order to produce versions of 'history' that support various political 'causes'. Windschuttle argues that the task of the historian is to attempt to provide the reader with an 'empirical' history, as near to the 'objective truth' as possible, based on analysis of all the available evidence. The political implications of an objective, empirical history are not the empirical historian's responsibility. A historian may have his or her own political beliefs but they should never lead them to falsifying the historical evidence.

A frequent contributor to socio-political magazines ''[[Quadrant]]'' and ''[[The New Criterion]]'', Windschuttle's recent research disputes whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread genocide against the [[Indigenous Australians]] and denies the claims by some [[left-wing]] historians that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Extensive debate on his claims has come to be called the [[History Wars]]. He rebuts assertions, which he imputes to the current generation of academic historians, that there was any resemblance between racial attitudes in Australia and those of [[South Africa]] under [[apartheid]] and [[Germany]] under the [[Nazism|Nazis]].

==See For Comparison==

* [[David Horowitz (conservative writer)|David Horowitz]] like Windschuttle, an intellectual who was formerly an active left-winger and is now an active right-winger.

==Major publications==
* ''Unemployment: a Social and Political Analysis of the Economic Crisis in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1979]])
* ''Fixing the News'', Cassell, ([[1981]])
* ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1984]], 3rd edn. [[1988]])
* ''Working in the Arts'', University of Queensland Press, ([[1986]])
* ''Local Employment Initiatives: Integrating Social Labour Market and Economic Objectives for Innovative Job Creation'', Australian Government Publishing Service, ([[1987]])
* ''Writing, Researching Communicating'', McGraw-Hill, ([[1988]], 3rd edn. [[1999]])
* ''The Killing of History: How a Discipline is being Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists'', Macleay Press, Sydney ([[1994]]); Macleay Press, Michigan ([[1996]]); Free Press, New York ([[1997]]); Encounter Books, San Francisco ([[2000]])
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Macleay Press, ([[2002]])
* ''The White Australia Policy'', Macleay Press, ([[2004]])

==External link==
*[http://www.sydneyline.com/Real%20Stuff%20of%20History.htm The Real Stuff of History]

[[Category:1942 births|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Living people|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian academics|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:People from Sydney|Windschuttle, Keith]]

Keith Windschuttle

2006-08-19T14:52:33Z

Apeloverage: /* See For Comparison */

'''Keith Windschuttle''' (born [[1942]]) is an [[Australia]]n writer who is the author of several books, including ''Unemployment'' (1979) which criticises media treatments of unemployment and advocates a socialist response, ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', a critical analysis of the media from a largely Marxist perspective, ''The Killing of History'' (1994), which is a critique of postmodernism in history, ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'' (2002) which accuses a number of Australian historians of falsifying and inventing the degree of violence in the past, and ''The White Australia Policy'' (2004), which argues that left-wing academic historians have exaggerated the degree of racism in Australian history.

After education at [[Canterbury Boys High School]] (where he was a contemporary of conservative politician [[John Howard]]), Windschuttle was a journalist on newspapers and magazines in Sydney. He completed a BA (first class honours in history) at the [[University of Sydney]] in [[1969]], and an MA (honours in politics) at [[Macquarie University]] in [[1978]]. In [[1973]], he became tutor in Australian history at the [[University of New South Wales]] (UNSW). Between [[1977]] and [[1981]], Windschuttle was lecturer in Australian history and in journalism at the New South Wales Institute of Technology, now [[University of Technology, Sydney]] before returning to UNSW in [[1983]] as lecturer/senior lecturer in social policy. He resigned from UNSW in 1993. Since then he has been publisher of Macleay Press and a regular visiting and guest lecturer on history and [[historiography]] at American universities. In June 2006 he was appointed to the Board of the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC), Australia's non-commercial public broadcaster.

A [[Marxism|Marxist]] until the 1980s, Windschuttle has moved sharply to the right. His personal website [http://www.sydneyline.com] carries advertisements only for his more recent, right-wing books. However, he does not appear to have repudiated his earlier work in general, or to have indicated which parts, if any, he stands by.

This political evolution has continued since the early 1990s. In ''The Killing of History'', Windschuttle defended the of practices and methods of traditional empirical history against postmodernism, and praised left-wing historians such as [[Henry Reynolds]]. He currently argues that although at the time he believed that those 'left-wing' historians whom he praised relied on traditional empirically-oriented approaches, he has subsequently discovered that some did not. Subsequently, he has adopted an overtly polemical position, attacking Reynolds and others and freely mixing political and empirical arguments.
His primary 'political argument', evident in "The Killing of History" and his later work, is that some historians, both on the left and the right of the political spectrum, have manipulated, misrepresented and sometimes fabricated the historical evidence in order to produce versions of 'history' that support various political 'causes'. Windschuttle argues that the task of the historian is to attempt to provide the reader with an 'empirical' history, as near to the 'objective truth' as possible, based on analysis of all the available evidence. The political implications of an objective, empirical history are not the empirical historian's responsibility. A historian may have his or her own political beliefs but they should never lead them to falsifying the historical evidence.

A frequent contributor to socio-political magazines ''[[Quadrant]]'' and ''[[The New Criterion]]'', Windschuttle's recent research disputes whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread genocide against the [[Indigenous Australians]] and denies the claims by some [[left-wing]] historians that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Extensive debate on his claims has come to be called the [[History Wars]]. He rebuts assertions, which he imputes to the current generation of academic historians, that there was any resemblance between racial attitudes in Australia and those of [[South Africa]] under [[apartheid]] and [[Germany]] under the [[Nazism|Nazis]].

==See For Comparison==

* [[David Horowitz (conservative writer)|David Horowitz]] like Windschuttle, a former left-wing and now right-wing activist.

==Major publications==
* ''Unemployment: a Social and Political Analysis of the Economic Crisis in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1979]])
* ''Fixing the News'', Cassell, ([[1981]])
* ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1984]], 3rd edn. [[1988]])
* ''Working in the Arts'', University of Queensland Press, ([[1986]])
* ''Local Employment Initiatives: Integrating Social Labour Market and Economic Objectives for Innovative Job Creation'', Australian Government Publishing Service, ([[1987]])
* ''Writing, Researching Communicating'', McGraw-Hill, ([[1988]], 3rd edn. [[1999]])
* ''The Killing of History: How a Discipline is being Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists'', Macleay Press, Sydney ([[1994]]); Macleay Press, Michigan ([[1996]]); Free Press, New York ([[1997]]); Encounter Books, San Francisco ([[2000]])
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Macleay Press, ([[2002]])
* ''The White Australia Policy'', Macleay Press, ([[2004]])

==External link==
*[http://www.sydneyline.com/Real%20Stuff%20of%20History.htm The Real Stuff of History]

[[Category:1942 births|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Living people|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian academics|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:People from Sydney|Windschuttle, Keith]]

Keith Windschuttle

2006-08-19T14:51:57Z

Apeloverage: /* See For Comparison */

'''Keith Windschuttle''' (born [[1942]]) is an [[Australia]]n writer who is the author of several books, including ''Unemployment'' (1979) which criticises media treatments of unemployment and advocates a socialist response, ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', a critical analysis of the media from a largely Marxist perspective, ''The Killing of History'' (1994), which is a critique of postmodernism in history, ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'' (2002) which accuses a number of Australian historians of falsifying and inventing the degree of violence in the past, and ''The White Australia Policy'' (2004), which argues that left-wing academic historians have exaggerated the degree of racism in Australian history.

After education at [[Canterbury Boys High School]] (where he was a contemporary of conservative politician [[John Howard]]), Windschuttle was a journalist on newspapers and magazines in Sydney. He completed a BA (first class honours in history) at the [[University of Sydney]] in [[1969]], and an MA (honours in politics) at [[Macquarie University]] in [[1978]]. In [[1973]], he became tutor in Australian history at the [[University of New South Wales]] (UNSW). Between [[1977]] and [[1981]], Windschuttle was lecturer in Australian history and in journalism at the New South Wales Institute of Technology, now [[University of Technology, Sydney]] before returning to UNSW in [[1983]] as lecturer/senior lecturer in social policy. He resigned from UNSW in 1993. Since then he has been publisher of Macleay Press and a regular visiting and guest lecturer on history and [[historiography]] at American universities. In June 2006 he was appointed to the Board of the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC), Australia's non-commercial public broadcaster.

A [[Marxism|Marxist]] until the 1980s, Windschuttle has moved sharply to the right. His personal website [http://www.sydneyline.com] carries advertisements only for his more recent, right-wing books. However, he does not appear to have repudiated his earlier work in general, or to have indicated which parts, if any, he stands by.

This political evolution has continued since the early 1990s. In ''The Killing of History'', Windschuttle defended the of practices and methods of traditional empirical history against postmodernism, and praised left-wing historians such as [[Henry Reynolds]]. He currently argues that although at the time he believed that those 'left-wing' historians whom he praised relied on traditional empirically-oriented approaches, he has subsequently discovered that some did not. Subsequently, he has adopted an overtly polemical position, attacking Reynolds and others and freely mixing political and empirical arguments.
His primary 'political argument', evident in "The Killing of History" and his later work, is that some historians, both on the left and the right of the political spectrum, have manipulated, misrepresented and sometimes fabricated the historical evidence in order to produce versions of 'history' that support various political 'causes'. Windschuttle argues that the task of the historian is to attempt to provide the reader with an 'empirical' history, as near to the 'objective truth' as possible, based on analysis of all the available evidence. The political implications of an objective, empirical history are not the empirical historian's responsibility. A historian may have his or her own political beliefs but they should never lead them to falsifying the historical evidence.

A frequent contributor to socio-political magazines ''[[Quadrant]]'' and ''[[The New Criterion]]'', Windschuttle's recent research disputes whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread genocide against the [[Indigenous Australians]] and denies the claims by some [[left-wing]] historians that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Extensive debate on his claims has come to be called the [[History Wars]]. He rebuts assertions, which he imputes to the current generation of academic historians, that there was any resemblance between racial attitudes in Australia and those of [[South Africa]] under [[apartheid]] and [[Germany]] under the [[Nazism|Nazis]].

==See For Comparison==

* [[David Horowitz]] like Windschuttle, a former left-wing and now right-wing activist.

==Major publications==
* ''Unemployment: a Social and Political Analysis of the Economic Crisis in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1979]])
* ''Fixing the News'', Cassell, ([[1981]])
* ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1984]], 3rd edn. [[1988]])
* ''Working in the Arts'', University of Queensland Press, ([[1986]])
* ''Local Employment Initiatives: Integrating Social Labour Market and Economic Objectives for Innovative Job Creation'', Australian Government Publishing Service, ([[1987]])
* ''Writing, Researching Communicating'', McGraw-Hill, ([[1988]], 3rd edn. [[1999]])
* ''The Killing of History: How a Discipline is being Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists'', Macleay Press, Sydney ([[1994]]); Macleay Press, Michigan ([[1996]]); Free Press, New York ([[1997]]); Encounter Books, San Francisco ([[2000]])
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Macleay Press, ([[2002]])
* ''The White Australia Policy'', Macleay Press, ([[2004]])

==External link==
*[http://www.sydneyline.com/Real%20Stuff%20of%20History.htm The Real Stuff of History]

[[Category:1942 births|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Living people|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian academics|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:People from Sydney|Windschuttle, Keith]]

Keith Windschuttle

2006-08-19T14:51:39Z

Apeloverage:

'''Keith Windschuttle''' (born [[1942]]) is an [[Australia]]n writer who is the author of several books, including ''Unemployment'' (1979) which criticises media treatments of unemployment and advocates a socialist response, ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', a critical analysis of the media from a largely Marxist perspective, ''The Killing of History'' (1994), which is a critique of postmodernism in history, ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'' (2002) which accuses a number of Australian historians of falsifying and inventing the degree of violence in the past, and ''The White Australia Policy'' (2004), which argues that left-wing academic historians have exaggerated the degree of racism in Australian history.

After education at [[Canterbury Boys High School]] (where he was a contemporary of conservative politician [[John Howard]]), Windschuttle was a journalist on newspapers and magazines in Sydney. He completed a BA (first class honours in history) at the [[University of Sydney]] in [[1969]], and an MA (honours in politics) at [[Macquarie University]] in [[1978]]. In [[1973]], he became tutor in Australian history at the [[University of New South Wales]] (UNSW). Between [[1977]] and [[1981]], Windschuttle was lecturer in Australian history and in journalism at the New South Wales Institute of Technology, now [[University of Technology, Sydney]] before returning to UNSW in [[1983]] as lecturer/senior lecturer in social policy. He resigned from UNSW in 1993. Since then he has been publisher of Macleay Press and a regular visiting and guest lecturer on history and [[historiography]] at American universities. In June 2006 he was appointed to the Board of the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC), Australia's non-commercial public broadcaster.

A [[Marxism|Marxist]] until the 1980s, Windschuttle has moved sharply to the right. His personal website [http://www.sydneyline.com] carries advertisements only for his more recent, right-wing books. However, he does not appear to have repudiated his earlier work in general, or to have indicated which parts, if any, he stands by.

This political evolution has continued since the early 1990s. In ''The Killing of History'', Windschuttle defended the of practices and methods of traditional empirical history against postmodernism, and praised left-wing historians such as [[Henry Reynolds]]. He currently argues that although at the time he believed that those 'left-wing' historians whom he praised relied on traditional empirically-oriented approaches, he has subsequently discovered that some did not. Subsequently, he has adopted an overtly polemical position, attacking Reynolds and others and freely mixing political and empirical arguments.
His primary 'political argument', evident in "The Killing of History" and his later work, is that some historians, both on the left and the right of the political spectrum, have manipulated, misrepresented and sometimes fabricated the historical evidence in order to produce versions of 'history' that support various political 'causes'. Windschuttle argues that the task of the historian is to attempt to provide the reader with an 'empirical' history, as near to the 'objective truth' as possible, based on analysis of all the available evidence. The political implications of an objective, empirical history are not the empirical historian's responsibility. A historian may have his or her own political beliefs but they should never lead them to falsifying the historical evidence.

A frequent contributor to socio-political magazines ''[[Quadrant]]'' and ''[[The New Criterion]]'', Windschuttle's recent research disputes whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread genocide against the [[Indigenous Australians]] and denies the claims by some [[left-wing]] historians that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Extensive debate on his claims has come to be called the [[History Wars]]. He rebuts assertions, which he imputes to the current generation of academic historians, that there was any resemblance between racial attitudes in Australia and those of [[South Africa]] under [[apartheid]] and [[Germany]] under the [[Nazism|Nazis]].

==See For Comparison==

* [David Horowitz] like Windschuttle, a former left-wing and now right-wing activist.

==Major publications==
* ''Unemployment: a Social and Political Analysis of the Economic Crisis in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1979]])
* ''Fixing the News'', Cassell, ([[1981]])
* ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1984]], 3rd edn. [[1988]])
* ''Working in the Arts'', University of Queensland Press, ([[1986]])
* ''Local Employment Initiatives: Integrating Social Labour Market and Economic Objectives for Innovative Job Creation'', Australian Government Publishing Service, ([[1987]])
* ''Writing, Researching Communicating'', McGraw-Hill, ([[1988]], 3rd edn. [[1999]])
* ''The Killing of History: How a Discipline is being Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists'', Macleay Press, Sydney ([[1994]]); Macleay Press, Michigan ([[1996]]); Free Press, New York ([[1997]]); Encounter Books, San Francisco ([[2000]])
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Macleay Press, ([[2002]])
* ''The White Australia Policy'', Macleay Press, ([[2004]])

==External link==
*[http://www.sydneyline.com/Real%20Stuff%20of%20History.htm The Real Stuff of History]

[[Category:1942 births|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Living people|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian academics|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:People from Sydney|Windschuttle, Keith]]

Keith Windschuttle

2006-08-19T10:32:20Z

Apeloverage: /* See Also */

'''Keith Windschuttle''' (born [[1942]]) is an [[Australia]]n writer who is the author of several books, including ''Unemployment'' (1979) which criticises media treatments of unemployment and advocates a socialist response, ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', a critical analysis of the media from a largely Marxist perspective, ''The Killing of History'' (1994), which is a critique of postmodernism in history, ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'' (2002) which accuses a number of Australian historians of falsifying and inventing the degree of violence in the past, and ''The White Australia Policy'' (2004), which argues that left-wing academic historians have exaggerated the degree of racism in Australian history.

After education at [[Canterbury Boys High School]] (where he was a contemporary of conservative politician [[John Howard]]), Windschuttle was a journalist on newspapers and magazines in Sydney. He completed a BA (first class honours in history) at the [[University of Sydney]] in [[1969]], and an MA (honours in politics) at [[Macquarie University]] in [[1978]]. In [[1973]], he became tutor in Australian history at the [[University of New South Wales]] (UNSW). Between [[1977]] and [[1981]], Windschuttle was lecturer in Australian history and in journalism at the New South Wales Institute of Technology, now [[University of Technology, Sydney]] before returning to UNSW in [[1983]] as lecturer/senior lecturer in social policy. He resigned from UNSW in 1993. Since then he has been publisher of Macleay Press and a regular visiting and guest lecturer on history and [[historiography]] at American universities. In June 2006 he was appointed to the Board of the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC), Australia's non-commercial public broadcaster.

A [[Marxism|Marxist]] until the 1980s, Windschuttle has moved sharply to the right. His personal website [http://www.sydneyline.com] carries advertisements only for his more recent, right-wing books. However, he does not appear to have repudiated his earlier work in general, or to have indicated which parts, if any, he stands by.

This political evolution has continued since the early 1990s. In ''The Killing of History'', Windschuttle defended the of practices and methods of traditional empirical history against postmodernism, and praised left-wing historians such as [[Henry Reynolds]]. He currently argues that although at the time he believed that those 'left-wing' historians whom he praised relied on traditional empirically-oriented approaches, he has subsequently discovered that some did not. Subsequently, he has adopted an overtly polemical position, attacking Reynolds and others and freely mixing political and empirical arguments.
His primary 'political argument', evident in "The Killing of History" and his later work, is that some historians, both on the left and the right of the political spectrum, have manipulated, misrepresented and sometimes fabricated the historical evidence in order to produce versions of 'history' that support various political 'causes'. Windschuttle argues that the task of the historian is to attempt to provide the reader with an 'empirical' history, as near to the 'objective truth' as possible, based on analysis of all the available evidence. The political implications of an objective, empirical history are not the empirical historian's responsibility. A historian may have his or her own political beliefs but they should never lead them to falsifying the historical evidence.

A frequent contributor to socio-political magazines ''[[Quadrant]]'' and ''[[The New Criterion]]'', Windschuttle's recent research disputes whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread genocide against the [[Indigenous Australians]] and denies the claims by some [[left-wing]] historians that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Extensive debate on his claims has come to be called the [[History Wars]]. He rebuts assertions, which he imputes to the current generation of academic historians, that there was any resemblance between racial attitudes in Australia and those of [[South Africa]] under [[apartheid]] and [[Germany]] under the [[Nazism|Nazis]].

==Major publications==
* ''Unemployment: a Social and Political Analysis of the Economic Crisis in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1979]])
* ''Fixing the News'', Cassell, ([[1981]])
* ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1984]], 3rd edn. [[1988]])
* ''Working in the Arts'', University of Queensland Press, ([[1986]])
* ''Local Employment Initiatives: Integrating Social Labour Market and Economic Objectives for Innovative Job Creation'', Australian Government Publishing Service, ([[1987]])
* ''Writing, Researching Communicating'', McGraw-Hill, ([[1988]], 3rd edn. [[1999]])
* ''The Killing of History: How a Discipline is being Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists'', Macleay Press, Sydney ([[1994]]); Macleay Press, Michigan ([[1996]]); Free Press, New York ([[1997]]); Encounter Books, San Francisco ([[2000]])
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Macleay Press, ([[2002]])
* ''The White Australia Policy'', Macleay Press, ([[2004]])

==See Also==

* [[Christopher Hitchens]]
* [[David Horowitz]]

Both former leftists, who like Windschuttle have active right-wingers.

==External link==
*[http://www.sydneyline.com/Real%20Stuff%20of%20History.htm The Real Stuff of History]

[[Category:1942 births|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Living people|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian academics|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:People from Sydney|Windschuttle, Keith]]

Keith Windschuttle

2006-08-19T10:31:57Z

Apeloverage: /* External link */

'''Keith Windschuttle''' (born [[1942]]) is an [[Australia]]n writer who is the author of several books, including ''Unemployment'' (1979) which criticises media treatments of unemployment and advocates a socialist response, ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', a critical analysis of the media from a largely Marxist perspective, ''The Killing of History'' (1994), which is a critique of postmodernism in history, ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'' (2002) which accuses a number of Australian historians of falsifying and inventing the degree of violence in the past, and ''The White Australia Policy'' (2004), which argues that left-wing academic historians have exaggerated the degree of racism in Australian history.

After education at [[Canterbury Boys High School]] (where he was a contemporary of conservative politician [[John Howard]]), Windschuttle was a journalist on newspapers and magazines in Sydney. He completed a BA (first class honours in history) at the [[University of Sydney]] in [[1969]], and an MA (honours in politics) at [[Macquarie University]] in [[1978]]. In [[1973]], he became tutor in Australian history at the [[University of New South Wales]] (UNSW). Between [[1977]] and [[1981]], Windschuttle was lecturer in Australian history and in journalism at the New South Wales Institute of Technology, now [[University of Technology, Sydney]] before returning to UNSW in [[1983]] as lecturer/senior lecturer in social policy. He resigned from UNSW in 1993. Since then he has been publisher of Macleay Press and a regular visiting and guest lecturer on history and [[historiography]] at American universities. In June 2006 he was appointed to the Board of the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC), Australia's non-commercial public broadcaster.

A [[Marxism|Marxist]] until the 1980s, Windschuttle has moved sharply to the right. His personal website [http://www.sydneyline.com] carries advertisements only for his more recent, right-wing books. However, he does not appear to have repudiated his earlier work in general, or to have indicated which parts, if any, he stands by.

This political evolution has continued since the early 1990s. In ''The Killing of History'', Windschuttle defended the of practices and methods of traditional empirical history against postmodernism, and praised left-wing historians such as [[Henry Reynolds]]. He currently argues that although at the time he believed that those 'left-wing' historians whom he praised relied on traditional empirically-oriented approaches, he has subsequently discovered that some did not. Subsequently, he has adopted an overtly polemical position, attacking Reynolds and others and freely mixing political and empirical arguments.
His primary 'political argument', evident in "The Killing of History" and his later work, is that some historians, both on the left and the right of the political spectrum, have manipulated, misrepresented and sometimes fabricated the historical evidence in order to produce versions of 'history' that support various political 'causes'. Windschuttle argues that the task of the historian is to attempt to provide the reader with an 'empirical' history, as near to the 'objective truth' as possible, based on analysis of all the available evidence. The political implications of an objective, empirical history are not the empirical historian's responsibility. A historian may have his or her own political beliefs but they should never lead them to falsifying the historical evidence.

A frequent contributor to socio-political magazines ''[[Quadrant]]'' and ''[[The New Criterion]]'', Windschuttle's recent research disputes whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread genocide against the [[Indigenous Australians]] and denies the claims by some [[left-wing]] historians that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Extensive debate on his claims has come to be called the [[History Wars]]. He rebuts assertions, which he imputes to the current generation of academic historians, that there was any resemblance between racial attitudes in Australia and those of [[South Africa]] under [[apartheid]] and [[Germany]] under the [[Nazism|Nazis]].

==Major publications==
* ''Unemployment: a Social and Political Analysis of the Economic Crisis in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1979]])
* ''Fixing the News'', Cassell, ([[1981]])
* ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1984]], 3rd edn. [[1988]])
* ''Working in the Arts'', University of Queensland Press, ([[1986]])
* ''Local Employment Initiatives: Integrating Social Labour Market and Economic Objectives for Innovative Job Creation'', Australian Government Publishing Service, ([[1987]])
* ''Writing, Researching Communicating'', McGraw-Hill, ([[1988]], 3rd edn. [[1999]])
* ''The Killing of History: How a Discipline is being Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists'', Macleay Press, Sydney ([[1994]]); Macleay Press, Michigan ([[1996]]); Free Press, New York ([[1997]]); Encounter Books, San Francisco ([[2000]])
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Macleay Press, ([[2002]])
* ''The White Australia Policy'', Macleay Press, ([[2004]])

==See Also==

[[Christopher Hitchens]]
[[David Horowitz]]

Both former leftists, who like Windschuttle have active right-wingers.

==External link==
*[http://www.sydneyline.com/Real%20Stuff%20of%20History.htm The Real Stuff of History]

[[Category:1942 births|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Living people|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian academics|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:People from Sydney|Windschuttle, Keith]]

Australian League of Rights

2006-05-08T12:26:33Z

Apeloverage:

{{unreferenced|article}}

''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] that claims to uphold the virtues of [[freedom]]. It is not a political party, but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League strongly denies that a [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews. The League is distinctive for asserting that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' is a genuine Jewish document (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for example describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League claims to be based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]], whilst they have also been accused of being associated with the Australian National Socialist Party. They also have strong connections to the [[One Nation Party]] and [[National Action]].

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a multi-year struggle, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

==See also==
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2006-05-08T12:25:04Z

Apeloverage: NPOV language.

{{unreferenced|article}}

''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a minor political organisation in [[Australia]] that claims to uphold the virtues of [[freedom]]. It is not a political party, but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League strongly denies that a [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews. These beliefs are largely born of the trust they place in ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League claims to be based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]], whilst they have also been accused of being associated with the Australian National Socialist Party. They also have strong connections to the [[One Nation Party]] and [[National Action]].

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a multi-year struggle, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

==See also==
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2006-05-08T12:24:42Z

Apeloverage:

{{unreferenced|article}}

''League of Rights'' redirects here. For the British group, see ''[[British League of Rights]]''

'''The Australian League of Rights''' is a fringe political organisation in [[Australia]] that claims to uphold the virtues of [[freedom]]. It is not a political party, but rather sees itself as a watchdog against government intervention.

The League strongly denies that a [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]] occurred during [[World War II]] in which millions of people, particularly [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jews]] were killed, and is strongly supportive of the [[polemicist]] [[David Irving]]. They believe that the world is run by a secret society of Jews. These beliefs are largely born of the trust they place in ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' (the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] describes the Protocols as a "fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century").

The League was formed in 1960 by a merger of various Leagues of Rights based in the Australian states, the first of which was based in [[South Australia]] from 1946.

The League claims to be based on the principles of [[Christianity]] and is vehement in its [[anti-communism]]. They argue in favour of [[capitalism]] by promoting the sanctity of private property and individual enterprise. They are keen promoters of [[Social Credit]]. They are strongly [[monarchist]] and completely opposed to [[Australian republicanism]] and see the links to [[Great Britain]] as being fundamental to Australian identity.

Critics have pointed to the past participation of the League in the [[World Anti Communist League]] alongside [[Right|right wing]] figures such as [[Augusto Pinochet]], whilst they have also been accused of being associated with the Australian National Socialist Party. They also have strong connections to the [[One Nation Party]] and [[National Action]].

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the League attempted to gain control of the [[National Party of Australia]] by getting people to join the National Party in sufficient numbers to outvote non-League members. (This tactic is sometimes called [[entryism]]). [[Doug Anthony]] led an effort to defend the Party from the League by recruiting people who would vote against the League. After a multi-year struggle, the existing leadership prevailed. A surprising consequence of this struggle was that the National Party, which got far fewer votes than either the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] or [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] parties, had more members. This fact became much more widely known than the reason for it, because both sides kept the struggle out of the media.

==See also==
*[[David Irving]]
*[[Social credit]]

== External links==
* [http://www.alor.org/Library1.htm Australian League of Rights website]

[[Category:Holocaust denial]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Social Credit]]

[[Category:Monarchist parties]]

Australian League of Rights

2006-05-08T12:24:21Z

Apeloverage:

Keith Windschuttle

2006-04-10T10:03:34Z

Apeloverage: /* See Also */

'''Keith Windschuttle''' (born [[1942]]) is an [[Australia]]n historian and journalist who is the author of several books, including ''Unemployment'' (1979) which criticises media treatments of unemployment and advocates a socialist response, ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', a critical analysis of the media from a largely Marxist perspective, ''The Killing of History'' (1994), which is a critique of postmodernism in history, ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'' (2002) which accuses a number of Australian historians of falsifying and inventing the degree of violence in the past, and ''The White Australia Policy'' (2004), which argues that left-wing academic historians have exaggerated the degree of racism in Australian history.

After education at [[Canterbury Boys High School]], Windschuttle was a journalist on newspapers and magazines in Sydney. He completed a BA (first class honours in history) at the [[University of Sydney]] in [[1969]], and an MA (honours in politics) at [[Macquarie University]] in [[1978]]. In [[1973]], he became tutor in Australian history at the [[University of New South Wales]] (UNSW). Between [[1977]] and [[1981]], Windschuttle was lecturer in Australian history and in journalism at the New South Wales Institute of Technology, now [[University of Technology, Sydney]] before returning to UNSW in [[1983]] as lecturer/senior lecturer in social policy. He resigned from UNSW in 1993. Since then he has been publisher of Macleay Press and a regular visiting and guest lecturer on history and [[historiography]] at American universities.

A [[Marxism|Marxist]] until the 1980s, Windschuttle has moved sharply to the right. His personal website [http://www.sydneyline.com] carries advertisements only for his more recent, right-wing books. However, he does not appear to have repudiated his earlier work in general, or to have indicated which parts, if any, he stands by.

This political evolution has continued since the early 1990s. In ''The Killing of History'', Windschuttle defended the of practices and methods of traditional empirical history against postmodernism, and praised left-wing historians such as [[Henry Reynolds]] who relied on traditional empirically-oriented approaches. Subsequently, he has adopted an overtly polemical position, attacking Reynolds and others and freely mixing political and empirical arguments.

A frequent contributor to socio-political magazines ''[[Quadrant]]'' and ''[[The New Criterion]]'', Windschuttle's recent research disputes whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread genocide against the [[Indigenous Australians]] and denies the claims by some [[left-wing]] historians that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Extensive debate on his claims has come to be called the [[History Wars]]. He rebuts assertions, which he imputes to the current generation of academic historians, that there was any resemblance between racial attitudes in Australia and those of [[South Africa]] under [[apartheid]] and [[Germany]] under the [[Nazism|Nazis]].

==Major publications==
* ''Unemployment: a Social and Political Analysis of the Economic Crisis in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1979]])
* ''Fixing the News'', Cassell, ([[1981]])
* ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1984]], 3rd edn. [[1988]])
* ''Working in the Arts'', University of Queensland Press, ([[1986]])
* ''Local Employment Initiatives: Integrating Social Labour Market and Economic Objectives for Innovative Job Creation'', Australian Government Publishing Service, ([[1987]])
* ''Writing, Researching Communicating'', McGraw-Hill, ([[1988]], 3rd edn. [[1999]])
* ''The Killing of History: How a Discipline is being Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists'', Macleay Press, Sydney ([[1994]]); Macleay Press, Michigan ([[1996]]); Free Press, New York ([[1997]]); Encounter Books, San Francisco ([[2000]])
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Macleay Press, ([[2002]])
* ''The White Australia Policy'', Macleay Press, ([[2004]])

==See Also==

For comparison, see also [[Christopher Hitchens]], another former left-wing intellectual who has become a committed right-winger.

==External link==
*[http://www.sydneyline.com/Real%20Stuff%20of%20History.htm The Real Stuff of History]

[[Category:1942 births|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Living people|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian academics|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian historians|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:People of Sydney|Windschuttle, Keith]]

{{Australia-writer-stub}}

Keith Windschuttle

2006-04-10T10:02:53Z

Apeloverage: /* See Also */

'''Keith Windschuttle''' (born [[1942]]) is an [[Australia]]n historian and journalist who is the author of several books, including ''Unemployment'' (1979) which criticises media treatments of unemployment and advocates a socialist response, ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', a critical analysis of the media from a largely Marxist perspective, ''The Killing of History'' (1994), which is a critique of postmodernism in history, ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'' (2002) which accuses a number of Australian historians of falsifying and inventing the degree of violence in the past, and ''The White Australia Policy'' (2004), which argues that left-wing academic historians have exaggerated the degree of racism in Australian history.

After education at [[Canterbury Boys High School]], Windschuttle was a journalist on newspapers and magazines in Sydney. He completed a BA (first class honours in history) at the [[University of Sydney]] in [[1969]], and an MA (honours in politics) at [[Macquarie University]] in [[1978]]. In [[1973]], he became tutor in Australian history at the [[University of New South Wales]] (UNSW). Between [[1977]] and [[1981]], Windschuttle was lecturer in Australian history and in journalism at the New South Wales Institute of Technology, now [[University of Technology, Sydney]] before returning to UNSW in [[1983]] as lecturer/senior lecturer in social policy. He resigned from UNSW in 1993. Since then he has been publisher of Macleay Press and a regular visiting and guest lecturer on history and [[historiography]] at American universities.

A [[Marxism|Marxist]] until the 1980s, Windschuttle has moved sharply to the right. His personal website [http://www.sydneyline.com] carries advertisements only for his more recent, right-wing books. However, he does not appear to have repudiated his earlier work in general, or to have indicated which parts, if any, he stands by.

This political evolution has continued since the early 1990s. In ''The Killing of History'', Windschuttle defended the of practices and methods of traditional empirical history against postmodernism, and praised left-wing historians such as [[Henry Reynolds]] who relied on traditional empirically-oriented approaches. Subsequently, he has adopted an overtly polemical position, attacking Reynolds and others and freely mixing political and empirical arguments.

A frequent contributor to socio-political magazines ''[[Quadrant]]'' and ''[[The New Criterion]]'', Windschuttle's recent research disputes whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread genocide against the [[Indigenous Australians]] and denies the claims by some [[left-wing]] historians that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Extensive debate on his claims has come to be called the [[History Wars]]. He rebuts assertions, which he imputes to the current generation of academic historians, that there was any resemblance between racial attitudes in Australia and those of [[South Africa]] under [[apartheid]] and [[Germany]] under the [[Nazism|Nazis]].

==Major publications==
* ''Unemployment: a Social and Political Analysis of the Economic Crisis in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1979]])
* ''Fixing the News'', Cassell, ([[1981]])
* ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1984]], 3rd edn. [[1988]])
* ''Working in the Arts'', University of Queensland Press, ([[1986]])
* ''Local Employment Initiatives: Integrating Social Labour Market and Economic Objectives for Innovative Job Creation'', Australian Government Publishing Service, ([[1987]])
* ''Writing, Researching Communicating'', McGraw-Hill, ([[1988]], 3rd edn. [[1999]])
* ''The Killing of History: How a Discipline is being Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists'', Macleay Press, Sydney ([[1994]]); Macleay Press, Michigan ([[1996]]); Free Press, New York ([[1997]]); Encounter Books, San Francisco ([[2000]])
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Macleay Press, ([[2002]])
* ''The White Australia Policy'', Macleay Press, ([[2004]])

==See Also==

For comparison, see also [[Christopher Hitchens]], also a former left-wing intellectual who has become a committed right-winger.

==External link==
*[http://www.sydneyline.com/Real%20Stuff%20of%20History.htm The Real Stuff of History]

[[Category:1942 births|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Living people|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian academics|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian historians|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:People of Sydney|Windschuttle, Keith]]

{{Australia-writer-stub}}

Keith Windschuttle

2006-04-10T10:02:32Z

Apeloverage: /* See Also */

'''Keith Windschuttle''' (born [[1942]]) is an [[Australia]]n historian and journalist who is the author of several books, including ''Unemployment'' (1979) which criticises media treatments of unemployment and advocates a socialist response, ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', a critical analysis of the media from a largely Marxist perspective, ''The Killing of History'' (1994), which is a critique of postmodernism in history, ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'' (2002) which accuses a number of Australian historians of falsifying and inventing the degree of violence in the past, and ''The White Australia Policy'' (2004), which argues that left-wing academic historians have exaggerated the degree of racism in Australian history.

After education at [[Canterbury Boys High School]], Windschuttle was a journalist on newspapers and magazines in Sydney. He completed a BA (first class honours in history) at the [[University of Sydney]] in [[1969]], and an MA (honours in politics) at [[Macquarie University]] in [[1978]]. In [[1973]], he became tutor in Australian history at the [[University of New South Wales]] (UNSW). Between [[1977]] and [[1981]], Windschuttle was lecturer in Australian history and in journalism at the New South Wales Institute of Technology, now [[University of Technology, Sydney]] before returning to UNSW in [[1983]] as lecturer/senior lecturer in social policy. He resigned from UNSW in 1993. Since then he has been publisher of Macleay Press and a regular visiting and guest lecturer on history and [[historiography]] at American universities.

A [[Marxism|Marxist]] until the 1980s, Windschuttle has moved sharply to the right. His personal website [http://www.sydneyline.com] carries advertisements only for his more recent, right-wing books. However, he does not appear to have repudiated his earlier work in general, or to have indicated which parts, if any, he stands by.

This political evolution has continued since the early 1990s. In ''The Killing of History'', Windschuttle defended the of practices and methods of traditional empirical history against postmodernism, and praised left-wing historians such as [[Henry Reynolds]] who relied on traditional empirically-oriented approaches. Subsequently, he has adopted an overtly polemical position, attacking Reynolds and others and freely mixing political and empirical arguments.

A frequent contributor to socio-political magazines ''[[Quadrant]]'' and ''[[The New Criterion]]'', Windschuttle's recent research disputes whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread genocide against the [[Indigenous Australians]] and denies the claims by some [[left-wing]] historians that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Extensive debate on his claims has come to be called the [[History Wars]]. He rebuts assertions, which he imputes to the current generation of academic historians, that there was any resemblance between racial attitudes in Australia and those of [[South Africa]] under [[apartheid]] and [[Germany]] under the [[Nazism|Nazis]].

==Major publications==
* ''Unemployment: a Social and Political Analysis of the Economic Crisis in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1979]])
* ''Fixing the News'', Cassell, ([[1981]])
* ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1984]], 3rd edn. [[1988]])
* ''Working in the Arts'', University of Queensland Press, ([[1986]])
* ''Local Employment Initiatives: Integrating Social Labour Market and Economic Objectives for Innovative Job Creation'', Australian Government Publishing Service, ([[1987]])
* ''Writing, Researching Communicating'', McGraw-Hill, ([[1988]], 3rd edn. [[1999]])
* ''The Killing of History: How a Discipline is being Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists'', Macleay Press, Sydney ([[1994]]); Macleay Press, Michigan ([[1996]]); Free Press, New York ([[1997]]); Encounter Books, San Francisco ([[2000]])
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Macleay Press, ([[2002]])
* ''The White Australia Policy'', Macleay Press, ([[2004]])

==See Also==

For comparison, see also [[Christopher Hitchens]], also a former left-wing intellectual who has become an equally committed right-winger.

==External link==
*[http://www.sydneyline.com/Real%20Stuff%20of%20History.htm The Real Stuff of History]

[[Category:1942 births|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Living people|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian academics|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian historians|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:People of Sydney|Windschuttle, Keith]]

{{Australia-writer-stub}}

Keith Windschuttle

2006-04-10T10:02:20Z

Apeloverage:

'''Keith Windschuttle''' (born [[1942]]) is an [[Australia]]n historian and journalist who is the author of several books, including ''Unemployment'' (1979) which criticises media treatments of unemployment and advocates a socialist response, ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', a critical analysis of the media from a largely Marxist perspective, ''The Killing of History'' (1994), which is a critique of postmodernism in history, ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History'' (2002) which accuses a number of Australian historians of falsifying and inventing the degree of violence in the past, and ''The White Australia Policy'' (2004), which argues that left-wing academic historians have exaggerated the degree of racism in Australian history.

After education at [[Canterbury Boys High School]], Windschuttle was a journalist on newspapers and magazines in Sydney. He completed a BA (first class honours in history) at the [[University of Sydney]] in [[1969]], and an MA (honours in politics) at [[Macquarie University]] in [[1978]]. In [[1973]], he became tutor in Australian history at the [[University of New South Wales]] (UNSW). Between [[1977]] and [[1981]], Windschuttle was lecturer in Australian history and in journalism at the New South Wales Institute of Technology, now [[University of Technology, Sydney]] before returning to UNSW in [[1983]] as lecturer/senior lecturer in social policy. He resigned from UNSW in 1993. Since then he has been publisher of Macleay Press and a regular visiting and guest lecturer on history and [[historiography]] at American universities.

A [[Marxism|Marxist]] until the 1980s, Windschuttle has moved sharply to the right. His personal website [http://www.sydneyline.com] carries advertisements only for his more recent, right-wing books. However, he does not appear to have repudiated his earlier work in general, or to have indicated which parts, if any, he stands by.

This political evolution has continued since the early 1990s. In ''The Killing of History'', Windschuttle defended the of practices and methods of traditional empirical history against postmodernism, and praised left-wing historians such as [[Henry Reynolds]] who relied on traditional empirically-oriented approaches. Subsequently, he has adopted an overtly polemical position, attacking Reynolds and others and freely mixing political and empirical arguments.

A frequent contributor to socio-political magazines ''[[Quadrant]]'' and ''[[The New Criterion]]'', Windschuttle's recent research disputes whether the colonial settlers of Australia committed widespread genocide against the [[Indigenous Australians]] and denies the claims by some [[left-wing]] historians that there was a campaign of guerrilla warfare against British settlement. Extensive debate on his claims has come to be called the [[History Wars]]. He rebuts assertions, which he imputes to the current generation of academic historians, that there was any resemblance between racial attitudes in Australia and those of [[South Africa]] under [[apartheid]] and [[Germany]] under the [[Nazism|Nazis]].

==Major publications==
* ''Unemployment: a Social and Political Analysis of the Economic Crisis in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1979]])
* ''Fixing the News'', Cassell, ([[1981]])
* ''The Media: a New Analysis of the Press, Television, Radio and Advertising in Australia'', Penguin, ([[1984]], 3rd edn. [[1988]])
* ''Working in the Arts'', University of Queensland Press, ([[1986]])
* ''Local Employment Initiatives: Integrating Social Labour Market and Economic Objectives for Innovative Job Creation'', Australian Government Publishing Service, ([[1987]])
* ''Writing, Researching Communicating'', McGraw-Hill, ([[1988]], 3rd edn. [[1999]])
* ''The Killing of History: How a Discipline is being Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists'', Macleay Press, Sydney ([[1994]]); Macleay Press, Michigan ([[1996]]); Free Press, New York ([[1997]]); Encounter Books, San Francisco ([[2000]])
* ''The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847'', Macleay Press, ([[2002]])
* ''The White Australia Policy'', Macleay Press, ([[2004]])

==See Also==

For comparison, see also [[Christopher Hitchens]], a former left-wing intellectual who has become an equally committed right-winger.

==External link==
*[http://www.sydneyline.com/Real%20Stuff%20of%20History.htm The Real Stuff of History]

[[Category:1942 births|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Living people|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian academics|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:Australian historians|Windschuttle, Keith]]
[[Category:People of Sydney|Windschuttle, Keith]]

{{Australia-writer-stub}}

The Order (Gruppe)

2006-03-22T06:45:25Z

Apeloverage:

{{merge|Robert Jay Mathews}}
{{POV}}
{{cleanup-date|March 2006}}

'''The Order''' was an [[United States|American]] neo-Nazi organization active in 1983 and 1984.

The Order described themselves as a [[white nationalist]] and [[revolution]]ary group, and the United States government as [[Zionist Occupation Government]] (ZOG).

The group was partly modelled on, and was named for, a fictional group in the neo-Nazi novel [[The Turner Diaries]]. The Order's goals included the establishment of an all-white (and non-Jewish) homeland, presumably involving the extermination of non-white and Jewish people as detailed in that book.

==Oath and Motto==
Like many neo-Nazi groups, the Order had a set of oaths, mottos and so on, reminiscent of [[fraternal organization]]s, the military, or [[secret societies]] (compare for example to the [[Ku Klux Klan]]).

The nine founding members of the group swore an oath that began "I, as a free [[Aryan]] man, hereby swear an unrelenting oath upon the green graves of our sires, upon the children in the wombs of our wives, upon the throne of God almighty, sacred is His name, to join together in holy union with those brothers in this circle and to declare forthright that from this moment on I have no fear of death, no fear of foe; that I have a sacred duty to do whatever is necessary to deliver our people from the Jew and bring total victory to the Aryan race..."

A motto on the Order's crest reads "Brüder schweigen". This actually means "Brothers remain silent" in German and not, as some sources claim, "Silent Brotherhood".

==History==
The Order was led by [[Robert Jay Mathews]]. The group was founded in late September of [[1983]] at Mathews' farm near Metaline Falls, Washington.

The fundamental aim of The Order was violent revolution against the '[[ZOG|Zionist Occupation Government]]', ie the government of the United States, which was seen by the Order and other neo-Nazis as the subject of conspiratorial control by Jews.

In order to fund these goals, Mathews led the Order through a series of [[violent crime]]s. Their first criminal effort was unspectacular: a robbery of a [[pornography]] shop, which netted less than $400. Afterwards, the Order were much more effective, making several lucrative bank robberies, as well as [[bomb]]ings of [[theater]]s and [[synagogue]]s. The Order also ran a large counterfeiting operation, and executed a series of [[armored car]] robberies, including one in [[Ukiah, California]] that netted $3.8 million.

After being arrested on counterfeiting charges, one member of the Order informed FBI agents of the group's membership and methods. Based on this information, law enforcement was able to track down Mathews in December of 1984. He was living in a cabin on [[Whidbey Island]], and he refused to surrender to the [[FBI]]. He burned to death in a fire during the ensuing shoot-out.

Ten members of the Order were convicted under [[RICO_(law)|RICO]] statutes, implicating them all in a [[conspiracy]].

In a separate trial, three members of the Order were convicted of violating the civil rights of [[Alan Berg]], a [[Jewish]], [[leftist]], [[Denver]]-area [[radio]] [[talk show]] host in [[Colorado]] who was found shot to death. No murder charges were ever brought in the case, although the 'civil rights violation' was in fact violating his right to live ie killing him. In another trial, fourteen men were charged with sedition. Thirteen of them were acquitted, and the judge dismissed the charges against the fourteenth for lack of evidence. In all, over 75 men and women were tried and convicted of various charges connected to the Order.

Berg's murder and the subsequent trial form the basis of [[Steven Dietz]]'s [[1988]] play ''[[God's Country]]'', and also loosely inspired [[Eric Bogosian]]'s play ''Talk Radio'' (later adapted into [[Talk Radio (film)|a film]] by [[Oliver Stone]]).

==Position Within the Neo-Nazi Subculture==

The Order seems to have failed in both their paramilitary aim of causing damage to the US government, leftists, Jews, and other groups, and their political aim of inspiring the creation of a neo-Nazi mass movement as described in ''The Turner Diaries''. Despite this the Order in general, and Mathews in particular, are held up as role models within the 'white nationalist' subculture, particularly in the United States. For example

* one neo-Nazi website declares that "Robert Matthews [''sic''] died a hero and a martyr to our Race. God rest his soul." [http://www.churchoftrueisrael.com/the-order/rjm-letter.html]
* Neo-Nazi group Dresden have a song called "To Robert Mathews in Valhalla" [http://www.natall.com/national-vanguard/assorted/callblood.html].
* The 'Free the Order' website [http://www.freetheorder.org] describes them as political prisoners.

[[Category:Organized crime groups|Order, The]]
[[Category:Neo-Nazi organizations|Order, The]]
[[Category:White supremacist groups in the United States|Order, The]]

[[pl:The Order]]
[[fi:The Order]]
[[sv:The Order]]

Robert Jay Mathews

2006-03-22T06:44:49Z

Apeloverage:

{{merge|The Order (group)}}


'''Robert Jay Mathews''' ([[January 16]] [[1953]] – [[December 8]] [[1984]]) was the leader of a [[white separatist]] organization called [[The Order (group)|The Order Bruder Schweigen]] (or ''The Order of the Silent Brotherhood'').
==Biography==
===Early years===
Robert Mathews was born in [[Marfa, Texas|Marfa]], [[Texas]], the last of three boys born to Johnny and Una Mathews. His father, of Scottish descent, was mayor of the town and president of the [[Chamber of Commerce]], and a businessman and leader in the local [[Methodist]] church. His mother was the town's den mother.

His family moved to [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], [[Arizona]] when he was 5 years old. An average student in grade school, he was interested in history and politics. At age eleven, he joined the [[John Birch Society]]. While still in high school, he was baptized into the [[Mormon]] faith. He became a staunch anti-communist and active in the [[Young Republicans]].

A year after leaving high school without having graduated, he formed the Sons of Liberty, an anti-communist militia whose members were primarily Mormons and survivalists. At its peak, it had approximately 30 members. After filling out his employer's W-4 Form claiming 10 dependents (reportedly as an act of [[tax resistance]]), he was arrested, tried and placed on probation for six months. After a falling out between the [[Mormon]] and non-Mormon members, the Sons of Liberty became moribund and Mathews withdrew from it.

After probation ended in 1974, he decided to relocate to [[Metaline Falls, Washington|Metaline Falls]], [[Washington]]. Matthews and his father purchased 60 wooded acres, which became their new home and a provided the family with a fresh start.

Two years later, Matthews married Debbie McGarrity. He began to raise [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Galloway (cattle)|Galloway cattle]]. The couple adopted a son in 1981.

===The Order===
Matthews began to read history and politics. One in particular, ''Which Way Western Man?'' by [[William Gayley Simpson]], profoundly affected him. Matthews agreed with its claim of dangers facing the [[White (people)|white race]], and in 1982 he began an effort to attract white families to the Pacific Northwest, which he called the "White American Bastion." He visited Richard Butler's [[Aryan Nations]] a few times and he began to draw a circle of friends around him who held similar beliefs.

In 1983 Matthews gave a short speech at a [[National Alliance]] convention, which was a report on his efforts around the White American Bastion and a call to action. It received the only standing ovation of the convention.

In late September of that year, at a barracks he had constructed on his property in Metaline, Matthews founded (with eight other men) the group that would come to be known as [[The Order (group)|The Order]], which he called the Silent Brotherhood. They included his friend and neighbor, Ken Loff, and a group from Aryan Nations: Dan Bauer, Randy Duey, Denver Parmeter, and Bruce Pierce. [[David Lane]], Richie Kemp and Bill Soderquist, recent recruits, rounded out the group. None had ever committed a violent crime before or had done prison time.

The first order of business, according to Mathews' plan, was to obtain funds for the white resistance movement, and they carried off their first robbery (of a [[porn]] shop in Spokane) which netted them $369.10. They agreed that it was not worth the risks they had taken and so turned their attention to robbing armored cars and [[counterfeiting]]. They printed up some phony $50 notes and 28 year old Pierce was quickly arrested after passing a few.

In order to raise Pierce's bail, Matthews, acting alone, [[bank robbery|robbed a bank]] just north of Seattle. He stole almost $26,000. Some of The Order's members, along with a new recruit, [[Gary Yarborough]], carried out more robberies and burglaries, which netted them over $43,000. A subsequent robbery yielded several hundred thousand dollars. Another recruit, [[Tom Martinez]], was caught and charged for passing more counterfeit currency. Then in July, 1984, they finally used a dozen men to rob a Brinks' truck of $3,800,000.

The robbers distributed some of the stolen money to various other racist organizations. There are unconfirmed reports that monies from their robberies went to [[William Luther Pierce|William Pierce]] and the [[National Alliance]] to help with the group's acquisition of their [[West Virginia]] compound.

===Downfall===
Mathews and the other members of the Order were eventually given up by Martinez, who had come under pressure after his counterfeiting arrest. After he revealed information regarding Mathews's activities to the [[FBI]], Mathews and several others were eventually surrounded in a small cabin on [[Whidbey Island]] in [[Washington]] by over 50 agents on [[December 8]], [[1984]]. Mathews refused to come out after an intense exchange of gunfire. The FBI then fired several [[M-79]] Starburst flares inside the house, burning it to the ground and killing Mathews.

Eventually over 75 people in eight trials were convicted of crimes connected to The Order. Charges ranged from racketeering, conspiracy, counterfeiting, transporting stolen money and armored car robbery. Ten people connected to the case, including Butler, Lane and Pierce, were tried for [[sedition]] but were acquitted by the jury.

Two members of the group, Pierce and Lane, were also found responsible for violating the civil rights of [[Alan Berg]], a controversial [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]]-based [[Judaism|Jewish]] talk show host. Berg was killed by a gunshot wound. [[Jean Craig]] and [[Richard Scutari]] were found to be not guilty of the same charge. No murder charges were ever filed.

==References==
*Flynn, Kevin, and Gerhardt, Gary, ''The Silent Brotherhood'' ISBN 0451167864.

==External links==
*[http://www.solargeneral.com/library/BobMatthews-CallToWarriors.rm ''Call to Arms''] speech given at a National Alliance convention in 1983.

[[Category:1953 births|Mathews, Robert Jay]]
[[Category:1984 deaths|Mathews, Robert Jay]]
[[Category:Neo-Nazis|Mathews, Robert Jay]]
[[Category:American criminals|Mathews, Robert Jay]]

Maafa

2006-03-14T15:11:00Z

Apeloverage: corrected grammar.

'''Maafa''' or '''The Black Holocaust''' refers to the deaths of numerous Africans on slave ships bound for the New World (early 17th century - mid 19th century). The word Maafa is [[Swahili]] for "immense deaths".

==References==
{{unreferenced}}

==See also==
*[[Slavery in Colonial America]]
*[[America's Black Holocaust Museum]]
*[[Historical revisionism (political)|Historical revisionism]]

[[Category:History of slavery in the United States]]

{{hist-stub}}

The Order (Gruppe)

2006-03-08T16:54:52Z

Apeloverage: /* Position Within the Neo-Nazi Subculture */

{{attention}}
'''The Order''' was an [[United States|American]] neo-Nazi organization active in 1983 and 1984.

The Order described themselves as a [[white nationalist]] and [[revolution]]ary group, and the United States government as [[ZOG]].

The group was partly modelled on, and was named for, a fictional group in the neo-Nazi novel [[The Turner Diaries]]. The Order's goals included the establishment of an all-white (and non-Jewish) homeland, presumably involving the extermination of non-white and Jewish people as detailed in that book.

==Oath and Motto==
Like many neo-Nazi groups, the Order had a set of oaths, mottos and so on, reminiscent of [[fraternal organization]]s, the military, or [[secret societies]] (compare for example to the [[Ku Klux Klan]]).

The nine founding members of the group swore an oath that began "I, as a free [[Aryan]] man, hereby swear an unrelenting oath upon the green graves of our sires, upon the children in the wombs of our wives, upon the throne of God almighty, sacred is His name, to join together in holy union with those brothers in this circle and to declare forthright that from this moment on I have no fear of death, no fear of foe; that I have a sacred duty to do whatever is necessary to deliver our people from the Jew and bring total victory to the Aryan race..."

A motto on the Order's crest reads "Brüder schweigen". This actually means "Brothers remain silent" in German and not, as some sources claim, "Silent Brotherhood".

==History==
The Order was led by [[Robert Jay Mathews]]. The group was founded in late September of [[1983]] at Mathews' farm near Metaline Falls, Washington.

The fundamental aim of The Order was violent revolution against the '[[ZOG|Zionist Occupation Government]]', ie the government of the United States, which was seen by the Order and other neo-Nazis as the subject of conspiratorial control by Jews.

In order to fund these goals, Mathews led the Order through a series of [[violent crime]]s. Their first criminal effort was unspectacular: a robbery of a [[pornography]] shop, which netted less than $400. Afterwards, the Order were much more effective, making several lucrative bank robberies, as well as [[bomb]]ings of [[theater]]s and [[synagogue]]s. The Order also ran a large counterfeiting operation, and executed a series of [[armored car]] robberies, including one in [[Ukiah, California]] that netted $3.8 million.

After being arrested on counterfeiting charges, one member of the Order informed FBI agents of the group's membership and methods. Based on this information, law enforcement was able to track down Mathews in December of 1984. He was living in a cabin on [[Whidbey Island]], and he refused to surrender to the [[FBI]]. He burned to death in a fire during the ensuing shoot-out.

Ten members of the Order were convicted under [[RICO_(law)|RICO]] statutes, implicating them all in a [[conspiracy]].

In a separate trial, three members of the Order were convicted of violating the civil rights of [[Alan Berg]], a [[Jewish]], [[leftist]], [[Denver]]-area [[radio]] [[talk show]] host in [[Colorado]] who was found shot to death. No murder charges were ever brought in the case, although the 'civil rights violation' was in fact violating his right to live ie killing him. In another trial, fourteen men were charged with sedition. Thirteen of them were acquitted, and the judge dismissed the charges against the fourteenth for lack of evidence. In all, over 75 men and women were tried and convicted of various charges connected to the Order.

Berg's murder and the subsequent trial form the basis of [[Steven Dietz]]'s [[1988]] play ''[[God's Country]]'', and also loosely inspired [[Eric Bogosian]]'s play ''Talk Radio'' (later adapted into [[Talk Radio (film)|a film]] by [[Oliver Stone]]).

==Position Within the Neo-Nazi Subculture==

The Order seems to have failed in both their paramilitary aim of causing damage to the US government, leftists, Jews, and other groups, and their political aim of inspiring the creation of a neo-Nazi mass movement as described in ''The Turner Diaries''. Despite this the Order in general, and Mathews in particular, are held up as role models within the 'white nationalist' subculture, particularly in the United States. For example

* one neo-Nazi website declares that "Robert Matthews [''sic''] died a hero and a martyr to our Race. God rest his soul." [http://www.churchoftrueisrael.com/the-order/rjm-letter.html]
* Neo-Nazi group Dresden have a song called "To Robert Mathews in Valhalla" [http://www.natall.com/national-vanguard/assorted/callblood.html].
* The 'Free the Order' website [http://www.freetheorder.org] describes them as political prisoners.

[[Category:Organized crime groups|Order, The]]
[[Category:Neo-Nazi organizations|Order, The]]
[[Category:White supremacist groups in the United States|Order, The]]

[[pl:The Order]]
[[fi:The Order]]
[[sv:The Order]]